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https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Forecasting&oldid=820769473

Forecasting - wikipedia Forecasting Jump to : navigation , search For other uses , see Forecast . Forecasting is the process of making predictions of the future based on past and present data and most commonly by analysis of trends . A commonplace example might be estimation of some variable of interest at some specified future date . Prediction is a similar , but more general term . Both might refer to formal statistical methods employing time series , cross-sectional or longitudinal data , or alternatively to less formal judgmental methods . Usage can differ between areas of application : for example , in hydrology the terms `` forecast '' and `` forecasting '' are sometimes reserved for estimates of values at certain specific future times , while the term `` prediction '' is used for more general estimates , such as the number of times floods will occur over a long period . Risk and uncertainty are central to forecasting and prediction ; it is generally considered good practice to indicate the degree of uncertainty attaching to forecasts . In any case , the data must be up to date in order for the forecast to be as accurate as possible . In some cases the data used to predict the independent variable is itself forecasted . Contents ( hide ) 1 Categories of forecasting methods 1.1 Qualitative vs. quantitative methods 1.2 Average approach 1.3 Naïve approach 1.4 Drift method 1.5 Seasonal naïve approach 1.6 Time series methods 1.7 Causal / econometric forecasting methods 1.8 Judgmental methods 1.9 Artificial intelligence methods 1.10 Other methods 2 Forecasting accuracy 3 Seasonality and cyclic behaviour 3.1 Seasonality 3.2 Cyclic behaviour 4 Applications 5 Limitations 5.1 Performance limits of fluid dynamics equations 6 See also 7 References 8 External links Categories of forecasting methods ( edit ) Qualitative vs. quantitative methods ( edit ) Qualitative forecasting techniques are subjective , based on the opinion and judgment of consumers , experts ; they are appropriate when past data are not available . They are usually applied to intermediate - or long - range decisions . Examples of qualitative forecasting methods are informed opinion and judgment , the Delphi method , market research , and historical life - cycle analogy . Quantitative forecasting models are used to forecast future data as a function of past data . They are appropriate to use when past numerical data is available and when it is reasonable to assume that some of the patterns in the data are expected to continue into the future . These methods are usually applied to short - or intermediate - range decisions . Examples of quantitative forecasting methods are last period demand , simple and weighted N - Period moving averages , simple exponential smoothing , poisson process model based forecasting and multiplicative seasonal indexes . Previous research shows that different methods may lead to different level of forecasting accuarcy . For example , GMDH neural network was found to have better forecasting performance than the classical forecasting algorithms such as Single Exponential Smooth , Double Exponential Smooth , ARIMA and back - propagation neural network . Average approach ( edit ) In this approach , the predictions of all future values are equal to the mean of the past data . This approach can be used with any sort of data where past data is available . In time series notation : y ^ T + h T = y ̄ = ( y 1 + ... + y T ) / T ( \ displaystyle ( \ hat ( y ) ) _ ( T + h T ) = ( \ bar ( y ) ) = ( y_ ( 1 ) + ... + y_ ( T ) ) / T ) where y 1 , ... , y T ( \ displaystyle y_ ( 1 ) , ... , y_ ( T ) ) is the past data . Although the time series notation has been used here , the average approach can also be used for cross-sectional data ( when we are predicting unobserved values ; values that are not included in the data set ) . Then , the prediction for unobserved values is the average of the observed values . Naïve approach ( edit ) Naïve forecasts are the most cost - effective forecasting model , and provide a benchmark against which more sophisticated models can be compared . This forecasting method is only suitable for time series data . Using the naïve approach , forecasts are produced that are equal to the last observed value . This method works quite well for economic and financial time series , which often have patterns that are difficult to reliably and accurately predict . If the time series is believed to have seasonality , seasonal naïve approach may be more appropriate where the forecasts are equal to the value from last season . The naïve method may also use a drift , which will take the last observation plus the average change from the first observation to the last observation . In time series notation : y ^ T + h T = y T ( \ displaystyle ( \ hat ( y ) ) _ ( T + h T ) = y_ ( T ) ) Drift method ( edit ) A variation on the naïve method is to allow the forecasts to increase or decrease over time , where the amount of change over time ( called the drift ) is set to be the average change seen in the historical data . So the forecast for time T + h ( \ displaystyle T + h ) is given by y ^ T + h T = y T + h T − 1 ∑ t = 2 T ( y t − y t − 1 ) = y T + h ( y T − y 1 T − 1 ) . ( \ displaystyle ( \ hat ( y ) ) _ ( T + h T ) = y_ ( T ) + ( \ frac ( h ) ( T - 1 ) ) \ sum _ ( t = 2 ) ^ ( T ) ( y_ ( t ) - y_ ( t - 1 ) ) = y_ ( T ) + h \ left ( ( \ frac ( y_ ( T ) - y_ ( 1 ) ) ( T - 1 ) ) \ right ) . ) This is equivalent to drawing a line between the first and last observation , and extrapolating it into the future . Seasonal naïve approach ( edit ) The seasonal naïve method accounts for seasonality by setting each prediction to be equal to the last observed value of the same season . For example , the prediction value for all subsequent months of April will be equal to the previous value observed for April . The forecast for time T + h ( \ displaystyle T + h ) is : y ^ T + h T = y T + h − k m ( \ displaystyle ( \ hat ( y ) ) _ ( T + h T ) = y_ ( T + h - km ) ) where m ( \ displaystyle m ) = seasonal period and k ( \ displaystyle k ) is the smallest integer greater than ( h − 1 ) / m ( \ displaystyle ( h - 1 ) / m ) . The seasonal naïve method is particularly useful for data that has a very high level of seasonality . Time series methods ( edit ) Time series methods use historical data as the basis of estimating future outcomes . Moving average Weighted moving average Kalman filtering Exponential smoothing Autoregressive moving average ( ARMA ) Autoregressive integrated moving average ( ARIMA ) e.g. Box -- Jenkins Seasonal ARIMA or SARIMA or ARIMARCH , Extrapolation Linear prediction Trend estimation Growth curve ( statistics ) Causal / econometric forecasting methods ( edit ) Some forecasting methods try to identify the underlying factors that might influence the variable that is being forecast . For example , including information about climate patterns might improve the ability of a model to predict umbrella sales . Forecasting models often take account of regular seasonal variations . In addition to climate , such variations can also be due to holidays and customs : for example , one might predict that sales of college football apparel will be higher during the football season than during the off season . Several informal methods used in causal forecasting do not employ strict algorithms , but instead use the judgment of the forecaster . Some forecasts take account of past relationships between variables : if one variable has , for example , been approximately linearly related to another for a long period of time , it may be appropriate to extrapolate such a relationship into the future , without necessarily understanding the reasons for the relationship . Causal methods include : Regression analysis includes a large group of methods for predicting future values of a variable using information about other variables . These methods include both parametric ( linear or non-linear ) and non-parametric techniques . Autoregressive moving average with exogenous inputs ( ARMAX ) Quantitative forecasting models are often judged against each other by comparing their in - sample or out - of - sample mean square error , although some researchers have advised against this . Different forecasting approach has different level of accuracy . For example , it was found that GMDH has higher forecasting accuracy than traditional ARIMA Judgmental methods ( edit ) Judgmental forecasting methods incorporate intuitive judgement , opinions and subjective probability estimates . Judgmental forecasting is used in cases where there is lack of historical data or during completely new and unique market conditions . Judgmental methods include : Composite forecasts Cooke 's method Delphi method Forecast by analogy Scenario building Statistical surveys Technology forecasting Artificial intelligence methods ( edit ) Artificial neural networks Group method of data handling Support vector machines Often these are done today by specialized programs loosely labeled Data mining Machine Learning Pattern Recognition Other methods ( edit ) Simulation Prediction market Probabilistic forecasting and Ensemble forecasting Forecasting accuracy ( edit ) The forecast error ( also known as a residual ) is the difference between the actual value and the forecast value for the corresponding period . E t = Y t − F t ( \ displaystyle \ E_ ( t ) = Y_ ( t ) - F_ ( t ) ) where E is the forecast error at period t , Y is the actual value at period t , and F is the forecast for period t . A good forecasting method will yield residuals that are uncorrelated and have zero mean . If there are correlations between residual values , then there is information left in the residuals which should be used in computing forecasts . If the residuals have a mean other than zero , then the forecasts are biased . Measures of aggregate error : Scaled Errors : The forecast error , E , is on the same scale as the data , as such , these accuracy measures are scale - dependent and can not be used to make comparisons between series on different scales . Mean absolute error ( MAE ) or mean absolute deviation ( MAD ) M A E = ∑ t = 1 N E t N ( \ displaystyle \ MAE = ( \ frac ( \ sum _ ( t = 1 ) ^ ( N ) E_ ( t ) ) ( N ) ) ) M A D = ∑ t = 1 N E t N ( \ displaystyle \ MAD = ( \ frac ( \ sum _ ( t = 1 ) ^ ( N ) E_ ( t ) ) ( N ) ) ) Mean squared error ( MSE ) or mean squared prediction error ( MSPE ) M S E = ∑ t = 1 N E t 2 N ( \ displaystyle \ MSE = ( \ frac ( \ sum _ ( t = 1 ) ^ ( N ) ( E_ ( t ) ^ ( 2 ) ) ) ( N ) ) ) Root mean squared error ( RMSE ) R M S E = ∑ t = 1 N E t 2 N ( \ displaystyle \ RMSE = ( \ sqrt ( \ frac ( \ sum _ ( t = 1 ) ^ ( N ) ( E_ ( t ) ^ ( 2 ) ) ) ( N ) ) ) ) Average of Errors ( E ) E ̄ = ∑ i = 1 N E i N ( \ displaystyle \ ( \ bar ( E ) ) = ( \ frac ( \ sum _ ( i = 1 ) ^ ( N ) ( E_ ( i ) ) ) ( N ) ) ) Percentage Errors : These are more frequently used to compare forecast performance between different data sets because they are scale - independent . However , they have the disadvantage of being infinite or undefined if Y is close to or equal to zero . Mean absolute percentage error ( MAPE ) or mean absolute percentage deviation ( MAPD ) M A P E = 100 ∗ ∑ t = 1 N E t Y t N ( \ displaystyle \ MAPE = 100 * ( \ frac ( \ sum _ ( t = 1 ) ^ ( N ) ( \ frac ( E_ ( t ) ) ( Y_ ( t ) ) ) ) ( N ) ) ) M A P D = ∑ t = 1 N E t ∑ t = 1 N Y t ( \ displaystyle \ MAPD = ( \ frac ( \ sum _ ( t = 1 ) ^ ( N ) E_ ( t ) ) ( \ sum _ ( t = 1 ) ^ ( N ) Y_ ( t ) ) ) ) Scaled Errors : Hyndman and Koehler ( 2006 ) proposed using scaled errors as an alternative to percentage errors . Mean absolute scaled error ( MASE ) M A S E = ∑ t = 1 N E t 1 N − m ∑ t = m + 1 N Y t − Y t − m N ( \ displaystyle MASE = ( \ frac ( \ sum _ ( t = 1 ) ^ ( N ) ( \ frac ( E_ ( t ) ) ( ( \ frac ( 1 ) ( N-m ) ) \ sum _ ( t = m + 1 ) ^ ( N ) Y_ ( t ) - Y_ ( t-m ) ) ) ) ( N ) ) ) * m = s e a s o n a l p e r i o d ( \ displaystyle m = seasonalperiod ) or 1 if non-seasonal Other Measures : Forecast skill ( SS ) S S = 1 − M S E f o r e c a s t M S E r e f ( \ displaystyle \ SS = 1 - ( \ frac ( MSE_ ( forecast ) ) ( MSE_ ( ref ) ) ) ) Business forecasters and practitioners sometimes use different terminology in the industry . They refer to the PMAD as the MAPE , although they compute this as a volume weighted MAPE . For more information see Calculating demand forecast accuracy . When comparing the accuracy of different forecasting methods on a specific data set , the measures of aggregate error are compared with each other and the method that yields the lowest error is preferred . Training and test sets It is important to evaluate forecast accuracy using genuine forecasts . That is , it is invalid to look at how well a model fits the historical data ; the accuracy of forecasts can only be determined by considering how well a model performs on new data that were not used when fitting the model . When choosing models , it is common to use a portion of the available data for fitting , and use the rest of the data for testing the model , as was done in the above examples . Cross Validation A more sophisticated version of training / test set . for cross sectional data , cross-validation works as follows : Select observation i for the test set , and use the remaining observations in the training set . Compute the error on the test observation . Repeat the above step for i = 1 , 2 , ... , N where N is the total number of observations . Compute the forecast accuracy measures based on the errors obtained . This is a much more efficient use of the available data , as you only omit one observation at each step for time series data , the training set can only include observations prior to the test set . therefore no future observations can be used in constructing the forecast . Suppose k observations are needed to produce a reliable forecast then the process works as : Select the observation k + i for test set , and use the observations at times 1 , 2 , ... , k + i - 1 to estimate the forecasting model . Compute the error on the forecast for k + i . Repeat the above step for i = 1 , 2 , ... , T-k where T is the total number of observations . Compute the forecast accuracy over all errors This procedure is sometimes known as a `` rolling forecasting origin '' because the `` origin '' ( k + i - 1 ) at which the forecast is based rolls forward in time Limitations of Errors The two most popular measures of accuracy that incorporate the forecast error are the Mean Absolute Error ( MAE ) and the Root Mean Squared Error ( RMSE ) . Thus these measures are considered to be scale - dependent , that is , they are on the same scale as the original data . Consequently , these can not be used to compare models of differing scales . Percentage errors are simply forecast errors converted into percentages and are given by P t = 100 E t / Y t ( \ displaystyle P_ ( t ) = 100E_ ( t ) / Y_ ( t ) ) . A common accuracy measure that utilizes this is the Mean Absolute Percentage Error ( MAPE ) . This allows for comparison between data on different scales . However , percentage errors are not quite meaningful when Y t ( \ displaystyle Y_ ( t ) ) is close to or equal to zero , which results in extreme values or simply being undefined . Scaled errors are a helpful alternative to percentage errors when comparing between different scales . They do not have the shortfall of giving unhelpful values if Y t ( \ displaystyle Y_ ( t ) ) is close to or equal to zero . See also Calculating demand forecast accuracy Consensus forecasts Forecast error Predictability Prediction intervals , similar to confidence intervals Reference class forecasting Seasonality and cyclic behaviour ( edit ) Seasonality ( edit ) Main article : Seasonality Seasonality is a characteristic of a time series in which the data experiences regular and predictable changes which recur every calendar year . Any predictable change or pattern in a time series that recurs or repeats over a one - year period can be said to be seasonal . It is common in many situations -- such as grocery store or even in a Medical Examiner 's office -- that the demand depends on the day of the week . In such situations , the forecasting procedure calculates the seasonal index of the `` season '' -- seven seasons , one for each day -- which is the ratio of the average demand of that season ( which is calculated by Moving Average or Exponential Smoothing using historical data corresponding only to that season ) to the average demand across all seasons . An index higher than 1 indicates that demand is higher than average ; an index less than 1 indicates that the demand is less than the average . Cyclic behaviour ( edit ) The cyclic behaviour of data takes place when there are regular fluctuations in the data which usually last for an interval of at least two years , and when the length of the current cycle can not be predetermined . Cyclic behavior is not to be confused with seasonal behavior . Seasonal fluctuations follow a consistent pattern each year so the period is always known . As an example , during the Christmas period , inventories of stores tend to increase in order to prepare for Christmas shoppers . As an example of cyclic behaviour , the population of a particular natural ecosystem will exhibit cyclic behaviour when the population increases as its natural food source decreases , and once the population is low , the food source will recover and the population will start to increase again . Cyclic data can not be accounted for using ordinary seasonal adjustment since it is not of fixed period . Applications ( edit ) Forecasting has applications in a wide range of fields where estimates of future conditions are useful . Not everything can be forecasted reliably , if the factors that relate to what is being forecast are known and well understood and there is a significant amount of data that can be used very reliable forecasts can often be obtained . If this is not the case or if the actual outcome is effected by the forecasts , the reliability of the forecasts can be significantly lower . Climate change and increasing energy prices have led to the use of Egain Forecasting for buildings . This attempts to reduce the energy needed to heat the building , thus reducing the emission of greenhouse gases . Forecasting is used in Customer Demand Planning in everyday business for manufacturing and distribution companies . While the veracity of predictions for actual stock returns are disputed through reference to the Efficient - market hypothesis , forecasting of broad economic trends is common . Such analysis is provided by both non-profit groups as well as by for - profit private institutions ( including brokerage houses and consulting companies ) . Forecasting foreign exchange movements is typically achieved through a combination of chart and fundamental analysis . An essential difference between chart analysis and fundamental economic analysis is that chartists study only the price action of a market , whereas fundamentalists attempt to look to the reasons behind the action . Financial institutions assimilate the evidence provided by their fundamental and chartist researchers into one note to provide a final projection on the currency in question . Forecasting has also been used to predict the development of conflict situations . Forecasters perform research that uses empirical results to gauge the effectiveness of certain forecasting models . However research has shown that there is little difference between the accuracy of the forecasts of experts knowledgeable in the conflict situation and those by individuals who knew much less . Similarly , experts in some studies argue that role thinking does not contribute to the accuracy of the forecast . The discipline of demand planning , also sometimes referred to as supply chain forecasting , embraces both statistical forecasting and a consensus process . An important , albeit often ignored aspect of forecasting , is the relationship it holds with planning . Forecasting can be described as predicting what the future will look like , whereas planning predicts what the future should look like . There is no single right forecasting method to use . Selection of a method should be based on your objectives and your conditions ( data etc . ) . A good place to find a method , is by visiting a selection tree . An example of a selection tree can be found here . Forecasting has application in many situations : Supply chain management - Forecasting can be used in supply chain management to ensure that the right product is at the right place at the right time . Accurate forecasting will help retailers reduce excess inventory and thus increase profit margin . Studies have shown that extrapolations are the least accurate , while company earnings forecasts are the most reliable . Accurate forecasting will also help them meet consumer demand . Economic forecasting Earthquake prediction Egain forecasting Finance against risk of default via credit ratings and credit scores Land use forecasting Player and team performance in sports Political forecasting Product forecasting Sales forecasting Technology forecasting Telecommunications forecasting Transport planning and Transportation forecasting Weather forecasting , Flood forecasting and Meteorology Limitations ( edit ) Limitations pose barriers beyond which forecasting methods can not reliably predict . There are many events and values that can not be forecast reliably . Events such as the roll of a die or the results of the lottery can not be forecast because they are random events and there is no significant relationship in the data . When the factors that lead to what is being forecast are not known or well understood such as in stock and foreign exchange markets forecasts are often inaccurate or wrong as there is not enough data about everything that affects these markets for the forecasts to be reliable , in addition the outcomes of the forecasts of these markets change the behavior of those involved in the market further reducing forecast accuracy . Performance limits of fluid dynamics equations ( edit ) As proposed by Edward Lorenz in 1963 , long range weather forecasts , those made at a range of two weeks or more , are impossible to definitively predict the state of the atmosphere , owing to the chaotic nature of the fluid dynamics equations involved . Extremely small errors in the initial input , such as temperatures and winds , within numerical models double every five days . See also ( edit ) Accelerating change Collaborative planning , forecasting , and replenishment Earthquake prediction Energy forecasting Forecasting bias Foresight ( future studies ) Futures studies Futurology Kondratiev wave Optimism bias Planning Risk management Scenario planning Spending wave Strategic foresight Technology forecasting Time Series Weather forecasting Wind power forecasting References ( edit ) Jump up ^ French , Jordan ( 2017 ) . `` The time traveller 's CAPM '' . Investment Analysts Journal . 46 ( 2 ) : 81 -- 96 . Jump up ^ Mahmud , Tahmida ; Hasan , Mahmudul ; Chakraborty , Anirban ; Roy - Chowdhury , Amit ( 19 August 2016 ) . A poisson process model for activity forecasting . 2016 IEEE International Conference on Image Processing ( ICIP ) . IEEE . Jump up ^ Li , Rita Yi Man , Fong , S. , Chong , W.S. ( 2017 ) Forecasting the REITs and stock indices : Group Method of Data Handling Neural Network approach , Pacific Rim Property Research Journal , 23 ( 2 ) , 1 - 38 ^ Jump up to : https://www.otexts.org/fpp/2/3 Jump up ^ Munim , Ziaul Haque ; Schramm , Hans - Joachim ( 2017 ) . `` Forecasting container shipping freight rates for the Far East -- Northern Europe trade lane '' . Maritime Economics & Logistics. 19 ( 1 ) : 106 -- 125 . doi : 10.1057 / s41278 - 016 - 0051 - 7 . Jump up ^ Nahmias , Steven ( 2009 ) . Production and Operations Analysis . Jump up ^ Ellis , Kimberly ( 2008 ) . Production Planning and Inventory Control Virginia Tech . McGraw Hill . ISBN 978 - 0 - 390 - 87106 - 0 . Jump up ^ J. Scott Armstrong and Fred Collopy ( 1992 ) . `` Error Measures For Generalizing About Forecasting Methods : Empirical Comparisons '' ( PDF ) . International Journal of Forecasting. 8 : 69 -- 80 . doi : 10.1016 / 0169 - 2070 ( 92 ) 90008 - w . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on 2012 - 02 - 06 . Jump up ^ 16 . Li , Rita Yi Man , Fong , S. , Chong , W.S. ( 2017 ) Forecasting the REITs and stock indices : Group Method of Data Handling Neural Network approach , Pacific Rim Property Research Journal , 23 ( 2 ) , 1 - 38 Jump up ^ https://www.otexts.org/fpp/3/1 Jump up ^ http://www.forecastingblog.com/?p=134 Jump up ^ `` 2.5 Evaluating forecast accuracy OTexts '' . www.otexts.org . Retrieved 2016 - 05 - 14 . Jump up ^ `` 2.5 Evaluating forecast accuracy OTexts '' . www.otexts.org . Retrieved 2016 - 05 - 17 . Jump up ^ https://www.otexts.org/fpp/2/5 Jump up ^ Erhun , F. ; Tayur , S. ( 2003 ) . `` Enterprise - Wide Optimization of Total Landed Cost at a Grocery Retailer '' . Operations Research . 51 ( 3 ) : 343 . doi : 10.1287 / opre. 51.3. 343.14953 . Jump up ^ Omalu , B.I. ; Shakir , A.M. ; Lindner , J.L. ; Tayur , S.R. ( 2007 ) . `` Forecasting as an Operations Management Tool in a Medical Examiner 's Office '' . Journal of Health Management . 9 : 75 . doi : 10.1177 / 097206340700900105 . ^ Jump up to : https://www.otexts.org/fpp/1/1 Jump up ^ Fidelity . `` 2015 Stock Market Outlook '' , a sample outlook report by a brokerage house . Jump up ^ McKinsey Insights & Publications . `` Insights & Publications '' . Jump up ^ Helen Allen ; Mark P. Taylor ( 1990 ) . `` Charts , Noise and Fundamentals in the London Foreign Exchange Market '' . JSTOR 2234183 . Missing or empty url = ( help ) Jump up ^ Pound Sterling Live . `` Euro Forecast from Institutional Researchers '' , A list of collated exchange rate forecasts encompassing technical and fundamental analysis in the foreign exchange market . Jump up ^ T. Chadefaux ( 2014 ) . `` Early warning signals for war in the news '' . Journal of Peace Research , 51 ( 1 ) , 5 - 18 Jump up ^ J. Scott Armstrong ; Kesten C. Green ; Andreas Graefe ( 2010 ) . `` Answers to Frequently Asked Questions '' ( PDF ) . Jump up ^ Kesten C. Greene ; J. Scott Armstrong ( 2007 ) . `` The Ombudsman : Value of Expertise for Forecasting Decisions in Conflicts '' ( PDF ) . Interfaces . INFORMS. 0 : 1 -- 12 . Jump up ^ Kesten C. Green ; J. Scott Armstrong ( 1975 ) . `` Role thinking : Standing in other people 's shoes to forecast decisions in conflicts '' ( PDF ) . Role thinking : Standing in other people 's shoes to forecast decisions in conflicts . 39 : 111 -- 116 . Jump up ^ `` FAQ '' . Forecastingprinciples.com. 1998 - 02 - 14 . Retrieved 2012 - 08 - 28 . Jump up ^ Greene , Kesten C. ; Armstrong , J. Scott . `` Structured analogies for forecasting '' ( PDF ) . University of Pennsylvania . Jump up ^ `` FAQ '' . Forecastingprinciples.com. 1998 - 02 - 14 . Retrieved 2012 - 08 - 28 . Jump up ^ `` Selection Tree '' . Forecastingprinciples.com. 1998 - 02 - 14 . Retrieved 2012 - 08 - 28 . Jump up ^ J. Scott Armstrong ( 1983 ) . `` Relative Accuracy of Judgmental and Extrapolative Methods in Forecasting Annual Earnings '' ( PDF ) . Journal of Forecasting. 2 : 437 -- 447 . doi : 10.1002 / for. 3980020411 . Jump up ^ Cox , John D. ( 2002 ) . Storm Watchers . John Wiley & Sons , Inc . pp. 222 -- 224 . ISBN 0 - 471 - 38108 - X . Armstrong , J. Scott , ed. ( 2001 ) . Principles of Forecasting : A Handbook for Researchers and Practitioners . Norwell , Massachusetts : Kluwer Academic Publishers . ISBN 0 - 7923 - 7930 - 6 . Ellis , Kimberly ( 2010 ) . Production Planning and Inventory Control . McGraw - Hill . ISBN 0 - 412 - 03471 - 9 . Geisser , Seymour ( June 1993 ) . Predictive Inference : An Introduction . Chapman & Hall , CRC Press . ISBN 0 - 390 - 87106 - 0 . Gilchrist , Warren ( 1976 ) . Statistical Forecasting . London : John Wiley & Sons . ISBN 0 - 471 - 99403 - 0 . Hyndman , Rob J. ; Koehler , Anne B. ( October -- December 2006 ) . `` Another look at measures of forecast accuracy '' ( PDF ) . International Journal of Forecasting. 22 ( 4 ) : 679 -- 688 . doi : 10.1016 / j. ijforecast. 2006.03. 001 . Makridakis , Spyros ; Wheelwrigt , Steven ; Hyndman , Rob J. ( 1998 ) . Forecasting : Methods and Applications . John Wiley & Sons . ISBN 0 - 471 - 53233 - 9 . Malakooti , Behnam ( February 2014 ) . Operations and Production Systems with Multiple Objectives . John Wiley & Sons . ISBN 978 - 0 - 470 - 03732 - 4 . Kaligasidis , Angela Sasic ; Taesler , Roger ; Andersson , Cari ; Nord , Margitta ( August 2006 ) . `` Upgraded weather forecast control of building heating systems '' . In Fazio , Paul . Research in Building Physics and Building Engineering . Taylor & Francis , CRC Press . pp. 951 -- 958 . ISBN 0 - 415 - 41675 - 2 . Kress , George J. ; Snyder , John ( May 1994 ) . Forecasting and Market Analysis Techniques : A Practical Approach . Quorum Books . ISBN 0 - 89930 - 835 - X . Rescher , Nicholas ( 1998 ) . Predicting the Future : An Introduction to the Theory of Forecasting . State University of New York Press . ISBN 0 - 7914 - 3553 - 9 . Taesler , Roger ( 1991 ) . `` Climate and Building Energy Management '' . Energy and Buildings. 15 ( 1 - 2 ) : 599 -- 608 . doi : 10.1016 / 0378 - 7788 ( 91 ) 90028 - 2 . Turchin , Peter ( 2007 ) . `` Scientific Prediction in Historical Sociology : Ibn Khaldun meets Al Saud '' . History & Mathematics : Historical Dynamics and Development of Complex Societies . Moscow : KomKniga . pp. 9 -- 38 . ISBN 978 - 5 - 484 - 01002 - 8 . US patent 6098893 , Berglund , Ulf Stefan & Lundberg , Bjorn Henry , `` Comfort control system incorporating weather forecast data and a method for operating such a system '' , issued August 8 , 2000 . External links ( edit ) Look up predict in Wiktionary , the free dictionary . Look up forecast in Wiktionary , the free dictionary . Forecasting Principles : `` Evidence - based forecasting '' International Institute of Forecasters Introduction to Time series Analysis ( Engineering Statistics Handbook ) - A practical guide to Time series analysis and forecasting Time Series Analysis Global Forecasting with IFs Earthquake Electromagnetic Precursor Research Forecasting Science and Theory of Forecasting Qualitative forecasting methods Executive opinions Delphi method Sales force polling Consumer surveys Quantitative forecasting methods Historical data forecasts Moving average Exponential smoothing Trend analysis Decomposition of time series Naïve approach Associative ( causal ) forecasts Moving average Simple linear regression Regression analysis Econometric model Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Forecasting&oldid=820769473 '' Categories : Forecasting Statistical forecasting Supply chain analytics Supply chain management terms Time series Hidden categories : Pages using web citations with no URL All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from May 2012 Wikipedia articles needing clarification from December 2013 Pages using div col with deprecated parameters Talk Contents About Wikipedia Afrikaans Azərbaycanca Čeština Español فارسی Français Кыргызча Lietuvių Nederlands Português Русский Simple English Slovenčina Tagalog தமிழ் Українська Tiếng Việt Edit links This page was last edited on 16 January 2018 , at 14 : 24 . 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difference between russian blue and british blue cat

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Russian_Blue&oldid=845473282

Russian Blue - wikipedia Russian Blue For the dark - blue pigment , see Prussian blue . For the former white power duo , see Prussian Blue . This article needs additional citations for verification . Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . ( June 2009 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) Russian Blue 1 year old Russian Blue male ( American style ) Other names Archangel Blue , Archangel Cat Origin Russia Breed standards CFA standard FIFe standard TICA standard AACE standard ACF standard ACFA / CAA standard CCA - AFC standard GCCF standard Notes The ACF and GCCF also recognize Russian Blues in white and black , however the CFA does not . In addition , ACFA recognizes Russian Shorthairs in white , black , and blue . Domestic cat ( Felis catus ) The Russian Blue is a cat breed that comes in colors varying from a light shimmering silver to a darker , slate grey . They develop close bonds with their owners and are sought out as pets due to their personalities , beauty and coat . It is their short , dense coat which has been the hallmark of the Russian breed for more than a century . The dense coat stands out from the body and one can draw patterns in the coat that will stay until one smoothes them out again . They are also considered to be hypoallergenic . Contents ( hide ) 1 Origin 2 Physical characteristics 3 Behavioral characteristics 4 Growth and maturity 5 Allergies 6 In popular culture 7 See also 8 References 9 External links Origin ( edit ) The Russian Blue is a naturally occurring breed that may have originated in the port of Arkhangel'sk in Russia . They are also sometimes called Archangel Blues . It is believed that sailors took Russian Blues from the Archangel Isles to Great Britain and Northern Europe in the 1860s . The first recorded appearance outside of Russia was in 1875 at The Crystal Palace in England as the Archangel Cat . The Russian Blue competed in a class including all other blue cats until 1912 , when it was given its own class . The breed was developed mainly in England and Scandinavia until after World War II . Right after the war , a lack of numbers of Russian Blues led to cross breeding with the Siamese . Although Russian Blues were in the United States before the war , it was not until the post-war period that American breeders created the modern Russian Blue that is seen in the United States today . This was done by combining the bloodlines of both the Scandinavian and British Russian Blues . The Siamese traits have now largely been bred out . The short hair and slate - gray / blue color is often seen in mixed - breed cats , which can affect breeders and showers due to mislabeling a cat as a Russian Blue . Russian Blues are plush short - haired , shimmering pale blue - gray cats with emerald green eyes . Guard hairs are distinctly silver - tipped giving the cat a silvery sheen or lustrous appearance . They have been used on a limited basis to create other breeds such as the Havana Brown or alter existing breeds such as the Nebelung . They are being used in Italy as a way to make Oriental Shorthairs healthier and more robust called RUS4OSH in FIFe . Russian Whites and Russian Blacks were created from crosses with domestic white cats which were allegedly imported from Russia . The first line was developed by Frances McLeod ( Arctic ) in the United Kingdom during the 1960s and the second line produced by Dick and Mavis Jones ( Myemgay ) in Australia in the 1970s . By the late 1970s , the Russian White and Russian Black colors were accepted by cat fanciers in Australia as well as in South Africa and now also in the United Kingdom as Russian cats ( in different classes ) . However , the Cat Fanciers ' Association and FIFe does not recognize any variation of the Russian Blue . Physical characteristics ( edit ) 4 -- 5 month - old Russian Blue kittens 2 month - old CFA Russian Blue The Russian Blue has bright green eyes , pinkish lavender or mauve paws , two layers of short thick fur , and a blue - grey coat . The color is a bluish - gray that is the dilute expression of the black gene . However , as dilute genes are recessive ( `` d '' ) and each parent will have a set of two recessive genes ( `` dd '' ) two non-CPC Russian Blues will always produce a blue cat . Due to the breeding with Siamese after World War II , there are colorpoint genes floating around . If two carriers are bred together , then they will produce a litter of mixed colors -- solid blue or white with blue like a Siamese . People call these CPC cats `` colorpoint '' , `` whites '' or `` pointed '' Russians . In most registries , one can not register , breed or show a colorpoint Russian . The coat is known as a `` double coat '' , with the undercoat being soft , downy and equal in length to the guard hairs , which are an even blue with silver tips . However , the tail may have a few very dull , almost unnoticeable stripes . The coat is described as thick , plush and soft to the touch . The feeling is softer than the softest silk . The silver tips give the coat a shimmering appearance . Its eyes are almost always a dark and vivid green . Any white patches of fur or yellow eyes in adulthood are seen as flaws in show cats . Russian Blues should not be confused with British Blues ( which are not a distinct breed , but rather a British Shorthair with a blue coat as the British Shorthair breed itself comes in a wide variety of colors and patterns ) , nor the Chartreux or Korat which are two other naturally occurring breeds of blue cats , although they have similar traits . Behavioral characteristics ( edit ) A Russian Blue male Russian Blue 's green eyes The Russian Blue is a curious and tranquil animal . They are known for their friendliness and intelligence and are somewhat reserved . They have been known to play fetch , open doors and are sensitive to human emotions . They enjoy playing with a variety of toys and develop loyal bonds to their loved ones and other family pets . They are generally considered to be a quiet breed but there are always exceptions . They are clean animals that are normally reserved around strangers , unless they are brought up in an active household . Many Russian Blues have been trained to do tricks . They can also be fierce hunters , often catching rodents , birds , rabbits , small mammals , or reptiles . Russian Blue kittens are energetic and require adequate playmates or toys as they can become mischievous if bored . They have exceptional athleticism and rival even Abyssinians for their ability to leap and climb . Slow to mature , Russian Blues retain many of their adolescent traits both good and otherwise until they are 3 -- 4 years old and even much older Blues can be easily enticed into play by their owners . Russian Blues are also as mentioned above highly intelligent , they have an excellent memory and will learn the hiding place of favourite toys ( e.g. laser pointers ) and lead their owners to them when they want a game . They also have a keen ability to remember favourite visitors and will race to greet familiar faces even if quite some time has passed between visits -- a radical departure from their normally very reserved behaviour around unfamiliar people . Growth and maturity ( edit ) Russian Blues have a life expectancy of around 10 -- 20 years , but some have even lived up to a maximum of 25 years and have few health problems as they tend to have little to no genetic problems and are not prone to illness . They are small to moderate - sized cats with an average weight of 2.27 to 5.45 kg ( 5.0 to 12.0 lb ) when full grown . Males will typically be larger than females . Their gestation period is approximately 64 days . Allergies ( edit ) See also : Allergy to cats § Hypoallergenic cats Anecdotal evidence suggests that the Russian Blue may be better tolerated by individuals with mild to moderate allergies . There is speculation that the Russian Blue produces less glycoprotein Fel d 1 , one source of cat allergies . The thicker coat may also trap more of the allergens closer to the cat 's skin . Glycoprotein is one source of cat allergies , but this does not mean they are suitable to be homed with people allergic to cats as they will still cause the allergy to be affected , only to a lesser degree for short periods of time . In popular culture ( edit ) One of the most famous cartoon cats , Tom from Tom and Jerry , is supposed to resemble a Russian Blue . Felicity , a character in the novel and film Felidae , was a Russian Blue . A Russian Blue kitten is a trained assassin in the Cats & Dogs film . According to audio commentary on the DVD , several kittens were used due to the kittens growing faster than the filming schedule . Eben and Snooch are Russian Blues in the comic Two Lumps . The Nyan Cat meme was inspired by creator Chris Torres ' Russian Blue , Marty . Marty died in 2012 from feline infectious peritonitis . In the Warriors series , Bluestar is a Russian Blue cat . See also ( edit ) Russian White , Black and Tabby Nebelung , a moderately - long haired breed which used the Russian Blue as an outcross . References ( edit ) ^ Jump up to : `` Russian Blue '' . Breed Profiles . The Cat Fanciers ' Association . Retrieved 11 October 2013 . Many believe the Russian Blue is a natural breed originating from the Archangel Isles in northern Russia , where the long winters developed a cat with a dense , plush coat . Rumors also abound that the Russian Blue breed descended from the cats kept by the Russian Czars , which was rumoured to hunt the brown bear . Assuming the Russian Blue did migrate from northern Russia , it was likely via ship to Great Britain and northern Europe in the mid 1860s . Jump up ^ Alderton , David ( 1992 ) . Cats ( Eyewitness Handbook ) . Dorling Kindersley . p. 182 . ISBN 1 - 56458 - 070 - 9 . ^ Jump up to : `` Is my cat a Russian Blue ? '' . Russianblue.info . Retrieved 6 October 2011 . Jump up ^ `` Allevamento YesWeCat gatti Siamesi e Orientali '' . Allevamento YesWeCat gatti Siamesi e Orientali . Retrieved 25 February 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Russian Black & the Russian White in the UK '' . Russianblue.org.uk . Retrieved 30 May 2015 . Jump up ^ Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia ( 2011 ) . `` Cats '' : 1 -- 2 . access - date = requires url = ( help ) Jump up ^ Helgren , J. Anne ( 1999 ) . `` Rhapsody in Blue '' . Cat Magazine : 54 , 4 . access - date = requires url = ( help ) Jump up ^ Smith , Derek . `` Russian Blue Life Expectancy '' . Russianbluelove.com . Retrieved 7 February 2015 . External links ( edit ) Wikimedia Commons has media related to Russian Blue . 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what is the role of the prime minister in canada

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Prime_Minister_of_Canada&oldid=865337465

Prime minister of Canada - Wikipedia Prime minister of Canada This is the latest accepted revision , reviewed on 23 October 2018 . This article is about the position of Prime Minister of Canada . For individual Canadian prime ministers , see List of Prime Ministers of Canada . Prime Minister of Canada Incumbent Justin Trudeau since November 4 , 2015 Executive Branch of the Government of Canada Office of the Prime Minister Style The Right Honourable ( formal ) Prime Minister ( informal ) His Excellency ( diplomatic ) Abbreviation PM Member of Queen 's Privy Council Cabinet Parliament Reports to Monarch Governor General Parliament Residence 24 Sussex Drive ( under renovation ) Harrington Lake ( seasonal ) Rideau Cottage ( temporary ) Seat 80 Wellington St , Ottawa , ON K1P 5K9 Appointer Governor General Term length At Her Majesty 's pleasure Constituting instrument None ( constitutional convention ) Inaugural holder Sir John A. Macdonald Formation July 1 , 1867 Deputy Deputy Prime Minister of Canada ( vacant ) Salary $347,400 CAD ( 2018 ) Website pm.gc.ca Canada This article is part of a series on the politics and government of Canada Government The Crown ( show ) Monarch ( List of monarchs ) Governor General ( List of Governors General ) Monarchy in the provinces Lieutenant governors Executive ( Queen - in - Council ) ( show ) Queen 's Privy Council Prime minister ( List of Prime Ministers ) Cabinet ( List of Canadian ministries ) Federal government structure President of the Privy Council Clerk of the Privy Council Privy Council Office Civil Service Provincial and territorial executive councils Premiers Legislative ( Queen - in - Parliament ) ( show ) Federal parliament ( List of parliaments ) Senate Speaker of the Senate Government Leader in the Senate Opposition Leader in the Senate Senate divisions House of Commons Speaker of the house Government Leader in the house Opposition Leader in the house Her Majesty 's Loyal Opposition Leader of the Opposition Shadow cabinet Provincial and territorial parliaments Judicial ( Queen - on - the - Bench ) ( show ) Court system Supreme court ( List of justices ) Federal chief justice Provincial and territorial courts Provincial chief justices Constitution British North America Acts Peace , order , and good government Charter of Rights and Freedoms Elections ( show ) Federal electoral districts Federal electoral system ( List of federal elections ) Provincial electoral districts Politics of the provinces Local government ( show ) Municipal government Related topics ( show ) Federalism Conservatism Constitutional law Royal prerogative Liberalism Regions Political culture Foreign relations Office - holders Political movements Aboriginal self - government First Nations bands Canada portal Other countries Atlas The Prime Minister of Canada ( French : Premier ministre du Canada ) is the primary minister of the Crown , chairman of the Cabinet , and thus Canada 's head of government , charged with advising the Canadian monarch or Governor General of Canada on the exercise of the executive powers vested in them by the constitution . Not outlined in any constitutional document , the office exists only as per long - established convention ( originating in Canada 's former colonial power , the United Kingdom ) that stipulates the monarch 's representative , the governor general , must select as prime minister the person most likely to command the confidence of the elected House of Commons ; this individual is typically the leader of the political party that holds the largest number of seats in that chamber . Canadian prime ministers are styled as The Right Honourable ( French : Le Très Honorable ) , a privilege maintained for life . The current , and 23rd , Prime Minister of Canada is the Liberal Party 's Justin Trudeau , who was appointed on November 4 , 2015 , by Governor General David Johnston , following the general election that took place that year . Contents 1 Origin of the office 2 Qualifications and selection 3 Term of office 4 Role and authority 5 Privileges 6 Style of address 7 Prime Minister - designate of Canada 8 Activities post-commission 9 See also 10 Notes 11 References 12 External links Origin of the office ( edit ) The position of prime minister is not outlined in any Canadian constitutional document and is mentioned only in passing in the Constitution Act , 1982 , and the Letters Patent , 1947 issued by King George VI . The office and its functions are instead governed by constitutional conventions and modelled on the same office in the United Kingdom . Qualifications and selection ( edit ) The prime minister , along with the other ministers in cabinet , is appointed by the governor general on behalf of the monarch . However , by the conventions of responsible government , designed to maintain administrative stability , the governor general will call to form a government the individual most likely to receive the support , or confidence , of a majority of the directly elected members of the House of Commons ; as a practical matter , this is often the leader of a party whose members form a majority , or a very large plurality , of Members of Parliament ( MPs ) . While there is no legal requirement for the prime minister to be a member of parliament , for practical and political reasons the prime minister is expected to win a seat very promptly . However , in rare circumstances individuals who are not sitting members of the House of Commons have been appointed to the position of prime minister . Two former prime ministers -- Sir John Joseph Caldwell Abbott and Sir Mackenzie Bowell -- served in the 1890s while members of the Senate . Both , in their roles as Government Leader in the Senate , succeeded prime ministers who had died in office -- John A. Macdonald in 1891 and John Sparrow David Thompson in 1894 . That convention has since evolved toward the appointment of an interim leader from the commons in such a scenario . Prime ministers who are not Members of Parliament upon their appointment ( or who lose their seats while in office ) have since been expected to seek election to the commons as soon as possible . For example , William Lyon Mackenzie King , after losing his seat in the 1925 federal election ( that his party won ) , briefly `` governed from the hallway '' before winning a by - election a few weeks later . Similarly , John Turner replaced Pierre Trudeau as leader of the Liberal Party in 1984 and subsequently was appointed prime minister while not holding a seat in the House of Commons ; Turner won a riding in the next election but the Liberal Party was swept from power . Turner was the last serving prime minister to not hold a commons seat . Sir John A. Macdonald , the first Prime Minister of Canada ( 1867 -- 1873 , 1878 -- 1891 ) Should a serving prime minister today lose his or her seat in the legislature , or should a new prime minister be appointed without holding a seat , the typical process that follows is that a junior member in the governing political party will resign to allow the prime minister to run in the resulting by - election . A safe seat is usually chosen ; while the Liberal and Conservative parties traditionally observed a convention of not running a candidate against another party 's new leader in the by - election , the New Democrats and smaller political parties typically do not follow the same convention . However , if the governing party selects a new leader shortly before an election is due , and that new leader is not a member of the legislature , he or she will normally await the upcoming election before running for a seat in parliament . In a poll conducted by Ipsos - Reid following the first prorogation of the 40th parliament on December 4 , 2008 , it was found that 51 % of the sample group thought the prime minister was directly elected by Canadians . Term of office ( edit ) The Canadian prime minister serves at Her Majesty 's pleasure , meaning the post does not have a fixed term . Once appointed and sworn in by the governor general , the prime minister remains in office until he or she resigns , is dismissed , or dies . The lifespan of parliament was limited by the constitution to five years and , though the governor general may still , on the advice of the prime minister , dissolve parliament and issue the writs of election prior to the date mandated by the Canada Elections Act ; the King -- Byng Affair was the only time since Confederation that the governor general deemed it necessary to refuse his prime minister 's request for a general vote . As of 2007 , with an amendment to the Elections Act , Section 56.1 ( 2 ) was changed to limit the term of a majority government to four years , with election day being set as the third Monday in October of the fourth calendar year after the previous polling date . Following parliamentary dissolution , the prime minister must run in the resulting general election if he or she wishes to maintain a seat in the House of Commons . Should the prime minister 's party subsequently win a majority of seats in the House of Commons , it is unnecessary to re-appoint the prime minister or again swear him or her into office . If , however , an opposition party wins a majority of seats , the prime minister may resign or be dismissed by the governor general . Should the prime minister 's party achieve a minority while an opposition party wins a plurality ( i.e. , more seats than any other party but less than a majority ) , the prime minister can attempt to maintain the confidence of the House by forming a coalition with other minority parties . This option was last entertained in 1925 . Role and Authority ( edit ) Further information : Queen 's Privy Council for Canada Canada 's Prime Ministers during its first century . Because the prime minister is , in practice , the most politically powerful member of the Canadian government , he or she is sometimes erroneously referred to as Canada 's head of state , when , in fact , that post is held by the Canadian monarch , represented by the governor general . The prime minister is , instead , the head of government and is responsible for advising the Crown on how to exercise the Royal Prerogative and its executive powers , which are governed by the constitution and its conventions . However , the function of the prime minister has evolved with increasing power . Today , as per the doctrines of constitutional monarchy , the advice given by the prime minister is ordinarily binding , meaning the prime minister effectively carries out those duties ascribed to the sovereign or governor general , leaving the latter to act in predominantly ceremonial fashions . As such , the prime minister , supported by the Office of the Prime Minister ( PMO ) , controls the appointments of many key figures in Canada 's system of governance , including the governor general , the Cabinet , justices of the Supreme Court , senators , heads of crown corporations , ambassadors to foreign countries , the provincial lieutenant governors , and approximately 3,100 other positions . Further , the prime minister plays a prominent role in the legislative process -- with the majority of bills put before parliament originating in the Cabinet -- and the leadership of the Canadian Armed Forces . William Lyon Mackenzie King , the 10th Prime Minister of Canada ( 1921 -- 1926 ; 1926 -- 1930 ; 1935 -- 1948 ) Pierre Trudeau is credited with , throughout his tenure as prime minister between 1968 and 1984 , consolidating power in the PMO , which is itself filled by political and administrative staff selected at the prime minister 's discretion and unaccountable to parliament . At the end of the 20th century and into the 21st , analysts -- such as Jeffrey Simpson , Donald Savoie , Andrew Coyne , and John Gomery -- argued that both parliament and the Cabinet had become eclipsed by prime ministerial power ; Savoie wrote : `` The Canadian prime minister has little in the way of institutional check , at least inside government , to inhibit his ability to have his way . '' Indeed , the position has been described as undergoing a `` presidentialisation '' , to the point that its incumbents publicly outshine the actual head of state ( and prime minister 's spouses are sometimes called the `` First Lady of Canada '' ) . Former governor general Adrienne Clarkson alluded to what she saw as `` an unspoken rivalry '' that had developed between the prime minister and the Crown . It has been theorized that such is the case in Canada as its parliament is less influential on the executive than in other countries with Westminster parliamentary systems ; particularly , Canada has fewer MPs , a higher turnover rate of MPs after each election , and an Americanised system for selecting political party leaders , leaving them accountable to the party membership rather than caucus , as is the case in the United Kingdom . There do exist checks on the prime minister 's power : the commons may revoke its confidence in an incumbent prime minister and Cabinet or caucus revolts can quickly bring down a serving premier and even mere threats of such action can persuade or compel a prime minister to resign his post , as happened with Jean Chrétien . The Reform Act , 2014 , codifies the process by which a caucus may trigger a party leadership review and , if necessary , chose an interim leader , thereby making a prime minister more accountable to the MPs in his or her party . Caucuses may choose to follow these rules , though the decision would be made by recorded vote , thereby subjecting the party 's choice to public scrutiny . The Senate may delay or impede legislation put forward by the Cabinet , such as when Brian Mulroney 's bill creating the Goods and Services Tax ( GST ) came before the upper chamber and , given Canada 's federal nature , the jurisdiction of the federal government is limited to areas prescribed by the constitution . Further , as executive power is constitutionally vested in the monarch , meaning the Royal Prerogative belongs to the Crown and not to any of its ministers , the sovereign 's supremacy over the prime minister in the constitutional order is thus seen as a `` rebuff to the pretensions of the elected : As it has been said , when the Prime Minister bows before the Queen , he bows before us ( the Canadian people ) . '' Either the sovereign or his or her governor general may therefore oppose the prime minister 's will in extreme , crisis situations . Near the end of her time as governor general , Adrienne Clarkson stated : `` My constitutional role has lain in what are called ' reserve powers ' : making sure that there is a prime minister and a government in place , and exercising the right ' to encourage , to advise , and to warn ' ( ... ) Without really revealing any secrets , I can tell you that I have done all three . '' Privileges ( edit ) 24 Sussex Drive , the official residence of the Prime Minister of Canada Two official residences are provided to the prime minister -- 24 Sussex Drive in Ottawa and Harrington Lake , a country retreat in Gatineau Park -- as well an office in the Office of the Prime Minister and Privy Council ( formerly known as Langevin Block ) , across from Parliament Hill . For transportation , the prime minister is granted an armoured car and shared use of two official aircraft -- a CC - 150 Polaris for international flights and a Challenger 601 for domestic trips . The Royal Canadian Mounted Police also furnish constant personal security for the prime minister and his or her family . All of the aforementioned is supplied by the Queen - in - Council through budgets approved by parliament , as is the prime minister 's total annual compensation of CAD $347,400 . The Prime Minister 's total compensation consists of the Member of the House of Commons Basic Sessional Indemnity of CAD $172,400 , the Prime Minister Salary of CAD $172,400 , and the Prime Minister Car Allowance of CAD $2000 . Should a serving or former prime minister die , he or she is accorded a state funeral , wherein their casket lies in state in the Centre Block of Parliament Hill . Only Bowell and the Viscount Bennett were given private funerals , Bennett also being the only former Prime Minister of Canada to die and be buried outside the country and Bowell the only whose funeral was not attended by politicians . John Thompson also died outside Canada , at Windsor Castle , where Queen Victoria permitted his lying - in - state before his body was returned to Canada for a state funeral in Halifax . The mark of the Prime Ministership of Canada , applied to the arms of prime ministers who pursue them In earlier years , it was traditional for the monarch to bestow a knighthood on newly appointed Canadian prime ministers . Accordingly , several carried the prefix Sir before their name ; of the first eight premiers of Canada , only Alexander Mackenzie refused the honour of a knighthood from Queen Victoria . Following the 1919 Nickle Resolution , however , it was against non-binding policy for the sovereign to grant such honorific titles to Canadians ; the last prime minister to be knighted was Sir Robert Borden , who was premier at the time the Nickle Resolution was debated in the House of Commons . Still , Bennett was in 1941 , six years after he stepped down as prime minister , elevated to the peerage by King George VI as Viscount Bennett , of Mickleham in the County of Surrey and of Calgary and Hopewell in the Dominion of Canada . The Canadian Heraldic Authority ( CHA ) has granted former prime ministers an augmentation of honour on the personal coat of arms of those who pursued them . The heraldic badge , referred to by the CHA as the mark of the Prime Ministership of Canada , consists of four red maple leaves joined at the stem on a white field ( `` Argent four maple leaves conjoined in cross at the stem Gules '' ) ; the augmentation has , so far , been granted either as a canton sinister or centred in the chief . To date , former prime ministers Joe Clark , Pierre Trudeau , John Turner , Brian Mulroney , and Kim Campbell were granted arms with the augmentation . Style of address ( edit ) Kim Campbell , the 19th Prime Minister of Canada ( 1993 ) and only female and British Columbia - born individual to hold the office Canada continues the Westminster tradition of using the title Prime Minister when one is speaking to the federal head of government directly ; this is in contrast to the United States protocol of addressing the federal head of government as mister ( as in , Mister President ) ; the Department of Canadian Heritage advises that it is incorrect to use the term Mr Prime Minister . The written form of address for the prime minister should use his or her full parliamentary title : The Right Honourable ( name ) , ( post-nominal letters ) , Prime Minister of Canada . However , while in the House of Commons during Question Period , other members of parliament may address the prime minister as The Right Honourable , Member for ( prime minister 's riding ) or simply The Right Honourable Prime Minister . Former prime ministers retain the prefix The Right Honourable for the remainder of their lives ; should they remain sitting MPs , they may be referred as The Right Honourable Member for ( member 's riding ) or by their portfolio title ( if appointed to one ) , as in The Right Honourable Minister of National Defence . In the decades following Confederation , it was common practice to refer to the prime minister as Premier of Canada , a custom that continued until the First World War , around the time of Robert Borden 's premiership . While contemporary sources will still speak of early prime ministers of Canada as premier , the modern practice is such that the federal head of government is known almost exclusively as the prime minister , while the provincial and territorial heads of government are termed premiers ( save for within Quebec and New Brunswick , where the premiers are addressed in French as Premier ministre du ( province ) , literally translated as Prime Minister of ( province ) ) . Prime minister - designate of Canada ( edit ) Further information : Prime minister - designate The Prime Minister -- designate of Canada refers to the person who has been designated as the future prime minister by the Governor General , after either winning a general election , forming a confidence and supply government , or forming an coalition government . The term does not apply to incumbent prime ministers . Activities post-commission ( edit ) After exiting office , former prime ministers of Canada have engaged in various pursuits . Some remained in politics : Bowell continued to serve as a senator , Stephen Harper returned to the House of Commons as a backbench Member of Parliament , and Bennett moved to the United Kingdom after being elevated to the House of Lords . A number led Her Majesty 's Loyal Opposition in the Canadian parliament : John A. Macdonald , Arthur Meighen , Mackenzie King , and Pierre Trudeau , all before being re-appointed as prime minister ( Mackenzie King twice ) ; Alexander Mackenzie and John Diefenbaker , both prior to sitting as regular Members of Parliament until their deaths ; Wilfrid Laurier dying while still in the post ; and Charles Tupper , Louis St. Laurent , and John Turner , each before they returned to private business . Meighen was also appointed to the Senate following his second period as prime minister , but resigned his seat to seek re-election and moved to private enterprise after failing to win a riding . Following Meighen into civilian life were : Robert Borden , who served as Chancellor of Queen 's and McGill Universities , as well as working in the financial sector ; Lester B. Pearson , who acted as Chancellor of Carleton University ; Joe Clark and Kim Campbell , who became university professors , Clark also consultant and Campbell working in international diplomacy and as the director of private companies and chairperson of interest groups ; while Pierre Trudeau and Jean Chrétien returned to legal practice . Former prime ministers also commonly penned autobiographies -- Tupper , for example -- or published their memoirs -- such as Diefenbaker and Paul Martin . See also ( edit ) Book : Canada Book : Prime Ministers of Canada Canadian politics portal Canada portal List of Prime Ministers of Canada Historical rankings of Canadian prime ministers List of Prime Ministers of Canada by longevity List of Prime Ministers of Canada by time in office Prime Ministers of Canada in popular culture List of books about Prime Ministers of Canada List of Prime Ministers of Queen Victoria List of Prime Ministers of King Edward VII List of Prime Ministers of King George V List of Prime Ministers of King Edward VIII List of Prime Ministers of King George VI List of Prime Ministers of Queen Elizabeth II Notes ( edit ) Jump up ^ See majority and plurality . Jump up ^ A 2008 Ipsos - Reid poll found 42 % of respondents thought the prime minister was head of state . Jump up ^ See Note 2 at Cabinet of Canada . Jump up ^ See ' Responsibilities ' and Note 1 at Cabinet of Canada . References ( edit ) ^ Jump up to : `` Indemnities , Salaries and Allowances '' . Library of Parliament . April 11 , 2018 . Archived from the original on June 1 , 2017 . Retrieved September 21 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Brooks , Stephen ( 2007 ) . Canadian Democracy : An Introduction ( 5 ed . ) . Don Mills : Oxford University Press . pp. 233 -- 234 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 19 - 543103 - 2 . ^ Jump up to : Brooks 2007 , p. 235 Jump up ^ Privy Council Office . `` Intergovernmental Affairs > About Canada > The Canadian Constitution '' . Queen 's Printer for Canada . Retrieved June 7 , 2010 . Jump up ^ Elizabeth II ( March 29 , 1867 ) , Constitution Act , 1982 , SchedB. 37.1 , Ottawa : Queen 's Printer for Canada , retrieved June 7 , 2010 Jump up ^ George VI ( 1947 ) . Letters Patent Constituting the Office of Governor General of Canada . I. Ottawa : King 's Printer for Canada ( published October 1 , 1947 ) . Retrieved May 29 , 2009 . Jump up ^ Office of the Governor General of Canada . `` Media > Fact Sheets > The Swearing - In of a New Ministry '' . Queen 's Printer for Canada . Archived from the original on June 16 , 2008 . Retrieved May 18 , 2009 . Jump up ^ Pothen , Phil ( 2009 ) , Disinformation as a Back Door to ' Constitutional Revolution ' in Canada , Toronto : Ontario Bar Association , retrieved September 13 , 2010 Jump up ^ Forsey , Eugene ( 2005 ) , How Canadians Govern Themselves ( PDF ) ( 6 ed . ) , Ottawa : Queen 's Printer for Canada , pp. 3 -- 4 , ISBN 0 - 662 - 39689 - 8 , archived from the original ( PDF ) on January 15 , 2011 , retrieved December 9 , 2009 Jump up ^ Forsey , Eugene ( March 2012 ) . `` How Canadians Govern Themselves > The Prime Minister '' . Queen 's Printer for Canada . Retrieved November 26 , 2015 . ^ Jump up to : Forsey 2005 , p. 38 ^ Jump up to : In the Wake of Constitutional Crisis : New Survey Demonstrates that Canadians Lack Basic Understanding of Our Country 's Parliamentary System ( PDF ) , Toronto : Ipsos Reid , December 15 , 2008 , p. 1 , retrieved May 18 , 2010 Jump up ^ Smith , David E ( June 10 , 2010 ) . `` The Crown and the Constitution : Sustaining Democracy ? '' ( PDF ) . The Crown in Canada : Present Realities and Future Options . Queen 's University . p. 6 . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on June 17 , 2010 . Retrieved May 23 , 2011 . ^ Jump up to : Forsey 2005 , p. 5 Jump up ^ Branch , Legislative Services . `` Consolidated federal laws of canada , Canada Elections Act '' . laws-lois.justice.gc.ca . Retrieved November 17 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Library and Archives Canada . `` First Among Equals : The Prime Minister in Canadian Life and Politics > Alone at the Top > Head of State '' . Queen 's Printer for Canada . Retrieved January 18 , 2010 . Jump up ^ Brooks 2007 , pp. 233 -- 235 ^ Jump up to : Geddes , John ( January 25 , 2009 ) . `` Will the prorogation of Parliament set off a populist revolt ? '' . Maclean 's . Toronto : Kenneth Whyte . ISSN 0024 - 9262 . Retrieved January 27 , 2010 . Jump up ^ Simpson , Jeffrey ( 2001 ) . The Friendly Dictatorship . Toronto : McClelland & Stewart . p. 248 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 7710 - 8079 - 1 . Jump up ^ Coyne , Andrew ( June 30 , 2015 ) . `` Liberals ' idea for gender quota in Cabinet leaves out the principle of merit '' . National Post . Retrieved June 30 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Brooks 2007 , p. 258 Jump up ^ Savoie , Donald ( 1999 ) . Governing from the Centre : The Concentration of Power in Canadian Politics . Toronto : University of Toronto Press . p. 362 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 8020 - 8252 - 7 . Jump up ^ `` Time to address democratic deficit '' , Toronto Star , January 27 , 2010 , retrieved January 27 , 2010 Jump up ^ Zamon , Rebecca ( November 4 , 2015 ) . `` The Prime Minister 's Wife : What Is Her Title , Exactly ? '' . The Huffington Post . Retrieved June 3 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Alberici , Emma ( May 18 , 2016 ) , ' I need help ' : Why did Canada 's first lady spark such a backlash ? , Australian Broadcasting Corporation , retrieved June 3 , 2017 Jump up ^ Jackson , Michael D. ( 2009 ) . `` The Senior Realms of the Queen '' ( PDF ) . Canadian Monarchist News . Autumn 2009 ( 30 ) . Toronto : Monarchist League of Canada . p. 10 . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on December 29 , 2009 . Retrieved January 17 , 2010 . Jump up ^ Blair , Louisa ( 2001 ) . Venne , Michel , ed . Vive Quebec ! : new thinking and new approaches to the Quebec nation . Toronto : James Lorimer & Company . p. 91 . ISBN 978 - 1 - 55028 - 734 - 9 . Jump up ^ Franks , C.E.S. ( April 9 , 2010 ) , `` Keep the Queen and choose another head of state '' , The Globe and Mail , retrieved January 23 , 2011 Jump up ^ Foot , Richard ( January 15 , 2010 ) , `` Only in Canada : Harper 's prorogation is a Canadian thing '' , National Post , archived from the original on January 18 , 2010 , retrieved January 16 , 2010 Jump up ^ Parliament of Canada ( June 23 , 2015 ) , Bill C - 586 , Queen 's Printer for Canada , retrieved June 2 , 2015 Jump up ^ Selley , Chris ( May 28 , 2015 ) . `` Thanks to the Senate , I 've finally come around to liking the Reform Act '' . National Post . Retrieved June 2 , 2015 . Jump up ^ MacLeod , Kevin S. ( 2008 ) , A Crown of Maples ( PDF ) ( 1 ed . ) , Ottawa : Queen 's Printer for Canada , p. 16 , ISBN 978 - 0 - 662 - 46012 - 1 , retrieved June 21 , 2009 Jump up ^ Cox , Noel ( September 2002 ) . `` Black v Chrétien : Suing a Minister of the Crown for Abuse of Power , Misfeasance in Public Office and Negligence '' . Murdoch University Electronic Journal of Law . Perth : Murdoch University . 9 ( 3 ) : 12 . Retrieved May 17 , 2009 . Jump up ^ Neitsch , Alfred Thomas ( 2008 ) . `` A Tradition of Vigilance : The Role of Lieutenant Governor in Alberta '' ( PDF ) . Canadian Parliamentary Review . Vol. 30 no . 4 . Ottawa : Commonwealth Parliamentary Association . p. 23 . Retrieved May 22 , 2009 . Jump up ^ Coyne , Andrew ( November 13 , 2009 ) . `` Defending the royals '' . Maclean 's . Toronto : Rogers Communications . ISSN 0024 - 9262 . Retrieved November 17 , 2009 . Jump up ^ Coyne , Andrew ( April 10 , 2002 ) , `` A lightning rod for patriotic love '' , National Post , archived from the original on May 23 , 2006 , retrieved May 22 , 2006 Jump up ^ `` GG reflects on mandate during farewell address '' . CTV . September 14 , 2005 . Archived from the original on October 13 , 2007 . Retrieved August 8 , 2007 . Jump up ^ Privy Council Office . `` Did You Know > The Langevin Block from Yesterday to Today '' . Queen 's Printer for Canada . Retrieved January 17 , 2010 . Jump up ^ State Funerals in Canada . `` Frequently Asked Questions on State Funerals in Canada '' . Queen 's Printer for Canada . Archived from the original on December 27 , 2009 . Retrieved December 10 , 2009 . Jump up ^ Waite , P.B. ( 1990 ) . `` Thompson , Sir John Sparrow David '' . In Halpenny , Francess G. Dictionary of Canadian Biography . XII ( 1891 -- 1900 ) ( online ed . ) . University of Toronto Press . Jump up ^ Library of Parliament . `` Federal Government > Prime Ministers of Canada > Biographical Informarion > BENNETT , The Right Hon . Richard Bedford , P.C. , K.C. , K.G. St. J. , LL. B . '' Queen 's Printer for Canada . Retrieved December 10 , 2009 . Jump up ^ ( 1 ) The London Gazette , July 22 , 1941 . ^ Jump up to : `` Clark , Rt . Hon . Charles Joseph '' . Royal Heraldry Society of Canada . Retrieved May 27 , 2011 . ^ Jump up to : `` Trudeau , Rt . Hon . Pierre Elliot '' . Royal Heraldry Society of Canada . Retrieved May 27 , 2011 . ^ Jump up to : `` Turner , Rt . Hon . John Napier '' . Royal Heraldry Society of Canada . Retrieved May 27 , 2011 . ^ Jump up to : `` Mulroney , Rt . Hon . Martin Brian '' . Royal Heraldry Society of Canada . Retrieved May 27 , 2011 . ^ Jump up to : `` Campbell , Rt . Hon . Kim , PC '' . Royal Heraldry Society of Canada . Retrieved May 27 , 2011 . Jump up ^ Department of Canadian Heritage . `` Styles of address '' . Queen 's Printer for Canada . Retrieved November 11 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Department of Canadian Heritage . `` Ceremonial and Canadian Symbols Promotion > Styles of address -- Federal dignitaries '' . Queen 's Printer for Canada . Retrieved January 24 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Canada 's Premier Talks ; Attitude of the Dominion on the Seal Question '' , The New York Times , p. 9 , March 12 , 1893 , retrieved January 25 , 2010 Jump up ^ Grand Lodge of Canada ( 1884 ) . Proceedings of the Grand Lodge of Ancient , Free , & Accepted Masons of Canada . Hamilton : Spectator Printing Co. p. 15 . Retrieved January 25 , 2010 . Jump up ^ Hopkins , J. Castell ( 1901 ) . `` The Proposed Union of Canada with Newfoundland '' . The Canadian Annual Review of Public Affairs . Vol. 1902 . Toronto : The Annual Review Publishing Company . pp. 449 -- 453 . Retrieved January 25 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Premier Pledges Canada to Fight Until War is Won '' , The New York Times , p. 1 , November 21 , 1916 , retrieved January 25 , 2010 Jump up ^ `` The Santa Fe magazine , Volume 9 '' . The Santa Fe . 9 . Santa Fe : Santa Fe Magazine . 1914 . p. 44 . ISSN 0036 - 4541 . Retrieved January 25 , 2010 . Jump up ^ Freshfield , A.C. Haddon ( May 1913 ) . `` The Distribution of Human and Animal Life in Western Arctic America '' . The Geographical Journal . Oxford : Blackwell Publishing . 41 ( 5 ) : 459 -- 460 . doi : 10.2307 / 1778163 . ISSN 0016 - 7398 . JSTOR 1778163 . Jump up ^ `` Sir John Sparrow David Thompson '' . Encyclopædia Britannica . Encyclopædia Britannica , Inc. 2010 . Retrieved January 25 , 2010 . Jump up ^ Library and Archives Canada . `` Politics and Government > Sir John A. Macdonald > The Opponents '' . Queen 's Printer for Canada . Retrieved January 25 , 2010 . Jump up ^ Royal Commission on the Ancient and Historical Monuments of Scotland . `` John Alexander MacDonald '' . Queen 's Printer . Retrieved January 25 , 2010 . Jump up ^ Waite , P.B. ( 2016 ) . `` Bennett , Richard Bedford , 1st Viscount Bennett '' . In Cook , Ramsay ; Bélanger , Réal . Dictionary of Canadian Biography . XVII ( 1941 -- 1950 ) ( online ed . ) . University of Toronto Press . Jump up ^ Neatby , H. Blair ( 2016 ) . `` King , William Lyon Mackenzie '' . In Cook , Ramsay ; Bélanger , Réal . Dictionary of Canadian Biography . XVII ( 1941 -- 1950 ) ( online ed . ) . University of Toronto Press . ^ Jump up to : Smith , Dennis ( 2016 ) . `` Diefenbaker , John George '' . In Cook , Ramsay ; Bélanger , Réal . Dictionary of Canadian Biography . XX ( 1971 -- 1980 ) ( online ed . ) . University of Toronto Press . Jump up ^ Bélanger , Réal ( 1998 ) . `` Laurier , Sir Wilfrid '' . In Cook , Ramsay ; Hamelin , Jean . Dictionary of Canadian Biography . XIV ( 1911 -- 1920 ) ( online ed . ) . University of Toronto Press . ^ Jump up to : Buckner , Phillip ( 1998 ) . `` Tupper , Sir Charles '' . In Cook , Ramsay ; Hamelin , Jean . Dictionary of Canadian Biography . XIV ( 1911 -- 1920 ) ( online ed . ) . University of Toronto Press . Jump up ^ Bothwell , Robert ( 2016 ) . `` St. Laurent , Louis '' . In Cook , Ramsay ; Bélanger , Réal . Dictionary of Canadian Biography . XX ( 1971 -- 1980 ) ( online ed . ) . University of Toronto Press . Jump up ^ Glassford , Larry A. ( 2016 ) . `` Meighen , Arthur '' . In Cook , Ramsay ; Bélanger , Réal . Dictionary of Canadian Biography . XVIII ( 1951 -- 1960 ) ( online ed . ) . University of Toronto Press . Jump up ^ English , John ( 2016 ) . `` Pearson , Lester Bowles '' . In Cook , Ramsay ; Bélanger , Réal . Dictionary of Canadian Biography . XX ( 1971 -- 1980 ) ( online ed . ) . University of Toronto Press . Jump up ^ English , John ( 2016 ) . `` Trudeau , Pierre Elliott '' . In Cook , Ramsay ; Bélanger , Réal . Dictionary of Canadian Biography . XXII ( 1991 -- 2000 ) ( online ed . ) . University of Toronto Press . External links ( edit ) Wikimedia Commons has media related to Prime ministers of Canada . 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the latin phrase parens patriae was used to refer to

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Parens_patriae&oldid=830253023

Parens patriae - wikipedia Parens patriae Jump to : navigation , search Parens patriae is Latin for `` parent of the nation '' ( lit. , `` parent of the fatherland '' ) . In law , it refers to the public policy power of the state to intervene against an abusive or negligent parent , legal guardian , or informal caretaker , and to act as the parent of any child or individual who is in need of protection . For example , some children , incapacitated individuals , and disabled individuals lack parents who are able and willing to render adequate care , thus requiring state intervention . In U.S. litigation , parens patriae can be invoked by the state to create its standing to sue ; the state declares itself to be suing on behalf of its people . For example , the Hart - Scott - Rodino Antitrust Improvement Act of 1976 ( 15 USC 15c ) , through Section 4C of the Clayton Act , permits state attorneys general to bring parens patriae suits on behalf of those injured by violations of the Sherman Antitrust Act . Contents ( hide ) 1 Discussion 2 Parens patriae in US federal courts 3 See also 4 Further reading 5 References Discussion ( edit ) Parens patriae relates to a notion initially invoked by the King 's Bench in the sixteenth century in cases of non compos mentis adults . The notion dates from at least 1608 , as recorded in Coke 's Report of Calvin 's Case , wherein it is said `` that moral law , honora patrem ... doubtless doth extend to him that is pater patriæ . '' The parens patriae doctrine was gradually applied to children throughout the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries , and has since evolved from one granting absolute rights to the sovereign to one more associated with rights and obligations of the state and courts towards children and incapacitated adults . In most jurisdictions , this appears in the principle that makes the protection of the best interests of any child the first and single most important concern of the courts . For example , in any proceedings affecting the validity of a marriage , the children will not be parties in their own right , nor will they be parties to any agreement that the spouses may make . In these proceedings , the courts will often be invited to accept and enforce any agreement between a husband and wife regarding parental responsibility for their children . This will usually be done so long as the agreement is seen to be in the best interests and welfare of the children . Courts are not obliged to invoke the parens patriae doctrine in cases involving children and not all courts , particularly newer courts such as the Australian Family Court ( est 1975 ) , have specific parens patriae jurisdiction . In the United States , some proponents of homeschooling have asserted that the Parens Patriae Doctrine is constrained by a so - called `` Parental Liberty Doctrine . '' In some situations , the parties may have submitted their dispute to formal arbitration proceedings . Such proceedings , whether judicial or quasi-judicial , can not displace the supervisory power of the court in the exercise of its parens patriae function to the child . To the extent that such an award conflicts with the best interests of the child , the courts will treat it as void in respect of the child , even though it might be binding on the parents . The test of the best interests of the child can always be the basis of a challenge by a parent , grandparent , an interested relative , or the child acting through a friend . Thus , for example , the spouses might already have been through a religious form of divorce known as the get before the Beth Din , the Jewish rabbinical court , which included provision for the children . Even though there might appear to be a grant of custody in absolute terms by this court , public policy always requires that it can be reviewed by a secular court and , if the state court is of the view that it is not in the best interests of the child , it will be set aside ( see Stanley G. v. Eileen G. New York Law Journal , 10 - 13 - 94 , P. 22 , Col. 6 , Sup . Ct. , NY Co . ) . Within the EU , the right of the child to be heard in any proceedings is a fundamental right provided in Article 24 Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union . The views of the child shall be considered on matters which concern them in accordance with their age and maturity . It also provides that the child 's best interest shall be the primary consideration in all actions relating to children , whether taken by public authorities or private institutions . The same principles apply to individuals whose mental capacity is impaired and who are being abused by carers or other individuals , whether family members or otherwise . Since these individuals can not protect themselves , the courts have an inherent jurisdiction to appoint a guardian ad litem for particular proceedings . In English Law , long - term care is arranged through the Court of Protection . Parens patriae in U.S. federal courts ( edit ) The concept of the parens patriae suit has been greatly expanded in the United States federal courts beyond that which existed in England . In Louisiana v. Texas , the State of Louisiana brought suit to enjoin officials of the State of Texas from so administering the Texas quarantine regulations as to prevent Louisiana merchants from sending goods into Texas . The US Supreme Court recognized that Louisiana was attempting to sue , not because of any particular injury to a particular business of the State , but as parens patriae for all its citizens . While the Court found that parens patriae could not properly be invoked in that case , the propriety and utility of parens patriae suits were clearly recognized , thus setting a precedent . Thus , in a series of cases after Louisiana v. Texas the Supreme Court followed that precedent to allow states to sue as parens patriae : Missouri v. Illinois , 180 U.S. 208 ( 1901 ) ( holding that Missouri was permitted to sue Illinois and a Chicago sanitation district on behalf of Missouri citizens to enjoin the discharge of sewage into the Mississippi River ) ; Kansas v. Colorado , 206 U.S. 46 ( 1907 ) ( holding that Kansas was permitted to sue as parens patriae to enjoin the diversion of water from an interstate stream ) ; Georgia v. Tennessee Copper Co. , 206 U.S. 230 ( 1907 ) ( holding that Georgia was entitled to sue to enjoin fumes from a copper plant across the state border from injuring land in five Georgia counties ) ; New York v. New Jersey , 256 U.S. 296 ( 1921 ) ( holding that New York could sue to enjoin the discharge of sewage into the New York harbor ) ; Pennsylvania v. West Virginia , 262 U.S. 553 ( 1923 ) ( holding that Pennsylvania might sue to enjoin restraints on the commercial flow of natural gas ) ; North Dakota v. Minnesota , 263 U.S. 365 ( 1923 ) ( holding that Minnesota could sue to enjoin changes in drainage which increase the flow of water in an interstate stream ) . The Supreme Court recognized a different kind of paren patriae suit in Georgia v. Pennsylvania R. Co . While the earlier cases were common - law actions to prevent or repair harm to a state 's `` quasi-sovereign '' interests . Georgia now sought relief under the federal antitrust statute , alleging that 20 railroads had conspired to restrain trade and to fix prices in a manner that would favor shippers in other States ( particularly Northern States ) to the detriment of Georgia shippers and the state 's economy . The Court upheld Georgia 's claim as parens patriae with respect to injunctive relief , but did not consider whether the antitrust laws also authorized damages for an injury to the State 's economy , because the ICC 's approval of the challenged rates barred any damage recovery . Then , three decades later , in Hawaii v. Standard Oil Co. , the Court considered a generally similar damages action Hawaii brought under the antitrust laws for damages to its general economy resulting from a price fix by four oil companies . The Court held that the state could sue as parens patriae only for injunctive relief and not for damages . Its citizens would have to sue individually for damages . In Massachusetts v. EPA , a group of states ( mostly coastal states ) sought to sue the EPA to require it to regulate greenhouse gas emissions because they were causing global warming and rising sea levels . `` These rising seas have already begun to swallow Massachusetts ' coastal land . '' The Court stated : In sum -- at least according to petitioners ' uncontested affidavits -- the rise in sea levels associated with global warming has already harmed and will continue to harm Massachusetts . The risk of catastrophic harm , though remote , is nevertheless real . That risk would be reduced to some extent if petitioners received the relief they seek . Therefore , states such as Massachusetts had standing as parens patriae to sue EPA to seeks to require it to regulate to protect their coastlines . The Court held that EPA would have to consider the matter and give a reasoned explanation of whatever its decision on the merits would be . In Pennsylvania v. Mid-Atlantic Toyota Distributors , Inc. , the Fourth Circuit held that several state attorney generals were proper parens patriae plaintiffs to sue a group of car dealers for price fixing , in order to recover damages for their citizen injured by overcharges . The court held that because plaintiffs were authorized to pursue antitrust litigation against defendants on behalf of their states ' natural - person residents under both 15 U.S.C. § § 15c - 15h and state laws and constitutions , they could sue on behalf of their citizens . See also ( edit ) Child custody in loco parentis Joint custody Qui tam Pater Patriae Private attorney general Further reading ( edit ) Suing the Tobacco and Lead Pigment Industries : Government Litigation as Public Health Prescription by Donald G. Gifford . Ann Arbor , University of Michigan Press , 2010 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 472 - 11714 - 7 References ( edit ) Jump up ^ Lat : not having control over the mind or intellect . Not of sound mind ; insane . See 108 A. 2d 820 , 822 . In certain circumstances its effect is lessened to mean only `` not legally competent . '' See 1 S.E. 2d 768 , 770 . Compare diminished capacity ; incompetent ; non sui juris . Jump up ^ Sir Edward Coke ; John Henry Thomas ; John Farquhar Fraser ( 1826 ) . The Reports of Sir Edward Coke , Knt. ( 1572 - 1617 ) : In Thirteen Parts . J. Butterworth and Son . pp. 21 -- . Retrieved 4 July 2013 . Jump up ^ People v. Bennett : Analytic Approaches to Recognizing a Fundamental Parental Right Under the Ninth Amendment , 1996 BYU Law Review 186 , 227 - 34 Jump up ^ Removing Classrooms from the Battlefield : Liberty , Paternalism , and the Redemptive Promise of Educational Choice , 2008 BYU Law Review 377 , 386 n. 30 Jump up ^ Parens Patriae -- Quaqua Society Jump up ^ Hawaii v. Standard Oil Co. , 405 U.S. 251 ( 1972 ) . Jump up ^ 176 U.S. 1 ( 1900 ) . Jump up ^ 176 U.S. , at 19 . Jump up ^ 324 U.S. 439 ( 1945 ) . Jump up ^ 405 U.S. 251 ( 1972 ) . Jump up ^ 549 U.S. 497 ( 2007 ) . Jump up ^ 549 U.S. at 522 . Jump up ^ 549 U.S. at 526 . Jump up ^ 549 U.S. at 534 - 35 . Jump up ^ 704 F. 2d 125 ( 4th Cir. 1983 ) . Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Parens_patriae&oldid=830253023 '' Categories : Latin legal terminology Legal procedure Child custody Talk Contents About Wikipedia Français 日本 語 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 13 March 2018 , at 18 : 13 . About Wikipedia

1249598914156603825

who were the dadaists and what did they do

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Dada&oldid=835708350

Dada - wikipedia Dada Jump to : navigation , search For other uses , see Dada ( disambiguation ) . Grand opening of the first Dada exhibition : International Dada Fair , Berlin , 5 June 1920 . The central figure hanging from the ceiling was an effigy of a German officer with a pig 's head . From left to right : Raoul Hausmann , Hannah Höch ( sitting ) , Otto Burchard , Johannes Baader , Wieland Herzfelde , Margarete Herzfelde , dr . Oz ( Otto Schmalhausen ) , George Grosz and John Heartfield . Francis Picabia , Dame ! Illustration for the cover of the periodical Dadaphone , n . 7 , Paris , March 1920 Dada ( / ˈdɑːdɑː / ) or Dadaism was an art movement of the European avant - garde in the early 20th century , with early centers in Zürich , Switzerland at the Cabaret Voltaire ( circa 1916 ) ; New York Dada began circa 1915 , and after 1920 Dada flourished in Paris . Developed in reaction to World War I , the Dada movement consisted of artists who rejected the logic , reason , and aestheticism of modern capitalist society , instead expressing nonsense , irrationality , and anti-bourgeois protest in their works . The art of the movement spanned visual , literary , and sound media , including collage , sound poetry , cut - up writing , and sculpture . Dadaist artists expressed their discontent with violence , war , and nationalism , and maintained political affinities with the radical left . Cover of the first edition of the publication Dada by Tristan Tzara ; Zürich , 1917 There is no consensus on the origin of the movement 's name ; a common story is that the Austrian artist Richard Huelsenbeck plunged a knife at random into a dictionary , where it landed on `` dada '' , a colloquial French term for a hobby horse . Others note that it suggests the first words of a child , evoking a childishness and absurdity that appealed to the group . Still others speculate that the word might have been chosen to evoke a similar meaning ( or no meaning at all ) in any language , reflecting the movement 's internationalism . The roots of Dada lie in pre-war avant - garde . The term anti-art , a precursor to Dada , was coined by Marcel Duchamp around 1913 to characterize works which challenge accepted definitions of art . Cubism and the development of collage and abstract art would inform the movement 's detachment from the constraints of reality and convention . The work of French poets , Italian Futurists and the German Expressionists would influence Dada 's rejection of the tight correlation between words and meaning . Works such as Ubu Roi ( 1896 ) by Alfred Jarry , and the ballet Parade ( 1916 -- 17 ) by Erik Satie would also be characterized as proto - Dadaist works . The Dada movement 's principles were first collected in Hugo Ball 's Dada Manifesto in 1916 . The Dadaist movement included public gatherings , demonstrations , and publication of art / literary journals ; passionate coverage of art , politics , and culture were topics often discussed in a variety of media . Key figures in the movement included Hugo Ball , Marcel Duchamp , Emmy Hennings , Hans Arp , Raoul Hausmann , Hannah Höch , Johannes Baader , Tristan Tzara , Francis Picabia , Huelsenbeck , George Grosz , John Heartfield , Man Ray , Beatrice Wood , Kurt Schwitters , Hans Richter , Max Ernst , and Elsa von Freytag - Loringhoven among others . The movement influenced later styles like the avant - garde and downtown music movements , and groups including Surrealism , nouveau réalisme , pop art and Fluxus . Contents ( hide ) 1 Overview 2 History 2.1 Zürich 2.2 Berlin 2.3 Cologne 2.4 New York 2.5 Paris 2.6 Netherlands 2.7 Georgia 2.8 Yugoslavia 2.9 Italy 2.10 Japan 2.11 Russia 3 Poetry , music and sound 4 Legacy 5 Art techniques developed 5.1 Collage 5.2 Cut - up technique 5.3 Photomontage 5.4 Assemblage 5.5 Readymades 6 Artists 7 See also 8 References 9 Bibliography 10 External links Overview ( edit ) Francis Picabia , ( left ) Le saint des saints c'est de moi qu'il s'agit dans ce portrait , 1 July 1915 ; ( center ) Portrait d'une jeune fille americaine dans l'état de nudité , 5 July 1915 : ( right ) J'ai vu et c'est de toi qu'il s'agit , De Zayas ! De Zayas ! Je suis venu sur les rivages du Pont - Euxin , New York , 1915 Dada was an informal international movement , with participants in Europe and North America . The beginnings of Dada correspond to the outbreak of World War I . For many participants , the movement was a protest against the bourgeois nationalist and colonialist interests , which many Dadaists believed were the root cause of the war , and against the cultural and intellectual conformity -- in art and more broadly in society -- that corresponded to the war . Avant - garde circles outside France knew of pre-war Parisian developments . They had seen ( or participated in ) Cubist exhibitions held at Galeries Dalmau , Barcelona ( 1912 ) , Galerie Der Sturm in Berlin ( 1912 ) , the Armory Show in New York ( 1913 ) , SVU Mánes in Prague ( 1914 ) , several Jack of Diamonds exhibitions in Moscow and at De Moderne Kunstkring , Amsterdam ( between 1911 and 1915 ) . Futurism developed in response to the work of various artists . Dada subsequently combined these approaches . Many Dadaists believed that the ' reason ' and ' logic ' of bourgeois capitalist society had led people into war . They expressed their rejection of that ideology in artistic expression that appeared to reject logic and embrace chaos and irrationality . For example , George Grosz later recalled that his Dadaist art was intended as a protest `` against this world of mutual destruction . '' According to Hans Richter Dada was not art : it was `` anti-art . '' Dada represented the opposite of everything which art stood for . Where art was concerned with traditional aesthetics , Dada ignored aesthetics . If art was to appeal to sensibilities , Dada was intended to offend . As Hugo Ball expressed it , `` For us , art is not an end in itself ... but it is an opportunity for the true perception and criticism of the times we live in . '' A reviewer from the American Art News stated at the time that `` Dada philosophy is the sickest , most paralyzing and most destructive thing that has ever originated from the brain of man . '' Art historians have described Dada as being , in large part , a `` reaction to what many of these artists saw as nothing more than an insane spectacle of collective homicide . '' Years later , Dada artists described the movement as `` a phenomenon bursting forth in the midst of the postwar economic and moral crisis , a savior , a monster , which would lay waste to everything in its path ... ( It was ) a systematic work of destruction and demoralization ... In the end it became nothing but an act of sacrilege . '' To quote Dona Budd 's The Language of Art Knowledge , Dada was born out of negative reaction to the horrors of the First World War . This international movement was begun by a group of artists and poets associated with the Cabaret Voltaire in Zürich . Dada rejected reason and logic , prizing nonsense , irrationality and intuition . The origin of the name Dada is unclear ; some believe that it is a nonsensical word . Others maintain that it originates from the Romanian artists Tristan Tzara 's and Marcel Janco 's frequent use of the words `` da , da , '' meaning `` yes , yes '' in the Romanian language . Another theory says that the name `` Dada '' came during a meeting of the group when a paper knife stuck into a French -- German dictionary happened to point to ' dada ' , a French word for ' hobbyhorse ' . The movement primarily involved visual arts , literature , poetry , art manifestos , art theory , theatre , and graphic design , and concentrated its anti-war politics through a rejection of the prevailing standards in art through anti-art cultural works . History ( edit ) Zürich ( edit ) Hannah Höch , Cut with the Dada Kitchen Knife through the Last Weimar Beer - Belly Cultural Epoch in Germany , 1919 , collage of pasted papers , 90 × 144 cm , Nationalgalerie , Staatliche Museen zu Berlin In 1916 , Hugo Ball , Emmy Hennings , Tristan Tzara , Jean Arp , Marcel Janco , Richard Huelsenbeck , Sophie Taeuber , and Hans Richter , along with others , discussed art and put on performances in the Cabaret Voltaire expressing their disgust with the war and the interests that inspired it . Some sources state that Dada coalesced on October 6 at the Cabaret Voltaire . Other sources state that Dada did not originate fully in a Zürich literary salon but grew out of an already vibrant artistic tradition in Eastern Europe , particularly Romania , that transposed to Switzerland when a group of Jewish modernist artists ( Tzara , Janco , Arthur Segal , and others ) settled in Zürich . In the years prior to the First World War similar art had already risen in Bucharest and other Eastern European cities ; it is likely that Dada 's catalyst was the arrival in Zürich of artists like Tzara and Janco . Having left Germany and Romania during the Great War , the artists found themselves in Switzerland , a country recognized for its neutrality . Inside this space of political neutrality they decided to use abstraction to fight against the social , political , and cultural ideas of that time . The Dadaists believed those ideas to be a byproduct of bourgeois society , a society so apathetic it would rather fight a war against itself than challenge the status quo . Janco recalled , `` We had lost confidence in our culture . Everything had to be demolished . We would begin again after the tabula rasa . At the Cabaret Voltaire we began by shocking common sense , public opinion , education , institutions , museums , good taste , in short , the whole prevailing order . '' The Cabaret closed its doors in early July and then at the first public soirée at Waag Hall on July 14 , 1916 , Ball recited the first manifesto . In 1917 , Tzara wrote a second Dada manifesto considered one of the most important Dada writings , which was published in 1918 . Other manifestos followed . A single issue of the magazine Cabaret Voltaire was the first publication to come out of the movement . After the cabaret closed down , Dada activities moved on to a new gallery , and Hugo Ball left for Bern . Tzara began a relentless campaign to spread Dada ideas . He bombarded French and Italian artists and writers with letters , and soon emerged as the Dada leader and master strategist . The Cabaret Voltaire re-opened , and is still in the same place at the Spiegelgasse 1 in the Niederdorf . Zürich Dada , with Tzara at the helm , published the art and literature review Dada beginning in July 1917 , with five editions from Zürich and the final two from Paris . Other artists , such as André Breton and Philippe Soupault , created `` literature groups to help extend the influence of Dada . '' After the fighting of the First World War had ended in the armistice of November 1918 , most of the Zürich Dadaists returned to their home countries , and some began Dada activities in other cities . Others , such as the Swiss native Sophie Taeuber , would remain in Zürich into the 1920s . Berlin ( edit ) Cover of Anna Blume , Dichtungen , 1919 `` Berlin was a city of tightened stomachers , of mounting , thundering hunger , where hidden rage was transformed into a boundless money lust , and men 's minds were concentrating more and more on questions of naked existence ... Fear was in everybody 's bones `` - Richard Hülsenbeck The groups in Germany were not as strongly anti-art as other groups . Their activity and art were more political and social , with corrosive manifestos and propaganda , satire , public demonstrations and overt political activities . The intensely political and war - torn environment of Berlin had a dramatic impact on the ideas of Berlin Dadaists . Conversely , New York 's geographic distance from the war spawned its more theoretically - driven , less political nature . In February 1918 , while the Great War was approaching its climax , Huelsenbeck gave his first Dada speech in Berlin , and he produced a Dada manifesto later in the year . Following the October Revolution in Russia , by then out of the war , Hannah Höch and George Grosz used Dada to express communist sympathies . Grosz , together with John Heartfield , Höch and Hausmann developed the technique of photomontage during this period . After the war , the artists published a series of short - lived political magazines and held the First International Dada Fair , ' the greatest project yet conceived by the Berlin Dadaists ' , in the summer of 1920 . As well as work by the main members of Berlin Dada -- Grosz , Raoul Hausmann , Hannah Höch , Johannes Baader , Huelsenbeck and Heartfield -- the exhibition also included the work of Otto Dix , Francis Picabia , Jean Arp , Max Ernst , Rudolf Schlichter , Johannes Baargeld and others . In all , over 200 works were exhibited , surrounded by incendiary slogans , some of which also ended up written on the walls of the Nazi 's Entartete Kunst exhibition in 1937 . Despite high ticket prices , the exhibition lost money , with only one recorded sale . The Berlin group published periodicals such as Club Dada , Der Dada , Everyman His Own Football , and Dada Almanach . Cologne ( edit ) In Cologne , Ernst , Baargeld , and Arp launched a controversial Dada exhibition in 1920 which focused on nonsense and anti-bourgeois sentiments . Cologne 's Early Spring Exhibition was set up in a pub , and required that participants walk past urinals while being read lewd poetry by a woman in a communion dress . The police closed the exhibition on grounds of obscenity , but it was re-opened when the charges were dropped . Marcel Duchamp , Fountain , 1917 ; photograph by Alfred Stieglitz New York ( edit ) Main article : New York Dada Like Zürich , New York City was a refuge for writers and artists from the First World War . Soon after arriving from France in 1915 , Marcel Duchamp and Francis Picabia met American artist Man Ray . By 1916 the three of them became the center of radical anti-art activities in the United States . American Beatrice Wood , who had been studying in France , soon joined them , along with Elsa von Freytag - Loringhoven . Arthur Cravan , fleeing conscription in France , was also in New York for a time . Much of their activity centered in Alfred Stieglitz 's gallery , 291 , and the home of Walter and Louise Arensberg . The New Yorkers , though not particularly organized , called their activities Dada , but they did not issue manifestos . They issued challenges to art and culture through publications such as The Blind Man , Rongwrong , and New York Dada in which they criticized the traditionalist basis for museum art . New York Dada lacked the disillusionment of European Dada and was instead driven by a sense of irony and humor . In his book Adventures in the arts : informal chapters on painters , vaudeville and poets Marsden Hartley included an essay on `` The Importance of Being ' Dada ' '' . Rrose Sélavy , the alter ego of Dadaist Marcel Duchamp During this time Duchamp began exhibiting `` readymades '' ( everyday objects found or purchased and declared art ) such as a bottle rack , and was active in the Society of Independent Artists . In 1917 he submitted the now famous Fountain , a urinal signed R. Mutt , to the Society of Independent Artists exhibition but they rejected the piece . First an object of scorn within the arts community , the Fountain has since become almost canonized by some as one of the most recognizable modernist works of sculpture . Art world experts polled by the sponsors of the 2004 Turner Prize , Gordon 's gin , voted it `` the most influential work of modern art '' . As recent scholarship documents , the work is likely more collaborative than it has been given credit for in twentieth - century art history . Duchamp indicates in a 1917 letter to his sister that a female friend was centrally involved in the conception of this work . As he writes : `` One of my female friends who had adopted the pseudonym Richard Mutt sent me a porcelain urinal as a sculpture . '' The piece is more in line with the scatological aesthetics of Duchamp 's friend and neighbour , the Baroness Elsa von Freytag - Loringhoven , than Duchamp 's . In an attempt to `` pay homage to the spirit of Dada '' a performance artist named Pierre Pinoncelli made a crack in a replica of The Fountain with a hammer in January 2006 ; he also urinated on it in 1993 . Picabia 's travels tied New York , Zürich and Paris groups together during the Dadaist period . For seven years he also published the Dada periodical 391 in Barcelona , New York City , Zürich , and Paris from 1917 through 1924 . By 1921 , most of the original players moved to Paris where Dada had experienced its last major incarnation . Paris ( edit ) Man Ray , c. 1921 -- 22 , Rencontre dans la porte tournante , published on the cover of Der Sturm , Volume 13 , Number 3 , 5 March 1922 Man Ray , c. 1921 -- 22 , Dessin ( Drawing ) , published on page 43 of Der Sturm , Volume 13 , Number 3 , 5 March 1922 The French avant - garde kept abreast of Dada activities in Zürich with regular communications from Tristan Tzara ( whose pseudonym means `` sad in country , '' a name chosen to protest the treatment of Jews in his native Romania ) , who exchanged letters , poems , and magazines with Guillaume Apollinaire , André Breton , Max Jacob , Clément Pansaers , and other French writers , critics and artists . Paris had arguably been the classical music capital of the world since the advent of musical Impressionism in the late 19th century . One of its practitioners , Erik Satie , collaborated with Picasso and Cocteau in a mad , scandalous ballet called Parade . First performed by the Ballets Russes in 1917 , it succeeded in creating a scandal but in a different way than Stravinsky 's Le Sacre du printemps had done almost five years earlier . This was a ballet that was clearly parodying itself , something traditional ballet patrons would obviously have serious issues with . Dada in Paris surged in 1920 when many of the originators converged there . Inspired by Tzara , Paris Dada soon issued manifestos , organized demonstrations , staged performances and produced a number of journals ( the final two editions of Dada , Le Cannibale , and Littérature featured Dada in several editions . ) The first introduction of Dada artwork to the Parisian public was at the Salon des Indépendants in 1921 . Jean Crotti exhibited works associated with Dada including a work entitled , Explicatif bearing the word Tabu . In the same year Tzara staged his Dadaist play The Gas Heart to howls of derision from the audience . When it was re-staged in 1923 in a more professional production , the play provoked a theatre riot ( initiated by André Breton ) that heralded the split within the movement that was to produce Surrealism . Tzara 's last attempt at a Dadaist drama was his `` ironic tragedy '' Handkerchief of Clouds in 1924 . Netherlands ( edit ) In the Netherlands the Dada movement centered mainly around Theo van Doesburg , best known for establishing the De Stijl movement and magazine of the same name . Van Doesburg mainly focused on poetry , and included poems from many well - known Dada writers in De Stijl such as Hugo Ball , Hans Arp and Kurt Schwitters . Van Doesburg and Thijs Rinsema ( nl ) ( a cordwainer and artist in Drachten ) became friends of Schwitters , and together they organized the so - called Dutch Dada campaign in 1923 , where van Doesburg promoted a leaflet about Dada ( entitled What is Dada ? ) , Schwitters read his poems , Vilmos Huszár demonstrated a mechanical dancing doll and Nelly van Doesburg ( Theo 's wife ) , played avant - garde compositions on piano . A Bonset sound - poem , `` Passing troop '' , 1916 Van Doesburg wrote Dada poetry himself in De Stijl , although under a pseudonym , I.K. Bonset , which was only revealed after his death in 1931 . ' Together ' with I.K. Bonset , he also published a short - lived Dutch Dada magazine called Mécano ( 1922 -- 3 ) . Another Dutchman identified by K. Schippers in his study of the movement in the Netherlands was the Groningen typographer H.N. Werkman , who was in touch with van Doesburg and Schwitters while editing his own magazine , The Next Call ( 1923 -- 6 ) . Two more artists mentioned by Schippers were German - born and eventually settled in the Netherlands . These were Otto van Rees , who had taken part in the liminal exhibitions at the Café Voltaire in Zürich , and Paul Citroen . Georgia ( edit ) Although Dada itself was unknown in Georgia until at least 1920 , from 1917 until 1921 a group of poets called themselves `` 41st Degree '' ( referring both to the latitude of Tbilisi , Georgia and to the temperature of a high fever ) organized along Dadaist lines . The most important figure in this group was Iliazd , whose radical typographical designs visually echo the publications of the Dadaists . After his flight to Paris in 1921 , he collaborated with Dadaists on publications and events . Yugoslavia ( edit ) In Yugoslavia there was significant Dada activity between 1920 and 1922 , run mainly by Dragan Aleksić and including work by Mihailo S. Petrov , Zenitism 's two brothers Ljubomir Micić and Branko Ve Poljanski . Aleksić used the term `` Yougo - Dada '' and is known to have been in contact with Raoul Hausmann , Kurt Schwitters , and Tristan Tzara . Italy ( edit ) The Dada movement in Italy , based in Mantua , was met with distaste and failed to make a significant impact in the world of art . It published a magazine for a short time and held an exhibition in Rome , featuring paintings , quotations from Tristan Tzara , and original epigrams such as `` True Dada is against Dada '' . The most notable member of this group was Julius Evola , who went on to become an eminent scholar of occultism , as well as a right - wing philosopher and an assistant to Benito Mussolini . Japan ( edit ) Dada , an iconic character from the Ultra Series . His design draws inspiration from the art movement . A prominent Dada group in Japan was MAVO ( ja ) , founded in July 1923 by Tomoyoshi Murayama and Yanase Masamu ( de ; ja ) . Other prominent artists were Jun Tsuji , Eisuke Yoshiyuki , Shinkichi Takahashi and Katsue Kitasono . In the Tsuburaya Productions 's Ultra Series , an alien named Dada was designed after the Dadaism movement , with said character first appearing in episode 28 of the 1966 tokusatsu series , Ultraman , and was designed by character artist Toru Narita . Dada 's design is primarily monochromatic , and features numerous sharp lines and alternating black and white stripes , as a reference to the movement . On May 19 , 2016 , in celebration to the 100 year anniversary of Dadaism in Tokyo , the Ultra Monster was invited to meet the Swiss Ambassador Urs Bucher . Russia ( edit ) This section does not cite any sources . Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . ( October 2017 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) Dada in itself was relatively unknown in Russia , however , avant - garde art was widespread due to the Bolshevik 's revolutionary agenda . The Nichevoki ( ru ) , a literary group sharing Dadaist ideals achieved infamy after one of its members suggested that Vladimir Mayakovsky should go to the `` Pampushka '' ( Pameatnik Pushkina -- Pushkin monument ) on the `` Tverbul '' ( Tverskoy Boulevard ) to clean the shoes of anyone who desired it , after Mayakovsky declared that he was going to cleanse Russian literature . Poetry , music and sound ( edit ) Dada was not confined to the visual and literary arts ; its influence reached into sound and music . Kurt Schwitters developed what he called sound poems , while Francis Picabia and Georges Ribemont - Dessaignes composed Dada music performed at the Festival Dada in Paris on 26 May 1920 . Other composers such as Erwin Schulhoff , Hans Heusser and Alberto Savinio all wrote Dada music , while members of Les Six collaborated with members of the Dada movement and had their works performed at Dada gatherings . Erik Satie also dabbled with Dadaist ideas during his career , although he is primarily associated with musical Impressionism . In the very first Dada publication , Hugo Ball describes a `` balalaika orchestra playing delightful folk - songs . '' African music and jazz were common at Dada gatherings . Marc Lowenthal , in I Am a Beautiful Monster : Poetry , Prose , and Provocation , writes : Dada is the groundwork to abstract art and sound poetry , a starting point for performance art , a prelude to postmodernism , an influence on pop art , a celebration of antiart to be later embraced for anarcho - political uses in the 1960s and the movement that laid the foundation for Surrealism . Musician Frank Zappa was a self - proclaimed Dadaist after learning of the movement : In the early days , I did n't even know what to call the stuff my life was made of . You can imagine my delight when I discovered that someone in a distant land had the same idea -- AND a nice , short name for it . Legacy ( edit ) The Janco Dada Museum , named after Marcel Janco , in Ein Hod , Israel While broadly based , the movement was unstable . By 1924 in Paris , Dada was melding into Surrealism , and artists had gone on to other ideas and movements , including Surrealism , social realism and other forms of modernism . Some theorists argue that Dada was actually the beginning of postmodern art . By the dawn of the Second World War , many of the European Dadaists had emigrated to the United States . Some ( Otto Freundlich , Walter Serner ) died in death camps under Adolf Hitler , who actively persecuted the kind of `` degenerate art '' that he considered Dada to represent . The movement became less active as post-war optimism led to the development of new movements in art and literature . Dada is a named influence and reference of various anti-art and political and cultural movements , including the Situationist International and culture jamming groups like the Cacophony Society . Upon breaking up in July 2012 , anarchist pop band Chumbawamba issued a statement which compared their own legacy with that of the Dada art movement . At the same time that the Zürich Dadaists were making noise and spectacle at the Cabaret Voltaire , Lenin was planning his revolutionary plans for Russia in a nearby apartment . Tom Stoppard used this coincidence as a premise for his play Travesties ( 1974 ) , which includes Tzara , Lenin , and James Joyce as characters . French writer Dominique Noguez imagined Lenin as a member of the Dada group in his tongue - in - cheek Lénine Dada ( 1989 ) . The former building of the Cabaret Voltaire fell into disrepair until it was occupied from January to March 2002 , by a group proclaiming themselves Neo-Dadaists , led by Mark Divo . The group included Jan Thieler , Ingo Giezendanner , Aiana Calugar , Lennie Lee , and Dan Jones . After their eviction , the space was turned into a museum dedicated to the history of Dada . The work of Lee and Jones remained on the walls of the new museum . Several notable retrospectives have examined the influence of Dada upon art and society . In 1967 , a large Dada retrospective was held in Paris . In 2006 , the Museum of Modern Art in New York City mounted a Dada exhibition in partnership with the National Gallery of Art in Washington D.C. and the Centre Pompidou in Paris . The LTM label has released a large number of Dada - related sound recordings , including interviews with artists such as Tzara , Picabia , Schwitters , Arp , and Huelsenbeck , and musical repertoire including Satie , Ribemont - Dessaignes , Picabia , and Nelly van Doesburg . Art Techniques developed ( edit ) Collage ( edit ) The Dadaists imitated the techniques developed during the cubist movement through the pasting of cut pieces of paper items , but extended their art to encompass items such as transportation tickets , maps , plastic wrappers , etc. to portray aspects of life , rather than representing objects viewed as still life . Cut - up technique ( edit ) Cut - up technique is an extension of collage to words themselves , Tristan Tzara describes this in the Dada Manifesto : TO MAKE A DADAIST POEM Take a newspaper . Take some scissors . Choose from this paper an article of the length you want to make your poem . Cut out the article . Next carefully cut out each of the words that makes up this article and put them all in a bag . Shake gently . Next take out each cutting one after the other . Copy conscientiously in the order in which they left the bag . The poem will resemble you . And there you are -- an infinitely original author of charming sensibility , even though unappreciated by the vulgar herd . Photomontage ( edit ) The Dadaists -- the `` monteurs '' ( mechanics ) -- used scissors and glue rather than paintbrushes and paints to express their views of modern life through images presented by the media . A variation on the collage technique , photomontage utilized actual or reproductions of real photographs printed in the press . In Cologne , Max Ernst used images from the First World War to illustrate messages of the destruction of war . Raoul Hausmann , Mechanischer Kopf ( Der Geist unserer Zeit ) ( Mechanical Head ( The Spirit of Our Age ) ) , c. 1920 Raoul Hausmann , ABCD ( self - portrait ) , a photomontage from 1923 -- 24 Assemblage ( edit ) The assemblages were three - dimensional variations of the collage -- the assembly of everyday objects to produce meaningful or meaningless ( relative to the war ) pieces of work including war objects and trash . Objects were nailed , screwed or fastened together in different fashions . Assemblages could be seen in the round or could be hung on a wall . Readymades ( edit ) Marcel Duchamp began to view the manufactured objects of his collection as objects of art , which he called `` readymades '' . He would add signatures and titles to some , converting them into artwork that he called `` readymade aided '' or `` rectified readymades '' . Duchamp wrote : `` One important characteristic was the short sentence which I occasionally inscribed on the ' readymade . ' That sentence , instead of describing the object like a title , was meant to carry the mind of the spectator towards other regions more verbal . Sometimes I would add a graphic detail of presentation which in order to satisfy my craving for alliterations , would be called ' readymade aided . ' '' One such example of Duchamp 's readymade works is the urinal that was turned onto its back , signed `` R. Mutt '' , titled Fountain , and submitted to the Society of Independent Artists exhibition that year , though it was not displayed . Artists ( edit ) Dragan Aleksić ( 1901 -- 1958 ) , Yugoslavia Louis Aragon ( 1897 -- 1982 ) , France Jean Arp ( 1886 -- 1966 ) , Germany , France Hugo Ball ( 1886 -- 1927 ) , Germany , Switzerland André Breton ( 1896 -- 1966 ) , France Otto Dix ( 1891 -- 1969 ) , Germany Theo van Doesburg ( 1883 -- 1931 ) Netherlands Marcel Duchamp ( 1887 -- 1968 ) , France Paul Éluard ( 1895 -- 1952 ) , France Max Ernst ( 1891 -- 1976 ) , Germany , USA Julius Evola ( 1898 -- 1974 ) , Italy George Grosz ( 1893 -- 1959 ) , Germany , France , USA Raoul Hausmann ( 1886 -- 1971 ) , Germany John Heartfield ( 1891 -- 1968 ) , Germany , USSR , Czechoslovakia , Great Britain Hannah Höch ( 1889 -- 1978 ) , Germany Richard Huelsenbeck ( 1892 -- 1974 ) , Germany Marcel Janco ( 1895 -- 1984 ) , Romania , Israel Elsa von Freytag - Loringhoven ( 1874 -- 1927 ) , Germany , USA Clément Pansaers ( 1885 -- 1922 ) , Belgium Francis Picabia ( 1879 -- 1953 ) , France Man Ray ( 1890 -- 1976 ) , France , USA Georges Ribemont - Dessaignes ( 1884 -- 1974 ) , France Kurt Schwitters ( 1887 -- 1948 ) , Germany Walter Serner ( 1889 -- 1942 ) , Austria Philippe Soupault ( 1897 -- 1990 ) , France Sophie Taeuber - Arp ( 1889 -- 1943 ) , Switzerland , France Tristan Tzara ( 1896 -- 1963 ) , Romania , France Beatrice Wood ( 1893 -- 1998 ) , USA See also ( edit ) Art intervention The Central Council of Dada for the World Revolution Dadaglobe Épater la bourgeoisie Happening Incoherents Shock art Transgressive art References ( edit ) Jump up ^ World War I and Dada , Museum of Modern Art ( MoMA ) Jump up ^ Mario de Micheli ( 2006 ) . Las vanguardias artísticas del siglo XX . Alianza Forma . p. 135 - 137 Jump up ^ Trachtman , Paul . `` A Brief History of Dada '' . Smithsonian Magazine . Retrieved 14 January 2017 . ^ Jump up to : Schneede , Uwe M. ( 1979 ) , George Grosz , His life and work , New York : Universe Books ^ Jump up to : Budd , Dona , The Language of Art Knowledge , Pomegranate Communications , Inc . Jump up ^ Dada , Tate Jump up ^ Dada at thearthistory.org , retrieved March 13 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Anti-art , Art that challenges the existing accepted definitions of art , Tate ^ Jump up to : `` Dada '' , by Dawn Adès and Matthew Gale , Grove Art Online , Oxford University Press , 2009 ( subscription required ) Jump up ^ Roselee Goldberg , Thomas & Hudson , L'univers de l'art , Chapter 4 , Le surréalisme , Les représentations pré - Dada à Paris , ISBN 978 - 2 - 87811 - 380 - 8 ^ Jump up to : Richter , Hans ( 1965 ) , Dada : Art and Anti-art , New York and Toronto : Oxford University Press Jump up ^ Joan M. Marter , The Grove Encyclopedia of American Art , Volume 1 , Oxford University Press , 2011 , p. 6 , ISBN 0195335791 Jump up ^ DADA : Cities , National Gallery of Art , retrieved 2008 - 10 - 19 ^ Jump up to : Fred S. Kleiner ( 2006 ) , Gardner 's Art Through the Ages ( 12th ed . ) , Wadsworth Publishing , p. 754 Jump up ^ Tom Sandqvist , DADA EAST : The Romanians of Cabaret Voltaire , London MIT Press , 2006 . Jump up ^ `` Introduction : `` Everybody can Dada '' `` . National Gallery of Art . Retrieved 10 May 2012 . Jump up ^ Marcel Janco , `` Dada at Two Speeds , '' trans . in Lucy R. Lippard , Dadas on Art ( Englewood Cliffs , N.J. , 1971 ) , p. 36 . Jump up ^ `` Cabaret Voltaire '' . DADA Companion . Retrieved 2011 - 06 - 11 . Jump up ^ Europe of Cultures . `` Tristan Tzara speaks of the Dada Movement . '' , September 6 , 1963 . Retrieved on July 2 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Naumann , Francis M. ( 1994 ) . New York Dada . New York : Abrams . ISBN 0810936763 . ^ Jump up to : Dada , Dickermann , National Gallery of Art , Washington , 2006 p443 Jump up ^ Dada , Dickermann , National Gallery of Art , Washington , 2006 p99 Jump up ^ Schaefer , Robert A. ( September 7 , 2006 ) , `` Das Ist Dada -- An Exhibition at the Museum of Modern Art in NYC '' , Double Exposure Jump up ^ Fountain ' most influential piece of modern art , Independent , December 2 , 2004 Jump up ^ `` Duchamp 's urinal tops art survey '' , BBC News December 1 , 2004 . Jump up ^ Duchamp , Marcel trans . and qtd. in Gammel , Irene . Baroness Elsa : Gender , Dada and Everyday Modernity . Cambridge , MA : MIT Press , 2002 , 224 . Jump up ^ Gammel , Baroness Elsa , 224 -- 225 . Jump up ^ Marc Dachy , Dada , la révolte de l'art , Paris , Gallimard / Centre Pompidou , `` Découvertes Gallimard '' n ° 476 , 2005 . Jump up ^ Holland Dada , Amsterdam , 1974 Jump up ^ Zenit : International Review of Arts and Culture Jump up ^ Dubravka Djurić , Miško Šuvaković . Impossible Histories : Historical Avant - gardes , Neo-avant - gardes , and Post-avant - gardes in Yugoslavia , 1918 -- 1991 , p. 132 , MIT Press , 2003 . ISBN 9780262042161 ; Jovanov Jasna , Kujundžić Dragan , `` Yougo - Dada '' . `` Crisis and the Arts : The History of Dada '' , Vol. IV , The Eastern Orbit : Russia , Georgia , Ukraine , Central Europe and Japan , General Editor Stephen C. Foster , G.K. Hall & Comp . Publishers , New York 1998 , 41 -- 62 ; Jasna Jovanov , Demistifikacija apokrifa : dadaizam na jugoslovenskim prostorima 1920 -- 1922 , Novi Sad : Apokrif , 1999 . Jump up ^ Julius Evola -- International Dada Archive Jump up ^ `` 「 三面 怪人 ダダ 」 が 「 ダダイズム 100 周年 」 を 祝福 ! スイス 大使 館 で 開催 され た 記者 発表 会 に 登場 ! '' ( in Japanese ) . m-78.jp. 2016 - 05 - 19 . Retrieved 2016 - 06 - 08 . Jump up ^ `` Dada Celebrates Dadaism 's 100th Anniversary '' . tokusatsunetwork.com. 2016 - 05 - 19 . Retrieved 2016 - 06 - 08 . Jump up ^ Marc Lowenthal , translator 's introduction to Francis Picabia 's I Am a Beautiful Monster : Poetry , Prose , and Provocation Jump up ^ Frank Zappa , The Real Frank Zappa Book , p. 162 Jump up ^ Locher , David ( 1999 ) , `` Unacknowledged Roots and Blatant Imitation : Postmodernism and the Dada Movement '' , Electronic Journal of Sociology , 4 ( 1 ) , retrieved 2007 - 04 - 25 Jump up ^ `` Chumbawamba '' . Retrieved 10 July 2012 . Jump up ^ 2002 occupation by neo-Dadaists Prague Post Jump up ^ LTM Recordings Jump up ^ `` manifestos : dada manifesto on feeble love and bitter love by tristan tzara , 12th december 1920 '' . 391 . 1920 - 12 - 12 . Retrieved 2011 - 06 - 27 . This article incorporates text from this source , which is in the public domain . Jump up ^ `` DADA -- Techniques -- photomontage '' . Nga.gov . Retrieved 2011 - 06 - 11 . Jump up ^ `` DADA -- Techniques -- assemblage '' . Nga.gov . Retrieved 2011 - 06 - 11 . Jump up ^ `` The Writings of Marcel Duchamp '' ISBN 0 - 306 - 80341 - 0 Bibliography ( edit ) The Dada Almanac , ed Richard Huelsenbeck ( 1920 ) , re-edited and translated by Malcolm Green et al. , Atlas Press , with texts by Hans Arp , Johannes Baader , Hugo Ball , Paul Citröen , Paul Dermée , Daimonides , Max Goth , John Heartfield , Raoul Hausmann , Richard Huelsenbeck , Vincente Huidobro , Mario D'Arezzo , Adon Lacroix , Walter Mehring , Francis Picabia , Georges Ribemont - Dessaignes , Alexander Sesqui , Philippe Soupault , Tristan Tzara . ISBN 0 - 947757 - 62 - 7 Blago Bung , Blago Bung , Hugo Ball 's Tenderenda , Richard Huelsenbeck 's Fantastic Prayers , & Walter Serner 's Last Loosening -- three key texts of Zurich ur - Dada . Translated and introduced by Malcolm Green . Atlas Press , ISBN 0 - 947757 - 86 - 4 Ball , Hugo . Flight Out Of Time ( University of California Press : Berkeley and Los Angeles , 1996 ) Jones , Dafydd W. Dada 1916 In Theory : Practices of Critical Resistance ( Liverpool : Liverpool University Press , 2014 ) . ISBN 978 - 1 - 781 - 380 - 208 Biro , M. The Dada Cyborg : Visions of the New Human in Weimar Berlin . Minneapolis : University of Minnesota Press , 2009 . ISBN 0 - 8166 - 3620 - 6 Dachy , Marc . Journal du mouvement Dada 1915 -- 1923 , Genève , Albert Skira , 1989 ( Grand Prix du Livre d'Art , 1990 ) Dada & les dadaïsmes , Paris , Gallimard , Folio Essais , n ° 257 , 1994 . Jovanov , Jasna . Demistifikacija apokrifa : Dadaizam na jugoslovenskim prostorima , Novi Sad / Apostrof 1999 . Dada , la révolte de l'art , Paris , Gallimard / Centre Pompidou , Découvertes n ° 476 , 2005 . Archives Dada / Chronique , Paris , Hazan , 2005 . Dada , catalogue d'exposition , Centre Pompidou , 2005 . Durozoi , Gérard . Dada et les arts rebelles , Paris , Hazan , Guide des Arts , 2005 Gammel , Irene . Baroness Elsa : Gender , Dada and Everyday Modernity . Cambridge , MA : MIT Press , 2002 . Hoffman , Irene . Documents of Dada and Surrealism : Dada and Surrealist Journals in the Mary Reynolds Collection , Ryerson and Burnham Libraries , The Art Institute of Chicago . Huelsenbeck , Richard . Memoirs of a Dada Drummer , ( University of California Press : Berkeley and Los Angeles , 1991 ) Jones , Dafydd . Dada Culture ( New York and Amsterdam : Rodopi Verlag , 2006 ) Lavin , Maud . Cut With the Kitchen Knife : The Weimar Photomontages of Hannah Höch . New Haven : Yale University Press , 1993 . Lemoine , Serge . Dada , Paris , Hazan , coll . L'Essentiel . Lista , Giovanni . Dada libertin & libertaire , Paris , L'insolite , 2005 . Melzer , Annabelle. 1976 . Dada and Surrealist Performance . PAJ Books ser . Baltimore and London : The Johns Hopkins UP , 1994 . ISBN 0 - 8018 - 4845 - 8 . Novero , Cecilia . `` Antidiets of the Avant - Garde : From Futurist Cooking to Eat Art . '' ( University of Minnesota Press , 2010 ) Richter , Hans . Dada : Art and Anti-Art ( London : Thames and Hudson , 1965 ) Sanouillet , Michel . Dada à Paris , Paris , Jean - Jacques Pauvert , 1965 , Flammarion , 1993 , CNRS , 2005 Sanouillet , Michel . Dada in Paris , Cambridge , Massachusetts , The MIT Press , 2009 Schippers , K. Holland Dada , Amsterdam , Em . Querido , 1974 Schneede , Uwe M. George Grosz , His life and work ( New York : Universe Books , 1979 ) Verdier , Aurélie . L'ABCdaire de Dada , Paris , Flammarion , 2005 . External links ( edit ) Library resources about Dada Resources in your library Resources in other libraries Wikiquote has quotations related to : Dada Wikimedia Commons has media related to Dada . 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what are the sirens in o brother where art thou

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=O_Brother,_Where_Art_Thou%3F&oldid=832887034

O Brother , Where Art Thou ? - Wikipedia O Brother , Where Art Thou ? Jump to : navigation , search For the film soundtrack , see O Brother , Where Art Thou ? ( soundtrack ) . For the unrelated Simpsons episodes , see Oh Brother , Where Art Thou ? and O Brother , Where Bart Thou ? O Brother , Where Art Thou ? Theatrical release poster Directed by Joel Coen Produced by Ethan Coen Written by Ethan Coen Joel Coen Based on The Odyssey by Homer Starring George Clooney John Turturro Tim Blake Nelson Charles Durning Michael Badalucco John Goodman Holly Hunter Music by T Bone Burnett Cinematography Roger Deakins Edited by Roderick Jaynes Tricia Cooke Production company Working Title Films Distributed by Buena Vista Pictures Distribution Release date October 19 , 2000 ( 2000 - 10 - 19 ) Running time 107 minutes Country United Kingdom United States France Language English Budget $26 million Box office $72 million O Brother , Where Art Thou ? is a 2000 crime comedy film written , produced , and directed by Joel and Ethan Coen , and starring George Clooney , John Turturro , and Tim Blake Nelson , with John Goodman , Holly Hunter , and Charles Durning in supporting roles . The film is set in 1937 rural Mississippi during the Great Depression , and its story is a modern satire loosely based on Homer 's epic poem The Odyssey that incorporates mythology from the American South . The title of the film is a reference to the 1941 film Sullivan 's Travels , in which the protagonist is a director who wants to film O Brother , Where Art Thou ? , a fictional book about the Great Depression . Much of the music used in the film is period folk music , including that of Virginia bluegrass singer Ralph Stanley . The movie was one of the first to extensively use digital color correction to give the film an autumnal , sepia - tinted look . The film received positive reviews , and the soundtrack won a Grammy Award for Album of the Year in 2001 using American folk music . The original band became popular after the film release . The country and folk musicians who were dubbed into the film included John Hartford , Alison Krauss , Emmylou Harris , Gillian Welch , Chris Sharp , and others . They joined together to perform the music from the film in a Down from the Mountain concert tour which was filmed for TV and DVD . Contents ( hide ) 1 Plot 2 Cast 3 Production 4 Music 5 Release 5.1 Critical reception 5.2 Accolades 6 Soggy Bottom Boys 7 References 8 External links Plot ( edit ) Three convicts , Ulysses Everett McGill , Pete Hogwallop , and Delmar O'Donnell , escape from a chain gang and set out to retrieve a supposed treasure Everett buried before the area is flooded to make a lake . The three get a lift from a blind man driving a handcar on a railway . He tells them , among other prophecies , that they will find a fortune but not the one they seek . The trio make their way to the house of Wash , Pete 's cousin . They sleep in the barn , but Wash reports them to Sheriff Cooley , who , along with his men , torches the barn . Wash 's son helps them escape . They pick up Tommy Johnson , a young black man , who claims he sold his soul to the devil in exchange for the ability to play guitar . In need of money , the four stop at a radio broadcast tower where they record a song as The Soggy Bottom Boys . That night , the trio part ways with Tommy after their car is discovered by the police . Unbeknownst to them , the recording becomes a major hit . Near a river , the group hears singing . They see three women washing clothes and singing . The women drug them with corn whiskey and they lose consciousness . Upon waking , Delmar finds Pete 's clothes lying next to him , empty except for a toad . Delmar is convinced the women were Sirens and transformed Pete into the toad . Later , one - eyed Bible salesman Big Dan Teague invites them for a picnic lunch , then mugs them and kills the toad . Everett and Delmar arrive in Everett 's home town . Everett confronts his wife Penny , who changed her last name and told his daughters he was dead . He gets into a fight with Vernon T. Waldrip , her new `` suitor . '' They later see Pete working on a chain gang . Later that night , they sneak into Pete 's holding cell and free him . As it turns out , the women had dragged Pete away and turned him in to the authorities . Under torture , Pete gave away the treasure 's location to the police . Everett then confesses that there is no treasure . He made it up to convince the guys he was chained with to escape with him in order to stop his wife from getting married . Pete is enraged at Everett , because he had two weeks left on his original sentence , and must serve fifty more years for the escape . The trio stumble upon a rally of the Ku Klux Klan , who are planning to hang Tommy . The trio disguise themselves as Klansmen and attempt to rescue Tommy . However , Big Dan , a Klan member , reveals their identities . Chaos ensues , and the Grand Wizard reveals himself as Homer Stokes , a candidate in the upcoming gubernatorial election . The trio rush Tommy away and cut the supports of a large burning cross , leaving it to fall on Big Dan . Everett convinces Pete , Delmar and Tommy to help him win his wife back . They sneak into a Stokes campaign gala dinner she is attending , disguised as musicians . The group begins a performance of their radio hit . The crowd recognizes the song and goes wild . Homer recognizes them as the group who humiliated his mob . When he demands the group be arrested and reveals his white supremacist views , the crowd runs him out of town on a rail . Pappy O'Daniel , the incumbent candidate , seizes the opportunity , endorses the Soggy Bottom Boys and grants them full pardons . Penny agrees to marry Everett with the condition that he find her original ring . The next morning , the group sets out to retrieve the ring , which is at a cabin in the valley which Everett had earlier claimed was the location of his treasure . The police , having learned of the place from Pete , arrest the group . Dismissing their claims of having received pardons , Sheriff Cooley orders them hanged . Just as Everett prays to God , the valley is flooded and they are saved . Tommy finds the ring in a desk that floats by , and they return to town . However , when Everett presents the ring to Penny , it turns out it was not her ring , she does n't want that one , and she ca n't remember where she put the real ring . Cast ( edit ) George Clooney as Ulysses Everett McGill , a man who is imprisoned for practicing law without a license . He claims to have escaped from prison so he can find a stash of money he had hidden , though in reality it is so he can get back to his family before his wife remarries . He corresponds to Odysseus ( Ulysses ) in the Odyssey . John Turturro , as Pete Hogwallop , a fellow criminal who reveals little about his past . He believes in being true to one 's kin , even when his cousin Washington B. Hogwallop betrays him . He dreams of moving out west and opening a fine restaurant , where he will be the maître d ' . He agreed to go along with the breakout , though he only had two weeks left on his sentence . Tim Blake Nelson as Delmar O'Donnell , a small - time crook imprisoned for robbing a Piggly Wiggly in Yazoo City ; he initially claims innocence but later admits he is guilty . Delmar says he will spend his share of Everett 's nonexistent money buying back his family farm , believing , `` You ai n't no kind of man if you ai n't got land . '' Chris Thomas King as Tommy Johnson , a skilled blues musician . He is the accompanying guitarist in the Soggy Bottom Boys . He claims he sold his soul to the devil in exchange for his skill on the guitar . He shares his name and story with Tommy Johnson , a blues musician with a mysterious past , who is said to have sold his soul to the devil at the Crossroads ( a story more often attributed to Robert Johnson ) . Frank Collison as Washington B. `` Wash '' Hogwallop , Pete 's paternal cousin . He removes the escapees ' chains but later betrays the men to the police . John Goodman as Daniel `` Big Dan '' Teague , a one - eyed man who masquerades as a Bible salesman and mugs Everett and Delmar . He later reveals the identity of the trio when they are disguised at a Ku Klux Klan rally , but they kill him by cutting loose a burning cross , which falls on him and the Klansmen . He corresponds to the cyclops Polyphemus in the Odyssey . Holly Hunter as Penny , Everett 's ex-wife , who is fed up with Everett 's wheeling and dealing . She divorces him while he is in prison , telling their children he was hit by a Louisville & Nashville train . She is engaged to Vernon T. Waldrip until Everett wins her back . She corresponds to Penelope in the Odyssey . ( Penelope is an icon of the faithful wife , as she rejected her many suitors , stalling for time while awaiting Odysseus ' return . ) Charles Durning as Menelaus `` Pappy '' O'Daniel , the incumbent Governor of Mississippi . He is frequently seen berating his son and his campaign managers , who are depicted as simpletons . The character is based on Texas governor W. Lee `` Pappy '' O'Daniel . ( Flensted - Jensen elaborates on the connection between the fictional and the real Pappy O'Daniel . ) He corresponds to Menelaus in the Odyssey . Daniel von Bargen as Sheriff Cooley , a ruthless rural sheriff who , with his bloodhound , pursues the trio for the duration of the film . It is implied several times that he is the devil incarnate , and Cooley fits Tommy Johnson 's description of Satan : Cooley 's sunglasses evoke Satan 's `` big empty eyes . '' He eventually ambushes the escapees after they have been pardoned by the governor . He intends to hang them nonetheless , but when the valley is flooded , he , his men , and his dog all drown . He corresponds to Poseidon in the Odyssey . He has been compared to Boss Godfrey in Cool Hand Luke . Wayne Duvall as Homer Stokes , the reform candidate in the upcoming election for Governor . He travels the countryside with a dwarf , who depicts the `` little man '' , and a broom , with which he promises to `` sweep this state clean . '' He is secretly an Imperial Wizard in the Ku Klux Klan . He falsely identifies Everett , Pete , and Delmar as people of color because they darkened their faces to remain unseen when freeing Tommy . Ray McKinnon as Vernon T. Waldrip , Penny 's bona fide suitor and the manager of Homer Stokes 's election campaign . It has been suggested that his name is a nod to novelist Howard Waldrop , whose novella A Dozen Tough Jobs is one of the inspirations for the film . He corresponds to the Suitors of Penelope in the Odyssey . Michael Badalucco as George Nelson , a bipolar bank robber who dislikes being called `` Baby Face . '' The real George Nelson died in 1934 , three years before the story is set . Nelson died in a shootout known as the Battle of Barrington rather than by electric chair , as suggested in the film . Stephen Root as Mr. Lund , the blind radio station manager who records Everett 's story in the song `` Man of Constant Sorrow '' and makes him known throughout the state . He corresponds to Homer . Lee Weaver as the Blind Seer , a mysterious railroad man who accurately predicts the outcome of the trio 's adventure as well as several other incidents . He corresponds to Tiresias in the Odyssey . Production ( edit ) The idea of O Brother , Where Art Thou ? arose spontaneously . Work on the script began in December 1997 , long before the start of production , and was at least half - written by May 1998 . Despite the fact that Ethan Coen described the Odyssey as `` one of my favorite storyline schemes , '' neither of the brothers had read the epic and were only familiar with its content through adaptations and numerous references to the Odyssey in popular culture . According to the brothers , Nelson ( who has a degree in classics from Brown University ) was the only person on the set who had read the Odyssey . The title of the film is a reference to the 1941 Preston Sturges film Sullivan 's Travels , in which the protagonist ( a director ) wants to direct a film about the Great Depression called O Brother , Where Art Thou ? that will be a `` commentary on modern conditions , stark realism , and the problems that confront the average man . '' Lacking any experience in this area , the director sets out on a journey to experience the human suffering of the average man but is sabotaged by his anxious studio . The film has some similarity in tone to Sturges 's film , including scenes with prison gangs and a black church choir . The prisoners at the picture show scene is also a direct homage to a nearly identical scene in Sturges 's film . Joel Coen revealed in a 2000 interview that he came to Phoenix , Arizona , to offer the lead role to Clooney . Clooney agreed to do the role immediately , without reading the script . He stated that he liked even the Coens ' least successful films . Clooney did not immediately understand his character and sent the script to his uncle Jack who lived in Kentucky and asked him to read the entire script into a tape recorder . Unknown to Clooney , in his recording , Jack , a devout Baptist , omitted all instances of the words `` damn '' and `` hell '' from the Coens ' script , which only became known to Clooney after the directors pointed this out to him in the middle of shooting . This was the fourth film of the brothers in which John Turturro has starred . Other actors in O Brother , Where Art Thou ? who had worked previously with the Coens include John Goodman ( three films ) , Holly Hunter ( two ) , Michael Badalucco and Charles Durning ( one film each ) . The Coens used digital color correction to give the film a sepia - tinted look . Joel stated this was because the actual set was `` greener than Ireland . '' Cinematographer Roger Deakins stated , `` Ethan and Joel favored a dry , dusty Delta look with golden sunsets . They wanted it to look like an old hand - tinted picture , with the intensity of colors dictated by the scene and natural skin tones that were all shades of the rainbow . '' Initially the crew tried to perform the color correction using a physical process , however after several tries with various chemical processes proved unsatisfactory , it became necessary to perform the process digitally . This was the fifth film collaboration between the Coen Brothers and Deakins , and it was slated to be shot in Mississippi at a time of year when the foliage , grass , trees , and bushes would be a lush green . It was filmed near locations in Canton , Mississippi and Florence , South Carolina in the summer of 1999 . After shooting tests , including film bipack and bleach bypass techniques , Deakins suggested digital mastering be used . Deakins subsequently spent 11 weeks fine - tuning the look , mainly targeting the greens , making them a burnt yellow and desaturating the overall image in the digital files . This made it the first feature film to be entirely color corrected by digital means , narrowly beating Nick Park 's Chicken Run . O Brother , Where Art Thou ? was the first time a digital intermediate was used on the entirety of a first - run Hollywood film that otherwise had very few visual effects . The work was done in Los Angeles by Cinesite using a Spirit DataCine for scanning at 2K resolution , a Pandora MegaDef to adjust the color , and a Kodak Lightning II recorder to put out to film . A major theme of the film is the connection between old - time music and political campaigning in the Southern U.S. It makes reference to the traditions , institutions , and campaign practices of bossism and political reform that defined Southern politics in the first half of the 20th century . The Ku Klux Klan , at the time a political force of white populism , is depicted burning crosses and engaging in ceremonial dance . The character Menelaus `` Pappy '' O'Daniel , the governor of Mississippi and host of the radio show The Flour Hour , is similar in name and demeanor to W. Lee `` Pappy '' O'Daniel , one - time Governor of Texas and later U.S. Senator from that state . W. Lee O'Daniel was in the flour business , and used a backing band called the Light Crust Doughboys on his radio show . In one campaign , W. Lee O'Daniel carried a broom , an oft - used campaign device in the reform era , promising to sweep away patronage and corruption . His theme song had the hook , `` Please pass the biscuits , Pappy '' , emphasizing his connection with flour . While the film borrows from real - life politics , differences are obvious between the characters in the film and historical political figures . The O'Daniel of the movie used `` You Are My Sunshine '' as his theme song ( which was originally recorded by real - life Governor of Louisiana James Houston `` Jimmie '' Davis ) and Homer Stokes , as the challenger to the incumbent O'Daniel , portrays himself as the `` reform candidate '' , using a broom as a prop . Music ( edit ) See also : O Brother , Where Art Thou ? ( soundtrack ) and Down from the Mountain Music in the film was originally conceived as a major component of the film , not merely as a background or a support . Producer and musician T - Bone Burnett worked with the Coens while the script was still in its working phases , and the soundtrack was recorded before filming commenced . Much of the music used in the film is period - specific folk music , including that of Virginia bluegrass singer Ralph Stanley . The musical selection also includes religious music , including Primitive Baptist and traditional African American gospel , most notably The Fairfield Four , an a cappella quartet with a career extending back to 1921 who appear in the soundtrack and as gravediggers towards the film 's end . Selected songs in the film reflect the possible spectrum of musical styles typical of the old culture of the American South : gospel , delta blues , country , swing and bluegrass . The use of dirges and other macabre songs is a theme that often recurs in Appalachian music ( `` O Death '' , `` Lonesome Valley '' , `` Angel Band '' , `` I Am Weary '' ) in contrast to bright , cheerful songs ( `` Keep On the Sunny Side '' , `` In the Highways '' ) in other parts of the film . The voices of the Soggy Bottom Boys were provided by Dan Tyminski ( lead vocal on `` Man of Constant Sorrow '' ) , Nashville songwriter Harley Allen , and the Nashville Bluegrass Band 's Pat Enright . The three won a CMA Award for Single of the Year and a Grammy Award for Best Country Collaboration with Vocals , both for the song `` Man of Constant Sorrow '' . Tim Blake Nelson sang the lead vocal on `` In the Jailhouse Now '' . `` Man of Constant Sorrow '' has five variations : two are used in the film , one in the music video , and two in the soundtrack album . Two of the variations feature the verses being sung back - to - back , and the other three variations feature additional music between each verse . Though the song received little significant radio airplay , it reached # 35 on the U.S. Billboard Hot Country Singles & Tracks chart in 2002 . The version of `` I 'll Fly Away '' heard in the film is performed not by Krauss and Welch ( as it is on the CD and concert tour ) , but by the Kossoy Sisters with Erik Darling accompanying on long - neck five - string banjo , recorded in 1956 for the album Bowling Green on Tradition Records . Release ( edit ) The film premiered at the AFI Film Festival on October 19 , 2000 . It grossed $71,868,327 worldwide off its $26 million budget . Critical reception ( edit ) Review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes gives it a score of 77 % based on 147 reviews and an average score of 7.1 / 10 . The consensus reads : `` Though not as good as Coen brothers ' classics such as Blood Simple , the delightfully loopy O Brother , Where Art Thou ? is still a lot of fun . '' The film holds an average score of 69 / 100 on Metacritic based on 30 reviews . Roger Ebert gave two and a half out of four stars to the film , saying all the scenes in the film were `` wonderful in their different ways , and yet I left the movie uncertain and unsatisfied '' . Accolades ( edit ) The film was selected into the main competition of the 2000 Cannes Film Festival . The film also received two Academy Award nominations at the 73rd Academy Awards : Best Adapted Screenplay and Best Cinematography . Cinematographer Roger Deakins was recognized with both Academy Award and ASC Outstanding Achievement Award nominations for his work on the film . For his portrayal of Ulysses Everett McGill , George Clooney received the Golden Globe Award for Best Actor -- Motion Picture Musical or Comedy . The film was also nominated for the Golden Globe Award for Best Motion Picture -- Musical or Comedy . Soggy Bottom Boys ( edit ) The Soggy Bottom Boys is the musical group that the main characters form to serve as accompaniment for the film . The name is in homage to the Foggy Mountain Boys , a bluegrass band led by Lester Flatt and Earl Scruggs . In the film , the songs credited to the band are lip - synched by the actors , except that Tim Blake Nelson does sing his own vocals on `` In the Jailhouse Now . '' The actual musicians are Dan Tyminski ( guitar and lead vocals ) , Harley Allen , and Pat Enright . The band 's hit single is Dick Burnett 's `` Man of Constant Sorrow , '' a song that had already enjoyed much success in real life . After the film 's release , the fictitious band became so popular that the country and folk musicians who were dubbed into the film got together and performed the music from the film in a Down from the Mountain concert tour which was filmed for TV and DVD . This included Ralph Stanley , John Hartford , Alison Krauss , Emmylou Harris , Gillian Welch , Chris Sharp , and others . References ( edit ) ^ Jump up to : `` O Brother , Where Art Thou ? '' . American Film Institute . Archived from the original on December 20 , 2014 . Retrieved January 24 , 2018 . ^ Jump up to : `` Box Office Data :O Brother Where Art Thou '' . The Numbers.com . ^ Jump up to : `` O Brother , Where Art Thou ? ( 2000 ) '' . Box Office Mojo . Retrieved January 8 , 2008 . Jump up ^ Richard J. Gray , Owen Robinson . A companion to the literature and culture of the American south . Blackwell Publishing Ltd . ISBN 978 - 0 - 631 - 22404 - 4 . ^ Jump up to : Lafrance , J.D. ( April 5 , 2004 ) . `` The Coen Brothers FAQ '' ( PDF ) . pp. 33 -- 35 . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on November 26 , 2007 . Retrieved November 8 , 2007 . ^ Jump up to : Menaker , Daniel ( November 30 , 2000 ) . `` A Film Score Odyssey Down a Quirky Country Road '' . The New York Times . Retrieved February 4 , 2010 . ^ Jump up to : `` NPR : Pioneering Bluegrass Musician Ralph Stanley '' . National Public Radio . Retrieved November 2 , 2007 . ^ Jump up to : Robertson , Barbara ( May 1 , 2006 ) . `` CGSociety -- The Colorists '' . The Colorists . The CGSociety . p. 3 . Retrieved October 24 , 2007 . Filmed near locations in Canton , MS ; Florence , SC ; and Wardville , LA . ^ Jump up to : `` 2001 Grammy Awards -- Infoplease.com '' . 2001 Grammy Award Winners . Infoplease.com . February 27 , 2000 . Retrieved November 8 , 2007 . ^ Jump up to : Flensted - Jensen , Pernille ( 2002 ) , `` Something old , something new , something borrowed : the Odyssey and O Brother , Where Art Thou '' , Classica Et Mediaevalia : Revue Danoise De Philologie , 53 : 13 -- 30 Jump up ^ `` The real king of delta blues - Tommy Johnson '' . Erinharpe.com . Retrieved 24 August 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Blues Singers '' . University of Virginia . Retrieved 24 August 2016 . Jump up ^ Sorin , Hillary ( August 4 , 2010 ) , `` Today in Texas History : Gov. Pappy O'Daniel resigns '' , The Houston Chronicle , retrieved August 2 , 2011 , Many cultural and political historians think the character Gov. Menelaus `` Pappy '' O'Daniel of Mississippi is based on the notorious Texas politician , Wilbert Lee `` Pappy '' O'Daniel . Jump up ^ Conard , Mark T . The Philosophy of the Coen Brothers ( 2009 ) Jump up ^ Datlow , Ellen ; Howard Waldrop ( 2003 ) . `` Howard Waldrop Interviewed '' . Readercon 15 . Retrieved November 9 , 2007 . Jump up ^ Michel Ciment , Hubert Niogret. ( 1998 ) . The Logic of Soft Drugs . Positive . Jump up ^ Tim Blake Nelson Biography Archived June 28 , 2011 , at the Wayback Machine . Jump up ^ Kari Molvar , `` '' Q&A : Tim Blake Nelson `` '' . Archived from the original on December 26 , 2001 . Retrieved December 26 , 2001 . , Brown Alumni Magazine ( March / April 2001 ) . Jump up ^ Romney , Jonathan ( May 18 , 2000 ) . `` Double Vision '' . The Guardin . Retrieved February 14 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Sullivan 's Travels ( 1941 ) '' . Retrieved November 8 , 2007 . Jump up ^ Hochman , Steve . `` George Clooney : O Brother , Where Art Thou ? '' . Los Angeles Times . Retrieved October 8 , 2013 . ^ Jump up to : Sharf , Zach . `` The Coen Brothers and George Clooney Uncover the Magic of ' O Brother , Where Art Thou ? ' at 15th Anniversary Reunion '' . Indiewire . Retrieved 19 November 2015 . ^ Jump up to : Allen , Robert . `` Digital Domain '' . The Digital Domain : A brief history of digital film mastering -- a glance at the future . Retrieved May 14 , 2007 . Jump up ^ `` O Brother , Where Art Thou : Box office / business '' . IMDb . Archived from the original on January 30 , 2012 . Retrieved February 13 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Fisher , Bob ( October 2000 ) . `` Escaping from chains '' . American Cinematographer . Jump up ^ Crawford , Bill ( 2004 ) . Please Pass the Biscuits , Pappy : Pictures of Governor W. Lee `` Pappy '' O'Daniel . University of Texas Press . p. 19 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 292 - 70575 - 3 . Jump up ^ `` Pappy O'Daniel '' . Texas Treasures . Texas State Library . March 11 , 2003 . Retrieved November 2 , 2007 . ^ Jump up to : Walker , Jesse ( August 19 , 2003 ) . `` Pass the Biscuits -- We 're living in Pappy O'Daniel's world '' . Reason . Retrieved November 2 , 2007 . ^ Jump up to : Boulard , Garry ( February 5 , 2002 ) . `` Following the Leaders '' . Gambit Weekly . Gambit Weekly . p. 1 . Retrieved November 9 , 2007 . Jump up ^ `` River of Song : The Artists '' . Louisiana : Where Music is King . The Filmmakers Collaborative & The Smithsonian Institution . 1998 . Retrieved November 2 , 2007 . Jump up ^ `` O Brother , why art thou so popular ? '' . BBC News . February 28 , 2002 . Retrieved February 14 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Romney , Jonathan ( May 18 , 2000 ) . `` Double Vision '' . The Guardian . Retrieved February 14 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Ridley , Jim ( May 22 , 2000 ) . `` Talking with Joel and Ethan Coen about ' O Brother , Where Art Thou ? ' '' . Nashville Scene . Retrieved February 14 , 2012 . Jump up ^ McClatchy , Debbie ( June 27 , 2000 ) . `` A Short History of Appalachian Traditional Music '' . Appalachian Traditional Music -- A Short History . Retrieved November 8 , 2007 . ^ Jump up to : `` Soggy Bottom Boys Hit the Top at 35th CMA Awards '' . Retrieved November 8 , 2007 . Jump up ^ Long , Roger J. ( April 9 , 2006 ) . `` '' O Brother , Where Art Thou ? '' entry page `` . Archived from the original on November 3 , 2007 . Retrieved November 9 , 2007 . Jump up ^ `` O Brother , why art thou so popular '' . BBC News . February 28 , 2002 . p. 1 . Retrieved November 8 , 2007 . Jump up ^ `` Top Music Charts -- Hot 100 -- Billboard 200 -- Music Genre Sales '' . p. 1 . Archived from the original on December 23 , 2007 . Retrieved November 2 , 2007 . Jump up ^ `` O Kossoy Sisters , Where Art Thou Been ? '' . Retrieved January 8 , 2009 . Jump up ^ `` O Brother , Where Art Thou ? ( 2000 ) '' . Rotten Tomatoes . Flixster . Retrieved January 11 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Reviews for O Brother , Where Art Thou ? ( 2000 ) '' . Metacritic . Retrieved November 9 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Ebert , Roger ( December 29 , 2000 ) . `` O Brother , Where Art Thou ? Review '' . The Chicago Sun Times . Rogerebert.com . Retrieved February 14 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Festival de Cannes : O Brother , Where Art Thou ? '' . festival-cannes.com . Retrieved October 10 , 2009 . Jump up ^ Temple Kirby , Jack ( 2006 ) . Mockingbird Song : Ecological Landscapes of the South . UNC Press . p. 314 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 8078 - 3057 - 4 . Jump up ^ Rowell , Erica ( 2007 ) . The Brothers Grim : The Films of Ethan and Joel Coen . Rowman & Littlefield . p. 276 n. 59 . ISBN 978 - 0810858503 . Excerpts available at Google Books . Jump up ^ Johnson , Zac . `` The Soggy Bottom Boys '' . AllMusic . Jump up ^ `` Man of Constant Sorrow ( trad. / The Stanley Brothers / Bob Dylan ) '' . Man of Constant Sorrow . Retrieved November 2 , 2007 . External links ( edit ) Wikiquote has quotations related to : O Brother , Where Art Thou ? O Brother , Where Art Thou ? on IMDb O Brother , Where Art Thou ? at AllMovie O Brother , Where Art Thou ? at Box Office Mojo O Brother , Where Art Thou ? at Rotten Tomatoes `` Coenesque : The Films of the Coen Brothers '' . Archived from the original on November 19 , 2003 . `` American Myth Today : O Brother , Where Art Thou ? '' . American Studies at the University of Virginia Works by the Coen brothers Filmography Awards and nominations Frequent collaborators Films directed Blood Simple ( 1984 ) Raising Arizona ( 1987 ) Miller 's Crossing ( 1990 ) Barton Fink ( 1991 ) The Hudsucker Proxy ( 1994 ) Fargo ( 1996 ) The Big Lebowski ( 1998 ) O Brother , Where Art Thou ? ( 2000 ) The Man Who Was n't There ( 2001 ) Intolerable Cruelty ( 2003 ) The Ladykillers ( 2004 ) No Country for Old Men ( 2007 ) Burn After Reading ( 2008 ) A Serious Man ( 2009 ) True Grit ( 2010 ) Inside Llewyn Davis ( 2013 ) Hail , Caesar ! ( 2016 ) Written only Crimewave ( 1985 ) The Naked Man ( 1998 ) Gambit ( 2012 ) Unbroken ( 2014 ) Bridge of Spies ( 2015 ) Suburbicon ( 2017 ) Television The Ballad of Buster Scruggs ( 2018 ) Homer 's Odyssey ( 8th century BC ) Characters Characters House of Odysseus Penelope ( wife ) Telemachus ( son ) Ctimene ( sister ) Anticlea ( mother ) Laërtes ( father ) Autolycus ( grandfather ) Eurycleia ( chief servant ) Mentor ( advisor ) Phemius ( musician ) Eumaeus ( swineherd ) Philoetius ( cowherd ) Melanthius ( goatherd ) Argos ( pet - dog ) Monarchs and royals Alcinous of Phaeacia Arete of Phaeacia Nestor of Pylos Menelaus of Sparta Princess Nausicaa of Phaeacia Agamemnon of Mycenae Gods Athena Apollo Artemis Atlas Calypso Circe Hermes Poseidon Zeus Oceanus Others Achilles Aeolus Ajax Amphimedon Anticlus Antiphates Antiphus Aretus Cyclopes Demodocus Demoptolemus Deucalion Dolius Echephron Echetus Elpenor Eupeithes Euryalus Eurylochus Halitherses Helen Heracles Idomeneus Irus Kikonians Laodamas Laestrygones Medon Melantho Mentes Old Man of the Sea Peisistratus Perimedes Perseus Polites Polydamna Polyphemus Scylla and Charybdis Sirens Stratichus Tiresias Theoclymenus Thrasymedes Suitors Agelaus Amphinomus Antinous Ctesippus Eurymachus Leodes Odyssean gods Athena Poseidon Calypso Circe Ino Hermes Zeus Heracles Films L'Odissea ( 1911 Italian ) Ulysses ( 1954 Italian ) Ulysses ' Gaze ( 1995 Greek ) O Brother , Where Art Thou ? ( 2000 ) Keyhole ( 2012 ) TV L'Odissea ( 1968 ) Ulysses 31 ( 1981 Japanese anime ) The Odyssey ( 1997 ) Odysseus and the Isle of the Mists ( 2007 ) Star Trek : Odyssey ( 2007 ) Literature True History ( 2nd century AD ) Les Aventures de Télémaque ( 1699 ) The World 's Desire ( 1890 ) Ulysses ( 1922 ) The Odyssey : A Modern Sequel ( 1938 ) The Human Comedy ( 1943 ) Big Fish : A Novel of Mythic Proportions ( 1998 ) Trojan Odyssey ( 2003 ) The Penelopiad ( 2005 ) The Lost Books of the Odyssey ( 2010 ) Poems Ulysses ( 1842 ) The Odyssey : A Modern Sequel ( 1938 ) The Cantos ( 1962 ) Pagan Operetta ( 1998 ) Stage Current Nobody ( play ) Cyclops ( play ) Ithaka ( play ) Il ritorno d'Ulisse in patria ( opera ) The Golden Apple ( musical ) Glam Slam Ulysses ( musical ) Home Sweet Homer ( musical ) Song `` Tales of Brave Ulysses '' ( song ) `` The Odyssey '' ( song ) The Odyssey ( symphony ) Study Homeric scholarship Homeric Question Chorizontes Geography of the Odyssey Historicity of the Homer epics Odysseus Unbound Homer 's Ithaca Rediscovering Homer The Baltic Origins of Homer 's Epic Tales `` Odysseus ' scar '' Hermoniakos ' Iliad Hysteron proteron Epithets in Homer Dactylic hexameter Translations `` On First Looking into Chapman 's Homer '' On Translating Homer Video games Odyssey : The Search for Ulysses Wishbone and the Amazing Odyssey Phrases In medias res Between Scylla and Charybdis Related Telemachy Nekyia Trojan Horse Suitors of Penelope The Odyssey Old Man of the Sea The Apotheosis of Homer Contempt Cold Mountain ( novel ) Cold Mountain ( film ) Homer 's Daughter Works based on Faust Folk legend Faust Johann Georg Faust Deal with the Devil in popular culture Simon Magus Theophilus of Adana Erdgeist Mephistopheles Pan Twardowski Stingy Jack Seminal works Historia von D. Johann Fausten ( 1587 chapbook ) Cenodoxus ( 1602 , play ) Doctor Faustus ( 1604 play ) Goethe 's Faust ( 1808 play ) Faust , Part One Faust , Part Two Prose `` Bearskin '' `` Daniel and the Devil '' Melmoth the Wanderer ( 1820 ) `` The Devil and Tom Walker '' ( 1824 ) St. John 's Eve ( 1830 ) Auriol ( 1844 ) Chasse - galerie ( 1892 ) The Sorrows of Satan ( 1896 ) Exploits and Opinions of Dr. Faustroll , Pataphysician ( 1898 ) The Master and Margarita ( 1929 -- 40 ) Mephisto ( 1936 ) The Devil and Daniel Webster ( 1937 ) None but Lucifer ( 1939 ) Doktor Faustus ( 1947 ) The Devil in Velvet ( 1951 ) The Year the Yankees Lost the Pennant ( 1954 ) Gimmicks Three ( 1956 ) The Devil to Pay in the Backlands ( 1956 ) That Hell - Bound Train ( 1958 ) For a Breath I Tarry ( 1966 ) The Damnation Game ( 1986 ) Eric ( 1990 ) The Devil 's Own Work ( 1991 ) Jack Faust ( 1997 ) Johannes Cabal the Necromancer ( 2009 ) Plays Gretchen ( 1879 ) Will Success Spoil Rock Hunter ? ( 1955 ) The Black Bonspiel of Wullie MacCrimmon ( 1965 ) Temptation ( 1986 ) Operas Faust ( 1816 , Spohr ) La damnation de Faust ( 1846 , Berlioz ) Faust ( 1859 , Gounod ) Mefistofele ( 1868 , Boito ) Faust and Marguerite ( 1855 , Lutz ) Faust up to Date ( 1888 , Lutz ) Doktor Faust ( 1916 -- 25 , Busoni ) Doctor Faustus Lights the Lights ( 1938 ) The Rake 's Progress ( 1951 , Stravinsky ) Reuben , Reuben ( 1955 ) Historia von D. Johann Fausten ( 1994 ) Faustus , the Last Night ( 2006 ) Classical music Gretchen am Spinnrade ( 1814 , Schubert ) Faust Overture ( 1840 , Wagner ) Grande sonate ' Les quatre âges ' 2nd movement `` Quasi-Faust '' ( 1847 , Alkan ) Scenes from Goethe 's Faust ( 1853 , Schumann ) Part II of Symphony No. 8 ( 1906 -- 07 , Mahler ) Faust Symphony ( 1854 -- 57 , Liszt ) Mephisto Waltzes ( Liszt ) Gothic Symphony ( Brian ) Bagatelle sans tonalité ( Liszt ) Other music Albums Epica Saga Epica The Black Halo Beethoven 's Last Night The Black Rider Songs `` Mephisto Polka '' ( 1859 -- 85 ) `` Cross Road Blues '' ( 1936 ) `` Sympathy for the Devil '' ( 1968 ) `` Friend of the Devil '' ( 1970 ) `` Bohemian Rhapsody '' ( 1975 ) `` The Devil Went Down to Georgia '' ( 1979 ) `` Faustian Echoes '' ( 2012 ) `` The Mephistopheles of Los Angeles '' ( 2015 ) Films Faust and Marguerite ( 1900 ) The Damnation of Faust ( 1903 ) Faust and Marguerite ( 1904 ) The Student of Prague ( 1913 ) The Student of Prague ( 1926 ) Faust ( 1926 ) The Devil and Daniel Webster ( 1941 ) Alias Nick Beal ( 1949 ) Beauty and the Devil ( 1950 ) Marguerite de la nuit ( 1955 ) Damn Yankees ( 1958 ) Faust ( 1960 ) Bedazzled ( 1967 ) Doctor Faustus ( 1967 ) El extraño caso del doctor Fausto ( 1969 ) Mephisto ( 1981 ) Doctor Faustus ( 1982 ) Faust ( 1994 ) The Master and Margarita ( 1994 ) Bedazzled ( 2000 ) Faust : Love of the Damned ( 2001 ) Fausto 5.0 ( 2001 ) I Was a Teenage Faust ( 2002 ) Shortcut to Happiness ( 2003 ) Faust ( 2011 ) Television Episodes `` The Devil 's Hands Are Idle Playthings '' ( 2003 ) Other The Devil and Daniel Mouse ( 1978 ) Musicals Damn Yankees ( 1955 ) Randy Newman 's Faust ( 1993 ) Success ! ( 1993 ) Faust ( 2003 ) Other Paintings Faust ( ballet ) ( 1848 ) Gods ' Man ( 1929 ) Faust ( manga ) ( 1950 ) Doctor Faustus ( comics ) ( 1968 ) Faust ( Avatar Press ) ( 1987 ) Mississippi portal Film portal VIAF : 208718696 LCCN : no2001087856 GND : 4703030 - 6 SUDOC : 179445588 BNE : XX4034610 Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=O_Brother,_Where_Art_Thou%3F&oldid=832887034 '' Categories : 2000 films English - language films 2000s adventure films 2000s criminal comedy films 2000s musical comedy films 2000s road movies American films American adventure comedy films American buddy films American criminal comedy films American musical comedy films American road movies Americana Country music films Films about music and musicians Films based on the Odyssey Films set in the 1930s Films set in 1937 Films set in Mississippi Films shot in Mississippi Great Depression films Slapstick films Treasure hunt films Working Title Films films Films featuring a Best Musical or Comedy Actor Golden Globe winning performance Films directed by the Coen brothers Cultural depictions of Baby Face Nelson Hidden categories : Webarchive template wayback links Use mdy dates from November 2013 Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Talk Contents About Wikipedia Wikiquote Български Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français 한국어 Hrvatski Italiano עברית ქართული Latina Magyar Bahasa Melayu Nederlands 日本 語 Norsk Polski Português Русский Simple English Slovenčina Српски / srpski Suomi Svenska Türkçe Українська 中文 24 more Edit links This page was last edited on 28 March 2018 , at 14 : 40 . 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who has played chad dimera on days of our lives

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Chad_DiMera&oldid=854172540

Chad DiMera - wikipedia Chad DiMera Chad DiMera Billy Flynn as Chad DiMera Days of Our Lives character Portrayed by Casey Deidrick ( 2009 -- 13 ) Billy Flynn ( 2014 -- ) Duration 2009 -- First appearance June 19 , 2009 Created by Dena Higley and Christopher Whitesell Introduced by Ken Corday and Gary Tomlin ( 2009 ) Ken Corday , Lisa de Cazotte and Greg Meng ( 2014 ) Classification Present ; regular Profile Other names Chad Peterson Chad Peterson - Woods Chad Michael DiMera Occupation Club owner Business executive Model Website designer Residence Salem , Illinois Casey Deidrick as Chad DiMera show Family Family DiMera Father Stefano DiMera Mother Madeline Peterson Woods Stepfather Charles Woods ( 1990 -- 2010 ) Stepmother Kate Roberts ( 2010 -- 12 ) Half - brothers André DiMera Tony DiMera ( legal ) Peter Blake ( adoptive ) Benjy Hawk EJ DiMera Stefan DiMera Half - sisters Kristen DiMera ( adoptive ) Renée DuMonde Megan Hathaway Lexie Carver Spouse Abigail Deveraux ( 2016 -- 17 , 2017 -- ) Sons Thomas DiMera Daughters Grace McCormick - Woods Grandfathers Santo DiMera Uncles Ryan Brady Nephews Theo Carver Steven Hawk Johnny DiMera Nieces Sydney DiMera Chad DiMera is a fictional character from the original NBC Daytime soap opera , Days of Our Lives . The role was originated by Casey Jon Deidrick on June 19 , 2009 . Deidrick vacated the role in 2013 . Billy Flynn currently portrays the role , making his first appearance on September 12 , 2014 . Introduced by head writer Dena Higley and co-head writer Christopher Whitesell in 2009 , Chad is the troubled ex-boyfriend of Mia McCormick and father to their daughter , Grace Brady . Chad factors into a romantic triangle between himself , Mia and her new boyfriend , Will Horton . After the baby storyline , then executive producer Gary Tomlin fought to keep the actor and the character on canvas . In 2010 , the series introduced Chad 's parents , including his mother , Madeline Peterson Woods and Chad is revealed to be the illegitimate son of crime boss Stefano DiMera . Chad struggles to accept his new family but eventually forms strong bonds with his father , sister Lexie Carver and brother , EJ . Chad is also known for his relationships with Abigail Deveraux and Melanie Jonas and his friendship with gay supercouple , Will Horton and Sonny Kiriakis . In 2012 , Chad takes a dark turn when he feuds with Gabi Hernandez , blaming her for his failed engagement to Melanie . Chad later reconnects with Abigail and the romance develops into a triangle with Cameron Davis . The relationship ends when Chad lies about being terminally ill and the character is written out of the series in October 2013 . Chad returned in 2014 , and immediately mixes it up in the business world , partnering with Kate Roberts ( Lauren Koslow ) and works secretly alongside his father . Following the deaths of Lexie , EJ , and Kristen , and the retconned resurrection of André , he is the youngest surviving member in his generation of the DiMera family . Contents 1 Storylines 1.1 2009 -- 13 1.2 2014 -- 2 Creation 2.1 Casting 2.2 Characterization 3 Development 3.1 Introduction ( 2009 ) 3.2 Chad 's past and paternity reveal ( 2010 ) 3.3 Friendships with Will and Sonny 3.4 Early romance with Abigail ( 2011 ) 3.5 Romantic triangle and family troubles ( 2012 ) 3.6 Vendetta against Gabi ( 2012 -- 13 ) 4 Reception 4.1 Critical 4.2 Relationships 5 References 6 See also 7 External links Storylines ( edit ) 2009 -- 13 ( edit ) A 16 - year - old Chad returns to Salem to reconnect with his ex-girlfriend , Mia McCormick ( Taylor Spreitler ) and clashes with her new boyfriend , Will Horton ( Dylan Patton ) . To stay close to Mia , Chad takes a job at the local coffee shop , Java . In the meantime , he befriends Tad ( Brendan Coughlin ) and Kinsey ( Shelby Young ) . Despite Kinsey 's claims that Mia is fresh out of rehab , Chad sees through her lies and starts digging until he is confronted by Mia 's supposed sponsor , Nicole DiMera ( Arianne Zucker ) . In August 2009 Chad stops Mia from getting into a car wreck with Kinsey and admits he is in love with her . However , Chad is furious to learn that Mia gave their baby girl up for adoption . To distract Chad from the baby , Mia dumps Will and reunites with Chad ; however sees their short lived reunion as an opportunity to dig for information on the baby . Chad threatens to sue for custody and Nicole tries to seduce him to get him to change his mind . Devastated by their daughter 's death , Chad and Mia grow closer , only to break up in the New Year . Chad briefly dates Gabi Hernandez ( Gabriela Rodriguez ) and Mia successfully breaks them up . However , thanks to Gabi , Will ( Chandler Massey ) and Chad realize Mia is two - timing them , and dump her . In 2010 , as Chad seeks an internship at DiMera Enterprises , he notices tension between Madeline and Will 's grandmother , Kate Roberts ( Lauren Koslow ) . Chad is shocked by Will 's claim that Madeline and Kate once worked together as prostitutes . Chad immediately confronts Kate to get the truth . After Kate confirms the story , Chad confronts his mother . Their confrontation ends with Madeline falling down a flight of stairs . Chad is devastated when Madeline is declared dead but before he has the chance to grieve , DA Charles Woods starts to blame his son for Madeline 's death . Despite Madeline 's death being the result of a brain aneurism , Chad ca n't help but believe Charles 's words and blames himself . Now estranged from his father , Chad learns that he is Stefano DiMera 's son . Stefano welcomes Chad with open arms , but he initially rejects his new father . His sister Lexie Carver welcomes him with open arms and Chad even stands in as best man at his brother EJ DiMera 's wedding with Nicole . Chad later strikes up a romance with Abigail Deveraux despite his new family 's disapproval . Chad briefly moves into the mansion until he is shot in August 2011 and moves out for his own good . Chad then falls for Abigail 's best friend Melanie Jonas after they share a kiss at the town 's Halloween party . Meanwhile , Chad , Will and Sonny Kiriakis launch an internet website for sport fans at Salem University . However , they are forced to shut it down when criminals begin using it for illegal gambling . The criminals then kidnap Chad and Melanie and believing they are about to die , the two confess their feelings . Fortunately , they are rescued ; however , Chad and Abigail break up . Abigail is initially upset about Chad and Melanie 's romance , but she later gives them her blessing . Meanwhile , Chad and Gabi ( Camila Banus ) are forced to work together when they are both hired as models for Countess Wilhelmina . When Billie Reed ( Lisa Rinna ) mistakenly assumes they are dating , Gabi begins scheming to win Chad 's affections . Melanie is uncomfortable with the attention Chad and Gabi are getting for their modeling campaign and their chemistry , but Chad assures her that he only has eyes for her . In the meantime , Gabi goes so far as to plant her earring in Chad 's bed which interrupts Chad and Melanie 's first attempt at making love . Gabi assures Melanie that her earring in Chad 's bed was an accident and nothing more . Chad is devastated when Lexie reveals she has cancer and Stefano is murdered . Chad is furious to learn that Will is a suspect and after Melanie tries to defend Will , they have a huge fight , and she presumably skips town . Chad mourns Lexie 's passing all alone . It is revealed that Melanie had been kidnapped ; the couple is reunited underground as the tunnels beneath Salem collapse . Chad attacks Melanie 's captor , Andrew ( Caleb Hunt ) but he manages to escape before the collapse . Chad overhears Andrew 's deathbed confession about Gabi 's involvement in the kidnapping and confronts her . However , he agrees to keep the secret to protect Melanie and warns Gabi to stay away from Melanie . Chad also kicks Gabi out of his apartment and backs out of their modeling gig . Chad proposes to Melanie hoping to keep her safe from Nick Fallon . Chad attacks Nick when he mistakenly believes Nick hurt Melanie again . Unable to forgive Chad for his angry outburst , Melanie calls off the engagement and skips town . Chad briefly reunites with Abigail and exacts revenge on Gabi when he reveals at her wedding to Nick that Will is the father of her unborn child . Abigail dumps Chad forcing Lexie 's brother , Cameron Davis ( Nathan Owens ) to come to her aid . Chad and Abigail eventually patch things up when they learn Cameron has been moonlighting as a stripper . She agrees to a date , but later backs out . Chad is touched when Will and Gabi name their baby Arianna after Grace . Chad is mistakenly led to believe he has a brain tumor , and lies to Cameron about his diagnosis to keep him away from Abigail . Chad and Abigail consummate their relationship only for Chad to get shot at EJ and Sami Brady 's engagement party . Though he survives , Abigail dumps him after she discovers his lie about the tumor . On October 30 , 2013 , Stefano accompanies Chad to Boston for a surgery to repair damage from the bullet . 2014 -- ( edit ) On September 12 , 2014 , Chad returns to Salem and upon seeing EJ , he punches him for sleeping with Abigail after finding out about their affair in Will 's article . Chad reconnects with `` T '' , Will ( Guy Wilson ) , Sonny , and Abigail . He does not like the fact that Abigail is dating Ben Rogers ( Robert Scott Wilson ) . He tries to get Ben fired from his club by accusing him of stealing but Sonny disagrees with Chad . Chad charms Abigail and soon becomes interested in Ben 's sister Jordan Ridgeway ( Chrishell Stause ) . Chad and Jordan begin dating , but they soon break up . Jordan soon after leaves Salem after receiving a new job opportunity . After Jordan leaves Salem , Chad goes back to pursuing Abigail , but , his life got changed when he discover his half - brother EJ and adoptive sister Kristen were killed , and know now that he was the last child in the family . In June 2015 , Abigail cheats on Ben and sleeps with Chad . Chad tells Abigail that he was just using her to get revenge on what happened with EJ , but the truth is he is still in love with her and wants to protect her from his father . Abigail becomes pregnant and the father is revealed to be Ben after Ben 's father Clyde Weston ( James Read ) threatens the doctors facilitating the paternity test . Chad is disowned by Stefano and , depressed , goes to a bar where he meets Serena Mason ( Melissa Archer ) . Serena rejects his advances and Chad drunkenly goes after her , waking up the next morning without any memory of anything that happened after he left the bar and soon finds out he 's the prime suspect after Serena is found strangled by the `` Necktie Killer '' in the park . After the murder of Paige Larson and when Dr. Marlena Evans is attacked when she 's unable to help Chad remember what happened the nights Serena and Paige were murdered , he is taken into custody and continues to be convicted of murder after Will is killed . He is released after Aiden Jennings ( Daniel Cosgrove ) attacks Hope Brady ( Kristian Alfonso ) on their wedding night and he is believed to be the `` Necktie Killer . '' Chad goes to Abigail and Ben 's apartment to thank Abigail for believing in him , but Ben ( who is the real killer ) makes him leave threatening to call the cops . Abigail , who Ben is keeping hostage in a cabin in the middle of nowhere , is forced to call Chad and tell her that she 's over with him , but while on the phone , is able to communicate with Chad that she 's in trouble without Ben knowing . Chad arrives at the cabin , but Ben knocks him out and ties him and Abigail to the bed , setting it on fire and leaving with Abigail 's premature son . Chad is eventually able to get himself and Abigail free and he carries her to safety . They are found by the police and Chad and Abigail return to Salem . Stricken over the disappearance of her son , Chad and Abigail 's brother JJ Deveraux ( Casey Moss ) go back to Mammoth Falls , where Abigail was being held hostage and find her son at a motel and then reunite them at the hospital in Salem . She renames her son Thomas Jack Deveraux . Afterwards , Chad and Abigail start to plan a future together . Chad is later hypnotized by Marlena but is brainwashed by Andre , after he hijacks the session , to do the family bidding and get close to Belle after Sami stole the DiMera fortune . He is also forced to break up with Abigail . After Thomas gets sick it 's revealed that Chad is his father , not Ben . Chad was later shocked that his father has been murdered . Creation ( edit ) Casting ( edit ) The casting and character was announced in late May 2009 . Casey Deidrick had joined the cast as Chad . Deidrick revealed in an interview that he originally auditioned for the role of Tad . Despite very positive feedback , Brendan Coughlin was cast in the role of Tad . Deidrick 's audition caught the attention of casting director , Marnie Saitta and he was soon called back to audition for the newly created role of Chad . Deidrick tested opposite Taylor Spreitler , whom he had previously met through a mutual friend . Deidrick learned a few weeks later that he had won the role and signed the standard four - year contract . In the spring of 2013 , the series released a casting call for an actor matching Deidrick 's description which led to speculation that the role of Chad was to be recast . At the time , Deidrick 's screen time had declined dramatically and he had also booked several guest appearances in prime time . On June 20 , 2013 , Deidrick confirmed his departure from the series through Twitter and posted a picture of his final script . Deidrick 's last air date was October 30 , 2013 . Michael Fairman revealed that Deidrick made the decision to leave the series earlier that year and also hinted at the possibility of the role being recast . Deidrick told Soap Opera Digest that he would n't be opposed to a decision to recast , if it happened . However , the actor also said he was open to return to the series for future guest stints . Of his departure , Deidrick said , `` I basically wanted to pursue other opportunities . '' However , Deidrick was grateful for all he learned . In June 2014 , a picture of a script autographed by the Days of our Lives cast members was auctioned off at a charity event , and Billy Flynn was one of the signatures . On August 12 , 2014 , the producers officially announced Flynn 's casting to Soap Opera Digest ; he made his first appearance on September 12 , 2014 . In May 2018 , Flynn announced he would remain on the soap for the foreseeable future . Characterization ( edit ) Deidrick had to come up with a lot of Chad 's back story on his own because Chad was a brand new character . Deidrick initially described Chad as `` confident , edgy '' and `` mysterious . '' He is very troubled , but because he means well , it is hard to decide if one hates him or loves him . He is also very persuasive and he is not easy to break . It is obvious that he has been through a lot . Deidrick hinted that Chad may suffer from abandonment issues . Deidrick who is in a metal rock band viewed the character of Chad as a rock star and notes the similarities between the character and the genre of music . Chad has a different way of thinking which sets him apart from the average person , similar to rock stars Deidrick revealed in an interview . Chad is a `` bad boy '' with a `` care free '' spirit . Chad puts on a hard exterior and acts as if he does not care what others think of him . However , Chad has another layer to him ; he is `` very sensitive '' and all about romance which makes him all the more intriguing . Despite coming across as a bad guy , there is much more complexity to him . Development ( edit ) Introduction ( 2009 ) ( edit ) The character of Chad 's introduction would cause trouble for the romantic pairing of Will Horton ( Dylan Patton ) and Mia McCormick ( Taylor Spreitler ) . According to the actor , Chad is extremely sincere about getting custody of the baby from Nicole which is why he turns down her sexual advances . He refuses to let Mia `` whose been lying to him this whole time get in his way . '' However , Deidrick commented that when Chad turns down Nicole , he is not `` acting ( his ) age . '' Though he suspects Mia and Nicole are hiding something , Deidrick explained that Chad is completely blindsided when he finds the specifics . Of Chad 's reaction to the baby reveal Deidrick said , `` There 's nothing that can really prepare you for something like that . '' However , what hurts the most is that Chad has spent so much time trying to win Mia back , and his love for her is actually `` sincere . '' According to Deidrick , it is a `` slap in the face , '' to learn that Mia has been lying about such a huge part of their lives . For Chad , the revelation allows him to see Mia 's true colors . Deidrick stated that `` ( T ) here 's always going to be tension '' between Chad and Mia but Deidrick maintained that despite her lies , Chad feels sorry what Mia has gone through and tries to stay by her side . `` It 's a very hard situation . '' Of his character during the storyline , Deidrick described Chad as a `` kid who does n't know what to do and he 's a fighting all these feelings . '' Deidrick previewed that the reveal about the baby switch would put everything `` into place . '' The actor admitted that the baby storyline kept him very isolated due to the significant age differences between himself and the rest of his teenage costars . When asked about a future love interest , Deidrick mentioned Gabriela Rodriguez who had recently been introduced to the canvas as Gabi Hernandez ( Gabriela Rodriguez ) but did n't believe a romantic pairing would work due to the age difference . Chad 's past and paternity reveal ( 2010 ) ( edit ) In July 2009 , Chad was scripted as the son of Bill and Marsha Peterson . In June 2009 it was announced that David Leisure had been cast in the recurring role of D.A. Woods . In October 2009 , the character 's name was revised to Chad Peterson Woods when D.A. Woods was revealed to be his father . In February 2010 Soap Opera Digest reported that veteran soap actress , Jessica Tuck , known for her role as One Life to Live 's Megan Gordon was cast in the role of Chad 's mother . Deidrick explained that Chad goes to Kate for answers because she has been a `` mother figure . '' Both the actor and executive producer Gary Tomlin enjoyed Chad 's scenes with Koslow 's Kate . Chad immediately confronts Madeline and he is `` completely devastated '' when she admits to being a former prostitute . Chad is fed up with his mother 's lies and just wants everything out on the table . The revelation really impacts him in an `` inexplicable '' way . Deidrick described Chad 's reaction as `` flabbergasted '' and wants to get away from her . When Chad witnesses Madeline 's fall , he freezes for a moment because he is unable to `` process '' the situation . Such tragedy could have the potential to screw him up . Because Deidrick did not know the pain of losing a parent , let alone his own mother , the actor does his best to portray Chad during the scenes ; Deidrick 's first reaction as Chad is going into denial . Chad clings on to the little bit of courage he has left hoping to work things out with Charles in the future . According to Deidrick , the aftermath of his mother 's death and his confrontation with Charles makes Chad a little `` cuckoo crazy . '' Knowing Chad is all alone in the world Kate schemes to expose that Chad is Madeline 's son with Kate 's husband , Stefano DiMera ( Joseph Mascolo ) born on March 3 , 1990 , making him a whole year older than was initially said to be . The storyline showcased two very distinct sides to Chad 's personality . According to Deidrick , during scenes with Kate , he intentionally emphasized Chad 's vulnerabilities due to his mother 's recent death ; he is in desperate need of a mother figure at the moment , and Kate fills that void . Chad does not show that side of his personality too often for fear of getting hurt . On the other hand , Chad 's relationship with his new found father Stefano appears to be a bit more volatile . The nature of the relationship is first displayed in November 2010 when Chad confronts Stefano with a knife and demands blood for a DNA test . Chad has no idea how to react to the DNA results . According to Deidrick , `` ( Chad ) struggles to find the courage to be able to love ( Stefano ) who had a relationship with his mother and never knew he existed . '' Deidrick explained that Chad rejects Stefano based on instinct . It is all he knows thanks to D.A. Woods who always pushes him away when things get difficult . However , Stefano is not easily turned away . Deidrick expected the role to be short lived thinking the character was only to wrap up the baby switch storyline . However , he accredited Gary Tomlin with fighting for the character and believing in him as an actor . Deidrick said that it was Tomlin 's idea to attach him to a main family , `` So they made ( Chad ) a DiMera . '' Friendships with Will and Sonny ( edit ) In the spring of 2011 , Entertainment Weekly announced that the series had plans for a Gay storyline with one of the current characters . There was much speculation that Chandler Massey 's Will Horton would be the character who turned out to be gay . Despite fan speculation about a romance , Chad and Will develop a great friendship . Deidrick revealed that `` Chill '' ( Chad and Will ) actually started off as a joke between himself and Massey . Deidrick admitted he would be open to the potential pairing if the writers were to go in that direction . However , the characters remain friends even after Will comes out about his sexuality . Deidrick revealed to Soaps In Depth that he was open to the story , if the writers were truly willing to take his character in that direction . Chad also develops a friendship with openly gay character , Sonny Kiriakis ( Freddie Smith ) . Their relationship is so unique , not only because of Deidrick and Smith 's real - life friendship , but also because Daytime rarely showcased a `` best friend '' type relationship between gay and straight characters . Deidrick stated that `` Chad does n't care '' about Sonny 's sexuality . Early romance with Abigail ( 2011 ) ( edit ) In January 2011 , Soap Opera Digest reported that Abigail Deveraux ( Kate Mansi ) would be Chad 's new love interest . Deidrick said he immediately connected to Mansi during her screen test . The writers teased the pairing throughout the spring of 2011 as Chad struggles to accept his new identity as a DiMera . According to Deidrick , Abigail is immediately turned off until she realizes that Chad is different from the rest of his family . Deidrick admitted that it was easy for him to work with Mansi due to the closeness in age . In an interview with TV Source Magazine from 2011 , Mansi compared Chad and Abigail 's dynamic to Romeo and Juliet . The duo shared an `` instant attraction '' but she distances herself because he is a DiMera knowing her mother Jennifer Horton ( Melissa Reeves ) does not approve . Mansi revealed that Stefano and Kate would also interfere in the romance forcing Chad and Abigail to `` fight for their relationship , '' which makes them stronger . Deidrick said challenges were inevitable due to the relationship evolving so quickly . Mansi revealed in an interview that Chad `` turns to her out of frustration from feeling the push and pull of wanting to be a part of the DiMera family but also not wanting to be apart of something that he feels is immoral . '' Deidrick explained that Chad can identify with Abigail because he also grew up with a father who neglected him which is why he and Jack do n't really see eye to eye . Jack 's disapproval of Chad 's heritage also drives a wedge between Abigail and her father as she continues to defend Chad . Romantic triangle and family troubles ( 2012 ) ( edit ) The relationship is continuously strained and matters are only made worse by Chad 's growing closeness with Melanie Jonas ( Molly Burnett ) . Deidrick said that Chad and Melanie 's kiss is accidental on the part of his character , but explains that `` Melanie makes Chad feel good , kind of like a kid , '' as opposed to Abigail who is dealing with her chaotic family life . Deidrick said that Chad is so `` love struck '' over Melanie that he does n't even notice Gabi 's feelings . On other hand , Melanie wants to maintain a friendship with Chad to keep him from hurting Abigail any further . Though the feelings were very `` unexpected , '' Chad agrees to Melanie 's wishes . When Deidrick started dating his costar Molly Burnett , the duo discussed the possibility of being paired together onscreen . Deidrick said that their real life romance helped with the portrayal of their `` real '' romance ; `` For Melanie and Chad , the backstory was already there . '' While it does n't always work for other couples , Deidrick and Burnett immediately `` clicked '' in their onscreen romance . Burnett said Melanie brings out the funnier side of Chad . As a couple , Chad and Melanie are very `` playful '' and that is how they express their love for one another . However , most of Chad and Melanie 's relationship is plagued by the schemes of Chad 's former flame , Gabi Hernandez ( Camila Banus ) who obsesses over Chad . In an interview with TV Guide , Banus explained that Gabi who is on the rebound after breaking up with Will falls for Chad after he comes to her rescue ; `` she looks at ( Chad ) as her hero . '' Though they are forced to work so closely together during their modeling career , Chad is `` oblivious '' to Gabi 's feelings . Deidrick explained that Chad only takes on the modeling gig to make Gabi 's life easier due to her split with Will . However , when it comes to romance , Chad is focused on his budding romance with Melanie . Deidrick stated : `` He cares about Gabi , but as far as he 's concerned , things are going to stay completely platonic . Gabi has no idea about Melanie , so she thinks Chad 's fair game . '' Though he wo n't admit it , Chad knows they have a chemistry during their photo shoots . The dynamic eventually develops into a triangle which leads to Gabi becoming `` very manipulative '' and a bit of a `` psycho '' in her quest for Chad 's affections . In the meantime , Chad feels pressured to embrace his family . Deidrick said that Chad `` ca n't really turn away from family . '' When Stefano and Chad 's brother , EJ DiMera ( James Scott ) have a falling out , and his sister Lexie Carver ( Renée Jones ) is on her death bed , Chad seems to be the only DiMera left standing . Meanwhile , Gabi 's advances start to affect Chad and it looks as if he could reciprocate those feelings . Deidrick hinted that the triangle would turn `` ugly . '' It is Lexie 's passing and Stefano 's presumed death that pushes Chad over the edge . For the first time , Deidrick allows for the character to cry . In an interview Soaps In Depth , Deidrick said that he used music to take Chad `` into the darkness . '' The actor praised the writers for allowing him to flex his acting muscles by taking Chad to such unfamiliar territory . Vendetta against Gabi ( 2012 -- 13 ) ( edit ) In August 2012 , Chad sees rescuing the kidnapped Melanie as his `` last chance for a normal life '' after the deaths of Lexie and Stefano . `` Melanie has become his family , '' Deidrick said . He described Melanie and Chad 's reunion as an `` overpowering emotion for Chad . '' When he discovers that Gabi is behind Melanie 's kidnapping , Chad is so shocked that `` He does n't really know what to do with the information . '' However , Chad rationalizes keeping Gabi 's involvement from Melanie because he `` does n't want to make things worse , '' thinking she 's been through enough . In the meantime Chad does everything to cut Gabi out of his life ; `` he pretty much exiles her , '' Deidrick said . Chad focuses all of his attention on Melanie and becomes extremely `` protective . '' Chad feels the need to shelter Melanie . However it is Chad 's lying that leads to their break . Though Chad seems overprotective , Deidrick said that Chad is overwhelmed after losing Lexie and Stefano and he reacts the way any normal person would . According to Deidrick , Chad reaches his boiling point and lashes out in anger . Chad sudden decision to ask Melanie to marry is his attempt to regain control of his life and his relationship . When she dumps him , Deidrick believed it is Chad 's compupance for trying to control everything . It takes time for Chad to sort through his feelings . Deidrick explained that Chad has dealt with just about everything since his introduction and those experiences have hardened him . After losing Melanie , Chad immediately sets his sights on revenge . However , when Chad is at the end of his rope , he has no choice but to turn to his family , which allows for the writers to develop Chad 's relationship with EJ . Deidrick relishes in Chad 's attempt to destroy Gabi 's budding romance with Nick Fallon ( Blake Berris ) . But Chad is kind of left in limbo after Burnett 's departure . Though he trusts the writers , Deidrick realized that Chad needed to make a change . And suddenly , it started , as Deidrick found ways to challenge himself by portraying Chad 's `` pain and vulnerability '' with everyone he comes in contact with . Chad has yet to understand that , `` You have to let things go , '' said Deidrick , a motto that he lives by in his personal life . Reception ( edit ) Critical ( edit ) TV Source Magazine labeled Deidrick a fan favorite and described the character of Chad as `` one of the soaps ' most popular younger characters of the late ' 00s . '' Stephanie Sloane of Soap Opera Digest commented that Chad 's paternity seemed to envelope the series , but applauded the writers for `` wisely '' connecting him to the DiMera clan . Sloane also disagreed with how long the story took to play out . She praised Deidrick for Chad 's very brief interactions with his future family members , Stefano , Kate and EJ . Nelson Branco of TV Guide Canada refers to Deidrick 's performance in May 2011 as `` infectious . '' In June 2011 , Deidrick ranked at # 3 along with costar , Chandler Massey in the `` Top Young Actors to Watch '' category . In 2012 , Deidrick earned an Emmy pre-nomination in the Outstanding Younger Actor category for his portrayal of Chad . Michael Fairman applauded Deidrick for his portrayal of Chad in January 2013 when the character took revenge on Gabi and Nick , by revealing that Nick is not the father of her baby . The ratings also spiked for the episode , giving the series its highest ratings in two years . Omar Nobles praised Deidrick 's portrayal and stated : `` Deidrick 's enduring charm and emotional performances helped turn the tide in favor of the one - time bad boy '' which would lead to his popularity . Upon the announcement of Deidrick 's departure , Michael Fairman described the actor as `` one of the best young actors on daytime . '' Jamey Giddens said `` As much as I 'm going to miss the tall , drink of DiMera , I ca n't say I blame Deidrick . '' Giddens attributed the decision to Chad 's dramatic decline in screen time following Burnett 's departure . Though sad about Deidrick 's departure , Nobles said the actor had a great `` future ahead of him . '' Fairman praised Deidrick for his portrayal of Chad 's final scenes which aired on October 30 , 2013 . Relationships ( edit ) Prior to the announcement about the gay storyline fans and critics alike pushed for a romantic pairing between Chad and Will due to the chemistry between the actors . Errol Lewis of Soap Opera Network explained that the two would have great potential as a romantic pairing , due to their heritage alone ; with Chad being a DiMera , and Will being a Brady , would solidify the pairing as `` star - crossed lovers '' because of the long - standing feud between their families being staple within the series for so long . Despite both characters being involved in romantic pairings with females at the time , the pairing had already established a large fan base . The two , however , remain friends even when Will does turn out to be gay . The pairing is referred to by fans by their portmanteau `` Chill . '' Despite the joke between costars , fans immediately began pushing for the pairing . Deidrick said he would be open to the potential pairing if the writers were to go in that direction . In June 2011 , the duo ranked at # 2 in the `` Top Dream Couples '' category on TV Guide Canada 's `` Soapgeist '' . Critics praised the writers for maintaining Chad and Will 's friendship , and developing his friendship with Sonny despite both characters being gay . However , fans also pushed for a Sonny / Chad pairing after Chad defends him to a gay bully in September 2011 . In response Smith jokingly shot down the idea and said that Chad is a little too tall for Sonny . Greg Hernandez said it was Chad 's friendship with Will and Sonny that endeared him to the character . Fans also spoke out when Chad 's friendship with Will and Sonny started taking a back seat to other storylines . The onscreen pairing of Chad and Abigail became very popular among fans and garnered the squish name , `` Chabby '' . Jamey Giddens enjoyed Abigail and Chad 's new dynamic displayed in their snooping around Cameron . Giddens said that while he was n't a fan of their initial romance , `` Abby and Chad 's scenes were fun , and made me wish I could see more . '' References ( edit ) Jump up ^ Produced by : Ken Corday and Gary Tomlin ; Written by : Dena Higley and Christopher Whitesell ( June 19 , 2009 ) . Days of Our Lives . Season 43 . Episode 11107 . NBC . access - date = requires url = ( help ) ^ Jump up to : Lewis , Errol ( May 25 , 2009 ) . `` DAYS Casting : New Faces , Sad Goodbyes '' . Soap Opera Network . Retrieved December 29 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Dallman , William ( June 25 , 2009 ) . `` DAYS Casting Report : June 25th Edition '' . TV Source Magazine . Retrieved December 29 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Mia Still Likes Chad '' . Hot Plots Preview ! . Soap Opera Digest . Vol. 34 no . 35 . September 1 , 2009 . p. 20 . ^ Jump up to : `` Days : Chad Learns Sydney Is `` His '' `` . Late - breaking news . Soap Opera Digest . Vol. 34 no . 42 . October 20 , 2009 . p. 16 . ^ Jump up to : `` Chad Learns The Truth ! '' . Hot Plots Preview ! . Soap Opera Digest . Vol. 34 no . 40 . October 6 , 2009 . p. 17 . Jump up ^ `` Days : Nicole Comes On To Chad '' . Late - breaking News . Soap Opera Digest . Vol. 34 no . 43 . October 27 , 2009 . p. 11 . ^ Jump up to : `` Chad Confronts Madeline '' . Hot Plots Preview ! . Soap Opera Digest . Vol. 35 no . 29 . July 20 , 2010 . p. 17 . ^ Jump up to : `` Madeline Dies ! '' . Hot Plots Preview ! . Soap Opera Digest . Vol. 35 no . 30 . July 27 , 2010 . p. 17 . ^ Jump up to : `` Days : Chad Learns He 's a DiMera '' . Late - breaking news . Soap Opera Digest . Vol. 35 no . 49 . December 7 , 2010 . p. 12 . Jump up ^ `` Gabi Targets Chad and Melanie '' . Hot Plots Preview . Soap Opera Digest . Vol. 37 no . 14 . April 3 , 2012 . p. 14 . Jump up ^ Waldron , Robert ( July 30 , 2012 ) . `` Salem Rocks ! '' . Soap Opera Digest . Vol. 37 no . 31 . pp. 30 -- 33 . ^ Jump up to : Sloane , Stephanie ; Waldron , Robert ( August 20 , 2012 ) . `` Aftershocks '' . On the Cover . Soap Opera Digest . Vol. 37 no . 34 . pp. 30 -- 33 . ^ Jump up to : `` Gabi Confesses To Chad '' . Hot Plots Preview . Soap Opera Digest . Vol. 37 no . 35 . August 27 , 2012 . p. 13 . ^ Jump up to : Fairman , Michael ( January 14 , 2013 ) . `` Wedding DAYSaster ! Nick and Gabi 's Nuptials Explode ! Will Reveals He Is The Baby Daddy ! '' . On - Air On - Soaps . Retrieved January 29 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Casey Jon Deidrick : Actor Bio '' . Soap Opera Digest . Archived from the original on July 31 , 2010 . Retrieved September 8 , 2012 . ^ Jump up to : Rabinowitz , Naomi ( August 25 , 2009 ) . `` Casey Jon Deidrick '' . FOCUS ON . Soap Opera Digest . Vol. 34 no . 34 . pp. 66 -- 67 . ^ Jump up to : Fix , Christine ( June 18 , 2009 ) . `` Soaps.com Exclusive Interview : DOOL 's Casey Deidrick ! '' . Soaps She Knows . Atomic Online . Retrieved January 13 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` DAYS Casting ( Or Recasting ? ) Role '' . Soap Opera Digest . May 11 , 2013 . Retrieved May 12 , 2013 . ^ Jump up to : Nobles , Omar ( June 20 , 2013 ) . `` Casey Deidrick Tapes His Final ' Days of our Lives ' Episode ; More Exits to Come ? '' . TV Source Magazine . Retrieved June 21 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` DAYS 's Deidrick Confirms Exit '' . Soap Opera Digest . June 20 , 2013 . Retrieved June 20 , 2013 . ^ Jump up to : Fairman , Michael ( June 20 , 2013 ) . `` Casey Deidrick Reveals That He Has Taped His Final DAYS Episode ! '' . On - Air On - Soaps . Retrieved June 20 , 2013 . ^ Jump up to : `` Casey Jon Deidrick On Final Days '' . Late - breaking news . Soap Opera Digest . Vol. 38 no . 44 . November 4 , 2013 . pp. 4 -- 5 . ^ Jump up to : Hernandez , Greg ( August 6 , 2013 ) . `` Greg In Hollywood chats with Casey Deidrick about leaving the role of Chad on `` Days of Our Lives '' `` . Greg In Hollywood . Retrieved August 22 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Austin , Amanda ( June 26 , 2014 ) . `` Days Of Our Lives Casting Spoilers : Billy Flynn Headed To DOOL - Cast As New Chad DiMera ? '' . Celeb Dirty Laundry . Retrieved August 12 , 2014 . Jump up ^ `` EXCLUSIVE ! DAYS ANNOUNCES NEW CHAD '' . Soap Opera Digest . August 12 , 2014 . Retrieved August 12 , 2014 . Jump up ^ SOD ( May 23 , 2018 ) . `` Billy Flynn Staying At DAYS '' . Soap Opera Digest . United States : American Media , Inc . Odyssey Magazine Publishing Group Inc . Retrieved May 23 , 2018 . Jump up ^ Plouf , Amy and Jabie ( March 11 , 2010 ) . `` Casey Deidrick Interview '' . DaysTalk . WordPress . Retrieved August 21 , 2012 . ^ Jump up to : Di Lauro , Janet ( October 26 , 211 ) . `` Casey Jon Deidrick Interview '' . About.com . The New York Times Company . Archived from the original on October 31 , 2011 . Retrieved January 13 , 2012 . Check date values in : date = ( help ) ^ Jump up to : Bibel , Sara ( November 9 , 2009 ) . `` Deep Soap : Days of Our Lives Fan Weekend Interviews Part 1 '' . XFINITY . Comcast . Retrieved January 29 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Produced by : Ken Corday and Gary Tomlin ; Written by : Dena Higley and Christopher Whitesell ( July 22 , 2009 ) . Days of Our Lives . Season 43 . Episode 11127 . NBC . access - date = requires url = ( help ) Jump up ^ Kerr , Luke ( June 22 , 2009 ) . `` David Leisure Joins Days of Our Lives '' . Daytime Confidential . Zap2it . Retrieved March 13 , 2014 . Jump up ^ Produced by : Ken Corday and Gary Tomlin ; Written by : Dena Higley and Christopher Whitesell ( October 15 , 2009 ) . Days of Our Lives . Season 43 . Episode 11187 . NBC . access - date = requires url = ( help ) Jump up ^ Potter , Courtney ( February 17 , 2010 ) . `` Days Welcomes Jessica Tuck '' . Soapnet . Disney - ABC Television Group . Archived from the original on February 21 , 2010 . Retrieved August 7 , 2012 . ^ Jump up to : `` Casey Deidrick on the Newest DiMera '' . Days of Our Lives . Sony Pictures Television . Retrieved January 13 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Produced by : Ken Corday and Gary Tomlin ; Written by : Dena Higley and Christopher Whitesell ( November 8 , 2010 ) . Days of Our Lives . Season 43 . Episode 11455 . NBC . access - date = requires url = ( help ) Jump up ^ `` Daytime Royalty interview with Casey Deidrick '' . Daytime Royalty Online . September 1 , 2011 . Retrieved January 13 , 2012 . ^ Jump up to : Lewis , Errol ( March 23 , 2011 ) . `` ' Days of our Lives ' Turned ' Gays of our Lives ? ' '' . Soap Opera Network . Retrieved August 21 , 2012 . ^ Jump up to : `` Daytime Royalty interview with Casey Deidrick '' . Daytime Royalty . September 1 , 2011 . Retrieved August 21 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Ins&Outs '' . CBS Soaps In Depth . May 9 , 2011 . pp. 14 -- 15 . ^ Jump up to : Dallman , William ( November 11 , 2011 ) . `` Day of Days 2011 : An Interview With Freddie Smith & Casey Deidrick '' . TVSource Magazine . SoSource Media LLC . Retrieved September 8 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Ins&Outs '' . Soaps In Depth . Bauer Media Group : 14 . January 17 , 2011 . ^ Jump up to : Dallman , William ( August 19 , 2011 ) . `` On set with ' Days of our Lives ' star Kate Mansi '' . TV Source Magazine . SoSource Media LLC . Retrieved January 2 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Larson , Kelli M. ; Clifford , Kambra ( November 21 , 2011 ) . `` Bonus Section : Days of our Lives '' . CBS Soaps In Depth . p. 89 . Jump up ^ `` Jack Gets A Major Shock ! '' . News . CBS Soaps In Depth. 15 ( 43 ) : 8 . October 24 , 2011 . Jump up ^ `` Days : Chad Gets To Closer To ... '' . News . CBS Soaps In Depth . Bauer Media Group . 16 ( 5 ) : 8 . January 30 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Waldron , Robert ( February 21 , 2012 ) . `` Reel Love '' . Soap Opera Digest . American Media , Inc. 37 ( 8 ) : 44 -- 47 . ^ Jump up to : Logan , Michel ( January 13 , 2012 ) . `` Is it Love -- or Lunacy -- For Days of Our Lives ' Chad and Gabi ? '' . TV Guide . Lions Gate Entertainment . Retrieved September 8 , 2012 . ^ Jump up to : `` May Sweeps : Days '' . CBS Soaps In Depth . Bauer Media Group . 16 ( 19 ) : 8 -- 9 . May 7 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Clifford , Kambra ( June 4 , 2012 ) . `` Bonus Section : Days of our Lives '' . Into the Darkness . CBS Soaps In Depth . Bauer Media Group . pp. 78 -- 80 . Jump up ^ `` Casey Deidrick on Chad 's Anger '' . Days of Our Lives . Sony Pictures Television . September 26 , 2012 . p. 1 . Retrieved September 26 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Casey Deidrick on Chad 's Anger '' . Days of Our Lives . Sony Pictures Television . September 26 , 2012 . p. 2 . Retrieved September 26 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Casey Deidrick on Chad 's Anger '' . Days of Our Lives . Sony Pictures Television . September 26 , 2012 . p. 3 . Retrieved September 26 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Casey Deidrick on Chad 's Anger '' . Days of Our Lives . Sony Pictures Television . September 26 , 2012 . p. 5 . Retrieved September 26 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Casey Deidrick on Chad 's Anger '' . Days of Our Lives . Sony Pictures Television . September 26 , 2012 . p. 6 . Retrieved September 26 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Casey Deidrick on Chad 's Anger '' . Days of Our Lives . Sony Pictures Television . September 26 , 2012 . p. 7 . Retrieved September 26 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Soul Survivor '' . Soap Opera Digest . American Media , Inc. 38 ( 3 ) : 44 -- 47 . January 21 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Sloane , Stephanie ( October 27 , 2010 ) . `` Blogging with Stephanie '' . Soap Opera Digest . American Media , Inc . Retrieved December 29 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Branco , Nelson ( May 6 , 2011 ) . `` The Suds Report : May 6 , 2011 '' . TV Guide . Retrieved September 8 , 2012 . ^ Jump up to : Branco , Nelson ( June 6 , 2011 ) . `` The Soapgeist : June 6 , 2011 '' . TV Guide . Retrieved September 8 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Kroll , Dan J. ( March 2 , 2012 ) . `` 2012 Daytime Emmys : Pre-Nominations Announced '' . Soap Central . Retrieved September 8 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Bowe , Jillian ( March 2 , 2012 ) . `` BREAKING NEWS : 2012 Daytime Emmy Pre-Noms Announced ! '' . Daytime Confidential . Zap2it . Archived from the original on September 9 , 2012 . Retrieved September 8 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Mistretta , Amy ( March 2 , 2012 ) . `` 39th Daytime Emmy Pre-Nominations '' . Soaps She Knows . Atomic Online . Retrieved September 8 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Fairman , Michael ( January 26 , 2013 ) . `` RATINGS : DAYS Nick & Gabi 's Wedding Free - For - All Gives NBC Soap 2 Year High In Total Viewers ! '' . On - Air On - Soaps . Retrieved January 29 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Giddens , Jamey . `` Casey Deidrick Tweets He 's Taped His LAST Episode of Days of Our Lives ! '' . Daytime Confidential . Zap2it . Retrieved June 20 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Fairman , Michael ( October 31 , 2013 ) . `` Casey Deidrick 's Touching Final Scenes On DAYS with James Scott & Kate Mansi ! '' . On - Air On - Soaps . Retrieved March 12 , 2014 . Jump up ^ Jacobs , Damon L. ( September 2 , 2011 ) . `` WE LOVE SOAPS TV 3.12 On The Set Of DAYS With Casey Deidrick '' . We Love Soaps . Retrieved September 8 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Giddens , Jamey ( August 23 , 2012 ) . `` DAYS ' Freddie Smith Thinks Casey Deidrick is Too Tall For Sonny and Chad to Get It On ! '' . Daytime Confidential . Zap2it . Retrieved January 2 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Giddens , Jamey ( April 5 , 2013 ) . `` Chad and Abigail Get an Eyeful on Days of Our Lives '' . Daytime Confidential . Zap2it . Archived from the original on April 7 , 2013 . Retrieved June 20 , 2013 . See also ( edit ) Supercouple Chad DiMera and Abigail Deveraux DiMera Family External links ( edit ) `` Days of our Lives Bios : Casey Deidrick as Chad DiMera '' . NBC Daytime / Sony Pictures Television . `` Who 's Who in Salem : Chad DiMera '' . Soap Central . Days of Our Lives Current characters Vivian Alamain Brady Black John Black Caroline Brady Ciara Brady Claire Brady Eric Brady Hope Brady Kayla Brady Roman Brady Shawn - Douglas Brady Abe Carver Tripp Dalton Abigail Deveraux JJ Deveraux Andre DiMera Anna DiMera Chad DiMera Stefan DiMera Eve Donovan Theresa Donovan Marlena Evans Eli Grant Valerie Grant Gabi Hernandez Rafe Hernandez Jennifer Horton Lucas Horton Maggie Horton Will Horton Adrienne Johnson Steve Johnson Parker Jonas Justin Kiriakis Sonny Kiriakis Victor Kiriakis Chloe Lane Paul Narita Lani Price Kate Roberts Doug Williams Julie Olson Williams Notable past characters Alice Horton Tom Horton Lawrence Alamain Susan Banks Belle Black Bo Brady Carrie Brady Cassie Brady Chelsea Brady Frankie Brady Kimberly Brady Max Brady Sami Brady Shawn Brady Dr. Lexie Carver Theo Carver Liz Chandler Xander Cook Don Craig Neil Curtis Cameron Davis Jack Deveraux Daphne DiMera EJ DiMera Kristen DiMera Johnny DiMera Santo DiMera Stefano DiMera Sydney DiMera Tony DiMera Drew Donovan Shane Donovan Nick Fallon Megan Hathaway Benjy Hawk Arianna Hernandez Eduardo Hernandez Addie Horton Allie Horton Bill Horton Jeremy Horton Laura Horton Marie Horton Melissa Horton Mickey Horton Nathan Horton Sarah Horton Tommy Horton Robin Jacobs Madison James Aiden Jennings Chase Jennings Joey Johnson Stephanie Johnson Daniel Jonas Melanie Jonas Calliope Jones Deimos Kiriakis Philip Kiriakis Paige Larson Bonnie Lockhart Mimi Lockhart Patrick Lockhart Carly Manning Alex Marshall Serena Mason Colin Murphy Tori Narita Celeste Perrault Austin Reed Billie Reed Curtis Reed Jordan Ridgeway Ben Rogers Jan Spears Isabella Toscano Ava Vitali Gina Von Amberg Brandon Walker Nicole Walker Taylor Walker Nancy Wesley Clyde Weston Related information Cast members Producers and writers Awards and nominations 1960s 1970s 1980s 1990s 2000s 2010s Doug and Julie Bo and Hope Sami and EJ John and Marlena Jack and Jennifer Steve and Kayla Shawn and Belle Lucas and Sami Will and Sonny Shane and Kimberly Salem Cruise of Deception Fictional families DiMera family Horton family Brady family Kiriakis family Johnson family Roberts family hide Days of Our Lives characters hide Present and future characters Brady Black John Black Tate Black Ciara Brady Claire Brady Eric Brady Hope Brady Kayla Brady Roman Brady Abe Carver Tripp Dalton Abigail Deveraux JJ Deveraux Chad DiMera Stefan DiMera Thomas DiMera Eve Donovan Theresa Donovan Marlena Evans Eli Grant Valerie Grant Gabi Hernandez Rafe Hernandez Arianna Horton Jennifer Horton Lucas Horton Maggie Horton Will Horton Adrienne Johnson Steve Johnson Justin Kiriakis Sonny Kiriakis Victor Kiriakis Xander Kiriakis Chloe Lane Paul Narita Lani Price Kate Roberts Ben Weston Doug Williams Julie Olson Williams Past characters Tom Horton Alice Horton Hattie Adams Lawrence Alamain Vivian Alamain Susan Banks Bart Beiderbecke Belle Black Peter Blake Eugene Bradford Bo Brady Caroline Brady Carrie Brady Cassie Brady Chelsea Brady Frankie Brady Kimberly Brady Max Brady Rex Brady Sami Brady Shawn Brady Shawn - Douglas Brady Lexie Carver Theo Carver Liz Chandler Don Craig Neil Curtis Cameron Davis Anjelica Deveraux Jack Deveraux André DiMera Anna DiMera Daphne DiMera EJ DiMera Johnny DiMera Kristen DiMera Santo DiMera Stefano DiMera Sydney DiMera Tony DiMera Drew Donovan Shane Donovan Lee DuMonde Renée DuMonde Nick Fallon Megan Hathaway Benjy Hawk Arianna Hernandez Dario Hernandez Eduardo Hernandez Addie Horton Allie Horton Bill Horton Jeremy Horton Laura Horton Marie Horton Melissa Horton Mickey Horton Nathan Horton Sarah Horton Tommy Horton Robin Jacobs Madison James Aiden Jennings Chase Jennings Joey Johnson Stephanie Johnson Daniel Jonas Melanie Jonas Parker Jonas Calliope Jones Bradford Alexander Kiriakis Deimos Kiriakis Philip Kiriakis Maxine Landis Paige Larson Bonnie Lockhart Mimi Lockhart Patrick Lockhart Carly Manning Alex Marshall Serena Mason Mia McCormick Jade Michaels Anne Milbauer Colin Murphy Tori Narita Celeste Perrault Austin Reed Billie Reed Curtis Reed Jordan Ridgeway Wilhelm Rolf Jan Spears Isabella Toscano Ava Vitali Gina Von Amberg Brandon Walker Fay Walker Nicole Walker Taylor Walker Nancy Wesley Clyde Weston Character lists 1960s 1970s 1980s 1990s 2000s 2010s Cast members Previous cast members Producers and writers Doug and Julie Bo and Hope Sami and EJ John and Marlena Jack and Jennifer Steve and Kayla Shawn and Belle Lucas and Sami Shane and Kimberly Will and Sonny Salem Cruise of Deception Horton family Brady family DiMera family Kiriakis family Johnson family Roberts family Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Chad_DiMera&oldid=854172540 '' Categories : Days of Our Lives characters Fictional characters introduced in 2009 Fictional American people of Italian descent Hidden categories : Pages using citations with accessdate and no URL CS1 errors : dates Talk Contents About Wikipedia Add links This page was last edited on 9 August 2018 , at 13 : 01 ( UTC ) . 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one of the causes of the german hyperinflationary period that occurred after world war i was

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Hyperinflation&oldid=863614185

Hyperinflation - wikipedia Hyperinflation For the medical condition , see Inhalation § Hyperaeration . Hyperinflation in Venezuela represented by the time it would take for money to lose 90 % of its value ( 301 - day rolling average , inverted logarithmic scale ) . Part of a series on Economics A supply and demand diagram , illustrating the effects of an increase in demand Index Outline Category History Branches Classification ( show ) History of economics Schools of economics Mainstream economics Heterodox economics Economic methodology Economic theory Political economy Microeconomics Macroeconomics International economics Applied economics Mathematical economics Econometrics JEL classification codes Concepts Theory Techniques ( show ) Economic systems Economic growth Market National accounting Experimental economics Computational economics Game theory Operations research By application ( show ) Agricultural Behavioral Business Cultural Demographic Development Digitization Ecological Education Engineering Environmental Evolutionary Expeditionary Economic geography Financial Health Economic history Industrial organization Information Institutional Knowledge Labour Law Managerial Monetary Natural resource Organizational Personnel Economic planning Economic policy Public economics Public / Social choice Regional Rural Service Socioeconomics Economic sociology Economic statistics Urban Welfare Welfare economics Notable economists ( show ) François Quesnay Adam Smith David Ricardo Thomas Robert Malthus John Stuart Mill Karl Marx Léon Walras Alfred Marshall John Maynard Keynes Arthur Cecil Pigou Paul Samuelson Lists ( show ) Economists Publications ( journals ) Glossary ( show ) Glossary of economics Business and economics portal In economics , hyperinflation is very high and typically accelerating inflation . It quickly erodes the real value of the currency , as the prices of most or all goods increase . This causes people to minimize their holdings in that currency as they usually switch to more stable foreign currencies . Prices typically remain stable in terms of other currencies . Unlike low inflation , where the process of rising prices is protracted and not generally noticeable except by studying past market prices , hyperinflation sees a rapid and continuing increase in nominal prices , the nominal cost of goods , and in the supply of money . Typically , however , the general price level rises even more rapidly than the money supply as people try ridding themselves of the devaluing currency as quickly as possible . As this happens , the real stock of money ( i.e. , the amount of circulating money divided by the price level ) decreases considerably . Some economists believe that hyperinflations are caused by large persistent government deficits financed primarily by money creation ( rather than by borrowing or by increasing taxation ) . As such , hyperinflation is often associated with some stress to the government budget , such as wars or their aftermath , sociopolitical upheavals , a collapse in export prices , or other crises that make it difficult for the government to collect tax revenue . A sharp decrease in real tax revenue coupled with a strong need to maintain government spending , together with an inability or unwillingness to borrow , can lead a country into hyperinflation . Contents 1 Definition 2 Causes 2.1 Money supply 2.2 Supply shocks 2.3 Models 3 Effects 3.1 Aftermath 3.2 Currency 4 Notable hyperinflationary episodes 4.1 Rome 4.2 Austria 4.3 China 4.4 France 4.5 Germany ( Weimar Republic ) 4.6 Greece ( German - Italian occupation ) 4.7 Hungary 4.8 North Korea 4.9 Peru 4.10 Poland 4.11 Philippines 4.12 British Malaya 4.13 Soviet Union 4.14 Venezuela 4.15 Yugoslavia 4.16 Zimbabwe 5 Examples of high inflation 5.1 Holy Roman Empire 5.2 Iraq 5.3 Mexico 5.4 Roman Egypt 5.5 Romania 5.6 Transnistria 5.7 Turkey 5.8 United States 5.9 Vietnam 6 Ten most severe hyperinflations in world history 7 Units of inflation 8 See also 9 References 10 Further reading 11 External links Definition ( edit ) In 1956 , Phillip Cagan wrote The Monetary Dynamics of Hyperinflation , the book often regarded as the first serious study of hyperinflation and its effects ( though The Economics of Inflation by C. Bresciani - Turroni on the German hyperinflation was published in Italian in 1931 ) . In his book , Cagan defined a hyperinflationary episode as starting in the month that the monthly inflation rate exceeds 50 % , and as ending when the monthly inflation rate drops below 50 % and stays that way for at least a year . Economists usually follow Cagan 's description that hyperinflation occurs when the monthly inflation rate exceeds 50 % . The International Accounting Standards Board has issued guidance on accounting rules in a hyperinflationary environment . It does not establish an absolute rule on when hyperinflation arises . Instead , it lists factors that indicate the existence of hyperinflation : The general population prefers to keep its wealth in non-monetary assets or in a relatively stable foreign currency . Amounts of local currency held are immediately invested to maintain purchasing power The general population regards monetary amounts not in terms of the local currency but in terms of a relatively stable foreign currency . Prices may be quoted in that currency ; Sales and purchases on credit take place at prices that compensate for the expected loss of purchasing power during the credit period , even if the period is short ; Interest rates , wages , and prices are linked to a price index ; and The cumulative inflation rate over three years approaches , or exceeds , 100 % . Causes ( edit ) While there can be a number of causes of high inflation , most hyperinflations have been caused by government budget deficits financed by money creation . Peter Bernholz analysed 29 hyperinflations ( following Cagan 's definition ) and concludes that at least 25 of them have been caused in this way . A necessary condition for hyperinflation is the use of paper money , instead of gold or silver coins . Most hyperinflations in history , with some exceptions , such as the French hyperinflation of 1789 - 1796 , occurred after the use of fiat currency became widespread in the late 19th century . The French hyperinflation took place after the introduction of a non-convertible paper currency , the assignats . Money supply ( edit ) Hyperinflation occurs when there is a continuing ( and often accelerating ) rapid increase in the amount of money that is not supported by a corresponding growth in the output of goods and services . The price increases that result from the rapid money creation creates a vicious circle , requiring ever growing amounts of new money creation to fund government deficits . Hence both monetary inflation and price inflation proceed at a rapid pace . Such rapidly increasing prices cause widespread unwillingness of the local population to hold the local currency as it rapidly loses its buying power . Instead they quickly spend any money they receive , which increases the velocity of money flow ; this in turn causes further acceleration in prices . This means that the increase in the price level is greater than that of the money supply . The real stock of money , M / P , decreases . Here M refers to the money stock and P to the price level . This results in an imbalance between the supply and demand for the money ( including currency and bank deposits ) , causing rapid inflation . Very high inflation rates can result in a loss of confidence in the currency , similar to a bank run . Usually , the excessive money supply growth results from the government being either unable or unwilling to fully finance the government budget through taxation or borrowing , and instead it finances the government budget deficit through the printing of money . Governments have sometimes resorted to excessively loose monetary policy , as it allows a government to devalue its debts and reduce ( or avoid ) a tax increase . Inflation is effectively a regressive tax on the users of money , but less overt than levied taxes and is therefore harder to understand by ordinary citizens . Inflation can obscure quantitative assessments of the true cost of living , as published price indices only look at data in retrospect , so may increase only months later . Monetary inflation can become hyperinflation if monetary authorities fail to fund increasing government expenses from taxes , government debt , cost cutting , or by other means , because either during the time between recording or levying taxable transactions and collecting the taxes due , the value of the taxes collected falls in real value to a small fraction of the original taxes receivable ; or government debt issues fail to find buyers except at very deep discounts ; or a combination of the above . Theories of hyperinflation generally look for a relationship between seigniorage and the inflation tax . In both Cagan 's model and the neo-classical models , a tipping point occurs when the increase in money supply or the drop in the monetary base makes it impossible for a government to improve its financial position . Thus when fiat money is printed , government obligations that are not denominated in money increase in cost by more than the value of the money created . The price of gold in Germany , 1 January 1918 -- 30 November 1923 . ( The vertical scale is logarithmic ) . From this , it might be wondered why any rational government would engage in actions that cause or continue hyperinflation . One reason for such actions is that often the alternative to hyperinflation is either depression or military defeat . The root cause is a matter of more dispute . In both classical economics and monetarism , it is always the result of the monetary authority irresponsibly borrowing money to pay all its expenses . These models focus on the unrestrained seigniorage of the monetary authority , and the gains from the inflation tax . In neo-classical economic theory , hyperinflation is rooted in a deterioration of the monetary base , that is the confidence that there is a store of value that the currency will be able to command later . In this model , the perceived risk of holding currency rises dramatically , and sellers demand increasingly high premiums to accept the currency . This in turn leads to a greater fear that the currency will collapse , causing even higher premiums . One example of this is during periods of warfare , civil war , or intense internal conflict of other kinds : governments need to do whatever is necessary to continue fighting , since the alternative is defeat . Expenses can not be cut significantly since the main outlay is armaments . Further , a civil war may make it difficult to raise taxes or to collect existing taxes . While in peacetime the deficit is financed by selling bonds , during a war it is typically difficult and expensive to borrow , especially if the war is going poorly for the government in question . The banking authorities , whether central or not , `` monetize '' the deficit , printing money to pay for the government 's efforts to survive . The hyperinflation under the Chinese Nationalists from 1939 to 1945 is a classic example of a government printing money to pay civil war costs . By the end , currency was flown in over the Himalayas , and then old currency was flown out to be destroyed . Hyperinflation is a complex phenomenon and one explanation may not be applicable to all cases . In both of these models , however , whether loss of confidence comes first , or central bank seigniorage , the other phase is ignited . In the case of rapid expansion of the money supply , prices rise rapidly in response to the increased supply of money relative to the supply of goods and services , and in the case of loss of confidence , the monetary authority responds to the risk premiums it has to pay by `` running the printing presses . '' Nevertheless , the immense acceleration process that occurs during hyperinflation ( such as during the German hyperinflation of 1922 / 23 ) still remains unclear and unpredictable . The transformation of an inflationary development into the hyperinflation has to be identified as a very complex phenomenon , which could be a further advanced research avenue of the complexity economics in conjunction with research areas like mass hysteria , bandwagon effect , social brain , and mirror neurons . Supply shocks ( edit ) A number of hyperinflations were caused by some sort of extreme negative supply shock , often but not always associated with wars , the breakdown of the communist system or natural disasters . Models ( edit ) Since hyperinflation is visible as a monetary effect , models of hyperinflation center on the demand for money . Economists see both a rapid increase in the money supply and an increase in the velocity of money if the ( monetary ) inflating is not stopped . Either one , or both of these together are the root causes of inflation and hyperinflation . A dramatic increase in the velocity of money as the cause of hyperinflation is central to the `` crisis of confidence '' model of hyperinflation , where the risk premium that sellers demand for the paper currency over the nominal value grows rapidly . The second theory is that there is first a radical increase in the amount of circulating medium , which can be called the `` monetary model '' of hyperinflation . In either model , the second effect then follows from the first -- either too little confidence forcing an increase in the money supply , or too much money destroying confidence . In the confidence model , some event , or series of events , such as defeats in battle , or a run on stocks of the specie that back a currency , removes the belief that the authority issuing the money will remain solvent -- whether a bank or a government . Because people do not want to hold notes that may become valueless , they want to spend them . Sellers , realizing that there is a higher risk for the currency , demand a greater and greater premium over the original value . Under this model , the method of ending hyperinflation is to change the backing of the currency , often by issuing a completely new one . War is one commonly cited cause of crisis of confidence , particularly losing in a war , as occurred during Napoleonic Vienna , and capital flight , sometimes because of `` contagion '' is another . In this view , the increase in the circulating medium is the result of the government attempting to buy time without coming to terms with the root cause of the lack of confidence itself . In the monetary model , hyperinflation is a positive feedback cycle of rapid monetary expansion . It has the same cause as all other inflation : money - issuing bodies , central or otherwise , produce currency to pay spiraling costs , often from lax fiscal policy , or the mounting costs of warfare . When business people perceive that the issuer is committed to a policy of rapid currency expansion , they mark up prices to cover the expected decay in the currency 's value . The issuer must then accelerate its expansion to cover these prices , which pushes the currency value down even faster than before . According to this model the issuer can not `` win '' and the only solution is to abruptly stop expanding the currency . Unfortunately , the end of expansion can cause a severe financial shock to those using the currency as expectations are suddenly adjusted . This policy , combined with reductions of pensions , wages , and government outlays , formed part of the Washington consensus of the 1990s . Whatever the cause , hyperinflation involves both the supply and velocity of money . Which comes first is a matter of debate , and there may be no universal story that applies to all cases . But once the hyperinflation is established , the pattern of increasing the money stock , by whichever agencies are allowed to do so , is universal . Because this practice increases the supply of currency without any matching increase in demand for it , the price of the currency , that is the exchange rate , naturally falls relative to other currencies . Inflation becomes hyperinflation when the increase in money supply turns specific areas of pricing power into a general frenzy of spending quickly before money becomes worthless . The purchasing power of the currency drops so rapidly that holding cash for even a day is an unacceptable loss of purchasing power . As a result , no one holds currency , which increases the velocity of money , and worsens the crisis . Because rapidly rising prices undermine the role of money as a store of value , people try to spend it on real goods or services as quickly as possible . Thus , the monetary model predicts that the velocity of money will increase as a result of an excessive increase in the money supply . At the point when money velocity and prices rapidly accelerate in a vicious circle , hyperinflation is out of control , because ordinary policy mechanisms , such as increasing reserve requirements , raising interest rates , or cutting government spending will be ineffective and be responded to by shifting away from the rapidly devalued money and towards other means of exchange . During a period of hyperinflation , bank runs , loans for 24 - hour periods , switching to alternate currencies , the return to use of gold or silver or even barter become common . Many of the people who hoard gold today expect hyperinflation , and are hedging against it by holding specie . There may also be extensive capital flight or flight to a `` hard '' currency such as the US dollar . This is sometimes met with capital controls , an idea that has swung from standard , to anathema , and back into semi-respectability . All of this constitutes an economy that is operating in an `` abnormal '' way , which may lead to decreases in real production . If so , that intensifies the hyperinflation , since it means that the amount of goods in `` too much money chasing too few goods '' formulation is also reduced . This is also part of the vicious circle of hyperinflation . Once the vicious circle of hyperinflation has been ignited , dramatic policy means are almost always required . Simply raising interest rates is insufficient . Bolivia , for example , underwent a period of hyperinflation in 1985 , where prices increased 12,000 % in the space of less than a year . The government raised the price of gasoline , which it had been selling at a huge loss to quiet popular discontent , and the hyperinflation came to a halt almost immediately , since it was able to bring in hard currency by selling its oil abroad . The crisis of confidence ended , and people returned deposits to banks . The German hyperinflation ( 1919 -- November 1923 ) was ended by producing a currency based on assets loaned against by banks , called the Rentenmark . Hyperinflation often ends when a civil conflict ends with one side winning . Although wage and price controls are sometimes used to control or prevent inflation , no episode of hyperinflation has been ended by the use of price controls alone , because price controls that force merchants to sell at prices far below their restocking costs result in shortages that cause prices to rise still further . Nobel prize winner Milton Friedman said `` We economists do n't know much , but we do know how to create a shortage . If you want to create a shortage of tomatoes , for example , just pass a law that retailers ca n't sell tomatoes for more than two cents per pound . Instantly you 'll have a tomato shortage . It 's the same with oil or gas . '' Effects ( edit ) Germany , 1923 : banknotes had lost so much value that they were used as wallpaper . Hyperinflation effectively wipes out the purchasing power of private and public savings ; distorts the economy in favor of the hoarding of real assets ; causes the monetary base , whether specie or hard currency , to flee the country ; and makes the afflicted area anathema to investment . One of the most important characteristics of hyperinflation is the accelerating substitution of the inflating money by stable money -- gold and silver in former times , then relatively stable foreign currencies after the breakdown of the gold or silver standards ( Thiers ' Law ) . If inflation is high enough , government regulations like heavy penalties and fines , often combined with exchange controls , can not prevent this currency substitution . As a consequence , the inflating currency is usually heavily undervalued compared to stable foreign money in terms of purchasing power parity . So foreigners can live cheaply and buy at low prices in the countries hit by high inflation . It follows that governments that do not succeed in engineering a successful currency reform in time must finally legalize the stable foreign currencies ( or , formerly , gold and silver ) that threaten to fully substitute the inflating money . Otherwise , their tax revenues , including the inflation tax , will approach zero . The last episode of hyperinflation in which this process could be observed was in Zimbabwe in the first decade of the 21st century . In this case , the local money was mainly driven out by the US dollar and the South African rand . Enactment of price controls to prevent discounting the value of paper money relative to gold , silver , hard currency , or other commodities fail to force acceptance of a paper money that lacks intrinsic value . If the entity responsible for printing a currency promotes excessive money printing , with other factors contributing a reinforcing effect , hyperinflation usually continues . Hyperinflation is generally associated with paper money , which can easily be used to increase the money supply : add more zeros to the plates and print , or even stamp old notes with new numbers . Historically , there have been numerous episodes of hyperinflation in various countries followed by a return to `` hard money '' . Older economies would revert to hard currency and barter when the circulating medium became excessively devalued , generally following a `` run '' on the store of value . Much attention on hyperinflation centers on the effect on savers whose investments become worthless . Interest rate changes often can not keep up with hyperinflation or even high inflation , certainly with contractually fixed interest rates . For example , in the 1970s in the United Kingdom inflation reached 25 % per annum , yet interest rates did not rise above 15 % -- and then only briefly -- and many fixed interest rate loans existed . Contractually , there is often no bar to a debtor clearing his long term debt with `` hyperinflated cash '' , nor could a lender simply somehow suspend the loan . Contractual `` early redemption penalties '' were ( and still are ) often based on a penalty of n months of interest / payment ; again no real bar to paying off what had been a large loan . In interwar Germany , for example , much private and corporate debt was effectively wiped out -- certainly for those holding fixed interest rate loans . Ludwig von Mises used the term `` crack - up boom '' ( German : Katastrophenhausse ) to describe the economic consequences of an unmitigated increasing in the base - money supply . As more and more money is provided , interest rates decline towards zero . Realizing that fiat money is losing value , investors will try to place money in assets such as real estate , stocks , even art ; as these appear to represent `` real '' value . Asset prices are thus becoming inflated . This potentially spiraling process will ultimately lead to the collapse of the monetary system . The Cantillon effect says that those institutions that receive the new money first are the beneficiaries of the policy . Aftermath ( edit ) Hyperinflation is ended by drastic remedies , such as imposing the shock therapy of slashing government expenditures or altering the currency basis . One form this may take is dollarization , the use of a foreign currency ( not necessarily the U.S. dollar ) as a national unit of currency . An example was dollarization in Ecuador , initiated in September 2000 in response to a 75 % loss of value of the Ecuadorian sucre in early 2000 . But usually the `` dollarization '' takes place in spite of all efforts of the government to prevent it by exchange controls , heavy fines and penalties . The government has thus to try to engineer a successful currency reform stabilizing the value of the money . If it does not succeed with this reform the substitution of the inflating by stable money goes on . Thus it is not surprising that there have been at least seven historical cases in which the good ( foreign ) money did fully drive out the use of the inflating currency . In the end the government had to legalize the former , for otherwise its revenues would have fallen to zero . Hyperinflation has always been a traumatic experience for the people who suffer it , and the next political regime almost always enacts policies to try to prevent its recurrence . Often this means making the central bank very aggressive about maintaining price stability , as was the case with the German Bundesbank , or moving to some hard basis of currency , such as a currency board . Many governments have enacted extremely stiff wage and price controls in the wake of hyperinflation , but this does not prevent further inflation of the money supply by the central bank , and always leads to widespread shortages of consumer goods if the controls are rigidly enforced . Currency ( edit ) In countries experiencing hyperinflation , the central bank often prints money in larger and larger denominations as the smaller denomination notes become worthless . This can result in the production of unusually large demoninations of banknotes , including those denominated in amounts of 1,000,000,000 or more . By late 1923 , the Weimar Republic of Germany was issuing two - trillion mark banknotes and postage stamps with a face value of fifty billion marks . The highest value banknote issued by the Weimar government 's Reichsbank had a face value of 100 trillion marks ( 10 ; 100,000,000,000,000 ; 100 million million ) . At the height of the inflation , one US dollar was worth 4 trillion German marks . One of the firms printing these notes submitted an invoice for the work to the Reichsbank for 32,776,899,763,734,490,417.05 ( 3.28 × 10 , or 33 quintillion ) marks . The largest denomination banknote ever officially issued for circulation was in 1946 by the Hungarian National Bank for the amount of 100 quintillion pengő ( 100,000,000,000,000,000,000 , or 10 ; 100 million million million ) image . ( A banknote worth 10 times as much , 10 ( 1 sextillion ) pengő , was printed but not issued image . ) The banknotes did not show the numbers in full : `` hundred million b. - pengő '' ( `` hundred million trillion pengő '' ) and `` one milliard b. - pengő '' were spelled out instead . This makes the 100,000,000,000,000 Zimbabwean dollar banknotes the note with the greatest number of zeros shown . The Post-World War II hyperinflation of Hungary held the record for the most extreme monthly inflation rate ever -- 41,900,000,000,000,000 % ( 4.19 × 10 % or 41.9 quadrillion percent ) for July 1946 , amounting to prices doubling every 15.3 hours . By comparison , recent figures ( as of 14 November 2008 ) estimate Zimbabwe 's annual inflation rate at 89.7 sextillion ( 10 ) percent . The highest monthly inflation rate of that period was 79.6 billion percent , and a doubling time of 24.7 hours . In figures , that is 79,600,000,000 % . One way to avoid the use of large numbers is by declaring a new unit of currency . ( As an example , instead of 10,000,000,000 dollars , a central bank might set 1 new dollar = 1,000,000,000 old dollars , so the new note would read `` 10 new dollars '' . ) A recent example of this is Turkey 's revaluation of the Lira on 1 January 2005 , when the old Turkish lira ( TRL ) was converted to the New Turkish lira ( TRY ) at a rate of 1,000,000 old to 1 new Turkish Lira . While this does not lessen the actual value of a currency , it is called redenomination or revaluation and also occasionally happens in countries with lower inflation rates . During hyperinflation , currency inflation happens so quickly that bills reach large numbers before revaluation . Some banknotes were stamped to indicate changes of denomination , as it would have taken too long to print new notes . By the time new notes were printed , they would be obsolete ( that is , they would be of too low a denomination to be useful ) . Metallic coins were rapid casualties of hyperinflation , as the scrap value of metal enormously exceeded its face value . Massive amounts of coinage were melted down , usually illicitly , and exported for hard currency . Governments will often try to disguise the true rate of inflation through a variety of techniques . None of these actions addresses the root causes of inflation ; and if discovered , they tend to further undermine trust in the currency , causing further increases in inflation . Price controls will generally result in shortages and hoarding and extremely high demand for the controlled goods , causing disruptions of supply chains . Products available to consumers may diminish or disappear as businesses no longer find it economic to continue producing and / or distributing such goods at the legal prices , further exacerbating the shortages . There are also issues with computerized money - handling systems . In Zimbabwe , during the hyperinflation of the Zimbabwe dollar , many automated teller machines and payment card machines struggled with arithmetic overflow errors as customers required many billions and trillions of dollars at one time . Notable hyperinflationary episodes ( edit ) Rome ( edit ) During the Crisis of the Third Century , Rome underwent hyperinflation caused by years of coinage devaluation . Austria ( edit ) Hanke Krus Hyperinflation Table that lists 56 episodes of hyperinflation ( following Cagan 's definition ) In 1922 , inflation in Austria reached 1,426 % , and from 1914 to January 1923 , the consumer price index rose by a factor of 11,836 , with the highest banknote in denominations of 500,000 Austrian krones . After World War I , essentially all State enterprises ran at a loss , and the number of state employees in the capital , Vienna , was greater than in the earlier monarchy , even though the new republic was nearly one - eighth of the size . Observing the Austrian response to developing hyperinflation , which included the hoarding of food and the speculation in foreign currencies , Owen S. Phillpotts , the Commercial Secretary at the British Legation in Vienna wrote : `` The Austrians are like men on a ship who can not manage it , and are continually signalling for help . While waiting , however , most of them begin to cut rafts , each for himself , out of the sides and decks . The ship has not yet sunk despite the leaks so caused , and those who have acquired stores of wood in this way may use them to cook their food , while the more seamanlike look on cold and hungry . The population lack courage and energy as well as patriotism . '' Start and End Date : Oct. 1921 -- Sep. 1922 Peak Month and Rate of Inflation : Aug. 1922 , 129 % China ( edit ) As the first user of fiat currency , China was also the first country to experience hyperinflation . Paper currency was introduced during the Tang Dynasty , and was generally welcomed . It maintained its value , as successive Chinese governments put in place strict controls on issuance . The convenience of paper currency for trade purposes led to strong demand for paper currency . It was only when discipline on quantity supplied broke down that hyperinflation emerged . The Yuan Dynasty ( 1271 -- 1368 ) was the first to print large amounts of fiat paper money to fund their wars , resulting in hyperinflation . Much later , the Republic of China went through hyperinflation from 1948 -- 49 . In 1947 , the highest denomination bill was 50,000 yuan . By mid-1948 , the highest denomination was 180,000,000 yuan . The 1948 currency reform replaced the yuan by the gold yuan at an exchange rate of 1 gold yuan = 3,000,000 yuan . In less than a year , the highest denomination was 10,000,000 gold yuan . In the final days of the civil war , the Silver Yuan was briefly introduced at the rate of 500,000,000 Gold Yuan . Meanwhile , the highest denomination issued by a regional bank was 6,000,000,000 yuan ( issued by Xinjiang Provincial Bank in 1949 ) . After the renminbi was instituted by the new communist government , hyperinflation ceased , with a revaluation of 1 : 10,000 old Renminbi in 1955 . ( 1 ) Start and End Date : Jul. 1943 -- Aug. 1945 ( 1 ) Peak Month and Rate of Inflation : Jun. 1945 , 302 % ( 2 ) Start and End Date : Oct. 1947 -- Mid . May 1949 ( 2 ) Peak Month and Rate of Inflation : Apr 5,070 % France ( edit ) During the French Revolution and first Republic , the National Assembly issued bonds , some backed by seized church property , called assignats . Napoleon replaced them with the franc in 1803 , at which time the assignats were basically worthless . Stephen D. Dillaye pointed out that one of the reasons for the failure was massive counterfeiting of the paper currency , `` the Assignats '' -- largely through London -- where , according to Dillaye : `` Seventeen manufacturing establishments were in full operation in London , with a force of four hundred men devoted to the production of false and forged Assignats . '' Start and End Date : May 1795 -- Nov. 1796 Peak Month and Rate of Inflation : Mid-Aug. 1796 , 304 % Germany ( Weimar Republic ) ( edit ) Main article : Hyperinflation in the Weimar Republic 5 Million Mark coin would have been worth $714.29 in Jan 1923 , about 1 thousandth of one cent by Oct 1923 . By November 1922 , the value in gold of money in circulation had fallen from £ 300 million before World War I to £ 20 million . The Reichsbank responded by the unlimited printing of notes , thereby accelerating the devaluation of the mark . In his report to London , Lord D'Abernon wrote : `` In the whole course of history , no dog has ever run after its own tail with the speed of the Reichsbank . '' Germany went through its worst inflation in 1923 . In 1922 , the highest denomination was 50,000 Marks . By 1923 , the highest denomination was 100,000,000,000,000 ( 10 ) Marks . In December 1923 the exchange rate was 4,200,000,000,000 ( 4.2 × 10 ) Marks to 1 US dollar . In 1923 , the rate of inflation hit 3.25 × 10 percent per month ( prices double every two days ) . Beginning on 20 November 1923 , 1,000,000,000,000 old Marks were exchanged for 1 Rentenmark , so that 4.2 Rentenmarks were worth 1 US dollar , exactly the same rate the Mark had in 1914 . ( 1 ) Start and End Date : Jan. 1920 -- Jan. 1920 ( 1 ) Peak Month and Rate of Inflation : Jan. 1920 , 56.9 % ( 2 ) Start and End Date : Aug. 1922 -- Dec. 1923 ( 2 ) Peak Month and Rate of Inflation : Nov. 1923 , 29,525 % Greece ( German - Italian occupation ) ( edit ) With the German invasion in April 1941 , there was an abrupt increase in prices . This was due to psychological factors related to the fear of shortages and to the hoarding of goods . During the German and Italian Axis occupation of Greece ( 1941 - 1944 ) , the agricultural , mineral , industrial etc. production of Greece were used to sustain the occupation forces , but also to secure provisions for the Afrika Korps . One part of these `` sales '' of provisions was settled with bilateral clearing through the German DEGRIGES and the Italian Sagic companies at very low prices . As the value of Greek exports in drachmas fell , the demand for drachmas followed suit and so did its forex rate . While shortages started due to naval blockades and hoarding , the prices of commodities soared . The other part of the `` purchases '' was settled with drachmas secured from the Bank of Greece and printed for this purpose by private printing presses . As prices soared , the Germans and Italians started requesting more and more drachmas from the Bank of Greece to offset price increases ; each time prices increased , the note circulation followed suit soon afterwards . For the year November 1943 - November 1944 , the inflation rate was 2.5 × 10 % , the circulation was 6.28 × 10 drachmae and one gold sovereign cost 43,167 billion drachmas . The hyperinflation started subsiding immediately after the departure of the German occupation forces , but inflation rates took several years before they fell below 50 % . Start and End Date : Jun. 1941 -- Jan. 1946 Peak Month and Rate of Inflation : Dec. 1944 , 3.0 × 10 % Hungary ( edit ) Main article : Hungarian pengő hyperinflation The 100 million b. - pengő note was the highest denomination of banknote ever issued , worth 10 or 100 quintillion Hungarian pengő ( 1946 ) . B. - pengő was short for `` billió pengő '' , i.e. 10 pengő . The Treaty of Trianon and political instability between 1919 and 1924 led to a major inflation of Hungary 's currency . In 1921 , in an attempt to stop inflation , the national assembly of Hungary passed the Hegedűs reforms , including a 20 % levy on bank deposits . This action precipitated a mistrust of banks by the public , especially the peasants , and resulted in a reduction in savings and in the amount of currency in circulation . Unable to tax adequately , the government resorted to printing money , and in 1923 inflation in Hungary reached 98 % per month . Between the end of 1945 and July 1946 , Hungary went through the worst inflation ever recorded . In 1944 , the highest denomination was 1,000 pengő . By the end of 1945 , it was 10,000,000 pengő . The highest denomination in mid-1946 was 100,000,000,000,000,000,000 ( 10 ) pengő . A special currency , the adópengő -- or tax pengő -- was created for tax and postal payments . The value of the adópengő was adjusted each day , by radio announcement . On 1 January 1946 one adópengő equaled one pengő . By late July , one adópengő equaled 2,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 or 2 × 10 ( 2 sextillion ) pengő . When the pengő was replaced in August 1946 by the forint , the total value of all Hungarian banknotes in circulation amounted to / of one US dollar . This is the most severe known incident of inflation recorded , peaking at 1.3 × 10 percent per month ( prices double every 15 hours ) . The overall impact of hyperinflation : On 18 August 1946 , 400,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 or 4 × 10 ( four hundred quadrilliard on the long scale used in Hungary ; four hundred octillion on short scale ) pengő became 1 forint . Start and End Date : Aug. 1945 -- Jul. 1946 Peak Month and Rate of Inflation : Jul. 1946 , 41.9 quadrillion percent North Korea ( edit ) North Korea has most likely experienced hyperinflation from December 2009 to mid-January 2011 . Based on the price of rice , North Korea 's hyperinflation peaked in mid-January 2010 , but according to black market exchange - rate data , and calculations based on purchasing power parity , North Korea experienced its peak month of inflation in early March 2010 . These data are unofficial , however , and therefore must be treated with a degree of caution . Peru ( edit ) In modern history , Peru has underwent a hyperinflation period ranging from the 1980s to the early 1990s starting with President Fernando Belaunde 's second administration , heightening during Alan Garcia 's first administration , to the beginning of Alberto Fujimori 's term . Over 3,210,000,000 old soles would be worth one USD . Garcia 's term introduced the inti , which worsened the inflation into hyperinflation . Peru 's currency and economy was pacified under Fujimori 's Nuevo Sol program , which remains as Peru 's currency . Poland ( edit ) Poland has gone through two episodes of hyperinflation since the country regained independence following the first world war : the first one in 1923 , the second one in 1989 - 1990 . Both of these events resulted in introduction of new currencies . In 1924 , the złoty replaced the original currency of post-war Poland , the mark . The currency was then replaced by a new one of the same name in 1950 , which was assigned the ISO code of PLZ . As a result of the second hyperinflation crisis , the current new złoty was introduced in 1990 ( ISO code : PLN ) . See the article on Polish złoty for more information about the currency 's history . The newly independent Poland had been struggling with a large budget deficit since its inception in 1918 but it was in 1923 when inflation reached its peak . The exchange rate to the American dollar went up from 9 Polish marks for a dollar in 1918 to 6,375,000 marks per dollar at the end of 1923 . A new personal ' inflation tax ' was introduced . The resolution of the crisis is attributed to the person of Władysław Grabski , who became the prime minister of Poland in December 1923 . Having nominated an all - new government and been granted extraordinary lawmaking powers by the Sejm for a period of six months , he went on to introduce a new currency , establish a new national bank and scrap the inflation tax , which took place throughout 1924 . The economic crisis in Poland in 1980s was accompanied by rising inflation when new money was printed to cover a budget deficit . Although the inflation was not as acute as in 1920s , it is estimated that its annual rate reached around 600 % in a period of over a year spanning parts of 1989 and 1990 . The economy was stabilised by the adoption of the Balcerowicz Plan in 1989 , named so after the main author of the reforms , the minister of finance Leszek Balcerowicz . The plan was largely inspired by the previous Grabski 's reforms . Philippines ( edit ) The Japanese government occupying the Philippines during World War II issued fiat currencies for general circulation . The Japanese - sponsored Second Philippine Republic government led by Jose P. Laurel at the same time outlawed possession of other currencies , most especially `` guerilla money . '' The fiat money 's lack of value earned it the derisive nickname `` Mickey Mouse money '' . Survivors of the war often tell tales of bringing suitcase or bayong ( native bags made of woven coconut or buri leaf strips ) overflowing with Japanese - issued bills . In the early times , 75 Mickey Mouse pesos could buy one duck egg . In 1944 , a box of matches cost more than 100 Mickey Mouse pesos . In 1942 , the highest denomination available was 10 pesos . Before the end of the war , because of inflation , the Japanese government was forced to issue 100 , 500 , and 1000 peso notes . Start and End Date : Jan. 1944 -- Dec. 1944 Peak Month and Rate of Inflation : Jan. 1944 , 60 % British Malaya ( edit ) Banana banknotes issued by the Japanese Government during the occupation of Malaya . The term `` banana money '' originates from the motifs of banana trees on the currency 's 10 dollar banknote . Malaya and Singapore were under Japanese occupation from 1942 until 1945 . The Japanese issued banana money as the official currency to replace the Straits currency issued by the British . During that time , the cost of basic necessities increased drastically . As the occupation proceeded , the Japanese authorities printed more money to fund their wartime activities , which resulted in hyperinflation and a severe depreciation in value of the banana note . From February to December 1942 , $100 of Straits currency was worth $100 in Japanese scrip , after which the value of Japanese scrip began to erode , reaching $385 on December 1943 and $1,850 one year later . By 1 August 1945 , this had inflated to $10,500 , and 11 days later it had reached $95,000 . After 13 August 1945 , Japanese scrip had become valueless . Soviet Union ( edit ) Main article : Hyperinflation in early Soviet Russia A seven - year period of uncontrollable spiralling inflation occurred in the early Soviet Union , running from the earliest days of the Bolshevik Revolution in November 1917 to the reestablishment of the gold standard with the introduction of the chervonets as part of the New Economic Policy . The inflationary crisis effectively ended in March 1924 with the introduction of the so - called `` gold ruble '' as the country 's standard currency . The early Soviet hyperinflationary period was marked by three successive redenominations of its currency , in which `` new rubles '' replaced old at the rates of 10,000 - to - 1 ( 1 January 1922 ) , 100 - to - 1 ( 1 January 1923 ) , and 50,000 - to - 1 ( 7 March 1924 ) , respectively . Between 1921 and 1922 , inflation in the Soviet Union reached 213 % . Venezuela ( edit ) Main article : Crisis in Venezuela The value of one US dollar in Venezuelan Bolivares fuertes on the black market through time , according to DolarToday.com . Blue vertical lines represent every time the currency has lost 90 % of its value . This has happened five times since 2012 , meaning that the currency is worth , as of June 2018 , 100,000 times less than in August 2012 , since it has lost more than 99.999 % of its value . Venezuela 's hyperinflation began in November 2016 . Inflation of Venezuela 's bolivar fuerte ( VEF ) in 2014 reached 69 % and was the highest in the world . In 2015 , inflation was 181 % , the highest in the world and the highest in the country 's history at that time , 800 % in 2016 and over 4,000 % in 2017 , with Venezuela spiraling into hyperinflation . While the Venezuelan government `` has essentially stopped '' producing official inflation estimates as of early 2018 , one estimation of the rate at that time was 5,220 % , according to inflation economist Steve Hanke of Johns Hopkins University . Inflation has affected Venezuelans so much that in 2017 , some people became video game gold farmers and could be seen playing games such as RuneScape to sell in - game currency or characters for real currency . In many cases , these gamers made more money than salaried workers in Venezuela even though they were earning just a few dollars per day . In the Christmas season of 2017 , some shops would no longer use price tags since prices would inflate so quickly , so customers were required to ask staff at stores how much each item was . The International Monetary Fund estimated in 2018 that Venezuela 's inflation rate would reach 1,000,000 % by the end of the year. . This forecast was criticized by Steve H. Hanke , professor of applied economics at The Johns Hopkins University and senior fellow at the Cato Institute . According to Hanke , the IMF had released a `` bogus forecast '' because `` no one has ever been able to accurately forecast the course or the duration of an episode of hyperinflation . But , that has n't stopped the IMF from offering up inflation forecasts for Venezuela that have proven to be wildly inaccurate '' . In July 2018 , Hyperinflation in Venezuela was sitting 33,151 % , `` the 23rd most severe episode of hyperinflation in history '' . Start and End Date : Nov. 2016 -- ongoing Peak Month and Rate of Inflation : Apr. 2018 , 234 % Yugoslavia ( edit ) A 500 billion Yugoslav dinar banknote circa 1993 , the largest nominal value ever officially printed in Yugoslavia , the final result of hyperinflation . Yugoslavia went through a period of hyperinflation and subsequent currency reforms from 1989 -- 1994 . One of several regional conflicts accompanying the dissolution of Yugoslavia was the Bosnian War ( 1992 -- 1995 ) . The Belgrade government of Slobodan Milošević backed ethnic Serbian secessionist forces in the conflict , resulting in a United Nations boycott of Yugoslavia . The UN boycott collapsed an economy already weakened by regional war , with the projected monthly inflation rate accelerating to one million percent by December 1993 ( prices double every 2.3 days ) . The highest denomination in 1988 was 50,000 dinars . By 1989 it was 2,000,000 dinars . In the 1990 currency reform , 1 new dinar was exchanged for 10,000 old dinars . In the 1992 currency reform , 1 new dinar was exchanged for 10 old dinars . The highest denomination in 1992 was 50,000 dinars . By 1993 , it was 10,000,000,000 dinars . In the 1993 currency reform , 1 new dinar was exchanged for 1,000,000 old dinars . Before the year was over , however , the highest denomination was 500,000,000,000 dinars . In the 1994 currency reform , 1 new dinar was exchanged for 1,000,000,000 old dinars . In another currency reform a month later , 1 novi dinar was exchanged for 13 million dinars ( 1 novi dinar = 1 German mark at the time of exchange ) . The overall impact of hyperinflation was that 1 novi dinar was equal to 1 × 10 ~ 1.3 × 10 pre-1990 dinars . Yugoslavia 's rate of inflation hit 5 × 10 percent cumulative inflation over the time period 1 October 1993 and 24 January 1994 . ( 1 ) Start and End Date : Sept. 1989 -- Dec. 1989 ( 1 ) Peak Month and Rate of Inflation : Dec 1989 , 59.7 % ( 2 ) Start and End Date : Apr. 1992 -- Jan. 1994 ( 2 ) Peak Month and Rate of Inflation : Jan. 1994 , 313 million percent Zimbabwe ( edit ) Main article : Hyperinflation in Zimbabwe The 100 trillion Zimbabwean dollar banknote ( 10 dollars ) , equal to 10 ( 1 octillion ) pre-2006 dollars . Hyperinflation in Zimbabwe was one of the few instances that resulted in the abandonment of the local currency . At independence in 1980 , the Zimbabwe dollar ( ZWD ) was worth about USD 1.25 . Afterwards , however , rampant inflation and the collapse of the economy severely devalued the currency . Inflation was steady until British Prime Minister Tony Blair reneged on Land reform agreements arrived at between Margaret Thatcher and Robert Mugabe continued land redistribution from the white farming community in 1998 , resulting in reductions in food production and the decline of foreign investment . Several multinational companies began hoarding of retail goods in warehouses in Zimbabwe and just south of the border , preventing commodities becoming available on the market The result was that to pay its expenditures Mugabe 's government and Gideon Gono 's Reserve Bank printed more and more notes with higher face values . Hyperinflation began early in the 21st century , reaching 624 % in 2004 . It fell back to low triple digits before surging to a new high of 1,730 % in 2006 . The Reserve Bank of Zimbabwe revalued on 1 August 2006 at a ratio of 1,000 ZWD to each second dollar ( ZWN ) , but year - to - year inflation rose by June 2007 to 11,000 % ( versus an earlier estimate of 9,000 % ) . Larger denominations were progressively issued in 2008 : 5 May : banknotes or `` bearer cheques '' for the value of ZWN 100 million and ZWN 250 million . 15 May : new bearer cheques with a value of ZWN 500 million ( then equivalent to about USD 2.50 ) . 20 May : a new series of notes ( `` agro cheques '' ) in denominations of $5 billion , $25 billion and $50 billion . 21 July : `` agro cheque '' for $100 billion . Inflation by 16 July officially surged to 2,200,000 % with some analysts estimating figures surpassing 9,000,000 % . As of 22 July 2008 the value of the ZWN fell to approximately 688 billion per 1 USD , or 688 trillion pre-August 2006 Zimbabwean dollars . Date of redenomination Currency code Value 1 August 2006 ZWN 1 000 ZWD 1 August 2008 ZWR 10 ZWN = 10 ZWD 2 February 2009 ZWL 10 ZWR = 10 ZWN = 10 ZWD On 1 August 2008 , the Zimbabwe dollar was redenominated at the ratio of 10 ZWN to each third dollar ( ZWR ) . On 19 August 2008 , official figures announced for June estimated the inflation over 11,250,000 % . Zimbabwe 's annual inflation was 231,000,000 % in July ( prices doubling every 17.3 days ) . By October 2008 Zimbabwe was mired in hyperinflation with wages falling far behind inflation . In this dysfunctional economy hospitals and schools had chronic staffing problems , because many nurses and teachers could not afford bus fare to work . Most of the capital of Harare was without water because the authorities had stopped paying the bills to buy and transport the treatment chemicals . Desperate for foreign currency to keep the government functioning , Zimbabwe 's central bank governor , Gideon Gono , sent runners into the streets with suitcases of Zimbabwean dollars to buy up American dollars and South African rand . For periods after July 2008 , no official inflation statistics were released . Prof. Steve H. Hanke overcame the problem by estimating inflation rates after July 2008 and publishing the Hanke Hyperinflation Index for Zimbabwe . Prof. Hanke 's HHIZ measure indicated that the inflation peaked at an annual rate of 89.7 sextillion percent ( 89,700,000,000,000,000,000,000 % ) in mid-November 2008 . The peak monthly rate was 79.6 billion percent , which is equivalent to a 98 % daily rate , or around 7 × 10 ^ percent yearly rate . At that rate , prices were doubling every 24.7 hours . Note that many of these figures should be considered mostly theoretic , since the hyperinflation did not proceed at that rate a whole year . At its November 2008 peak , Zimbabwe 's rate of inflation approached , but failed to surpass , Hungary 's July 1946 world record . On 2 February 2009 , the dollar was redenominated for the third time at the ratio of 10 ZWR to 1 ZWL , only three weeks after the $100 trillion banknote was issued on 16 January , but hyperinflation waned by then as official inflation rates in USD were announced and foreign transactions were legalised , and on 12 April the Zimbabwe dollar was abandoned in favour of using only foreign currencies . The overall impact of hyperinflation was 1 ZWL = 10 ZWD . Start and End Date : Mar. 2007 -- Mid-Nov. 2008 Peak Month and Rate of Inflation : Mid-Nov. 2008 , 79.6 billion percent Examples of high inflation ( edit ) Some countries experienced very high inflation , but did not reach hyperinflation , as defined as a monthly inflation rate of 50 % . Holy Roman empire ( edit ) Main article : Kipper und Wipper Between 1620 and 1622 the Kreuzer fell from 1 Reichsthaler to 124 Kreuzer in end of 1619 to 1 Reichstaler to over 600 ( regionally over 1000 ) Kreuzer in end of 1622 , during the Thirty Years ' War . This is a monthly inflation rate of over 20.6 % ( regionally over 34.4 % ) . Iraq ( edit ) Between 1987 and 1995 the Iraqi Dinar went from an official value of 0.306 Dinars / USD ( or $3.26 USD per dinar , though the black market rate is thought to have been substantially lower ) to 3,000 Dinars / USD due to government printing of 10s of trillions of dinars starting with a base of only 10s of billions . That equates to approximately 315 % inflation per year averaged over that eight - year period . Mexico ( edit ) In spite of increased oil prices in the late 1970s ( Mexico is a producer and exporter ) , Mexico defaulted on its external debt in 1982 . As a result , the country suffered a severe case of capital flight and several years of acute inflation and peso devaluation , leading to an accumulated inflation rate of almost 27,000 % between December 1975 and late 1988 . On 1 January 1993 , Mexico created a new currency , the nuevo peso ( `` new peso '' , or MXN ) , which chopped three zeros off the old peso ( One new peso was equal to 1,000 old MXP pesos ) . Roman Egypt ( edit ) In Roman Egypt , where the best documentation on pricing has survived , the price of a measure of wheat was 200 drachmae in 276 AD , and increased to more than 2,000,000 drachmae in 334 AD , roughly 1,000,000 % inflation in a span of 58 years . Although the price increased by a factor of 10,000 over 58 years , the annual rate of inflation was only 17.2 % ( 1.4 % monthly ) compounded . Romania ( edit ) Romania experienced high inflation in the 1990s . The highest denomination in 1990 was 100 lei and in 1998 was 100,000 lei . By 2000 it was 500,000 lei . In early 2005 it was 1,000,000 lei . In July 2005 the lei was replaced by the new leu at 10,000 old lei = 1 new leu . Inflation in 2005 was 9 % . In July 2005 the highest denomination became 500 lei ( = 5,000,000 old lei ) . Transnistria ( edit ) The Second Transnistrian ruble consisted solely of banknotes and suffered from high inflation , necessitating the issue of notes overstamped with higher denominations . 1 and sometimes 10 ruble become 10,000 ruble , 5 ruble become 50,000 and 10 ruble become 100,000 ruble . In 2000 , a new ruble was introduced at a rate of 1 new ruble = 1,000,000 old rubles . Turkey ( edit ) Main article : Turkish currency and debt crisis , 2018 Since the end of 2017 has high inflation rates . It is speculated that the new elections took place frustrated because of the impending crisis to forestall . In October 2017 , inflation was at 11.9 % , the highest rate since July 2008 . The Turkish Lira fall from 1.503 TRY = 1 US - Dollar in 2010 to 5.5695 TRY = 1 US - Dollar in August 2018 . United states ( edit ) During the Revolutionary War , when the Continental Congress authorized the printing of paper called continental currency , the monthly inflation rate reached a peak of 47 percent in November 1779 ( Bernholz 2003 : 48 ) . These notes depreciated rapidly , giving rise to the expression `` not worth a continental . '' One cause of the inflation was counterfeiting by the British , who ran a press on HMS Phoenix , moored in New York Harbour . The counterfeits were advertised and sold almost for the price of the paper they were printed on . A second close encounter occurred during the U.S. Civil War , between January 1861 and April 1865 , the Lerner Commodity Price Index of leading cities in the eastern Confederacy states increased from 100 to over 9,000 . As the Civil War dragged on , the Confederate dollar had less and less value , until it was almost worthless by the last few months of the war . Similarly , the Union government inflated its greenbacks , with the monthly rate peaking at 40 percent in March 1864 ( Bernholz 2003 : 107 ) . Vietnam ( edit ) Vietnam went through a period of chaos and hyperinflation in the late 1980s , with inflation peaking at 774 % in 1988 , after the country 's `` price - wage - currency '' reform package , led by then - Deputy Prime Minister Trần Phương , had failed . Hyperinflation also occurred in the early stages of the socialist - oriented market economic reforms commonly referred to as the Đổi Mới . Ten most severe hyperinflations in world history ( edit ) Highest monthly inflation rates in history Country Currency name Month with highest inflation rate Highest monthly inflation rate Equivalent daily inflation rate Time required for prices to double Highest denomination Hungary Hungarian pengő July 1946 4.19 × 10 % 207.19 % 15.6 hours 100 Quintillion ( 10 ) Zimbabwe Zimbabwe dollar November 2008 7.96 × 10 % 98.01 % 24.7 hours 100 Trillion ( 10 ) Yugoslavia Yugoslav dinar January 1994 3.13 × 10 % 64.63 % 1.4 days 500 Billion ( 5 × 10 ) Republika Srpska Republika Srpska dinar January 1994 2.97 × 10 % 64.3 % 1.41 days 10 Billion ( 10 × 10 ) Germany ( Weimar Republic ) German Papiermark October 1923 29,500 % 20.87 % 3.7 days 100 Trillion ( 10 ) Greece Greek drachma October 1944 13,800 % 17.84 % 4.3 days 100 Billion ( 10 ) China Chinese yuan April 1949 5,070 % 14.1 % 5.34 days 6 Billion Armenia Armenian dram and Russian ruble November 1993 438 % 5.77 % 12.5 days 50,000 ( ruble ) Turkmenistan Turkmenistan manat November 1993 429 % 5.71 % 12.7 days 500 Taiwan Taiwanese yen August 1945 399 % 5.50 % 13.1 days 1,000 Units of inflation ( edit ) Inflation rate is usually measured in percent per year . It can also be measured in percent per month or in price doubling time . Example of inflation rates and units When first bought , an item cost 1 currency unit . Later , the price rose ... Old price New price 1 year later New price 10 years later New price 100 years later ( Annual ) inflation ( % ) Monthly inflation ( % ) Price doubling time ( years ) Zero add time ( years ) . 0001 . 001 . 01 0.01 0 . 0008 6931 23028 . 001 . 01 . 11 0.1 0 . 00833 693 2300 . 003 . 03 . 35 0.3 0 . 0250 231 769 . 01 . 10 . 70 0 . 0830 69 . 7 231 . 03 . 34 19 . 2 0 . 247 23 . 4 77.9 . 1 . 59 13800 10 0 . 797 7 . 27 24.1 1024 1.27 × 10 100 5 . 95 3.32 10 10 10 900 21 . 2 0 . 301 ( 32⁄3 months ) 31 8.20 × 10 1.37 × 10 3000 32 . 8 0 . 202 ( 21⁄2 months ) 0.671 ( 8 months ) 129.7463 1.35 × 10 2.04 × 10 12874.63 50 0 . 1424 ( 52 days ) 0.4732 ( 5 2⁄3 months ) 10 10 10 10 900 0 . 0251 ( 9 days ) 0.0833 ( 1 month ) 1.67 × 10 1.69 × 10 1.87 × 10 1.67 × 10 1.26 × 10 0 . 00411 ( 36 hours ) 0.0137 ( 5 days ) 1.05 × 10 1.69 × 10 1.89 × 10 1.05 × 10 5.65 × 10 0 . 000114 ( 1 hour ) 0.000379 ( 3.3 hours ) New price y years later = old price × ( 1 + inflation 100 ) y ( \ displaystyle ( \ hbox ( New price ) ) y ( \ hbox ( years later ) ) = ( \ hbox ( old price ) ) \ times \ left ( 1 + ( \ frac ( \ hbox ( inflation ) ) ( 100 ) ) \ right ) ^ ( y ) ) Monthly inflation = 100 × ( ( 1 + inflation 100 ) 1 12 − 1 ) ( \ displaystyle ( \ hbox ( Monthly inflation ) ) = 100 \ times \ left ( \ left ( 1 + ( \ frac ( \ hbox ( inflation ) ) ( 100 ) ) \ right ) ^ ( \ frac ( 1 ) ( 12 ) ) - 1 \ right ) ) Price doubling time = log e ⁡ 2 log e ⁡ ( 1 + inflation 100 ) ( \ displaystyle ( \ hbox ( Price doubling time ) ) = ( \ frac ( \ log _ ( e ) 2 ) ( \ log _ ( e ) \ left ( 1 + ( \ frac ( \ hbox ( inflation ) ) ( 100 ) ) \ right ) ) ) ) Years per added zero of the price = 1 log 10 ⁡ ( 1 + inflation 100 ) ( \ displaystyle ( \ hbox ( Years per added zero of the price ) ) = ( \ frac ( 1 ) ( \ log _ ( 10 ) \ left ( 1 + ( \ frac ( \ hbox ( inflation ) ) ( 100 ) ) \ right ) ) ) ) Often , at redenominations , three zeroes are cut from the bills . It can be read from the table that if the ( annual ) inflation is for example 100 % , it takes 3.32 years to produce one more zero on the price tags , or 3 × 3.32 = 9.96 years to produce three zeroes . Thus can one expect a redenomination to take place about 9.96 years after the currency was introduced . See also ( edit ) Chronic inflation Gold as an investment Hyperstagflation Inflation accounting Inflationism Outline of economics Zero stroke Hoarding Blockade References ( edit ) Jump up ^ O'Sullivan , Arthur ; Steven M. Sheffrin ( 2003 ) . Economics : Principles in action . Upper Saddle River , New Jersey 07458 : Pearson Prentice Hall . pp. 341 , 404 . ISBN 0 - 13 - 063085 - 3 . Jump up ^ Where 's the Hyperinflation ? , Forbes.com , 2012 ^ Jump up to : Bernholz , Peter 2003 , chapter 5.3 ^ Jump up to : Palairet , Michael R. ( 2000 ) . The Four Ends of the Greek Hyperinflation of 1941 - 1946 . Museum Tusculanum Press . p. 10 . ISBN 9788772895826 . Jump up ^ Robinson , Joan ( 1 January 1938 ) . `` Review of The Economics of Inflation '' . The Economic Journal . 48 ( 191 ) : 507 -- 513 . doi : 10.2307 / 2225440 . JSTOR 2225440 . Jump up ^ Phillip Cagan , The Monetary Dynamics of Hyperinflation , in Milton Friedman ( Editor ) , Studies in the Quantity Theory of Money , Chicago : University of Chicago Press ( 1956 ) . Jump up ^ International Accounting Standards . `` IAS 29 -- Financial Reporting in Hyperinflationary Economies '' . IASB . Retrieved 10 April 2012 . Jump up ^ Bernholz , Peter 2003 , chapter 5.2 and Table 5.1 Jump up ^ Parsson , Jens ( 1974 ) . Dying of Money ( Chapter 17 : Velocity ) . Boston , MA : Wellspring Press . pp. 112 -- 119 . Jump up ^ Hyperinflation : causes , cures Bernard Mufute , 2003 - 10 - 02 , `` Hyperinflation has its root cause in money growth , which is not supported by growth in the output of goods and services . Usually the excessive money supply growth is caused by financing of the government budget deficit through the printing of money . '' Jump up ^ `` Archived copy '' ( PDF ) . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on 10 September 2008 . Retrieved 15 January 2010 . CS1 maint : Archived copy as title ( link ) Jump up ^ Wolfgang Chr . Fischer ( Editor ) , German Hyperinflation 1922 / 23 -- A Law and Economics Approach , Eul Verlag , Köln , Germany 2010 , p. 124 Jump up ^ Montier , James ( February 2013 ) . `` Hyperinflations , Hysteria , and False Memories '' ( PDF ) . GMO LLC . Retrieved 10 December 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Controls blamed for U.S. energy woes '' , Los Angeles Times , 13 February 1977 , Milton Friedman press conference in Los Angeles . ^ Jump up to : Bernholz , Peter 2003 Jump up ^ Jefferson County Miracles , Wall Street Journal , 6 March 2008 . Jump up ^ Ludwig von Mises . Human Action . Fox & Wilkes , San Francisco , 4th edition , 1986 . p. 428 . ISBN 0 - 930073 - 18 - 5 . Jump up ^ Definition of Cantillon effect , first described by Richard Cantillon Jump up ^ 1 billion in the German long scale = 1000 milliard = 1 trillion US scale . Jump up ^ Values of the most important German Banknotes of the Inflation Period from 1920 -- 1923 Jump up ^ The Penniless Billionaires , Max Shapiro , New York Times Book Co. , 1980 , page 203 , ISBN 0 - 8129 - 0923 - 2 Shipiro comments : `` Of course , one must not forget the 5 pfennig ! '' Jump up ^ Hanke , Steve H. ( 17 November 2008 ) . `` New Hyperinflation Index ( HHIZ ) Puts Zimbabwe Inflation at 89.7 sextillion percent , '' . The Cato Institute . Retrieved 17 November 2008 . Jump up ^ Tran , Mark ( 31 July 2008 ) . `` Zimbabwe knocks 10 zeros off currency amid world 's highest inflation '' . The Guardian . London . Jump up ^ `` This infographic shows how currency debasement contributed to the fall of Rome '' . Business Insider . Retrieved 18 October 2017 . Jump up ^ ( 1 ) Archived 19 February 2012 at the Wayback Machine . Jump up ^ Adam Fergusson ( 12 October 2010 ) . When Money Dies : The Nightmare of Deficit Spending , Devaluation , and Hyperinflation in Weimar Germany . PublicAffairs . ISBN 978 - 1 - 58648 - 994 - 6 . Jump up ^ Adam Fergusson ( 2010 ) . When Money Dies -- The Nightmare of Deficit Spending , Devaluation , and Hyperinflation in Weimar Germany . Public Affairs -- Perseus Books Group . p. 92 . ISBN 978 - 1 - 58648 - 994 - 6 . ^ Jump up to : Sargent , T.J. ( 1986 ) Rational Expectations and Inflation , New York : Harper & Row . Jump up ^ The Truth About Inflation , Chapter 2 , Paul Donovan , Routledge 2015 Jump up ^ Chang , K. ( 1958 ) The Inflationary Spiral : The Experience in China , 1939 -- 1950 , New York : The Technology Press of Massachusetts Institute of Technology and John Wiley and Sons . Jump up ^ J.E. Sandrock : `` Bank notes of the French Revolution '' and First Republic Jump up ^ Stephen D. Dillaye , `` Assignats and Mandats , A True History , Including an Examination of Dr. Andrew Dickson White 's ' Paper Money in France ' '' , ( Philadelphia : Henry Carey Baird & Co , 1877 ) Jump up ^ White , E.N. ( 1991 ) ' Measuring the French Revolution 's Inflation : the Tableaux de depreciation , ' Histoire & Mesure , 6 ( 3 ) : 245 -- 274 . Jump up ^ Adam Fergusson ( 2010 ) . When Money Dies -- The Nightmare of Deficit Spending , Devaluation , and Hyperinflation in Weimar Germany . Public Affairs -- Perseus Books Group . p. 117 . ISBN 978 - 1 - 58648 - 994 - 6 . Jump up ^ Lord D'Abernon ( 1930 ) . An Ambassador of Peace , the diary of Viscount D'Abernon , Berlin 1920 -- 1926 ( V1 -- 3 ) . London : Hodder and Stoughton . ^ Jump up to : Bresciani - Turroni , page 335 Jump up ^ Athanassios K. Boudalis ( 2016 ) . Money in Greece , 1821 - 2001 . The history of an institution . MIG Publishing . p. 618 . ISBN 978 - 9 - 60937 - 758 - 4 . Jump up ^ Adam Fergusson ( 2010 ) . When Money Dies -- The Nightmare of Deficit Spending , Devaluation , and Hyperinflation in Weimar Germany . Public Affairs -- Perseus Books Group . p. 101 . ISBN 978 - 1 - 58648 - 994 - 6 . Jump up ^ Hungary : Postal history -- Hyperinflation ( part 2 ) Jump up ^ Judt , Tony ( 2006 ) . Postwar : A History of Europe Since 1945 . Penguin . p. 87 . ISBN 0 - 14 - 303775 - 7 . Jump up ^ Zimbabwe hyperinflation ' will set world record within six weeks ' Zimbabwe Situation 14 November 2008 Jump up ^ Nogaro , B. ( 1948 ) ' Hungary 's Recent Monetary Crisis and Its Theoretical Meaning ' , American Economic Review , 38 ( 4 ) : 526 -- 42 . Jump up ^ `` Brightening the future of Korea '' . DailyNK . Archived from the original on 10 November 2012 . Retrieved 15 October 2012 . ^ Jump up to : `` Hiperinflacja - Polish National Bank '' . www.nbportal.pl ( in Polish ) . 7 May 2015 . Retrieved 11 February 2017 . Jump up ^ Barbara A. Noe ( 7 August 2005 ) . `` A Return to Wartime Philippines '' . Los Angeles Times . Archived from the original on 17 February 2009 . Retrieved 16 November 2006 . Jump up ^ Agoncillo , Teodoro A. & Guerrero , Milagros C. , History of the Filipino People , 1986 , R.P. Garcia Publishing Company , Quezon City , Philippines Jump up ^ Hartendorp , A. ( 1958 ) History of Industry and Trade of the Philippines , Manila : American Chamber of Commerce on the Philippines , Inc . Jump up ^ `` Banana Money Exchange '' . Newspaper SG . The Straits Times . Retrieved 27 May 2015 . Jump up ^ Hanke , Steve ( 18 August 2018 ) . `` Venezuela 's Great Bolivar Scam , Nothing but a Face Lift '' . Forbes . Retrieved 19 August 2018 . Jump up ^ `` Venezuela 2014 inflation hits 68.5 pct - central bank '' . Jump up ^ `` Venezuela annual inflation 180 percent '' . Reuters. 1 October 2015 . Retrieved 15 November 2017 . Jump up ^ `` The Three Countries With The Highest Inflation '' . Jump up ^ Cristóbal Nagel , Juan ( 13 July 2015 ) . `` Looking Into the Black Box of Venezuela 's Economy '' . Foreign Policy . Retrieved 14 July 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Venezuela annual inflation 180 percent : opposition newspaper '' . Jump up ^ Venezuela country profile ( Economy tab ) , World in Figures . Copyright © The Economist Newspaper Limited 2017 . ( Retrieved 14 June 2017 . ) Jump up ^ Sequera , Vivian ( 21 February 2018 ) . `` Venezuelans report big weight losses in 2017 as hunger hits '' . Reuters . Retrieved 23 February 2018 . Jump up ^ Corina , Pons ( 20 January 2017 ) . `` Venezuela 2016 inflation hits 800 percent , GDP shrinks 19 percent : document '' . Reuters . Retrieved 15 November 2017 . Jump up ^ `` AssetMacro '' . AssetMacro . Archived from the original on 16 February 2017 . Retrieved 15 February 2017 . Jump up ^ Davies , Wyre ( 20 February 2016 ) . `` Venezuela 's decline fuelled by plunging oil prices '' . BBC News , Latin America . Retrieved 20 February 2016 . Jump up ^ Herrero , Ana Vanessa ; Malkin , Elisabeth ( 16 January 2017 ) . `` Venezuela Issues New Bank Notes Because of Hyperinflation '' . The New York Times . Retrieved 17 January 2017 . Jump up ^ Krauze , Enrique ( 8 March 2018 ) . `` Hell of a Fiesta '' . New York Review of Books . Retrieved 1 March 2018 . Jump up ^ Rosati , Andrew ( 5 December 2017 ) . `` Desperate Venezuelans Turn to Video Games to Survive '' . Bloomberg . Retrieved 6 December 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Tiendas de ropa eliminan etiquetas y habladores para agilizar aumento de precios La Region '' . Diario La Region ( in Spanish ) . 12 December 2017 . Retrieved 16 December 2017 . Jump up ^ Amaro , Silvia ( 2018 - 07 - 27 ) . `` Venezuelan inflation predicted to hit 1 million percent this year '' . CNBC . Retrieved 2018 - 07 - 29 . ^ Jump up to : Hanke , Steve ( July 31 , 2018 ) . `` IMF Produces Another Bogus Venezuela Inflation Forecast '' . Forbes . Retrieved 31 August 2018 . 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Jump up ^ Zimbabwe issues 250 mn dollar banknote to tackle price spiral - International Business - News - The Economic Times Jump up ^ BBC NEWS : Zimbabwe bank issues $500 m note Jump up ^ ( 2 ) Jump up ^ `` Zimbabwe inflation at 2,200,000 % '' . BBC News . 16 July 2008 . Retrieved 26 March 2010 . Jump up ^ `` The Leading Business Weekly '' . The Zimbabwe Independent . Retrieved 15 October 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Archived copy '' . Archived from the original on 20 August 2008 . Retrieved 30 June 2008 . CS1 maint : Archived copy as title ( link ) Jump up ^ Dzirutwe , MacDonald ( 9 December 2014 ) . `` Zimbabwe 's Mugabe fires deputy , seven ministers '' . Reuters . Retrieved 10 December 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Zimbabwe inflation rockets higher '' . BBC News . 19 August 2008 . Retrieved 26 March 2010 . Jump up ^ ( 3 ) Jump up ^ Celia W. Dugger ( 1 October 2008 ) . `` Life in Zimbabwe : Wait for Useless Money '' . The New York Times . Jump up ^ Steve H. Hanke , `` New Hyperinflation Index ( HHIZ ) Puts Zimbabwe Inflation at 89.7 Sextillion Percent . '' Washington , D.C. : Cato Institute . ( Retrieved 17 November 2008 ) ( 4 ) ^ Jump up to : Steve H. Hanke and Alex K.F. Kwok , `` On the Measurement of Zimbabwe 's Hyperinflation . '' Cato Journal , Vol. 29 , No. 2 ( Spring / Summer 2009 ) . ( 5 ) Jump up ^ ( 6 ) Archived 19 February 2012 at the Wayback Machine . Jump up ^ `` Zimbabwe dollar sheds 12 zeros '' . BBC News . 2 February 2009 . Retrieved 2 February 2008 . Jump up ^ Hanke , S.H. and Kwok , A.K.F. ( 2009 ) ' On the Measurement of Zimbabwe 's Hyperinflation ' , Cato Journal , 29 ( 2 ) : 353 -- 64 . Jump up ^ History page at the Central Bank of Iraq Jump up ^ The Life Contributors ( 17 April 2012 ) . `` Traveling In Europe Has Become Absurdly Expensive -- And You Know The Reason Why '' . Business Insider . Retrieved 15 October 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Report for Selected Countries and Subjects '' . Imf.org. 29 April 2003 . Retrieved 15 October 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Der wahre Grund , warum Erdoğan die Wahlen vorzieht '' . Business Insider. 18 April 2018 . Retrieved 3 August 2018 . Jump up ^ `` Warum Erdogan es so eilig hat '' . Wirtschaftswoche. 19 April 2018 . Retrieved 3 August 2018 . Jump up ^ `` Erdogan kündigt Neuwahlen im Juni an '' . Hannoversche Allgemeine Zeitung. 18 April 2018 . Retrieved 3 August 2018 . Jump up ^ `` Lira fällt Richtung Rekordtief '' . Handelsblatt. 3 November 2017 . Retrieved 3 August 2018 . Jump up ^ `` Dollar - Türkische Lira '' . Finanzen.net GmbH. 3 August 2018 . Retrieved 3 August 2018 . Jump up ^ Stealing Lincoln 's Body ( Cambridge , Mass. : Belknap Press of Harvard University Press , 2007 : pg. 33 Jump up ^ Money and Finance in the Confederate States of America , Marc Weidenmier , Claremont McKenna College , archived from the original on 28 September 2013 , retrieved 10 June 2016 Jump up ^ Steve H. Hanke and Alex K.F. Kwok `` On the Measurement of Zimbabwe 's Hyperinflation '' Cato Journal , Vol. 29 , No. 2 ( Spring / Summer 2009 ) Archived 26 January 2010 at the Wayback Machine . Jump up ^ Napier , Nancy K. ; Vuong , Quan Hoang ( 2013 ) . What we see , why we worry , why we hope : Vietnam going forward . Boise , ID , USA : Boise State University CCI Press . p. 140 . ISBN 978 - 0985530587 . Jump up ^ `` World Hyperinflations Steve H. Hanke and Nicholas Krus Cato Institute : Working Paper '' . Cato.org. 15 August 2012 . Retrieved 15 October 2012 . Jump up ^ `` World Hyperinflations '' ( PDF ) . CNBC . 14 February 2011 . Retrieved 13 July 2012 . Further reading ( edit ) Peter Bernholz ( 30 April 2015 ) . Monetary Regimes and Inflation : History , Economic and Political Relationships , Second Edition . Edward Elgar Publishing . ISBN 978 - 1 - 78471 - 763 - 6 . Cagan , Phillip , `` The Monetary Dynamics of Hyperinflation . '' In Milton Friedman , ed. , Studies in the Quantity Theory of Money . Chicago : University of Chicago Press , 1956 . Shun - Hsin Chou , The Chinese Inflation 1937 -- 1949 , New York , Columbia University Press , 1963 , Library of Congress Cat . 62 - 18260 . Andrew Dickson White ( 1933 ) . Fiat Money Inflation in France . Ludwig von Mises Institute . ISBN 978 - 1 - 61016 - 449 - 8 . a popular description of the 1789 -- 1799 inflation Wolfgang Chr . Fischer ( Editor ) , `` German Hyperinflation 1922 / 23 -- A Law and Economics Approach '' , Eul Verlag , Köln , Germany 2010 . Pierre L. Siklos ( ed . ) ( 1995 ) . Great Inflations of the 20th Century : Theories , Policies , and Evidence . Edward Elgar Publishing . ISBN 978 - 1 - 78195 - 635 - 9 . CS1 maint : Extra text : authors list ( link ) External links ( edit ) Wikimedia Commons has media related to Hyperinflation . 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where is mount logan located on a map

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Mount_Logan&oldid=835472964

Mount Logan - wikipedia Mount Logan Jump to : navigation , search For other uses , see Mount Logan ( disambiguation ) . Mount Logan Mount Logan from the southeast Highest point Elevation 5,959 m ( 19,551 ft ) Prominence 5,250 m ( 17,220 ft ) Isolation 624 kilometres ( 388 mi ) Parent peak Denali Listing World most prominent peaks 6th Seven Second Summits 3rd Country high points 15th North America highest peaks 2nd North America prominent peaks 2nd North America isolated peaks 22nd Canada highest major peaks 1st Coordinates 60 ° 34 ′ 02 '' N 140 ° 24 ′ 10 '' W  /  60.56722 ° N 140.40278 ° W  / 60.56722 ; - 140.40278 Coordinates : 60 ° 34 ′ 02 '' N 140 ° 24 ′ 10 '' W  /  60.56722 ° N 140.40278 ° W  / 60.56722 ; - 140.40278 Geography Mount Logan Location in Yukon , Canada Location Yukon , Canada Parent range Saint Elias Mountains Topo map NTS 115B Climbing First ascent 1925 by A.H. MacCarthy et al . Easiest route glacier / snow / ice climb Mount Logan / ˈloʊɡən / is the highest mountain in Canada and the second - highest peak in North America , after Denali . The mountain was named after Sir William Edmond Logan , a Canadian geologist and founder of the Geological Survey of Canada ( GSC ) . Mount Logan is located within Kluane National Park Reserve in southwestern Yukon , less than 40 kilometres ( 25 mi ) north of the Yukon / Alaska border . Mount Logan is the source of the Hubbard and Logan Glaciers . Logan is believed to have the largest base circumference of any non-volcanic mountain on Earth ( a large number of shield volcanoes are much larger in size and mass ) , including a massif with eleven peaks over 5,000 metres ( 16,400 ft ) . Due to active tectonic uplifting , Mount Logan is still rising in height . Before 1992 , the exact elevation of Mount Logan was unknown and measurements ranged from 5,959 to 6,050 metres ( 19,551 to 19,849 ft ) . In May 1992 , a GSC expedition climbed Mount Logan and fixed the current height of 5,959 metres ( 19,551 ft ) using GPS . Temperatures are extremely low on and near Mount Logan . On the 5,000 m high plateau , air temperature hovers around − 45 ° C ( − 49 ° F ) in the winter and reaches near freezing in summer with the median temperature for the year around − 27 ° C ( − 17 ° F ) . Minimal snow melt leads to a significant ice cap , reaching almost 300 m ( 984 ft ) in certain spots . Contents ( hide ) 1 Peaks of the massif 2 First ascent 3 Subsequent notable ascents and attempts 4 Proposed renaming 5 May 2005 rescue 6 See also 7 References 8 Bibliography 9 External links Peaks of the massif ( edit ) The Mount Logan massif is considered to contain all the surrounding peaks with less than 500 m ( 1,640 ft ) of prominence , as listed below : Peak Height Prominence Coordinates Main 5,959 m ( 19,551 ft ) 5,250 m ( 17,224 ft ) above Mentasta Pass 60 ° 34 ′ 2 '' N 140 ° 24 ′ 14.4 '' W  /  60.56722 ° N 140.404000 ° W  / 60.56722 ; - 140.404000  ( ( primary peak ) ) Philippe Peak ( West ) 5,925 m ( 19,439 ft ) 265 m ( 869 ft ) 60 ° 34 ′ 42.6 '' N 140 ° 26 ′ 02.4 '' W  /  60.578500 ° N 140.434000 ° W  / 60.578500 ; - 140.434000  ( Philippe Peak ) Logan East Peak ( Stuart Peak ) 5,898 m ( 19,350 ft ) 198 m ( 650 ft ) 60 ° 34 ′ 31.1 '' N 140 ° 22 ′ 00.1 '' W  /  60.575306 ° N 140.366694 ° W  / 60.575306 ; - 140.366694  ( Logan East Peak ) Houston 's Peak 5,740 m ( 18,832 ft ) 100 m ( 328 ft ) 60 ° 35 ′ 03.5 '' N 140 ° 27 ′ 20.5 '' W  /  60.584306 ° N 140.455694 ° W  / 60.584306 ; - 140.455694  ( Houston 's Peak ) Prospector Peak 5,644 m ( 18,517 ft ) 344 m ( 1,129 ft ) 60 ° 35 ′ 58.9 '' N 140 ° 30 ′ 40.7 '' W  /  60.599694 ° N 140.511306 ° W  / 60.599694 ; - 140.511306  ( Prospector Peak ) AINA Peak 5,630 m ( 18,471 ft ) 130 m ( 427 ft ) 60 ° 36 ′ 31.8 '' N 140 ° 31 ′ 48.6 '' W  /  60.608833 ° N 140.530167 ° W  / 60.608833 ; - 140.530167  ( AINA Peak ) Russell Peak 5,580 m ( 18,307 ft ) 80 m ( 262 ft ) 60 ° 35 ′ 31.2 '' N 140 ° 29 ′ 08.9 '' W  /  60.592000 ° N 140.485806 ° W  / 60.592000 ; - 140.485806  ( Russell Peak ) Tudor Peak ( Logan North Peak ) 5,559 m ( 18,238 ft ) 219 m ( 719 ft ) 60 ° 36 ′ 58.2 '' N 140 ° 29 ′ 35.4 '' W  /  60.616167 ° N 140.493167 ° W  / 60.616167 ; - 140.493167  ( Tudor Peak ) Saxon Peak ( Northeast ) 5,500 m ( 18,045 ft ) 80 m ( 262 ft ) 60 ° 37 ′ 12.0 '' N 140 ° 27 ′ 57.6 '' W  /  60.620000 ° N 140.466000 ° W  / 60.620000 ; - 140.466000  ( Saxon Peak ) Queen Peak 5,380 m ( 17,651 ft ) 160 m ( 525 ft ) 60 ° 36 ′ 33.5 '' N 140 ° 35 ′ 12.5 '' W  /  60.609306 ° N 140.586806 ° W  / 60.609306 ; - 140.586806  ( Queen Peak ) Capet Peak ( Northwest ) 5,250 m ( 17,224 ft ) 240 m ( 787 ft ) 60 ° 38 ′ 15.0 '' N 140 ° 32 ′ 41.3 '' W  /  60.637500 ° N 140.544806 ° W  / 60.637500 ; - 140.544806  ( Capet Peak ) Catenary Peak 4,097 m ( 13,442 ft ) 397 m ( 1,302 ft ) 60 ° 36 ′ 36.0 '' N 140 ° 17 ′ 52.1 '' W  /  60.610000 ° N 140.297806 ° W  / 60.610000 ; - 140.297806  ( Catenary Peak ) Teddy Peak 3,956 m ( 12,979 ft ) 456 m ( 1,496 ft ) 60 ° 32 ′ 37.7 '' N 140 ° 28 ′ 41.5 '' W  /  60.543806 ° N 140.478194 ° W  / 60.543806 ; - 140.478194  ( Teddy Peak ) First ascent ( edit ) Mount Logan from the North East , as seen from Kluane Icefield In 1922 , a geologist approached the Alpine Club of Canada with the suggestion that the club send a team to the mountain to reach the summit for the first time . An international team of Canadian , British and American climbers was assembled and initially they had planned their attempt in 1924 but funding and preparation delays postponed the trip until 1925 . The international team of climbers began their journey in early May , crossing the mainland from the Pacific coast by train . They then walked the remaining 200 kilometres ( 120 mi ) to within 10 kilometres ( 6 mi ) of the Logan Glacier where they established base camp . In the early evening of June 23 , 1925 , Albert H. MacCarthy ( leader ) , H.F. Lambart , Allen Carpé , W.W. Foster , Norman H. Read and Andy Taylor stood on top for the first time . It had taken them 65 days to approach the mountain from the nearest town , McCarthy , summit and return , with all climbers intact . Subsequent notable ascents and attempts ( edit ) Mount Logan climbing the knife ridge ( east ridge ) . Photo by Christian Stangl ( 2009 , flickr ) 1957 East Ridge . Don Monk , Gil Roberts and 3 others ( US ) reached the summit on July 19 . 1965 Hummingbird Ridge ( South Ridge ) . Dick Long , Allen Steck , Jim Wilson , John Evans , Franklin Coale Sr. and Paul Bacon ( US ) over 30 days , mid-July to Mid-August . Fred Beckey remarked : `` When they got back we just could n't believe that they had climbed that thing . We did n't think they had a chance '' . Featured in Fifty Classic Climbs of North America . 1967 , August , the first ski descent of the mountain was made in two stages by Daniel C. Taylor main summit to the Kluane glacier 1977 Warbler Ridge . Dave Jones , Frank Baumann , Fred Thiessen , Jay Page ( all from Canada ) and Rene Bucher ( Swiss ) in 22 days . 1979 Northwest Ridge . Michael Down ( CA ) , Paul Kindree , John Howe , Reid Carter and John Wittmayer climbed to the summit over 22 days , topping out on June 19 . 1979 South - Southwest Ridge . Raymond Jotterand ( CA ) , Alan Burgess , Jim Elzinga and John Laughlan reached the summit after 15 days of climbing on June 30 and July 1 . 1987 an alpine - style attempt on the Hummingbird Ridge ended with the deaths of Catherine Freer ( US ) , North America 's strongest female alpinist , and David Cheesmond from South Africa and Canada , considered among the best alpinists in the world , when a snow cornice broke . 1992 June 6 , an expedition sponsored by the Royal Canadian Geographic Society confirmed the height of Mount Logan using GPS . The leader was Michael Schmidt , with Lisel Currie , Leo Nadeay , Charlie Roots , J-C . Lavergne , Roger Laurilla , Pat Morrow , Karl Nagy , Sue Gould , Alan Björn , Lloyd Freese , Kevin McLaughlin and Rick Staley . 2017 May 23 , 15 - year - old Naomi Prohaska reached the summit , the youngest person to do so . She was part of a team led by her father . Proposed renaming ( edit ) Following the death of former Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau , Prime Minister Jean Chrétien , a close friend of Trudeau 's , considered renaming the mountain Mount Trudeau ; however , opposition from Yukoners , mountaineers , geologists , Trudeau 's political critics , and many other Canadians forced the plan to be dropped . A mountain in British Columbia 's Premier Range was named Mount Pierre Elliott Trudeau instead . May 2005 Rescue ( edit ) Mount Logan 3D view During the last few days of May 2005 , three climbers from the North Shore Search and Rescue team of North Vancouver became stranded on the mountain . A joint operation by Canadian and American forces rescued the three climbers and took them to Anchorage , Alaska for treatment of frostbite . See also ( edit ) North America portal Canada portal Yukon portal Mountains portal List of mountain peaks of North America List of mountain peaks of Canada List of highest points of Canadian provinces and territories List of Ultras in Canada List of elevation extremes by country References ( edit ) Jump up ^ `` Mount Logan '' . Peakbagger.com . Retrieved August 27 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Yukon , Northwest Territories and Nunavut Ultra-Prominences '' . Perklist.org . Retrieved 2015 - 03 - 25 . ^ Jump up to : `` Mount Logan '' . Bivouac.com . Retrieved July 15 , 2007 . Jump up ^ `` Kluane National Park and Reserve of Canada '' . Parks Canada . Retrieved August 1 , 2010 . ^ Jump up to : `` Mount Logan '' . Geological Survey of Canada . Archived from the original on September 21 , 2012 . Retrieved April 12 , 2007 . ^ Jump up to : `` Mount Logan : Canadian Titan '' . Virtual Museum of Canada . Retrieved September 18 , 2008 . Jump up ^ `` Philippe Peak '' . Bivouac.com . Retrieved July 15 , 2007 . Jump up ^ `` Logan East Peak ( Stuart Peak ) '' . Bivouac.com . Retrieved July 15 , 2007 . Jump up ^ `` Houston 's Peak '' . Bivouac.com . Retrieved July 15 , 2007 . Jump up ^ `` Prospector Peak '' . Bivouac.com . Retrieved July 15 , 2007 . Jump up ^ `` AINA Peak '' . Bivouac.com . Retrieved July 15 , 2007 . Jump up ^ `` Russell Peak '' . Bivouac.com . Retrieved July 15 , 2007 . Jump up ^ `` Tudor Peak ( Logan North Peak ) '' . Bivouac.com . Retrieved July 15 , 2007 . Jump up ^ `` Saxon Peak '' . Bivouac.com . Retrieved July 15 , 2007 . Jump up ^ `` Queen Peak '' . Bivouac.com . Retrieved July 15 , 2007 . Jump up ^ `` Capet Peak ( Northwest Peak ) '' . Bivouac.com . Retrieved July 15 , 2007 . Jump up ^ `` Catenary Peak '' . Bivouac.com . Retrieved July 15 , 2007 . Jump up ^ `` Teddy Peak '' . Bivouac.com . Retrieved July 15 , 2007 . Jump up ^ `` Conquering Mount Logan '' . Parks Canada . Retrieved April 12 , 2007 . Jump up ^ Sherman pp. 1 -- 38 Jump up ^ Selters pp. 170 -- 171 Jump up ^ Selters pp. 179 - 182 Jump up ^ Arctic Institute of North America Newsletter , November 1967 Jump up ^ Scott pp. 319 -- 320 Jump up ^ Down , Michael ( 1980 ) . `` Climbs and Expeditions '' . American Alpine Journal . New York , NY , USA : American Alpine Club . 22 ( 53 ) : 559 . ISSN 0065 - 6925 . Jump up ^ Jotterand , Raymond ( 1980 ) . `` Climbs and Expeditions '' . American Alpine Journal . New York , NY , USA : American Alpine Club . 22 ( 53 ) : 557 -- 559 . ISSN 0065 - 6925 . Jump up ^ Selters p. 312 Jump up ^ Sept / Oct . Canadian Geographic . 1992 . Jump up ^ `` B.C. teen becomes youngest climber to reach Canada 's highest peak '' . June 4 , 2017 . Retrieved June 4 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Mount Logan to become Mount Trudeau '' . CBC News . October 5 , 2000 . Archived from the original on October 16 , 2007 . Retrieved April 12 , 2007 . Jump up ^ `` Highest peak to be Trudeau Mountain '' . Globe and Mail . October 5 , 2000 . Archived from the original on September 30 , 2007 . Retrieved April 12 , 2007 . Jump up ^ `` ACC Accident report for May 2005 '' . Alpine Club of Canada - Edmonton section . Archived from the original on October 16 , 2007 . Retrieved April 12 , 2007 . Bibliography ( edit ) Irving , R.L.G. ( 1940 ) . Ten Great Mountains . London : J.M. Dent & Sons . ( The climbing history up to 1939 of Mount Logan , Snowdon , Ben Nevis , Ushba , Everest , Nanga Parbat , Kanchenjunga , the Matterhorn , Aoraki / Mount Cook and Mont Blanc . ) Roper , Steve ; Steck , Allen ( 1979 ) . Fifty Classic Climbs of North America . San Francisco , CA , USA : Sierra Club Books . pp. 179 -- 182 . ISBN 0 - 87156 - 292 - 8 . Scott , Chic ( 2000 ) . Pushing the Limits , The Story of Canadian Mountaineering . Calgary , Alberta , Canada : Rocky Mountain Books . ISBN 0 - 921102 - 59 - 3 . Retrieved December 27 , 2013 . Selters , Andy ( 2004 ) . Ways to the Sky . Golden , CO , USA : American Alpine Club Press . ISBN 0 - 930410 - 83 - 1 . Sherman , Paddy ( 1965 ) . Cloud Walkers - Six Climbs on Major Canadian Peaks . Toronto , Canada : Macmillan of Canada . Lib Congress Cat # 65 - 25069 . External links ( edit ) Find more aboutMount Loganat Wikipedia 's sister projects Definitions from Wiktionary Media from Wikimedia Commons News from Wikinews Quotations from Wikiquote Texts from Wikisource Textbooks from Wikibooks Learning resources from Wikiversity Mount Logan on Peakware - photos Map showing location of Mount Logan in the Saint Elias Range 2009 Trip Report Mount Logan Canadian Titan - Virtual Museum of Canada The 124 highest major summits of greater North America Denali Mount Logan Pico de Orizaba Mount Saint Elias Popocatépetl Mount Foraker Mount Lucania Iztaccíhuatl King Peak Mount Bona Mount Steele Mount Blackburn Mount Sanford Mount Wood Mount Vancouver Mount Slaggard Nevado de Toluca Mount Fairweather Mount Hubbard Mount Bear Mount Walsh Mount Hunter La Malinche Mount Whitney Mount Alverstone University Peak Mount Elbert Mount Massive Mount Harvard Mount Rainier Mount Williamson McArthur Peak Blanca Peak La Plata Peak Uncompahgre Peak Crestone Peak Mount Lincoln Castle Peak Grays Peak Mount Antero Mount Evans Longs Peak Mount Wilson White Mountain Peak North Palisade Mount Princeton Mount Yale Mount Shasta Maroon Peak Mount Wrangell Mount Sneffels Capitol Peak Pikes Peak Windom Peak / Mount Eolus Mount Augusta Handies Peak Culebra Peak San Luis Peak Mount of the Holy Cross Nevado de Colima Grizzly Peak Mount Humphreys Mount Keith Mount Strickland Mount Ouray Vermilion Peak Avalanche Peak Atna Peaks Volcán Tajumulco Regal Mountain Mount Darwin Mount Hayes Mount Silverheels Rio Grande Pyramid Cofre de Perote Gannett Peak Mount Kaweah Grand Teton Mount Cook Mount Morgan Mount Gabb Bald Mountain Mount Oso Mount Jackson Mount Tom Bard Peak West Spanish Peak Mount Powell Hagues Peak Mount Dubois Tower Mountain Treasure Mountain Kings Peak North Arapaho Peak Mount Pinchot Mount Natazhat Mount Jarvis Parry Peak Bill Williams Peak Sultan Mountain Mount Herard Volcán Tacaná West Buffalo Peak Mount Craig Tressider Peak Summit Peak Middle Peak / Dolores Peak Antora Peak Henry Mountain Hesperus Mountain Mount Silverthrone Jacque Peak Bennett Peak Wind River Peak Mount Waddington Conejos Peak Mount Marcus Baker Cloud Peak Wheeler Peak Francs Peak Twilight Peak South River Peak Mount Ritter Red Slate Mountain The 100 most prominent summits of greater North America Denali Mount Logan Pico de Orizaba Mount Rainier Volcán Tajumulco Mount Fairweather Chirripó Grande Gunnbjørn Fjeld Mount Blackburn Mount Hayes Mount Saint Elias Mount Waddington Mount Marcus Baker Pico Duarte Mount Lucania Mount Whitney Popocatépetl Mount Shasta Monarch Mountain Shishaldin Volcano Mount Robson Redoubt Volcano Mount Elbert Mount Sir Wilfrid Laurier Nevado de Colima Mount Vancouver Mount Sir Sandford Mount Baker Mount Torbert Pic la Selle Barbeau Peak San Jacinto Peak San Gorgonio Mountain Charleston Peak Pavlof Volcano Mount Veniaminof Mount Adams Skihist Mountain Mount Hubbard Mount Ratz Mount Odin Mount Isto Mount Monashee Iliamna Volcano Mount Olympus Mount Columbia Mount Queen Bess Mount Cook Mount Hood Mount Sanford Mount Tom White Mount Cooper Wheeler Peak Ulysses Mountain Glacier Peak Mount Kimball Blue Mountain Peak Wedge Mountain Otter Mountain Mount Griggs Nevado de Toluca Kwatna Peak Outlook Peak Mount Foraker Golden Hinde White Mountain Peak Mount Crillon Stauning Alper Cerro Teotepec Scud Peak Keele Peak Cloud Peak Gannett Peak Razorback Mountain Mount Vsevidof Mount Odin Cerro el Nacimiento Mount Hesperus Picacho del Diablo Mount Farnham Palup Qaqa HP Mount Bona Oscar Peak Pic Macaya Montaña de Santa Bárbara Mount Assiniboine Mount Jancowski Cerro Las Minas Mount Drum Gladsheim Peak Milne Land HP Mount Dawson Payers Tinde Beitstad Peak Mount Chiginagak Mount Edith Cavell Alsek Peak Mount Valpy Perserajoq Mount Cairnes The 107 most isolated major summits of greater North America Denali Gunnbjørn Fjeld Pico de Orizaba Mount Whitney Mount Mitchell Mount Washington Mount Rainier Mount Elbert Pico Duarte Chirripó Grande Shishaldin Volcano Barbeau Peak Mount Caubvick Volcán Tajumulco Melville Island HP La Grande Soufrière Tanaga Volcano Avannaarsua HP Mount Isto Cerro San Rafael Mathiassen Mountain Mount Logan Angilaaq Mountain Signal Hill Mount Odin Cerro el Potosí Mount Waddington Melville Hills HP Keele Peak Mount Shasta Perserajoq Mealy Mountains HP Peary Land HP The Cabox Volcán Everman Greenland Ice Sheet HP Gannett Peak Mont Yapeitso Mount Robson Mount Osborn Mount Igikpak Ulysses Mountain Cerro de Punta Cerro Gordo Pico San Juan Mont Jacques - Cartier Nevado de Colima Sukkertoppen Humphreys Peak Haffner Bjerg Victoria Island HP Wheeler Peak Revaltoppe Kisimngiuqtuq Peak Mount Vsevidof Mont Forel Beitstad Peak Hahn Land HP Pico La Laguna Volcán Las Tres Vírgenes Isla Guadalupe HP Mount Veniaminof Picacho del Diablo Cerro el Nacimiento Mount Ratz Hall Island HP Dillingham HP Mount Paatusoq Petermann Bjerg Spruce Knob Blue Mountain Peak Kings Peak Outlook Peak Sierra Blanca Peak Devon Ice Cap HP Point 1740 San Gorgonio Mountain Manuel Peak Katahdin Peak 4030 Howson Peak Mount Baldy Borah Peak Sierra Fría Cloud Peak Cerro Mohinora Fox Mountain Cap Mountain Sierra la Madera Black Elk Peak Mount Frank Rae Mount Nirvana Slide Mountain Durham Heights Mount Griggs Charleston Peak Pico Turquino Pic Macaya Junipero Serra Peak Mount Baker Mount Marcy Mont Raoul - Blanchard Mount Marcus Baker Mount Hayes Sacajawea Peak Steens Mountain Mount Fairweather Seven Second Summits Asia K2 ( 8,611 m or 28,251 ft ) South America Ojos del Salado ( 6,893 m or 22,615 ft ) North America Mount Logan ( 5,959 m or 19,551 ft ) Europe Dykh - Tau ( 5,205 m or 17,077 ft ) or Dufourspitze ( 4,634 m or 15,203 ft ) Africa Mount Kenya ( 5,199 m or 17,057 ft ) Antarctica Mount Tyree ( 4,852 m or 15,919 ft ) Australia ( continent ) Puncak Mandala ( 4,760 m or 15,617 ft ) Australia Mount Townsend ( 2,209 m or 7,247 ft ) Subdivisions of Yukon Regions Klondike Municipalities Carmacks Dawson City Faro Haines Junction Mayo Teslin Watson Lake Whitehorse Communities Beaver Creek Burwash Landing Carcross Conrad Champagne Landing Destruction Bay Ibex Valley Johnsons Crossing Keno City Lansdowne Marsh Lake Mount Lorne Old Crow Pelly Crossing Ross River Stewart Crossing Tagish Two and One - Half Mile Village Two Mile Village Upper Liard Ghost towns Clinton Creek Elsa Fortymile Paris Snag Parks Ivvavik Kluane Tombstone Vuntut Category : Yukon Portal : Yukon WikiProject : Canadian Territories GND : 4408316 - 6 VIAF : 313423028 Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mount_Logan&oldid=835472964 '' Categories : Mountains of Yukon Saint Elias Mountains Kluane National Park and Reserve Seven Second Summits North American 5000 m summits Highest points of countries Hidden categories : Use mdy dates from March 2012 Coordinates on Wikidata Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Lists of coordinates Talk Contents About Wikipedia Afrikaans አማርኛ Asturianu বাংলা Bân - 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1952549940748890096

who sang the song the reverend mr black

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The Reverend Mr. Black - Wikipedia The Reverend Mr. Black This article needs additional citations for verification . Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . ( January 2017 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) `` The Reverend Mr. Black '' Single by The Kingston Trio from the album The Kingston Trio No. 16 B - side `` One More Round '' Released 1963 ( 1963 ) Format 7 - inch single Genre Folk Length 4 : 43 Label Capitol Songwriter ( s ) Billy Edd Wheeler Jerry Leiber Mike Stoller `` The Reverend Mr. Black '' is a 1963 song by Billy Edd Wheeler , Mike Stoller , and Jerry Leiber . The chorus came from the 1931 folk song , `` The Lonesome Valley , '' a version of which appears in the 2000 film , O Brother , Where Art Thou ? . It was recorded by The Kingston Trio in 1963 for their album The Kingston Trio No. 16 and became a top - ten hit for them on the Billboard Hot 100 . Johnny Cash covered the song in 1981 for his album The Baron . References ( edit ) Jump up ^ The Kingston Trio No. 16 at AllMusic . Jump up ^ The Baron at AllMusic This 1960s pop song - related article is a stub . You can help Wikipedia by expanding it . Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=The_Reverend_Mr._Black&oldid=826942928 '' Categories : 1963 singles The Kingston Trio songs Songs written by Jerry Leiber and Mike Stoller Songs written by Billy Edd Wheeler 1963 songs 1960s pop song stubs Hidden categories : Articles needing additional references from January 2017 All articles needing additional references Articles with hAudio microformats All stub articles Talk About Wikipedia Add links This page was last edited on 21 February 2018 , at 21 : 31 ( UTC ) . About Wikipedia

7321027163416439028

what is the function of insulin and where is it produced

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Insulin - wikipedia Insulin This article is about The insulin protein . For uses of insulin in treating diabetes , see insulin ( medication ) . Not to be confused with Inulin . INS Available structures PDB Ortholog search : PDBe RCSB show List of PDB id codes 1A7F , 1AI0 , 1AIY , 1B9E , 1BEN , 1EFE , 1EV3 , 1EV6 , 1EVR , 1FU2 , 1FUB , 1G7A , 1G7B , 1GUJ , 1HIQ , 1HIS , 1HIT , 1HLS , 1HTV , 1HUI , 1IOG , 1IOH , 1J73 , 1JCA , 1JCO , 1K3M , 1KMF , 1LKQ , 1LPH , 1MHI , 1MHJ , 1MSO , 1OS3 , 1OS4 , 1Q4V , 1QIY , 1QIZ , 1QJ0 , 1RWE , 1SF1 , 1SJT , 1SJU , 1T0C , 1T1K , 1T1P , 1T1Q , 1TRZ , 1TYL , 1TYM , 1UZ9 , 1VKT , 1W8P , 1XDA , 1XGL , 1XW7 , 1ZEG , 1ZEH , 1ZNJ , 2AIY , 2C8Q , 2C8R , 2CEU , 2G54 , 2G56 , 2H67 , 2HH4 , 2HHO , 2HIU , 2JMN , 2JUM , 2JUU , 2JUV , 2JV1 , 2JZQ , 2K91 , 2K9R , 2KJJ , 2KJU , 2KQP , 2KQQ , 2KXK , 2L1Y , 2L1Z , 2LGB , 2M1D , 2M1E , 2M2M , 2M2N , 2M2O , 2M2P , 2OLY , 2OLZ , 2OM0 , 2OM1 , 2OMG , 2OMH , 2OMI , 2QIU , 2R34 , 2R35 , 2R36 , 2RN5 , 2VJZ , 2VK0 , 2W44 , 2WBY , 2WC0 , 2WRU , 2WRV , 2WRW , 2WRX , 2WS0 , 2WS1 , 2WS4 , 2WS6 , 2WS7 , 3AIY , 3BXQ , 3E7Y , 3E7Z , 3EXX , 3FQ9 , 3HYD , 3I3Z , 3I40 , 3ILG , 3INC , 3IR0 , 3Q6E , 3ROV , 3TT8 , 3U4N , 3UTQ , 3UTS , 3UTT , 3V19 , 3V1G , 3W11 , 3W12 , 3W13 , 3W7Y , 3W7Z , 3W80 , 3ZI3 , 3ZQR , 3ZS2 , 3ZU1 , 4AIY , 4AJX , 4AJZ , 4AK0 , 4AKJ , 4EFX , 4EWW , 4EWX , 4EWZ , 4EX0 , 4EX1 , 4EXX , 4EY1 , 4EY9 , 4EYD , 4EYN , 4EYP , 4F0N , 4F0O , 4F1A , 4F1B , 4F1C , 4F1D , 4F1F , 4F1G , 4F4T , 4F4V , 4F51 , 4F8F , 4FG3 , 4FKA , 4GBC , 4GBI , 4GBK , 4GBL , 4GBN , 4IUZ , 5AIY , 2LWZ , 3JSD , 3KQ6 , 3P2X , 3P33 , 1JK8 , 2MLI , 2MPG , 2MPI , 2MVC , 2MVD , 2OMQ , 4CXL , 4CXN , 4CY7 , 4IYD , 4IYF , 4NIB , 4OGA , 4P65 , 4Q5Z , 4RXW , 4UNE , 4UNG , 4UNH , 4XC4 , 4WDI , 4Z76 , 4Z77 , 4Z78 , 2N2W , 5CO6 , 5ENA , 4Y19 , 5BQQ , 5BOQ , 2N2V , 5CNY , 5CO9 , 5EN9 , 4Y1A , 2N2X , 5BPO , 5CO2 , 5BTS , 5HYJ , 5C0D Identifiers Aliases INS , IDDM , IDDM1 , IDDM2 , ILPR , IRDN , MODY10 , insulin External IDs MGI : 96573 HomoloGene : 173 GeneCards : INS hide Gene location ( Human ) Chr . Chromosome 11 ( human ) Band 11p15. 5 Start 2,159,779 bp End 2,161,341 bp show Gene location ( Mouse ) Chr . Chromosome 7 ( mouse ) Band 7 F5 7 88.0 cM Start 142,678,656 bp End 142,743,381 bp hide RNA expression pattern More reference expression data show Gene ontology Molecular function insulin receptor binding identical protein binding protease binding insulin - like growth factor receptor binding protein binding hormone activity Cellular component endoplasmic reticulum lumen transport vesicle Golgi membrane secretory granule lumen Golgi lumen endoplasmic reticulum - Golgi intermediate compartment membrane endosome lumen extracellular region extracellular space Biological process negative regulation of NAD ( P ) H oxidase activity positive regulation of DNA replication positive regulation of MAPK cascade positive regulation of brown fat cell differentiation positive regulation of cell differentiation MAPK cascade positive regulation of respiratory burst positive regulation of cytokine secretion positive regulation of phosphatidylinositol 3 - kinase signaling negative regulation of protein oligomerization positive regulation of NF - kappaB transcription factor activity negative regulation of respiratory burst involved in inflammatory response cell - cell signaling positive regulation of nitric oxide biosynthetic process positive regulation of glycolytic process positive regulation of nitric - oxide synthase activity positive regulation of protein autophosphorylation activation of protein kinase B activity wound healing positive regulation of mitotic nuclear division negative regulation of feeding behavior cellular protein metabolic process positive regulation of peptide hormone secretion negative regulation of protein catabolic process positive regulation of cell migration acute - phase response regulation of protein secretion positive regulation of glycogen biosynthetic process positive regulation of protein kinase B signaling G - protein coupled receptor signaling pathway glucose transport regulation of cellular amino acid metabolic process negative regulation of oxidative stress - induced intrinsic apoptotic signaling pathway ER to Golgi vesicle - mediated transport negative regulation of lipid catabolic process positive regulation of cell growth negative regulation of glycogen catabolic process positive regulation of insulin receptor signaling pathway glucose metabolic process negative regulation of acute inflammatory response negative regulation of protein secretion positive regulation of peptidyl - tyrosine phosphorylation glucose homeostasis positive regulation of cell proliferation fatty acid homeostasis positive regulation of cellular protein metabolic process regulation of transmembrane transporter activity negative regulation of gluconeogenesis negative regulation of fatty acid metabolic process regulation of protein localization regulation of transcription , DNA - templated positive regulation of lipid biosynthetic process carbohydrate metabolic process negative regulation of proteolysis alpha - beta T cell activation positive regulation of protein localization to nucleus positive regulation of glucose import insulin receptor signaling pathway positive regulation of gene expression positive regulation of blood vessel diameter negative regulation of blood vessel diameter regulation of receptor activity response to L - arginine Sources : Amigo / QuickGO Orthologs Species Human Mouse Entrez 3630 16334 Ensembl ENSG00000254647 ENSMUSG00000000215 UniProt P01308 P01326 RefSeq ( mRNA ) NM_000207 NM_001185097 NM_001185098 NM_001291897 NM_001185083 NM_001185084 NM_008387 RefSeq ( protein ) show NP_000198 NP_001172026 NP_001172027 NP_001278826 NP_000198. 1 NP_001172026. 1 NP_001172027. 1 NP_001278826. 1 NP_001172012 NP_001172013 NP_032413 Location ( UCSC ) Chr 11 : 2.16 -- 2.16 Mb Chr 7 : 142.68 -- 142.74 Mb PubMed search Wikidata View / Edit Human View / Edit Mouse Insulin ( from Latin insula , island ) is a peptide hormone produced by beta cells of the pancreatic islets ; it is considered to be the main anabolic hormone of the body . It regulates the metabolism of carbohydrates , fats and protein by promoting the absorption of , especially glucose from the blood into liver , fat and skeletal muscle cells . In these tissues the absorbed glucose is converted into either glycogen via glycogenesis or fats ( triglycerides ) via lipogenesis , or , in the case of the liver , into both . Glucose production and secretion by the liver is strongly inhibited by high concentrations of insulin in the blood . Circulating insulin also affects the synthesis of proteins in a wide variety of tissues . It is therefore an anabolic hormone , promoting the conversion of small molecules in the blood into large molecules inside the cells . Low insulin levels in the blood have the opposite effect by promoting widespread catabolism , especially of reserve body fat . Beta cells are sensitive to glucose concentrations , also known as blood sugar levels . When the glucose level is high , the beta cells secrete insulin into the blood ; when glucose levels are low , secretion of insulin is inhibited . Their neighboring alpha cells , by taking their cues from the beta cells , secrete glucagon into the blood in the opposite manner : increased secretion when blood glucose is low , and decreased secretion when glucose concentrations are high . Glucagon , through stimulating the liver to release glucose by glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis , has the opposite effect of insulin . The secretion of insulin and glucagon into the blood in response to the blood glucose concentration is the primary mechanism of glucose homeostasis . If beta cells are destroyed by an autoimmune reaction , insulin can no longer be synthesized or be secreted into the blood . This results in type 1 diabetes mellitus , which is characterized by abnormally high blood glucose concentrations , and generalized body wasting . In type 2 diabetes mellitus the destruction of beta cells is less pronounced than in type 1 diabetes , and is not due to an autoimmune process . Instead there is an accumulation of amyloid in the pancreatic islets , which likely disrupts their anatomy and physiology . The pathogenesis of type 2 diabetes is not well understood but patients exhibit a reduced population of islet beta - cells , reduced secretory function of islet beta - cells that survive , and peripheral tissue insulin resistance . Type 2 diabetes is characterized by high rates of glucagon secretion into the blood which are unaffected by , and unresponsive to the concentration of glucose in the blood . Insulin is still secreted into the blood in response to the blood glucose . As a result , the insulin levels , even when the blood sugar level is normal , are much higher than they are in healthy persons . There are a variety of treatment regimens , none of which is entirely satisfactory . When the pancreas 's capacity to secrete insulin can no longer keep the blood sugar level within normal bounds , insulin injections are given . The human insulin protein is composed of 51 amino acids , and has a molecular mass of 5808 Da . It is a dimer of an A-chain and a B - chain , which are linked together by disulfide bonds . Insulin 's structure varies slightly between species of animals . Insulin from animal sources differs somewhat in effectiveness ( in carbohydrate metabolism effects ) from human insulin because of these variations . Porcine insulin is especially close to the human version , and was widely used to treat type 1 diabetics before human insulin could be produced in large quantities by recombinant DNA technologies . The crystal structure of insulin in the solid state was determined by Dorothy Hodgkin . It is on the WHO Model List of Essential Medicines , the most important medications needed in a basic health system . Contents ( hide ) 1 Evolution and species distribution 2 Gene 2.1 Alleles 2.2 Regulation 3 Protein structure 4 Synthesis , physiological effects , and degradation 4.1 Synthesis 4.2 Release 4.3 Oscillations 4.4 Blood insulin level 4.5 Signal transduction 4.6 Physiological effects 4.7 Degradation 4.8 Regulator of endocannabinoid metabolism 5 Hypoglycemia 6 Diseases and syndromes 7 Medical uses 8 History of study 8.1 Discovery 8.2 Extraction and purification 8.3 Synthesis 8.4 Nobel Prizes 8.4. 1 Controversy 9 See also 10 References 11 Further reading 12 External links Evolution and species distribution ( edit ) Insulin may have originated more than a billion years ago . The molecular origins of insulin go at least as far back as the simplest unicellular eukaryotes . Apart from animals , insulin - like proteins are also known to exist in the Fungi and Protista kingdoms . Insulin is produced by beta cells of the pancreatic islets in most vertebrates and by the Brockmann body in some teleost fish . Cone snails Conus geographus and Conus tulipa , venomous sea snails that hunt small fish , use modified forms of insulin in their venom cocktails . The insulin toxin , closer in structure to fishes ' than to snails ' native insulin , slows down the prey fishes by lowering their blood glucose levels . Gene ( edit ) The preproinsulin precursor of insulin is encoded by the INS gene . Alleles ( edit ) A variety of mutant alleles with changes in the coding region have been identified . A read - through gene , INS - IGF2 , overlaps with this gene at the 5 ' region and with the IGF2 gene at the 3 ' region . Regulation ( edit ) Diagram of insulin regulation upon high blood glucose In the pancreatic β cells , glucose is the primary physiological stimulus for the regulation of insulin synthesis . Insulin is mainly regulated through the transcription factors PDX1 , NeuroD1 , and MafA . PDX1 ( Pancreatic and duodenal homeobox protein 1 ) is in the nuclear periphery upon low blood glucose levels interacting with corepressors HDAC1 and 2 which is downregulating the insulin secretion . An increase in blood glucose levels causes phosphorylation of PDX1 and it translocates centrally and binds the A3 element within the insulin promoter . Upon translocation it interacts with coactivators HAT p300 and acetyltransferase set 7 / 9 . PDX1 affects the histone modifications through acetylation and deacetylation as well as methylation . It is also said to suppress glucagon . NeuroD1 , also known as β2 , regulates insulin exocytosis in pancreatic β cells by directly inducing the expression of genes involved in exocytosis . It is localized in the cytosol , but in response to high glucose it becomes glycosylated by OGT and / or phosphorylated by ERK , which causes translocation to the nucleus . In the nucleus β2 heterodimerizes with E47 , binds to the E1 element of the insulin promoter and recruits co-activator p300 which acetylates β2 . It is able to interact with other transcription factors as well in activation of the insulin gene . MafA is degraded by proteasomes upon low blood glucose levels . Increased levels of glucose makes an unknown protein glycosylated . This protein works as a transcription factor for MafA in an unknown manner and MafA is transported out of the cell . MafA is then translocated back into the nucleus where it binds the C1 element of the insulin promoter . These transcription factors work synergistically and in a complex arrangement . Increased blood glucose can after a while destroy the binding capacities of these proteins , and therefore reduce the amount of insulin secreted , causing diabetes . The decreased binding activities can be mediated by glucose induced oxidative stress and antioxidants are said to prevent the decreased insulin secretion in glucotoxic pancreatic β cells . Stress signalling molecules and reactive oxygen species inhibits the insulin gene by interfering with the cofactors binding the transcription factors and the transcription factors it self . Several regulatory sequences in the promoter region of the human insulin gene bind to transcription factors . In general , the A-boxes bind to Pdx1 factors , E-boxes bind to NeuroD , C - boxes bind to MafA , and cAMP response elements to CREB . There are also silencers that inhibit transcription . Regulatory sequences and their transcription factors for the insulin gene . Regulatory sequence binding transcription factors ILPR Par1 A5 Pdx1 negative regulatory element ( NRE ) glucocorticoid receptor , Oct1 Z ( overlapping NRE and C2 ) ISF C2 Pax4 , MafA ( ? ) E2 USF1 / USF2 A3 Pdx1 CREB RE -- CREB RE CREB , CREM A2 -- CAAT enhancer binding ( CEB ) ( partly overlapping A2 and C1 ) -- C1 -- E1 E2A , NeuroD1 , HEB A1 Pdx1 G1 -- Protein structure ( edit ) See also : Insulin / IGF / Relaxin family and Insulin and its analog structure Within vertebrates , the amino acid sequence of insulin is strongly conserved . Bovine insulin differs from human in only three amino acid residues , and porcine insulin in one . Even insulin from some species of fish is similar enough to human to be clinically effective in humans . Insulin in some invertebrates is quite similar in sequence to human insulin , and has similar physiological effects . The strong homology seen in the insulin sequence of diverse species suggests that it has been conserved across much of animal evolutionary history . The C - peptide of proinsulin ( discussed later ) , however , differs much more among species ; it is also a hormone , but a secondary one . SS - linked insulin monomer The primary structure of bovine insulin was first determined by Frederick Sanger in 1951 . After that , this polypeptide was synthesized independently by several groups . The 3 - dimensional structure of insulin was determined by X-ray crystallography in Dorothy Hodgkin 's laboratory in 1969 ( PDB file 1ins ) . Insulin is produced and stored in the body as a hexamer ( a unit of six insulin molecules ) , while the active form is the monomer . The hexamer is an inactive form with long - term stability , which serves as a way to keep the highly reactive insulin protected , yet readily available . The hexamer - monomer conversion is one of the central aspects of insulin formulations for injection . The hexamer is far more stable than the monomer , which is desirable for practical reasons ; however , the monomer is a much faster - reacting drug because diffusion rate is inversely related to particle size . A fast - reacting drug means insulin injections do not have to precede mealtimes by hours , which in turn gives people with diabetes more flexibility in their daily schedules . Insulin can aggregate and form fibrillar interdigitated beta - sheets . This can cause injection amyloidosis , and prevents the storage of insulin for long periods . Synthesis , physiological effects , and degradation ( edit ) Synthesis ( edit ) Insulin is produced in the pancreas and the Brockmann body ( in some fish ) , and released when any of several stimuli are detected . These stimuli include ingested protein and glucose in the blood produced from digested food . Carbohydrates can be polymers of simple sugars or the simple sugars themselves . If the carbohydrates include glucose , then that glucose will be absorbed into the bloodstream and blood glucose level will begin to rise . In target cells , insulin initiates a signal transduction , which has the effect of increasing glucose uptake and storage . Finally , insulin is degraded , terminating the response . Insulin undergoes extensive posttranslational modification along the production pathway . Production and secretion are largely independent ; prepared insulin is stored awaiting secretion . Both C - peptide and mature insulin are biologically active . Cell components and proteins in this image are not to scale . In mammals , insulin is synthesized in the pancreas within the beta cells . One million to three million pancreatic islets form the endocrine part of the pancreas , which is primarily an exocrine gland . The endocrine portion accounts for only 2 % of the total mass of the pancreas . Within the pancreatic islets , beta cells constitute 65 -- 80 % of all the cells . Insulin consists of two polypeptide chains , the A - and B - chains , linked together by disulfide bonds . It is however first synthesized as a single polypeptide called preproinsulin in beta cells . Preproinsulin contains a 24 - residue signal peptide which directs the nascent polypeptide chain to the rough endoplasmic reticulum ( RER ) . The signal peptide is cleaved as the polypeptide is translocated into lumen of the RER , forming proinsulin . In the RER the proinsulin folds into the correct conformation and 3 disulfide bonds are formed . About 5 -- 10 min after its assembly in the endoplasmic reticulum , proinsulin is transported to the trans - Golgi network ( TGN ) where immature granules are formed . Transport to the TGN may take about 30 min . Proinsulin undergoes maturation into active insulin through the action of cellular endopeptidases known as prohormone convertases ( PC1 and PC2 ) , as well as the exoprotease carboxypeptidase E. The endopeptidases cleave at 2 positions , releasing a fragment called the C - peptide , and leaving 2 peptide chains , the B - and A - chains , linked by 2 disulfide bonds . The cleavage sites are each located after a pair of basic residues ( lysine - 64 and arginine - 65 , and arginine - 31 and − 32 ) . After cleavage of the C - peptide , these 2 pairs of basic residues are removed by the carboxypeptidase . The C - peptide is the central portion of proinsulin , and the primary sequence of proinsulin goes in the order `` B-C-A '' ( the B and A chains were identified on the basis of mass and the C - peptide was discovered later ) . The resulting mature insulin is packaged inside mature granules waiting for metabolic signals ( such as leucine , arginine , glucose and mannose ) and vagal nerve stimulation to be exocytosed from the cell into the circulation . The endogenous production of insulin is regulated in several steps along the synthesis pathway : At transcription from the insulin gene In mRNA stability At the mRNA translation In the posttranslational modifications Insulin and its related proteins have been shown to be produced inside the brain , and reduced levels of these proteins are linked to Alzheimer 's disease . Release ( edit ) See also : Blood glucose regulation Beta cells in the islets of Langerhans release insulin in two phases . The first - phase release is rapidly triggered in response to increased blood glucose levels , and lasts about 10 minutes . The second phase is a sustained , slow release of newly formed vesicles triggered independently of sugar , peaking in 2 to 3 hours . Reduced first - phase insulin release may be the earliest detectable beta cell defect predicting onset of type 2 diabetes . First - phase release and insulin sensitivity are independent predictors of diabetes . The description of first phase release is as follows : Glucose enters the β - cells through the glucose transporters , GLUT2 . These glucose transporters have a relatively low affinity for glucose , ensuring that the rate of glucose entry into the β - cells is proportional to the extracellular glucose concentration ( within the physiological range ) . At low blood sugar levels very little glucose enters the β - cells ; at high blood glucose concentrations large quantities of glucose enter these cells . The glucose that enters the β - cell is phosphorylated to glucose - 6 - phosphate ( G - 6 - P ) by glucokinase ( hexokinase IV ) which is not inhibited by G - 6 - P in the way that the hexokinases in other tissues ( hexokinase I -- III ) are affected by this product . This means that the intracellular G - 6 - P concentration remains proportional to the blood sugar concentration . Glucose - 6 - phosphate enters glycolytic pathway and then , via the pyruvate dehydrogenase reaction , into the Krebs cycle , where multiple , high - energy ATP molecules are produced by the oxidation of acetyl CoA ( the Krebs cycle substrate ) , leading to a rise in the ATP : ADP ratio within the cell . An increased intracellular ATP : ADP ratio closes the ATP - sensitive SUR1 / Kir6. 2 potassium channel ( see sulfonylurea receptor ) . This prevents potassium ions ( K ) from leaving the cell by facilitated diffusion , leading to a buildup of intracellular potassium ions . As a result , the inside of the cell becomes less negative with respect to the outside , leading to the depolarization of the cell surface membrane . Upon depolarization , voltage - gated calcium ion ( Ca ) channels open , allowing calcium ions to move into the cell by facilitated diffusion . The cytosolic calcium ion concentration can also be increased by calcium release from intracellular stores via activation of ryanodine receptors . The calcium ion concentration in the cytosol of the beta cells can also , or additionally , be increased through the activation of phospholipase C resulting from the binding of an extracellular ligand ( hormone or neurotransmitter ) to a G protein - coupled membrane receptor . Phospholipase C cleaves the membrane phospholipid , phosphatidyl inositol 4 , 5 - bisphosphate , into inositol 1 , 4 , 5 - trisphosphate and diacylglycerol . Inositol 1 , 4 , 5 - trisphosphate ( IP3 ) then binds to receptor proteins in the plasma membrane of the endoplasmic reticulum ( ER ) . This allows the release of Ca ions from the ER via IP3 - gated channels , which raises the cytosolic concentration of calcium ions independently of the effects of a high blood glucose concentration . Parasympathetic stimulation of the pancreatic islets operates via this pathway to increase insulin secretion into the blood . The significantly increased amount of calcium ions in the cells ' cytoplasm causes the release into the blood of previously synthesized insulin , which has been stored in intracellular secretory vesicles . This is the primary mechanism for release of insulin . Other substances known to stimulate insulin release include the amino acids arginine and leucine , parasympathetic release of acetylcholine ( acting via the phospholipase C pathway ) , sulfonylurea , cholecystokinin ( CCK , also via phospholipase C ) , and the gastrointestinally derived incretins , such as glucagon - like peptide - 1 ( GLP - 1 ) and glucose - dependent insulinotropic peptide ( GIP ) . Release of insulin is strongly inhibited by norepinephrine ( noradrenaline ) , which leads to increased blood glucose levels during stress . It appears that release of catecholamines by the sympathetic nervous system has conflicting influences on insulin release by beta cells , because insulin release is inhibited by α - adrenergic receptors and stimulated by β - adrenergic receptors . The net effect of norepinephrine from sympathetic nerves and epinephrine from adrenal glands on insulin release is inhibition due to dominance of the α - adrenergic receptors . When the glucose level comes down to the usual physiologic value , insulin release from the β - cells slows or stops . If the blood glucose level drops lower than this , especially to dangerously low levels , release of hyperglycemic hormones ( most prominently glucagon from islet of Langerhans alpha cells ) forces release of glucose into the blood from the liver glycogen stores , supplemented by gluconeogenesis if the glycogen stores become depleted . By increasing blood glucose , the hyperglycemic hormones prevent or correct life - threatening hypoglycemia . Evidence of impaired first - phase insulin release can be seen in the glucose tolerance test , demonstrated by a substantially elevated blood glucose level at 30 minutes after the ingestion of a glucose load ( 75 or 100 g of glucose ) , followed by a slow drop over the next 100 minutes , to remain above 120 mg / 100 ml after two hours after the start of the test . In a normal person the blood glucose level is corrected ( and may even be slightly over-corrected ) by the end of the test . Oscillations ( edit ) Main article : Insulin oscillations Insulin release from pancreas oscillates with a period of 3 -- 6 minutes . Even during digestion , in general , one or two hours following a meal , insulin release from the pancreas is not continuous , but oscillates with a period of 3 -- 6 minutes , changing from generating a blood insulin concentration more than about 800 p mol / l to less than 100 pmol / l . This is thought to avoid downregulation of insulin receptors in target cells , and to assist the liver in extracting insulin from the blood . This oscillation is important to consider when administering insulin - stimulating medication , since it is the oscillating blood concentration of insulin release , which should , ideally , be achieved , not a constant high concentration . This may be achieved by delivering insulin rhythmically to the portal vein or by islet cell transplantation to the liver . Blood insulin level ( edit ) Further information : Insulin index The idealized diagram shows the fluctuation of blood sugar ( red ) and the sugar - lowering hormone insulin ( blue ) in humans during the course of a day containing three meals . In addition , the effect of a sugar - rich versus a starch - rich meal is highlighted . The blood insulin level can be measured in international units , such as μIU / mL or in molar concentration , such as pmol / L , where 1 μIU / mL equals 6.945 pmol / L. A typical blood level between meals is 8 -- 11 μIU / mL ( 57 -- 79 pmol / L ) . Signal transduction ( edit ) The effects of insulin are initiated by its binding to a receptor present in the cell membrane . The receptor molecule contains an α - and β subunits . Two molecules are joined to form what is known as a homodimer . Insulin binds to the α - subunits of the homodimer , which faces the extracellular side of the cells . The β subunits have tyrosine kinase enzyme activity which is triggered by the insulin binding . This activity provokes the autophosphorylation of the β subunits and subsequently the phosphorylation of proteins inside the cell known as insulin receptor substrates ( IRS ) . The phosphorylation of the IRS activates a signal transduction cascade that leads to the activation of other kinases as well as transcription factors that mediate the intracellular effects of insulin . The cascade that leads to the insertion of GLUT4 glucose transporters into the cell membranes of muscle and fat cells , and to the synthesis of glycogen in liver and muscle tissue , as well as the conversion of glucose into triglycerides in liver , adipose , and lactating mammary gland tissue , operates via the activation , by IRS - 1 , of phosphoinositol 3 kinase ( PI3K ) . This enzyme converts a phospholipid in the cell membrane by the name of phosphatidylinositol 4 , 5 - bisphosphate ( PIP2 ) , into phosphatidylinositol 3 , 4 , 5 - triphosphate ( PIP3 ) , which , in turn , activates protein kinase B ( PKB ) . Activated PKB facilitates the fusion of GLUT4 containing endosomes with the cell membrane , resulting in an increase in GLUT4 transporters in the plasma membrane . PKB also phosphorylates glycogen synthase kinase ( GSK ) , thereby inactivating this enzyme . This means that its substrate , glycogen synthase ( GS ) , can not be phosphorylated , and remains dephosphorylated , and therefore active . The active enzyme , glycogen synthase ( GS ) , catalyzes the rate limiting step in the synthesis of glycogen from glucose . Similar dephosphorylations affect the enzymes controlling the rate of glycolysis leading to the synthesis of fats via malonyl - CoA in the tissues that can generate triglycerides , and also the enzymes that control the rate of gluconeogenesis in the liver . The overall effect of these final enzyme dephosphorylations is that , in the tissues that can carry out these reactions , glycogen and fat synthesis from glucose are stimulated , and glucose production by the liver through glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis are inhibited . The breakdown of triglycerides by adipose tissue into free fatty acids and glycerol is also inhibited . After the intracellular signal that resulted from the binding of insulin to its receptor has been produced , termination of signaling is then needed . As mentioned below in the section on degradation , endocytosis and degradation of the receptor bound to insulin is a main mechanism to end signaling . In addition , the signaling pathway is also terminated by dephosphorylation of the tyrosine residues in the various signaling pathways by tyrosine phosphatases . Serine / Threonine kinases are also known to reduce the activity of insulin . The structure of the insulin -- insulin receptor complex has been determined using the techniques of X-ray crystallography . Physiological effects ( edit ) Effect of insulin on glucose uptake and metabolism . Insulin binds to its receptor ( 1 ) , which starts many protein activation cascades ( 2 ) . These include translocation of Glut - 4 transporter to the plasma membrane and influx of glucose ( 3 ) , glycogen synthesis ( 4 ) , glycolysis ( 5 ) and triglyceride synthesis ( 6 ) . The insulin signal transduction pathway begins when insulin binds to the insulin receptor proteins . Once the transduction pathway is completed , the GLUT - 4 storage vesicles becomes one with the cellular membrane . As a result , the GLUT - 4 protein channels become embedded into the membrane , allowing glucose to be transported into the cell . The actions of insulin on the global human metabolism level include : Increase of cellular intake of certain substances , most prominently glucose in muscle and adipose tissue ( about two - thirds of body cells ) Increase of DNA replication and protein synthesis via control of amino acid uptake Modification of the activity of numerous enzymes . The actions of insulin ( indirect and direct ) on cells include : Stimulates the uptake of glucose -- Insulin decreases blood glucose concentration by inducing intake of glucose by the cells . This is possible because Insulin causes the insertion of the GLUT4 transporter in the cell membranes of muscle and fat tissues which allows glucose to enter the cell . Increased fat synthesis -- insulin forces fat cells to take in blood glucose , which is converted into triglycerides ; decrease of insulin causes the reverse . Increased esterification of fatty acids -- forces adipose tissue to make neutral fats ( i.e. , triglycerides ) from fatty acids ; decrease of insulin causes the reverse . Decreased lipolysis -- forces reduction in conversion of fat cell lipid stores into blood fatty acids and glycerol ; decrease of insulin causes the reverse . Induce glycogen synthesis -- When glucose levels are high , insulin induces the formation of glycogen by the activation of the hexokinase enzyme , which adds a phosphate group in glucose , thus resulting in a molecule that can not exit the cell . At the same time , insulin inhibits the enzyme glucose - 6 - phosphatase , which removes the phosphate group . These two enzymes are key for the formation of glycogen . Also , insulin activates the enzymes phosphofructokinase and glycogen synthase which are responsible for glycogen synthesis . Decreased gluconeogenesis and glycogenolysis -- decreases production of glucose from noncarbohydrate substrates , primarily in the liver ( the vast majority of endogenous insulin arriving at the liver never leaves the liver ) ; increase of insulin causes glucose production by the liver from assorted substrates . Decreased proteolysis -- decreasing the breakdown of protein Decreased autophagy -- decreased level of degradation of damaged organelles . Postprandial levels inhibit autophagy completely . Increased amino acid uptake -- forces cells to absorb circulating amino acids ; decrease of insulin inhibits absorption . Arterial muscle tone -- forces arterial wall muscle to relax , increasing blood flow , especially in microarteries ; decrease of insulin reduces flow by allowing these muscles to contract . Increase in the secretion of hydrochloric acid by parietal cells in the stomach . Increased potassium uptake -- forces cells synthesizing glycogen ( a very spongy , `` wet '' substance , that increases the content of intracellular water , and its accompanying K ions ) to absorb potassium from the extracellular fluids ; lack of insulin inhibits absorption . Insulin 's increase in cellular potassium uptake lowers potassium levels in blood plasma . This possibly occurs via insulin - induced translocation of the Na+ / K+ - ATPase to the surface of skeletal muscle cells . Decreased renal sodium excretion . Insulin also influences other body functions , such as vascular compliance and cognition . Once insulin enters the human brain , it enhances learning and memory and benefits verbal memory in particular . Enhancing brain insulin signaling by means of intranasal insulin administration also enhances the acute thermoregulatory and glucoregulatory response to food intake , suggesting that central nervous insulin contributes to the co-ordination of a wide variety of homeostatic or regulatory processes in the human body . Insulin also has stimulatory effects on gonadotropin - releasing hormone from the hypothalamus , thus favoring fertility . Degradation ( edit ) Once an insulin molecule has docked onto the receptor and effected its action , it may be released back into the extracellular environment , or it may be degraded by the cell . The two primary sites for insulin clearance are the liver and the kidney . The liver clears most insulin during first - pass transit , whereas the kidney clears most of the insulin in systemic circulation . Degradation normally involves endocytosis of the insulin - receptor complex , followed by the action of insulin - degrading enzyme . An insulin molecule produced endogenously by the beta cells is estimated to be degraded within about one hour after its initial release into circulation ( insulin half - life ~ 4 -- 6 minutes ) . Regulator of endocannabinoid metabolism ( edit ) Insulin is a major regulator of endocannabinoid ( EC ) metabolism and insulin treatment has been shown to reduce intracellular ECs , the 2 - arachidonylglycerol ( 2 - AG ) and anandamide ( AEA ) , which correspond with insulin - sensitive expression changes in enzymes of EC metabolism . In insulin - resistant adipocytes , patterns of insulin - induced enzyme expression is disturbed in a manner consistent with elevated EC synthesis and reduced EC degradation . Findings suggest that insulin - resistant adipocytes fail to regulate EC metabolism and decrease intracellular EC levels in response to insulin stimulation , whereby obese insulin - resistant individuals exhibit increased concentrations of ECs . This dysregulation contributes to excessive visceral fat accumulation and reduced adiponectin release from abdominal adipose tissue , and further to the onset of several cardiometabolic risk factors that are associated with obesity and type 2 diabetes . Hypoglycemia ( edit ) Main article : Hypoglycemia Although other cells can use other fuels ( most prominently fatty acids ) , neurons depend on glucose as a source of energy , unless the person is in ketosis . They do not require insulin to absorb glucose , unlike muscle and adipose tissue , and they have very small internal stores of glycogen . Glycogen stored in liver cells ( unlike glycogen stored in muscle cells ) can be converted to glucose , and released into the blood , when glucose from digestion is low or absent , and the glycerol backbone in triglycerides can also be used to produce blood glucose . Sufficient lack of glucose and scarcity of these sources of glucose can dramatically make itself manifest in the impaired functioning of the central nervous system : dizziness , speech problems , and even loss of consciousness . Low blood glucose level is known as hypoglycemia or , in cases producing unconsciousness , `` hypoglycemic coma '' ( sometimes termed `` insulin shock '' from the most common causative agent ) . Endogenous causes of insulin excess ( such as an insulinoma ) are very rare , and the overwhelming majority of insulin excess - induced hypoglycemia cases are iatrogenic and usually accidental . A few cases of murder , attempted murder , or suicide using insulin overdoses have been reported , but most insulin shocks appear to be due to errors in dosage of insulin ( e.g. , 20 units instead of 2 ) or other unanticipated factors ( did not eat as much as anticipated , or exercised more than expected , or unpredicted kinetics of the subcutaneously injected insulin itself ) . Possible causes of hypoglycemia include : External insulin ( usually injected subcutaneously ) Oral hypoglycemic agents ( e.g. , any of the sulfonylureas , or similar drugs , which increase insulin release from β - cells in response to a particular blood glucose level ) Ingestion of low - carbohydrate sugar substitutes in people without diabetes or with type 2 diabetes . Animal studies show these can trigger insulin release , albeit in much smaller quantities than sugar , according to a report in Discover magazine , August 2004 , p 18 . ( This can never be a cause of hypoglycemia in patients with mature type 1 diabetes , since there is no endogenous insulin production to stimulate . It can occur during the honeymoon period , a period up to several years after a type 1 diabetes diagnosis during which endogenous insulin production still occurs . ) Diseases and syndromes ( edit ) There are several conditions in which insulin disturbance is pathologic : Diabetes mellitus -- general term referring to all states characterized by hyperglycemia Type 1 -- autoimmune - mediated destruction of insulin - producing β - cells in the pancreas , resulting in absolute insulin deficiency Type 2 -- either inadequate insulin production by the β - cells or insulin resistance or both because of reasons not completely understood . there is correlation with diet , with sedentary lifestyle , with obesity , with age and with metabolic syndrome . Causality has been demonstrated in multiple model organisms including mice and monkeys ; Importantly , non-obese people do get Type 2 diabetes due to diet , sedentary lifestyle and unknown risk factors . it is likely that there is genetic susceptibility to develop Type 2 diabetes under certain environmental conditions Other types of impaired glucose tolerance ( see the Diabetes ) Insulinoma -- a tumor of beta cells producing excess insulin or reactive hypoglycemia . Metabolic syndrome -- a poorly understood condition first called Syndrome X by Gerald Reaven . It is currently not clear whether the syndrome has a single , treatable cause , or is the result of body changes leading to type 2 diabetes . It is characterized by elevated blood pressure , dyslipidemia ( disturbances in blood cholesterol forms and other blood lipids ) , and increased waist circumference ( at least in populations in much of the developed world ) . The basic underlying cause may be the insulin resistance that precedes type 2 diabetes , which is a diminished capacity for insulin response in some tissues ( e.g. , muscle , fat ) . It is common for morbidities such as essential hypertension , obesity , type 2 diabetes , and cardiovascular disease ( CVD ) to develop . Polycystic ovary syndrome -- a complex syndrome in women in the reproductive years where anovulation and androgen excess are commonly displayed as hirsutism . In many cases of PCOS , insulin resistance is present . Medical uses ( edit ) Main article : Insulin ( medication ) A vial of insulin . It has been given a trade name , Actrapid , by the manufacturer . Biosynthetic human insulin ( insulin human rDNA , INN ) for clinical use is manufactured by recombinant DNA technology . Biosynthetic human insulin has increased purity when compared with extractive animal insulin , enhanced purity reducing antibody formation . Researchers have succeeded in introducing the gene for human insulin into plants as another method of producing insulin ( `` biopharming '' ) in safflower . This technique is anticipated to reduce production costs . Several analogs of human insulin are available . These insulin analogs are closely related to the human insulin structure , and were developed for specific aspects of glycemic control in terms of fast action ( prandial insulins ) and long action ( basal insulins ) . The first biosynthetic insulin analog was developed for clinical use at mealtime ( prandial insulin ) , Humalog ( insulin lispro ) , it is more rapidly absorbed after subcutaneous injection than regular insulin , with an effect 15 minutes after injection . Other rapid - acting analogues are NovoRapid and Apidra , with similar profiles . All are rapidly absorbed due to amino acid sequences that will reduce formation of dimers and hexamers ( monomeric insulins are more rapidly absorbed ) . Fast acting insulins do not require the injection - to - meal interval previously recommended for human insulin and animal insulins . The other type is long acting insulin ; the first of these was Lantus ( insulin glargine ) . These have a steady effect for an extended period from 18 to 24 hours . Likewise , another protracted insulin analogue ( Levemir ) is based on a fatty acid acylation approach . A myristic acid molecule is attached to this analogue , which associates the insulin molecule to the abundant serum albumin , which in turn extends the effect and reduces the risk of hypoglycemia . Both protracted analogues need to be taken only once daily , and are used for type 1 diabetics as the basal insulin . A combination of a rapid acting and a protracted insulin is also available , making it more likely for patients to achieve an insulin profile that mimics that of the body ́ s own insulin release . Insulin is usually taken as subcutaneous injections by single - use syringes with needles , via an insulin pump , or by repeated - use insulin pens with disposable needles . Inhaled insulin is also available in the U.S. market now . Synthetic insulin can trigger adverse effects , so some people with diabetes rely on animal - source insulin . Unlike many medicines , insulin currently can not be taken orally because , like nearly all other proteins introduced into the gastrointestinal tract , it is reduced to fragments , whereupon all activity is lost . There has been some research into ways to protect insulin from the digestive tract , so that it can be administered orally or sublingually . History of Study ( edit ) Discovery ( edit ) In 1869 , while studying the structure of the pancreas under a microscope , Paul Langerhans , a medical student in Berlin , identified some previously unnoticed tissue clumps scattered throughout the bulk of the pancreas . The function of the `` little heaps of cells '' , later known as the islets of Langerhans , initially remained unknown , but Edouard Laguesse later suggested they might produce secretions that play a regulatory role in digestion . Paul Langerhans ' son , Archibald , also helped to understand this regulatory role . The term `` insulin '' originates from insula , the Latin word for islet / island . In 1889 , the physician Oskar Minkowski , in collaboration with Joseph von Mering , removed the pancreas from a healthy dog to test its assumed role in digestion . On testing the urine , they found sugar , establishing for the first time a relationship between the pancreas and diabetes . In 1901 , another major step was taken by the American physician and scientist Eugene Lindsay Opie , when he isolated the role of the pancreas to the islets of Langerhans : `` Diabetes mellitus when the result of a lesion of the pancreas is caused by destruction of the islands of Langerhans and occurs only when these bodies are in part or wholly destroyed '' . The structure of insulin . The left side is a space - filling model of the insulin monomer , believed to be biologically active . Carbon is green , hydrogen white , oxygen red , and nitrogen blue . On the right side is a ribbon diagram of the insulin hexamer , believed to be the stored form . A monomer unit is highlighted with the A chain in blue and the B chain in cyan . Yellow denotes disulfide bonds , and magenta spheres are zinc ions . Over the next two decades researchers made several attempts to isolate the islets ' secretions . In 1906 George Ludwig Zuelzer achieved partial success in treating dogs with pancreatic extract , but he was unable to continue his work . Between 1911 and 1912 , E.L. Scott at the University of Chicago tried aqueous pancreatic extracts and noted `` a slight diminution of glycosuria '' , but was unable to convince his director of his work 's value ; it was shut down . Israel Kleiner demonstrated similar effects at Rockefeller University in 1915 , but World War I interrupted his work and he did not return to it . In 1916 , Nicolae Paulescu developed an aqueous pancreatic extract which , when injected into a diabetic dog , had a normalizing effect on blood - sugar levels . He had to interrupt his experiments because of World War I , and in 1921 he wrote four papers about his work carried out in Bucharest and his tests on a diabetic dog . Later that year , he published `` Research on the Role of the Pancreas in Food Assimilation '' . Extraction and purification ( edit ) In October 1920 , Canadian Frederick Banting concluded that the digestive secretions that Minkowski had originally studied were breaking down the islet secretion , thereby making it impossible to extract successfully . A surgeon by training , Banting knew certain arteries could be tied off that would lead most of the pancreas to atrophy , while leaving the islets of Langerhans intact . He reasoned that a relatively pure extract could be made from the islets once most of the rest of the pancreas was gone . He jotted a note to himself : `` Ligate pancreatic ducts of the dog . Keep dogs alive till acini degenerate leaving islets . Try to isolate internal secretion of these and relieve glycosuria . '' In the spring of 1921 , Banting traveled to Toronto to explain his idea to J.J.R. Macleod , Professor of Physiology at the University of Toronto . Macleod was initially skeptical , since Banting had no background in research and was not familiar with the latest literature , but he agreed to provide lab space for Banting to test out his ideas . Macleod also arranged for two undergraduates to be Banting 's lab assistants that summer , but Banting required only one lab assistant . Charles Best and Clark Noble flipped a coin ; Best won the coin toss and took the first shift . This proved unfortunate for Noble , as Banting keep Best for the entire summer and eventually shared half his Nobel Prize money and credit for the discovery with Best . On 30 July 1921 , Banting and Best successfully isolated an extract ( `` isleton '' ) from the islets of a duct - tied dog and injected it into a diabetic dog , finding that the extract reduced its blood sugar by 40 % in 1 hour . Banting and Best presented their results to Macleod on his return to Toronto in the fall of 1921 , but Macleod pointed out flaws with the experimental design , and suggested the experiments be repeated with more dogs and better equipment . He moved Banting and Best into a better laboratory and began paying Banting a salary from his research grants . Several weeks later , the second round of experiments was also a success , and Macleod helped publish their results privately in Toronto that November . Bottlenecked by the time - consuming task of duct - tying dogs and waiting several weeks to extract insulin , Banting hit upon the idea of extracting insulin from the fetal calf pancreas , which had not yet developed digestive glands . By December , they had also succeeded in extracting insulin from the adult cow pancreas . Macleod discontinued all other research in his laboratory to concentrate on the purification of insulin . He invited biochemist James Collip to help with this task , and the team felt ready for a clinical test within a month . On January 11 , 1922 , Leonard Thompson , a 14 - year - old diabetic who lay dying at the Toronto General Hospital , was given the first injection of insulin . However , the extract was so impure that Thompson suffered a severe allergic reaction , and further injections were canceled . Over the next 12 days , Collip worked day and night to improve the ox - pancreas extract . A second dose was injected on January 23 , completely eliminating the glycosuria that was typical of diabetes without causing any obvious side - effects . The first American patient was Elizabeth Hughes , the daughter of U.S. Secretary of State Charles Evans Hughes . The first patient treated in the U.S. was future woodcut artist James D. Havens ; Dr. John Ralston Williams imported insulin from Toronto to Rochester , New York , to treat Havens . Banting and Best never worked well with Collip , regarding him as something of an interloper , and Collip left the project soon after . Over the spring of 1922 , Best managed to improve his techniques to the point where large quantities of insulin could be extracted on demand , but the preparation remained impure . The drug firm Eli Lilly and Company had offered assistance not long after the first publications in 1921 , and they took Lilly up on the offer in April . In November , Lilly 's head chemist , George B. Walden discovered isoelectric precipitation and was able to produce large quantities of highly refined insulin . Shortly thereafter , insulin was offered for sale to the general public . Synthesis ( edit ) Purified animal - sourced insulin was initially the only type of insulin available to diabetics . The amino acid structure of insulin was characterized in the early 1950s by Frederick Sanger , and the first synthetic insulin was produced simultaneously in the labs of Panayotis Katsoyannis at the University of Pittsburgh and Helmut Zahn at RWTH Aachen University in the early 1960s . Synthetic crystalline bovine insulin was achieved by Chinese researchers in 1965 . The first genetically engineered , synthetic `` human '' insulin was produced using E. coli in 1978 by Arthur Riggs and Keiichi Itakura at the Beckman Research Institute of the City of Hope in collaboration with Herbert Boyer at Genentech . Genentech , founded by Swanson , Boyer and Eli Lilly and Company , went on in 1982 to sell the first commercially available biosynthetic human insulin under the brand name Humulin . The vast majority of insulin currently used worldwide is now biosynthetic recombinant `` human '' insulin or its analogues . Recombinant insulin is produced either in yeast ( usually Saccharomyces cerevisiae ) or E. coli . In yeast , insulin may be engineered as a single - chain protein with a KexII endoprotease ( a yeast homolog of PCI / PCII ) site that separates the insulin A chain from a c - terminally truncated insulin B chain . A chemically synthesized c - terminal tail is then grafted onto insulin by reverse proteolysis using the inexpensive protease trypsin ; typically the lysine on the c - terminal tail is protected with a chemical protecting group to prevent proteolysis . The ease of modular synthesis and the relative safety of modifications in that region accounts for common insulin analogs with c - terminal modifications ( e.g. lispro , aspart , glulisine ) . The Genentech synthesis and completely chemical synthesis such as that by Bruce Merrifield are not preferred because the efficiency of recombining the two insulin chains is low , primarily due to competition with the precipitation of insulin B chain . Nobel Prizes ( edit ) Frederick Banting joined by Charles Best in office , 1924 The Nobel Prize committee in 1923 credited the practical extraction of insulin to a team at the University of Toronto and awarded the Nobel Prize to two men : Frederick Banting and J.J.R. Macleod . They were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1923 for the discovery of insulin . Banting , insulted that Best was not mentioned , shared his prize with him , and Macleod immediately shared his with James Collip . The patent for insulin was sold to the University of Toronto for one half - dollar . Two other Nobel Prizes have been awarded for work on insulin . British molecular biologist Frederick Sanger determined the primary structure of insulin in 1955 , making it the first protein to be sequenced . Sanger was awarded the 1958 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for this work . Rosalyn Sussman Yalow received the 1977 Nobel Prize in Medicine for the development of the radioimmunoassay for insulin . Several Nobel Prizes also have an indirect connection with insulin . George Minot , co-recipient of the 1934 Nobel Prize for the development of the first effective treatment for pernicious anemia , had diabetes mellitus . Dr. William Castle observed that the 1921 discovery of insulin , arriving in time to keep Minot alive , was therefore also responsible for the discovery of a cure for pernicious anemia . Dorothy Hodgkin was awarded a Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1964 for the development of crystallography . In 1969 , after decades of work , Hopkins determined the spatial conformation of insulin , the so - called tertiary structure , by means of X-ray diffraction studies . Controversy ( edit ) Nicolae Paulescu The work published by Banting , Best , Collip and Macleod represented the preparation of purified insulin extract suitable for use on human patients . Although Paulescu discovered the principles of the treatment , his saline extract could not be used on humans ; he was not mentioned in the 1923 Nobel Prize . Professor Ian Murray was particularly active in working to correct `` the historical wrong '' against Nicolae Paulescu . Murray was a professor of physiology at the Anderson College of Medicine in Glasgow , Scotland , the head of the department of Metabolic Diseases at a leading Glasgow hospital , vice-president of the British Association of Diabetes , and a founding member of the International Diabetes Federation . Murray wrote : Insufficient recognition has been given to Paulescu , the distinguished Romanian scientist , who at the time when the Toronto team were commencing their research had already succeeded in extracting the antidiabetic hormone of the pancreas and proving its efficacy in reducing the hyperglycaemia in diabetic dogs . In a private communication , Professor Arne Tiselius , former head of the Nobel Institute , expressed his personal opinion that Paulescu was equally worthy of the award in 1923 . See also ( edit ) Insulin analog Anatomy and physiolology Pancreas Islets of Langerhans Endocrinology Leptin Forms of diabetes mellitus Diabetes mellitus Diabetes mellitus type 1 Diabetes mellitus type 2 Treatment Diabetic coma Insulin therapy Intensive insulinotherapy Insulin pump Conventional insulinotherapy Other medical / diagnostic uses Insulin tolerance test Triple bolus test Insulin Signal Transduction pathway Insulin signal transduction pathway and regulation of blood glucose Other uses Cone Snail venom References ( edit ) ^ Jump up to : GRCh38 : Ensembl release 89 : ENSG00000254647 - Ensembl , May 2017 ^ Jump up to : GRCm38 : Ensembl release 89 : ENSMUSG00000000215 - Ensembl , May 2017 Jump up ^ `` Human PubMed Reference : '' . Jump up ^ `` Mouse PubMed Reference : '' . ^ Jump up to : Voet D , Voet JG ( 2011 ) . Biochemistry ( 4th ed . ) . New York : Wiley . ^ Jump up to : Stryer L ( 1995 ) . Biochemistry ( Fourth ed . ) . New York : W.H. Freeman and Company . pp. 773 -- 74 . 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A free weekly diabetes newsletter for Medical Professionals. 2014 - 07 - 28 . Retrieved 2017 - 06 - 01 . Jump up ^ McManus EJ , Sakamoto K , Armit LJ , Ronaldson L , Shpiro N , Marquez R , Alessi DR ( April 2005 ) . `` Role that phosphorylation of GSK3 plays in insulin and Wnt signalling defined by knockin analysis '' . The EMBO Journal . 24 ( 8 ) : 1571 -- 83 . doi : 10.1038 / sj. emboj. 7600633 . PMC 1142569 . PMID 15791206 . Jump up ^ Fang X , Yu SX , Lu Y , Bast RC , Woodgett JR , Mills GB ( October 2000 ) . `` Phosphorylation and inactivation of glycogen synthase kinase 3 by protein kinase A '' . Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America . 97 ( 22 ) : 11960 -- 75 . Bibcode : 2000PNAS ... 9711960F . doi : 10.1073 / pnas. 220413597 . PMC 17277 . PMID 11035810 . ^ Jump up to : Stryer L ( 1995 ) . Biochemistry ( Fourth ed . ) . New York : W.H. Freeman and Company . pp. 351 -- 56 , 494 -- 95 , 505 , 605 -- 06 , 773 -- 75 . ISBN 0 7167 2009 4 . Jump up ^ Menting JG , Whittaker J , Margetts MB , Whittaker LJ , Kong GK , Smith BJ , Watson CJ , Záková L , Kletvíková E , Jiráček J , Chan SJ , Steiner DF , Dodson GG , Brzozowski AM , Weiss MA , Ward CW , Lawrence MC ( January 2013 ) . `` How insulin engages its primary binding site on the insulin receptor '' . Nature . 493 ( 7431 ) : 241 -- 5 . Bibcode : 2013Natur. 493 ... 241M . doi : 10.1038 / nature11781 . PMC 3793637 . PMID 23302862 . Lay summary -- Australian Broadcasting Commission . ^ Jump up to : Dimitriadis G , Mitrou P , Lambadiari V , Maratou E , Raptis SA ( August 2011 ) . `` Insulin effects in muscle and adipose tissue '' ( PDF ) . Diabetes Research and Clinical Practice. 93 Suppl 1 : S52 -- 59 . doi : 10.1016 / S0168 - 8227 ( 11 ) 70014 - 6 . PMID 21864752 . Jump up ^ `` Physiologic Effects of Insulin '' . www.vivo.colostate.edu . Retrieved 2017 - 06 - 01 . 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Jump up ^ Clausen T ( September 2008 ) . `` Regulatory role of translocation of Na+ - K+ pumps in skeletal muscle : hypothesis or reality ? '' . American Journal of Physiology . Endocrinology and Metabolism. 295 ( 3 ) : E727 -- 28 ; author reply 729 . doi : 10.1152 / ajpendo. 90494.2008 . PMID 18775888 . Jump up ^ Gupta AK , Clark RV , Kirchner KA ( January 1992 ) . `` Effects of insulin on renal sodium excretion '' . Hypertension. 19 ( 1 Suppl ) : I78 -- 82 . doi : 10.1161 / 01. HYP. 19.1 _Suppl. I78 . PMID 1730458 . Jump up ^ Benedict C , Hallschmid M , Hatke A , Schultes B , Fehm HL , Born J , Kern W ( November 2004 ) . `` Intranasal insulin improves memory in humans '' . Psychoneuroendocrinology. 29 ( 10 ) : 1326 -- 34 . doi : 10.1016 / j. psyneuen. 2004.04. 003 . PMID 15288712 . Jump up ^ Benedict C , Brede S , Schiöth HB , Lehnert H , Schultes B , Born J , Hallschmid M ( January 2011 ) . `` Intranasal insulin enhances postprandial thermogenesis and lowers postprandial serum insulin levels in healthy men '' . Diabetes. 60 ( 1 ) : 114 -- 18 . doi : 10.2337 / db10 - 0329 . PMC 3012162 . PMID 20876713 ( Epub 'd ahead of print ) Jump up ^ Comninos AN , Jayasena CN , Dhillo WS ( 2014 ) . `` The relationship between gut and adipose hormones , and reproduction '' . Human Reproduction Update. 20 ( 2 ) : 153 -- 74 . doi : 10.1093 / humupd / dmt033 . PMID 24173881 . Jump up ^ Duckworth WC , Bennett RG , Hamel FG ( October 1998 ) . `` Insulin degradation : progress and potential '' . Endocrine Reviews . 19 ( 5 ) : 608 -- 24 . doi : 10.1210 / er. 19.5. 608 . PMID 9793760 . Jump up ^ Palmer BF , Henrich WL . `` Carbohydrate and insulin metabolism in chronic kidney disease '' . UpToDate , Inc . Jump up ^ D'Eon TM , Pierce KA , Roix JJ , Tyler A , Chen H , Teixeira SR ( May 2008 ) . `` The role of adipocyte insulin resistance in the pathogenesis of obesity - related elevations in endocannabinoids '' . Diabetes. 57 ( 5 ) : 1262 -- 68 . doi : 10.2337 / db07 - 1186 . PMID 18276766 . Jump up ^ Gatta - Cherifi B , Cota D ( February 2016 ) . `` New insights on the role of the endocannabinoid system in the regulation of energy balance '' . International Journal of Obesity. 40 ( 2 ) : 210 -- 19 . doi : 10.1038 / ijo. 2015.179 . PMID 26374449 . Jump up ^ Di Marzo V ( August 2008 ) . `` The endocannabinoid system in obesity and type 2 diabetes '' . Diabetologia. 51 ( 8 ) : 1356 -- 67 . doi : 10.1007 / s00125 - 008 - 1048 - 2 . PMID 18563385 . Jump up ^ Marcial GG ( 13 August 2007 ) . `` From SemBiosys , A New Kind Of Insulin '' . Inside Wall Street . Archived from the original on 17 November 2007 . Jump up ^ Insulin analog Jump up ^ http://www.iddt.org/diabetic-commonsense/the-great-debate-natural-animal-or-artificial-human-insulin Jump up ^ Wong CY , Martinez J , Dass CR ( 2016 ) . `` Oral delivery of insulin for treatment of diabetes : status quo , challenges and opportunities '' . The Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmacology . 68 ( 9 ) : 1093 -- 108 . doi : 10.1111 / jphp. 12607 . PMID 27364922 . Jump up ^ Shah RB , Patel M , Maahs DM , Shah VN ( 2016 ) . `` Insulin delivery methods : Past , present and future '' . International Journal of Pharmaceutical Investigation . 6 ( 1 ) : 1 -- 9 . doi : 10.4103 / 2230 - 973X. 176456 . PMC 4787057 . PMID 27014614 . Jump up ^ Opie EL ( 1901 ) . `` Diabetes Mellitus Associated with Hyaline Degeneration of the islands of Langerhans of the Pancreas '' . Bulletin of the Johns Hopkins Hospital . 12 ( 125 ) : 263 -- 64 . Jump up ^ Opie EL ( 1901 ) . `` On the Relation of Chronic Interstitial Pancreatitis to the Islands of Langerhans and to Diabetes Mellitus '' . Journal of Experimental Medicine . 5 ( 4 ) : 397 -- 428 . doi : 10.1084 / jem. 5.4. 397 . PMC 2118050 . PMID 19866952 . Jump up ^ Opie EL ( 1901 ) . `` The Relation of Diabetes Mellitus to Lesions of the Pancreas . Hyaline Degeneration of the Islands of Langerhans '' . Journal of Experimental Medicine . 5 ( 5 ) : 527 -- 40 . doi : 10.1084 / jem. 5.5. 527 . PMC 2118021 . PMID 19866956 . Jump up ^ The American Institute of Nutrition ( 1967 ) . `` Proceedings of the Thirty - first Annual Meeting of the American Institute of Nutrition '' ( PDF ) . Journal of Nutrition. 92 : 509 . Jump up ^ Paulesco NC ( August 31 , 1921 ) . `` Recherche sur le rôle du pancréas dans l'assimilation nutritive '' . Archives Internationales de Physiologie. 17 : 85 -- 103 . Jump up ^ Lestradet H ( 1997 ) . `` Le 75e anniversaire de la découverte de l'insuline '' . Diabetes & Metabolism. 23 ( 1 ) : 112 . ^ Jump up to : Rosenfeld L ( December 2002 ) . `` Insulin : discovery and controversy '' . Clinical Chemistry . 48 ( 12 ) : 2270 -- 88 . PMID 12446492 . Jump up ^ Wright JR ( December 2002 ) . `` Almost famous : E. Clark Noble , the common thread in the discovery of insulin and vinblastine '' . CMAJ. 167 ( 12 ) : 1391 -- 96 . PMC 137361 . PMID 12473641 . Jump up ^ Krishnamurthy K ( 2002 ) . Pioneers in scientific discoveries . Mittal Publications . p. 266 . ISBN 978 - 81 - 7099 - 844 - 0 . Retrieved 26 July 2011 . Jump up ^ Bliss M ( July 1993 ) . `` Rewriting medical history : Charles Best and the Banting and Best myth '' . Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences . 48 ( 3 ) : 253 -- 74 . doi : 10.1093 / jhmas / 48.3. 253 . PMID 8409364 . Jump up ^ Zuger A ( October 4 , 2010 ) . `` Rediscovering the First Miracle Drug '' . The New York Times . Retrieved 2010 - 10 - 06 . Elizabeth Hughes was a cheerful , pretty little girl , five feet tall , with straight brown hair and a consuming interest in birds . On Dr. Allen 's diet her weight fell to 65 pounds , then 52 pounds , and then , after an episode of diarrhea that almost killed her in the spring of 1922 , 45 pounds . By then she had survived three years , far longer than expected . And then her mother heard the news : Insulin had finally been isolated in Canada . Jump up ^ Marcotte B ( November 22 , 2010 ) . `` Rochester 's John Williams a man of scientific talents '' . Democrat and Chronicle . Rochester , New York . Gannett Company . pp. 1B , 4B . Archived from the original on November 23 , 2010 . Retrieved November 22 , 2010 . ^ Jump up to : Stretton AO ( October 2002 ) . `` The first sequence . Fred Sanger and insulin '' . Genetics . 162 ( 2 ) : 527 -- 32 . PMC 1462286 . PMID 12399368 . Jump up ^ Costin GE ( January 2004 ) . `` What is the advantage of having melanin in parts of the central nervous system ( e.g. substantia nigra ) ? '' . IUBMB Life . Time Inc. 56 ( 1 ) : 47 -- 49 . doi : 10.1080 / 15216540310001659029 . PMID 14992380 . Jump up ^ Wollmer A , Dieken ML , Federwisch M , De Meyts P ( 2002 ) . Insulin & related proteins structure to function and pharmacology . Boston : Kluwer Academic Publishers . ISBN 1 - 4020 - 0655 - 1 . Jump up ^ 邹承鲁 ( Chenglu Zou ) ( 2015 ) . `` 对 人工 合成 结晶 牛 胰岛素 的 回忆 ( Memory on the research of synthesizing bovine insulin ) '' . 生命 科学 ( Chinese Bulletin of Life Science ) ( in Simplified Chinese ) . 27 ( 6 ) : 777 -- 779 . CS1 maint : Unrecognized language ( link ) Jump up ^ Kjeldsen T ( September 2000 ) . `` Yeast secretory expression of insulin precursors '' . Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology . 54 ( 3 ) : 277 -- 86 . doi : 10.1007 / s002530000402 . PMID 11030562 . Jump up ^ `` The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1923 '' . The Nobel Foundation . Jump up ^ Castle WB ( 1962 ) . `` The Gordon Wilson Lecture . A Century of Curiosity About Pernicious Anemia '' . Transactions of the American Clinical and Climatological Association . 73 : 54 -- 80 . PMC 2249021 . PMID 21408623 . Jump up ^ Banting FG , Best CH , Collip JB , Campbell WR , Fletcher AA ( March 1922 ) . `` Pancreatic Extracts in the Treatment of Diabetes Mellitus '' . Canadian Medical Association Journal . 12 ( 3 ) : 141 -- 46 . PMC 1524425 . PMID 20314060 . Jump up ^ Drury MI ( July 1972 ) . `` The golden jubile of insulin '' . Journal of the Irish Medical Association . 65 ( 14 ) : 355 -- 63 . PMID 4560502 . Jump up ^ Murray I ( April 1971 ) . `` Paulesco and the isolation of insulin '' . Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences . 26 ( 2 ) : 150 -- 57 . doi : 10.1093 / jhmas / XXVI. 2.150 . PMID 4930788 . Further reading ( edit ) Laws GM , Reaven A ( 1999 ) . Insulin resistance : the metabolic syndrome X . Totowa , NJ : Humana Press . doi : 10.1226 / 0896035883 . ISBN 0 - 89603 - 588 - 3 . Leahy JL , Cefalu WT ( 2002 - 03 - 22 ) . Insulin Therapy ( 1st ed . ) . New York : Marcel Dekker . ISBN 0 - 8247 - 0711 - 7 . Kumar S , O'Rahilly S ( 2005 - 01 - 14 ) . Insulin Resistance : Insulin Action and Its Disturbances in Disease . Chichester , England : Wiley . ISBN 0 - 470 - 85008 - 6 . Ehrlich A , Schroeder CL ( 2000 - 06 - 16 ) . Medical Terminology for Health Professions ( 4th ed . ) . Thomson Delmar Learning . ISBN 0 - 7668 - 1297 - 9 . Draznin B , LeRoith D ( September 1994 ) . Molecular Biology of Diabetes : Autoimmunity and Genetics ; Insulin Synthesis and Secretion . Totowa , New Jersey : Humana Press . doi : 10.1226 / 0896032868 . ISBN 0 - 89603 - 286 - 8 . Famous Canadian Physicians : Sir Frederick Banting at Library and Archives Canada McKeage K , Goa KL ( 2001 ) . `` Insulin glargine : a review of its therapeutic use as a long - acting agent for the management of type 1 and 2 diabetes mellitus '' . Drugs . 61 ( 11 ) : 1599 -- 624 . doi : 10.2165 / 00003495 - 200161110 - 00007 . PMID 11577797 . External links ( edit ) Wikimedia Commons has media related to Insulin . Insulin : entry from protein databank The History of Insulin CBC Digital Archives -- Banting , Best , Macleod , Collip : Chasing a Cure for Diabetes Discovery and Early Development of Insulin , 1920 -- 1925 Secretion of Insulin and Glucagon Insulin signaling pathway Animations of insulin 's action in the body at AboutKidsHealth.ca Types of Insulin for Diabetes Treatment at ApolloSugar.com PDB gallery 1ai0 : R6 HUMAN INSULIN HEXAMER ( NON-SYMMETRIC ) , NMR , 10 STRUCTURES 1aiy : R6 HUMAN INSULIN HEXAMER ( SYMMETRIC ) , NMR , 10 STRUCTURES 1aph : CONFORMATIONAL CHANGES IN CUBIC INSULIN CRYSTALS IN THE PH RANGE 7 - 11 1b17 : PH AFFECTS GLU B13 SWITCHING AND SULFATE BINDING IN CUBIC INSULIN CRYSTALS ( PH 5.00 COORDINATES ) 1b18 : PH AFFECTS GLU B13 SWITCHING AND SULFATE BINDING IN CUBIC INSULIN CRYSTALS ( PH 5.53 COORDINATES ) 1b19 : PH AFFECTS GLU B13 SWITCHING AND SULFATE BINDING IN CUBIC INSULIN CRYSTALS ( PH 5.80 COORDINATES ) 1b2a : PH AFFECTS GLU B13 SWITCHING AND SULFATE BINDING IN CUBIC INSULIN CRYSTALS ( PH 6.00 COORDINATES ) 1b2b : PH AFFECTS GLU B13 SWITCHING AND SULFATE BINDING IN CUBIC INSULIN CRYSTALS ( PH 6.16 COORDINATES ) 1b2c : PH AFFECTS GLU B13 SWITCHING AND SULFATE BINDING IN CUBIC INSULIN CRYSTALS ( PH 6.26 COORDINATES ) 1b2d : PH AFFECTS GLU B13 SWITCHING AND SULFATE BINDING IN CUBIC INSULIN CRYSTALS ( PH 6.35 COORDINATES ) 1b2e : PH AFFECTS GLU B13 SWITCHING AND SULFATE BINDING IN CUBIC INSULIN CRYSTALS ( PH 6.50 COORDINATES ) 1b2f : PH AFFECTS GLU B13 SWITCHING AND SULFATE BINDING IN CUBIC INSULIN CRYSTALS ( PH 6.98 COORDINATES ) 1b2g : PH AFFECTS GLU B13 SWITCHING AND SULFATE BINDING IN CUBIC INSULIN CRYSTALS ( PH 9.00 COORDINATES ) 1b9e : HUMAN INSULIN MUTANT SERB9GLU 1ben : INSULIN COMPLEXED WITH 4 - HYDROXYBENZAMIDE 1bph : CONFORMATIONAL CHANGES IN CUBIC INSULIN CRYSTALS IN THE PH RANGE 7 - 11 1cph : CONFORMATIONAL CHANGES IN CUBIC INSULIN CRYSTALS IN THE PH RANGE 7 - 11 1dph : CONFORMATIONAL CHANGES IN CUBIC INSULIN CRYSTALS IN THE PH RANGE 7 - 11 1ev3 : Structure of the rhombohedral form of the M - cresol / insulin R6 hexamer 1ev6 : Structure of the monoclinic form of the M - cresol / insulin R6 hexamer 1evr : The structure of the resorcinol / insulin R6 hexamer 1fu2 : FIRST PROTEIN STRUCTURE DETERMINED FROM X-RAY POWDER DIFFRACTION DATA 1fub : FIRST PROTEIN STRUCTURE DETERMINED FROM X-RAY POWDER DIFFRACTION DATA 1g7a : 1.2 A structure of T3R3 human insulin at 100 K 1g7b : 1.3 A STRUCTURE OF T3R3 HUMAN INSULIN AT 100 K 1guj : INSULIN AT PH 2 : STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS OF THE CONDITIONS PROMOTING INSULIN FIBRE FORMATION . 1hiq : PARADOXICAL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION IN A MUTANT HUMAN INSULIN ASSOCIATED WITH DIABETES MELLITUS 1hit : RECEPTOR BINDING REDEFINED BY A STRUCTURAL SWITCH IN A MUTANT HUMAN INSULIN 1hls : NMR STRUCTURE OF THE HUMAN INSULIN - HIS ( B16 ) 1htv : CRYSTAL STRUCTURE OF DESTRIPEPTIDE ( B28 - B30 ) INSULIN 1iza : ROLE OF B13 GLU IN INSULIN ASSEMBLY : THE HEXAMER STRUCTURE OF RECOMBINANT MUTANT ( B13 GLU - > GLN ) INSULIN 1izb : ROLE OF B13 GLU IN INSULIN ASSEMBLY : THE HEXAMER STRUCTURE OF RECOMBINANT MUTANT ( B13 GLU - > GLN ) INSULIN 1j73 : Crystal structure of an unstable insulin analog with native activity . 1jca : Non-standard Design of Unstable Insulin Analogues with Enhanced Activity 1jco : Solution structure of the monomeric ( Thr ( B27 ) - > Pro , Pro ( B28 ) - > Thr ) insulin mutant ( PT insulin ) 1lph : LYS ( B28 ) PRO ( B29 ) - HUMAN INSULIN 1m5a : Crystal Structure of 2 - Co ( 2 + ) - Insulin at 1.2 A Resolution 1mhi : THREE - DIMENSIONAL SOLUTION STRUCTURE OF AN INSULIN DIMER . A STUDY OF THE B9 ( ASP ) MUTANT OF HUMAN INSULIN USING NUCLEAR MAGNETIC RESONANCE DISTANCE GEOMETRY AND RESTRAINED MOLECULAR DYNAMICS 1mhj : SOLUTION STRUCTURE OF THE SUPERACTIVE MONOMERIC DES - ( PHE ( B25 ) ) HUMAN INSULIN MUTANT . ELUCIDATION OF THE STRUCTURAL BASIS FOR THE MONOMERIZATION OF THE DES - ( PHE ( B25 ) ) INSULIN AND THE DIMERIZATION OF NATIVE INSULIN 1mpj : X-RAY CRYSTALLOGRAPHIC STUDIES ON HEXAMERIC INSULINS IN THE PRESENCE OF HELIX - STABILIZING AGENTS , THIOCYANATE , METHYLPARABEN AND PHENOL 1mso : T6 Human Insulin at 1.0 A Resolution 1os3 : Dehydrated T6 human insulin at 100 K 1os4 : Dehydrated T6 human insulin at 295 K 1q4v : CRYSTAL STRUCTURE OF ALLO - ILEA2 - INSULIN , AN INACTIVE CHIRAL ANALOGUE : IMPLICATIONS FOR THE MECHANISM OF RECEPTOR 1qiy : HUMAN INSULIN HEXAMERS WITH CHAIN B HIS MUTATED TO TYR COMPLEXED WITH PHENOL 1qiz : HUMAN INSULIN HEXAMERS WITH CHAIN B HIS MUTATED TO TYR COMPLEXED WITH RESORCINOL 1qj0 : HUMAN INSULIN HEXAMERS WITH CHAIN B HIS MUTATED TO TYR 1rwe : Enhancing the activity of insulin at receptor edge : crystal structure and photo - cross-linking of A8 analogues 1sf1 : NMR STRUCTURE OF HUMAN INSULIN under Amyloidogenic Condition , 15 STRUCTURES 1t0c : Solution Structure of Human Proinsulin C - Peptide 1trz : CRYSTALLOGRAPHIC EVIDENCE FOR DUAL COORDINATION AROUND ZINC IN THE T3R3 HUMAN INSULIN HEXAMER 1tyl : THE STRUCTURE OF A COMPLEX OF HEXAMERIC INSULIN AND 4 ' - HYDROXYACETANILIDE 1tym : THE STRUCTURE OF A COMPLEX OF HEXAMERIC INSULIN AND 4 ' - HYDROXYACETANILIDE 1uz9 : CRYSTALLOGRAPHIC AND SOLUTION STUDIES OF N - LITHOCHOLYL INSULIN : A NEW GENERATION OF PROLONGED - ACTING INSULINS . 1w8p : STRUCTURAL PROPERTIES OF THE B25TYR - NME - B26PHE INSULIN MUTANT . 1wav : CRYSTAL STRUCTURE OF FORM B MONOCLINIC CRYSTAL OF INSULIN 1xda : STRUCTURE OF INSULIN 1xgl : HUMAN INSULIN DISULFIDE ISOMER , NMR , 10 STRUCTURES 1xw7 : Diabetes - Associated Mutations in Human Insulin : Crystal Structure and Photo - Cross-Linking Studies of A-Chain Variant Insulin Wakayama 1zeg : STRUCTURE OF B28 ASP INSULIN IN COMPLEX WITH PHENOL 1zeh : STRUCTURE OF INSULIN 1zni : INSULIN 1znj : INSULIN , MONOCLINIC CRYSTAL FORM 2a3g : The structure of T6 bovine insulin 2aiy : R6 HUMAN INSULIN HEXAMER ( SYMMETRIC ) , NMR , 20 STRUCTURES 2bn1 : INSULIN AFTER A HIGH DOSE X-RAY BURN 2bn3 : INSULIN BEFORE A HIGH DOSE X-RAY BURN 2c8q : INSULINE ( 1SEC ) AND UV LASER EXCITED FLUORESCENCE 2c8r : INSULINE ( 60SEC ) AND UV LASER EXCITED FLUORESCENCE 2g4m : Insulin collected at 2.0 A wavelength 2g54 : Crystal structure of Zn - bound human insulin - degrading enzyme in complex with insulin B chain 2g56 : crystal structure of human insulin - degrading enzyme in complex with insulin B chain 2hiu : NMR STRUCTURE OF HUMAN INSULIN IN 20 % ACETIC ACID , ZINC - FREE , 10 STRUCTURES 2ins : THE STRUCTURE OF DES - PHE B1 BOVINE INSULIN 2omg : Structure of human insulin cocrystallized with protamine and urea 2omh : Structure of human insulin cocrystallized with ARG - 12 peptide in presence of urea 2omi : Structure of human insulin cocrystallized with protamine 2tci : X-RAY CRYSTALLOGRAPHIC STUDIES ON HEXAMERIC INSULINS IN THE PRESENCE OF HELIX - STABILIZING AGENTS , THIOCYANATE , METHYLPARABEN AND PHENOL 3aiy : R6 HUMAN INSULIN HEXAMER ( SYMMETRIC ) , NMR , REFINED AVERAGE STRUCTURE 3ins : STRUCTURE OF INSULIN . RESULTS OF JOINT NEUTRON AND X-RAY REFINEMENT 3mth : X-RAY CRYSTALLOGRAPHIC STUDIES ON HEXAMERIC INSULINS IN THE PRESENCE OF HELIX - STABILIZING AGENTS , THIOCYANATE , METHYLPARABEN AND PHENOL 4aiy : R6 HUMAN INSULIN HEXAMER ( SYMMETRIC ) , NMR , ' GREEN ' SUBSTATE , AVERAGE STRUCTURE 4ins : THE STRUCTURE OF 2ZN PIG INSULIN CRYSTALS AT 1.5 ANGSTROMS RESOLUTION 5aiy : R6 HUMAN INSULIN HEXAMER ( SYMMETRIC ) , NMR , ' RED ' SUBSTATE , AVERAGE STRUCTURE 6ins : X-RAY ANALYSIS OF THE SINGLE CHAIN / B29 - A1 $ PEPTIDE - LINKED INSULIN MOLECULE . A COMPLETELY INACTIVE ANALOGUE 7ins : STRUCTURE OF PORCINE INSULIN COCRYSTALLIZED WITH CLUPEINE Z 9ins : MONOVALENT CATION BINDING IN CUBIC INSULIN CRYSTALS Hormones Endocrine glands Hypothalamic - pituitary Hypothalamus GnRH TRH Dopamine CRH GHRH Somatostatin ( GHIH ) MCH Posterior pituitary Oxytocin Vasopressin Anterior pituitary FSH LH TSH Prolactin POMC CLIP ACTH MSH Endorphins Lipotropin GH Adrenal axis Adrenal cortex Aldosterone Cortisol Cortisone DHEA DHEA - S Androstenedione Adrenal medulla Epinephrine Norepinephrine Thyroid Thyroid hormones Calcitonin Thyroid axis Parathyroid PTH Gonadal axis Testis Testosterone AMH Inhibin Ovary Estradiol Progesterone Activin Inhibin Relaxin GnSAF Placenta hCG HPL Estrogen Progesterone Pancreas Glucagon Insulin Amylin Somatostatin Pancreatic polypeptide Pineal gland Melatonin N , N - Dimethyltryptamine 5 - Methoxy - N , N - dimethyltryptamine Other Thymus Thymosins Thymosin α1 Beta thymosins Thymopoietin Thymulin Digestive system Stomach Gastrin Ghrelin Duodenum CCK Incretins GIP GLP - 1 Secretin Motilin VIP Ileum Enteroglucagon Peptide YY Liver / other Insulin - like growth factor IGF - 1 IGF - 2 Adipose tissue Leptin Adiponectin Resistin Skeleton Osteocalcin Kidney Renin EPO Calcitriol Prostaglandin Heart Natriuretic peptide ANP BNP Signaling peptide / protein receptor modulators Adiponectin AdipoR Agonists : Peptide : Adiponectin ADP - 355 ADP - 399 ; Non-peptide : AdipoRon ( -- ) - Arctigenin Arctiin Gramine Matairesinol Antagonists : Peptide : ADP - 400 AdipoR Agonists : Peptide : Adiponectin ADP - 355 ADP - 399 ; Non-peptide : AdipoRon Deoxyschizandrin Parthenolide Syringing Taxifoliol Antagonists : Peptide : ADP - 400 Angiotensin See here instead . Bradykinin Agonists : Bradykinin Kallidin Antagonists : FR - 173657 Icatibant LF22 - 0542 CGRP Agonists : Amylin CGRP Pramlintide Antagonists : Atogepant BI 44370 TA CGRP ( 8 - 37 ) MK - 3207 Olcegepant Rimegepant SB - 268262 Telcagepant Ubrogepant Antibodies : Eptinezumab Erenumab Fremanezumab Galcanezumab Cholecystokinin CCK Agonists : Cholecystokinin Antagonists : Amiglumide Asperlicin Devazepide Dexloxiglumide Lintitript Lorglumide Loxiglumide Pranazepide Proglumide Tarazepide Tomoglumide CCK Agonists : Cholecystokinin CCK - 4 Gastrin Pentagastrin ( CCK - 5 ) Antagonists : Ceclazepide CI - 988 ( PD - 134308 ) Itriglumide L - 365,360 Netazepide Proglumide Spiroglumide Unsorted Antagonists : Nastorazepide CRH CRF Agonists : Cortagine Corticorelin Corticotropin releasing hormone Sauvagine Stressin I Urocortin Antagonists : Antalarmin Astressin - B CP - 154,526 Emicerfont Hypericin LWH - 234 NBI - 27914 Pexacerfont R - 121919 TS - 041 Verucerfont CRF Agonists : Corticorelin Corticotropin releasing hormone Sauvagine Urocortin Antagonists : Astressin - B Cytokine See here instead . Endothelin Agonists : Endothelin 1 Endothelin 2 Endothelin 3 IRL - 1620 Antagonists : A-192621 ACT - 132577 Ambrisentan Aprocitentan Atrasentan Avosentan Bosentan BQ - 123 BQ - 788 Clazosentan Darusentan Edonentan Enrasentan Fandosentan Feloprentan Macitentan Nebentan Sitaxentan Sparsentan Tezosentan Zibotentan Galanin GAL Agonists : Galanin Galanin ( 1 - 15 ) Galanin - like peptide Galmic Galnon NAX 810 - 2 Antagonists : C7 Dithiepine - 1 , 1 , 4 , 4 - tetroxide Galantide ( M15 ) M32 M35 M40 SCH - 202596 GAL Agonists : Galanin Galanin ( 1 - 15 ) Galanin ( 2 - 11 ) Galanin - like peptide Galmic Galnon J18 NAX 810 - 2 Antagonists : C7 Galantide ( M15 ) M32 M35 M40 M871 GAL Agonists : Galanin Galanin ( 1 - 15 ) Galmic Galnon Antagonists : C7 Galantide ( M15 ) GalR3ant HT - 2157 M32 M35 M40 SNAP - 37889 SNAP - 398299 Ghrelin / GHS See here instead . GH See here instead . GHRH See here instead . GLP GLP - 1 Agonists : Albiglutide Beinaglutide Dulaglutide Efpeglenatide Exenatide GLP - 1 Langlenatide Liraglutide Lixisenatide Oxyntomodulin Pegapamodutide Semaglutide Taspoglutide GLP - 2 Agonists : Apraglutide Elsiglutide Glepaglutide GLP - 2 Teduglutide Others Propeptides : Preproglucagon Proglucagon Glucagon Agonists : Dasiglucagon Glucagon Oxyntomodulin Antagonists : Adomeglivant L - 168,049 LGD - 6972 Propeptides : Preproglucagon Proglucagon GnRH See here instead . Gonadotropin See here instead . Growth factor See here instead . Insulin Agonists : Chaetochromin ( 4548 - G05 ) Insulin - like growth factor 1 Insulin - like growth factor 2 Insulin Insulin aspart Insulin degludec Insulin detemir Insulin glargine Insulin glulisine Insulin lispro Mecasermin Mecasermin rinfabate Antagonists : BMS - 754807 S661 S961 Kinase inhibitors : Linsitinib Antibodies : Xentuzumab ( against IGF - 1 and IGF - 2 ) Kisspeptin Agonists : Kisspeptin Kisspeptin - 10 Antagonists : Kisspeptin - 234 Leptin Agonists : Leptin Metreleptin MCH MCH Agonists : Melanin concentrating hormone Antagonists : ATC - 0065 ATC - 0175 GW - 803430 NGD - 4715 SNAP - 7941 SNAP - 94847 MCH Agonists : Melanin concentrating hormone Melanocortin See here instead . Neuropeptide FF Agonists : Neuropeptide AF Neuropeptide FF Neuropeptide SF ( RFRP - 1 ) Neuropeptide VF ( RFRP - 3 ) Antagonists : BIBP - 3226 RF9 Neuropeptide S Agonists : Neuropeptide S Antagonists : ML - 154 SHA - 68 Neuropeptide Y Y Agonists : Neuropeptide Y Peptide YY Antagonists : BIBO - 3304 BIBP - 3226 BVD - 10 GR - 231118 PD - 160170 Y Agonists : 2 - Thiouridine 5 ' - triphosphate Neuropeptide Y Neuropeptide Y ( 13 - 36 ) Peptide YY Peptide YY ( 3 - 36 ) Antagonists : BIIE - 0246 JNJ - 5207787 SF - 11 Y Agonists : GR - 231118 Neuropeptide Y Pancreatic polypeptide Peptide YY Antagonists : UR - AK49 Y Agonists : BWX - 46 Neuropeptide Y Peptide YY Antagonists : CGP - 71683 FMS - 586 L - 152,804 Lu AA - 33810 MK - 0557 NTNCB Velneperit ( S - 2367 ) Neurotensin NTS Agonists : Neurotensin Neuromedin N Antagonists : Meclinertant SR - 142948 NTS Agonists : Neurotensin Antagonists : Levocabastine SR - 142948 Opioid See here instead . Orexin OX Agonists : Orexin ( A , B) Antagonists : ACT - 335827 ACT - 462206 Almorexant Filorexant Lemborexant Nemorexant RTIOX - 276 SB - 334867 SB - 408124 SB - 649868 Suvorexant TCS - 1102 OX Agonists : Orexin ( A , B) SB - 668875 Antagonists : ACT - 335827 ACT - 462206 Almorexant EMPA Filorexant JNJ - 10397049 Lemborexant MK - 1064 SB - 649868 Seltorexant Suvorexant TCS - 1102 TCS - OX2 - 29 Oxytocin See here instead . Prolactin Agonists : Growth hormone Human placental lactogen Placental growth hormone ( growth hormone variant ) Prolactin S179D - hPRL Somatotropin Antagonists : Δ1 -- 9 - G129R - hPRL Δ1 -- 14 - G129R - hPRL G120K - hGH G129R - hPRL Prolactin modulators : Prolactin inhibitors : D receptor agonists ( e.g. , bromocriptine , cabergoline ) ; Prolactin releasers : D receptor antagonists ( e.g. , domperidone , metoclopramide , risperidone ) Estrogens ( e.g. , estradiol ) Progestogens ( e.g. , progesterone ) PTH Agonists : Abaloparatide Parathyroid hormone Parathyroid hormone - related protein ( PTHrP ) Semparatide Teriparatide Relaxin Agonists : Insulin - like factor 3 Relaxin ( 1 , 2 , 3 ) Serelaxin Somatostatin See here instead . Tachykinin See here instead . TRH Agonists : Azetirelin Fertirelin Montirelin Orotirelin Posatirelin Protirelin Rovatirelin Taltirelin TRH ( TRF ) TSH Agonists : Thyrotropin alfa TSH ( thyrotropin ) Vasopressin See here instead . VIP / PACAP VIPR Agonists : Peptide : Bay 55 - 9837 LBT - 3393 PACAP VIP VIPR Agonists : Peptide : LBT - 3627 PACAP VIP PAC Agonists : PACAP PACAP ( 1 - 27 ) PACAP ( 1 - 38 ) Antagonists : PACAP ( 6 - 38 ) Unsorted PHI PHM PHV Others Endogenous : Adrenomedullin Apelin Asprosin Bombesin Calcitonin Carnosine CART CLIP DSIP Enteroglucagon Formyl peptide GALP GIP GRP Integrin ligands ( collagens , fibrinogen , fibronectin , laminins , ICAM - 1 , ICAM - 2 , osteopontin , VCAM - 1 , vitronectin ) Kininogens Motilin Natriuretic peptides ( ANP , BNP , CNP , urodilatin ) Nesfatin - 1 Neuromedin B Neuromedin N Neuromedin S Neuromedin U Obestatin Osteocalcin Resistin Secretin Thymopoietin Thymosins Thymulin Urotensin - II VGF Exogenous : Lifitegrast ( LFA - 1 antagonist ) See also Receptor / signaling modulators Growth factor receptor modulators Angiopoietin Agonists : Angiopoietin 1 Angiopoietin 4 Antagonists : Angiopoietin 2 Angiopoietin 3 Kinase inhibitors : Altiratinib CE - 245677 Rebastinib Antibodies : Evinacumab ( against angiopoietin 3 ) Nesvacumab ( against angiopoietin 2 ) CNTF Agonists : Axokine CNTF Dapiclermin EGF ( ErbB ) EGF ( ErbB1 / HER1 ) Agonists : Amphiregulin Betacellulin EGF ( urogastrone ) Epigen Epiregulin Heparin - binding EGF - like growth factor ( HB - EGF ) Murodermin Nepidermin Transforming growth factor alpha ( TGFα ) Kinase inhibitors : Afatinib AG - 490 Agerafenib Brigatinib Canertinib Dacomitinib Erlotinib Gefitinib Grandinin Icotinib Lapatinib Neratinib Osimertinib Vandetanib WHI - P 154 Antibodies : Cetuximab Depatuxizumab Depatuxizumab mafodotin Futuximab Imgatuzumab Matuzumab Necitumumab Nimotuzumab Panitumumab Zalutumumab ErbB2 / HER2 Agonists : Unknown / none Antibodies : Ertumaxomab Pertuzumab Trastuzumab Trastuzumab duocarmazine Trastuzumab emtansine Kinase inhibitors : Afatinib AG - 490 Lapatinib Mubritinib Neratinib ErbB3 / HER3 Agonists : Neuregulins ( heregulins ) ( 1 , 2 , 6 ( neuroglycan C ) ) Antibodies : Duligotumab Patritumab Seribantumab ErbB4 / HER4 Agonists : Betacellulin Epigen Heparin - binding EGF - like growth factor ( HB - EGF ) Neuregulins ( heregulins ) ( 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 ( tomoregulin , TMEFF ) ) FGF FGFR1 Agonists : Ersofermin FGF ( 1 , 2 ( bFGF ) , 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 , 8 , 10 ( KGF2 ) , 20 ) Repifermin Trafermin Velafermin FGFR2 Agonists : Ersofermin FGF ( 1 , 2 ( bFGF ) , 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 , 7 ( KGF ) , 8 , 9 , 10 ( KGF2 ) , 17 , 18 , 22 ) Palifermin Repifermin Sprifermin Trafermin Antibodies : Aprutumab Aprutumab ixadotin FGFR3 Agonists : Ersofermin FGF ( 1 , 2 ( bFGF ) , 4 , 8 , 9 , 18 , 23 ) Sprifermin Trafermin Antibodies : Burosumab ( against FGF23 ) FGFR4 Agonists : Ersofermin FGF ( 1 , 2 ( bFGF ) , 4 , 6 , 8 , 9 , 19 ) Trafermin Unsorted Agonists : FGF15 / 19 HGF ( c - Met ) Agonists : Hepatocyte growth factor Potentiators : Dihexa ( PNB - 0408 ) Kinase inhibitors : Altiratinib AM7 AMG - 458 Amuvatinib BMS - 777607 Cabozantinib Crizotinib Foretinib Golvatinib INCB28060 JNJ - 38877605 K252a MK - 2461 PF - 04217903 PF - 2341066 PHA - 665752 SU - 11274 Tivantinib Volitinib Antibodies : Emibetuzumab Ficlatuzumab Flanvotumab Onartuzumab Rilotumumab Telisotuzumab Telisotuzumab vedotin IGF IGF - 1 Agonists : des ( 1 - 3 ) IGF - 1 Insulin - like growth factor - 1 ( somatomedin C ) IGF - 1 LR3 Insulin - like growth factor - 2 ( somatomedin A ) Insulin Mecasermin Mecasermin rinfabate Kinase inhibitors : BMS - 754807 Linsitinib NVP - ADW742 NVP - AEW541 OSl - 906 Antibodies : AVE - 1642 Cixutumumab Dalotuzumab Figitumumab Ganitumab Robatumumab R1507 Teprotumumab Xentuzumab ( against IGF - 1 and IGF - 2 ) IGF - 2 Agonists : Insulin - like growth factor - 2 ( somatomedin A ) Antibodies : Dusigitumab Xentuzumab ( against IGF - 1 and IGF - 2 ) Others Binding proteins : IGFBP ( 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 , 7 ) Cleavage products / derivatives with unknown target : Glypromate ( GPE , ( 1 - 3 ) IGF - 1 ) Trofinetide LNGF ( p75 ) Agonists : BDNF BNN - 20 BNN - 27 Cenegermin DHEA DHEA - S NGF NT - 3 NT - 4 Antagonists : ALE - 0540 Dexamethasone EVT - 901 ( SAR - 127963 ) Testosterone Antibodies : Against NGF : ABT - 110 ( PG110 ) ASP - 6294 Fasinumab Frunevetmab Fulranumab MEDI - 578 Ranevetmab Tanezumab Aptamers : Against NGF : RBM - 004 Decoy receptors : LEVI - 04 ( p75 - Fc ) PDGF Agonists : Becaplermin Platelet - derived growth factor ( A , B , C , D ) Kinase inhibitors : Agerafenib Axitinib Crenolanib Imatinib Lenvatinib Masitinib Motesanib Nintedanib Pazopanib Radotinib Quizartinib Sunitinib Sorafenib Toceranib Antibodies : Olaratumab Ramucirumab Tovetumab RET ( GFL ) GFRα1 Agonists : Glial cell line - derived neurotrophic factor ( GDNF ) Liatermin Kinase inhibitors : Vandetanib GFRα2 Agonists : Neurturin ( NRTN ) Kinase inhibitors : Vandetanib GFRα3 Agonists : Artemin ( ARTN ) Kinase inhibitors : Vandetanib GFRα4 Agonists : Persephin ( PSPN ) Kinase inhibitors : Vandetanib Unsorted Kinase inhibitors : Agerafenib SCF ( c - Kit ) Agonists : Ancestim Stem cell factor Kinase inhibitors : Agerafenib Axitinib Dasatinib Imatinib Masitinib Nilotinib Pazopanib Quizartinib Sorafenib Sunitinib Toceranib TGFβ See here instead . Trk TrkA Agonists : Amitriptyline BNN - 20 BNN - 27 Cenegermin DHEA DHEA - S Gambogic amide NGF Tavilermide Antagonists : ALE - 0540 Dexamethasone FX007 Testosterone Negative allosteric modulators : VM - 902A Kinase inhibitors : Altiratinib AZD - 6918 CE - 245677 CH - 7057288 DS - 6051 Entrectinib GZ - 389988 K252a Larotrectinib Lestaurtinib Milciclib ONO - 4474 ONO - 5390556 PLX - 7486 Rebastinib SNA - 120 ( pegylated K252a ) ) Antibodies : Against TrkA : GBR - 900 ; Against NGF : ABT - 110 ( PG110 ) ASP - 6294 Fasinumab Frunevetmab Fulranumab MEDI - 578 Ranevetmab Tanezumab Aptamers : Against NGF : RBM - 004 Decoy receptors : ReN - 1820 ( TrkAd5 ) TrkB Agonists : 3 , 7 - DHF 3 , 7 , 8 , 2 ' - THF 4 ' - DMA - 7 , 8 - DHF 7 , 3 ' - DHF 7 , 8 - DHF 7 , 8 , 2 ' - THF 7 , 8 , 3 ' - THF Amitriptyline BDNF BNN - 20 Deoxygedunin Deprenyl Diosmetin DMAQ - B1 HIOC LM22A - 4 N - Acetylserotonin NT - 3 NT - 4 Norwogonin ( 5 , 7 , 8 - THF ) R7 TDP6 Antagonists : ANA - 12 Cyclotraxin B Gossypetin ( 3 , 5 , 7 , 8 , 3 ' , 4 ' - HHF ) Ligands : DHEA Kinase inhibitors : Altiratinib AZD - 6918 CE - 245677 CH - 7057288 DS - 6051 Entrectinib GZ - 389988 K252a Larotrectinib Lestaurtinib ONO - 4474 ONO - 5390556 PLX - 7486 TrkC Agonists : BNN - 20 DHEA NT - 3 Kinase inhibitors : Altiratinib AZD - 6918 CE - 245677 CH - 7057288 DS - 6051 Entrectinib GZ - 389988 K252a Larotrectinib Lestaurtinib ONO - 4474 ONO - 5390556 PLX - 7486 VEGF Agonists : Placental growth factor ( PGF ) Telbermin VEGF ( A , B , C , D ( FIGF ) ) Allosteric modulators : Cyclotraxin B Kinase inhibitors : Agerafenib Altiratinib Axitinib Cabozantinib Cediranib Lapatinib Lenvatinib Motesanib Nintedanib Pazopanib Pegaptanib Rebastinib Regorafenib Semaxanib Sorafenib Sunitinib Toceranib Tivozanib Vandetanib WHI - P 154 Antibodies : Alacizumab pegol Bevacizumab Icrucumab Ramucirumab Ranibizumab Decoy receptors : Aflibercept Others Additional growth factors : Adrenomedullin Colony - stimulating factors ( see here instead ) Connective tissue growth factor ( CTGF ) Ephrins ( A1 , A2 , A3 , A4 , A5 , B1 , B2 , B3 ) Erythropoietin ( see here instead ) Glucose - 6 - phosphate isomerase ( GPI ; PGI , PHI , AMF ) Glia maturation factor ( GMF ) Hepatoma - derived growth factor ( HDGF ) Interleukins / T - cell growth factors ( see here instead ) Leukemia inhibitory factor ( LIF ) Macrophage - stimulating protein ( MSP ; HLP , HGFLP ) Midkine ( NEGF2 ) Migration - stimulating factor ( MSF ; PRG4 ) Oncomodulin Pituitary adenylate cyclase - activating peptide ( PACAP ) Pleiotrophin Renalase Thrombopoietin ( see here instead ) Wnt signaling proteins Additional growth factor receptor modulators : Cerebrolysin ( neurotrophin mixture ) See also Receptor / signaling modulators Signaling peptide / protein receptor modulators Cytokine receptor modulators Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Insulin&oldid=846590504 '' Categories : Genes on human chromosome 11 Animal products Eli Lilly and Company Hormones of glucose metabolism Human hormones Insulin receptor agonists Insulin therapies Insulin - like growth factor receptor agonists Pancreatic hormones Peptide hormones Recombinant proteins Tumor markers World Anti-Doping Agency prohibited substances Hidden categories : CS1 Swedish - language sources ( sv ) Webarchive template wayback links CS1 : Julian -- Gregorian uncertainty CS1 maint : Unrecognized language All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from March 2017 Articles with unsourced statements from April 2015 Talk Contents About Wikipedia Afrikaans অসমীয়া Asturianu Azərbaycanca বাংলা Беларуская Беларуская ( тарашкевіца ) ‎ Български Boarisch Bosanski Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch ދިވެހިބަސް Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Gaeilge Galego 한국어 Հայերեն हिन्दी Hrvatski Ido Bahasa Indonesia Interlingua Íslenska Italiano עברית Basa Jawa ಕನ್ನಡ Kapampangan Қазақша Kurdî Кыргызча Latina Latviešu Lietuvių Magyar Македонски മലയാളം Bahasa Melayu မြန်မာဘာသာ Nederlands 日本 語 Norsk Norsk nynorsk Occitan Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча ਪੰਜਾਬੀ پنجابی پښتو Polski Português Română Русский Scots Shqip Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina کوردی Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Basa Sunda Suomi Svenska தமிழ் ไทย Türkçe Українська اردو Tiếng Việt Winaray ייִדיש 粵語 中文 75 more Edit links This page was last edited on 19 June 2018 , at 18 : 20 ( UTC ) . 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what is meant by sanctification in the bible

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Sanctification&oldid=843862354

Sanctification - wikipedia Sanctification Not to be confused with canonization . hide This article has multiple issues . Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page . ( Learn how and when to remove these template messages ) This article 's lead section may not adequately summarize its contents . To comply with Wikipedia 's lead section guidelines , please consider modifying the lead to provide an accessible overview of the article 's key points in such a way that it can stand on its own as a concise version of the article . ( discuss ) . ( December 2016 ) This article includes inline citations , but they are not properly formatted . Please improve this article by correcting them . ( December 2016 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) Sanctification is the act or process of acquiring sanctity , of being made or becoming holy . It is a gift given through the power of God to a person or thing which is then considered sacred or set apart in an official capacity within the religion . In general anything from a temple , to vessels , to days of the week , to a human believer who willingly accepts this gift can be sanctified . To sanctify is to literally `` set apart for particular use in a special purpose or work and to make holy or sacred . '' Etymologically , `` sanctify '' derives from the Latin verb sanctificare which in turn derives from sanctus `` holy '' and facere `` to make '' . Contents ( hide ) 1 Christianity 1.1 Anglicanism 1.2 Calvinism 1.3 Eastern Orthodoxy 1.4 Lutheranism 1.5 Methodist 1.6 Roman Catholicism 1.7 Other Christian denominations and movements 1.8 Church of Jesus Christ of Latter - day Saints 2 See also 3 References 4 External links Christianity ( edit ) This article needs attention from an expert in Christianity or Christian theology . The specific problem is : theological superficiality of the section , failing to recognize deeper commonalities and differences that would lead to different groupings than appear , including but not limited to the admixture of Protestant and non-Protestant faiths ( through the alphabetical listing ) , and the presentation of some Arminian understandings separate from others . WikiProject Christianity or WikiProject Christian theology may be able to help recruit an expert . ( December 2016 ) In the various branches of Christianity sanctification usually refers to a person becoming holy , with the details differing in different branches . Anglicanism ( edit ) A 2002 Anglican publishing house book states that `` there is no explicit teaching on sanctification in the Anglican formularies '' . A glossary of the Episcopal Church ( USA ) gives some teaching : `` Anglican formularies have tended to speak of sanctification as the process of God 's work within us by means of which we grow into the fullness of the redeemed life . '' Outside official formularies sanctification has been an issue in the Anglican Communion since its inception . The 16th century Anglican Theologian Richard Hooker ( 1554 - 1600 ) distinguished between the `` righteousness of justification '' that is imputed by God and the `` righteousness of sanctification '' that comprises the works one does as an `` inevitable '' result of being justified . Jeremy Taylor ( 1613 - 1667 ) argued that justification and sanctification can not be separated ; they are `` two steps in a long process '' . A 19th century Church of England work agreed with Jeremy Taylor that justification and sanctification are `` inseparable '' . However , they are not the same thing . Justification is `` found in Christ 's work alone '' . `` Sanctification is the work of the Holy Spirit in us , and is a progressive work . '' Calvinism ( edit ) Calvinist and Evangelical theologians interpret sanctification as the process of being made holy only through the merits and justification of Jesus Christ through the work of the Holy Spirit that are then reflected in man . Sanctification can not be attained by any works based process , but only through the works and power of the divine . When a man is unregenerate , it is his essence that sins and does evil . But when a man is justified through Christ , it is no longer the man ( in his essence ) that sins , but the man is acting outside of his character . In other words , the man is not being himself , he is not being true to who he is . Eastern orthodoxy ( edit ) Orthodox Christianity teaches the doctrine of theosis , whereby humans take on divine properties . A key scripture supporting this is 2 Peter 1 : 4 . In the 4th century , Athanasius taught that God became Man that Man might become God . Essentially , Man does not become divine , but in Christ can partake of divine nature . This Church 's version of salvation restores God 's image in man . One such theme is release from mortality caused by desires of the world . Lutheranism ( edit ) Martin Luther , the founder of Lutheranism , taught in his Large Catechism that Sanctification is only caused by the Holy Spirit through the powerful Word of God . The Holy Spirit uses churches to gather Christians together for the teaching and preaching of the Word of God . Sanctification is the Holy Spirit 's work of making us holy . When the Holy Spirit creates faith in us , he renews in us the image of God so that through his power we produce good works . These good works are not meritorious but show the faith in our hearts ( Ephesians 2 : 8 - 10 , James 2 : 18 ) . Sanctification flows from justification . It is an on - going process which will not be complete or reach perfection in this life . Methodist ( edit ) In Wesleyan - Arminian theology , which is upheld by the Methodist Church as well as by Holiness Churches , `` sanctification , the beginning of holiness , begins at the new birth '' . With the Grace of God , Methodists `` do works of piety and mercy , and these works reflect the power of sanctification '' . Examples of these means of grace ( works of piety and works of mercy ) that aid with sanctification include frequent reception of the sacrament of Holy Communion ( work of piety ) , and visiting the sick and those in prison ( work of mercy ) . Wesleyan covenant theology also emphasizes that an important aspect of sanctification is the keeping of the moral law contained in the Ten Commandments . As such , in `` sanctification one grows to be more like Christ . '' This process of sanctification that begins at the new birth ( first work of grace ) has its goal as Christian perfection , also known as entire sanctification ( second work of grace ) , which John Wesley , the progenitor of the Methodist faith , described as a heart `` habitually filled with the love of God and neighbor '' and as `` having the mind of Christ and walking as he walked '' . This is the doctrine that by the power of God 's sanctifying grace and attention upon the means of grace may cleanse a Christian of the corrupting influence of original sin in this life . It is expounded upon in the Methodist Articles of Religion : Sanctification is that renewal of our fallen nature by the Holy Ghost , received through faith in Jesus Christ , whose blood of atonement cleanseth from all sin ; whereby we are not only delivered from the guilt of sin , but are washed from its pollution , saved from its power , and are enabled , through grace , to love God with all our hearts and to walk in his holy commandments blameless . Justification is seen as an initial step of acknowledging God 's holiness , with sanctification as , through the grace and power of God , entering into it . A key scripture is Hebrews 12 : 14 : `` Follow after ... holiness , without which no one shall see the Lord . '' The Wesleyan Church ( formerly known as the Wesleyan Methodist Church ) states that sanctification has three components -- initial , progressive , and entire : We believe that sanctification is that work of the Holy Spirit by which the child of God is separated from sin unto God and is enabled to love God with all the heart and to walk in all His holy commandments blameless . Sanctification is initiated at the moment of justification and regeneration . From that moment there is a gradual or progressive sanctification as the believer walks with God and daily grows in grace and in a more perfect obedience to God . This prepares for the crisis of entire sanctification which is wrought instantaneously when believers present themselves as living sacrifices , holy and acceptable to God , through faith in Jesus Christ , being effected by the baptism with the Holy Spirit who cleanses the heart from all inbred sin . The crisis of entire sanctification perfects the believer in love and empowers that person for effective service . It is followed by lifelong growth in grace and the knowledge of our Lord and Savior , Jesus Christ . The life of holiness continues through faith in the sanctifying blood of Christ and evidences itself by loving obedience to God 's revealed will . John Wesley taught that outward holiness in the form of `` right words and right actions '' should reflect the inner transformation experienced through the second work of grace . Roman catholicism ( edit ) The Catholic Church upholds the doctrine of sanctification , teaching that : Sanctifying grace is that grace which confers on our souls a new life , that is , sharing in the life of God . Our reconciliation with God , which the redemption of Christ has merited for us , finds its accomplishments in sanctifying grace . Through this most precious gift we participate in the divine life ; we have the right to be called children of God . This grace is the source of all our supernatural merits and bestows upon us the right of eternal glory . According to the Catholic Encyclopedia `` sanctity '' differs for God , individual , and corporate body . For God , it is God 's unique absolute moral perfection . For the individual , it is a close union with God and the resulting moral perfection . It is essentially of God , by a divine gift . For a society , it is the ability to produce and secure holiness in its members , who display a real , not merely nominal , holiness . The Church 's holiness is beyond human power , beyond natural power . Sanctity is regulated by established conventional standards . Other Christian denominations and movements ( edit ) Beliefs about sanctification vary amongst the Christian denominations and movements , influenced by various Christian movements . These beliefs differ from each other on : whether sanctification is a definitive experience or process , when the process / experience takes place , and if entire sanctification is possible in this life . Influenced by the Holiness movement some Pentecostal churches , such as the Church of God in Christ and the Apostolic Faith Church , believe that sanctification is a definitive act of God 's grace and spiritual experience whereby we are made holy subsequent to salvation and prior to the baptism of the Holy Spirit . Reformed Churches are amongst denominations that teach about definitive sanctification at the time of conversion , and believers are required to `` do good works '' which are `` ... all sanctified by ( God 's ) grace '' . Similarly , non-Wesleyan Pentecostals such as Assemblies of God teach about definitive sanctification at the time of conversion and progressive sanctification after conversion . Converted believers are expected to `` make every effort to live a holy life ... Even though Christians may not attain absolute perfection in this life . '' The event of entire sanctification occurs when Christ comes back and gives us glorified bodies . Higher Life movement and Brunstad Christian Church believe that sinless perfection is attainable in Christian life . Higher Life movement teaches that even though believers still have an inclination to sin after conversion , they must constantly rely on the Holy Spirit to struggle against this tendency , and therefore can attain sinless perfection in this life . Further , the movement proclaims that `` the secret of complete victory is faith : simply believing that Jesus has done and is doing all '' . On the contrary , Brunstad Christian Church teaches that because Jesus , as a man , was tempted in all points as other human beings , yet never committed sin , he opened a way back to God , and therefore those who want to be disciples can follow on that same way . They proclaim that this means a Christian does not only receive the forgiveness of sins , but can also conquer all sinful tendencies in their own human nature . Church of Jesus Christ of Latter - day Saints ( edit ) This section relies too much on references to primary sources . Please improve this section by adding secondary or tertiary sources . ( December 2016 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) This article possibly contains original research . Please improve it by verifying the claims made and adding inline citations . Statements consisting only of original research should be removed . ( December 2016 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) In the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter - day Saints ( LDS Church ) sanctification is a process and gift from God which makes every willing member holy , according to their repentance and righteous efforts , through the Savior Jesus Christ 's matchless grace . To become Sanctified , or Holy , one must do all that he can to live as Christ lived , according to the teachings of Christ . One must strive to live a holy life to truly be considered Holy . In the scriptural canon of the LDS Church , one reference to sanctification appears in Helaman 3 : 35 , in the Book of Mormon : Nevertheless they did fast and pray oft , and did wax stronger and stronger in their humility , and firmer and firmer in the faith of Christ , unto the filling their souls with joy and consolation , yea , even to the purifying and the sanctification of their hearts , which sanctification cometh because of their yielding their hearts unto God . Dallin H. Oaks , an LDS General authority and member of the Quorum of the Twelve Apostles has written to expand on the meaning of sanctity . See also ( edit ) Christianity portal The Mitzvah of sanctifying the Kohen Charisma Consecration Divine Grace Glorification Imparted righteousness Justification ( theology ) Means of Grace Righteousness Social Gospel References ( edit ) Jump up ^ Oxford English Dictionary , 2nd ed. Sanctify : to make ( a person ) holy , to purify or free from sin . Jump up ^ Owen C. Thomas , Ellen K. Wondra , Introduction to Theology , 3rd ed ( Church Publishing , 2002 ) , 222 . Jump up ^ Don S. Armentrout and Robert Boak Slocum , eds , An Episcopal Dictionary of the Church ( Church Publishing , 2000 ) , s.v. `` Sanctification '' , 467 . Online at http://www.episcopalchurch.org/library/glossary/sanctification-0 Jump up ^ Gibbs , Lee W. `` Richard Hooker 's Via Media Doctrine of Justification '' in The Harvard Theological Review 74 , no . 2 ( 1981 ) : 211 - 220 . https://www.jstor.org/stable/1509447 ( accessed June 10 , 2010 ) . Jump up ^ Ralph McMichael , ed , The Vocation of Anglican Theology : Sources and Essays ( SCM , 2014 ) , 214 - 215 . Jump up ^ An Explanation of the Articles of the Church of England , Part 1 ( Church of England , 1843 ) , 53 . Online at https://books.google.com/books?id=yTJWAAAAcAAJ&source=gbs_navlinks_s Jump up ^ Dane says : . `` Sanctification - A Calvinist Viewpoint Calvinism Sanctification - A Calvinist Viewpoint '' . Learntheology.com . Retrieved 2012 - 08 - 04 . Jump up ^ Gerhard O. Forde , Donald L. Alexander , Sinclair B. Ferguson : `` Christian spirituality : five views of sanctification '' , InterVarsity Press , 1988 . p. 47 - 76 Jump up ^ Athanasius : `` On the Incarnation '' , Crestwood : Saint Vladimir 's Seminary Press , 1989 . p. 93 Jump up ^ Robert V. Rakestraw : `` On Becoming God : An Evangelical Doctrine of Theosis , '' Journal of Evangelical Theological Society 40 / 2 ( June 1997 ) 257 - 269 Jump up ^ Veli - Matti Kärkkäinen : `` One With God : Salvation as Deification and Justification , '' Collegeville : Liturgical Press , 2004 . p. 18 Jump up ^ Lutheran Dogmaticians consider this the broad sense of sanctification . See Luther 's Large Catechism , the Apostle 's Creed , paragraph 53 and following Jump up ^ WELS Topical Q&A : Sanctification and Justification , by Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod ^ Jump up to : Kettenring , Keith ( 15 September 2007 ) . The Sanctification Connection . University Press of America . p. 29 . ISBN 9780761837381 . Jump up ^ Abraham , William J. ; Kirby , James E. ( 24 September 2009 ) . The Oxford Handbook of Methodist Studies . Oxford University Press . p. 475 . ISBN 9780191607431 . Jump up ^ Jr , Charles Yrigoyen ( 25 September 2014 ) . T&T Clark Companion to Methodism . A&C Black . p. 259 . ISBN 9780567290779 . Jump up ^ White , James W. ( 17 March 2014 ) . Brief Christian Histories : Getting a Sense of Our Long Story . Wipf and Stock Publishers . p. 99 . ISBN 9781556352430 . He espoused a `` method '' of study , prayer , and community by which persons might know `` sanctification '' before God . Wesley thought that the truly devout could `` move on to perfection , '' an ends ethic idea . The Methodist Book of Discipline with `` Rules for Methodist Societies '' specified what the ways were : daily reading of the Bible , prayer , feeding the hungry , and visiting the sick and those in prison . Jump up ^ Campbell , Ted A. ( 1 October 2011 ) . Methodist Doctrine : The Essentials , 2nd Edition . Abingdon Press . pp. 40 , 68 -- 69 . ISBN 9781426753473 . Jump up ^ Jones , Scott J. ( 1 September 2010 ) . United Methodist Doctrine . Abingdon Press . p. 197 . ISBN 9781426725593 . Jump up ^ Campbell , Ted A. ( 1 October 2011 ) . Methodist Doctrine : The Essentials , 2nd Edition . Abingdon Press . p. 41 . ISBN 9781426753473 . Methodist piety describes the goal of sanctification as entire sanctification or Christian perfection . If the notion of perfection is offensive , it is also biblical : Jesus taught us to `` Be perfect , therefore as your heavenly Father is perfect '' ( Matthew 5 : 48 ) . And to what perfection can human beings aspire ? Methodists have always answered this by repeating the Great Commandment : `` You shall love the Lord your God with all your heart , and with all your soul , and with all your mind '' ( Matthew 22 : 37 ; cf . Mark 12 : 30 , Luke 10 : 27 ) . Along with this , Methodists insist that Christian perfection also means the fulfillment of the second Commandment : love of our neighbor . Thus , Christian perfection or entire sanctification denotes primarily the perfection of our love for God and for our neighbor . Jump up ^ `` Distinctive Wesleyan Emphases ( Page 2 ) '' . Archives.umc.org. 2006 - 11 - 06 . Retrieved 2012 - 08 - 04 . ^ Jump up to : The United Methodist Church : The Articles of Religion of the Methodist Church - Of Sanctification ^ Jump up to : `` Articles of Religion : The Wesleyan Church '' . The Wesleyan Church . 2017 . Retrieved 29 May 2018 . Jump up ^ Headley , Anthony J. ( 4 October 2013 ) . `` Getting It Right : Christian Perfection and Wesley 's Purposeful List '' . Seedbed . Retrieved 29 May 2018 . ^ Jump up to : Fitzgerald , Maurus ( 2011 ) . Order of Malta Catholic Book of Prayers . Catholic Book Publishing Corp. p. 240 . Jump up ^ Catholic Encyclopedia : Sanctity Archived 2011 - 01 - 05 at the Wayback Machine . Jump up ^ Church of God in Christ . `` What we believe '' . Retrieved February 9 , 2011 . Jump up ^ Apostolic Faith Church . `` Our Faith - Doctrines '' . Archived from the original on May 13 , 2011 . Retrieved May 24 , 2011 . ^ Jump up to : Mike Sullivan . `` Five Views on Sanctification : An In - Depth Analysis '' . Jump up ^ Christian Reformed Church . `` The Belgic Confession '' . Jump up ^ Assemblies of God USA . `` Sanctification & Holiness '' . Archived from the original on 2010 - 06 - 19 . Jump up ^ J. Robertson McQuilkin , `` The Keswick Perspective , '' In Five Views on Sanctification ( Grand Rapids : Academic Books , 1987 ) , p. 156 . Jump up ^ Charles G. Trumbull , Victory in Christ ( Fort Washington : Christian Literature Crusade , 1959 ) , 84 , 48 . Jump up ^ Brunstad Christian Church . `` Our Faith '' . Jump up ^ See D. Todd Christofferson , `` Justification and Sanctification , '' Ensign , June 2006 ; C. Eric Ott , `` Sanctification , '' Encyclopedia of Mormonism . Jump up ^ `` Helaman 3 : 35 '' . The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter - day Saints . Intellectual Reserve , Inc . Retrieved 28 October 2012 . Jump up ^ Oaks , Dallin H. ( November 2000 ) , `` The Challenge to Become '' , Ensign : 32 External links ( edit ) Sanctification : heat and glow from the fire , Forward in Christ The dictionary definition of sanctification at Wiktionary Sanctification : A Biblical Perspective hide Christian soteriology Absolution Adoption Assurance Atonement Baptism Calling Conversion Divinization Election Eternal life Faith Forgiveness Glorification Grace Irresistible Imputation Justification Means of grace Monergism Mortification Ordo salutis Perseverance Predestination Recapitulation Reconciliation Redemption Regeneration Repentance Resurrection Salvation Sanctification Synergism Theosis Union with Christ Related theology Christology The Trinity Hamartiology Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sanctification&oldid=843862354 '' Categories : Christian ethics Christian terminology Holy Spirit Christian personal development Hidden categories : Articles needing more detailed references Webarchive template wayback links Wikipedia introduction cleanup from December 2016 All pages needing cleanup Articles covered by WikiProject Wikify from December 2016 All articles covered by WikiProject Wikify Articles needing footnote reformatting Articles with multiple maintenance issues All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from December 2016 Articles with unsourced quotes Articles needing expert attention from December 2016 All articles needing expert attention Christianity articles needing expert attention Christian theology articles needing expert attention Articles lacking reliable references from December 2016 All articles lacking reliable references Articles that may contain original research from December 2016 All articles that may contain original research Talk Contents About Wikipedia Беларуская Čeština Deutsch Español فارسی Français 한국어 Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית 日本 語 Norsk Polski Português Rumantsch Русский Simple English Suomi Svenska ไทย Tiếng Việt 中文 13 more Edit links This page was last edited on 31 May 2018 , at 23 : 46 . 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what is the meaning of grenade by bruno mars

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Grenade_(song)&oldid=842831882

Grenade ( song ) - wikipedia Grenade ( song ) Jump to : navigation , search `` Grenade '' Single by Bruno Mars from the album Doo - Wops & Hooligans Released September 28 , 2010 ( Promotional single ) Genre Pop R&B Length 3 : 42 Label Elektra Songwriter ( s ) Bruno Mars Philip Lawrence Ari Levine Brody Brown Claude Kelly Andrew Wyatt Producer ( s ) The Smeezingtons Bruno Mars singles chronology `` Just the Way You Are '' ( 2010 ) `` Grenade '' ( 2010 ) `` The Lazy Song '' ( 2011 ) `` Just the Way You Are '' ( 2010 ) `` Grenade '' ( 2010 ) `` The Lazy Song '' ( 2011 ) `` Grenade '' is a song by American singer and songwriter Bruno Mars from his debut studio album , Doo - Wops & Hooligans ( 2010 ) . A pop and R&B ballad , `` Grenade '' was written and produced by The Smeezingtons ( Mars , Phillip Lawrence , Ari Levine ) with additional songwriting by Brody Brown , Claude Kelly , and Andrew Wyatt . The song was developed from an unreleased track with similar lyrical themes played by record producer Benny Blanco to Mars . `` Grenade '' was completely rearranged and re ‐ recorded two days before the album 's release . The song 's lyrics carry a message of unrequited love and how Mars ' heart was broken , despite his best efforts to show her his love . Initially released as a promotional single on September 28 , 2010 , it was later announced as the album 's second single , released by Atlantic and Elektra Records . `` Grenade '' was well received by critics , praising the vocals and emotional lyrics of the song and also considered it as one of the stand - out tracks on Doo - Wops & Hooligans . The single reached number one in fifteen different countries , giving Mars his third number one single on the Billboard Hot 100 , and topping the Canadian Hot 100 for three non-consecutive weeks . `` Grenade '' was certified seven times platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) and Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) , as well as six times by Music Canada ( MC ) . Worldwide , it was the second best selling digital single of 2011 with 10.2 million copies . A music video for the single , directed by Nabil Elderkin , was released on November 19 , 2010 . In the video , Mars is seen dragging an upright piano through Los Angeles , by the time he arrives at the home of his beloved , he discovers she is with another man , so he decides to leave and ends up by killing himself . Mars performed `` Grenade '' on The Doo - Wops & Hooligans Tour ( 2010 -- 12 ) , the Moonshine Jungle Tour ( 2013 -- 14 ) and 24K Magic World Tour ( 2017 -- 18 ) . The song has been covered by a variety of performers . It was nominated for both Song of the Year and Record of the Year at the 54th Annual Grammy Awards . Contents ( hide ) 1 Background and conception 2 Production and writing 3 Composition and lyrics 4 Reception 4.1 Critical 4.2 Accolades 5 Chart performance 5.1 North America 5.2 Europe and Oceania 6 Music video 6.1 Development and synopsis 6.2 Reception 7 Cover versions and remixes 8 Live performances 9 Track listing 10 Credits and personnel 11 Charts 11.1 Weekly charts 11.2 Other versions 11.3 Year - end charts 12 Certifications 13 Release history 13.1 Promotional release 13.2 Single release 14 See also 15 References 16 External links Background and conception ( edit ) `` Grenade '' was written and produced by The Smeezingtons ( Mars , Phillip Lawrence , Ari Levine ) with additional songwriting by Brody Brown , Claude Kelly , and Andrew Wyatt . The song was recorded at Larrabee Recording Studios and Levcon Studios in Los Angeles , California . In an interview with Idolator , Mars revealed the song 's conception and inspiration , saying that he was with his friend Benny Blanco and he was playing a couple of songs to Mars , including one which lyrics were similar to the ones in `` Grenade '' . Blanco added that the band to which the song belonged was not signed , and that the CD was not released . Mars replied `` I can relate to that so much , I want to take that and make it my own '' . Mars confessed that the song was inspired by `` his love for a girl who did not love him back '' . He admitted to be `` a bit of a drama queen in that song '' and that the track was therapeutic to him . Afterwards , Blanco contact the dude , and Mars started writing his version . It 's a heartbreaking , heartbreak song , and I think everyone can relate to that . You 're so in love with this woman and you do n't understand , ' What am I doing wrong ? What am I not giving to you ? I 'll go as far as putting a bullet in my brain for you , and why ca n't I get that kind of love in return ? ' In the same interview , the singer expressed desire to release the song as a single , claiming it was a `` personal favorite '' . Before the official release of the song as a single , it was issued on September 28 , 2010 , as a promotional single by Elektra Records along with `` Liquor Store Blues '' , which features Damian Marley , an iTunes Store - exclusive prior to Doo - Wops & Hooligans album release in October 2010 . On October 21 , 2010 , in an interview with Digital Spy , Mars revealed the intention to follow the hit single `` Just the Way You Are '' with `` Grenade '' . On November 29 , 2010 , a CD Single was released on Europe to promote the song , `` Grenade '' . Later , on January 10 , 2011 , the track on was released via digital download in the United Kingdom . On February 4 , 2011 , it was released a CD single on Germany and on the UK , which included a Carl Louis & Martin Danielle Classic Mix of `` Just the Way You Are '' and the single `` Grenade '' . An EP with different versions of Grenade , including the music video for the song was released on May 8 , 2011 , on iTunes . Production and writing ( edit ) The original version of `` Grenade '' had an `` uptempo 1960 's surf - style sound with jangle pop '' and before a live show in New York , Mars `` slowed and stripped it down '' . The reworked song was the last track added to the album . In an interview with Sound on Sound , engineer Ari Levine from The Smeezingtons , who carried out the recording and instrumentation on `` Grenade '' , explained that the song was original recorded with `` a more guitar ‐ based arrangement '' , 15bpm faster . According to Mars , the record was much happier . Mars ended up by playing the song live in showcase for the label and to several booking agents in a slower tempo . The singer and his bandmates rehearsed a lot to that show , yet `` Grenade '' `` sounded terrible '' . Mars decided to do a `` stripped down '' version by playing the guitar , while Brody Brown played the piano . The single received praise from the label . The song was reproduced in the way you hear it . To do so , The Smeezingtons completely rearranged and re ‐ recorded it , including the vocals , `` two days before the album was supposed to be handed in '' . Levine , added `` There was quite a bit of deadline stress involved in that . '' Despite the time that Grenade took to produce , the writing was among the most difficult songs in album since it took several months to complete . Later , on April 21 , 2012 , the team said that the last line of the song was the conflict , since it took two months for them to come up with `` but you wo n't do the same '' . Levine explained which instruments and software was involved in the song : The drums in ' Grenade ' came from a combination of my MPC and some software drums , and I created the piano sound in the Fantom . The rest of the synth sounds came from the Virus , and I use the V ‐ synth and the MicroKorg on pretty much everything . Bruno and I played the keyboards and Brody Brown played the bass . He 's an incredible musician who has a great feel and he can play everything . `` Grenade '' was recorded at Larrabee Recording Studios and Levcon Studios in Los Angeles , with Ari Levine , Bruno Mars and Brody Brown playing all the instruments on the track and recording them . Levine was also responsible for engineering the song at Levcon Studios in California . The mixing of the track was finished at Larrabee Sound Studios , in North Hollywood by Manny Marroquin , with Christian Plata and Erik Madrid serving as the assistants . Stephen Marcussen mastered the song at Marcussen Mastering in California . Composition and lyrics ( edit ) Grenade An 18 - second sample of the chorus of `` Grenade '' , where Mars sings what he would do for the girl he loves . Problems playing this file ? See media help . `` Grenade '' is a pop and R&B ballad with an instrumentation that features piano , keyboards , drums and bass . The song contains elements of Wilco 's `` I 'll Fight '' . Mike Senior of Sound on Sound said that the `` piano riff sounded like Coldplay 's ' Clocks ' '' , adding the idea of a `` powerful kick / bass combination and good vocal intelligibility is audible when the chorus hits '' and a `` snare only added at the start of the second verse '' . According to The New York Times music reviewer , Jon Caramanica , the song contains elements of 1980s pop and is accompanied by drums similar to those used by Kanye West . It has been described by critics as `` pure and clean vocals over a pounding drum beat '' . According to Sony / ATV Music Publishing `` Grenade '' is set in the key of D minor and was published in common time , with a moderate tempo of 108 beats per minute . Mars ' vocals span from A to D and background vocals are heard throughout . The New Zealand Herald 's Scott Kara described its beats as `` Shakira-esque '' . Both Roberto Mucciacciaro for MTV and Robert Copsey from Digital Spy noticed the similarities with Michael Jackson 's ' Dirty Diana ' . The later describe it as an `` haunting piano melody and thunderous drum claps '' . Spencer Hawk from Little Village notice that the song `` does n't rely on a hook , and its mostly Mars ' voice with a simple piano riff and a pulsing drum beat '' . On the other hand , Aamir Yaqub of Soul Culture believes that the production of `` Grenade '' resembles the one in `` Just The Way You Are '' . Lyrically , the song contains masochistic themes and tells the story of heartbreak caused by a failed relationship : `` Gave you all I had / And you tossed it in the trash '' . The chorus has Mars singing , `` I 'd catch a grenade for ya , '' and speaks of unrequited love when the subject girl of his affections `` wo n't do the same '' . Tim Byron , writer for The Vine , `` ' Grenade ' is about the feeling of withdrawal '' . The critic added , `` Mars knows she is bad for him , that 's she 's preventing him from thinking straight , that he ca n't actually have her the way he wants , but he still nonetheless has crazy desires for that rush of romantic cocaine that he gets from her . '' As Mars commented in an interview to Blues & Soul : `` ' Grenade ' represents the OTHER side of love -- where you 're in love with a woman and you know for a fact that she does n't love you the way you love HER . '' Reception ( edit ) Critical ( edit ) The song received generally positive reviews from most music critics . Robert Copsey of Digital Spy gave a review of four stars out of five , praising Mars ' vocals , `` Mars has the vocal chops ... to carry that off '' , and emotional lyrics on a track that has a strong influence and similarity to Michael Jackson 's `` Dirty Diana '' . The latter reminiscent was also noted by Roberto Mucciacciaro for MTV , who added that the song was coincidentally covered on several occasions by Mars . CBBC ( a division of BBC ) gave it four stars in their review , praising the `` epic chorus '' of the song . Entertainment Weekly 's Leah Greenblatt called `` Grenade '' the `` atmospheric opener '' of Mars ' debut studio album , adding that is a `` captivating masochist 's anthem '' , enjoying it as one of the album 's highlights , as did The Washington Post 's Sean Fennessey . Rolling Stone 's Jody Rosen recommended it as proof of Mars ' capabilities as a `` lavishly gifted melodist '' . Tom Gockelen - Kozlowski of The Daily Telegraph complimented `` the Kanye West - style genre - bending on Grenade and other tracks that joins the dots between Michael Jackson and Bob Marley . '' Consequence of Sound 's Kevin Barber praised the track and Mars , since it `` showcases his Michael Jackson-esque vocal range '' and it 's `` heavy , heartbreaking lyrics '' . Ken Tucker for NPR noticed that `` It 's hard to resist the clever come - on refrain of `` Grenade '' -- `` I 'd catch a grenade for ya '' , adding that the song had a `` creamy melody '' . Reviewers , Meredith Whitmore and Adam R. Holz , for Pluggedin , think that `` Grenade '' is the reverse side of `` Just The Way You Are '' , commenting that the song `` ponders what happens when that flower fades and dies '' . However , Slant 's Eric Henderson dismissed its unrealistic lyrics , while AllMusic 's Tim Sendra thought the song was `` over-the - top '' -- one of the weaker ones on the album . Spencer Hawk from Little Village criticized the song by calling it `` fairly innovative '' and notice that the shouting of the lyrics `` does n't feel genuine '' , however he felt that `` It 's very safe while being a little risky , and Mars is a solid singer '' . Music-News.com , reviewer David Spencer , stated `` great pop but little in way of surprise '' . Accolades ( edit ) `` Grenade '' received several nominations . In 2011 , it was nominated for `` Choice Music : Break - Up Song '' at the 2011 Teen Choice Awards and at the 2011 MTV Europe Music Awards the song received a nomination in the category of Best Song . In 2012 , `` Grenade '' was nominated for three Grammy Awards , including : Record of the Year , Song of the Year , and the newly introduced Best Pop Solo Performance , losing all of them to British singer Adele . In the same year , the single received a nomination for `` Best Hit International '' at the Swiss Music Awards . At the 2012 ASCAP Pop Music Awards the song was able to win the title of `` Most Performed Song '' . The song was nominated for the 2011 The Record of the Year ceremony . Chart performance ( edit ) North America ( edit ) `` Grenade '' debuted on the Billboard Hot 100 the week of October 16 , 2010 at number 81 and climbed the chart to number five for the week ending December 18 , 2010 . On January 8 , 2011 , it peaked at number 1 , making it Bruno Mars ' third number one single on the chart , the others being B.o.B 's `` Nothin ' on You '' , on which he was featured , and `` Just the Way You Are '' . The peak position was reached due to 559 000 downloads and 89 million listener impressions , taking Digital Gainer and Airplay Gainer awards . Around this time , the song had become his second solo single to top the 2 million mark in downloads . The song dropped and rose back to the top spot two more times , making it one of only six singles in Billboard history to have three distinct runs at number one . In February , it topped the 3 million mark . The song spent 36 weeks on the Hot 100 . Months after the RIAA awarded five platinum to the song by selling five million copies in the country . As of October 2015 , the song has sold 6.1 million digital copies in the United States . On July 1 , 2016 , the single was certified seven times platinum by RIAA . It was Mars ' second single to sell over 5 million , just a week after `` Just the Way You Are '' achieved that feat , and it was only the third time in Billboard history that back - to - back singles have both sold 5 million copies in the digital era . The song has peaked at number one in the Canada . It replaced `` The Time ( Dirty Bit ) '' by The Black Eyed Peas , before being dethroned by `` Hold It Against Me '' by Britney Spears . On February 12 , 2011 , it took the top spot from Usher 's song `` More '' . Two weeks later it was replaced by Lady Gaga 's `` Born This Way '' . Europe and oceania ( edit ) In Australia it debuted at number 48 in the ARIA Singles Chart and five weeks later reached number one , taking `` The Time ( Dirty Bit ) '' by The Black Eyed Peas from the top spot . On its second run in Australia it dethroned `` Who 's That Girl '' by Guy Sebastian featuring Eve , thus being replaced by the same a week later . After its success in the country , Australian Recording Industry Association certified it seven times platinum . In the first week in the UK , the song topped the list with a total of 149 834 copies sold , blocking Lady Gaga 's `` Born This Way '' . Thus , Mars achieved the best opening week of January on the list since 1996 when `` Spaceman '' by Babylon Zoo debuted with 383,000 units . The recording has been certified two times platinum by the British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) . According to the Official Charts Company , the single has reached a total of 1,194,000 combined sales ( 1,000,000 purchases and 194,000 streaming equivalent sales ) , as of January 2018 . In Austria , the song reached the second position and remained there for three non-consecutive weeks . The song was , eventually , certified Platinum by IFPI Austria . In Germany the song debuted at 8 , and three weeks later reached the top spot , where it stayed for six non-consecutive weeks . Then , BVMI gave Mars three gold records for the sale of 450 000 downloads . On the Italian chart it entered at ninth place and then ascended into eight where he spent another week before leaving the count . Although it only spent three weeks in the Italian chart , it has received a platinum plaque by the FIMI . In New Zealand , the song spent twenty - nine weeks on the chart and it was number one for three consecutive dates , after taking `` The Time ( Dirty Bit ) '' by The Black Eyed Peas from the top spot . Grenade sold 30 000 copies , earning a double platinum certification by the RIANZ . Other countries where the song rose to the top include Norway and Denmark , after taking the top spot from Fallulah 's single `` Out of It '' . It was certified platinum by IFPI Denmark . As of February 4 , the song spent 4 weeks on the top of the Irish Singles Chart , on its first week it has replaced Matt Cardle 's `` When We Collide '' . On the Swedish music chart , `` Grenade '' dethroned `` Born This Way '' by Lady Gaga ( on its second run at number one ) . On the Swiss Singles Chart it replaced the duet between Diddy - Dirty Money and Skylar Grey 's `` Coming Home '' . It was certified three times platinum by the IFPI Switzerland . In the two regions of Belgium the song reached the top ten and received a gold certification in the Ultratop 50 Flanders . In Slovakia and Finland the song peaked at number 3 , while on the Dutch Top 40 the song peaked at number 2 . Nevertheless , the success of `` Grenade '' was lower in other countries ; it just spent two weeks on the Japan Hot 100 chart and reached the peak position of 36 . Despite its low reception in Spanish territory , it only peaked at number 21 , the song was the ninth most played song in the Spotify streaming service in 2011 . `` Grenade '' reached number one in fourteen different charts and sold a total of 10.2 million digital copies in 2011 , making it the second most sold single of that year , after Mars ' `` Just the Way You Are '' . Music video ( edit ) Development and synopsis ( edit ) Mars dragging the piano in the video . Nabil Elderkin directed the music video for the song . In a behind - the - scenes video , Mars explained , `` The concept of the video is my struggle , to tell this girl I 'd do anything for her , so I 'm going as far as dragging a piano to get to her just so I can sing my heart out . '' Mars , sarcastically , replied to rumors related to the use of special effects : `` A lot of people think this is a camera trick , but that is a heavy piano . Luckily , I 've been doing about , you know , 800 to 967 push - ups every day , so it 's not a big deal , I can handle it . '' Regardless , this achievement , Mars was cautious : `` The actions in this video serve as a metaphor , and should not be taken literally . I am aware of the power of visual media , and I encourage everyone who watches this video to understand that it is an artistic interpretation of the song , and not something to imitate '' . The music video was released on November 19 , 2010 on MTV and MTV.com. and it involves Mars 's efforts to sing to a woman he loves after dragging an upright piano with a rope tied to it through Los Angeles . Scenes also feature the singer singing in a dark bedroom , looking out of a rainy window . He wears a suit and encounters a gang and a pit bull along the way . When he reaches the woman 's house and finds out she is with another man , he drags himself and the piano in front of a train to attempt suicide . As the train approaches Bruno at full speed , the video ends . Reception ( edit ) The video received mixed reviews by critics . Robbie Daw of Idolator complemented the video by saying that the `` standout track from Doo - Wops & Hooligans , and it 's given an extra sheen thanks to a quirky , unconventional video that does n't shy away from the dark tone of the song 's lyrics '' . Brian Zacher from AXS.com said that the video shares the `` greatness '' with the previous one , `` Just the Way You Are '' . James Montgomery of MTV News gave a mixed review on the video , in which he said `` after all , it would 've been easy -- and expected -- to make something slick , sexy and / or saccharine , a glossy thing where he croons from a rooftop somewhere , removes his shirt , and somehow ends up with the girl . None of that happens here . Rather , we see Mars struggling and sweating , being taunted and tempted , falling and rising again ... He ends up alone , unloved . He probably gets flattened by a train '' . On another review by Montgomery , the singer redemption is referred because Mars `` distances himself from his smoove - crooning contemporaries , and he does it simply by being real . Really dramatic , really emotional , really clever . This one 's a winner , even if , at the end of it , Mars has lost everything . '' The video itself earned Mars three nominations at the 2011 MTV Video Music Awards , in Best Male Video , Best Pop Video and Video of the Year . At the 2012 MTV Platinum Video Plays Awards , was given `` Double Platinum '' award for the number of times played on MTV channels around the world . The video was also one of the most seen online on the United Kingdom , in 2011 . Mark Graham for VH1 ranked the video as the second best of 2011 , the top spot went for `` Rolling in the Deep '' by Adele . Cover versions and remixes ( edit ) Some artists made their own versions and remixes of the song . The American group Boyce Avenue covered `` Grenade '' and included it in their sixth EP , Acoustic Sessions , Vol. 1 , released on December 6 , 2010 . Gavin Mikhail included his version of the song and it 's instrumental in his album , Grenade . On November 15 , 2011 , a cover by Trackstarz charted at number 56 on the UK Singles Chart . American rapper Lil Wayne published the first official remix of the song on February 12 , 2011 . The remix is identical to the song , except for the 16 - bar introduction verse that Wayne provides . Mars was so surprised with the remix when he saw it online , he recalls `` I was like , ' What ? Press play '' . He called it , `` Awesome '' . MTV critique , Jayson Rodriguez , described it as `` Lil Wayne delivering a spoken word - style flow , expressing devotion for his love interest '' . RichGirl , a R&B girl group , created a remix to the song , released on their Fall in Love with RichGirl mixtape . Nathaniel Drew and Salt Lake Pops Orchestra remixed the song , with the vocal collaboration of Alex Boye and Lindsey Stirling , it was released as a single on July 13 , 2012 . Gerrie van Dijk - Dantuma and Michelle Chamuel , contestants on The Voice of Holland and its US version , respectively , sang the theme for the competition and released it digitally through iTunes . Japanese singer Gille included her version of the track on her debut EP Lead the Way , released on May 16 , 2012 . Will Chase , who guest starred as Michael Swift in the TV series Smash , sang the song during the episode titled `` Enter Mr. DiMaggio '' , which originally aired on January 20 , 2012 . American metalcore band , Memphis May Fire covered the track for the compilation album Punk Goes Pop 5 , which was released on November 6 , 2012 . The song was officially released for digital download on October 2 , 2012 . In order to celebrate its fifteen years in the music industry , Dutch symphonic rock band , Within Temptation covered several songs by other artists , including `` Grenade '' , during a special program on the Belgian radio station Q music , called Within Temptation Friday . The band chose this song because `` It 's a really good song and instead of making a grenade go off on stage , we figured we 'd make a bomb of astonishment go off in the studio '' , in the words of the lead vocalist Sharon den Adel . On April 19 , 2013 Within Temptation 's cover was released and available for download as part of their cover album The Q - Music Sessions . Nevertheless , the song peaked at number 73 , in their home country , on the Dutch Charts . Live Performances ( edit ) Mars performed the song at the Bowery Ballroom in New York City on August 25 , 2010 , with him and his four - piece band dressed in blue tuxedos and black skinny ties . John Macdonald for Spin said `` Despite a couple pitch problems here and there , Mars proved to be nearly as good a performer as he is a songwriter '' . The song was also performed in a similar manner on the October 9 , 2010 episode of Saturday Night Live , as part of a segue from `` Nothin ' on You '' , the debut single was also performed . His performance was well received by critics . Billboard 's magazine critique Walter Frazier analysed the performance and commented `` Mars ' backing band ... dressed as a 1950s rockabilly group , while Mars resembled something of a modern - day Elvis , surely inspiring swoons for the `` SNL '' audience . '' The performance was also praised by Mawuse Ziegbe , MTV reviewer , who wrote : `` Mars peppered the performance with hip - swaying moves Elvis would be proud of and wrapped up the set in classic rock - star style with an enthusiastic jump in the air . '' On October 21 , 2010 , a soulful arrangement of the song was sung for a Billboard Tastemakers video session . On May 5 , 2011 Mars expressed his apprehension about performing the song because fans have been throwing dummy grenades on stage , some of which are metal and have posed a safety hazard . Additionally , Mars performed on the Late Show with David Letterman , on November 11 , 2010 , with a soul redemption of `` Grenade '' accompanied by an all - female string section . Robbie Draw from website Idolator wrote a positive review , commenting `` Bruno Mars hit up the Late Show With David Letterman last night and left a piece of his heart on the stage after turning out an emotional , bluesy rendition of his new single `` Grenade '' `` . Story Gilmore of Neon Limelight also praised the performance , calling it `` nothing short of awesome '' and noticed that Mars `` takes this performing thing seriously . Even when he 's doing something as simple as a late night show performance , he makes sure he 's on his A game '' . The song was performed at NBC 's The Today Show on November 22 , 2010 , as part of the Toyota Concert Series and at the 2010 Soul Train Music Awards on November 28 , 2010 . On January 6 , 2011 , Mars performed `` Grenade '' on The Ellen DeGeneres Show with a guitar , `` backed by three background singers , a strings section , and pianist '' . He also performed the song on the Dutch television show The Voice of Holland on January 21 , 2011 . On February 13 , 2011 he performed the song live at the 2011 Grammy Awards , along with B.o.B. and Janelle Monáe . In Germany , Mars performed `` Grenade '' on two different shows Wetten , dass ... ? and at the Echo Awards , on 19 and 28 March 2011 , respectively . It was the eleventh song of his debut worldwide tour , The Doo - Wops & Hooligans Tour ( 2011 -- 12 ) and was thirteenth or tenth on the set list of his second tour , The Moonshine Jungle Tour ( 2013 -- 14 ) . On his third tour , the 24K Magic World Tour ( 2017 -- 18 ) , it was also the thirteenth item on the setlist . Track listing ( edit ) Digital download `` Grenade '' -- 3 : 42 European CD single `` Grenade '' -- 3 : 42 German and UK CD single `` Grenade '' -- 3 : 42 `` Just the Way You Are '' ( Carl Louis & Martin Danielle Classic Mix ) -- 5 : 17 The Grenade Sessions EP `` Grenade '' -- 3 : 42 `` Grenade '' ( The Hooligans Remix ) -- 3 : 30 `` Grenade '' ( Passion Pit Remix ) -- 6 : 10 `` Grenade '' ( acoustic ) -- 4 : 09 `` Grenade '' ( music video ) -- 3 : 40 Credits and personnel ( edit ) Mixing and mastering Mixed at Larrabee Sound Studios , North Hollywood , California ; engineered at Levcon Studios in Los Angeles , California ; mastered at Marcussen Mastering , Hollywood , California ; Personnel Bruno Mars -- lead vocals , instrumentation , songwriting Philip Lawrence -- songwriting Ari Levine -- engineer , instrumentation , songwriting The Smeezingtons -- production Brody Brown -- instrumentation , songwriting Claude Kelly -- songwriting Andrew Wyatt -- songwriting Manny Marroquin -- mixing Christian Plata -- mixing assistant Erik Madrid -- mixing assistant Stephen Marcussen -- mastering Credits adapted from the liner notes of Doo - Wops & Hooligans , Elektra Records Charts ( edit ) Weekly charts ( edit ) Chart ( 2010 ) Peak position Australia ( ARIA ) New Zealand ( Recorded Music NZ ) US Dance / Mix Show Airplay ( Billboard ) 9 Chart ( 2011 ) Peak position Austria ( Ö3 Austria Top 40 ) Belgium ( Ultratop 50 Flanders ) Belgium ( Ultratop 50 Wallonia ) 6 Canada ( Canadian Hot 100 ) Czech Republic ( Rádio Top 100 ) Denmark ( Tracklisten ) Finland ( Suomen virallinen lista ) France ( SNEP ) 7 Germany ( Official German Charts ) Hungary ( Rádiós Top 40 ) Hungary ( Single Top 40 ) Ireland ( IRMA ) Israel ( Media Forest ) Italy ( FIMI ) 8 Japan ( Japan Hot 100 ) 36 Luxembourg Digital Songs ( Billboard ) Netherlands ( Dutch Top 40 ) Netherlands ( Single Top 100 ) Norway ( VG - lista ) Poland ( Polish Airplay Top 100 ) Scotland ( Official Charts Company ) Slovakia ( Rádio Top 100 ) Sweden ( Sverigetopplistan ) Switzerland ( Schweizer Hitparade ) Spain ( PROMUSICAE ) 25 UK Singles ( Official Charts Company ) US Billboard Hot 100 US Adult Contemporary ( Billboard ) 11 US Adult Top 40 ( Billboard ) US Hot Latin Songs ( Billboard ) 37 US Mainstream Top 40 ( Billboard ) US Rhythmic ( Billboard ) Chart ( 2012 ) Peak position South Korea International Singles ( Gaon ) 15 Chart ( 2013 ) Peak position Slovenia ( SloTop50 ) 16 Other versions ( edit ) Trackstarz version Chart ( 2011 ) Peak position UK Singles ( Official Charts Company ) 56 Within Temptation version Chart ( 2012 ) Peak position Belgium ( Ultratip Wallonia ) 5 Netherlands ( Single Top 100 ) 73 Year - end charts ( edit ) Chart ( 2010 ) Position Australia ( ARIA ) 32 New Zealand ( Recorded Music NZ ) 26 Chart ( 2011 ) Position Australia ( ARIA ) 21 Austrian ( Ö3 Austria Top 40 ) 11 Canada ( Canadian Hot 100 ) 7 Denmark ( Hitlisten ) Germany ( Media Control AG ) Hungary ( Rádiós Top 40 ) 10 Netherlands ( Single Top 100 ) 9 New Zealand ( Recorded Music NZ ) 20 Switzerland ( Schweizer Hitparade ) 5 UK Singles ( Official Charts Company ) 7 US Billboard Hot 100 6 US Adult Top 40 ( Billboard ) 12 US Adult Contemporary ( Billboard ) 22 US Mainstream Top 40 ( Billboard ) 6 Certifications ( edit ) Region Certification Certified units / Sales Australia ( ARIA ) 7 × Platinum 490,000 Austria ( IFPI Austria ) Platinum 30,000 Belgium ( BEA ) Gold 15,000 Canada ( Music Canada ) 6 × Platinum 480,000 Denmark ( IFPI Denmark ) Platinum 15,000 Germany ( BVMI ) 3 × Gold 450,000 Italy ( FIMI ) Platinum 30,000 Mexico ( AMPROFON ) Gold 30,000 New Zealand ( RMNZ ) 2 × Platinum 30,000 Sweden ( GLF ) 2 × Platinum 40,000 Switzerland ( IFPI Switzerland ) 3 × Platinum 90,000 United Kingdom ( BPI ) 2 × Platinum 1,200,000 United States ( RIAA ) 7 × Platinum 7,000,000 Streaming Denmark ( IFPI Denmark ) Gold 450,000 sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone sales + streaming figures based on certification alone Release history ( edit ) Promotional release ( edit ) Region Date Format Label Worldwide September 28 , 2010 Digital download ( iTunes countdown single ) Elektra Records Single release ( edit ) Region Date Format Label Ref . Europe November 29 , 2010 CD single Warner Music Group United Kingdom January 10 , 2011 Digital download Unknown Germany February 4 , 2011 CD single Elektra Austria Switzerland United Kingdom Worldwide May 8 , 2011 EP See also ( edit ) List of best - selling singles List of best - selling singles in the United States List of number - one singles of 2010 ( Australia ) List of Hot 100 number - one singles of 2011 ( Canada ) List of number - one hits of 2011 ( Germany ) List of number - one singles and albums of 2011 ( Ireland ) List of number - one singles from the 2010s ( New Zealand ) List of number - one singles of 2011 ( Poland ) List of Hot 100 number - one singles of 2011 ( U.S. ) List of UK Singles Chart number ones of the 2010s References ( edit ) ^ Jump up to : Doo - Wops & Hooligans ( CD booklet ) . Bruno Mars . United States : Elektra Entertainment Group . 2010 . 2 - 525393 . Jump up ^ Watson , Stephanie . Bruno Mars : : Pop Superstar . 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Archived from the original on August 19 , 2016 . Retrieved March 23 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` The Q - music Sessions '' . iTunes Store . Apple Inc . April 19 , 2013 . Archived from the original on December 22 , 2014 . Retrieved March 23 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Within Temptation - Grenade '' . Single Top 100 ( in Dutch ) . Retrieved March 23 , 2015 . ^ Jump up to : Frazier , Walter ( October 11 , 2010 ) . `` Bruno Mars Performs ' Just The Way You Are ' on ' SNL ' '' . Billboard . New York City . Retrieved November 15 , 2010 . ^ Jump up to : Ziegbe , Mawuse ( October 10 , 2010 ) . `` Glee ' Star Jane Lynch Belts Tunes On ' Saturday Night Live '' . MTV News . Viacom Media Networks . Retrieved November 15 , 2010 . Jump up ^ Binkert , Lisa ( October 21 , 2010 ) . `` Bruno Mars Live : Billboard Tastemakers '' . Billboard . Retrieved November 15 , 2010 . Jump up ^ Corner , Lewis ( May 5 , 2011 ) . `` Bruno Mars pelted with grenades on tour '' . Digital Spy . Hearst Corporation . Retrieved May 5 , 2011 . ^ Jump up to : Daw , Robbie ( November 12 , 2010 ) . `` Bruno Mars Launches His Bluesy `` Grenade '' On ' David Letterman ' `` . Idolator . Spin Media . Retrieved November 15 , 2010 . Jump up ^ Gilmore , Story ( November 12 , 2010 ) . `` Video : Bruno Mars Performs `` Grenade '' On The Late Show With David Letterman `` . Neon Limelight . Retrieved March 20 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Bastidas , Grace ( November 22 , 2010 ) . `` Bruno Mars Drops a Grenade on the ' Today Show ' '' . Latina.com . Retrieved March 20 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Hanek , Joel ; Kaufman , Gil ( November 29 , 2010 ) . `` Ronald Isley , Anita Baker Honored at Soul Train Awards '' . MTV News . Viacom Media Networks . Retrieved November 29 , 2010 . Jump up ^ Bain ( January 6 , 2011 ) . `` Ellen DeGeneres Makes Bruno Mars Blush , Shows Footage Of Him As Lil Elvis '' . Idolator . Spin Media . Retrieved March 20 , 2015 . 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Jump up ^ `` ARIA Charts -- End of Year Charts -- Top 100 Singles 2010 '' . Australian Recording Industry Association . Retrieved January 7 , 2011 . Jump up ^ `` Top Selling Singles of 2010 The Official New Zealand Music Chart '' . Nztop40.co.nz . December 31 , 2010 . Retrieved July 13 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` ARIA 2011 Top 100 Albums Chart '' ( PDF ) . Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) . Retrieved January 1 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Steffen Hung ( December 23 , 2011 ) . `` Jahreshitparade 2011 '' . austriancharts.at . Archived from the original on February 9 , 2012 . Retrieved February 20 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Best of 2011 : Canadian Hot 100 '' . Billboard . Prometheus Global Media . 2011 . Retrieved December 10 , 2011 . Jump up ^ `` Track Top - 50 '' . Hitlisten . IFPI Danmark & Nielsen Music Control . Archived from the original on March 11 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Single Jahrescharts 2011 '' ( in German ) . MTV Germany . MTV News . December 31 , 2011 . Archived from the original on January 9 , 2012 . Retrieved December 20 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` MAHASZ Rádiós TOP 100 2011 '' ( in Hungarian ) . Mahasz . Retrieved 23 February 2012 . Jump up ^ Steffen Hung . `` Dutch charts portal '' . dutchcharts.nl . Retrieved February 2 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Top Selling Singles of 2011 The Official New Zealand Music Chart '' . Nztop40.co.nz . December 31 , 2011 . Retrieved October 6 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Steffen Hung . `` Schweizer Jahreshitparade 2011 '' . hitparade.ch . Archived from the original on August 15 , 2013 . Retrieved February 20 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` The Top 20 biggest selling singles of 2011 revealed '' . The Official Charts Company . January 2 , 2012 . Archived from the original on January 13 , 2012 . Retrieved December 26 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Best of 2011 : Hot 100 Songs '' . Billboard . Prometheus Global Media . 2011 . Retrieved December 9 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Best of 2011 : Adult Pop Songs '' . Billboard . Prometheus Global Media . Retrieved October 6 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Best of 2011 : Adult Contemporary Songs '' . Billboard . Prometheus Global Media . Retrieved October 6 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Best of 2011 : Billboard Pop Songs '' . Billboard . Prometheus Global Media . 2011 . Archived from the original on October 1 , 2013 . Retrieved October 6 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Canadian single certifications -- Bruno Mars -- Grenade '' . Music Canada . Jump up ^ `` Photos de Certificados Musicales Amprofon '' ( in Spanish ) . Asociación Mexicana de Productores de Fonogramas y Videogramas . March 18 , 2015 . Retrieved March 31 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Guld - och Platinacertifikat '' ( in Swedish ) . IFPI Sweden . Type Bruno Mars in the top right search bar . Click on `` Sok '' and select Greande and see certification . Jump up ^ `` Certificeringer - Bruno Mars - Grenade '' ( in Danish ) . IFPI Denmark . Retrieved December 8 , 2014 . External links ( edit ) `` Grenade '' music video on YouTube Lyrics of this song at MetroLyrics Bruno Mars songs Discography Videography Awards and nominations Songs written Doo - Wops & Hooligans `` Just the Way You Are '' `` Grenade '' `` The Lazy Song '' `` Talking to the Moon '' `` Marry You '' `` Count On Me '' Unorthodox Jukebox `` Locked Out of Heaven '' `` When I Was Your Man '' `` Treasure '' `` Gorilla '' `` Young Girls '' 24K Magic `` 24K Magic '' `` That 's What I Like '' `` Versace on the Floor '' `` Chunky '' `` Finesse '' Featured singles `` Nothin ' on You '' `` Billionaire '' `` Lighters '' `` Young , Wild & Free '' `` Mirror '' `` Bubble Butt '' `` Uptown Funk '' Other singles `` It Will Rain '' Promotional singles `` Liquor Store Blues '' `` Moonshine '' Other songs `` Runaway Baby '' Book Template Within Temptation Sharon den Adel Ruud Jolie Martijn Spierenburg Jeroen van Veen Robert Westerholt Ivar de Graaf Martijn Westerholt Dennis Leeflang Stephen van Haestregt Studio albums Enter Mother Earth The Silent Force The Heart of Everything The Unforgiving Hydra Live albums Mother Earth Tour The Silent Force Tour Black Symphony An Acoustic Night at the Theatre Let Us Burn - Elements & Hydra Live In Concert Cover albums The Q - Music Sessions EPs The Dance The Howling Paradise ( What About Us ? ) And We Run Singles `` Restless '' `` Our Farewell '' `` Ice Queen '' `` Mother Earth '' `` Running Up that Hill '' `` Stand My Ground '' `` Memories '' `` Angels '' `` What Have You Done '' `` Frozen '' `` All I Need '' `` Forgiven '' `` Utopia '' `` Faster '' `` Sinéad '' `` Shot in the Dark '' `` Paradise ( What About Us ? ) '' `` Dangerous '' `` Whole World Is Watching '' `` And We Run '' Other songs `` Jillian ( I 'd Give My Heart ) '' `` Hand of Sorrow '' `` Fire and Ice '' `` Crazy '' `` Grenade '' `` Titanium '' Short Films `` Mother Maiden '' `` Sinéad '' `` Triplets '' Tours The Silent Force Tour The Hottest Chicks in Metal Tour 2007 The Heart of Everything World Tour The Unforgiving Tour Sanctuary Hydra World Tour Related pages Discography Videography Awards and nominations My Indigo Delain Kingfisher Sky Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Grenade_(song)&oldid=842831882 '' Categories : 2010 songs 2010s ballads Bruno Mars songs Billboard Hot 100 number - one singles Canadian Hot 100 number - one singles Elektra Records singles Irish Singles Chart number - one singles Number - one singles in Australia Number - one singles in Denmark Number - one singles in Germany Number - one singles in New Zealand Number - one singles in Norway Number - one singles in Poland Number - one singles in Sweden Number - one singles in Switzerland UK Singles Chart number - one singles Pop ballads Contemporary R&B ballads Song recordings produced by The Smeezingtons Songs written by Bruno Mars Songs written by Claude Kelly Songs written by Ari Levine Songs written by Philip Lawrence ( songwriter ) Billboard Mainstream Top 40 ( Pop Songs ) number - one singles Music videos directed by Nabil Elderkin Songs written by Andrew Wyatt Memphis May Fire songs Hidden categories : CS1 German - language sources ( de ) CS1 Italian - language sources ( it ) CS1 Spanish - language sources ( es ) CS1 Dutch - language sources ( nl ) CS1 Portuguese - language sources ( pt ) CS1 Slovenian - language sources ( sl ) CS1 Hungarian - language sources ( hu ) CS1 Swedish - language sources ( sv ) CS1 Danish - language sources ( da ) Good articles Articles with hAudio microformats Singlechart usages for Australia Singlechart making named ref Singlechart usages for New Zealand Singlechart usages for Billboarddanceairplay Singlechart called without song Singlechart usages for Austria Singlechart usages for Flanders Singlechart usages for Wallonia Singlechart usages for Canada Singlechart usages for Czech Republic Singlechart usages for Denmark Singlechart usages for Finland Singlechart usages for France Singlechart usages for Germany2 Singlechart usages for Hungary Singlechart usages for Hungarytop10 Singlechart usages for Ireland Singlechart usages for Israelairplay Singlechart usages for Italy Singlechart usages for Billboardjapanhot100 Singlechart usages for Dutch40 Singlechart usages for Dutch100 Singlechart usages for Norway Singlechart usages for Poland Singlechart called without artist Singlechart usages for Scotland Singlechart usages for Slovakia Singlechart usages for Sweden Singlechart usages for Switzerland Singlechart usages for Spain Singlechart usages for UK Singlechart usages for Billboardhot100 Singlechart usages for Billboardadultcontemporary Singlechart usages for Billboardadultpopsongs Singlechart usages for Billboardlatinsongs Singlechart usages for Billboardpopsongs Singlechart usages for Billboardrhythmic Singlechart usages for Wallonia Tip Certification Table Entry usages for Australia Certification Table Entry usages for Austria Certification Table Entry usages for Belgium Certification Table Entry usages for Canada Certification Table Entry usages for Denmark Certification Table Entry usages for Germany Certification Table Entry usages for Italy Certification Table Entry usages for Mexico Certification Table Entry usages for New Zealand Certification Table Entry usages for Sweden Certification Table Entry usages for Switzerland Certification Table Entry usages for United Kingdom Certification Table Entry usages for United States Talk More Contents About Wikipedia Čeština Dansk Deutsch Español فارسی Français 한국어 Հայերեն Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית Nederlands Norsk Polski Português Română Русский Simple English Suomi Svenska Tagalog ไทย Türkçe Tiếng Việt 中文 16 more Edit links This page was last edited on 24 May 2018 , at 23 : 57 . 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Andre Gunder Frank - wikipedia Andre Gunder Frank Jump to : navigation , search This article needs additional citations for verification . Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . ( November 2013 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) Andre Gunder Frank ( 1929 - 02 - 24 ) February 24 , 1929 Berlin , Germany April 25 , 2005 ( 2005 - 04 - 25 ) ( aged 76 ) Luxembourg , Luxembourg Residence Germany , United States , Chile , the Netherlands Alma mater University of Chicago Known for Contributions to world - systems theory Spouse ( s ) Marta Fuentes , Nancy Howell , Alison Candela Website rrojasdatabank.info/agfrank/ Scientific career Fields Sociology , Economics Institutions University of Chile , University of Amsterdam , University of East Anglia Thesis Growth and Productivity in Ukrainian Agriculture from 1928 to 1955 ( 1957 ) Doctoral advisor Milton Friedman Andre Gunder Frank ( February 24 , 1929 -- April 23 , 2005 ) was a German - American economic historian and sociologist who promoted dependency theory after 1970 and world - systems theory after 1984 . He employed some Marxian concepts on political economy , but rejected Marx 's stages of history , and economic history generally . Contents ( hide ) 1 Biography 2 Works and ideas 3 Selected publications 3.1 Books 3.2 Journal articles 3.3 Book chapters 4 See also 5 References 5.1 Notes 5.2 Further reading 6 External links Biography ( edit ) Frank was born in Germany to Jewish parents , pacifist writer Leonhard Frank and his second wife Elena Maqenne Penswehr , but his family fled the country when Adolf Hitler was appointed Chancellor . Frank received schooling in several places in Switzerland , where his family settled , until they emigrated to the United States in 1941 . Frank 's undergraduate studies were at Swarthmore College . He earned his Ph. D. in economics in 1957 at the University of Chicago . His doctorate was a study of Soviet agriculture entitled Growth and Productivity in Ukrainian Agriculture from 1928 to 1955 . Ironically , his dissertation supervisor was Milton Friedman , a man whose laissez faire approach to economics Frank would later harshly criticize . Throughout the 1950s and early 1960s Frank taught at American universities . In 1962 he moved to Latin America , inaugurating a remarkable period of travel that confirmed his peripatetic tendencies . His most notable work during this time was his stint as Professor of Sociology and Economics at the University of Chile , where he was involved in reforms under the government of Salvador Allende . After Allende 's government was toppled by a coup d'état in 1973 , Frank fled to Europe , where he occupied a series of university positions . From 1981 until his retirement in 1994 he was professor in developmental economy at the University of Amsterdam . He was married to Marta Fuentes , with whom he wrote several studies about social movements , and with Marta he had two sons . Marta died in Amsterdam in June 1993 . His second wife was sociologist Nancy Howell , a friend for forty years : while married to her , they lived in Toronto . Frank died in 2005 of complications related to his cancer while under the care of his third wife , Alison Candela . Works and ideas ( edit ) During his career , Frank taught and did research in departments of anthropology , economics , geography , history , international relations , political science , and sociology . He worked at nine universities in North America , three in Latin America , and five in Europe . He gave countless lectures and seminars at dozens of universities and other institutions all around the world in English , French , Spanish , Portuguese , Italian , German and Dutch . Frank wrote widely on the economic , social and political history and contemporary development of the world system , the industrially developed countries , and especially of the Third World and Latin America . He produced over 1,000 publications in 30 languages . His last major article , `` East and West '' , appeared in the volume : `` Dar al Islam . The Mediterranean , the World System and the Wider Europe : The `` Cultural Enlargement '' of the EU and Europe 's Identity '' edited by Peter Herrmann ( University College Cork ) and Arno Tausch ( Innsbruck University ) , published by Nova Science Publishers , New York . His work in the 1990s focused on world history . He returned to his analysis of global political economy in the new millennium inspired by a lecture he gave at the Stockholm School of Economics in Riga ( SSE Riga ) . In 2006 SSE Riga received Andre Gunder Frank 's personal library collection and set - up the Andre Gunder Frank Memorial Library in his honor , with the support of the Friedrich Ebert Foundation . Frank was a prolific author , writing 40 books . He published widely on political economy , economic history , international relations , historical sociology , and world history . Perhaps his most notable work is Capitalism and Underdevelopment in Latin America . Published in 1967 , it was one of the formative texts in dependency theory . In his later career he produced works such as ReOrient : Global Economy in the Asian Age and , with Barry Gills , The World System : Five Hundred Years or Five Thousand . Frank 's theories center on the idea that a nation 's economic strength , largely determined by historical circumstances -- especially geography -- dictates its global power . He is also well known for suggesting that purely export oriented solutions to development create imbalances detrimental to poor countries . Frank has made significant contributions to the world - systems theory ( which , according to him , should be rather called the World System one ) . He has argued that a World System was formed no later than in the 4th millennium BC ; his argument contrasts sharply with the scholarly majority who posit beginnings in the `` long 16th century '' ( a position held , for example , by Immanuel Wallerstein ) . Frank also insisted that the idea of numerous `` world - systems '' did not make much sense ( indeed , if there are many `` world - systems '' in the world , then they simply do not deserve to be called `` world - systems '' ) , and we should rather speak about one single World System . Andre Gunder Frank and Professor David Landes , author of The Wealth and Poverty of Nations , are noted for having come to very different conclusions about the long view significance of economic developments in `` the West '' during the modern era and publicly debated their findings in 1998 at Northeastern University . In one of his last essays , Frank made arguments about the looming global economic crisis of 2008 . Selected publications ( edit ) Books ( edit ) ( 1966 ) The Development of Underdevelopment . Monthly Review Press . ( 1967 ) Capitalism and Underdevelopment in Latin America . Monthly Review Press . ( 1969 ) Latin America : Underdevelopment or Revolution . Monthly Review Press . ( 1972 ) Lumpenbourgeoisie , Lumpendevelopment . Monthly Review Press . ( 1975 ) On Capitalist Underdevelopment . Bombay : Oxford University Press . ( 1976 ) Economic Genocide in Chile . Equilibrium on the point of a bayonet . Nottingham , UK : Spokesman . ( 1978 ) World Accumulation , 1492 -- 1789 . Monthly Review Press . ( 1978 ) Dependent Accumulation and Underdevelopment . Monthly Review Press . ( 1979 ) Mexican Agriculture 1521 - 1630 : Transformation of the Mode of Production . Cambridge University Press . ( 1980 ) Crisis : In the World Economy . New York : Holmes & Meier . ( 1981 ) Crisis : In the Third World . New York : Holmes & Meier . ( 1981 ) Reflections on the World Economic Crisis . Monthly Review Press . ( 1982 ) Dynamics of Global Crisis , with S. Amin , G. Arrighi and I. Wallerstein . Monthly Review Press . ( 1983 ) The European Challenge . Nottingham , UK : Spokesman . ( 1984 ) Critique and Anti-Critique . New York : Praeger . ( 1996 ) The World System : Five Hundred Years or Five Thousand ? with Barry K. Gills , Routledge . ( 1998 ) ReOrient : Global Economy in the Asian Age . Berkeley : University of California Press . ( 2013 ) ReOrienting the 19th Century : Global Economy in the Continuing Asian Age , with Robert A. Denemark , Paradigm Publishers . Journal articles ( edit ) ( 1958 ) `` General Productivity in Soviet Agriculture and Industry , '' Journal of Political Economy ( 1958 ) `` Goal Ambiguity and Conflicting Standards : An approach to the study of organization , '' Human Organization ( 1977 ) `` Long Live Transideological Enterprise : the socialist economies in the capitalist international division of labor , '' Review : A Journal of the Fernand Braudel Center ( 1989 ) `` Ten Theses on Social Movements , '' with M. Fuentes , World Development ( 1990 ) `` Theoretical Introduction to Five Thousand Years of World System History , '' Review : A Journal of the Fernand Braudel Center ( 1992 ) `` Third World War : A Political Economy of the Gulf War and New World Order , '' Third World Quarterly 13 ( 2 ) . ( 1994 ) `` Is Real World Socialism Possible ? , '' Democracy & Nature , Vol. 2 , No. 3 , pp. 152 -- 175 Book chapters ( edit ) ( 1990 ) `` Civil Democracy , Social Movements in World History , '' with M. Fuentes . In Amin et al. , Transforming the Revolution . ( 1990 ) `` Revolution in Eastern Europe : Lessons for democratic socialist movements ( and socialists ) . '' In Tabb , ed. , Future of Socialism . ( 1992 ) `` The Underdevelopment of Development , '' with M.F. Frank . In Savoie , D.J. and I. Brecher , eds. , Equity and Efficiency in Economic Development . Montreal : McGill - Queen 's University Press . ( 2001 ) `` The Global Economy , AD 1400 - 1800 : Comparisons and Relations . '' In Suneja , V. , ed. , Understanding Business : Markets . A Multidimensional Approach to the Market Economy . London : Routledge . See also ( edit ) History of globalization James Morris Blaut Samir Amin John M. Hobson World - systems theory References ( edit ) Notes ( edit ) Jump up ^ http://www.readcube.com/articles/10.1525%2Faa.2007.109.1.232 Jump up ^ `` Economic History Debate , '' Northeastern University , World History Center ( Dec 2 , 1998 ) . Retrieved 26 May 2014 . Jump up ^ EAST AND WEST in Arno Tausch and Peter Herrmann , 2005 , ' Dar al Islam . The Mediterranean , the World System and the Wider Europe . Vol. 1 : The `` Cultural Enlargement '' of the EU and Europe 's Identity ' Hauppauge , New York : Nova Science Publishers . Abridged paperback ed. , 2006 , titled : `` The West , Europe and the Muslim World '' Jump up ^ Andre Gunder Frank , `` Publications '' . Accessed : July 30 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Andre Gunder Frank , `` ReOrient '' . Accessed : July 30 , 2012 . Further reading ( edit ) Library resources about Andre Gunder Frank Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries By Andre Gunder Frank Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries Chew , Sing C. & Robert Denemark , eds. 1996 . The Underdevelopment of Development : Essays in Honor of Andre Gunder Frank . Thousand Oaks , CA : Sage . Duchesne , Ricardo , `` Between Sinocentrism and Eurocentrism : Debating A.G. Frank 's Re-Orient , '' Science & Society , Vol. 65 , No. 4 , 2001 / 2002 , pp. 428 -- 463 Wallerstein , Immanuel , `` Remembering Andre Gunder Frank , '' History Workshop Journal , Volume 61 , Number 1 , 2006 , pp. 305 -- 306 ( 2 ) , Oxford University Press Gills , Barry , `` In Memoriam : Andre Gunder Frank ( 24 February 1929 to 23 April 2005 ) , '' Globalizations , Volume 2 , Number 1 , May 2005 , pp. 1 -- 4 ( 4 ) , Routledge Alberto Castrillón M , `` In memoriam . André Gunder Frank ( 1929 - 2005 ) , '' Revista de Economía Institucional , Vol. 7 ( 2005 ) 273 - 278 Gregory Shank , `` In Memoriam : Remembering Andre Gunder Frank ( February 24 , 1929 , to April 23 , 2005 ) , '' Social Justice , Vol. 32 , No. 2 ( 2005 ) . Retrieved 30.12. 2017 . External links ( edit ) Andre Gunder Frank 's website Economic History Debate between David Landes and Andre Gunder Frank on C - SPAN2 ( Northeastern University World History Center , 1998 - 12 - 02 ) Samir Amin , A Note on the Death of André Gunder Frank ( 1929 - 2005 ) , Monthly Review , April 2005 . Theotonio dos Santos , André Gunder Frank ( 1929 - 2005 ) , Monthly Review , May 2005 . Barry K Gills , Obituary : Andre Gunder Frank , The Guardian , May 4 , 2005 Andre Gunder Frank , The Times , May 25 , 2005 Andre Gunder Frank ( 1929 - 2005 ) Andre Gunder Frank : ' Prophet in the Wilderness ' ( 1929 - 2005 ) Jeff Sommers , `` The Contradictions of a Contrarian : Andre Gunder Frank '' , Social Justice , Vol. 32 , No. 2 ( 2005 ) . ( hide ) Globalization Journals Outline Studies Aspects Alter - globalization Anti-globalization Counter-hegemonic globalization Cultural globalization Deglobalization Democratic globalization Economic globalization Environmental globalization Financial globalization Global citizenship education Global governance Global health History of archaic early modern Military globalization Political globalization Trade globalization Workforce globalization Issues Global Disease Digital divide Labor arbitrage Population Warming Water crisis Other Brain drain reverse Climate change Climate justice Development aid Economic inequality Endangered languages Fair trade Forced migration Human rights Illicit financial flows Invasive species Investor - state disputes New international division of labour North -- South divide Offshoring Race to the bottom pollution havens Transnational crime McDonaldization Westernization American imperialism British Empire World war Theories Capital accumulation Dependency Development Earth system Fiscal localism Modernization ecological history of Primitive accumulation Social change World history World - systems Notable scholars Samir Amin Arjun Appadurai K. Anthony Appiah Daniele Archibugi Giovanni Arrighi Ravi Batra Jean Baudrillard Zygmunt Bauman Ulrich Beck Walden Bello Jagdish Bhagwati Robert Brenner Manuel Castells Noam Chomsky Alfred Crosby Christopher Chase - Dunn Andre G. Frank Thomas Friedman Anthony Giddens Peter Gowan Michael Hardt David Harvey David Held Paul Hirst Michael Hudson Paul James Ibn Khaldun Naomi Klein Antonio Negri George Ritzer Dani Rodrik Jeffrey Sachs Saskia Sassen John R. Saul Vandana Shiva Joseph Stiglitz John Urry Immanuel Wallerstein Portal VIAF : 108372516 LCCN : n79084886 ISNI : 0000 0001 1080 9469 GND : 119416174 SELIBR : 187319 SUDOC : 031662617 BNF : cb122835476 ( data ) NDL : 00439998 BNE : XX878901 Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Andre_Gunder_Frank&oldid=817828232 '' Categories : 1929 births 2005 deaths Academics of the University of East Anglia American people of German - Jewish descent Deaths from cancer in Luxembourg Economic historians German economists German expatriates in the United States German male writers German sociologists Jewish socialists Marxian economists Marxist theorists Marxist writers Latin Americanists People from Berlin Swarthmore College alumni University of Amsterdam faculty University of Chicago alumni University of Chile faculty World system scholars Writers about globalization Hidden categories : Articles needing additional references from November 2013 All articles needing additional references Articles with hCards Wikipedia articles needing clarification from August 2016 Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with SELIBR identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Talk Contents About Wikipedia تۆرکجه Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Español Esperanto فارسی Français Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano 日本 語 Norsk Polski Português Русский Српски / srpski Svenska Українська 12 more Edit links This page was last edited on 30 December 2017 , at 20 : 46 . 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when were books of the new testament written

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New Testament - wikipedia New Testament This article is about the Christian Greek Scriptures in the Christian Biblical canon . For the theological concept , see New Covenant . This article cites its sources but does not provide page references . You can help to improve it by introducing citations that are more precise . ( February 2016 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) Books of the New Testament Gospels Matthew Mark Luke John Acts Acts of the Apostles Epistles Romans 1 Corinthians 2 Corinthians Galatians Ephesians Philippians Colossians 1 Thessalonians 2 Thessalonians 1 Timothy 2 Timothy Titus Philemon Hebrews James 1 Peter 2 Peter 1 John 2 John 3 John Jude Apocalypse Revelation New Testament manuscripts Part of a series on Christianity Jesus Christ ( show ) Jesus in Christianity Virgin birth Crucifixion Resurrection Bible Foundations ( show ) Old Testament New Testament Gospel Canon Books Church Creed New Covenant Theology ( show ) God Trinity Father Son Holy Spirit Apologetics Baptism Christology History of theology Mission Salvation History Tradition ( show ) Mary Apostles Peter Paul Fathers Early Christianity Constantine Councils Augustine East -- West Schism Crusades Aquinas Luther Reformation Related topics ( show ) Art Criticism Ecumenism Liturgy Music Other religions Prayer Sermon Symbolism Denominations Groups ( show ) Western Adventist Anabaptist Anglican Baptist Calvinist Catholic Evangelical Holiness Lutheran Methodist Pentecostal Protestant Eastern Eastern Orthodox Oriental Orthodox Assyrian Nontrinitarian Jehovah 's Witness Latter Day Saint Oneness Pentecostal Christianity portal The New Testament ( Greek : Ἡ Καινὴ Διαθήκη , trans . Hē Kainḕ Diathḗkē ; Latin : Novum Testamentum ) is the second part of the Christian biblical canon , the first part being the Old Testament , based on the Hebrew Bible . The New Testament discusses the teachings and person of Jesus , as well as events in first - century Christianity . Christians regard both the Old and New Testaments together as sacred scripture . The New Testament ( in whole or in part ) has frequently accompanied the spread of Christianity around the world . It reflects and serves as a source for Christian theology and morality . Extended readings and phrases directly from the New Testament are incorporated ( along with readings from the Old Testament ) into the various Christian liturgies . The New Testament has influenced religious , philosophical , and political movements in Christendom and left an indelible mark on literature , art , and music . The New Testament is a collection of Christian works written in the common ( Koine ) Greek language of the first century , at different times by various writers , and the modern consensus is that it provides important evidence regarding Judaism in the first century AD . In almost all Christian traditions today , the New Testament consists of 27 books . The canon or list of the Books of the New Testament is not found anywhere in any book of the Bible . It was the united Catholic Church which defined the 27 Books canon . The first time we find the complete list of the 27 books of the NT is in Athanasius , eastern Catholic bishop of the IV Century . The first time that church councils gave us this same list was in the councils of Hippo ( 393 ) and Carthage ( 397 ) in north Africqa and the pope Innocent I ratified the same canon in 405 , but it is probable that a Council in Rome in 382 under pope Damasus gave the same list first . These councils provided also the Canon of the Old Testament , which included the so - called apocryphal books . The original texts were written in the first century of the Christian Era , in Greek , which was the common language of the Eastern Mediterranean from the conquests of Alexander the Great ( 335 -- 323 BC ) until the Muslim conquests in the 7th century AD . All the works that eventually became incorporated into the New Testament are believed to have been written no later than around 120 AD , . John A.T. Robinson , Dan Wallace , and William F. Albright dated all the books of the New Testament before 70 AD . Others give a final date of 80 AD , or at 96 AD . Collections of related texts such as letters of the Apostle Paul ( a major collection of which must have been made already by the early 2nd century ) and the Canonical Gospels of Matthew , Mark , Luke , and John ( asserted by Irenaeus of Lyon in the late - 2nd century as the Four Gospels ) gradually were joined to other collections and single works in different combinations to form various Christian canons of Scripture . Over time , some disputed books , such as the Book of Revelation and the Minor Catholic ( General ) Epistles were introduced into canons in which they were originally absent . Other works earlier held to be Scripture , such as 1 Clement , the Shepherd of Hermas , and the Diatessaron , were excluded from the New Testament . The Old Testament canon is not completely uniform among all major Christian groups including Roman Catholics , Protestants , the Greek Orthodox Church , the Slavic Orthodox Churches , and the Armenian Orthodox Church . However , the twenty - seven - book canon of the New Testament , at least since Late Antiquity , has been almost universally recognized within Christianity ( see Development of the New Testament canon ) . The New Testament consists of : Four narratives of the life , teaching , death and resurrection of Jesus called `` gospel '' or the good news . A narrative of the Apostle ministries in the early church , called the `` Acts of the Apostles '' , and probably written by the same writer as the Gospel of Luke , which it continues ; Twenty - one letters , often called `` epistles '' from Greek `` epistole '' , written by various authors , and consisting of Christian doctrine , counsel , instruction , and conflict resolution ; and An Apocalypse , the Book of Revelation , which is a book of prophecy , containing some instructions to seven local congregations of Asia Minor , but mostly containing prophetical symbology , about the end times . Contents 1 Etymology 2 Books 2.1 The Gospels 2.2 Acts of the Apostles 2.3 Epistles 2.3. 1 Pauline Letters to Churches 2.3. 2 Pauline Letters to Persons 2.3. 3 Hebrews 2.3. 4 General epistles 2.4 Book of Revelation 2.5 New Testament canons 3 Book order 4 Apocrypha 5 Authors 5.1 Gospels 5.2 Acts 5.3 Pauline epistles 5.4 Other epistles 5.5 Johannine works 5.6 Revelation 6 Dates of composition 7 Language 8 Development of the New Testament canon 8.1 Origen ( 3rd century ) 8.2 Eusebius 's Ecclesiastical History 8.3 4th century and later 9 Early manuscripts 10 Textual variation 10.1 Interpolations 10.2 Text - types 10.3 Biblical criticism 10.4 Establishing a critical text 11 Relationship to earlier and contemporaneous literature 12 Early versions 12.1 Syriac 12.2 Latin 12.3 Coptic 12.4 Other ancient translations 13 Modern translations 14 Theological interpretation in Christian churches 14.1 Unity in diversity 14.2 Roman Catholicism , Eastern Orthodoxy , and Classical Anglicanism 14.3 Protestantism 14.3. 1 American evangelical and fundamentalist Protestantism 14.3. 2 American mainline and liberal Protestantism 14.4 Messianic Judaism 14.5 Jehovah 's Witnesses 14.6 United Pentecostals 14.7 Seventh - Day Adventists 14.8 Latter - day Saints 15 In the liturgy 16 In the arts 17 See also 18 Notes 19 References 20 Further reading 21 External links 21.1 General references 21.2 Development and authorship 21.3 Greek Etymology ( edit ) hide This section has multiple issues . Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page . ( Learn how and when to remove these template messages ) This section possibly contains original research . Please improve it by verifying the claims made and adding inline citations . Statements consisting only of original research should be removed . ( February 2016 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) This section is written like a personal reflection or opinion essay that states a Wikipedia editor 's personal feelings about a topic . Please help improve it by rewriting it in an encyclopedic style . ( February 2016 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) This section needs additional citations to secondary or tertiary sources such as review articles , monographs , or textbooks . Please add such references to provide context and establish the relevance of any primary research articles cited . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . ( February 2016 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) The term `` new testament '' ( Koine Greek : Ἡ Καινὴ Διαθήκη , Hē Kainḕ Diathḗkē ) , or `` new covenant '' ( Hebrew בְּרִית חֲדָשָׁה bərîṯ ḥăḏāšâ ) first occurs in Jeremiah 31 : 31 ( Greek Septuagint καινὴ διαθήκη kainḕ diathḗkē , cited in Hebrews 8 : 8 ) . The same Greek phrase for `` new covenant '' is found elsewhere in the New Testament ( Luke 22 : 20 , 1 Corinthians 11 : 25 , 2 Corinthians 3 : 6 , Hebrews 8 : 8 , and Hebrews 9 : 15 ; cf. 2 Corinthians 3 : 14 ) . In early Bible translations into Latin , the phrase was rendered foedus , `` federation '' , in Jeremiah 31 : 31 , and was rendered testamentum in Hebrews 8 : 8 and other instances from which comes the English term `` New Testament . '' Modern English , like Latin , distinguishes testament and covenant as alternative translations , and consequently the treatment of the term διαθήκη diathḗkē varies in Bible translations into English . John Wycliffe 's 1395 version is a translation of the Latin Vulgate and so follows different terms in Jeremiah and Hebrews : Lo ! days shall come , saith the Lord , and I shall make a new covenant ( from Latin foedus ) with the house of Israel , and with the house of Judah . For he reproving him saith , Lo ! days come , saith the Lord , when I shall establish a new testament ( from Latin testamentum ) on the house of Israel , and on the house of Judah . Use of the term New Testament to describe a collection of first and second - century Christian Greek Scriptures can be traced back to Tertullian ( in Against Praxeas 15 ) . In Against Marcion , written circa 208 AD , he writes of the Divine Word , who is doubly edged with the two testaments of the law and the gospel . And Tertullian continues later in the book , writing : it is certain that the whole aim at which he ( Marcion ) has strenuously laboured , even in the drawing up of his Antitheses , centres in this , that he may establish a diversity between the Old and the New Testaments , so that his own Christ may be separate from the Creator , as belonging to this rival god , and as alien from the law and the prophets . By the 4th century , the existence -- even if not the exact contents -- of both an Old and New Testament had been established . Lactantius , a 3rd -- 4th century Christian author wrote in his early - 4th - century Latin Institutiones Divinae ( Divine Institutes ) : But all scripture is divided into two Testaments . That which preceded the advent and passion of Christ -- that is , the law and the prophets -- is called the Old ; but those things which were written after His resurrection are named the New Testament . The Jews make use of the Old , we of the New : but yet they are not discordant , for the New is the fulfilling of the Old , and in both there is the same testator , even Christ , who , having suffered death for us , made us heirs of His everlasting kingdom , the people of the Jews being deprived and disinherited . As the prophet Jeremiah testifies when he speaks such things : `` Behold , the days come , saith the Lord , that I will make a new testament to the house of Israel and the house of Judah , not according to the testament which I made to their fathers , in the day that I took them by the hand to bring them out of the land of Egypt ; for they continued not in my testament , and I disregarded them , saith the Lord . '' ... For that which He said above , that He would make a new testament to the house of Judah , shows that the old testament which was given by Moses was not perfect ; but that which was to be given by Christ would be complete . Books ( edit ) This section needs additional citations for verification . Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . ( February 2016 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) See also : Christian biblical canons , Development of the New Testament canon , New Testament apocrypha , and Template : Books of the New Testament The canon of the New Testament is the collection of books that most Christians regard as divinely inspired and constituting the New Testament of the Christian Biblical Canon . In the period extending roughly from 50 to 150 AD , a number of documents began to circulate among the churches , including epistles , gospel accounts , memoirs , prophecies , homilies , and collections of teachings . While some of these documents were apostolic in origin , others drew upon the tradition the apostles and ministers of the word had utilized in their individual missions , and still others represented a summation of the teaching entrusted to a particular church center . Several of these writings sought to extend , interpret , and apply apostolic teaching to meet the needs of Christians in a given locality . In general , among Christian denominations the New Testament canon came to be agreed - upon as a list of 27 books , although the order of the books can vary from one version of the printed scriptures to the next . The book order is the same in the Greek Orthodox , Roman Catholic , and Protestant traditions . The Slavonic , Armenian and Ethiopian traditions have different New Testament book orders . The Gospels ( edit ) Main article : Canonical gospels Each of the four gospels in the New Testament narrates the life , death , and resurrection of Jesus of Nazareth . The word `` gospel '' derives from the Old English gōd - spell ( rarely godspel ) , meaning `` good news '' or `` glad tidings '' . The gospel was considered the `` good news '' of the coming Kingdom of Messiah , and the redemption through the life and death of Jesus , the central Christian message . Gospel is a calque ( word - for - word translation ) of the Greek word εὐαγγέλιον , euangelion ( eu - `` good '' , - angelion `` message '' ) . Since the 2nd century , the four narrative accounts of the life and work of Jesus Christ have been referred to as `` The Gospel of ... '' or `` The Gospel according to ... '' followed by the name of the supposed author . Whatever these admittedly early ascriptions may imply about the sources behind or the perception of these gospels , they are anonymous compositions . The Gospel of Matthew , ascribed to the Apostle Matthew . This gospel begins with a genealogy of Jesus and a story of his birth that includes a visit from magi and a flight into Egypt , and it ends with the commissioning of the disciples by the resurrected Jesus . The Gospel of Mark , ascribed to Mark the Evangelist . This gospel begins with the preaching of John the Baptist and the baptism of Jesus . Two different secondary endings were affixed to this gospel in the 2nd century . The Gospel of Luke , ascribed to Luke the Evangelist , who was not one of the Twelve Apostles , but was mentioned as a companion of the Apostle Paul and as a physician . This gospel begins with parallel stories of the birth and childhood of John the Baptist and Jesus and ends with appearances of the resurrected Jesus and his ascension into heaven . The Gospel of John , ascribed to John the Apostle . This gospel begins with a philosophical prologue and ends with appearances of the resurrected Jesus . It is about Jesus 's miracles . The first three gospels listed above are classified as the Synoptic Gospels . They contain similar accounts of the events in Jesus ' life and his teaching , due to their literary interdependence . The Gospel of John is structured differently and includes stories of several miracles of Jesus and sayings not found in the other three . These four gospels that were eventually included in the New Testament were only a few among many other early Christian gospels . The existence of such texts is even mentioned at the beginning of the Gospel of Luke . Other early Christian gospels such as the so - called `` Jewish - Christian Gospels '' or the Gospel of Thomas , also offer both a window into the context of early Christianity and may provide some assistance in the reconstruction of the historical Jesus . Acts of the Apostles ( edit ) The Acts of the Apostles is a narrative of the apostles ' ministry and activity after Christ 's death and resurrection , from which point it resumes and functions as a sequel to the Gospel of Luke . Examining style , phraseology , and other evidence , modern scholarship generally concludes that Acts and the Gospel of Luke share the same author , referred to as Luke -- Acts . Luke - Acts does not name its author . Church tradition identified him as Luke the Evangelist , the companion of Paul , but the majority of scholars reject this due to the many contradictions between Acts and the authentic Pauline letters . The most probable date of composition is around 80 -- 100 AD , and there is evidence that it was still being substantially revised well into the 2nd century . Epistles ( edit ) The epistles of the New Testament are considered by Christians to be divinely inspired and holy letters , written by the apostles and disciples of Christ , to either local congregations with specific needs , or to New Covenant Christians in general , scattered about ; or `` General Epistles . '' Pauline letters to churches ( edit ) Main article : Pauline epistles The Pauline epistles are the thirteen New Testament books that present Paul the Apostle as their author . Six of the letters are disputed . Four are thought by most modern scholars to be pseudepigraphic , i.e. , not actually written by Paul even if attributed to him within the letters themselves . Opinion is more divided on the other two disputed letters ( 2 Thessalonians and Colossians ) . These letters were written to Christian communities in specific cities or geographical regions , often to address issues faced by that particular community . Prominent themes include the relationship both to broader `` pagan '' society , to Judaism , and to other Christians . Epistle to the Romans First Epistle to the Corinthians Second Epistle to the Corinthians Epistle to the Galatians Epistle to the Ephesians Epistle to the Philippians Epistle to the Colossians First Epistle to the Thessalonians Second Epistle to the Thessalonians ( Disputed letters are marked with an asterisk ( * ) . ) Pauline letters to persons ( edit ) The last four Pauline letters in the New Testament are addressed to individual persons . They include the following : First Epistle to Timothy Second Epistle to Timothy Epistle to Titus Epistle to Philemon ( Disputed letters are marked with an asterisk ( * ) . ) All of the above except for Philemon are known as the Pastoral epistles . They are addressed to individuals charged with pastoral oversight of churches and discuss issues of Christian living , doctrine and leadership . They often address different concerns to those of the preceding epistles . These letters are believed by many to be pseudepigraphic . Some scholars ( e.g. , Bill Mounce , Ben Witherington ) will argue that the letters are genuinely Pauline , or at least written under Paul 's supervision . Hebrews ( edit ) The Epistle to the Hebrews addresses a Jewish audience who had come to believe that Jesus was the anointed one ( Hebrew : מָשִׁיחַ -- transliterated in English as `` Moshiach '' , or `` Messiah '' ; Greek : Χριστός -- transliterated in English as `` Christos '' , for `` Christ '' ) who was predicted in the writings of the Hebrew Bible . The author discusses the `` better - ness '' of the new covenant and the ministry of Jesus , over the Mosaic covenant and urges the readers in the practical implications of this conviction through the end of the epistle . The book has been widely accepted by the Christian church as inspired by God and thus authoritative , despite the acknowledgment of uncertainties about who its human author was . Regarding authorship , although the Epistle to the Hebrews does not internally claim to have been written by the Apostle Paul , some similarities in wordings to some of the Pauline Epistles have been noted and inferred . In antiquity , some began to ascribe it to Paul in an attempt to provide the anonymous work an explicit apostolic pedigree . In the 4th century , Jerome and Augustine of Hippo supported Paul 's authorship . The Church largely agreed to include Hebrews as the fourteenth letter of Paul , and affirmed this authorship until the Reformation . The letter to the Hebrews had difficulty in being accepted as part of the Christian canon because of its anonymity . As early as the 3rd century , Origen wrote of the letter , `` Men of old have handed it down as Paul 's , but who wrote the Epistle God only knows . '' Contemporary scholars often reject Pauline authorship for the epistle to the Hebrews , based on its distinctive style and theology , which are considered to set it apart from Paul 's writings . General epistles ( edit ) The General epistles ( or `` catholic epistles '' ) consist of both letters and treatises in the form of letters written to the church at large . The term `` catholic '' ( Greek : καθολική , katholikē ) , used to describe these letters in the oldest manuscripts containing them , here simply means `` general '' or `` universal '' . The authorship of a number of these is disputed . Epistle of James , written by an author named `` James '' , often identified with James , the brother of Jesus . First Epistle of Peter , ascribed to the Apostle Peter . Second Epistle of Peter , ascribed to the Apostle Peter , though widely considered not to have been written by him . First Epistle of John , ascribed to John the Apostle . Second Epistle of John , ascribed to John the Apostle . Third Epistle of John , ascribed to John the Apostle . Epistle of Jude , written under the name of Jude , the brother of Jesus and James . Book of Revelation ( edit ) Further information : Authorship of the Johannine works The final book of the New Testament is the Book of Revelation , also known as the Apocalypse of John . In the New Testament canon , it is considered prophetical or apocalyptic literature . Its authorship has been attributed either to John the Apostle ( in which case it is often thought that John the Apostle is John the Evangelist , i.e. author of the Gospel of John ) or to another John designated `` John of Patmos '' after the island where the text says the revelation was received ( 1 : 9 ) . Some ascribe the writership date as circa 81 -- 96 AD , and others at around 68 AD . The work opens with letters to seven churches and thereafter takes the form of an apocalypse , a literary genre popular in ancient Judaism and Christianity . New Testament canons ( edit ) This section needs additional citations for verification . Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . ( February 2016 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) See also : Canon of the New Testament Books Protestant tradition Roman Catholic tradition Eastern Orthodox tradition Armenian Apostolic tradition Coptic Orthodox tradition Orthodox Tewahedo traditions Syriac Christian traditions Canonical Gospels Matthew Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Mark Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Luke Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes John Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Apostolic History Acts Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Acts of Paul and Thecla No No No No ( early tradition ) No No No ( early tradition ) General Epistles James Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes 1 Peter Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes 2 Peter Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes 1 John Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes 2 John Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes 3 John Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Jude Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Pauline Epistles Romans Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes 1 Corinthians Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes 2 Corinthians Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Corinthians to Paul and 3 Corinthians No No No No − inc. in some mss . No No No ( early tradition ) Galatians Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Ephesians Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Philippians Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Colossians Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Laodiceans No − inc. in some eds . No − inc. in some mss . No No No No No 1 Thessalonians Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes 2 Thessalonians Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Hebrews Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes 1 Timothy Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes 2 Timothy Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Titus Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Philemon Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Apocalypse Revelation Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Apostolic Fathers and Church Orders 1 Clement No ( Codices Alexandrinus and Hierosolymitanus ) 2 Clement No ( Codices Alexandrinus and Hierosolymitanus ) Shepherd of Hermas No ( Codex Siniaticus ) Epistle of Barnabas No ( Codices Hierosolymitanus and Siniaticus ) Didache No ( Codex Hierosolymitanus ) Ser ` atä Seyon ( Sinodos ) No No No No No Yes ( broader canon ) No Te'ezaz ( Sinodos ) No No No No No Yes ( broader canon ) No Gessew ( Sinodos ) No No No No No Yes ( broader canon ) No Abtelis ( Sinodos ) No No No No No Yes ( broader canon ) No Book of the Covenant 1 ( Mäshafä Kidan ) No No No No No Yes ( broader canon ) No Book of the Covenant 2 ( Mäshafä Kidan ) No No No No No Yes ( broader canon ) No Ethiopic Clement ( Qälëmentos ) No No No No No Yes ( broader canon ) No Ethiopic Didescalia ( Didesqelya ) No No No No No Yes ( broader canon ) No Table notes Jump up ^ The growth and development of the Armenian Biblical canon is complex ; extra-canonical New Testament books appear in historical canon lists and recensions that are either distinct to this tradition , or where they do exist elsewhere , never achieved the same status . Some of the books are not listed in this table ; these include the Prayer of Euthalius , the Repose of St. John the Evangelist , the Doctrine of Addai , a reading from the Gospel of James , the Second Apostolic Canons , the Words of Justus , Dionysius Aeropagite , the Preaching of Peter , and a Poem by Ghazar . ( Various sources also mention undefined Armenian canonical additions to the Gospels of Mark and John , however , these may refer to the general additions -- Mark 16 : 9 -- 20 and John 7 : 53 -- 8 : 11 -- discussed elsewhere in these notes . ) A possible exception here to canonical exclusivity is the Second Apostolic Canons , which share a common source -- the Apostolic Constitutions -- with certain parts of the Orthodox Tewahedo New Testament broader canon . The Acts of Thaddeus was included in the biblical canon of Gregory of Tatev . There is some uncertainty about whether Armenian canon lists include the Doctrine of Addai or the related Acts of Thaddeus . Moreover , the correspondence between King Agbar and Jesus Christ , which is found in various forms -- including within both the Doctrine of Addai and the Acts of Thaddeus -- sometimes appears separately ( see list ) . The Prayer of Euthalius and the Repose of St. John the Evangelist appear in the appendix of the 1805 Armenian Zohrab Bible ; however , some of the aforementioned books , though they are found within canon lists , have nonetheless never been discovered to be part of any Armenian Biblical manuscript . Jump up ^ Though widely regarded as non-canonical , the Gospel of James obtained early liturgical acceptance among some Eastern churches and remains a major source for many of Christendom 's traditions related to Mary , the mother of Jesus . ^ Jump up to : The Diatessaron , Tatian 's gospel harmony , became a standard text in some Syriac - speaking churches down to the 5th century , when it gave - way to the four separate gospels found in the Peshitta . ^ Jump up to : Parts of these four books are not found in the most reliable ancient sources ; in some cases , are thought to be later additions , and have therefore not appeared historically in every Biblical tradition . They are as follows : Mark 16 : 9 -- 20 , John 7 : 53 -- 8 : 11 , the Comma Johanneum , and portions of the Western version of Acts . To varying degrees , arguments for the authenticity of these passages -- especially for the one from the Gospel of John -- have occasionally been made . Jump up ^ Skeireins , a commentary on the Gospel of John in the Gothic language , was included in the Wulfila Bible . It exists today only in fragments . ^ Jump up to : The Acts of Paul and Thecla , the Epistle of the Corinthians to Paul , and the Third Epistle to the Corinthians are all portions of the greater Acts of Paul narrative , which is part of a stichometric catalogue of New Testament canon found in the Codex Claromontanus , but has survived only in fragments . Some of the content within these individual sections may have developed separately . ^ Jump up to : These four works were questioned or `` spoken against '' by Martin Luther , and he changed the order of his New Testament to reflect this , but he did not leave them out , nor has any Lutheran body since . Traditional German Luther Bibles are still printed with the New Testament in this changed `` Lutheran '' order . The vast majority of Protestants embrace these four works as fully canonical . ^ Jump up to : The Peshitta excludes 2 John , 3 John , 2 Peter , Jude , and Revelation , but certain Bibles of the modern Syriac traditions include later translations of those books . Still today , the official lectionary followed by the Syriac Orthodox Church and the Assyrian Church of the East presents lessons from only the twenty - two books of Peshitta , the version to which appeal is made for the settlement of doctrinal questions . Jump up ^ The Third Epistle to the Corinthians often appears with and is framed as a response to the Epistle of the Corinthians to Paul . Jump up ^ The Epistle to the Laodiceans is present in some western non-Roman Catholic translations and traditions . Especially of note is John Wycliffe 's inclusion of the epistle in his English translation , and the Quakers ' use of it to the point where they produced a translation and made pleas for its canonicity , see Poole 's Annotations , on Col. 4 : 16 . The epistle is nonetheless widely rejected by the vast majority of Protestants . Jump up ^ The Apocalypse of Peter , though not listed in this table , is mentioned in the Muratorian fragment and is part of a stichometric catalogue of New Testament canon found in the Codex Claromontanus . It was also held in high regard by Clement of Alexandria . Jump up ^ Other known writings of the Apostolic Fathers not listed in this table are as follows : the seven Epistles of Ignatius , the Epistle of Polycarp , the Martyrdom of Polycarp , the Epistle to Diognetus , the fragment of Quadratus of Athens , the fragments of Papias of Hierapolis , the Reliques of the Elders Preserved in Irenaeus , and the Apostles ' Creed . Jump up ^ Though they are not listed in this table , the Apostolic Constitutions were considered canonical by some including Alexius Aristenus , John of Salisbury , and to a lesser extent , Grigor Tat ` evatsi . They are even classified as part of the New Testament canon within the body of the Constitutions itself ; moreover , they are the source for a great deal of the content in the Orthodox Tewahedo broader canon . ^ Jump up to : These five writings attributed to the Apostolic Fathers are not currently considered canonical in any Biblical tradition , though they are more highly regarded by some more than others . Nonetheless , their early authorship and inclusion in ancient Biblical codices , as well as their acceptance to varying degrees by various early authorities , requires them to be treated as foundational literature for Christianity as a whole . ^ Jump up to : Ethiopic Clement and the Ethiopic Didascalia are distinct from and should not be confused with other ecclesiastical documents known in the west by similar names . Book order ( edit ) The order in which the books of the New Testament appear differs between some collections and ecclesiastical traditions . In the Latin West , prior to the Vulgate ( an early 5th - century Latin version of the Bible ) , the four Gospels were arranged in the following order : Matthew , John , Luke , and Mark . The Syriac Peshitta places the major General epistles ( James , 1 Peter , and 1 John ) immediately after Acts and before the Pauline epistles . The order of an early edition of the letters of Paul is based on the size of the letters : longest to shortest , though keeping 1 and 2 Corinthians and 1 and 2 Thessalonians together . The Pastoral epistles were apparently not part of the Corpus Paulinum in which this order originated and were later inserted after 2 Thessalonians and before Philemon . Hebrews was variously incorporated into the Corpus Paulinum either after 2 Thessalonians , after Philemon ( i.e. at the very end ) , or after Romans . The New Testament of the 16th - century Luther Bible continues , to this day , to place Hebrews , James , Jude , and the Apocalypse last . This reflects the thoughts of the Reformer Martin Luther on the canonicity of these books . Apocrypha ( edit ) Main article : New Testament apocrypha The books that eventually found a permanent place in the New Testament were not the only works of Christian literature produced in the earliest Christian centuries . The long process of canonization began early , sometimes with tacit reception of traditional texts , sometimes with explicit selection or rejection of particular texts as either acceptable or unacceptable for use in a given context ( e.g. , not all texts that were acceptable for private use were considered appropriate for use in the liturgy ) . Over the course of history , those works of early Christian literature that survived but that did not become part of the New Testament have been variously grouped by theologians and scholars . Drawing upon , though redefining , an older term used in early Christianity and among Protestants when referring to those books found in the Christian Old Testament although not in the Jewish Bible , modern scholars began to refer to these works of early Christian literature not included in the New Testament as `` apocryphal '' , by which was meant non-canonical . Collected editions of these works were then referred to as the `` New Testament apocrypha '' . Typically excluded from such published collections are the following groups of works : The Apostolic Fathers , the 2nd - century Christian apologists , the Alexandrians , Tertullian , Methodius of Olympus , Novatian , Cyprian , martyrdoms , and the Desert Fathers . Almost all other Christian literature from the period , and sometimes including works composed well into Late Antiquity , are relegated to the so - called New Testament apocrypha . Although not considered to be inspired by God , these `` apocryphal '' works may be helpful in the study of the New Testament in that they were produced in the same ancient context and often using the same language as those books that would eventually form the New Testament . Some of these later works are dependent ( either directly or indirectly ) upon books that would later come to be in the New Testament or upon the ideas expressed in them . There is even an example of a pseudepigraphical letter composed under the guise of a presumably lost letter of the Apostle Paul , the Epistle to the Laodiceans . Authors ( edit ) Main article : Authorship of the Bible The books of the New Testament were all or nearly all written by Jewish Christians -- that is , Jewish disciples of Christ , who lived in the Roman Empire , and under Roman occupation . Luke , who wrote the Gospel of Luke and the Book of Acts , is frequently thought of as an exception ; scholars are divided as to whether Luke was a Gentile or a Hellenistic Jew . A few scholars identify the author of the Gospel of Mark as probably a Gentile , and similarly for the Gospel of Matthew , though most assert Jewish - Christian authorship . Gospels ( edit ) Main article : Synoptic Gospels Authorship is an area of longstanding and current research and debate , with different works posing different problems for identification . While the various works have traditional ascriptions of authorship , these ascriptions are in some cases defended by scholars , and in other cases disputed or rejected . According to many ( if not most ) critical scholars , none of the authors of the Gospels were eyewitnesses or even explicitly claimed to be eyewitnesses . Bart Ehrman of the University of North Carolina has argued for a scholarly consensus that many New Testament books were not written by the individuals whose names are attached . He further argues that the Gospels were originally anonymous , and names were not ascribed to them until around 185 AD . Other scholars concur . It is the perspective of some writers that none were written in Palestine . There is a tradition that the Apostle John was the author of the Gospel of John . Traditionalists ( such as Biblical commentators Albert Barnes and Matthew Henry ) seem to support the idea that the writer of the Gospel of John himself claimed to be an eyewitness in their commentaries of John 21 : 24 and therefore the gospel was written by an eyewitness ; however , this idea is rejected by the majority of modern scholars . A review of Richard Bauckham 's book Jesus and the Eyewitnesses : The Gospels as Eyewitness Testimony states `` The common wisdom in the academy is that stories and sayings of Jesus circulated for decades , undergoing countless retellings and embellishments before being finally set down in writing . '' Most scholars hold to the two - source hypothesis , which claims that the Gospel of Mark was written first . According to the hypothesis , the authors of the Gospel of Matthew and the Gospel of Luke then used the Gospel of Mark and the hypothetical Q document , in addition to some other sources , to write their individual gospel accounts . These three gospels are called the Synoptic gospels because they include many of the same stories , often in the same sequence , and sometimes exactly the same wording . Scholars agree that the Gospel of John was written last , by using a different tradition and body of testimony . In addition , most scholars agree that the author of Luke wrote the Acts of the Apostles . Scholars hold that these books constituted two halves of a single work , Luke - Acts . Evangelist Mathäus und der Engel , by Rembrandt . Strictly speaking , each gospel and the book of Acts is arguably anonymous . The Gospel of John is somewhat of an exception , although the author simply refers to himself as `` the disciple Jesus loved '' and claims to be a member of Jesus ' inner circle . The identities of each author were agreed upon at an early date , certainly no later than the early 2nd century . It is likely that the issue of the authorship of each gospel had been settled at least somewhat earlier , as the earliest sources are in complete agreement on the issue . No one questioned the early 2nd century consensus until the 18th century . Some scholars today maintain the traditional claim that Luke the Evangelist , an associate of St. Paul who was probably not an eyewitness to Jesus ' ministry , wrote the Gospel of Luke and Acts of the Apostles . Scholars are also divided on the traditional claim that Mark the Evangelist , an associate of St. Peter who may have been an eyewitness to Jesus ' ministry , wrote the Gospel of Mark . Scholars are more divided over the traditional claim that Matthew the Apostle wrote the Gospel of Matthew and that John the Apostle wrote the Gospel of John . Opinion , however , is widely divided on this issue and there is no widespread consensus . Acts ( edit ) Main article : Authorship of Luke -- Acts The Gospel of Luke and the Acts of the Apostles were both written by the same author , and are thus referred to as the Lucan texts . The most direct evidence comes from the prefaces of each book ; both were addressed to Theophilus , and the preface to the Acts of the Apostles references `` my former book '' about the ministry of Jesus . Furthermore , there are linguistic and theological similarities between the two works , suggesting that they have a common author . Pauline epistles ( edit ) Main article : Authorship of the Pauline epistles Saint Paul Writing His Epistles , 17th - century painting . Most scholars think Paul actually dictated his letters to a secretary . The Pauline epistles are the thirteen books in the New Testament traditionally attributed to Paul of Tarsus . The anonymous Epistle to the Hebrews is , despite unlikely Pauline authorship , often functionally grouped with these thirteen to form a corpus of fourteen `` Pauline '' epistles . Seven letters are generally classified as `` undisputed '' , expressing contemporary scholarly near consensus that they are the work of Paul : Romans , 1 Corinthians , 2 Corinthians , Galatians , Philippians , 1 Thessalonians and Philemon . Six additional letters bearing Paul 's name do not currently enjoy the same academic consensus : Ephesians , Colossians , 2 Thessalonians , 1 Timothy , 2 Timothy and Titus . While many scholars uphold the traditional view , some question whether the first three , called the `` Deutero - Pauline Epistles '' , are authentic letters of Paul . As for the latter three , the `` Pastoral epistles '' , some scholars uphold the traditional view of these as the genuine writings of the Apostle Paul ; most , however , regard them as pseudepigrapha . One might refer to the Epistle to the Laodiceans and the Third Epistle to the Corinthians as examples of works identified as pseudonymous . Since the early centuries of the church , there has been debate concerning the authorship of the anonymous Epistle to the Hebrews , and contemporary scholars generally reject Pauline authorship . The epistles all share common themes , emphasis , vocabulary and style ; they exhibit a uniformity of doctrine concerning the Mosaic Law , Jesus , faith , and various other issues . All of these letters easily fit into the chronology of Paul 's journeys depicted in Acts of the Apostles . Other epistles ( edit ) The author of the Epistle of James identifies himself in the opening verse as `` James , a servant of God and of the Lord Jesus Christ '' . From the middle of the 3rd century , patristic authors cited the Epistle as written by James the Just . Ancient and modern scholars have always been divided on the issue of authorship . Many consider the epistle to be written in the late 1st or early 2nd centuries . The author of the First Epistle of Peter identifies himself in the opening verse as `` Peter , an apostle of Jesus Christ '' , and the view that the epistle was written by St. Peter is attested to by a number of Church Fathers : Irenaeus ( 140 -- 203 ) , Tertullian ( 150 -- 222 ) , Clement of Alexandria ( 155 -- 215 ) and Origen of Alexandria ( 185 -- 253 ) . Unlike The Second Epistle of Peter , the authorship of which was debated in antiquity , there was little debate about Peter 's authorship of this first epistle until the 18th century . Although 2 Peter internally purports to be a work of the apostle , many biblical scholars have concluded that Peter is not the author . For an early date and ( usually ) for a defense of the Apostle Peter 's authorship see Kruger , Zahn , Spitta , Bigg , and Green . The Epistle of Jude title is written as follows : `` Jude , a servant of Jesus Christ and a brother of James '' ( NRSV ) . The debate has continued over the author 's identity as the apostle , the brother of Jesus , both , or neither . Johannine works ( edit ) Main article : Authorship of the Johannine works The First Epistle of John is traditionally held to have been composed by John the Apostle ( the author of the Gospel of John ) when the writer was in advanced age . The epistle 's content , language and conceptual style indicate that it may have had the same author as the Gospel of John , 2 John and 3 John . Eusebius claimed that the author of 2nd and 3rd John was not John the Apostle , but an `` elder John '' which refers either to the apostle at an advanced age or a hypothetical second individual ( `` John the Elder '' ) . Scholars today are divided on the issue . Revelation ( edit ) The author of the Book of Revelation identifies himself several times as `` John '' . and states that he was on Patmos when he received his first vision . As a result , the author is sometimes referred to as John of Patmos . The author has traditionally been identified with John the Apostle to whom the Gospel and the epistles of John were attributed . It was believed that he was exiled to the island of Patmos during the reign of the Roman emperor Domitian , and there wrote Revelation . Justin Martyr ( c. 100 -- 165 AD ) who was acquainted with Polycarp , who had been mentored by John , makes a possible allusion to this book , and credits John as the source . Irenaeus ( c. 115 -- 202 ) assumes it as a conceded point . According to the Zondervan Pictorial Encyclopedia of the Bible , modern scholars are divided between the apostolic view and several alternative hypotheses put forth in the last hundred years or so . Ben Witherington points out that linguistic evidence makes it unlikely that the books were written by the same person . Dates of composition ( edit ) See individual book articles for more detail . The earliest works that became part of the New Testament are the letters of the Apostle Paul . The earliest of the books of the New Testament was First Thessalonians , an epistle of Paul , written probably in 51 , or possibly Galatians in 49 according to one of two theories of its writing . In the 1830s German scholars of the Tübingen school tried to date the books as late as the 3rd century , but the discovery of some New Testament manuscripts and fragments from the 2nd and 3rd centuries , one of which dates as early as 125 ( Papyrus 52 ) , disproves a 3rd - century date of composition for any book now in the New Testament . Additionally , a letter to the church at Corinth in the name of Clement of Rome in 95 quotes from 10 of the 27 books of the New Testament , and a letter to the church at Philippi in the name of Polycarp in 120 quotes from 16 books . Therefore , some of the books of the New Testament must have been in circulation by the end of the first century . Scholars hold a wide spectrum of views on exactly when the books of the new testament were written , with non-fundamentalist scholars tending to argue for later dates , and more conservative scholars arguing for an earlier one . Most contemporary scholars regard Mark as a source used by Luke ( see Marcan priority ) . If it is true that Mark was written around the destruction of the Temple of Jerusalem , around 70 , they theorize that Luke would not have been written before 70 . Some who take this view believe that Luke 's prediction of the destruction of the temple could not be a result of Jesus predicting the future but with the benefit of hindsight regarding specific details . They believe that the Olivet Discourse in Luke 21 : 5 -- 30 is specific enough ( more specific than Mark 's or Matthew 's ) that a date after 70 seems likely . These scholars have suggested dates for Luke from 75 to 100 . Support for a later date comes from a number of reasons . Differences of chronology , `` style '' , and theology suggest that the author of Luke - Acts was not familiar with Paul 's distinctive theology but instead was writing a decade or more after his death , by which point significant harmonization between different traditions within Early Christianity had occurred . Furthermore , Luke - Acts has views on Jesus ' divine nature , the end times , and salvation that are similar to those found in Pastoral epistles , which are often seen as pseudonymous and of a later date than the undisputed Pauline Epistles . Most conservative scholars however , argue that both internal and external evidence strongly points to dates prior to 70 AD for the Synoptic Gospels , Acts , and the Pauline Epistles . They note that there is no mention of the deaths of Paul , Peter , and James , all of which happened between 60 -- 65 AD , in any book of the New Testament . These were all extremely important figures in the early church , writers would have mentioned their deaths if the New Testament had been written later . Furthermore , the Gospels contain numerous attacks on the Sadducees , a sect of Judaism that was wiped out with the destruction of the temple . Why , they ask , would later writers devote so much narrative space to attacking a group that no longer existed ? John Robinson also notes that each book of the New Testament had to be written prior to the destruction of The Temple . Robinson notes that most scholars interpret the Olivet Discourse as a post 70 AD account of the destruction of The Temple , couched in language to make it appear to be a prophecy , culminating in the Second Coming of Jesus to end the world . Robinson notes that the Second Coming did not occur after the destruction of The Temple , leading him to ask , why would a writer in the 80s or 90s forge a prophecy of an event that is proven not to have occurred 20 years earlier ? Language ( edit ) Main article : Language of the New Testament The major languages spoken by both Jews and Greeks in the Holy Land at the time of Jesus were Aramaic and Koine Greek , and also a colloquial dialect of Mishnaic Hebrew . It is generally agreed by most scholars that the historical Jesus primarily spoke Aramaic , perhaps also some Hebrew and Koine Greek . The majority view is that all of the books that would eventually form the New Testament were written in the Koine Greek language . As Christianity spread , these books were later translated into other languages , most notably , Latin , Syriac , and Egyptian Coptic . However , some of the Church Fathers imply or claim that Matthew was originally written in Hebrew or Aramaic , and then soon after was written in Koine Greek . Nevertheless , the Gospel of Matthew known today was composed in Greek and is neither directly dependent upon nor a translation of a text in a Semitic language . Development of the New Testament canon ( edit ) Main article : Development of the New Testament canon The process of canonization of the New Testament was complex and lengthy . In the initial centuries of early Christianity , there were many books widely considered by the church to be inspired , but there was no single formally recognized New Testament canon . The process was characterized by a compilation of books that apostolic tradition considered authoritative in worship and teaching , relevant to the historical situations in which they lived , and consonant with the Old Testament . Writings attributed to the apostles circulated among the earliest Christian communities and the Pauline epistles were circulating , perhaps in collected forms , by the end of the 1st century AD . One of the earliest attempts at solidifying a canon was made by Marcion , circa 140 AD , who accepted only a modified version of Luke ( the Gospel of Marcion ) and ten of Paul 's letters , while rejecting the Old Testament entirely . His canon was increasingly rejected by other groups of Christians , notably the proto - orthodox Christians , as was his theology , Marcionism . Adolf Harnack in Origin of the New Testament ( 1914 ) observed that the church gradually formulated its New Testament canon in response to the challenge posed by Marcion . Justin Martyr , Irenaeus and Tertullian held the letters of Paul to be on par with the Hebrew Scriptures as being divinely inspired , yet others rejected him . Other books were held in high esteem but were gradually relegated to the status of New Testament apocrypha . Justin Martyr , in the mid 2nd century , mentions `` memoirs of the apostles '' as being read on Sunday alongside the `` writings of the prophets '' . The Muratorian fragment , dated at between 170 and as late as the end of the 4th century ( according to the Anchor Bible Dictionary ) , may be the earliest known New Testament canon attributed to mainstream Christianity . It is similar , but not identical , to the modern New Testament canon . The oldest clear endorsement of Matthew , Mark , Luke , and John being the only legitimate gospels was written circa 180 AD . A four gospel canon ( the Tetramorph ) was asserted by Irenaeus , who refers to it directly in his polemic Against the Heresies , `` It is not possible that the gospels can be either more or fewer in number than they are . For , since there are four zones of the world in which we live , and four principal winds , while the church is scattered throughout all the world , and the `` pillar and ground '' of the church is the gospel and the spirit of life ; it is fitting that she should have four pillars , breathing out immortality on every side , and vivifying men afresh . '' The books considered to be authoritative by Irenaeus included the four gospels and many of the letters of Paul , although , based on the arguments Irenaeus made in support of only four authentic gospels , some interpreters deduce that the fourfold Gospel must have still been a novelty in Irenaeus 's time . Origen ( 3rd century ) ( edit ) By the early 200s , Origen may have been using the same twenty - seven books as in the Catholic New Testament canon , though there were still disputes over the canonicity of the Letter to the Hebrews , Epistle of James , II Peter , II John and III John and the Book of Revelation , known as the Antilegomena . Likewise , the Muratorian fragment is evidence that , perhaps as early as 200 , there existed a set of Christian writings somewhat similar to the twenty - seven book NT canon , which included four gospels and argued against objections to them . Thus , while there was a good measure of debate in the Early Church over the New Testament canon , the major writings are claimed to have been accepted by almost all Christians by the middle of the 3rd century . Origen was largely responsible for the collection of usage information regarding the texts that became the New Testament . The information used to create the late - 4th - century Easter Letter , which declared accepted Christian writings , was probably based on the Ecclesiastical History ( HE ) of Eusebius of Caesarea , wherein he uses the information passed on to him by Origen to create both his list at HE 3 : 25 and Origen 's list at HE 6 : 25 . Eusebius got his information about what texts were then accepted and what were then disputed , by the third - century churches throughout the known world , a great deal of which Origen knew of firsthand from his extensive travels , from the library and writings of Origen . In fact , Origen would have possibly included in his list of `` inspired writings '' other texts kept out by the likes of Eusebius -- including the Epistle of Barnabas , Shepherd of Hermas , and 1 Clement . Notwithstanding these facts , `` Origen is not the originator of the idea of biblical canon , but he certainly gives the philosophical and literary - interpretative underpinnings for the whole notion . '' Eusebius 's ecclesiastical History ( edit ) Eusebius , circa 300 , gave a detailed list of New Testament writings in his Ecclesiastical History Book 3 , Chapter XXV : `` 1 ... First then must be put the holy quaternion of the gospels ; following them the Acts of the Apostles ... the epistles of Paul ... the epistle of John ... the epistle of Peter ... After them is to be placed , if it really seem proper , the Book of Revelation , concerning which we shall give the different opinions at the proper time . These then belong among the accepted writings . '' `` 3 Among the disputed writings , which are nevertheless recognized by many , are extant the so - called epistle of James and that of Jude , also the second epistle of Peter , and those that are called the second and third of John , whether they belong to the evangelist or to another person of the same name . Among the rejected ( Kirsopp Lake translation : `` not genuine '' ) writings must be reckoned also the Acts of Paul , and the so - called Shepherd , and the Apocalypse of Peter , and in addition to these the extant epistle of Barnabas , and the so - called Teachings of the Apostles ; and besides , as I said , the Apocalypse of John , if it seem proper , which some , as I said , reject , but which others class with the accepted books . And among these some have placed also the Gospel according to the Hebrews ... And all these may be reckoned among the disputed books . '' `` 6 ... such books as the Gospels of Peter , of Thomas , of Matthias , or of any others besides them , and the Acts of Andrew and John and the other apostles ... they clearly show themselves to be the fictions of heretics . Wherefore they are not to be placed even among the rejected writings , but are all of them to be cast aside as absurd and impious . '' The Book of Revelation is counted as both accepted ( Kirsopp Lake translation : `` Recognized '' ) and disputed , which has caused some confusion over what exactly Eusebius meant by doing so . From other writings of the church fathers , it was disputed with several canon lists rejecting its canonicity . EH 3.3. 5 adds further detail on Paul : `` Paul 's fourteen epistles are well known and undisputed . It is not indeed right to overlook the fact that some have rejected the Epistle to the Hebrews , saying that it is disputed by the church of Rome , on the ground that it was not written by Paul . '' EH 4.29. 6 mentions the Diatessaron : `` But their original founder , Tatian , formed a certain combination and collection of the gospels , I know not how , to which he gave the title Diatessaron , and which is still in the hands of some . But they say that he ventured to paraphrase certain words of the apostle Paul , in order to improve their style . '' 4th century and later ( edit ) In his Easter letter of 367 , Athanasius , Bishop of Alexandria , gave a list of the books that would become the twenty - seven - book NT canon , and he used the word `` canonized '' ( kanonizomena ) in regards to them . The first council that accepted the present canon of the New Testament may have been the Synod of Hippo Regius in North Africa ( 393 AD ) ; the acts of this council , however , are lost . A brief summary of the acts was read at and accepted by the Council of Carthage ( 397 ) and the Council of Carthage ( 419 ) . These councils were under the authority of St. Augustine , who regarded the canon as already closed . Pope Damasus I 's Council of Rome in 382 , if the Decretum Gelasianum is correctly associated with it , issued a biblical canon identical to that mentioned above , or , if not , the list is at least a 6th - century compilation . Likewise , Damasus ' commissioning of the Latin Vulgate edition of the Bible , c. 383 , was instrumental in the fixation of the canon in the West . In c. 405 , Pope Innocent I sent a list of the sacred books to a Gallic bishop , Exsuperius of Toulouse . Christian scholars assert that , when these bishops and councils spoke on the matter , however , they were not defining something new but instead `` were ratifying what had already become the mind of the Church . '' The New Testament canon as it is now was first listed by St. Athanasius , Bishop of Alexandria , in 367 , in a letter written to his churches in Egypt , Festal Letter 39 . Also cited is the Council of Rome , but not without controversy . That canon gained wider and wider recognition until it was accepted at the Third Council of Carthage in 397 and 419 . Even this council did not settle the matter , however . Certain books , referred to as Antilegomena , continued to be questioned , especially James and Revelation . Even as late as the 16th century , the Reformer Martin Luther questioned ( but in the end did not reject ) the Epistle of James , the Epistle of Jude , the Epistle to the Hebrews and the Book of Revelation . To this day , German - language Luther Bibles are printed with these four books at the end of the canon , rather than in their traditional order as in other editions of the Bible . In light of this questioning of the canon of Scripture by Protestants in the 16th century , the ( Roman Catholic ) Council of Trent reaffirmed the traditional western canon ( i.e. , the canon accepted at the 4th - century Council of Rome and Council of Carthage ) , thus making the Canon of Trent and the Vulgate Bible dogma in the Catholic Church . Later , Pope Pius XI on 2 June 1927 decreed the Comma Johanneum was open to dispute and Pope Pius XII on 3 September 1943 issued the encyclical Divino afflante Spiritu , which allowed translations based on other versions than just the Latin Vulgate , notably in English the New American Bible . Thus , some claim that , from the 4th century , there existed unanimity in the West concerning the New Testament canon ( as it is today ) , and that , by the 5th century , the Eastern Church , with a few exceptions , had come to accept the Book of Revelation and thus had come into harmony on the matter of the canon . Nonetheless , full dogmatic articulations of the canon were not made until the Canon of Trent of 1546 for Roman Catholicism , the Thirty - Nine Articles of 1563 for the Church of England , the Westminster Confession of Faith of 1647 for Calvinism , and the Synod of Jerusalem of 1672 for the Greek Orthodox . On the question of NT Canon formation generally , New Testament scholar Lee Martin McDonald has written that : Although a number of Christians have thought that church councils determined what books were to be included in the biblical canons , a more accurate reflection of the matter is that the councils recognized or acknowledged those books that had already obtained prominence from usage among the various early Christian communities . Christian scholars assert that when these bishops and councils spoke on the matter , they were not defining something new , but instead `` were ratifying what had already become the mind of the Church '' . Some synods of the 4th century published lists of canonical books ( e.g. Hippo and Carthage ) . The existing 27 - book canon of the New Testament was reconfirmed ( for Roman Catholicism ) in the 16th century with the Council of Trent ( also called the Tridentine Council ) of 1546 , the Thirty - Nine Articles of 1563 for the Church of England , the Westminster Confession of Faith of 1647 for Calvinism , and the Synod of Jerusalem of 1672 for Eastern Orthodoxy . Although these councils did include statements about the canon , when it came to the New Testament they were only reaffirming the existing canon , including the Antilegomena . According to the Catholic Encyclopedia article on the Canon of the New Testament : `` The idea of a complete and clear - cut canon of the New Testament existing from the beginning , that is from Apostolic times , has no foundation in history . The Canon of the New Testament , like that of the Old , is the result of a development , of a process at once stimulated by disputes with doubters , both within and without the Church , and retarded by certain obscurities and natural hesitations , and which did not reach its final term until the dogmatic definition of the Tridentine Council . '' In 331 , Constantine I commissioned Eusebius to deliver fifty Bibles for the Church of Constantinople . Athanasius ( Apol . Const. 4 ) recorded Alexandrian scribes around 340 preparing Bibles for Constans . Little else is known , though there is plenty of speculation . For example , it is speculated that this may have provided motivation for canon lists , and that Codex Vaticanus and Codex Sinaiticus may be examples of these Bibles . Together with the Peshitta and Codex Alexandrinus , these are the earliest extant Christian Bibles . There is no evidence among the canons of the First Council of Nicaea of any determination on the canon . Early manuscripts ( edit ) Papyrus Bodmer VIII , at the Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana , showing 1 and 2 Peter . The Codex Regius ( L or 019 ) , an 8th - century Greek manuscript of the New Testament with strong affinities to Codex Vaticanus . Main article : New Testament manuscripts Like other literature from antiquity , the text of the New Testament was ( prior to the advent of the printing press ) preserved and transmitted in manuscripts . Manuscripts containing at least a part of the New Testament number in the thousands . The earliest of these ( like manuscripts containing other literature ) are often very fragmentarily preserved . Some of these fragments have even been thought to date as early as the 2nd century ( i.e. , Papyrus 90 , Papyrus 98 , Papyrus 104 , and famously Rylands Library Papyrus P52 , though the early date of the latter has recently been called into question ) . For each subsequent century , more and more manuscripts survive that contain a portion or all of the books that were held to be part of the New Testament at that time ( for example , the New Testament of the 4th - century Codex Sinaiticus , once a complete Bible , contains the Epistle of Barnabas and the Shepherd of Hermas ) , though occasionally these manuscripts contain other works as well ( e.g. , Papyrus 72 and the Crosby - Schøyen Codex ) . The date when a manuscript was written , however , does not necessarily reflect the date of the form of text it contains . That is , later manuscripts can , and occasionally do , contain older forms of text or older readings . Some of the more important manuscripts containing an early text of books of the New Testament are : The Chester Beatty Papyri ( Greek ; the New Testament portions of which were copied in the 3rd century ) The Bodmer Papyri ( Greek and Coptic ; the New Testament portions of which were copied in the 3rd and 4th centuries ) Codex Bobiensis ( Latin ; copied in the 4th century , but containing at least a 3rd - century form of text ) Uncial 0171 ( Greek ; copied in the late - third or early 4th century ) Syriac Sinaiticus ( Syriac ; copied in the 4th century ) Schøyen Manuscript 2560 ( Coptic ; copied in the 4th century ) Codex Vaticanus ( Greek ; copied in the 4th century ) Codex Sinaiticus ( Greek ; copied in the 4th century ) Codex Vercellensis ( Latin ; copied in the 4th century ) Curetonian Gospels ( Syriac ; copied in the 5th century ) Garima Gospels ( Ge'ez language , produced in the 5th through 6th century ) Textual variation ( edit ) Main articles : Textual variants in the New Testament and Textual criticism of the New Testament Textual criticism deals with the identification and removal of transcription errors in the texts of manuscripts . Ancient scribes made errors or alterations ( such as including non-authentic additions ) . The New Testament has been preserved in more than 5,800 Greek manuscripts , 10,000 Latin manuscripts and 9,300 manuscripts in various other ancient languages including Syriac , Slavic , Ethiopic and Armenian . Even if the original Greek versions were lost , the entire New Testament could still be assembled from the translations . In addition , there are so many quotes from the New Testament in early church documents and commentaries that the entire New Testament could also be assembled from these alone . Not all biblical manuscripts come from orthodox Christian writers . For example , the Gnostic writings of Valentinus come from the 2nd century AD , and these Christians were regarded as heretics by the mainstream church . The sheer number of witnesses presents unique difficulties , but it also gives scholars a better idea of how close modern Bibles are to the original versions . On noting the large number of surviving ancient manuscripts , Bruce Metzger sums up the view on the issue by saying `` The more often you have copies that agree with each other , especially if they emerge from different geographical areas , the more you can cross-check them to figure out what the original document was like . The only way they 'd agree would be where they went back genealogically in a family tree that represents the descent of the manuscripts . Interpolations ( edit ) In attempting to determine the original text of the New Testament books , some modern textual critics have identified sections as additions of material , centuries after the gospel was written . These are called interpolations . In modern translations of the Bible , the results of textual criticism have led to certain verses , words and phrases being left out or marked as not original . According to Bart D. Ehrman , `` These scribal additions are often found in late medieval manuscripts of the New Testament , but not in the manuscripts of the earlier centuries . '' Most modern Bibles have footnotes to indicate passages that have disputed source documents . Bible Commentaries also discuss these , sometimes in great detail . While many variations have been discovered between early copies of biblical texts , almost all have no importance , as they are variations in spelling , punctuation , or grammar . Also , many of these variants are so particular to the Greek language that they would not appear in translations into other languages . For example , order of words ( i.e. `` man bites dog '' versus `` dog bites man '' ) often does not matter in Greek , so textual variants that flip the order of words often have no consequences . Outside of these unimportant variants , there are a couple variants of some importance . The two most commonly cited examples are the last verses of the Gospel of Mark and the story of the adulterous woman in the Gospel of John . Many scholars and critics also believe that the Comma Johanneum reference supporting the Trinity doctrine in 1 John to have been a later addition . According to Norman Geisler and William Nix , `` The New Testament , then , has not only survived in more manuscripts than any other book from antiquity , but it has survived in a purer form than any other great book -- a form that is 99.5 % pure '' The Rossano Gospels , 6th century , a representative of Byzantine text . The often referred to Interpreter 's Dictionary of the Bible , a book written to prove the validity of the New Testament , says : `` A study of 150 Greek ( manuscripts ) of the Gospel of Luke has revealed more than 30,000 different readings ... It is safe to say that there is not one sentence in the New Testament in which the ( manuscript ) is wholly uniform . '' Most of the variation took place within the first three Christian centuries . Text - types ( edit ) By the 4th century , textual `` families '' or types of text become discernible among New Testament manuscripts . A `` text - type '' is the name given to a family of texts with similar readings due to common ancestors and mutual correction . Many early manuscripts , however , contain individual readings from several different earlier forms of text . Modern texual critics have identified the following text - types among textual witnesses to the New Testament : The Alexandrian text - type is usually considered to generally preserve many early readings . It is represented , e.g. , by Codex Vaticanus , Codex Sinaiticus and the Bodmer Papyri . The Western text - type is generally longer and can be paraphrastic , but can also preserve early readings . The Western version of the Acts of the Apostles is , notably , 8.5 % longer than the Alexandrian form of the text . Examples of the Western text are found in Codex Bezae , Codex Claromontanus , Codex Washingtonianus , the Old Latin ( i.e. , Latin translations made prior to the Vulgate ) , as well as in quotations by Marcion , Tatian , Irenaeus , Tertullian and Cyprian . A text - type referred to as the `` Caesarean text - type '' and thought to have included witnesses such as Codex Koridethi and minuscule 565 , can today be described neither as `` Caesarean '' nor as a text - type as was previously thought . However , the Gospel of Mark in Papyrus 45 , Codex Washingtonianus and in Family 13 does indeed reflect a distinct type of text . Increasing standardization of distinct ( and once local ) text - types eventually gave rise to the Byzantine text - type . Since most manuscripts of the New Testament do not derive from the first several centuries , that is , they were copied after the rise of the Byzantine text - type , this form of text is found the majority of extant manuscripts and is therefore often called the `` Majority Text . '' As with all of the other ( earlier ) text - types , the Byzantine can also occasionally preserve early readings . Biblical criticism ( edit ) Main article : Biblical criticism Biblical criticism is the scholarly `` study and investigation of biblical writings that seeks to make discerning judgments about these writings . '' Viewing biblical texts as having human rather than supernatural origins , it asks when and where a particular text originated ; how , why , by whom , for whom , and in what circumstances it was produced ; what influences were at work in its production ; what sources were used in its composition ; and what message it was intended to convey . It will vary slightly depending on whether the focus is on the Old Testament , the letters of the New Testament , or the Canonical Gospels . It also plays an important role in the quest for the historical Jesus . It also addresses the physical text , including the meaning of the words and the way in which they are used , its preservation , history , and integrity . Biblical criticism draws upon a wide range of scholarly disciplines including archaeology , anthropology , folklore , linguistics , Oral Tradition studies , history , and religious studies . Establishing a critical text ( edit ) Main article : New Testament manuscripts The textual variation among manuscript copies of books in the New Testament prompted attempts to discern the earliest form of text already in antiquity ( e.g. , by the 3rd - century Christian author Origen ) . The efforts began in earnest again during the Renaissance , which saw a revival of the study of ancient Greek texts . During this period , modern textual criticism was born . In this context , Christian humanists such as Lorenzo Valla and Erasmus promoted a return to the original Greek of the New Testament . This was the beginning of modern New Testament textual criticism , which over subsequent centuries would increasingly incorporate more and more manuscripts , in more languages ( i.e. , versions of the New Testament ) , as well as citations of the New Testament by ancient authors and the New Testament text in lectionaries in order to reconstruct the earliest recoverable form of the New Testament text and the history of changes to it . Relationship to earlier and contemporaneous literature ( edit ) Further information : Non-canonical books referenced in the Bible Books that later formed the New Testament , like other Christian literature of the period , originated in a literary context that reveals relationships not only to other Christian writings , but also to Graeco - Roman and Jewish works . Of singular importance is the extensive use of and interaction with the Jewish Bible and what would become the Christian Old Testament . Both implicit and explicit citations , as well as countless allusions , appear throughout the books of the New Testament , from the Gospels and Acts , to the Epistles , to the Apocalypse . Early versions ( edit ) The first translations ( usually called `` versions '' ) of the New Testament were made beginning already at the end of 2nd century . The earliest versions of the New Testament are the translations into the Syriac , Latin , and Coptic languages . These three versions were made directly from the Greek , and are frequently cited in the apparatuses of modern critical editions . Syriac ( edit ) Main article : Syriac versions of the Bible The Rabbula Gospels , Eusebian Canons . Syriac was spoken in Syria , and Mesopotamia , and with dialect in Roman and Byzantine Palestine where it was known as Jewish Palestinian Aramaic . Several Syriac translations were made and have come to us . Most of the Old Syriac , however , as well as the Philoxonian version have been lost . Tatian , the Assyrian , created the Diatessaron , a gospel harmony written in Syriac around 170 AD and the earliest form of the gospel not only in Syriac but probably also in Armenian . In the 19th century , manuscript evidence was discovered for an `` Old Syriac '' version of the four distinct ( i.e. , not harmonized ) gospels . These `` separated '' ( Syriac : da - Mepharreshe ) gospels , though old , have been shown to be later than the Diatessaron . The Old Syriac gospels are fragmentarily preserved in two manuscripts : the 5th - century Curetonian Syriac and the Sinaitic Syriac from the 4th or 5th century . No Old Syriac manuscripts of other portions of the New Testament survive , though Old Syriac readings , e.g. from the Pauline Epistles , can be discerned in citations made by Eastern fathers and in later Syriac versions . The Old Syriac version is a representative of the Western text - type . The Peshitta version was prepared in the beginning of the 5th century . It contains only 22 books ( neither the Minor Catholic Epistles of 2 Peter , 2 and 3 John , and Jude , nor the Book of Revelation were part of this translation ) . The Philoxenian probably was produced in 508 for Philoxenus , Bishop of Mabung . Latin ( edit ) Main articles : Vetus Latina and Vulgate The Gospels were likely translated into Latin as early as the last quarter of the 2nd century in North Africa ( Afra ) . Not much later , there were also European Latin translations ( Itala ) . There are about 80 Old Latin mansucripts . The Vetus Latina ( `` Old Latin '' ) versions often contain readings with a Western type of text . ( For the avoidance of confusion , these texts were written in Late Latin , not the early version of the Latin language known as Old Latin , pre 75 BC . ) The bewildering diversity of the Old Latin versions prompted Jerome to prepare another translation into Latin -- the Vulgate . In many respects it was merely a revision of the Old Latin . There are currently around 8,000 manuscripts of the Vulgate . Coptic ( edit ) Main article : Coptic versions of the Bible There are several dialects of the Coptic language : Bohairic ( northern dialect ) , Fayyumic , Sahidic ( southern dialect ) , Akhmimic , and others . The first translation was made by at least the 3rd century into the Sahidic dialect ( cop ) . This translation represents a mixed text , mostly Alexandrian , though also with Western readings . A Bohairic translation was made later , but existed already in the 4th century . Though the translation makes less use of Greek words than the Sahidic , it does employ some Greek grammar ( e.g. , in word - order and the use of particles such as the syntactic construction μεν -- δε ) . For this reason , the Bohairic translation can be helpful in the reconstruction of the early Greek text of the New Testament . Other ancient translations ( edit ) BL Add . MS 59874 with Ethiopic Gospel of Matthew . The continued spread of Christianity , and the foundation of national churches , led to the translation of the Bible -- often beginning with books from the New Testament -- into a variety of other languages at a relatively early date : Armenian , Georgian , Ethiopic , Persian , Soghdian , and eventually Gothic , Old Church Slavonic , Arabic , and Nubian . Modern translations ( edit ) Main article : Bible translations Modern Literal Version is the most recent literal translation of the books of the new testament , with the largest number of translation experts being involved in the final translation . Historically , throughout the Christian world and in the context of Christian missionary activity , the New Testament ( or portions thereof ) has been that part of the Christian Bible first translated into the vernacular . The production of such translations grew out of the insertion of vernacular glosses in biblical texts , as well as out of the production of biblical paraphrases and poetic renditions of stories from the life of Christ ( e.g. , the Heliand ) . The 16th century saw the rise of Protestantism and an explosion of translations of the New ( and Old ) Testament into the vernacular . Notable are those of Martin Luther ( 1522 ) , Jacques Lefèvre d'Étaples ( 1523 ) , the Froschau Bible ( 1525 -- 1529 , revised in 1574 ) , William Tyndale ( 1526 , revised in 1534 , 1535 and 1536 ) , the Brest Bible ( 1563 ) , and the Authorized Version ( also called the `` King James Version '' ) ( 1611 ) . Most of these translations relied ( though not always exclusively ) upon one of the printed editions of the Greek New Testament edited by Erasmus , a form of this Greek text emerged as the standard and is known as the Textus Receptus . This text , based on the majority of manuscripts is also used in the majority of translations that were made in the years 100 to 400 AD . Translations of the New Testament made since the appearance of critical editions of the Greek text ( notably those of Tischendorf , Westcott and Hort , and von Soden ) have largely used them as their base text . Unlike the Textus Receptus , these have a pronounced Alexandrian character . Standard critical editions are those of Souter , Vogels , Bover , Merk , and Nestlé - Aland ( the text , though not the full critical apparatus of which is reproduced in the United Bible Societies ' `` Greek New Testament '' ) . Notable translations of the New Testament based on these most recent critical editions include the Revised Standard Version ( 1946 , revised in 1971 ) , La Bible de Jérusalem ( 1961 , revised in 1973 and 2000 ) , the Einheitsübersetzung ( 1970 , final edition 1979 ) , the New American Bible ( 1970 , revised in 1986 ) , the Traduction Oecuménique de la Bible ( 1988 , revised in 2004 ) , and the New Revised Standard Version ( 1989 ) . Theological interpretation in Christian churches ( edit ) Main article : Biblical authority Though all Christian churches accept the New Testament as Scripture , they differ in their understanding of the nature , extent , and relevance of its authority . Views of the authoritativeness of the New Testament often depend on the concept of inspiration , which relates to the role of God in the formation of the New Testament . Generally , the greater the role of God in one 's doctrine of inspiration , the more one accepts the doctrine of biblical inerrancy or authoritativeness of the Bible . One possible source of confusion is that these terms are difficult to define , because many people use them interchangeably or with very different meanings . This article will use the terms in the following manner : Infallibility relates to the absolute correctness of the Bible in matters of doctrine . Inerrancy relates to the absolute correctness of the Bible in factual assertions ( including historical and scientific assertions ) . Authoritativeness relates to the correctness of the Bible in questions of practice in morality . The self - witness of the Bible to its inspiration demands a commitment to its unity . The ultimate basis for unity is contained in the claim of divine inspiration in 2 Timothy 3 : 16 that `` all Scripture is given by inspiration of God , and is profitable for doctrine , for reproof , for correction , for instruction in righteousness '' ( KJV ) . The term `` inspiration '' renders the Greek word theopneustos . This term only occurs here in the New Testament and literally means `` God - breathed '' ( the chosen translation of the NIV ) . All of these concepts depend for their meaning on the supposition that the text of Bible has been properly interpreted , with consideration for the intention of the text , whether literal history , allegory or poetry , etc . Especially the doctrine of inerrancy is variously understood according to the weight given by the interpreter to scientific investigations of the world . Unity in diversity ( edit ) The notion of unity in diversity of Scripture claims that the Bible presents a noncontradictory and consistent message concerning God and redemptive history . The fact of diversity is observed in comparing the diversity of time , culture , authors ' perspectives , literary genre , and the theological themes . Studies from many theologians considering the `` unity in diversity '' to be found in the New Testament ( and the Bible as a whole ) have been collected and summarized by New Testament theologian Frank Stagg . He describes them as some basic presuppositions , tenets , and concerns common among the New Testament writers , giving to the New Testament its `` unity in diversity '' : The reality of God is never argued but is always assumed and affirmed Jesus Christ is absolutely central : he is Lord and Savior , the foretold Prophet , the Messianic King , the Chosen , the way , the truth , and the light , the One through whom God the Father not only acted but through whom He came The Holy Spirit came anew with Jesus Christ . The Christian faith and life are a calling , rooted in divine election . The plight of everyone as sinner means that each person is completely dependent upon the mercy and grace of God Salvation is both God 's gift and his demand through Jesus Christ , to be received by faith The death and resurrection of Jesus are at the heart of the total event of which he was the center God creates a people of his own , designated and described by varied terminology and analogies History must be understood eschatologically , being brought along toward its ultimate goal when the kingdom of God , already present in Christ , is brought to its complete triumph In Christ , all of God 's work of creation , revelation , and redemption is brought to fulfillment Roman Catholicism , Eastern Orthodoxy , and classical Anglicanism ( edit ) For the Roman Catholic Church , there are two modes of Revelation : Scripture and Tradition . Both of them are interpreted by the teachings of the Church . The Roman Catholic view is expressed clearly in the Catechism of the Catholic Church ( 1997 ) : § 82 : As a result the Church , to whom the transmission and interpretation of Revelation is entrusted , does not derive her certainty about all revealed truths from the holy Scriptures alone . Both Scripture and Tradition must be accepted and honoured with equal sentiments of devotion and reverence . § 107 : The inspired books teach the truth . Since therefore all that the inspired authors or sacred writers affirm should be regarded as affirmed by the Holy Spirit , we must acknowledge that the books of Scripture firmly , faithfully , and without error teach that truth which God , for the sake of our salvation , wished to see confided to the Sacred Scriptures . In Catholic terminology the teaching office is called the Magisterium . The Catholic view should not be confused with the two - source theory . As the Catechism states in § § 80 and 81 , Revelation has `` one common source ... two distinct modes of transmission . '' While many Eastern Orthodox writers distinguish between Scripture and Tradition , Bishop Kallistos Ware says that for the Orthodox there is only one source of the Christian faith , Holy Tradition , within which Scripture exists . Traditional Anglicans believe that `` Holy Scripture containeth all things necessary to salvation '' , ( Article VI ) , but also that the Catholic Creeds `` ought thoroughly to be received and believed '' ( Article VIII ) , and that the Church `` hath authority in Controversies of Faith '' and is `` a witness and keeper of Holy Writ '' ( Article XX ) . Classical Anglicanism , therefore , like Orthodoxy , holds that Holy Tradition is the only safe guardian against perversion and innovation in the interpretation of Scripture . In the famous words of Thomas Ken , Bishop of Bath and Wells : `` As for my religion , I dye in the holy catholic and apostolic faith professed by the whole Church before the disunion of East and West , more particularly in the communion of the Church of England , as it stands distinguished from all Papal and Puritan innovations , and as it adheres to the doctrine of the Cross . '' Protestantism ( edit ) Following the doctrine of sola scriptura , Protestants believe that their traditions of faith , practice and interpretations carry forward what the scriptures teach , and so tradition is not a source of authority in itself . Their traditions derive authority from the Bible , and are therefore always open to reëvaluation . This openness to doctrinal revision has extended in Liberal Protestant traditions even to the reevaluation of the doctrine of Scripture upon which the Reformation was founded , and members of these traditions may even question whether the Bible is infallible in doctrine , inerrant in historical and other factual statements , and whether it has uniquely divine authority . However , the adjustments made by modern Protestants to their doctrine of scripture vary widely . American evangelical and fundamentalist Protestantism ( edit ) Within the US , the Chicago Statement on Biblical Inerrancy ( 1978 ) is a statement , articulating evangelical views on this issue . Paragraph four of its summary states : `` Being wholly and verbally God - given , Scripture is without error or fault in all its teaching , no less in what it states about God 's acts in creation , about the events of world history , and about its own literary origins under God , than in its witness to God 's saving grace in individual lives . '' American mainline and liberal Protestantism ( edit ) Mainline American Protestant denominations , including the United Methodist Church , Presbyterian Church USA , The Episcopal Church , and Evangelical Lutheran Church in America , do not teach the doctrine of inerrancy as set forth in the Chicago Statement . All of these churches have more ancient doctrinal statements asserting the authority of scripture , but may interpret these statements in such a way as to allow for a very broad range of teaching -- from evangelicalism to skepticism . It is not an impediment to ordination in these denominations to teach that the scriptures contain errors , or that the authors follow a more or less unenlightened ethics that , however appropriate it may have seemed in the authors ' time , moderns would be very wrong to follow blindly . For example , ordination of women is universally accepted in the mainline churches , abortion is condemned as a grievous social tragedy but not always a personal sin or a crime against an unborn person , and homosexuality is sometimes recognized as a genetic propensity or morally neutral preference that should be neither encouraged nor condemned . In North America , the most contentious of these issues among these churches at the present time is how far the ordination of gay men and lesbians should be accepted . Officials of the Presbyterian Church USA report : `` We acknowledge the role of scriptural authority in the Presbyterian Church , but Presbyterians generally do not believe in biblical inerrancy . Presbyterians do not insist that every detail of chronology or sequence or prescientific description in scripture be true in literal form . Our confessions do teach biblical infallibility . Infallibility affirms the entire truthfulness of scripture without depending on every exact detail . '' Those who hold a more liberal view of the Bible as a human witness to the glory of God , the work of fallible humans who wrote from a limited experience unusual only for the insight they have gained through their inspired struggle to know God in the midst of a troubled world . Therefore , they tend not to accept such doctrines as inerrancy . These churches also tend to retain the social activism of their evangelical forebears of the 19th century , placing particular emphasis on those teachings of scripture that teach compassion for the poor and concern for social justice . The message of personal salvation is , generally speaking , of the good that comes to oneself and the world through following the New Testament 's Golden Rule admonition to love others without hypocrisy or prejudice . Toward these ends , the `` spirit '' of the New Testament , more than the letter , is infallible and authoritative . There are some movements that believe the Bible contains the teachings of Jesus but who reject the churches that were formed following its publication . These people believe all individuals can communicate directly with God and therefore do not need guidance or doctrines from a church . These people are known as Christian anarchists . Messianic Judaism ( edit ) Messianic Judaism generally holds the same view of New Testament authority as evangelical Protestants . According to the view of some Messianic Jewish congregations , Jesus did not annul the Torah , but that its interpretation is revised and ultimately explained through the Apostolic Scriptures . Jehovah 's witnesses ( edit ) The Christian Congregation of Jehovah 's Witnesses accepts the New Testament as divinely inspired Scripture , and as infallible in every detail , with equal authority as the Hebrew Scriptures . They view it as the written revelation and good news of the Messiah , the ransom sacrifice of Jesus , and the Kingdom of God , explaining and expounding the Hebrew Bible , not replacing but vitally supplementing it . They also view the New Testament as the primary instruction guide for Christian living , and church discipline . They generally call the New Testament the `` Christian Greek Scriptures '' , and see only the `` covenants '' as `` old '' or `` new '' , but not any part of the actual Scriptures themselves . United pentecostals ( edit ) Oneness Pentecostalism subscribes to the common Protestant doctrine of sola scriptura . They view the Bible as the inspired Word of God , and as absolutely inerrant in its contents ( though not necessarily in every translation ) . They regard the New Testament as perfect and inerrant in every way , revealing the Lord Jesus Christ in the Flesh , and his Atonement , and which also explains and illuminates the Old Testament perfectly , and is part of the Bible canon , not because church councils or decrees claimed it so , but by witness of the Holy Spirit . Seventh - day Adventists ( edit ) The Seventh - day Adventist Church holds the New Testament as the inspired Word of God , with God influencing the `` thoughts '' of the Apostles in the writing , not necessarily every word though . The first fundamental belief of the Seventh - Day Adventist church stated that `` The Holy Scriptures are the infallible revelation of ( God 's ) will . '' Adventist theologians generally reject the `` verbal inspiration '' position on Scripture held by many conservative evangelical Christians . They believe instead that God inspired the thoughts of the biblical authors and apostles , and that the writers then expressed these thoughts in their own words . This view is popularly known as `` thought inspiration '' , and most Adventist members hold to that view . According to Ed Christian , former JATS editor , `` few if any ATS members believe in verbal inerrancy '' . Regarding the teachings of the New Testament compared to the Old , and the application in the New Covenant , Adventists have traditionally taught that the Decalogue is part of the moral law of God , which was not abrogated by the ministry and death of Jesus Christ . Therefore , the fourth commandment concerning the Sabbath is as applicable to Christian believers as the other nine . Adventists have often taught a distinction between `` moral law '' and `` ceremonial law '' . According to Adventist beliefs , the moral law continues into the `` New Testament era '' , but the ceremonial law was done away with by Jesus . How the Mosaic law should be applied came up at Adventist conferences in the past , and Adventist theologians such as A.T. Jones and E.J. Waggoner looked at the problem addressed by Paul in Galatians as not the ceremonial law , but rather the wrong use of the law ( legalism ) . They were opposed by Uriah Smith and George Butler at the 1888 Conference . Smith in particular thought the Galatians issue had been settled by Ellen White already , yet in 1890 she claimed justification by faith is `` the third angel 's message in verity . '' Ellen White interpreted Colossians 2 : 14 as saying that the ceremonial law was nailed to the cross . Latter - day Saints ( edit ) Members of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter - day Saints ( LDS Church ) believe that the New Testament , as part of the Christian biblical canon , is accurate `` as far as it is translated correctly '' . They believe the Bible as originally revealed is the word of God , but that the processes of transcription and translation have introduced errors into the texts as currently available , and therefore they can not be regarded as completely inerrant . In addition to the Old and New Testaments , the Book of Mormon , the Doctrine and Covenants and the Pearl of Great Price are considered part of their scriptural canon . In the liturgy ( edit ) A Byzantine lectionary , Codex Harleianus ( l ) , 995 AD , text of John 1 : 18 . Despite the wide variety among Christian liturgies , texts from the New Testament play a role in almost all forms of Christian worship . In addition to some language derived from the New Testament in the liturgy itself ( e.g. , the Trisagion may be based on Apocalypse 4 : 8 , and the beginning of the `` Hymn of Praise '' draws upon Luke 2 : 14 ) , the reading of extended passages from the New Testament is a practice common to almost all Christian worship , liturgical or not . These readings are most often part of an established lectionary ( i.e. , selected texts to be read at church services on specific days ) , and ( together with an Old Testament reading and a Psalm ) include a non-gospel reading from the New Testament and culminate with a Gospel reading . No readings from the Book of Revelation , however , are included in the standard lectionary of the Eastern Orthodox churches . Central to the Christian liturgy is the celebration of the Eucharist or `` Holy Communion '' . The Words of Institution that begin this rite are drawn directly from 1 Corinthians 11 : 23 -- 26 . In addition , the communal recitation of the Lord 's Prayer ( in the form found in the Gospel of Matthew 6 : 9 -- 13 ) is also a standard feature of Christian worship . In the arts ( edit ) Further information : Nativity of Jesus in art and Passion play Gaudenzio Ferrari 's Stories of the Life and Passion of Christ , fresco , 1513 , Church of Santa Maria delle Grazie , Varallo Sesia , Italy . Depicting the life of Jesus `` Hallelujah '' chorus The text of the famous `` Hallelujah '' chorus in G.F. Händel 's Messiah is drawn from three passages in the Book of Revelation : 19 : 6 , 11 : 5 , and 19 : 16 ( audio clip from the German translation of the Messiah ) . Problems playing this file ? See media help . Most of the influence of the New Testament upon the arts has come from the Gospels and the Book of Revelation . Literary expansion of the Nativity of Jesus found in the Gospels of Matthew and Luke began already in the 2nd century , and the portrayal of the Nativity has continued in various art forms to this day . The earliest Christian art would often depict scenes from the New Testament such as the raising of Lazarus , the baptism of Jesus or the motif of the Good Shepherd . Biblical paraphrases and poetic renditions of stories from the life of Christ ( e.g. , the Heliand ) became popular in the Middle Ages , as did the portrayal of the arrest , trial and execution of Jesus in Passion plays . Indeed , the Passion became a central theme in Christian art and music . The ministry and Passion of Jesus , as portrayed in one or more of the New Testament Gospels , has also been a theme in film , almost since the inception of the medium ( e.g. , `` La Passion '' , France , 1903 ) . See also ( edit ) Authorship of the Epistle to the Hebrews Catalogue of Vices and Virtues Chronology of Jesus Earlier Epistle to the Ephesians Non-canonical books referenced in the New Testament Historical background of the New Testament Life of Jesus in the New Testament List of Gospels Novum Testamentum Graece Notes ( edit ) Jump up ^ See also Tertullian , Against Marcion , Book IV , chapters I , II , XIV . However , his meaning in chapter XX is less clear , and in chapters IX and XL he uses the term to mean `` new covenant '' . Jump up ^ Joseph Barber Lightfoot in his Commentary on the Epistle to the Galatians writes : `` At this point ( Gal 6 : 11 ) the apostle takes the pen from his amanuensis , and the concluding paragraph is written with his own hand . From the time when letters began to be forged in his name ( 2 Thess. 3 : 17 ; 3 : 17 ) it seems to have been his practice to close with a few words in his own handwriting , as a precaution against such forgeries ... In the present case he writes a whole paragraph , summing up the main lessons of the epistle in terse , eager , disjointed sentences . He writes it , too , in large , bold characters ( Gr . pelikois grammasin ) , that his handwriting may reflect the energy and determination of his soul . '' Jump up ^ The Gospels are in this order in many Old Latin manuscripts , as well as in the Greek manuscripts Codex Bezae and Codex Washingtonianus . Jump up ^ See also the article on the Antilegomena . Jump up ^ Although Hebrews was almost certainly not written by Paul , it has been a part of the Pauline corpus `` from the beginning of extant MS production '' . ^ Jump up to : Guthrie lists : ohlenberg , Lock , Meinertz , Thornell , Schlatter , Spicq , Jeremias , Simpson , Kelly , and Fee '' Jump up ^ S. Brown agrees that the references to the Jerusalem temple 's destruction are seen as evidence of a post-70 date . Jump up ^ The Book of Revelation was n't added till the Council of Carthage ( 419 ) . References ( edit ) Jump up ^ Barton , John ( 3 February 2012 ) . `` Before the parting of the ways '' . Times Literary Supplement . p. 12 . Jump up ^ Introduction to the New Testament . Werner Georg Kummel , pages 500f . Abingdon Press . Nashville . 1993 . ^ Jump up to : See the books listed under `` Further reading '' , below , by Goodspeed , Kümmel , Duling and Perrin , Koester , Conzelmann and Lindemann , Brown , and Ehrman . E.g. Bart D. Ehrman ( 199 7 ) . The New Testament : A Historical Introduction to the Early Christian Writings . Oxford University Press . p. 8 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 19 - 508481 - 8 . The New Testament contains twenty - seven books , written in Greek , by fifteen or sixteen different authors , who were addressing other Christian individuals or communities between the years 50 and 120 C.E. ( see box 1.4 ) . As we will see , it is difficult to know whether any of these books was written by Jesus ' own disciples . Check date values in : year = ( help ) Jump up ^ John A.T. Robinson of Trinity College , Cambridge . Jump up ^ Robinson , John Arthur Thomas ( 2000 ) ( 1976 ) . Redating the New Testament . Eugene , Oregon , USA : Wipf & Stock . p. 352 . ISBN 9781579105273 . Jump up ^ Geisler , Norman ( 1998 ) . `` Albright , William F . '' . Baker Encyclopedia of Christian Apologetics . Baker Reference Library . Ada , Michigan , USA : Baker . pp. 14f , 46ff , 37 -- 41 . ISBN 0801021510 . ( Quoting Albright : ) We can already say emphatically that there is no longer any basis for dating any book of the New Testament after about 80 AD . See excerpt at : `` The Dating of the New Testament '' . BeThinking . Retrieved 17 February 2016 . ^ Jump up to : Mounce , Robert ( 1998 ) . The Book of Revelation ( revised ed . ) . The New International Commentary on the New Testament Series . Cambridge , UK : Eerdmans . pp. 15 -- 16 . ISBN 0802825370 . Jump up ^ See , e.g. , Clabeaux , J.J. ( 1989 ) . A Lost Edition of the Letters of Paul : A Reassessment of the Text of the Pauline Corpus Attested by Marcion . Catholic Biblical Quarterly Monograph Series , 21 . Washington , D.C. : Catholic Biblical Association . Jump up ^ `` bibliotheca Augustana '' . hs-augsburg.de . Retrieved 17 February 2016 . Jump up ^ Allen , Clifton J. ( 1969 ) . The Broadman Bible Commentary : Volume 8 , General Articles , Matthew - Mark . London , England , and Nashville , Tennessee , USA : Broadman Press . ASIN B000BUN8GM . Tertullian was apparently the first to use the term New Testament in the sense of a collection of books ( Against Praxeas XV ) . Jump up ^ Tertullian . `` Chapter XIV '' . Against Marcion , Book III . Jump up ^ Tertullian . `` Chapter VI '' . Against Marcion , Book IV . Jump up ^ Lactantius . `` Chapter XX '' . `` The Divine Institutes , Book IV '' . Jump up ^ McDowell , Josh . Evidence for Christianity . Tennessee : Thomas Nelson , Inc. 2006 . pp. 42 -- 46 . Jump up ^ Bouman , Herbert J.A. ( November 1955 ) . `` The Doctrine of Justification in the Lutheran Confessions '' ( incl . Bouman 's transl. of Martin Luther 's `` Commentary on Galatians '' ( 1538 ) ) . Concordia Theological Monthly 26 ( 11 ) : 801 -- 19 . Jump up ^ `` Gospel '' . Merriam - Webster Dictionary . Retrieved 10 May 2016 . Jump up ^ Cross , F.L. , ed ( 2005 ) . `` Gospel '' . The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church . New York : Oxford University Press . Jump up ^ Fitzmyer , Joseph A. ( 1985 ) . The Gospel according to Luke , Vol. 1 . Anchor Bible Commentary series . New York : Doubleday . pp. 35 -- 53 . Jump up ^ Burkett 2002 , p. 196 . Jump up ^ Ehrman 2005 , p. 235 . Jump up ^ Perkins 2009 , pp. 250 -- 53 . Jump up ^ Lightfoot , Joseph Barber ( 1866 ) . St Paul 's Epistle to the Galatians ( 2nd ed . ) . MacMillan & Co. p. 217 . Jump up ^ Bassler , Jouette M. ( 2010 ) . `` Paul and his Letters '' . In Aune , David E. The Blackwell Companion to the New Testament . Wiley - Blackwell . p. 388 . ISBN 9781444318944 . Jump up ^ Roetzel , Calvin J. ( 2009 ) . The Letters of Paul : Conversations in Context ( 5th ed . ) . Louisville , Kentucky : Westminster John Knox . ISBN 9780664233921 . Jump up ^ Attridge , Harold W. ( 1989 ) . Hebrews . Hermeneia . Philadelphia : Fortress . pp. 1 -- 6 . Jump up ^ Lane , William L. ( 1991 ) . Hebrews 1 -- 8 . Word Biblical Commentary series , Vol . 47A . Dallas , Texas : Word Books . p. cliv . Jump up ^ Eusebius . `` Chapter 25 '' . Church History , Book VI . ^ Jump up to : Ehrman , Bart D. ( 1997 ) . The New Testament : A Historical Introduction to the Early Christian Writings . Oxford University Press . p. 323 . `` Scholars in the ancient world went about detecting forgeries in much the same way that modern scholars do . They looked to see whether the ideas and writing style of a piece conformed with those used by the author in other writings , and they examined the text for any blatant anachronisms , that is , statements about things that could not have existed at the time the alleged author was writing ( like the letter reputedly from an early seventeenth - century American colonist that mentions `` the United States '' ) - Arguments of this kind were used by some Christian scholars of the third century to show that Hebrews was not written by Paul or the Book of Revelation by John the son of Zebedee . Modern scholars , as we will see , concur with these judgments . To be sure , neither of these books can be considered a forgery . Hebrews does not claim to be written by Paul ( it is anonymous ) , and the John who wrote Revelation does not claim to be the son of Zebedee ( it is therefore homonymous ) . Are there other books in the New Testament , though , that can be considered forgeries ? '' Jump up ^ Powell , Mark A. ( 2009 ) . Introducing the New Testament : A Historical , Literary , and Theological Survey . Grand Rapids , Michigan : Baker Academic . pp. 431 -- 32 . ISBN 9780801028687 . Jump up ^ Fornberg , Tord ( 1977 ) . An Early Church in a Pluralistic Society : A Study of 2 Peter . Coniectanea Biblica , New Testament Series 9 . Lund : Gleerup . Jump up ^ For a detailed study of the Apocalypse of John , see Aune , David E. ( 1998 ) . Revelation , 3 volumes . Word Biblical Commentary series . Nashville , Tennessee : Thomas Nelson . ^ Jump up to : Nersessian 2001 , p. 29 . Jump up ^ Burris , Catherine ; Van Rompay , Lucas ( 2002 ) . `` Thecla in Syriac Christianity : Preliminary Observations '' . Hugoye : Journal of Syriac Studies 5 ( 2 ) : 225 -- 36 . Jump up ^ Carter , Nancy A. ( 2000 ) . `` The Acts of Thecla : A Pauline Tradition Linked to Women '' . Conflict and Community in the Corinthian Church . Archived from the original on 28 November 2014 . Jump up ^ Poole , Matthew ( 1852 ) . `` Annotations Upon the Holy Bible , Vol . III '' . Robert Carter and Brothers . p. 729 . Jump up ^ `` Web Directory : German Bible Versions '' . Bible Research . Retrieved 17 February 2016 . Jump up ^ Powell ( 2009 ) , p. 16 Jump up ^ Strelan , Rick ( 2013 ) . Luke the Priest : The Authority of the Author of the Third Gospel . Farnham , ENG : Routledege - Ashgate . pp. 102 -- 105 . Jump up ^ For discussion of Mark , see Schröter , Jens ( 2010 ) . `` Gospel of Mark '' . In Aune , David . The Blackwell Companion to the New Testament . New York , USA : Wiley - Blackwell . pp. 281f . Jump up ^ For discussion of Mark , see Hare , Douglas R.A. ( 1996 ) . Mark . Louisville , Kentucky , USA : Westminster John Knox Press . pp. 3 -- 5 . Jump up ^ For discussion of Matthew , see Repschinski , Boris ( 1998 ) . `` Forschungbericht : Matthew and Judaism '' . The Controversy Stories in the Gospel of Matthew . Göttingen , GER : Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht . pp. 13 -- 61 . Jump up ^ For overviews of the scholarship on authorship of the various New Testament works , see the relevant entries in Aune , David E. , ed. ( 2010 ) . The Blackwell Companion to the New Testament . Hoboken , New Jersey , USA : Wiley - Blackwell . Jump up ^ Ehrman , Bart D. ( 2005 ) . Lost Christianities : The Battles for Scripture and the Faiths We Never Knew . Oxford University Press . p. 235 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 19 - 518249 - 1 . The four Gospels that eventually made it into the New Testament , for example , are all anonymous , written in the third person about Jesus and his companions . None of them contains a first - person narrative ( ' One day , when Jesus and I went into Capernaum ... ' ) , or claims to be written by an eyewitness or companion of an eyewitness ... Most scholars today have abandoned these identifications , and recognize that the books were written by otherwise unknown but relatively well - educated Greek - speaking ( and writing ) Christians during the second half of the first century . Jump up ^ Ehrman , Bart D. ( 1 November 2004 ) . Truth and Fiction in The Da Vinci Code : A Historian Reveals What We Really Know about Jesus , Mary Magdalene , and Constantine . Oxford University Press , USA . p. 110 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 19 - 534616 - 9 . In fact , contrary to what you might think , these Gospels do n't even claim to be written by eyewitnesses . ^ Jump up to : Ehrman , Bart D. ( 1 September 2006 ) . The Lost Gospel of Judas Iscariot : A New Look at Betrayer and Betrayed . Oxford University Press , USA . p. 143 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 19 - 971104 - 8 . The Gospels of the New Testament are therefore our earliest accounts . These do not claim to be written by eyewitnesses to the life of Jesus , and historians have long recognized that they were produced by second - or third - generation Christians living in different countries than Jesus ( and Judas ) did , speaking a different language ( Greek instead of Aramaic ) , experiencing different situations , and addressing different audiences . Jump up ^ Ehrman , Bart ( 2009 ) . Jesus , Interrupted . New York , USA : Harper Collins . pp. 102 -- 104 . Jump up ^ Ehrman , Bart ( 1999 ) . Jesus : Apocalyptic Prophet of the New Millennium . Oxford , UK : Oxford University Press . pp. 43f . Jump up ^ Ehrman , Bart D. ( 2000 ) The New Testament : A Historical Introduction to Early Christian Writings . Oxford University Press . p. 49 . Jump up ^ Sanders , E.P. ( 1995 ) . The Historical Figure of Jesus . Penguin . pp. 63 -- 64 . Jump up ^ Nickle , Keith Fullerton ( 1 January 2001 ) . The Synoptic Gospels : An Introduction . Westminster John Knox Press . p. 43 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 664 - 22349 - 6 -- via Google Books . Jump up ^ Witherington , Ben ( 2 June 2004 ) . The Gospel Code : Novel Claims About Jesus , Mary Magdalene and Da Vinci . InterVarsity Press . p. 44 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 8308 - 3267 - 5 . Jump up ^ Theissen , Gerd ( 2004 ) . The Gospels in Context . London , ENG : Bloomsbury - Continuum . p. 290 . Jump up ^ Barnes , Albert ( 1962 ) ( 1832 ) . Barnes ' Notes on the New Testament . Kregel Publications . p. 360 . Jump up ^ Henry , Matthew . Matthew Henry Complete Commentary on the Whole Bible . StudyLight.org . Jump up ^ Lindars , Barnabas ; Edwards , Ruth B. ; Court , John M. ( 2000 ) . The Johannine Literature . Sheffield Academic Press . pp. 41 -- 43 . Jump up ^ Hahn , Scott W. ; Scott , David , eds. ( 1 September 2007 ) . Letter & Spirit , Volume 3 : The Hermeneutic of Continuity : Christ , Kingdom , and Creation . Emmaus Road Publishing . p. 225 . ISBN 978 - 1 - 931018 - 46 - 3 . Jump up ^ Kirby , Peter . `` Gospel of Mark '' . Early Christian Writings . Retrieved 15 January 2008 . Jump up ^ Achtemeier , Paul J. ( 1992 ) . `` The Gospel of Mark '' . The Anchor Bible Dictionary . 4 . New York : Doubleday . p. 545 . ISBN 0 - 385 - 19362 - 9 . Jump up ^ Easton , M.G. ( 1996 ) ( ca . 1897 ) `` Luke , Gospel According To '' . Easton 's Bible Dictionary . Oak Harbor , WA , USA : Logos Research . Jump up ^ Meier , John P. ( 1991 ) . A Marginal Jew . 2 . New York : Doubleday . pp. 955 -- 6 . ISBN 0 - 385 - 46993 - 4 . Jump up ^ Helms , Randel ( 1997 ) . Who Wrote the Gospels ? . Altadena , California : Millennium Press . p. 8 . ISBN 0 - 9655047 - 2 - 7 . Jump up ^ Harris , Stephen L. ( 1985 ) . Understanding the Bible . Palo Alto , California : Mayfield . Jump up ^ Harris ( 1985 ) , pp. 302 -- 310 Jump up ^ Guthrie , Donald ( 1990 ) . New Testament Introduction . Leicester , UK : Apollos . p. 114 . ^ Jump up to : Guthrie ( 1990 ) , pp. 37 -- 40 Jump up ^ To list just some further scholars : I.H. Marshall , Acts ( 1980 ) , pp. 44 -- 45 ; F.F. Bruce , The Acts of the Apostles ( 1952 ) , pp. 1 -- 6 ; C.S.C. Williams , The Acts of the Apostles , in Black 's New Testament Commentary ( 1957 ) ; W. Michaelis , Einleitung , pp. 61 -- 64 ; Bo Reicke , Glaube und Leben Der Urgenmeinde ( 1957 ) , pp. 6 -- 7 ; F.V. Filson , Three Crucial Decades ( 1963 ) , p. 10 ; M. Dibelius , Studies in the Acts of the Apostles ( 1956 ) ; R.M. Grant , A Historical Introduction to the New Testament ( 1963 ) , pp. 134 -- 135 ; B. Gärtner , The Aeropagus Speech and Natural Revelation ( 1955 ) ; W.L. Knox , Sources of the Synoptic Gospels ; R.R. Williams , The Acts of the Apostles ; E.M. Blaiklock , The Acts of the Apostles , in Tyndale New Testament Commentary ( 1959 ) ; W. Grundmann , Das Evangelium nach Lukas , p. 39 . Jump up ^ Kollmann , Bernd ( 2004 ) . Joseph Barnabas . Collegeville , Minnesota , USA : Liturgical Press . p. 30 . Jump up ^ Wood , D.R.W. ( 1996 ) . New Bible Dictionary . Downers Grove , Illinois , USA : InterVarsity Press . p. 739 . Jump up ^ Eusebius . `` The Writings of Papias '' . Church History . `` On the tradition that Matthew wrote a Hebrew gospel , see above , chap. 24 , note 5 . Our Greek Gospel of Matthew was certainly in existence at the time Papias wrote , for it is quoted in the epistle of Barnabas . '' Jump up ^ Cross , F.L. , ed. ( 2005 ) . `` John , Gospel of '' . The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church . Oxford , UK : Oxford University Press . Jump up ^ Fonck , Leopold ( 1910 ) . `` Gospel of St. John '' . The Catholic Encyclopedia . New York : Robert Appleton Company . Jump up ^ `` Gospel According to John '' . Encyclopædia Britannica . Retrieved 19 November 2010 . Jump up ^ Brown , Raymond E. ( 1997 ) . Introduction to the New Testament . New York : Anchor Bible . p. 164 . ISBN 0 - 385 - 24767 - 2 . Jump up ^ `` Gospel of Mark '' . Early Christian Writings . Retrieved 17 February 2016 . Jump up ^ Horrell , D.G. ( 2006 ) . An Introduction to the Study of Paul . 2nd ed . London , ENG : Bloomsbury - T&T Clark . p. 7 . Jump up ^ Knox , W.L. ( 1948 ) . The Acts of the Apostles . p. 2 - 15 , for detailed arguments . Jump up ^ Kenny , A. ( 1986 ) . A Stylometric Study of the New Testament . Jump up ^ Schelle , Udo . The History and Theology of the New Testament Writings . p. 259 . Jump up ^ Bruce , F.F. ( 1952 ) . The Acts of the Apostles . p. 2 . Jump up ^ Wallace , Daniel B. ( 28 June 2004 ) . `` Hebrews : Introduction , Argument , and Outline '' . Bible.org . Jump up ^ Guthrie ( 1990 ) , p. 622 Jump up ^ Ehrman ( 2004 ) , p. 385 . Jump up ^ `` Epistle of St. James '' . 1914 Catholic Encyclopedia . Jump up ^ `` Epistle of James '' . Early Christian Writings . Retrieved 19 November 2010 . Jump up ^ Harner , Philip B. ( 2004 ) . What Are They Saying About the Catholic Epistles ? . Paulist Press . p. 49 . ISBN 9780809141883 . Jump up ^ Kruger , M.J. ( 1999 ) . `` The Authenticity of 2 Peter '' . Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society . 42 ( 4 ) : 645 -- 671 . Jump up ^ e.g. Zahn , S.T. Introduction to the New Testament , Vol. II . p. 250 . Jump up ^ Spitta , F. ( 1885 ) . Der Zweite Brief des Petrus und der Brief des Judas . Jump up ^ Bigg , C. `` The Epistles of St Peter and St Jude '' . International Critical Commentary . Jump up ^ e.g. Green , E.M.B. ( 1961 ) . 2 Peter Reconsidered . Jump up ^ Bauckham , R.J. ( 1986 ) . Word Biblical Commentary , Vol. 50 . Word ( UK ) Ltd. p. 14f . Jump up ^ Harris ( 1985 ) , pp. 355 -- 356 , `` 1 John '' Jump up ^ Eusebius . `` Chapter 39 '' . The Church History , Book III . Jump up ^ Justin Martyr . Dialogue with Trypho . Chapter LXXXI . Jump up ^ Tenney , Merrill C. , gen . ed. ( 2009 ) . `` Revelation , Book of the '' . Zondervan Pictorial Encyclopedia of the Bible , Vol. 5 ( Q-Z ) . Grand Rapids , Michigan : Zondervan . Jump up ^ Witherington , Ben ( 2003 ) . Revelation . Cambridge University Press . p. 2 . Jump up ^ Koester , Helmut ( 1999 ) . Ancient Christian Gospels . Harrisburg , Pennsylvania : Trinity Press International . p. 336 . Jump up ^ Theissen , Gerd ; Merz , Annette ( 1996 ) . The Historical Jesus : A Comprehensive Guide . Fortress Press . ( 1996 edition ) . p. 24 - 27 . Jump up ^ Cross , F.L. , ed. ( 2005 ) . `` Matthew , Gospel according to St '' . The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church . New York : Oxford University Press . Jump up ^ Brown , Schuyler. ( 1993 ) . The Origins of Christianity : A Historical Introduction to the New Testament . New York : Oxford University Press . p. 24 . Jump up ^ Brown , Schuyler ( 1993 ) . The Origins of Christianity : A Historical Introduction to the New Testament . New York : Oxford University Press . p. 29 . Jump up ^ Brown , Schuyler ( 1993 ) . The Origins of Christianity : A Historical Introduction to the New Testament . New York : Oxford University Press . p. 27 . ^ Jump up to : -- -- -- ( 1 October 2000 ) ( 1976 ) . Redating the New Testament . Wipf & Stock . ISBN 978 - 1 - 57910 - 527 - 3 . Jump up ^ Wallace , Daniel ( June 18 , 2004 ) . `` Matthew : Introduction , Argument , and Outline '' . www.bible.org . bible.org . Retrieved 2016 - 08 - 16 . Jump up ^ Myers , Allen C. , ed. ( 1987 ) . `` Aramaic '' . The Eerdmans Bible Dictionary . Grand Rapids , Michigan : William B. Eerdmans . p. 72 . ISBN 0 - 8028 - 2402 - 1 . It is generally agreed that Aramaic was the common language of Israel in the 1st century AD . Jesus and his disciples spoke the Galilean dialect , which was distinguished from that of Jerusalem ( Matt . 26 : 73 ) . Jump up ^ Metzger , Bruce M. ; Ehrman , Bart D. ( 2005 ) . The Text of the New Testament : Its Transmission , Corruption , and Restoration . 4th ed . Oxford University Press . Jump up ^ Aland , K. ; Aland , B. ( 1995 ) . The Text of the New Testament . Wm . B. Eerdmans Publishing . ISBN 9780802840981 . Jump up ^ Koester , Helmut ( 1982 ) . Introduction to the New Testament , Volume 2 . Philadelphia . p. 172 . Jump up ^ Davies , W.D. ; Allison , Dale C. ( 1988 ) . A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on The Gospel according to Saint Matthew , Vol. 1 . Edinburgh : T&T Clark . pp. 33 -- 58 . Jump up ^ Eusebius . `` Chapter 25 '' . Church History , Book III . Jump up ^ Gamble , Harry Y. ( 1985 ) . The New Testament Canon : Its Making and Meaning . Guides to Biblical Scholarship . Philadelphia : Fortress . Jump up ^ Three forms are postulated , from The Canon Debate , chapter 18 , page 300 , note 21 , attributed to Harry Y. Gamble : `` ( 1 ) Marcion 's collection that begins with Galatians and ends with Philemon ; ( 2 ) Papyrus 46 , dated about 200 , that follows the order that became established except for reversing Ephesians and Galatians ; and ( 3 ) the letters to seven churches , treating those to the same church as one letter and basing the order on length , so that Corinthians is first and Colossians ( perhaps including Philemon ) is last . '' Jump up ^ Harnack , Adolf . `` Appendix VI '' . Origin of the New Testament . Christian Classics Ethereal Library . Jump up ^ Justin Martyr . First Apology . Chapter 67 . Jump up ^ Ferguson , Everett ( 2002 ) . `` Factors leading to the Selection and Closure of the New Testament Canon '' . In McDonald , L.M. ; Sanders , J.A. The Canon Debate . Hendrickson . pp. 301ff . ISBN 9781441241634 . ^ Jump up to : Irenaeus . `` Chapter XI '' . Against Heresies , Book III . Section 8 . Jump up ^ McDonald , L. M ; Sanders , J.A. , eds. ( 2002 ) . The Canon Debate . Hendrickson . p. 277 . Jump up ^ Noll , Mark A. ( 1997 ) . Turning Points . Baker Academic . pp 36 -- 37 . Jump up ^ de Jonge , H.J. ( 2003 ) . `` The New Testament Canon '' . In de Jonge , H.J. ; Auwers , J. M ( eds . ) . The Biblical Canons . Leuven University Press . p. 315 . Jump up ^ Ackroyd , P.R. ; Evans , C.F. ( eds . ) ( 1970 ) . The Cambridge History of the Bible , Vol. 1 . Cambridge University Press . p. 308 . CS1 maint : Multiple names : authors list ( link ) CS1 maint : Extra text : authors list ( link ) Jump up ^ Bateman , C.G. ( 2010 ) . `` Origen 's Role in the Formation of the New Testament Canon '' . Social Science Research Network . Jump up ^ McGuckin , John A. ( 2003 ) . `` Origen as Literary Critic in the Alexandrian Tradition '' . In Perrone , L. ( ed . ) . Origeniana Octava : Origen and the Alexandrian Tradition , Vol. 1 . Bibliotheca Ephemeridum Theologicarum Lovaniensium 164 . Leuven : Leuven University Press . pp. 121 -- 37 . ^ Jump up to : Lindberg , Carter ( 2006 ) . A Brief History of Christianity . Blackwell Publishing . p. 15 . ISBN 1 - 4051 - 1078 - 3 . Jump up ^ Brakke , David ( Oct 1994 ) . `` Canon Formation and Social Conflict in Fourth Century Egypt : Athanasius of Alexandria 's Thirty Ninth Festal Letter '' . Harvard Theological Review 87 ( 4 ) : 395 -- 419 . ^ Jump up to : McDonald & Sanders ( 2002 ) , Appendix D - 2 , note 19 `` Revelation was added later in 419 at the subsequent synod of Carthage . '' ^ Jump up to : Ferguson ( 2002 ) , p. 320 Jump up ^ Bruce , F.F. ( 1988 ) . The Canon of Scripture . Intervarsity Press . p. 230 . Jump up ^ Augustine . De Civitate Dei . 22.8 . Jump up ^ Bruce ( 1988 ) , p. 234 Jump up ^ Bruce ( 1988 ) , p. 225 ^ Jump up to : Metzger , Bruce ( 1987 ) . The Canon of the New Testament : Its Origins , Development , and Significance . Oxford : Clarendon . pp. 237 -- 238 . ^ Jump up to : Bruce ( 1988 ) , p. 97 Jump up ^ Bruce ( 1988 ) , p. 215 Jump up ^ Ackroyd & Evans ( 1970 ) , p. 305 Jump up ^ McDonald , Lee M. ( 1995 ) . The Formation of the Christian Biblical Canon . Peabody , Massachusetts : Hendrickson . p. 116 . Jump up ^ Metzger ( 1987 ) , p. 246 `` Finally on 8 April 1546 , by a vote of 24 to 15 , with 16 abstensions , the Council issued a decree ( De Canonicis Scripturis ) in which , for the first time in the history of the church , the question of the contents of the Bible was made an absolute article of faith and confirmed by an anathema . '' Jump up ^ Reid , George ( 1908 ) . `` Canon of the New Testament '' . The Catholic Encyclopedia . New York : Robert Appleton Company . Jump up ^ McDonald & Sanders ( 2002 ) , pp. 414 -- 415 Jump up ^ For the initial dating of P52 , see Roberts , C.H. ( ed . ) ( 1935 ) . An Unpublished Fragment of the Fourth Gospel in the John Rylands Library . Manchester : Manchester University Press ; and Bell , H. Idris ; Skeat , T.C. ( 1935 ) . Fragments of an Unknown Gospel and Other Early Christian Papyri . London : Trustees of the British Museum . Though see now Nongbri , Brent ( 2005 ) . `` The Use and Abuse of P52 : Papyrological Pitfalls in the Dating of the Fourth Gospel '' . Harvard Theological Review 98 : 23 -- 52 ; and Martinez , David G. ( 2009 ) . `` The Papyri and Early Christianity '' . In Bagnall , Roger S. ( ed . ) . The Oxford Handbook of Papyrology . Oxford : Oxford University Press . pp. 590 -- 623 . Jump up ^ Ehrman ( 2005 ) , p. 46 ^ Jump up to : Strobel , Lee ( 1998 ) . The Case for Christ . Chapter Three , when quoting biblical scholar Bruce Metzger . ^ Jump up to : Bruce , F.F. ( 1981 ) . The New Testament Documents : Are They Reliable ? . InterVarsity Press . p. 14 . Jump up ^ Ehrman , Bart D. ( 2005 ) . Misquoting Jesus : The Story Behind Who Changed the Bible and Why . HarperCollins . p. 265 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 06 - 073817 - 4 . Jump up ^ Nave , Guy D . The Role and Function of Repentance in Luke - Acts . p. 194 . Jump up ^ Spong , John Shelby ( 26 September 1979 ) . `` The Continuing Christian Need for Judaism '' . Christian Century . p. 918 . Archived from the original on 4 June 2011 . Jump up ^ Levine , Amy - Jill ; Blickenstaff , Marianne ( 2001 ) . A Feminist Companion to John , Vol. II . Feminist Companion to the New Testament and Early Christian Writings , Vol. 5 . A&C Black . pg. 175 . Jump up ^ `` NETBible : John 7 '' . Bible.org . Retrieved 17 October 2009 . See note 139 on that page . Jump up ^ Keith , Chris ( 2008 ) . `` Recent and Previous Research on the Pericope Adulterae ( John 7.53 -- 8.11 ) '' . Currents in Biblical Research . 6 ( 3 ) : 377 -- 404 . doi : 10.1177 / 1476993X07084793 . Jump up ^ `` Pericope adulterae '' . In Cross , F.L. ( ed . ) ( 2005 ) . The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church . New York : Oxford University Press . Jump up ^ Ehrman ( 2006 ) , p. 166 . Jump up ^ Metzger , Bruce ( 1994 ) . A Textual Commentary on the New Testament ( 2nd ed . ) . German Bible Society . Jump up ^ Metzger ( 1994 ) , p. 367 Jump up ^ Parvis , M.M. Vol. 4 . pp. 594 -- 595 . Jump up ^ Metzger , Bruce M. ; Ehrman , Bart D. ( 2005 ) . The Text of the New Testament : Its Transmission , Corruption , and Restoration . 4th ed . Oxford : Oxford University Press . Jump up ^ See , e.g. , Stendahl , Krister ( 1954 ) . The School of St. Matthew and Its Use of the Old Testament . Uppsala and Lund ; Marcus , Joel ( 1993 ) . The Way of the Lord : Christological Exegesis of the Old Testament in the Gospel of Mark . Edinburgh ; Smith , D. Moody ( 1972 ) . `` The Use of the Old Testament in the New '' . In The Use of the Old Testament in the New and Other Essays : Studies in Honor of William Franklin Stinespring . Durham , North Carolina : Duke University Press . pp. 3 -- 65 ; Juel , Donald ( 1988 ) . Messianic Exegesis : Christological Interpretation of the Old Testament in Early Christianity . Philadelphia : Fortress ; and Barr , James ( 1966 ) . Old and New in Interpretation : A Study of the Two Testaments . London : SCM . Jump up ^ Võõbus , Arthur ( 1954 ) . Early Versions of the New Testament . Stockholm . pp. 1 -- 128 , 211 -- 240 . Jump up ^ Metzger , Bruce M. ( 1977 ) . The Early Versions of the New Testament . Oxford : Clarendon Press . pp. 3 -- 98 . Jump up ^ Vööbus , Arthur ( 1954 ) . Early Versions of the New Testament . Stockholm . pp. 216 -- 229 . Jump up ^ Vööbus ( 1954 ) , pp. 229 -- 237 ; Metzger ( 1977 ) , pp. 99 -- 152 Jump up ^ On the Armenian , Georgian , Ethiopic , Arabic , and Gothic , see Vööbus ( 1954 ) , pp. 133 -- 210 , 243 -- 309 ^ Jump up to : Meadors , Gary T. ( 1997 ) . `` Scripture , Unity and Diversity of '' . In Elwell , Walter A. ( ed . ) . Baker 's Evangelical Dictionary of Biblical Theology . Grand Rapids : Baker Books . Jump up ^ Stagg , Frank ( 1962 ) . New Testament Theology . Broadman . ISBN 0 - 8054 - 1613 - 7 . Jump up ^ `` The Transmission of Divine Revelation '' . Catechism of the Catholic Church . 2nd ed. 1997 . Jump up ^ Ware , Kallistos ( 1993 ) . `` Holy Tradition : The Source of the Orthodox Faith ''. The Orthodox Church . Penguin UK . Jump up ^ `` Articles of Religion '' . Anglicans Online . Retrieved 19 November 2010 . Jump up ^ `` The Chicago Statement of Biblical Inerrancy '' . Center for Reformed Theology and Apologetics . Retrieved 19 November 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Homosexual ordination vote widens gap between Presbyterian factions '' . ReligionToday. 20 June 2001 . Jump up ^ `` Our Beliefs '' . Beit Simcha . Retrieved June 7 , 2012 . To study the whole and authoritative Word of God , including the Tenach ( Hebrew Scriptures ) and the B'rit Chadasha ( New Covenant ) under the leading of the Holy Spirit . Jump up ^ `` Essential Statement of Faith '' . The Harvest : A Messianic Charismatic Congregation . Archived from the original on 27 November 2015 . Retrieved 7 June 2012 . We believe that the Torah ( five books of Moses ) is a comprehensive summary of God 's foundational laws and ways , as found in both the Tanakh and Apostolic Scriptures . Additionally , the Bible teaches that without holiness no man can see God . We believe in the Doctrine of Sanctification as a definite , yet progressive work of grace , commencing at the time of regeneration and continuing until the consummation of salvation . Therefore we encourage all believers , both Jews and Gentiles , to affirm , embrace , and practice these foundational laws and ways as clarified through the teachings of Messiah Yeshua . Jump up ^ `` Equipped For Every Good Work '' . Brooklyn , New York : Watchtower Bible and Tract Society , Inc . International Bible Students Association . 1946 . pp. 12 -- 13 . Jump up ^ See , for example , Raddatz , Tom . `` A Response to the Oneness - Trinity Debate '' . 1Lord1Faith.org . Archived from the original on 20 March 2005 . Jump up ^ Dulle , Jason . `` How We Get Our Bible '' . Institute for Biblical Studies . Retrieved 15 April 2013 . Jump up ^ Dulle , Jason . `` Defending the Inerrancy and Canon of Scripture '' . Institute for Biblical Studies . Retrieved 15 April 2013 . Jump up ^ Dulle , Jason . `` The Nature of Inspiration '' . Institute for Biblical Studies . Retrieved 15 April 2013 . Jump up ^ Ministerial Association , General Conference of Seventh - day Adventists ( 2005 ) . Seventh - day Adventists Believe ( 2nd ed . ) . Pacific Press Publishing Association . pp. 14 -- 16 . Jump up ^ McLarty , John ( 15 November 2001 ) . `` The Adventist Theological Society '' . Adventist Today . Archived from the original on 25 December 2007 . Jump up ^ White , Ellen ( 2015 ) . Patriarchs and Prophets . Start Publishing LLC . p. 365 . Jump up ^ `` Articles of Faith '' . The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter - Day Saints . Retrieved 17 February 2016 . Jump up ^ Givens , Terry L. ( 2015 ) . The Oxford Handbook of Mormonism . Oxford University Press . pp. 124 -- 125 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 19 - 977836 - 2 . Jump up ^ `` Bible , Inerrancy of '' . The Church of the Latter Day Saints. 2016 . Retrieved 23 May 2016 . Jump up ^ Encyclopedia of Mormonism , Macmillan 1992 , pp. 106 -- 107 Jump up ^ David Lamont Paulsen ; Donald W. Musser ( 2007 ) . Mormonism in Dialogue with Contemporary Christian Theologies . Mercer University Press . p. 277 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 88146 - 083 - 4 . Further reading ( edit ) Brown , Raymond E. ( 1997 ) . An Introduction to the New Testament . Anchor Bible Reference Library ; New York : Doubleday . Bultmann , Rudolf ( 1951 -- 1955 ) . Theology of the New Testament , English translation , 2 volumes . New York : Scribner . Burkett , Delbert ( 2002 ) . An Introduction to the New Testament and the Origins of Christianity . Cambridge University Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 521 - 00720 - 7 . von Campenhausen , Hans ( 1972 ) . The Formation of the Christian Bible , English translation . Philadelphia : Fortress Press . Clark , Gordon ( 1990 ) . `` Logical Criticisms of Textual Criticism '' , The Trinity Foundation : Jefferson , Maryland Conzelmann , Hans ; Lindemann , Andreas ( 1999 ) . Interpreting the New Testament : An Introduction to the Principles and Methods of New Testament Exegesis , English translation . Peabody , Massachusetts : Hendrickson . Dormeyer , Detlev ( 1998 ) . The New Testament among the Writings of Antiquity , English translation . Sheffield . Duling , Dennis C. ; Perrin , Norman ( 1993 ) . The New Testament : Proclamation and Parenesis , Myth and History , 3rd edition . New York : Harcourt Brace . Ehrman , Bart D. ( 2011 ) . The New Testament : A Historical Introduction to the Early Christian Writings , 5th edition . New York : Oxford University Press . Ehrman , Bart D. ( 2005 ) . Lost Christianities : The Battles for Scripture and the Faiths We Never Knew . Oxford University Press . ISBN 9780195182491 . Goodspeed , Edgar J. ( 1937 ) . An Introduction to the New Testament . Chicago : University of Chicago Press . Levine , Amy - Jill ; Brettler , Marc Z. ( 2011 ) . The Jewish Annotated New Testament . Oxford : Oxford University Press . Koester , Helmut ( 1995 and 2000 ) . Introduction to the New Testament , 2nd edition , 2 volumes . Berlin : Walter de Gruyter . Kümmel , Werner Georg ( 1996 ) . Introduction to the New Testament , revised and enlarged English translation . Nashville : Abingdon Press . Mack , Burton L. ( 1995 ) . Who Wrote the New Testament ? . San Francisco : HarperSanFrancisco . Neill , Stephen ; Wright , Tom ( 1988 ) . The Interpretation of the New Testametnt , 1861 -- 1986 , new edition . Oxford : Oxford University Press . Nersessian , V. ( 2001 ) . `` The Armenian Canon of the New Testament '' . The Bible in the Armenian Tradition . Los Angeles , CA : J. Paul Getty Museum . ISBN 978 - 0 - 89236 - 640 - 8 . Perkins , Pheme ( 2009 ) . Introduction to the Synoptic Gospels . Eerdmans . ISBN 978 - 0 - 8028 - 6553 - 3 . Schnelle , Udo ( 1998 ) . The History and Theology of the New Testament Writings , English translation . Minneapolis : Fortress Press . Wills , Garry , `` A Wild and Indecent Book '' ( review of David Bentley Hart , The New Testament : A Translation , Yale University Press , 577 pp . ) , The New York Review of Books , vol . LXV , no . 2 ( 8 February 2018 ) , pp. 34 - 35 . Discusses some pitfalls in interpreting and translating the New Testament . Zahn , Theodor ( 1910 ) . Introduction to the New Testament , English translation , 3 volumes . Edinburgh : T&T Clark . External links ( edit ) Wikimedia Commons has media related to New Testament . Wikiversity has learning resources about Biblical Studies ( NT ) Wikisource has original text related to this article : `` Scriptures '' in Christianity portal Greek Wikisource has original text related to this article : New Testament Wikiquote has quotations related to : New Testament General references ( edit ) New Testament Gateway Annotated guide to academic New Testament Web resources including not only other Web sites , but articles and course materials Jewish Studies for Christians An Online Study Group exploring the Jewish setting of the early Jesus movement . ( An Israeli blog led by Dr. Eliyahu Lizorkin - Eyzenberg ) . `` Introduction to New Testament History and Literature '' course materials `` Open Yale course '' taught at Yale University by Dale B. 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-2277978882346195536

who sings the song fooled around and fell in love

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Fooled_Around_and_Fell_in_Love&oldid=847298886

Fooled Around and Fell in Love - wikipedia Fooled Around and Fell in Love `` Fooled Around and Fell in Love '' Single by Elvin Bishop from the album Struttin ' My Stuff B - side `` Have A Good Time '' Released March 1976 Format 7 '' 45 RPM Single Recorded Length 4 : 35 ( album version ) 2 : 59 ( single version ) Label Capricorn Songwriter ( s ) Elvin Bishop Producer ( s ) Bill Szymczyk Elvin Bishop singles chronology `` Sure Feels Good '' ( 1975 ) `` Fooled Around and Fell in Love '' ( 1976 ) `` Struttin ' My Stuff '' ( 1976 ) `` Sure Feels Good '' ( 1975 ) `` Fooled Around and Fell in Love '' ( 1976 ) `` Struttin ' My Stuff '' ( 1976 ) `` Fooled Around and Fell in Love '' is a song written and performed by blues guitarist Elvin Bishop . It appeared on his 1975 album Struttin ' My Stuff and was released as a single the following year . Bishop does not sing lead vocals on the track ; feeling that his gravelly voice would n't do the song justice , he invited vocalist Mickey Thomas , who was a background singer in his band at the time , to sing it . The song peaked at # 3 on the Billboard Hot 100 singles chart in May 1976 . The record was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America on June 23 , 1976 . In Canada , the song reached number 22 on the singles chart and number 8 on the Adult Contemporary chart . The song became a Gold record . Based on his work with Bishop , Thomas was invited to become the lead singer for Jefferson Starship . The song is featured in the films Queens Logic ( 1991 ) , Illtown ( 1996 ) , Boogie Nights ( 1997 ) , Summer of Sam ( 1999 ) , Big Daddy ( 1999 ) , According to Spencer ( 2001 ) , The Devil 's Rejects ( 2005 ) , The Family Stone ( 2005 ) , Invincible ( 2006 ) , The Education of Charlie Banks ( 2007 ) , Harold & Kumar Escape from Guantanamo Bay ( 2008 ) , Stand Up Guys ( 2012 ) , Lovelace ( 2013 ) , Guardians of the Galaxy ( 2014 ) and Handsome : A Netflix Mystery Movie ( 2017 ) . Contents 1 Style 2 Chart performance 2.1 Weekly charts 2.2 Year - end charts 3 Personnel 4 Cover versions 5 References 6 External links Style ( edit ) In their 1990 essay `` Rock and Sexuality '' , Simon Frith and Angela McRobbie offer the song as one which `` lyrically captures '' their idea of an essential distinction in rock music between `` cock rock '' and `` teeny bop '' . Chart performance ( edit ) Weekly charts ( edit ) Chart ( 1976 ) Peak position Australia 16 Canada RPM Top Singles 22 Canada RPM Adult Contemporary 8 New Zealand U.S. Billboard Hot 100 U.S. Cash Box Top 100 Year - end charts ( edit ) Chart ( 1976 ) Rank Canada RPM Top Singles 167 New Zealand 13 U.S. Billboard Hot 100 56 U.S. Cash Box 28 Personnel ( edit ) Mickey Thomas : vocals Elvin Bishop : guitar Johnny ' V ' Vernazza : guitar , backing vocals Philip Aaberg : piano Mike Keck : organ Donny Baldwin : drums , percussion Michael Brooks : bass Bill Szymczyk : producer `` Fooled Around and Fell in Love '' Single by T.G. Sheppard from the album Livin ' on the Edge B - side `` Banging My Heart '' Released May 11 , 1985 Label Columbia Songwriter ( s ) Elvin Bishop Producer ( s ) Rick Hall T.G. Sheppard singles chronology `` You 're Going Out of My Mind '' ( 1985 ) `` Fooled Around and Fell in Love '' ( 1985 ) `` Doncha ? '' ( 1985 ) `` You 're Going Out of My Mind '' ( 1985 ) `` Fooled Around and Fell in Love '' ( 1985 ) `` Doncha ? '' ( 1985 ) Cover versions ( edit ) This section does not cite any sources . Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . ( June 2016 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) In 1985 , T.G. Sheppard had a # 21 country hit with a cover of the song . A music video was also produced for this version and has aired on CMT , TNN and GAC . In 1991 , Henry Lee Summer covered this song which appeared on his album Way Past Midnight , and the Queens Logic soundtrack ( with the lead guitar solo played by Joe Walsh ) . In 2004 , country music artist Mark Wills covered this song for the southern rock tribute album Southern Rock Country Style . In 2006 , Rod Stewart covered this song for the album Still the Same ... Great Rock Classics of Our Time . In 2010 , Japanese band Superfly covered this song for the compilation album Wildflower & Cover Songs : Complete Best ' Track 3 ' . In 2013 , The Winery Dogs covered this song for their live album , Unleashed In Japan 2013 . In 2013 , a re-imagined version of the song ( sung from the female perspective ) was recorded and released by Kirsten Thien on her album Solo Live from the Meisenfrei Blues Club . In 2014 , Morgan James covered the song in a YouTube video . References ( edit ) Jump up ^ Bronson , Fred ( 2003 ) . The Billboard Book of Number 1 Hits . Billboard Books . ISBN 0 - 8230 - 7677 - 6 . Jump up ^ `` RIAA records search '' . Recording Industry Association of America . Retrieved 19 July 2009 . Jump up ^ `` Item Display - RPM - Library and Archives Canada '' . Collectionscanada.gc.ca . Retrieved 19 March 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Item Display - RPM - Library and Archives Canada '' . Collectionscanada.gc.ca . Retrieved 19 March 2015 . Jump up ^ Janovitz , Bill . `` Fooled Around and Fell in Love '' . allmusic.com . Retrieved 19 July 2009 . Jump up ^ Fricth , Simon ; McRobbie , Angela ( 1990 ) . Frith , Simon ; Goodwin , Andrew , eds . On Record : Rock , Pop and the Written Word . London : Routledge . p. 320 . ISBN 0 - 415 - 05306 - 4 . Retrieved 19 March 2015 . Jump up ^ `` NZ Top 40 Singles Chart The Official New Zealand Music Chart '' . Nztop40.co.nz. 1976 - 07 - 26 . Retrieved 2016 - 06 - 05 . Jump up ^ Joel Whitburn , Top Pop Singles 1955 - 2002 Jump up ^ `` Top Singles -- Volume 26 , No. 14 & 15 , January 08 1977 '' . RPM . Library and Archives Canada . Retrieved March 13 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Top Selling Singles of 1976 The Official New Zealand Music Chart '' . Nztop40.co.nz. 1963 - 12 - 08 . Retrieved 2016 - 06 - 05 . Jump up ^ `` Top 100 Hits of 1976 / Top 100 Songs of 1976 '' . Musicoutfitters.com . Retrieved 2016 - 06 - 05 . Jump up ^ `` Cash Box YE Pop Singles - 1976 '' . 50.6. 195.142. 1976 - 12 - 25 . Archived from the original on 2014 - 10 - 21 . Retrieved 2016 - 06 - 05 . Jump up ^ Elvin Bishop - Struttin ' My Stuff @ Discogs.com Retrieved 3 - 24 - 2018 . Jump up ^ I Remember Clif Confessions of a Lapsed Bohemian Retrieved 3 - 24 - 2018 . External links ( edit ) Lyrics of this song at MetroLyrics T.G. Sheppard Notable singles `` Devil in the Bottle '' `` Tryin ' to Beat the Morning Home '' `` Motels and Memories '' `` Solitary Man '' `` Happy Together '' `` You Feel Good All Over '' `` Last Cheater 's Waltz '' `` I 'll Be Coming Back for More '' `` Smooth Sailin ' '' `` Do You Wanna Go to Heaven '' `` I Feel Like Loving You Again '' `` I Loved ' Em Every One '' `` Party Time '' `` Only One You '' `` Finally '' `` War Is Hell ( On the Homefront Too ) '' `` Faking Love '' ( with Karen Brooks ) `` Without You '' `` Slow Burn '' `` Make My Day '' ( with Clint Eastwood ) `` Somewhere Down the Line '' `` One Owner Heart '' `` You 're Going Out of My Mind '' `` Fooled Around and Fell in Love '' `` Doncha ? '' `` In Over My Heart '' `` Strong Heart '' `` Half Past Forever ( Till I 'm Blue in the Heart ) '' `` You 're My First Lady '' `` One for the Money '' `` You Still Do '' Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fooled_Around_and_Fell_in_Love&oldid=847298886 '' Categories : 1975 songs 1976 singles 1985 singles T.G. Sheppard songs Rod Stewart songs Columbia Records singles Capricorn Records singles Song recordings produced by Bill Szymczyk Hidden categories : Articles with hAudio microformats Articles needing additional references from June 2016 All articles needing additional references Talk Contents About Wikipedia 日本 語 Edit links This page was last edited on 24 June 2018 , at 09 : 25 ( UTC ) . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply . By using this site , you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia ® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation , Inc. , a non-profit organization . About Wikipedia

-8400502352454998371

how many jurors must agree in order to reach a verdict in a criminal case

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Hung_jury&oldid=798130155

Hung jury - wikipedia Hung jury Jump to : navigation , search For an album , see Hung Jury ( album ) . A hung jury or deadlocked jury is a judicial jury that can not agree upon a verdict after extended deliberation and is unable to reach the required unanimity or supermajority . This situation can occur only in common law legal systems , because civil law systems either do not use juries at all or provide that the defendant is automatically acquitted if the majority or supermajority required for conviction is not reached during a single , solemn vote . Contents ( hide ) 1 Canada 2 New Zealand 3 United Kingdom 3.1 England and Wales 3.2 Scotland 4 United States 4.1 Hung jury in death penalty trials 5 References Canada ( edit ) In Canada , the jury must reach a unanimous decision on criminal cases . Each jury in criminal courts contain twelve jurors , but not in civil cases . In civil cases , only six people are necessary for a jury , and if there is one dissenter but the rest are unanimous ( i.e. a 5 - 1 vote ) the one dissenter can be ignored with the majority opinion becoming the final verdict . If the jury can not reach a unanimous decision , a hung jury is declared . A new panel of jurors will be selected for the new trial . New Zealand ( edit ) In New Zealand , the jury must initially try to reach a unanimous verdict . If the jury can not reach a unanimous verdict after a reasonable time given the nature and complexity of the case ( but not less than four hours ) , then the court may accept a majority verdict . In criminal cases , an all - but - one majority is needed ( i.e. 11 -- 1 with a full jury ) ; in civil cases , a three - fourths majority is needed ( i.e. 9 -- 3 with a full jury ) . If the jury fails to reach either a unanimous or majority verdict after a reasonable time , the presiding judge may declare a hung jury , and a new panel of jurors will be selected for a retrial . United kingdom ( edit ) England and Wales ( edit ) In England and Wales a majority of 10 -- 2 ( 10 -- 1 if only eleven jurors remain ) is needed for a verdict ; failure to reach this may lead to a retrial . Initially , the jury will be directed to try to reach a unanimous verdict . If they fail to reach a unanimous verdict , the judge may later ( after not less than two hours ) give directions that a majority verdict will be acceptable , but still no less than ten to two , although the jury should continue to try to reach a unanimous verdict if possible . When the jury are called to deliver a verdict after majority directions have been given , a careful protocol of questions is followed : only in the event of a guilty verdict is it then asked whether or not all jurors were agreed on that verdict , to prevent any acquittal from being tainted by it being disclosed that any jurors dissented . The protocol is followed separately for each charge . Scotland ( edit ) It is not possible to have a hung jury in Scotland in criminal cases . Juries consist of 15 , and verdicts are decided by simple majority ( 8 ) of the initial membership . If jurors drop out because of illness or another reason , the trial can continue with a minimum of 12 jurors , but the support of 8 jurors is still needed for a guilty verdict ; anything less is treated as an acquittal . In civil cases there is a jury of 12 , with a minimum of 10 needed to continue the trial . It is possible to have a hung jury if there is a tied vote after three hours ' deliberation . United states ( edit ) In the United States , the result is a mistrial , and the case may be retried ( United States v. Perez , 1824 ) . Some jurisdictions permit the court to give the jury a so - called Allen charge , inviting the dissenting jurors to re-examine their opinions , as a last - ditch effort to prevent the jury from hanging . The Federal Rules of Criminal Procedure state , `` The verdict must be unanimous ... If there are multiple defendants , the jury may return a verdict at any time during its deliberations as to any defendant about whom it has agreed ... If the jury can not agree on all counts as to any defendant , the jury may return a verdict on those counts on which it has agreed ... If the jury can not agree on a verdict on one or more counts , the court may declare a mistrial on those counts . A hung jury does not imply either the defendant 's guilt or innocence . The government may retry any defendant on any count on which the jury could not agree . '' Juries in criminal cases are generally , as a rule , required to reach a unanimous verdict , and juries in civil cases typically have to reach a majority on some level . If a defendant has been found guilty of a capital offense , one that could result in the death penalty if the person is eligible , the opinion of the jury must be unanimous if the defendant is to be sentenced to death . Currently , two states , Oregon and Louisiana , do not require unanimous verdicts in criminal cases . Each requires a 10 - 2 majority for conviction , except for capital crimes : Oregon requires at least 11 votes and Louisiana requires all 12 . In jurisdictions giving those involved in the case a choice of jury size ( such as between a six - person and twelve - person jury ) , defense counsel in both civil and criminal cases frequently opt for the larger number of jurors . A common axiom in criminal cases is that `` it takes only one to hang , '' referring to the fact that in some cases , a single juror can defeat the required unanimity . One proposal for dealing with the difficulties associated with hung juries has been to introduce supermajority verdicts to allow juries to convict defendants without unanimous agreements amongst the jurors . Hence , a 12 - member jury that would otherwise be deadlocked at 11 for conviction and 1 against , would be recorded as a guilty verdict . The rationale for majority verdicts usually includes arguments involving so - called ' rogue jurors ' who unreasonably impede the course of justice . Opponents of majority verdicts argue that it undermines public confidence in criminal justice systems and results in a higher number of individuals convicted of crimes they did not commit . In United States military justice , the Uniform Code of Military Justice ( 10 U.S.C. Chapter 47 ) Article 52 specifies the minimum number of court martial panel members required to return a verdict of guilty . In cases that involve a mandatory death sentence , a unanimous vote of all panel members is required . In cases that involve mandatory life sentences or sentences of confinement over ten years , a three - fourths vote is required . In all other cases , only a two - thirds vote is required to convict . Additionally , the Manual for Courts - Martial requires only a judge and a specified number of panel members ( five for a general court - martial or three for a special court - martial ; no panel is seated for a summary court - martial ) in all non-capital cases . In capital cases , a panel of 12 members is required . Hung jury in death penalty trials ( edit ) Of the 31 U.S. states with the death penalty , 29 provide the sentence to be decided by a jury , and 28 require a unanimous sentence . However , the states differ on what happens if the penalty phase results in a hung jury : In 4 states ( Arizona , California , Kentucky and Nevada ) , a retrial of the penalty phase will be conducted before a different jury ( the common - law rule for mistrial ) . In 2 states ( Indiana and Missouri ) , the judge will decide the sentence . In the 22 other states , a hung jury results in a life sentence , even if only one juror opposed death . Federal law also provides that outcome . The first outcome is referred as the `` true unanimity '' rule , while the third has been criticized as the `` single - juror veto '' rule . In Alabama , the sentence is decided by the jury and at least 10 jurors must concur . A retrial happens if the jury deadlock . Nebraska is the only state in which the sentence is decided by a three - judge panel . If one of the judges on the panel opposes death , the defendant is sentenced to life imprisonment . Montana is the only state where the trial judge decides the sentence alone . In all states in which the jury is involved , only death - qualified veniremen can be selected in such a jury , to exclude both people who will always vote for the death sentence and those who are categorically opposed to it . References ( edit ) Wikiquote has quotations related to : Hung jury Jump up ^ `` Canada 's System of Justice : The Role of the Public '' . Department of Justice . 2015 - 05 - 07 . Jump up ^ `` Sections 29C and 29D -- Juries Act 1981 No 23 '' . Parliamentary Counsel Office . 1 July 2013 . Retrieved 20 September 2015 . Jump up ^ Section 22 ( 3 ) ( b ) -- Juries Act 1981 No 23 Jump up ^ Juries Act 1974 , subsection 17 ( 4 ) Jump up ^ Ministry of Justice Criminal Procedure Rules : Crown court practices : Majority verdicts Jump up ^ Criminal Procedure ( Scotland ) Act 1995 section 90 Jump up ^ http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/Geo5/23-24/41/section/11s Jump up ^ Rule 31 , Federal Rules of Criminal Procedure Jump up ^ `` Provisions of state and federal statutes concerning sentence if capital sentencing jury can not agree '' ( PDF ) . A. Parrent , Conn . Public Def . Retrieved March 15 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` SB 280 : Sentencing for Capital Felonies '' . flsenate.gov . Retrieved March 15 , 2017 . Jump up ^ See United States v. Perez , 1824 Jump up ^ `` Hurst v. Florida Remedial Legislation and SBP 7068 '' ( PDF ) . Retrieved May 1 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` SB 16 To amend Sections 13A - 5 - 45 , 13A - 5 - 46 , and 13A - 5 - 47 , Code of Alabama 1975 , relating to capital cases and to the determination of the sentence by courts ; to prohibit a court from overriding a jury verdict '' . legislature.state.al.us . Retrieved April 12 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` 2014 Nebraska Revised Statutes - Chapter 29 - CRIMINAL PROCEDURE - 29 - 2521 - Sentencing determination proceeding '' . law.justia.com . Retrieved April 16 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` 46 - 18 - 301 . Hearing on imposition of death penalty '' . leg.mt.gov . Retrieved April 16 , 2017 . ( hide ) Jury - related articles Primary articles Jury trial Coroner 's jury Grand jury ( Indictment ) Petit jury Jury instructions Specific finding Deliberation Hung jury Jury nullification Jury tampering Jury research Jury stress Jury selection Change of venue Death - qualified jury All - white jury Peremptory challenge Strike for cause Scientific jury selection Struck jury Specific jurisdictions Canada England and Wales Japan Scotland United States ( U.S. military ) Groups Fully Informed Jury Association Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hung_jury&oldid=798130155 '' Categories : Legal terminology Juries Hidden categories : All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from June 2016 All articles lacking sources Talk Contents About Wikipedia Wikiquote 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 31 August 2017 , at 04 : 58 . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply . 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-2088358219848335172

how did the horse latitudes get their name

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Horse_latitudes&oldid=826060451

Horse latitudes - wikipedia Horse latitudes Jump to : navigation , search It has been suggested that this article be merged with Subtropical ridge . ( Discuss ) Proposed since May 2017 . This article is about the geographical area . For other uses , see Horse latitudes ( disambiguation ) . A diagram showing the relative positions of the Horse latitudes Horse latitudes or subtropical highs are subtropical latitudes between 30 and 38 degrees both north and south where Earth 's atmosphere is dominated by the subtropical high , an area of high pressure , which suppresses precipitation and cloud formation , and has variable winds mixed with calm winds . The horse latitudes are associated with the subtropical anticyclone and the large - scale descent of air from high - altitude currents moving toward the poles . After reaching the earth 's surface , this air spreads toward the equator as part of the prevailing trade winds or toward the poles as part of the westerlies . The belt in the Northern Hemisphere is sometimes called the `` calms of Cancer '' and that in the Southern Hemisphere the `` calms of Capricorn '' . The consistently warm , dry , and sunny conditions of the horse latitudes are the main cause for the existence of the world 's major non-polar deserts , such as the Sahara Desert in Africa , the Arabian and Syrian deserts in the Middle East , the Mojave and Sonoran deserts in the southwestern United States and northern Mexico , all in the Northern Hemisphere ; and the Atacama Desert , the Kalahari Desert , and the Australian Desert in the Southern Hemisphere . Contents ( hide ) 1 Etymology 2 Cultural references 3 See also 4 References 5 Further reading Etymology ( edit ) A likely and documented explanation is that the term is derived from the `` dead horse '' ritual of seamen ( see Beating a dead horse ) . In this practice , the seaman paraded a straw - stuffed effigy of a horse around the deck before throwing it overboard . Seamen were paid partly in advance before a long voyage , and they frequently spent their pay all at once , resulting in a period of time without income . If they got advances from the ship 's paymaster , they would incur debt . This period was called the `` dead horse '' time , and it usually lasted a month or two . The seaman 's ceremony was to celebrate having worked off the `` dead horse '' debt . As west - bound shipping from Europe usually reached the subtropics at about the time the `` dead horse '' was worked off , the latitude became associated with the ceremony . An alternative theory , of sufficient popularity to serve as an example of folk etymology , is that the term horse latitudes originates from when the Spanish transported horses by ship to their colonies in the West Indies and Americas . Ships often became becalmed in mid-ocean in this latitude , thus severely prolonging the voyage ; the resulting water shortages made it impossible for the crew to keep the horses alive , and they would throw the dead or dying animals overboard . A third explanation , which simultaneously explains both the northern and southern horse latitudes and does not depend on the length of the voyage or the port of departure , is based on maritime terminology : a ship was said to be ' horsed ' when , although there was insufficient wind for sail , the vessel could make good progress by latching on to a strong current . This was suggested by Edward Taube in his article `` The Sense of `` Horse '' in the Horse Latitudes '' ( Journal of Geography , October 1967 ) . He argued the maritime use of ' horsed ' described a ship that was being carried along by an ocean current or tide in the manner of a rider on horseback . The term had been in use since the end of the seventeenth century . Furthermore , The India Directory in its entry for Fernando de Noronha , an island off the coast of Brazil , mentions it had been visited frequently by ships `` occasioned by the currents having horsed them to the westward '' . Cultural references ( edit ) `` Horse Latitudes , '' The Doors song , a spoken - word piece written by Jim Morrison , from their second album , Strange Days , ( 1967 ) , evokes the second explanation above . Morrison wrote the prose piece when he was 12 years old . See also ( edit ) Atmospheric circulation Circle of latitude Doldrums Intertropical Convergence Zone Roaring Forties Subtropical ridge References ( edit ) Jump up ^ Kemp , Peter . The Oxford Companion to Ships and the Sea , London , Oxford University Press , 1976 . pp. 233 , 399 Jump up ^ The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia , Sixth Edition . New York : Columbia University Press , 2003 Jump up ^ `` World Wide Words '' . 2008 . Jump up ^ Horsburgh , James ( 1836 ) . India Directory , or , Directions For Sailing To And From The East Indies , China , Australia , Cape of Good Hope , Brazil and the Interjacent Ports ... London : W.H. Allen . Further reading ( edit ) The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia , Sixth Edition . New York : Columbia University Press , 2003 . http://www.infoplease.com/encyclopedia/weather/horse-latitudes.html `` Horse Latitudes '' . Encyclopædia Britannica ( 11th ed . ) . 1911 . ( hide ) Circles of latitude / Meridians showing the Horse latitudes Equator Tropic of Cancer Tropic of Capricorn Arctic Circle Antarctic Circle Horse latitudes Horse latitudes Equator Tropic of Cancer Tropic of Capricorn Arctic Circle Antarctic Circle Horse latitudes Horse latitudes Equator Tropic of Cancer Tropic of Capricorn Arctic Circle Antarctic Circle Horse latitudes Horse latitudes W 0 ° E 30 ° 60 ° 90 ° 120 ° 150 ° 180 ° 30 ° 60 ° 90 ° 120 ° 150 ° 180 ° 5 ° 15 ° 25 ° 35 ° 45 ° 55 ° 65 ° 75 ° 85 ° 95 ° 105 ° 115 ° 125 ° 135 ° 145 ° 155 ° 165 ° 175 ° 5 ° 15 ° 25 ° 35 ° 45 ° 55 ° 65 ° 75 ° 85 ° 95 ° 105 ° 115 ° 125 ° 135 ° 145 ° 155 ° 165 ° 175 ° 10 ° 20 ° 40 ° 50 ° 70 ° 80 ° 100 ° 110 ° 130 ° 140 ° 160 ° 170 ° 10 ° 20 ° 40 ° 50 ° 70 ° 80 ° 100 ° 110 ° 130 ° 140 ° 160 ° 170 ° 0 ° 10 ° 20 ° 30 ° 40 ° 50 ° 60 ° 70 ° 80 ° 90 ° 10 ° 20 ° 30 ° 40 ° 50 ° 60 ° 70 ° 80 ° 90 ° 5 ° N 15 ° 25 ° 35 ° 45 ° 55 ° 65 ° 75 ° 85 ° 5 ° S 15 ° 25 ° 35 ° 45 ° 55 ° 65 ° 75 ° 85 ° 45x90 45x90 45x90 45x90 Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Horse_latitudes&oldid=826060451 '' Categories : Lines of latitude Age of Sail Hidden categories : Articles to be merged from May 2017 All articles to be merged Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Talk Contents About Wikipedia বাংলা Беларуская Català Čeština Deutsch Ελληνικά Español فارسی Français Lietuvių Bahasa Melayu Nederlands 日本 語 Norsk Norsk nynorsk Polski Português Русский Suomi Svenska Українська Tiếng Việt 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 16 February 2018 , at 23 : 37 . 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what part of london is the o2 arena in

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=The_O2&oldid=834322551

The O2 - Wikipedia The O2 Jump to : navigation , search This article is about the entertainment district incorporating the former Millennium Dome . For the indoor arena within it , see The O2 Arena . For other uses , see O2 . `` IndigO2 '' redirects here . For the Indigo2 workstation by Silicon Graphics , see SGI Indigo2 and Challenge M . Coordinates : 51 ° 30 ′ 10.14 '' N 0 ° 0 ′ 11.22 '' E  /  51.5028167 ° N 0.0031167 ° E  / 51.5028167 ; 0.0031167 `` The template Infobox building is being considered for merging . '' The O2 Former names Millennium Dome ( 2000 ) General information Type Entertainment venue Architectural style Dome Location Greenwich Peninsula London , SE10 United Kingdom Current tenants Anschutz Entertainment Group Europe ( sublet to Meridian Delta Ltd , a subsidiary of Trinity College , Cambridge ) Completed 31 December 1999 ; 18 years ago ( 1999 - 12 - 31 ) ( original usage ) Opening 24 June 2007 ; 10 years ago ( 2007 - 06 - 24 ) ( current usage ) Owner Homes and Communities Agency Height 52 m ( central point within canopy ) 100 m ( steel masts ) Diameter 365 m ( canopy overall ) 320 m ( internal canopy ) Technical details Structural system Steel , tensioned fabric Design and construction Architect Richard Rogers ( canopy ) Populous ( redeveloped interior ) Structural engineer BuroHappold Engineering Services engineer BuroHappold Engineering ( canopy ) M-E Engineers ( redeveloped interior ) Awards and prizes Royal Academy of Engineering MacRobert Award Website theo2.co.uk The O2 is a large entertainment district on the Greenwich peninsula in South East London , England , including an indoor arena , a music club , a Cineworld cinema , an exhibition space , piazzas , bars and restaurants . It was built largely within the former Millennium Dome , a large dome - shaped canopy built to house an exhibition celebrating the turn of the third millennium ; consequently The Dome remains a name in common usage for the venue . It is sometimes referred to as The O2 Arena , but that name properly refers to a smaller indoor arena within The O2 . Naming rights to the district were purchased by the mobile telephone provider O2 from its developers , Anschutz Entertainment Group ( AEG ) , during the development of the district . AEG owns the long - term lease on the O2 Arena and surrounding leisure space . From the closure of the original `` Millennium Experience '' exhibition occupying the site , several ways of reusing the Millennium Dome 's shell were proposed and then rejected . The renaming of the Dome in 2005 gave publicity to its transition into an entertainment district . The Dome 's shell remained in situ , but its interior and the area around North Greenwich Station , the QE2 pier and the main entrance area were completely redeveloped . The area is served by the Jubilee line 's North Greenwich tube station , which was opened just before the millennium exhibition , and by bus routes . Thames Clippers operate a river boat service for London River Services ; the present tenants , AEG , purchased Thames Clippers in order to provide river links between central London and The O2 . As well as a commuter service , Thames Clippers operates the O2 Express service . Local buses also serve the station and the nearby O2 . On 23 February 2017 , O2 announced that they had agreed a deal with AEG to maintain the naming rights of The O2 for a further ten years until 2027 . Contents ( hide ) 1 The Tent 2 Background to development 2.1 Construction 2.2 Super casino proposals 2.3 Future developments 3 Opening 4 Facilities 4.1 The O2 Arena 4.2 indigo at The O2 4.3 The O2 bubble 4.4 The Avenue 4.5 Up at The O2 4.6 Indoor events space 4.7 Outdoor events space 4.8 Brooklyn Bowl 5 Chronology of the site 6 Transport links 7 See also 8 Notes and references 9 External links The tent ( edit ) The dome - shaped structure , which now houses The O2 's Entertainment Avenue and arena , was originally constructed as the Millennium Dome and housed the Millennium Experience , a major exhibition to celebrate the start of the third millennium . The exhibition opened to the public on 1 January 2000 and ran until 31 December 2000 ; however , the project and exhibition was the subject of considerable political controversy and it did not attract the number of visitors anticipated , leading to recurring financial problems . In popular usage , the dome canopy is often still called The Dome , reflecting the substantial , and often adverse , publicity given to its building in the late 20th century . Background to development ( edit ) The O2 in 2004 , when it was the Millennium Dome The O2 was developed inside the dome structure by Anschutz Entertainment Group to a design by Populous and Buro Happold in a £ 600 million development . In December 2001 , it was announced that Meridian Delta , Ltd. had been chosen by the government to develop the Dome structure , originally the Millennium Dome , as a sports and entertainment centre , and to develop housing , shops and offices on 150 acres ( 0.6 km ) of surrounding land . It is also hoped to relocate some of London 's tertiary education establishments to the site . Meridian Delta is backed by the American billionaire Philip Anschutz , who has interests in oil , railways , and telecommunications , as well as a string of sports - related investments . Meridian Delta , a subsidiary of Quintain Estates and Development and Lend Lease , had signed a 999 - year lease for the Dome and its surrounding land with the government and English Partnerships , a UK governmental body for national regeneration which was assigned the regeneration of the Greenwich Peninsula . The Dome site was then sub-leased to Anshutz Entertainment Group ( AEG ) , who strongly support Meridian Delta , for a minimum of 58 years . English Partnerships leased the arena directly to AEG Europe for 58 years . AEG would develop and operate The O2 during the length of the lease agreements . The lease agreements were made in the agreement that the government would get a certain percentage of profits through English Partnerships . English Partnerships and Quintain Estates and Development both own land around The O2 on the Greenwich Peninsula . They will release land in stages , to developers , and develop the area in a joint venture with the aid of Meridian Delta . Some of the land is already being developed for offices and shops . Some of the land around the dome is being reserved for possible extended developments for The O2 , including a hotel , although the building of much of the extended development depends on how much investment can be made by AEG ( See below section about possible future developments for details ) . In 2008 , the functions of English Partnerships were transferred to the Homes and Communities Agency . Ravensbourne , a specialist art and design institution previously located in Chislehurst , moved to a new campus built immediately adjacent to The O2 in September 2010 . The David Beckham Academy football school ran nearby from 2005 to 2009 . The cost of developing the whole Greenwich Peninsula area was estimated at 4 billion pounds in 2006 . As part of the investment programme , naming rights were sold to O2 plc , and ' The O2 ' became the official name of the project on 25 May 2005 . The £ 6 million a year deal between O2 plc and AEG also included priority tickets and reserved VIP accommodation for O2 mobile customers . The service was also made available to premium ticket holders . O2 plc started talks with AEG in 2005 to have its logo and branding placed on the roof of the dome , but this has not yet been confirmed . Anschutz Entertainment Group have constantly stated that they wish to abolish its name as ' The Dome ' due to its bad reputation as a failed project , being tagged as ' The White Elephant . ' Since its opening , there have been signs of the press and public calling it The O2 . It is currently the largest entertainment district in London . To mark its opening , AEG spent £ 6.5 million on a mass advertising campaign , led by VCCP , throughout Europe to promote The O2 ; they are also partnered with and sponsored by ADT , AOL , NEC , Credit Suisse , InBev UK , BMW , Nestle , Pepsi Max and Vivitar . Construction ( edit ) The development took place in the form of new buildings being built inside the dome structure . The dome structure was not changed as part of the construction with the exception of blue lights being added to the support poles and plasma displays being added to some of the large sculptures around the dome . Construction started with the arena roof , which was built on the ground and then raised , as cranes could not be used in the dome structure . The construction then moved on to the arena building itself and the entertainment avenue around the arena building . A wide pathway between North Greenwich station and The O2 was also built , as well as the Peninsula Square piazza in front of the dome for special events . A glass roof was built over part of the pathway so that people can walk from the station to The O2 without getting wet in rain . A covered path was also built between the QE2 Pier and The O2 's main entrance . Buro Happold provided structural engineering for the project . The main civil engineering and construction contract for the development was awarded to Sir Robert McAlpine . Watson Steel Structures provided engineering for the 4500 tonne arena roof . M-E Engineers were the building services engineers for the project . T. Clarke were the electrical contractors . OR Consulting engineers set up a few interactive exhibitions within The O2 . Keller Ground engineering prepared the ground for construction . Special ground preparation was necessary due to the contaminated soils from the industrial works which existed at the site before the dome . Catalytic converters were also installed within the dome to prevent toxic gases due to the dome structure being left in place . The plant cylinders , containing services equipment , and some piles used for the original dome , were reused . Financial consulting was provided by WT Partnership and EC Harris . The Waterfront partnership provided legal support for the development and continues to do so for The O2 . Kerzner International helped with the development of the entertainment venues . Super casino proposals ( edit ) Anschutz planned to build a ' super casino ' as one of the attractions , as this would create a huge investment for the company and would allow for business opportunities and further developments of the area . The super casino was to be developed and operated by Kerzner International . The association of the British Deputy Prime Minister , John Prescott , with Philip Anschutz , head of the entertainment group , gave rise to serious political controversy in Britain with allegations that Prescott may have used undue influence to support Anschutz 's casino licence bid . Prescott had met with Anschutz on several occasions and even stayed in his ranch for a few days . They were further criticised when the structure for the super-casino had already been built . In January 2007 the single trial licence for a British super casino was granted to Manchester . Thus AEG announced that the casino will not be built in the near future , and that there would not be enough investment for a high - rise hotel , designed by Richard Rogers , as well as a theatre , a cable car from Canary Wharf and an extended development that was planned adjacent to the dome structure will not be built . AEG had previously stated that there was no alternative plan if the super casino could not be located in The O2 . However the space reserved for the super casino is still available for future developments . Future developments ( edit ) Nearly one - third of the ground floor of the dome awaits development in Phase II . A mezzanine level is also located on the western side of the dome in which AEG are still determined to locate a super casino . Alternatively , an attraction is required that would attract enough tourists who would wish to stay overnight and bring in sufficient investment to allow Phase II to proceed as well as the building of the planned hotel . It has been suggested that The O2 could be a cruise terminal as an alternative to a super casino , if the super casino were not possible . In late 2007 , Marine engineering consultancy , Beckett Rankine , were appointed to investigate the possibility of the cruise terminal being built . The remaining land around The O2 Entertainment District will be filled with shops and offices . Short term car parks are currently being built . In 2012 it was reported that the O2 would be sold by its owners , Anschutz Entertainment Group ( AEG ) , as part of the disposal of the entire company 's assets , rumoured to be valued around $7 billion . Opening ( edit ) The O2 in 2012 , with Canary Wharf in the background The venue , rebranded The O2 , was reopened to the public on 24 June 2007 with a concert by Bon Jovi in the arena . The O2 celebrated its first year with a book , including a double page picture of Elton John from his September 2007 Red Piano show . Prior to this reopening , other events took place , including a soft opening for residents of the area to explore the entertainment district and an opening for staff called `` The O2 Premiere '' which featured Peter Kay , Tom Jones , Kaiser Chiefs and Basement Jaxx . An event called `` Out of the Blue '' featuring circus acts also took place on the day of the public opening , as part of the Greenwich Festival . Facilities ( edit ) The O2 concourse . The arena entrance can be seen in the background . Designed by Jordan Parnass Digital Architecture . Various buildings are housed within the dome structure including an arena , known as The O2 arena , and an Entertainment Avenue consisting of various restaurants and bars . There is also a VIP club lounge , an operations room , a media centre with high definition facilities and a number of dressing rooms as well as a VIP entrance / exit for performers . All the venues in the complex use the latest lighting , sound and security technology , including RFID smart card tagging of staff and VIP guests , and digitally managed sound . There are four computer server rooms to provide this technology . The complex is also covered by CCTV and security personnel . Arena visitors and their bags are screened with X-ray machines and metal detectors at the main entrance . The O2 arena ( edit ) Main article : The O2 Arena ( London ) O2 Arena Hosting a Tennis Match Inside the O2 Arena The O2 Arena ( referred to as the North Greenwich Arena for the 2012 Summer Olympics and Paralympics ) is a 20,000 capacity venue , primarily used for live music . It is located at the centre of The O2 and is the first American - style , multi-purpose arena in London . It is the second largest arena in the UK after the Manchester Arena , but is the busiest music venue in the world . The arena and its facilities are housed in an independent building within the dome structure . The arena has hosted multiple kinds of music and sporting events and in 2008 exceeded ticket sales for both Madison Square Garden and the Manchester Arena . Indigo at the O2 ( edit ) Level 42 at indigo at The O2 `` indigo at The O2 '' is a 2,750 capacity live music club for smaller music events , club events , after shows , corporate and private events . It contains four bars : two on the main ground floor area in front of the stage , one in the VIP lounge called the Purple Lounge and one in the stalls , called Bleachers . The Purple Lounge is not in direct view of the stage , but guests have access to `` Kings Row '' , the best seats in the venue . indigo at The O2 is managed by Ansco Music Club limited ( the business name of the indigo part of AEG Live ) . The venue hosted `` An Audience with Bill Clinton '' in 2007 . Comedians such as Andy Parsons and Roy ' Chubby ' Brown have performed at indigo . Classic FM hosted several shows throughout 2008 . The venue hosted the ' bootcamp ' sessions for the reality TV show , The X Factor during the 2008 , Series 5 season , and in 2010 was used for the debut of the snooker format , Power Snooker . In 2012 it was the venue for a performance by South Korean pop rock band CN Blue . The O2 bubble ( edit ) The O2 Bubble is a two - storey bubble - shaped exhibition space built to museum standards , which opened in November 2007 . It is made from ETFE , the same material used for the Eden Project , and the bubble itself is reportedly based on the Eden Project . Tutankhamen and the Golden Age of the Pharaohs was the first exhibition in the Bubble and after that was Body Worlds . In October 2009 it was Michael Jackson : The Official Exhibition , a collection of Jackson 's personal items from his estate and Neverland Ranch , costumes and props from his tours and videos . In 2009 , the third floor of the bubble became an exhibition called the British Music Experience , a sixty - year retrospective of British popular music . It now hosts an Elvis exhibition . A London outlet of Brooklyn Bowl opened in 2014 on the ground floor . The Avenue ( edit ) The Entertainment Avenue The Entertainment Avenue is a wide pedestrian avenue within The O2 , with artificial palm trees and other decorations , built around the circular arena building which takes up the centre of the dome structure . The entertainment avenue has buildings on either side , which are leased to tenants who run bars and restaurants , and resembles a shopping centre . Entrance to Cineworld at the O2 The buildings on the Entertainment Avenue include a music club known as indigO2 , an exhibition space known as The O2 bubble , a cinema managed by Cineworld and 25 bars and restaurants . The cinema includes 11 screens over 2 levels including one 770 capacity auditorium ( Sky Super Screen ) which is the third largest screen , by screen - size , in London , and the sixth largest screen in the UK . It uses the vista ticketing system , where tickets can be purchased from any stall selling refreshments . Cineworld began operating the cinema , taking over from Vue in 2010 . Fast food outlets have been banned from the development as the theme is ' aspirational but accessible ' , trying to avoid it being seen as a shopping centre but more like Covent Garden . Up at the O2 ( edit ) Announced in 2011 , Up at The O2 officially opened on 21 June 2012 . It involves an expedition across the roof of The O2 along a 190m long tensile fabric walkway . Halfway , a central platform provides 360 degree views of the city , before a descent down to the base of the venue on the other side . From the platform , visitors can see the Olympic Park , Thames Barrier , Historic Royal Greenwich and Canary Wharf . Indoor events space ( edit ) The O2 also has one multi-purpose indoor events space for live music and night clubbing . Competing with other similar events spaces such as Brixton Academy , the club is called Building Six ( formerly Matter & Proud2 ) . The dance floor of Matter , since reopened as Proud2 Outdoor events space ( edit ) Special events or minor events which do not require or can not be held in the indoor venues are held in the piazzas -- The London Piazza , Peninsula Square outside the main entrance of The O2 , and the area around the main entrance . The London Piazza has featured an indoor beach , ice rink and dry ski slope . Brooklyn Bowl ( edit ) Brooklyn Bowl is a combined bowling alley and live music venue launched in the O2 . Chronology of the site ( edit ) 1994 : The Millennium Commission is established by prime minister John Major and handed over to deputy prime minister Michael Heseltine . January 1996 : A site on the Greenwich Peninsula is selected . Birmingham , Derby and Stratford , London were also considered . May 1999 : The Jubilee Line Extension opens , putting the dome on the London Underground . 22 June 1999 : The structure of the dome is completed . 1 January 2000 : The site opens to the public as the Millennium Dome , containing an exhibition to celebrate the third millennium . 31 December 2000 : The dome closes to the public . 27 February 2001 -- 2 March 2001 : One Amazing Auction Sale : Four - day public auction with 17,000 lots of Dome / NMEC items , managed by auctioneer Henry Butcher . 18 December 2001 : Announcement of sale of the site to Meridian Delta Ltd , who plan to turn it into a 20,000 - seat sports and entertainment venue . Houses and offices will be built on the surrounding land , subject to the consent of the London Borough of Greenwich . 6 December 2003 : Winter Wonderland 2003 opens . 31 May 2005 : Anschutz Entertainment Group sell the naming rights to the former Millennium Dome to O2 plc , a British mobile phone company . 23 June 2007 : The ' O2 premiere ' private event opens to staff . Peter Kay , Tom Jones , Kaiser Chiefs and Basement Jaxx perform . 24 June 2007 : The O2 opens to the public . Bon Jovi is the first band to play the new O2 Arena . 2 September 2007 : Disney channel 's High School Musical 2 premieres at The O2 ; it is the first movie to premiere at the venue . 10 December 2007 : Led Zeppelin play a reunion and tribute concert to Ahmet Ertegun . This concert is later released as an album and movie titled Celebration Day . 6 April 2008 : The Olympic torch relay passes The O2 . 7 June 2010 : Bon Jovi become the first band to play on the roof of The O2 to commemorate the beginning of their 12 - night residency in the arena . 21 June 2012 : Up at The O2 officially opened . Transport links ( edit ) Public transport access London Buses North Greenwich station 108 , 129 , 132 , 161 , 188 , 422 , 472 , 486 London Underground North Greenwich Emirates Air Line Emirates Greenwich Peninsula See also ( edit ) Tensile architecture Tensile structure Venues of the 2012 Summer Olympics and Paralympics Notes and references ( edit ) Jump up ^ `` 10 more years of The O2 '' . o2.co.uk. 23 February 2017 . Retrieved 7 August 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Justin Timberlake '' . Mycityoflondon.co.uk . Archived from the original on 17 October 2007 . Retrieved 27 October 2008 . Jump up ^ `` National Audit Office Report ( HC 178 , 2004 -- 05 ) : English Partnerships -- Regeneration of the Millennium Dome and Associated Land ( Full Report ) '' ( PDF ) . 10 Jan 2005 . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on 10 June 2007 . Retrieved 23 November 2008 . ^ Jump up to : Liam Allen ( 12 April 2006 ) . `` White elephant ' not forgotten ' '' . BBC NEWS . Retrieved 27 October 2008 . Jump up ^ `` Internet Archive Wayback Machine '' . Web.archive.org . Archived from the original on 24 October 2007 . Jump up ^ O2 press release Archived 27 December 2007 at the Wayback Machine . Jump up ^ `` Dome could be an O2 ' bubble ' '' . The Times . Jump up ^ Valentine Low ( 25 June 2007 ) . `` Bon Jovi blasts off at the O2 - News - Evening Standard '' . Thisislondon.co.uk . Archived from the original on 18 August 2011 . Jump up ^ `` Bon Jovi first to play O2 arena '' . BBC News . 12 April 2007 . Retrieved 27 October 2008 . Jump up ^ `` NBA.com -- Tickets Sold Out for Celtics vs. Timberwolves at the O2 Arena in London '' . Nba.com . Retrieved 27 October 2008 . Jump up ^ More for less ( 18 June 2007 ) . `` Branding the O2 : Welcome to the new Dome of entertainment '' . The Independent . UK . Archived from the original on 16 December 2007 . Retrieved 27 October 2008 . Jump up ^ `` Internet Archive Wayback Machine '' . Web.archive.org. 20 December 2007 . Archived from the original on 20 December 2007 . Jump up ^ `` Millennium Dome to become Europe 's largest entertainment zone : Entertainment '' . Earthtimes.org . Retrieved 27 October 2008 . Jump up ^ `` Press Releases Chime Communications '' . Web.archive.org. 26 September 2007 . Archived from the original on 26 September 2007 . ^ Jump up to : `` The O2 - About AEG '' . Web.archive.org. 11 November 2007 . Archived from the original on 11 November 2007 . Jump up ^ `` Sir Robert McAlpine Project Archive '' . Web.archive.org. 12 October 2007 . Archived from the original on 12 October 2007 . Jump up ^ `` Sir Robert McAlpine '' . Sir Robert McAlpine . Jump up ^ `` Market Sectors -- T. Clarke Corporate Website '' . Tclarke.co.uk . Retrieved 27 October 2008 . Jump up ^ `` New Temporary Exhibition Projects for OR Consulting Complete -- OR Consulting News '' . Orconsult.co.uk . Retrieved 27 October 2008 . ^ Jump up to : `` The Dome reborn -- Building '' . Building.co.uk . Retrieved 27 October 2008 . Jump up ^ `` Keller GE -- Keller Ground Engineering , Case Histories , soil nailing , slope stabilisation '' . Keller-ge.co.uk . Archived from the original on 8 June 2008 . Retrieved 27 October 2008 . ^ Jump up to : `` General Purposes Committee '' ( PDF ) . Retrieved 27 October 2008 . ^ Jump up to : `` Greenwich Peninsula Partnership Forum '' . Gold.ac.uk . Retrieved 27 October 2008 . Jump up ^ `` Prescott ' broke ministers ' rules ' '' . BBC News . 21 July 2006 . Retrieved 31 January 2007 . Jump up ^ `` Super-casino talks get under way -- News -- Manchester Evening News '' . Manchestereveningnews.co.uk . Retrieved 27 October 2008 . Jump up ^ `` Will the Dome clouds lift at last ? '' . The Daily Telegraph . London . 17 June 2007 . Archived from the original on 19 June 2007 . Retrieved 25 May 2010 . Jump up ^ Cruise ships could berth at dome for Olympics -- Times Online Jump up ^ `` Beckett Rankine -- O2 Cruise Terminal '' . Beckettrankine.com . Retrieved 27 October 2008 . Jump up ^ Hobson , Sophie ( 20 September 2012 ) . `` The O2 goes up for sale '' . London Loves Business . Retrieved 5 February 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Bon Jovi open new O2 venue '' . Inthenews.co.uk . Archived from the original on 24 November 2010 . Jump up ^ `` The Dome puts IT at the top '' . Computing. 28 June 2007 . Jump up ^ BBC News http://news.bbc.co.uk/media/avdb/news/science_nature/video/101000/bb/101570_16x9_bb.asx . Missing or empty title = ( help ) Jump up ^ `` -- Dome 's hi - tech refit for The O2 '' . BBC News . 21 June 2007 . Jump up ^ `` The O2 -- Venue Access '' . Theo2.co.uk . Retrieved 27 October 2008 . Jump up ^ `` The O2 -- Health & Safety '' . Theo2.co.uk . Retrieved 27 October 2008 . Jump up ^ White , Dominic ( 15 April 2008 ) . `` The Lemon Dome That was Transformed into O2 's Concert Crown '' . The Daily Telegraph . Retrieved 7 May 2011 Jump up ^ `` Power Snooker '' . Archived from the original on 26 July 2010 . Retrieved 24 July 2010 . Jump up ^ Hong , Grace Danbi ( 24 September 2012 ) . `` CN Blue Showered with Success at London Concert '' . enewsWorld . CJ E&M . Retrieved 2 March 2013 . Jump up ^ `` BBC NEWS , In Pictures , In pictures : Dome development '' . News.bbc.co.uk . Last Updated : . Retrieved 27 October 2008 . Check date values in : date = ( help ) Jump up ^ `` The O2 -- The O2 bubble '' . Theo2.co.uk . Archived from the original on 17 December 2007 . Retrieved 27 October 2008 . Jump up ^ `` O2 -- Why Sponsor ? '' . Retrieved 2 June 2008 . Jump up ^ `` The O2 - Events & Conferencing '' . Web.archive.org. 7 November 2007 . Archived from the original on 7 November 2007 . Jump up ^ `` Cineworld to operate O2 multiplex Digital Look '' . Finance.digitallook.com. 25 June 2010 . Jump up ^ Wallop , Harry ( 31 January 2007 ) . `` The Dome misses out '' . Daily Telegraph . UK . Retrieved 22 June 2007 . Jump up ^ More for less ( 18 June 2007 ) . `` Branding the O2 : Welcome to the new Dome of entertainment -- Media , News -- Independent.co.uk '' . The Independent . UK . Archived from the original on 16 December 2007 . Retrieved 27 October 2008 . Jump up ^ `` The O2 Roofwalk given the green light '' . AEG. 29 Jul 2011 . Retrieved 16 Nov 2011 . Jump up ^ `` The O2 -- Special Events '' . Web.archive.org. 22 January 2008 . Archived from the original on 18 December 2007 . Jump up ^ `` Fans attend musical film premiere '' . BBC News . 2 September 2007 . Retrieved 25 May 2010 . Jump up ^ Blake , Heidi ( 7 June 2010 ) . `` Bon Jovi play on O2 Arena roof '' . The Daily Telegraph . Archived from the original on 11 January 2011 . Retrieved 11 January 2011 . External links ( edit ) Wikimedia Commons has media related to The O2 . The O2 -- official site The O2 Floor plan Detailed report of the dome and Greenwich Peninsula regeneration scheme published by the National Audit Office The Millennium Dome at Structurae Greenwich MM -- MEX -- The Dome -- The O2 On - going site that documents the run up to the MEX and , now , to The O2 ( hide ) Venues branded by O2 Current : London ( Arena ) Prague Previous : Berlin Dublin Hamburg Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=The_O2&oldid=834322551 '' Categories : Buildings and structures in the Royal Borough of Greenwich Tensile membrane structures Buildings and structures celebrating the third millennium Richard Rogers buildings Domes Music venues in London Redevelopment projects in London Entertainment districts in the United Kingdom Tourist attractions in the Royal Borough of Greenwich Squash venues O2 ( United Kingdom ) Darts venues Hidden categories : Webarchive template wayback links Pages with citations lacking titles Pages with citations having bare URLs CS1 errors : dates Use British English from May 2011 Use dmy dates from August 2012 Coordinates on Wikidata All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from March 2016 Official website different in Wikidata and Wikipedia Structurae ID not in Wikidata Talk Contents About Wikipedia Deutsch Español 한국어 Italiano Magyar Nederlands 日本 語 Norsk Slovenčina Suomi Svenska 4 more Edit links This page was last edited on 5 April 2018 , at 02 : 29 . 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how does myelin sheath help the nervous system

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Myelin&oldid=827393090

Myelin - wikipedia Myelin Jump to : navigation , search Structure of a typical neuron Myelin sheath Dendrite Soma Axon Nucleus Node of Ranvier Axon terminal Schwann cell Myelin sheath Myelin is a fatty white substance that surrounds the axon of some nerve cells , forming an electrically insulating layer . It is essential for the proper functioning of the nervous system . It is an outgrowth of a type of glial cell . The production of the myelin sheath is called myelination or myelinogenesis . In humans , myelination begins early in the 3rd trimester , although little myelin exists in the brain at the time of birth . During infancy , myelination occurs quickly , leading to a child 's fast development , including crawling and walking in the first year . Myelination continues through the adolescent stage of life . Schwann cells supply the myelin for the peripheral nervous system , whereas oligodendrocytes , specifically of the interfascicular type , myelinate the axons of the central nervous system . Myelin is considered a defining characteristic of the ( gnathostome ) vertebrates , but myelin - like sheaths have also been seen in some invertebrates , although they are quite different from vertebrate myelin at molecular level . Myelin was discovered in 1854 by Rudolf Virchow . Contents ( hide ) 1 Composition 2 Function 3 Disorders 3.1 Demyelination 3.1. 1 Symptoms 3.1. 2 Myelin repair 3.2 Dysmyelination 4 Invertebrate myelin 5 See also 6 References 7 External links Composition ( edit ) Transmission electron micrograph of a cross-section of a myelinated axon , generated at the Electron Microscopy Facility at Trinity College , Hartford CT Myelin comprises different cell types and varies in chemical composition and configuration but performs the same insulating function . Myelinated axons are white ; hence , the `` white matter '' of the brain . Myelin insulates axons from electrically charged atoms and molecules . These charged particles ( ions ) are found in the fluid surrounding the entire nervous system . Under a microscope , myelin looks like strings of sausages . Cholesterol is an essential component of myelin , which comprises about 40 % water ; the dry mass comprises between 60 % and 75 % lipids and between 15 % and 25 % proteins . Myelin basic protein ( MBP ) constitutes ~ 23 % of myelin protein , myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein , and proteolipid protein ( PLP , which makes up ~ 50 % of myelin protein ) . The primary lipid of myelin is a glycolipid called galactocerebroside . The intertwining hydrocarbon chains of sphingomyelin strengthen the myelin sheath . In brain , the myelin sheath covers the fibers of the corpus callosum , which constitute the inner part of the cerebral hemisphere . Function ( edit ) Action potential propagation in myelinated neurons is faster than in unmyelinated neurons because of Saltatory conduction . Cross section of a myelinated axon 1 . Axon 2 . Nucleus of Schwann Cell 3 . Schwann Cell 4 . Myelin Sheath 5 . Neurilemma The main purpose of a myelin sheath is to increase the speed at which impulses propagate along the myelinated fiber . Along unmyelinated fibers , impulses continuously move as waves , but , in myelinated fibers , they `` hop '' or propagate by saltatory conduction . Myelin decreases capacitance and increases electrical resistance across the cell membrane ( the axolemma ) . Thus , myelination prevents the electric current from leaving the axon . It has been suggested that myelin permits larger body size by maintaining agile communication between distant body parts . Myelinated fibers lack voltage - gated ion channels ( approximately 25 μm ) along the myelinated internodes , exposing them only at the nodes of Ranvier . Here , they are found far more abundantly ( between 2,000 and 12,000 μm ) . Myelinated fibers succeed in reducing sodium leakage into the extracellular fluid ( ECF ) , maintaining a strong separation of charge between the intracellular fluid ( ICF ) and the ECF . This increases sodium 's ability to travel along the axon more freely . However , the sodium diffuses along the axolemma rapidly , but is decremental by nature . The sodium can not trigger the opening of the voltage - gated sodium channels as it becomes weaker . The nodes of Ranvier , being exposed to the ECF every 1 mm or so , contain large amounts of voltage - gated sodium channels , and allow enough sodium into the axon to regenerate the action potential . Each time the action potential reaches a node of Ranvier , it is restored to its original action potential ( + 35 mV ) . When a peripheral fiber is severed , the myelin sheath provides a track along which regrowth can occur . However , the myelin layer does not ensure a perfect regeneration of the nerve fiber . Some regenerated nerve fibers do not find the correct muscle fibers , and some damaged motor neurons of the peripheral nervous system die without regrowth . Damage to the myelin sheath and nerve fiber is often associated with increased functional insufficiency . Unmyelinated fibers and myelinated axons of the mammalian central nervous system do not regenerate . Some studies have revealed that optic nerve fibers can be regenerated in postnatal rats . This regeneration depends upon two conditions : axonal die - back has to be prevented with appropriate neurotrophic factors , and neurite growth inhibitory components have to be inactivated . These studies may lead to further understanding of nerve fiber regeneration in the central nervous system . Disorders ( edit ) Demyelination ( edit ) Further information : Demyelinating disease Demyelination is the loss of the myelin sheath insulating the nerves , and is the hallmark of some neurodegenerative autoimmune diseases , including multiple sclerosis , acute disseminated encephalomyelitis , neuromyelitis optica , transverse myelitis , chronic inflammatory demyelinating polyneuropathy , Guillain -- Barré syndrome , central pontine myelinosis , inherited demyelinating diseases such as leukodystrophy , and Charcot - Marie - Tooth disease . Sufferers of pernicious anaemia can also suffer nerve damage if the condition is not diagnosed quickly . Subacute combined degeneration of spinal cord secondary to pernicious anaemia can lead to slight peripheral nerve damage to severe damage to the central nervous system , affecting speech , balance , and cognitive awareness . When myelin degrades , conduction of signals along the nerve can be impaired or lost , and the nerve eventually withers . A more serious case of myelin deterioration is called Canavan disease . The immune system may play a role in demyelination associated with such diseases , including inflammation causing demyelination by overproduction of cytokines via upregulation of tumor necrosis factor or interferon . Symptoms ( edit ) Demyelination results in diverse symptoms determined by the functions of the affected neurons . It disrupts signals between the brain and other parts of the body ; symptoms differ from patient to patient , and have different presentations upon clinical observation and in laboratory studies . Typical symptoms include : blurriness in the central visual field that affects only one eye , may be accompanied by pain upon eye movement double vision loss of vision / hearing odd sensation in legs , arms , chest , or face , such as tingling or numbness ( neuropathy ) weakness of arms or legs cognitive disruption , including speech impairment and memory loss heat sensitivity ( symptoms worsen or reappear upon exposure to heat , such as a hot shower ) loss of dexterity difficulty coordinating movement or balance disorder difficulty controlling bowel movements or urination fatigue tinnitus Myelin repair ( edit ) Research to repair damaged myelin sheaths is ongoing . Techniques include surgically implanting oligodendrocyte precursor cells in the central nervous system and inducing myelin repair with certain antibodies . While results in mice have been encouraging ( via stem cell transplantation ) , whether this technique can be effective in replacing myelin loss in humans is still unknown . Cholinergic treatments , such as acetylcholinesterase inhibitors ( AChEIs ) , may have beneficial effects on myelination , myelin repair , and myelin integrity . Increasing cholinergic stimulation also may act through subtle trophic effects on brain developmental processes and particularly on oligodendrocytes and the lifelong myelination process they support . By increasing oligodendrocyte cholinergic stimulation , AChEIs , and other cholinergic treatments , such as nicotine , possibly could promote myelination during development and myelin repair in older age . Glycogen synthase kinase 3β inhibitors such as lithium chloride have been found to promote myelination in mice with damaged facial nerves . Cholesterol is a necessary nutrient for the myelin sheath . Dysmyelination ( edit ) Dysmyelination is characterized by a defective structure and function of myelin sheaths ; unlike demyelination , it does not produce lesions . Such defective sheaths often arise from genetic mutations affecting the biosynthesis and formation of myelin . The shiverer mouse represents one animal model of dysmyelination . Human diseases where dysmyelination has been implicated include leukodystrophies ( Pelizaeus -- Merzbacher disease , Canavan disease , phenylketonuria ) and schizophrenia . Invertebrate myelin ( edit ) Functionally equivalent myelin - like sheaths are found in several invertebrate taxa including Oligochaete , Penaeid , Palaemonid , and Calanoids . These myelin - like sheaths share several structural features with the sheaths found in vertebrates including multiplicity of membranes , condensation of membrane , and nodes . However , the nodes in vertebrates are annular ; i.e. they encircle the axon . In contrast , nodes found in the sheaths of invertebrates are either annular or fenestrated ; i.e. they are restricted to `` spots . '' It is notable that the fastest recorded conduction speed ( across both vertebrates and invertebrates ) is found in the ensheathed axons of the Kuruma shrimp , an invertebrate , ranging between 90 and 200 m / s ( cf 100 - 120 m / s for the fastest myelinated vertebrate axon . ) See also ( edit ) The Myelin Project , project to regenerate myelin Myelin Repair Foundation , a nonprofit medical research foundation for multiple sclerosis drug discovery . Myelin protein zero References ( edit ) Jump up ^ `` Pediatric Neurologic Examination Videos & Descriptions : Developmental Anatomy '' . library.med.utah.edu . Retrieved 2016 - 08 - 20 . ^ Jump up to : Hartline Daniel K ( 2008 ) . `` What is myelin ? '' . Neuron Glia Biology . 4 : 153 -- 163 . doi : 10.1017 / S1740925X09990263 . ^ Jump up to : J.L. Salzer ; B. Zalc ( 24 October 2016 ) . `` Myelination '' . Current Biology . 26 ( 20 ) : R971 -- R975 . doi : 10.1016 / j. cub. 2016.07. 074 . Jump up ^ Virchow R ( 1854 ) . `` Über das ausgebreitete Vorkommen einer dem Nervenmark analogen Substanz in den tierischen Geweben '' . Archiv für pathologische Anatomie und Physiologie und für klinische Medizin ( in German ) . 6 ( 4 ) : 562 -- 72 . doi : 10.1007 / BF02116709 . Jump up ^ Gesine Saher ; Britta Brügger ; Corinna Lappe - Siefke ; Wiebke Möbius ; Ryu - ichi Tozawa ; Michael C Wehr ; Felix Wieland ; Shun Ishibashi ; Klaus - Armin Nave ( March 2005 ) . `` High cholesterol level is essential for myelin membrane growth '' . Nature Neuroscience. 8 : 468 -- 475 . doi : 10.1038 / nn1426 . Jump up ^ Steinman , Lawrence ( May 3 , 1996 ) . `` Multiple Sclerosis : A Coordinated Immunological Attack against Myelin in the Central Nervous System '' . Cell. 85 : 299 -- 302 . doi : 10.1016 / S0092 - 8674 ( 00 ) 81107 - 1 . PMID 8616884 . Retrieved 2016 - 02 - 03 . Jump up ^ Mallucci , Giulia ; Peruzzotti - Jametti , Luca ; Bernstock , Joshua D. ; Pluchino , Stefano ( 2015 - 04 - 01 ) . `` The role of immune cells , glia and neurons in white and gray matter pathology in multiple sclerosis '' . Progress in Neurobiology. 127 -- 128 : 1 -- 22 . doi : 10.1016 / j. pneurobio. 2015.02. 003 . PMC 4578232 . PMID 25802011 . ^ Jump up to : Saladin , Kenneth S ... Anatomy & physiology : the unity of form and function . 6th ed . New York , NY : McGraw - Hill , 2012 . Print . Jump up ^ Siegel GJ , Agranoff BW , Albers RW , et al. , editors . Basic Neurochemistry : Molecular , Cellular and Medical Aspects . 6th edition . Philadelphia : Lippincott - Raven ; 1999 . Available from : https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK20385/ Jump up ^ Ledeen RW , Chakraborty G ( March 1998 ) . `` Cytokines , signal transduction , and inflammatory demyelination : review and hypothesis '' . Neurochem . Res. 23 ( 3 ) : 277 -- 89 . doi : 10.1023 / A : 1022493013904 . PMID 9482240 . Jump up ^ Mayo Clinic 2007 and University of Leicester Clinical Studies , 2014 Jump up ^ Windrem MS , Nunes MC , Rashbaum WK , Schwartz TH , Goodman RA , McKhann G , Roy NS , Goldman SA ( January 2004 ) . `` Fetal and adult human oligodendrocyte progenitor cell isolates myelinate the congenitally dysmyelinated brain '' . Nat . Med. 10 ( 1 ) : 93 -- 7 . doi : 10.1038 / nm974 . PMID 14702638 . Lay summary -- www.futurepundit.com . Jump up ^ Bartzokis G ( August 2007 ) . `` Acetylcholinesterase inhibitors may improve myelin integrity '' . Biol. Psychiatry . 62 ( 4 ) : 294 -- 301 . doi : 10.1016 / j. biopsych. 2006.08. 020 . PMID 17070782 . Jump up ^ Makoukji J , Belle M , Meffre D , Stassart R , Grenier J , Shackleford G , Fledrich R , Fonte C , Branchu J , Goulard M , de Waele C , Charbonnier F , Sereda MW , Baulieu EE , Schumacher M , Bernard S , Massaad C ( March 2012 ) . `` Lithium enhances remyelination of peripheral nerves '' . Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 109 ( 10 ) : 3973 -- 8 . doi : 10.1073 / pnas. 1121367109 . PMC 3309729 . PMID 22355115 . Jump up ^ Krämer - Albers EM , Gehrig - Burger K , Thiele C , Trotter J , Nave KA ( November 2006 ) . `` Perturbed interactions of mutant proteolipid protein / DM20 with cholesterol and lipid rafts in oligodendroglia : implications for dysmyelination in spastic paraplegia '' . J. Neurosci. 26 ( 45 ) : 11743 -- 52 . doi : 10.1523 / JNEUROSCI. 3581 - 06.2006 . PMID 17093095 . Jump up ^ Matalon R , Michals - Matalon K , Surendran S , Tyring SK ( 2006 ) . `` Canavan disease : studies on the knockout mouse '' . Adv . Exp . Med. Biol. Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology . 576 : 77 -- 93 ; discussion 361 -- 3 . doi : 10.1007 / 0 - 387 - 30172 - 0_6 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 387 - 30171 - 6 . PMID 16802706 . Jump up ^ Tkachev D , Mimmack ML , Huffaker SJ , Ryan M , Bahn S ( August 2007 ) . `` Further evidence for altered myelin biosynthesis and glutamatergic dysfunction in schizophrenia '' . Int. J. Neuropsychopharmacol. 10 ( 4 ) : 557 -- 63 . doi : 10.1017 / S1461145706007334 . PMID 17291371 . External links ( edit ) The Myelin Project Athabasca University Biological Psychology Website The MS Information Sourcebook , Myelin The Myelin Repair Foundation H & E Histology Luxol Fast Blue : Modified Kluver 's Method to stain for Myelin Sheath Radiology and Pathology of Myelin the MedPix Medical Image Database ( 1 ) Archives of Neurology American Society for Neurochemistry Nervous tissue CNS Tissue Types Grey matter White matter Projection fibers Association fiber Commissural fiber Lemniscus Funiculus Fasciculus Nerve tract Decussation Commissure Neuropil Meninges Cell Types Neuronal Pyramidal Purkinje Granule Glial insulating : Myelination : Oligodendrocyte other Astrocyte Radial glial cell Ependymal cells Tanycyte Microglia PNS General Dorsal Root Ganglion Ramus Ventral Root Ramus Ramus communicans Gray White Autonomic ganglion ( Preganglionic nerve fibers Postganglionic nerve fibers ) Connective tissues Epineurium Perineurium Endoneurium Nerve fascicle Neuroglia Myelination : Schwann cell Neurilemma Myelin incisure Node of Ranvier Internodal segment Satellite glial cell Neurons / nerve fibers Parts Soma Axon hillock Axon Telodendron Axon terminals Axoplasm Axolemma Neurofibril / neurofilament Dendrite Nissl body Dendritic spine Apical dendrite / Basal dendrite Types Bipolar Unipolar Pseudounipolar Multipolar Interneuron Renshaw Afferent nerve fiber / Sensory neuron GSA GVA SSA SVA fibers Ia or Aα Ib or Golgi or Aα II or Aβ and Aγ III or Aδ or fast pain IV or C or slow pain Efferent nerve fiber / Motor neuron GSE GVE SVE Upper motor neuron Lower motor neuron α motorneuron β motorneuron γ motorneuron Termination Synapse Electrical synapse / Gap junction Chemical synapse Synaptic vesicle Active zone Postsynaptic density Autapse Ribbon synapse Neuromuscular junction Sensory receptors Meissner 's corpuscle Merkel nerve ending Pacinian corpuscle Ruffini ending Muscle spindle Free nerve ending Nociceptor Olfactory receptor neuron Photoreceptor cell Hair cell Taste bud Structures of the cell membrane Membrane lipids Lipid bilayer Phospholipids Proteolipids Sphingolipids Sterols Membrane proteins Membrane glycoproteins Integral membrane proteins / transmembrane protein Peripheral membrane protein / Lipid - anchored protein Other Caveolae / Coated pits Cell junctions Glycocalyx Lipid raft / microdomains Membrane contact sites Membrane nanotubes Myelin sheath Nodes of Ranvier Nuclear envelope Phycobilisomes Porosomes Protein : cell membrane proteins ( other than Cell surface receptor , enzymes , and cytoskeleton ) Arrestin SAG ARRB1 ARRB2 ARR3 Membrane - spanning 4A MS4A1 MS4A2 MS4A3 MS4A4A MS4A4E MS4A5 MS4A6A MS4A6E MS4A7 MS4A8B MS4A9 MS4A10 MS4A12 MS4A13 MS4A14 MS4A15 MS4A18 Myelin Myelin basic protein PMP2 Myelin proteolipid protein PLP1 Myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein Myelin - associated glycoprotein Myelin protein zero Pulmonary surfactant Pulmonary surfactant - associated protein B Pulmonary surfactant - associated protein C Tetraspanin TSPAN1 TSPAN2 TSPAN3 TSPAN4 TSPAN5 TSPAN6 TSPAN7 TSPAN8 TSPAN9 TSPAN10 TSPAN11 TSPAN12 TSPAN13 TSPAN14 TSPAN15 TSPAN16 TSPAN17 TSPAN18 TSPAN19 TSPAN20 TSPAN21 TSPAN22 TSPAN23 TSPAN24 TSPAN25 TSPAN26 TSPAN27 TSPAN28 TSPAN29 TSPAN30 TSPAN31 TSPAN32 TSPAN33 TSPAN34 Other / ungrouped Calnexin LDL - receptor - related protein - associated protein Neurofibromin 2 Presenilin PSEN1 PSEN2 HFE Phospholipid transfer proteins Dysferlin STRC OTOF see also other cell membrane protein disorders Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Myelin&oldid=827393090 '' Categories : Neurohistology Hidden categories : CS1 German - language sources ( de ) All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from May 2011 Wikipedia articles needing clarification from April 2014 Talk Contents About Wikipedia Afrikaans Български Bosanski Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Euskara فارسی Français Gaeilge Galego 한국어 Հայերեն Ido Íslenska עברית Magyar മലയാളം Nederlands Norsk Norsk nynorsk Occitan Português Română Русский Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina کوردی Suomi Svenska ไทย Türkçe Українська 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 24 February 2018 , at 13 : 35 . About Wikipedia

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which sport awards the oldest trophy in international sports

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=America%27s_Cup&oldid=798029343

America 's Cup - wikipedia America 's Cup Jump to : navigation , search This article is about the international yachting trophy . For other uses , see America 's Cup ( disambiguation ) . For the recent race , see 2017 America 's Cup . America 's Cup The America 's Cup ewer Sport Sailing match race Founded 1851 Most recent champion ( s ) Royal New Zealand Yacht Squadron Most titles New York Yacht Club ( 25 titles ) Official website AmericasCup.com The America 's Cup , affectionately known as the `` Auld Mug '' , is a trophy awarded to the winner of the America 's Cup match races between two sailing yachts . One yacht , known as the defender , represents the yacht club that currently holds the America 's Cup and the second yacht , known as the challenger , represents the yacht club that is challenging for the cup . The timing of each match is determined by an agreement between the defender and the challenger . The America 's Cup is the oldest international sporting trophy . It will next be raced for in the southern summer , in the early part of 2021 . The cup was originally awarded in 1851 by the Royal Yacht Squadron for a race around the Isle of Wight in England , which was won by the schooner America . The trophy , originally named the ' £ 100 Cup ' , was renamed the America 's Cup after the yacht and was donated to the New York Yacht Club ( NYYC ) under the terms of the Deed of Gift , which made the cup available for perpetual international competition . Any yacht club that meets the requirements specified in the deed of gift has the right to challenge the yacht club that holds the cup . If the challenging club wins the match , it gains stewardship of the cup . The history and prestige associated with the America 's Cup attracts not only the world 's top sailors and yacht designers but also the involvement of wealthy entrepreneurs and sponsors . It is a test not only of sailing skill and boat and sail design , but also of fundraising and management skills . The trophy was held by the NYYC from 1857 ( when the syndicate that won the cup donated the trophy to the club ) until 1983 . The NYYC successfully defended the trophy twenty - four times in a row before being defeated by the Royal Perth Yacht Club , represented by the yacht Australia II . The NYYC 's reign was the longest winning streak ( in terms of date ) in the history of all sports . From the first defense of the cup in 1870 through the twentieth defense in 1967 , there was always only one challenger . In 1970 , for the first time , there were multiple challengers , so the NYYC agreed that the challengers could run a selection series with the winner becoming the official challenger and competing against the defender in the America 's Cup match . Since 1983 , Louis Vuitton has sponsored the Louis Vuitton Cup as a prize for the winner of the challenger selection series . Early matches for the cup were raced between yachts 65 -- 90 ft ( 20 -- 27 m ) on the waterline owned by wealthy sportsmen . This culminated with the J - Class regattas of the 1930s . After World War II and almost twenty years without a challenge , the NYYC made changes to the deed of gift to allow smaller , less expensive 12 - metre class yachts to compete ; this class was used until it was replaced in 1990 by the International America 's Cup Class which was used until 2007 . After a long legal battle , the 2010 America 's Cup was raced in 90 ft ( 27 m ) lwl multihull yachts in a best of three `` deed of gift '' match in Valencia , Spain . The victorious Golden Gate Yacht Club then elected to race the 2013 America 's Cup in AC72 foiling , wing - sail catamarans . Golden Gate Yacht Club successfully defended the cup . The 35th America 's Cup match was announced to be sailed in 50 ft foiling catamarans . The history of the America 's Cup has included legal battles and disputes over rule changes including most recently over the rule changes for the 2017 America 's Cup . The America 's Cup is currently held by the Royal New Zealand Yacht Squadron , who will defend the Cup in the 36th time . Contents ( hide ) 1 History 1.1 1851 : America wins the Cup 1.2 1870 -- 1881 : First challenges 1.3 1885 -- 1887 : The NYYC Rule 1.4 1889 -- 1903 : The Seawanhaka Rule 1.5 1914 -- 1937 : The Universal Rule 1.6 1956 -- 1987 : The Twelve - Metre Rule 1.6. 1 1962 -- 1983 : The Australian challengers 1.6. 2 1983 : Australia II wins the Cup 1.6. 3 1987 : Technology and professionalism are increasingly important 1.7 1988 : The Mercury Bay Challenge 1.8 1992 -- 2007 : The IACC rule 1.9 2010 : The Golden Gate Challenge 1.10 2013 : The AC72 rule 1.11 2017 America 's Cup 1.12 2021 America 's Cup 2 Challengers and Defenders 3 All - time finals records of Clubs that have won the Cup 4 In the media 5 See also 6 Notes 7 References 8 External links History ( edit ) The Yacht `` America '' Winning the International Race , by Fitz Henry Lane , 1851 The Cup is an ornate sterling silver bottomless ewer crafted in 1848 by Garrard & Co . Henry William Paget , 1st Marquess of Anglesey bought one and donated it for the Royal Yacht Squadron 's 1851 Annual Regatta around the Isle of Wight . It was originally known as the `` R.Y.S. £ 100 Cup '' , standing for a cup of a hundred GB Pounds or `` sovereigns '' in value . The cup was subsequently mistakenly engraved as the `` 100 Guinea Cup '' by the America syndicate , but was also referred to as the `` Queen 's Cup '' ( a guinea is an old monetary unit of one pound and one shilling , now £ 1.05 ) . Today , the trophy is officially known as the `` America 's Cup '' after the 1851 winning yacht , and is affectionately called the `` Auld Mug '' by the sailing community . It is inscribed with names of the yachts that competed for it , and has been modified twice by adding matching bases to accommodate more names . 1851 : America wins the Cup ( edit ) Main article : 1851 America 's Cup In 1851 Commodore John Cox Stevens , a charter member of the fledgling New York Yacht Club ( NYYC ) , formed a six - person syndicate to build a yacht with intention of taking her to England and making some money competing in yachting regattas and match races . The syndicate contracted with pilot boat designer George Steers for a 101 ft ( 30.78 m ) schooner , which was christened America and launched on 3 May 1851 . On 22 August 1851 , America raced against 15 yachts of the Royal Yacht Squadron in the Club 's annual 53 - nautical - mile ( 98 km ) regatta around the Isle of Wight . America won , finishing 8 minutes ahead of the closest rival . Apocryphally , Queen Victoria , who was watching at the finish line , was reported to have asked who was second , the famous answer being : `` Ah , Your Majesty , there is no second . '' The surviving members of the America syndicate donated the cup via the Deed of Gift of the America 's Cup to the NYYC on 8 July 1857 , specifying that it be held in trust as a perpetual challenge trophy to promote friendly competition among nations . 1870 -- 1881 : first challenges ( edit ) Defender Columbia , 1871 No challenge to race for the Cup was issued until British railway tycoon James Lloyd Ashbury 's topsail schooner Cambria ( 188 tons , 1868 design ) beat the Yankee schooner Sappho ( 274.4 tons , 1867 design ) in the Solent in 1868 . This success encouraged the Royal Thames Yacht Club in believing that the cup could be brought back home , and officially placed the first challenge in 1870 . Ashbury entered Cambria in the NYYC Queen 's Cup race in New York City on 8 August against a fleet of seventeen schooners , with time allowed based on their tonnage . The Cambria only placed eighth , behind the aging America ( 178.6 tons , 1851 ) in fourth place and Franklin Osgood 's Magic ( 92.2 tons , 1857 ) in the fleet 's lead . Trying again , Ashbury offered a best - of - seven match race challenge for October 1871 , which the NYYC accepted provided a defending yacht could be chosen on the morning of each race . Ashbury 's new yacht Livonia ( 264 tons ) was beaten twice in a row by Osgood 's new centreboard schooner Columbia ( 220 tons ) , which withdrew in the third race after dismasting . The yacht Sappho then stepped in as defender to win the fourth and fifth races , thereby successfully defending the cup . The next challenge came from the Royal Canadian Yacht Club and was the first to be disputed between two yachts only . The schooner Madeleine ( 148.2 tons , 1868 ) , a previous defender from the 1870 fleet race , easily defeated the challenger Countess of Dufferin ( 221 tons , 1876 design by Alexander Cuthbert ) . Cuthbert filed the second Canadian challenge , bankrolling , designing and sailing the first sloop challenge for the America 's Cup in 1881 . The small 65 ft ( 19.81 m ) Canadian challenger Atalanta ( 84 tons , 1881 ) , representing the Bay of Quinte Yacht Club , suffered from lack of funds , unfinished build and a difficult delivery through the Erie Canal from Lake Ontario to New York . In contrast , the NYYC cautiously prepared its first selection trials . The iron sloop Mischief ( 79 tons , 1879 design by Archibald Cary Smith ) was chosen from four sloop candidates , and successfully defended the cup . 1885 -- 1887 : the NYYC rule ( edit ) Defender Volunteer , 1887 In response to the incompetent Canadian challenges , the Deed of Gift was amended in 1881 to require that challenges be accepted only from yacht clubs on the sea and that challenger yachts must sail to the venue on their own hull . Furthermore , Archibald Cary Smith and the NYYC committee devised a new rating rule that would govern the next races . They included sail area and waterline length into the handicap , with penalties on waterlines longer than 85 ft ( 25.91 m ) . Irish yacht designer John Beavor - Webb launched the challengers Genesta ( 1884 ) and Galatea ( 1885 ) , which would define the British `` plank - on - edge '' design of a heavy , deep and narrow - keel hull , making for very stiff yachts ideal for the British breeze . The boats came to New York in 1885 and 1886 respectively , but neither would best the sloops Puritan or Mayflower , whose success in selection trials against many other candidates proved Boston designer Edward Burgess was the master of the `` compromise sloop '' ( lightweight , wide and shallow hull with centerboard ) . This design paradigm proved ideal for the light Yankee airs . In 1887 , Edward Burgess repeated his success with the Volunteer against Scottish yacht designer George Lennox Watson 's challenger Thistle , which was built in secret . Even when the Thistle was drydocked in New York before the races , her hull was draped to protect the secret of her lines , which borrowed from American design . Both Volunteer and Thistle were completely unfurnished below decks to save weight . 1889 -- 1903 : the Seawanhaka rule ( edit ) In 1887 , the NYYC adopted the Seawanhaka Corinthian Yacht Club 's rating rule , in which Bristol , RI naval architect Nathanael Herreshoff found loopholes that he would use to make dramatic improvements in yacht design and to shape the America 's Cup 's largest and most extreme contenders . Both Herreshoff and Watson proceeded to merge Yankee sloop design and British cutter design to make very deep S - shape fin - keeled hulls . Using steel , tobin bronze , aluminium , and even nickel for novel construction , they significantly lengthened bow and stern overhangs , further extending the sailing waterline as their boats heeled over , thus increasing their speed . Challenger Valkyrie II , 1893 Columbia & Shamrock , 1899 The next America 's Cup challenge was initially limited to 70 ft ( 21.34 m ) waterline in 1889 , but the mutual - agreement clauses of a new 1887 Deed of Gift caused the Royal Yacht Squadron to withdraw the Earl of Dunraven 's promising Watson designed challenger Valkyrie while she was crossing the Atlantic . Dunraven challenged again in 1893 , pleading for a return to the longer 85 ft ( 26 m ) limit . In a cup - crazed Britain , its four largest cutters ever were being built , including Watson 's Valkyrie II for Dunraven 's challenge . Meanwhile , the NYYC 's wealthiest members ordered two cup candidates from Herreshoff , and two more from Boston yacht designers . Charles Oliver Iselin , who was running the syndicate behind one of the Herreshoff designs called Vigilant , gave the naval architect leave to design the yacht entirely as he willed . Herreshoff helmed Vigilant himself and beat all his rivals in selection trials , and defended the cup successfully from Valkyrie II . Urged to challenge again in yet larger boat sizes , Dunraven challenged again in 1895 with a 90 ft ( 27.43 m ) waterline limit . The Watson designed challenger Valkyrie III received many innovations : She would be wider than the defender , and featured the first steel mast . The NYYC ordered another defender from Herreshoff , which he had built in a closed off hangar and launched at night so as to conceal her construction : Defender used an aluminium topside riveted to steel frames and manganese bronze below waters . This saved 17 tons of displacement , but later subjected the boat to extreme electrolysis after the Cup races . Valkyrie III lost the first race , was deemed disqualified in the second race following a collision with Defender before the start line despite finishing first , and in turn withdrew from the contest . The unraveling of the races left Dunraven in a bitter disagreement with all parties over fairness of the cup committee concerning claims . After he asserted that he had been cheated , his honorary membership of the NYYC was revoked . Henry `` Hank '' Coleman Haff , was inducted into America 's Cup Hall of Fame in 2004 for his sailing of Defender in 1895 and bringing the cup back . At age 58 , Hank Haff was the oldest cup winner in the history of the race . The climate was estranged until Scottish businessman Sir Thomas Lipton became the financial backer for the Royal Ulster Yacht Club 's 1899 challenge . William Fife was chosen to design the challenging yacht because of past success in American waters . The yachts increased yet again in size , and this time Herreshoff fitted a telescopic steel mast to his defender Columbia , but his largest contribution was to recruit Scottish - American skipper Charlie Barr . The latter had helmed Fife designs in Yankee waters before , and he had shown perfect coordination with his hand - picked Scandinavian crew . Barr successfully helmed Columbia to victory , and Lipton 's noted fair play provided unprecedented popular appeal to the sport and to his tea brand . Although upset with the Shamrock , Lipton challenged again in 1901 , turning this time to George Lennox Watson for a `` cup - lifter '' : Shamrock II , Watson 's fourth and final challenger , was the first cup contender to be thoroughly tank - tested . To defend the Cup , businessman Thomas W. Lawson funded for Boston designer Bowdoin B. Crowninshield a daring project : his yacht Independence was capable of unrivaled performance because of her extremely long sailing waterline , but she was largely overpowered and unbalanced and suffered from structural issues . Furthermore , Lawson 's failure to commit to the NYYC 's terms for defending the Cup defaulted the Independenceʼs elimination . Herreshoff had again received a commission from the NYYC , but had failed to secure Charlie Barr to skipper his new yacht Constitution . Instead , the Columbiaʼs syndicate kept Barr 's crew and tried another defense . Unexpectedly , Barr led the Columbiaʼs crew to win the selection trials , and to successfully defend the cup again . Lipton persisted in a third challenge in 1903 . With the aim to fend off Lipton 's challenges indefinitely , the NYYC garnered a huge budget for a single cup contender , whose design would be commissioned to Herreshoff again . Improving on the Independence and his previous designs , the new defender Reliance remains the largest race sloop ever built . She featured a ballasted rudder , dual - speed winches below decks , and a cork - decked aluminium topside that hid running rigging . The design focus on balance was exemplary , but the extreme yacht also required the skills of an excellent skipper , which defaulted choice options to Charlie Barr . Facing the equally bold challenger Shamrock III , Barr led the Reliance to victory in just three races . 1914 -- 1937 : the universal rule ( edit ) Despite the immense success of the Reliance , she was used only one season , her design and maintenance keeping her from being used for any other purpose than for a cup defense . The extremity of both 1903 cup contenders encouraged Nathanael Herreshoff to make boats more wholesome and durable by devising a new rule . Proposing in the same year the Universal Rule , he added the elements of overall length and displacement into the rating , to the benefit of heavy , voluminous hulls and also divided boats into classes , without handicapping sail area . This went against the American Yacht Clubs ' and the British Yacht Racing Association 's general desire to promote speed at all costs for cup boats , but the NYYC adopted Herreshoff 's proposal . Lipton long pleaded for a smaller size of yachts in the new rule , and the NYYC conceded to seventy - five footers in 1914 . Lipton turned to Charles Ernest Nicholson for his fourth challenge , and got a superb design under the inauspicious shape of Shamrock IV , with a flat transom . She was the most powerful yacht that year , and the NYYC turned out three cup candidates to defend the cup : of George Owen 's Defiance and William Gardner 's Vanitie , it was Herreshoff who designed the wisest of all contenders . His last design for the cup , the Resolute , was small , which earned significant time allowance over other yachts . Barr had died , but his crew manned the Resolute , which faced stiff competition from Vanitie , but went on to win the selection trials , before the Cup was suspended as World War I broke out . Shamrock IV was crossing the Atlantic with the steam yacht Erin , destined for Bermuda , when Britain declared war on Germany on 5 August 1914 . Harold Stirling Vanderbilt , the Commodore of the New York Yacht Club , sent his own yacht , the Vagrant , from Rhode Island to Bermuda to meet them and escort them to the US . The Vagrant arrived on the 8th . Having no radio , the crew were unaware of the declaration of war . Finding all navigational markers missing , they attempted to pick their own way in through the barrier reef . St. David 's Battery fired a warning shot to bring them to a halt . Shamrock IV and Erin arrived the next day . The America 's Cup was cancelled for that year . The Shamrock IV and Erin proceeded to New York , from where the Erin returned to Britain while Shamrock IV was laid up in the Erie Basin dry dock until 1920 , when she received some adjustments to her build and ballast , just before the races were held . Despite Shamrock IV 's severe rating , she took the first two races from the defender Resolute , and came closer to winning back the Cup than any previous challenger . The Resolute won every subsequent race of the event . Harold Vanderbilt , Enterprise 's skipper , 1930 Shamrock IV was never raced again , but the universal rule drew significant appeal , especially in the small M - Class . Believing that the new rule offered a serious opportunity for the British to take the Cup , Lipton challenged for the fifth and last time at age 79 , in 1929 . The J - Class was chosen for the contest , to which were added Lloyds ' A1 scantling rules in order to ensure that the yachts would be seaworthy and evenly matched , given the Deed of Gift requirement for yachts to sail to the match on their `` own bottom . '' The waterline length was set between 76 ft ( 23.16 m ) and 88 ft ( 26.82 m ) , and there would be no time allowance . Novel rigging technology now permitted the Bermuda rig to replace the gaff rig . Nicholson was chosen to design challenger Shamrock V , and despite the Wall Street Crash , four NYYC syndicates responded to the threat and built a cup contender each . The venue was moved to Newport , Rhode Island , where , the Herreshoff Manufacturing Company 's new naval architect Starling Burgess used his success in the M - Class and his experience as a wartime plane designer to build the Vanderbilt syndicate 's defender Enterprise , the smallest J - Class . Meanwhile , Herreshoff 's son , Lewis Francis Herreshoff , designed a radical boat : The Whirlwind , despite being the most advanced boat with her double - ended `` canoe '' build and electronic instruments , maneuvered too clumsily . The old 75 - footers Resolute and Vanitie were rebuilt and converted to the J - Class to serve as trial horses . The Enterprise 's skipper Harold Vanderbilt won the selection trials with great difficulty . When Shamrock V was revealed , she was an outdated wooden boat with a wooden mast and performed poorly to windward . Enterprise was then fitted with the World 's first duralumin mast , very lightweight at 4,000 lb ( 1,800 kg ) , and beat her opponent soundly . Lipton died in 1931 , and English aviation industrialist Sir Thomas Sopwith bought Shamrock V with the intent of preparing the next challenge . To Nicholson 's skills , he added aeronautical expertise and materials that would intensify the rivalry into a technological race . In 1934 , the Royal Yacht Squadron issued a challenge for Sopwith 's newly built challenger Endeavour . Being steel - plated , she was less disfavoured than Shamrock V , especially after a minimum mast weight limit was set to 5,500 lb ( 2,500 kg ) , as this made American duralumin technology less advantageous for this contest . Endeavour received significant innovations , but Sopwith failed to secure the services of his entire Shamrock V professional crew due to a pay strike . He hired amateurs to complete his team , and while the Endeavour was described unanimously as the faster boat in the Cup , taking the first two races , failed tactics and crew inexperience lost her the following four races to Vanderbilt 's new defender Rainbow . To challenge again , Sopwith prepared himself a year early . In 1936 Nicholson designed and built the Endeavour II to the maximum waterline length allowed , and numerous updates to the rig made her even faster than her predecessor . A change in the America 's Cup rules now allowed a contending yacht to be declared 30 days before the races , so both the Endeavour and Endeavour II were shipped to Newport , where the RYS held selection series before declaring Endeavour II as the challenger . Meanwhile , Harold S. Vanderbilt , taking all syndicate defense costs to himself , commissioned Starling Burgess and the young designer Olin Stephens to provide designs . They anonymously produced three designs each , and thoroughly tank - tested boat models of the six designs , until model 77 - C was selected for its projected performance in light airs . The resulting defender Ranger was even more accomplished than her challenger , and Vanderbilt steered his last J - Class boat to a straight victory . 1956 -- 1987 : the Twelve - metre rule ( edit ) President Kennedy and wife watching the America 's Cup , 1962 The J - class yachts from the 1930s remained the default for the cup , but post-war economic realities meant that no - one could afford to challenge in this hugely expensive class . As twenty years had passed since the last challenge , the NYYC looked for a cheaper alternative in order to restart interest in the cup . In 1956 Henry Sears led an effort to replace the J - class yachts with 12 - metre class yachts , which are approximately 65 to 75 feet ( 20 to 23 m ) in overall length . The first post-war challenge was in 1958 , again from the British . Briggs Cunningham , the inventor of the cunningham sail control device , as skipper with Sears as navigator led Columbia to victory against Sceptre , which was designed by David Boyd at Alexander Robertson and Sons Ltd ( Yachtbuilders ) , for a Royal Yacht Squadron Syndicate , chaired by Hugh Goodson . 1962 -- 1983 : the Australian challengers ( edit ) The first Australian challenge was in 1962 , when Gretel lost to the NYYC 's Weatherly , designed by Philip Rhodes . A second Boyd / Robertson challenger , Sovereign , lost to the Olin Stephens -- designed Constellation in 1964 . In 1967 , another Australian challenger , Dame Pattie , lost to the innovative Olin Stephens design Intrepid ( which won again in 1970 , to become the second yacht , after Columbia , to defend the Cup twice ) . Defender Freedom , 1980 For the 1970 America 's Cup , interest in challenging was so high that the NYYC allowed the Challenger of Record ( the original yacht club presenting the challenge accepted for the match ) to organize a regatta among multiple challengers with the winner being substituted as challenger and going on to the cup match . This innovation has been used ever since , except for the default deed of gift matches in 1988 and 2010 . Alan Bond , an Australian businessman , made three unsuccessful challenges between 1974 and 1980 . In 1974 the cup was successfully defended by Courageous , which successfully defended again in 1977 , at which time she was skippered by Ted Turner . In 1980 the Cup was defended by Freedom . 1983 : Australia II wins the Cup ( edit ) Main article : 1983 America 's Cup The winged keel of the victorious challenger Australia II , 1983 Bond returned in 1983 for a fourth challenge , complete with a symbolic golden wrench which he claimed would be used to unbolt the cup from its plinth , so that he could take it back to Australia . In 1983 there were seven challengers for the cup competing for the inaugural Louis Vuitton Cup , the winner of which would go on to the America 's Cup match against the NYYC 's yacht selected in their trials . Bond 's yacht , Australia II , designed by Ben Lexcen , skippered by John Bertrand , and representing the Royal Perth Yacht Club , easily won the Louis Vuitton challenger series , and Dennis Conner in Liberty was selected for the Cup defense . Sporting the now famous Boxing Kangaroo flag and the controversial winged keel designed by Ben Lexcen , the hull of Australia II was kept under wraps between races and was subject to attempts by the NYYC to disqualify the boat . In the cup races , the Australians got off to a bad start with equipment failures and false starts giving the defenders a head start . But it was not to be a repeat of the last 132 years : the Australians came back to win the 1983 America 's Cup 4 -- 3 in a best - of - seven format . This was the first time the NYYC had lost the cup in 132 years and 26 challenges . Alan Bond joked that the cup would be renamed `` The Australia 's Cup '' . 1987 : technology and professionalism are increasingly important ( edit ) Main article : 1987 America 's Cup For the first time since its inception the America 's Cup was defended outside of the US off the coast of Fremantle . This was a new era for the cup with interest in competing being shown by many countries . Representing the San Diego Yacht Club , Conner returned to win the 1987 America 's Cup . His yacht Stars & Stripes 87 earned the right to challenge by winning the 1987 Louis Vuitton Cup against an unprecedented field of 13 challenger syndicates . In the America 's Cup regatta he faced defender Iain Murray sailing Kookaburra III , who had defeated Alan Bond 's Australia IV in the defender selection trials . Stars & Stripes 87 defeated Kookaburra III four races to nil . Technology was now playing an increasing role in yacht design . The 1983 winner , Australia II , had sported the revolutionary winged keel , and the New Zealand boat that Conner had beaten in the Louis Vuitton Cup final in Fremantle was the first 12 - metre class to have a hull of fiberglass , rather than aluminum or wood . The 12 - metre class rules stipulated that the hull had to be the same thickness throughout and could not be made lighter in the bow and stern . The other challengers demanded that core samples be taken from the plastic hull to show its thickness . At one press conference Dennis Conner asked , `` Why would you build a plastic yacht ... unless you wanted to cheat ? '' Despite attempts to defuse the situation , the `` cheating comment '' added to the controversy surrounding the Louis Vuitton challenge races . Chris Dickson , skipper of the Kiwi Magic ( KZ 7 ) , took the controversy in stride and with humor , and Conner has subsequently stated his regret over his comment . New Zealand syndicate head Sir Michael Fay 's comment was that core samples would be taken `` over my dead body '' . Eventually some small holes were drilled to test the hull , and ultrasonic testing was done to rule out air pockets in the construction . The boat was found to be within class rules , and the issue was set aside . Fay ceremoniously lay down in front of the measurer before the samples were taken . 1988 : the Mercury Bay challenge ( edit ) Main article : 1988 America 's Cup In 1987 , soon after Conner had won back the cup with Stars and Stripes but before the San Diego Yacht Club had publicly issued terms for the next regatta , a New Zealand syndicate , again led by merchant banker Sir Michael Fay , lodged a surprise challenge . Fay challenged with a gigantic yacht named New Zealand ( KZ1 ) or the Big Boat , which with a 90 - foot ( 27 m ) waterline , was the largest single masted yacht possible under the original rules of the cup trust deed . This was an unwelcome challenge to the San Diego Yacht Club , who wanted to continue to run Cup regattas using 12 - metre yachts . A legal battle ensued over the challenge , with Justice Carmen Ciparick of the New York State Supreme ( trial ) Court ( which administers the Deed of Gift ) ruling that Fay 's challenge on behalf of Mercury Bay Boating Club ( MBBC ) was valid . The court ordered SDYC to accept it and negotiate mutually agreeable terms for a match , or to race under the default provisions of the Deed , or to forfeit the cup to MBBC . Forced to race , and lacking time for preparation , Conner and SDYC looked for a way to prevail . They recognized that a catamaran was not expressly prohibited under the rules . Multihulls , due to a lower wetted surface area and vastly lower mass , are inherently faster than equal - length monohulls . Conner , however , left nothing to chance and commissioned a cutting edge design with a wing sail , named -- as his 12 - metre yachts had been -- Stars and Stripes . The two yachts raced under the simple terms of the deed in September , 1988 . New Zealand predictably lost by a huge margin . Fay then took SDYC back to court , arguing that the race had been unfair , certainly not the `` friendly competition between nations '' , envisaged in the Deed of Gift . Ciparick agreed and awarded New Zealand the Cup . However , Ciparick 's decision was overturned on appeal and SDYC 's win was reinstated . Fay then appealed to New York 's highest court and lost . Thus SDYC successfully defended the cup in what observers described as the most controversial cup match to that point . ( The 2010 America 's Cup was a direct descendant of the 1988 cup , as it featured two gigantic multi-hull yachts and generated even more legal activity and controversy ) . 1992 -- 2007 : the IACC rule ( edit ) This section does not cite any sources . Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . ( August 2017 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) Defender America , 1992 Defender SUI - 100 , 2007 In the wake of the 1988 controversies , the International America 's Cup Class ( IACC ) was introduced , replacing the 12 - metre class that had been used since 1958 . In 1992 , USA - 23 of the America3 team , skippered by billionaire Bill Koch and sailing legend Harry `` Buddy '' Melges , defeated the Italian challenger Il Moro ITA - 25 , owned by billionaire Raul Gardini 's Il Moro di Venezia , 4 -- 1 . In 1995 , the Royal New Zealand Yacht Squadron syndicate Team New Zealand , skippered by Russell Coutts , first won the challenger series in NZL 32 , dubbed `` Black Magic '' because of her black hull and uncanny speed . Black Magic then easily defeated Dennis Connor 's Stars & Stripes team , 5 -- 0 , to win the cup for New Zealand . Although team Young America 's cup candidate yacht USA - 36 was defeated in defender trials by Stars & Stripes ' USA - 34 , the San Diego Yacht Club elected to defend the cup with USA - 36 crewed by Stars & Stripes . The run - up to the 1995 Cup was notable for the televised sinking of oneAustralia during the fourth round robin of the Louis Vuitton challenger selection series , with all hands escaping uninjured . The 1995 defender selection series also had the first mostly female ( with one man ) crew sailing the yacht USA - 43 , nicknamed `` Mighty Mary '' . On 14 March 1996 , a man entered the Royal New Zealand Yacht Squadron 's clubroom and damaged the America 's Cup with a sledgehammer . The man , Benjamin Peri Nathan , was subsequently found guilty of criminal damage and sentenced to 18 months imprisonment ( reduced from 34 months on appeal ) . The damage was so severe that it was feared that the cup was irreparable . London 's Garrards silversmiths , who had manufactured the cup in 1848 , painstakingly restored the trophy to its original condition over three months , free of charge . In 2003 , an extra 20 cm was added to the cup 's base to accommodate the names of future winners . At Auckland in 1999 -- 2000 , Team New Zealand , led by Sir Peter Blake , and again skippered by Russell Coutts , defeated the Italian Prada Challenge from the Yacht Club Punta Ala . The Italians had previously beaten the AmericaOne syndicate from the St Francis Yacht Club in the Louis Vuitton Cup final . This was the first America 's Cup to be contested without an American challenger or defender . During the Twelve - Metre era , the New York Yacht Club , citing the Deed language that the Cup should be `` perpetually a Challenge Cup for friendly competition between foreign countries '' , had adopted several interpretive resolutions intended to strengthen nationality requirements . By 1980 , these resolutions specified that besides being constructed in the country of the challenger or defender , a yacht had to be designed by and crewed by nationals of the country where the yacht club was located . Globalization made it increasingly impractical to enforce design nationality rules , and starting in 1984 , the Royal Perth Yacht Club began relaxing this requirement . Numerous members of the New Zealand AC 2000 team became key members of the Swiss 2003 Alinghi challenge , led by biotechnology entrepreneur Ernesto Bertarelli . To satisfy the crew nationality requirements , New Zealand team members of Alinghi took up residence in Switzerland . In 2003 , several strong challengers vied for the right to sail for the cup in Auckland during the challenger selection series . Bertarelli 's team representing the Swiss yacht club , Société Nautique de Genève ( SNG ) , beat all her rivals in the Louis Vuitton Cup and in turn won the America 's Cup 5 -- 0 . In doing so , Alinghi became the first European team in 152 years of the event 's history to win the cup . For the 2007 challenge , SNG rescinded all interpretive resolutions to the deed , essentially leaving `` constructed in country '' as the only remaining nationality requirement . The 2007 defense of the cup was held in Valencia , Spain . This was the first time since the original 1851 Isle of Wight race that the America 's Cup regatta had been held in Europe , or in a country different from that of the defender ( necessary because Switzerland , despite having huge lakes and a national passion for sailing , does not border a `` sea or arm of the sea '' as specified in the Deed ) . Eleven challenging yacht clubs from 9 countries submitted formal entries . The challenger selection series , the Louis Vuitton Cup 2007 , ran from 16 April to 6 June 2007 . Emirates Team New Zealand won the challenger series finale 5 -- 0 against Italians Luna Rossa and met Alinghi between 23 June and 3 July 2007 . Ernesto Bertarelli 's Team - Alinghi successfully defended the America 's Cup 5 -- 2 , under the colors of SNG . 2010 : the Golden Gate challenge ( edit ) Challenger USA - 17 , 2010 Main article : 2010 America 's Cup After Société Nautique de Genève successfully defended the trophy in the 32nd America 's Cup , they accepted a challenge from Club Náutico Español de Vela , a Spanish yacht club formed expressly for the purpose of challenging for the cup and keeping the regatta in Valencia . When SNG and CNEV published their protocol for the 33rd America 's Cup , there was criticism over its terms , with some teams and yacht clubs calling it the worst protocol in the history of the event . Golden Gate Yacht Club ( GGYC ) then filed its own challenge for the cup and also filed a court case asking that CNEV be removed as being unqualified under the deed of gift , and that GGYC be named the challenger , being the first club to file a conforming challenge . There followed a long and acrimonious legal battle , with the New York Court of Appeals finally deciding on 2 April 2009 that CNEV did not qualify as valid challenger , and that the GGYC was thus the rightful challenger . Since the two parties were unable to agree otherwise , the match took place as a one - on - one Deed of Gift match with no other clubs or teams participating . The match was sailed in gigantic , specialized 90 ft ( 27 m ) multihull yachts in a best - of - three race series in Valencia , Spain from 8 to 14 February 2010 . The rigid wing sail of the challenging trimaran USA - 17 provided a decisive advantage , and it won the 2010 America 's Cup 2 -- 0 . 2013 : the AC72 rule ( edit ) Main article : 2013 America 's Cup Defender Oracle , 2013 The Challenger of Record for the 34th America 's Cup was Club Nautico di Roma , whose team Mascalzone Latino had competed in the challenger selection series for the 2007 America 's Cup . In September , 2010 , GGYC and Club Nautico di Roma announced the protocol for AC34 , scheduling the match for 2013 in a new class of boat , the AC72 , a wing - sailed catamaran . Paralleling the `` Acts '' of the 32nd America 's Cup -- a series of preliminary events in different venues leading - up to the actual event -- a new series , the America 's Cup World Series was to be run using AC45 class boats ( smaller one - design versions of the AC72s ) , in various world venues in 2011 and 2012 . On 12 May 2011 , Club Nautico di Roma withdrew from the competition , citing challenges in raising sufficient funds to field a competitive team . As the second yacht club to file a challenge , the Royal Swedish Yacht Club assumed the duties of the challenger . Rumors of stable hydrofoiling of an AC72 were confirmed when Team New Zealand 's AC72 yacht Aotearoa was seen to be sailing on hydrofoils in August , 2012 . This triggered a technology race in foil development and control . The Royal New Zealand Yacht Squadron won the right to sail in the America 's Cup match easily beating the Italian and Swedish challengers in the Louis Vuitton Cup . The resulting match between the USA and NZ was the longest on record both in calendar time , and the number of races , with the Golden Gate Yacht Club staging an improbable come - from - behind victory , winning eight straight races to defend the cup and beat New Zealand 9 -- 8 . 2017 America 's Cup ( edit ) Main article : 2017 America 's Cup Oracle Team USA was defending the America 's Cup May 26 -- June 27 , 2017 on behalf of the Golden Gate Yacht Club in Bermuda where racing took place on the Great Sound . Preliminary races were held in Portsmouth , Gothenburg , and Bermuda in foiling AC45s . After the 2013 America 's Cup , the Golden Gate Yacht Club accepted a notice of challenge from the Hamilton Island Yacht Club , with whom a new protocol and a smaller 62 ft ( 19 m ) wingsail foiling catamaran class rule were proposed in cooperation with participating challengers . The Hamilton Island Yacht Club withdrew from the America 's Cup in July 2014 , citing unanticipated cost in mounting its challenge . The exiting challenger of record was replaced by a challenger committee , where decisions are made by popular vote . When an even smaller 50ft wingsail foiling catamaran class rule amendment was voted in April 2015 , Luna Rossa Challenge also withdrew , citing significant costs wasted on the development of the larger vessel . Yachts from France , Japan , New Zealand , Sweden , and the UK remained in the competition to challenge for the cup . In June 2016 , for the first time in history , an America 's Cup race included fresh water sailing , when preliminary races were held on Lake Michigan , based in Chicago , Illinois , United States , North America . Emirates Team New Zealand won the 2017 Louis Vuitton Cup and challenging the defender , Emirates Team NZ , won the America 's Cup with a score of 7 to 1 . 2021 America 's Cup ( edit ) Main article : 36th America 's Cup The next America 's Cup will see the Royal New Zealand Yacht Squadron defend the cup . The Challenger of Record is Circolo della Vela Sicilia who will be represented by their team Luna Rossa Challenge . The event will be held in the southern summer , in the early part of 2021 . Challengers and defenders ( edit ) Main article : List of America 's Cup challengers and defenders Challengers and Defenders Rule Year Venue Defending club Defender Challenging club Challenger Score Fleet racing 1851 Isle of Wight Royal Yacht Squadron 8 cutters and 7 schooners , runner - up Aurora New York Yacht Club John Cox Stevens syndicate , America 0 -- 1 1870 New York City New York Yacht Club 17 schooners , winner Franklin Osgood 's Magic Royal Thames Yacht Club James Lloyd Ashbury , Cambria 1 -- 0 Schooner match 1871 New York City New York Yacht Club Franklin Osgood , Columbia ( 2 -- 1 ) and William Proctor Douglas , Sappho ( 2 -- 0 ) Royal Harwich Yacht Club James Lloyd Ashbury , Livonia 4 -- 1 1876 New York City New York Yacht Club John Stiles Dickerson , Madeleine Royal Canadian Yacht Club Charles Gifford , Countess of Dufferin 2 -- 0 65 ft sloop 1881 New York City New York Yacht Club Joseph Richard Busk , Mischief Bay of Quinte Yacht Club Alexander Cuthbert , Atalanta 2 -- 0 NYYC 85ft 1885 New York City New York Yacht Club John Malcolm Forbes syndicate , Puritan Royal Yacht Squadron Sir Richard Sutton , Genesta 2 -- 0 1886 New York City New York Yacht Club Charles Jackson Paine , Mayflower Royal Northern Yacht Club Lt. & Mrs. William Henn , Galatea 2 -- 0 1887 New York City New York Yacht Club Charles Jackson Paine , Volunteer Royal Clyde Yacht Club James Bell syndicate , Thistle 2 -- 0 SCYC 85ft 1893 New York City New York Yacht Club Charles Oliver Iselin syndicate , Vigilant Royal Yacht Squadron Earl of Dunraven , Valkyrie II 3 -- 0 SCYC 90ft 1895 New York City New York Yacht Club William K. Vanderbilt syndicate , Defender Royal Yacht Squadron Earl of Dunraven syndicate , Valkyrie III 3 -- 0 1899 New York City New York Yacht Club J. Pierpont Morgan syndicate , Columbia Royal Ulster Yacht Club Sir Thomas Lipton , Shamrock 3 -- 0 1901 New York City New York Yacht Club J. Pierpont Morgan syndicate , Columbia Royal Ulster Yacht Club Sir Thomas Lipton , Shamrock II 3 -- 0 1903 New York City New York Yacht Club Cornelius Vanderbilt III syndicate , Reliance Royal Ulster Yacht Club Sir Thomas Lipton , Shamrock III 3 -- 0 Universal 75 ft 1920 New York City New York Yacht Club Henry Walters syndicate , Resolute Royal Ulster Yacht Club Sir Thomas Lipton , Shamrock IV 3 -- 2 Universal J - Class 1930 Newport New York Yacht Club Harold S. Vanderbilt syndicate , Enterprise Royal Ulster Yacht Club Sir Thomas Lipton , Shamrock V 4 -- 0 1934 Newport New York Yacht Club Harold S. Vanderbilt syndicate , Rainbow Royal Yacht Squadron Sir Thomas Sopwith , Endeavour 4 -- 2 1937 Newport New York Yacht Club Harold S. Vanderbilt , Ranger Royal Yacht Squadron Sir Thomas Sopwith , Endeavour II 4 -- 0 IYRU 12mR 1958 Newport New York Yacht Club Henry Sears , Columbia Royal Yacht Squadron Hugh Goodson syndicate , Sceptre 4 -- 0 1962 Newport New York Yacht Club Mercer , Walsh , Frese syndicate , Weatherly Royal Sydney Yacht Squadron Sir Frank Packer , Gretel 4 -- 1 1964 Newport New York Yacht Club Eric Ridder syndicate , Constellation Royal Thames Yacht Club Anthony Boyden , Sovereign 4 -- 0 1967 Newport New York Yacht Club William Justice Strawbridge syndicate , Intrepid Royal Sydney Yacht Squadron Emil Christensen , Dame Pattie 4 -- 0 1970 Newport New York Yacht Club William Justice Strawbridge syndicate , Intrepid Royal Sydney Yacht Squadron Sir Frank Packer , Gretel II 4 -- 1 Newport New York Yacht Club Robert Willis McCullough syndicate , Courageous Royal Perth Yacht Club Alan Bond , Southern Cross 4 -- 0 1977 Newport New York Yacht Club Ted Turner , Courageous Sun City Yacht Club Alan Bond , Australia 4 -- 0 1980 Newport New York Yacht Club Freedom syndicate , Freedom Royal Perth Yacht Club Alan Bond , Australia 4 -- 1 Newport New York Yacht Club Freedom syndicate , Liberty Royal Perth Yacht Club Alan Bond , Australia II 3 -- 4 Fremantle Royal Perth Yacht Club Kevin Parry , Kookaburra III San Diego Yacht Club Sail America , Stars & Stripes 87 0 -- 4 DOG match 1988 San Diego San Diego Yacht Club Sail America , Stars & Stripes 88 Mercury Bay Boating Club Fay Richwhite , KZ - 1 2 -- 0 IACC 1992 San Diego San Diego Yacht Club Bill Koch , America Compagnia Della Vela di Venezia Raul Gardini , Il Moro di Venezia 4 -- 1 1995 San Diego San Diego Yacht Club Sail America , Young America Royal New Zealand Yacht Squadron Team New Zealand , NZL - 32 / Black Magic 0 -- 5 2000 Auckland Royal New Zealand Yacht Squadron Team New Zealand , NZL - 60 Yacht Club Punta Ala Prada Challenge , Luna Rossa 5 -- 0 2003 Auckland Royal New Zealand Yacht Squadron Team New Zealand , NZL 82 Société Nautique de Genève Alinghi , SUI - 64 0 -- 5 2007 Valencia Société Nautique de Genève Alinghi , SUI - 100 Royal New Zealand Yacht Squadron Team New Zealand , NZL - 92 5 -- 2 DOG match Valencia Société Nautique de Genève Alinghi , Alinghi 5 Golden Gate Yacht Club BMW Oracle Racing , USA - 17 0 -- 2 AC72 2013 San Francisco Golden Gate Yacht Club Oracle Team USA , Oracle Team USA 17 Royal New Zealand Yacht Squadron Team New Zealand , Aotearoa 9 -- 8 AC50 2017 Bermuda Golden Gate Yacht Club Oracle Team USA , 17 Royal New Zealand Yacht Squadron Team New Zealand , Aotearoa 1 -- 7 ? 2021 Auckland Royal New Zealand Yacht Squadron Emirates Team New Zealand Circolo della Vela Sicilia Luna Rossa Challenge , Luna Rossa Jump up ^ Oracle Team USA , representing the Golden Gate Yacht Club , started the 2013 first - to - win - nine - races match with a two - race deficit due to a penalty applied for modifications to the team 's AC45 - class yachts during the America 's Cup World Series ( ACWS ) . The modifications were held to be an intentional violation of the AC45 one - design rules , and as the ACWS was deemed to be a part of the America 's Cup event , a penalty was assessed against Oracle Team USA in the America 's Cup Match . Jump up ^ Team New Zealand started the match on - 1 , due to Oracle 's victory in the Qualifier round robins ^ Jump up to : Challenger of Record All - time finals records of Clubs that have won the Cup ( edit ) Main article : List of yacht clubs that have competed for the America 's Cup New York Yacht Club : 25 -- 1 Royal New Zealand Yacht Squadron : 3 -- 3 San Diego Yacht Club : 3 -- 1 Société Nautique de Genève : 2 -- 1 Golden Gate Yacht Club : 2 -- 1 Royal Perth Yacht Club : 1 -- 3 In the media ( edit ) In 1928 Goodyear chairman Paul W. Litchfield began a tradition of naming the company 's blimps after America 's Cup yachts , including America , Puritan , Mayflower , Volunteer , Vigilant , Defender , Reliance , Resolute , Enterprise , Rainbow , Ranger , Columbia and Stars & Stripes . See also ( edit ) Sailing portal AC72 America 's Cup Hall of Fame Citizen Cup awarded in the defenders series for the America 's Cup in 1987 , 1992 and 1995 . Little Americas Cup Notes ( edit ) Jump up ^ The Deed of Gift language for this eventuality is : `` In case the parties can not mutually agree upon the terms of a match , then three races shall be sailed , and the winner of two of such races shall be entitled to the Cup . All such races shall be on ocean courses , free from headlands , as follows : The first race , twenty nautical miles ( 37 km ) to windward and return ; the second race an equilateral triangular race of thirty - nine nautical miles , the first side of which shall be a beat to windward ; the third race ( if necessary ) twenty nautical miles ( 37 km ) to windward and return ; and one week day shall intervene between the conclusion of one race and the starting of the next race . These ocean courses shall be practicable in all parts for vessels of twenty - two feet draught of water , and shall be selected by the Club holding the Cup ; and these races shall be sailed subject to its rules and sailing regulations so far as the same do not conflict with the provisions of this deed of gift , but without any times allowances whatever . The challenged Club shall not be required to name its representative vessel until at a time agreed upon for the start , but the vessel when named must compete in all the races , and each of such races must be completed within seven hours . '' See also : Deed of Gift on Wikisource . References ( edit ) Jump up ^ `` A BRIEF HISTORY OF THE AMERICA 'S CUP '' . America 's Cup Event Authority LLC . Retrieved 26 March 2017 . Jump up ^ `` America 's Cup '' . Encyclopædia Britannica . Retrieved 26 March 2017 . Jump up ^ `` About America 's Cup '' . Sir Peter Blake Trust . 2 Aug 2014 . Archived from the original on 11 December 2015 . ^ Jump up to : `` 36th America 's Cup Announcement '' . Royal New Zealand Yacht Squadron . Retrieved 2017 - 07 - 27 . Jump up ^ John Rousmaniere ( 1983 ) . The America 's Cup 1851 -- 1983 . Pelham Books . ISBN 978 - 0 - 7207 - 1503 - 3 . Jump up ^ BBC Staff Reporters ( 2 April 2015 ) . `` America 's Cup : Sir Ben Ainslie backs move to smaller boats '' . BBC , London . Retrieved 2015 - 04 - 03 . Jump up ^ `` America 's Cup boat size row escalates as teams close ranks after Luna Rossa exit ' Archived 14 April 2016 at the Wayback Machine. , The Guardian , 2015 - 04 - 03 Jump up ^ Cary , Tom ; Dilworth , Miles ( 26 June 2017 ) . `` New Zealand bury the demons of San Francisco in crushing America 's Cup victory over the USA '' . The Telegraph . Retrieved 30 August 2017 . Jump up ^ `` A Cup is a Cup , by any other name '' . americascup.com. 5 December 2005 . Archived from the original on 3 March 2012 . Retrieved 2012 - 05 - 05 . ^ Jump up to : Thomas W. Lawson ( 1902 ) . `` List of Inscriptions on the America 's Cup '' . The Lawson History of the America 's Cup . Winfield M. Thompson Press . pp. 374 -- 375 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 907069 - 40 - 9 . Retrieved 2012 - 05 - 05 . Jump up ^ Alfred Fullerton Loomis ( August 1958 ) . `` Ah , Your Majesty , there is no second '' . American Heritage . 9 ( 5 ) . Retrieved 2012 - 05 - 05 . Jump up ^ Jacques Taglang . `` Sappho '' . Archived from the original on 3 March 2012 . Retrieved 2012 - 05 - 05 . Jump up ^ Jacques Taglang . `` Magic '' . Archived from the original on 3 March 2012 . Retrieved 2012 - 05 - 05 . Jump up ^ `` The Queen 's Cup race '' ( pdf ) . The New York Times . 9 August 1870 . Jump up ^ Hamish G. Ross . `` The First Challenge '' . alinghi.com . Archived from the original on 5 February 2009 . Jump up ^ Naval Marine Archive . `` Atalanta : The Canadian Mud Turtle '' . Naval Marine Archive . Retrieved 2012 - 07 - 17 . Jump up ^ Brooke Heckstall - Smith ( 1911 ) . `` Yachting -- The plank on edge '' . Encyclopædia Britannica . Jump up ^ William Picard Stephens ( 1904 ) . `` Burgess and the America Cup '' . American Yachting . The Macmillan Company . Retrieved 2012 - 05 - 04 . Jump up ^ Roland Folger Coffin ( 1885 ) . The America 's Cup : How it was Won by the Yacht America in 1851 and Has Been Since Defended . Charles Scribner 's Sons Press . Retrieved 2012 - 05 - 04 . Jump up ^ A Testimonial to Charles J. Paine and Edward Burgess , from the City of Boston , for their successful defense of the America 's Cup . Rockwell and Churchill Press . 1887 . Retrieved 2012 - 05 - 04 . Jump up ^ Ahmed John Kenealy ( November 1893 ) . `` The Victory of the Vigilant '' ( pdf ) . Outing . la84foundation.org. 23 : 161 -- 174 . Retrieved 2012 - 05 - 04 . Jump up ^ `` Valkyrie 's steel mast '' ( pdf ) . The New York Times . 6 August 1895 . Retrieved 2012 - 05 - 04 . Jump up ^ `` The Curtain falls on Dunraven '' ( pdf ) . Outing . la84foundation.org. 28 : 1 -- 2 . April 1896 . Retrieved 2012 - 05 - 04 . Jump up ^ `` Henry `` Hank '' Coleman Haff , 2004 Inductee `` . America 's Cup hall of Fame . Herreshoff Marine Museum . Retrieved 2012 - 09 - 18 . Jump up ^ `` skipper success of the Fife cutter Minerva '' . New York Times . Retrieved 2010 - 04 - 23 . Jump up ^ `` Barr 's success on the Fife cutter Minerva '' . New York Times . Retrieved 2010 - 04 - 23 . Jump up ^ Christopher Pastore ( 2005 ) . Temple to the Wind : The Story of America 's Greatest Naval Architect and His Masterpiece , Reliance . Lyons Press . ISBN 978 - 1 - 59228 - 557 - 0 . Jump up ^ Joseph Brinker ( July 1920 ) . `` Racing for the America 's Cup -- When sport becomes a science '' . Popular Science . 97 ( 1 ) : 17 -- 22 . Retrieved 2012 - 05 - 04 . Jump up ^ Herbert Lawrence Stone ( 1919 ) . The America 's Cup Races . Thomas Werner Laurie , Ltd . Press . Retrieved 2012 - 05 - 04 . Jump up ^ `` Shamrock IV '' . New York Times . Retrieved 2010 - 04 - 23 . Jump up ^ John T. Brady ( July 1930 ) . `` A $5,000,000 yacht race '' . Popular Mechanics : 970 -- 974 . Retrieved 2012 - 05 - 04 . Jump up ^ Harold Stirling Vanderbilt ( 1931 ) . Enterprise -- The Story of the Defense of the America 's Cup in 1930 . Charles Scribner 's Sons Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 7136 - 6905 - 3 . Jump up ^ Starling Burgess ( July 1934 ) . `` Secrets of a racing yacht '' . Popular Mechanics. 62 ( 1 ) : 3 -- 5 . Retrieved 2012 - 05 - 04 . Jump up ^ `` America 's Cup winner a marvel in design '' . Popular Mechanics : 486 -- 487 . October 1937 . Retrieved 2012 - 05 - 04 . Jump up ^ Ian Dear ( 1977 ) . Enterprise to Endeavour -- the J - Class yachts . Dodd , Mead and Company . ISBN 978 - 0 - 396 - 07478 - 6 . Jump up ^ `` America 's Cup Hall of Fame > Inductees > Henry Sears , 1995 Inductee '' . Retrieved 2012 - 05 - 04 . Jump up ^ Conner , Dennis ; Stannard , Bruce ( 1987 ) . Comeback : My Race for the America 's Cup . New York : St. Martin 's Press . pp. 100 -- 101 . ISBN 0 - 312 - 00900 - 3 . Jump up ^ Staff and Wire Reporters ( 11 December 1987 ) . `` Bond Urges Defenders to Open 1988 Challenge to All Comers '' . Los Angeles Times . Retrieved 2012 - 05 - 04 . Jump up ^ `` Mercury Bay Boating Club v San Diego Yacht Club , Opinion of the Court '' . State of New York Unified Court System . 26 April 1990 . Retrieved 2012 - 05 - 04 . Jump up ^ Gladwell , Richard ( October 8 , 2007 ) . `` America 's Cup document says RNZYS against Protocol '' . Sail - World NZL . Archived from the original on 19 July 2011 . Retrieved April 16 , 2009 . Jump up ^ `` GGYC Complaint Against SNG '' ( PDF ) . Archived from the original ( pdf ) on 10 August 2007 . Jump up ^ `` Scuttlebutt News : Cory E. Friedman -- 33rd America 's Cup '' . Sailingscuttlebutt.com . Archived from the original on 9 February 2010 . Retrieved 2010 - 02 - 15 . Jump up ^ Golden Gate Yacht Club v. Societe Nautique De Geneve ( New York Court of Appeals 2 April 2009 ) . Text Jump up ^ `` First blood to USA -- News -- 33rd America 's Cup '' . Americascup.com. 25 June 2007 . Archived from the original on 31 May 2012 . Retrieved 2010 - 02 - 15 . Jump up ^ `` BMW ORACLE Racing '' . BMW ORACLE Racing. 30 September 2003 . Retrieved 2010 - 02 - 15 . Jump up ^ `` USA win 33rd America 's Cup Match -- News -- 33rd America 's Cup '' . Americascup.com . Archived from the original on 7 July 2011 . Retrieved 2010 - 02 - 15 . Jump up ^ `` BMW ORACLE Racing '' . BMW ORACLE Racing. 30 September 2003 . Retrieved 2010 - 02 - 15 . Jump up ^ Laven , Kate ( 14 February 2010 ) . `` BMW Oracle 's Larry Ellison confirms Mascalzone Latino as Challenger of Record '' . The Daily Telegraph . London . Retrieved 2010 - 02 - 15 . Jump up ^ `` Club Nautico di Roma confirmed as America 's Cup challenger '' . 3 News . 16 February 2010 . Retrieved 2011 - 09 - 16 . Jump up ^ `` Wingsailed 72ft catamaran to transform America 's Cup racing '' . Golden Gate Yacht Club . 15 October 2010 . Archived from the original on 2010 - 10 - 19 . Jump up ^ `` San Francisco Wins Right to Host 34th America 's Cup '' . America 's Cup . 31 December 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Mascalzone Latino says goodbye to the 34 ° America 's Cup '' . 12 May 2011 . Retrieved 2011 - 05 - 12 . Jump up ^ `` America 's Cup : Challenger of Record pulls pin in unprecedented move '' . 12 May 2011 . Archived from the original on 8 October 2012 . Retrieved 2011 - 05 - 12 . Jump up ^ `` Swedish yacht club becomes Challenger of Record '' . New Zealand Herald . 18 May 2011 . Jump up ^ Newton , Casey ( 3 September 2013 ) . `` Billionaire death race : inside America 's Cup and the world 's most dangerous sailboat '' . theverge.com . Retrieved 14 June 2016 . Jump up ^ Gladwell , Richard ( 3 September 2012 ) . `` America 's Cup : Emirates Team NZ foiling on Waitemata Harbour -- Images '' . Sail - World . Jump up ^ `` America 's Cup venue Announcement '' . 2014 - 12 - 01 . Archived from the original on 21 February 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Rules released for America 's Cup '' . 2014 - 06 - 14 . Jump up ^ `` Team Australia withdraws from the 35th America 's Cup '' . 2014 - 07 - 19 . Archived from the original on 10 August 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Luna Rossa withdraws from the 35th America 's Cup '' . 2015 - 04 - 02 . Jump up ^ `` Sailing Into America 's Cup History in Chicago '' . The New York Times . 10 June 2016 . Retrieved 2016 - 06 - 14 . Jump up ^ `` Racing in Chicago for the America 's Cup World Series was a fantastic showcase for our sport '' . telegraph.co.uk . Retrieved 2016 - 06 - 14 . In 2017 New Zealand won the America 's Cup . Jump up ^ `` ' We 're on top of the world ' : Team NZ wins 35th America 's Cup '' . Radio New Zealand . 2017 - 06 - 27 . Retrieved 2017 - 07 - 07 . Jump up ^ `` America 's Cup : Italians poised to challenge Team New Zealand '' . NZ Herald . Retrieved 2017 - 06 - 26 . Jump up ^ `` America 's Cup champion Oracle docked 2 points '' . Yahoo Sports . Archived from the original on 6 September 2013 . Retrieved 8 September 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Team Oracle USA penalized as cheating scandal rocks Americas cup '' . The Australian . Retrieved 27 September 2013 . Jump up ^ etnzblog.com Jump up ^ `` Goodyear Announces Winner of Nationwide Contest to Name Newest Blimp '' . PR Newswire Association LLC. 21 June 2006 . Retrieved 2011 - 06 - 17 . America 's Cup Yacht Designs 1851 -- 1986 . François Chevalier & Jacques Taglang. 1987 . ISBN 978 - 2 - 9502105 - 0 - 0 . External links ( edit ) Wikimedia Commons has media related to America 's Cup . Wikisource has original text related to this article : America 's Cup Deed of Gift with amendments and interpretive resolutions OFFICIAL Website of the America 's Cup `` America 's Cup Hall of Fame '' . Herreshoff Marine Museum . `` America 's Cup news '' . CupInfo.com . `` Books about the America 's Cup -- a list of over 800 titles '' . Heckstall - Smith , Brooke ( 1911 ) . `` Yachting § The America 's Cup . '' . Encyclopædia Britannica ( 11th ed . ) . `` America 's Cup Network Forums '' . 2007AC.com -- Discussion forums for all America 's Cup events , past , present and future . Archived from the original on 3 November 2013 . `` Official America 's Cup Magazine on iPad '' . 8 March 1985 , Preparations are already underway for the next America 's Cup challenge in Australia , itnsource.com ( hide ) America 's Cup Deed of Gift Challengers and defenders Competing yacht clubs America 's Cup 1851 1870 1871 1876 1881 1885 1886 1887 1893 1895 1899 1901 1903 1920 1930 1934 1937 1958 1962 1964 1967 1970 1977 1980 1988 1992 1995 2000 2003 2007 2013 2017 36th Challenger Selection Series ( Louis Vuitton Cup ) 1970 1977 1980 1992 1995 2000 2003 2007 Acts 2013 World Series 2017 World Series Defender Selection Series ( Citizen Cup ) 1992 1995 Class J Class 12 - Metre yachts IACC yachts regattas AC72 AC45 AC50 AC45F Related America ( yacht ) Wind ( film ) Louis Vuitton Pacific Series Louis Vuitton Trophy AC45 World Series VIAF : 137391188 LCCN : n99053106 GND : 4098109 - 5 BNF : cb133217340 ( data ) Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=America%27s_Cup&oldid=798029343 '' Categories : Recurring sporting events established in 1851 America 's Cup Yachting races Match racing competitions 1851 establishments in England Hidden categories : Webarchive template wayback links Wikipedia articles needing clarification from May 2012 All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from May 2012 Use dmy dates from April 2012 All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from August 2016 Articles with unsourced statements from January 2016 Articles needing additional references from August 2017 All articles needing additional references Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Talk Contents About Wikipedia Afrikaans Ænglisc Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Euskara فارسی Français 한국어 Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano עברית Latviešu Bahasa Melayu Nederlands 日本 語 Norsk Occitan Polski Português Русский Sicilianu Српски / srpski Suomi Svenska Українська 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 30 August 2017 , at 15 : 29 . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply . By using this site , you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia ® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation , Inc. , a non-profit organization . About Wikipedia

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where is the original london bridge now located

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=London_Bridge_(Lake_Havasu_City)&oldid=803302492

London bridge ( Lake Havasu City ) - wikipedia London bridge ( Lake Havasu City ) Jump to : navigation , search London Bridge in Lake Havasu London Bridge in Lake Havasu City Coordinates 34 ° 28.3 ′ N 114 ° 20.8 ′ W  /  34.4717 ° N 114.3467 ° W  / 34.4717 ; - 114.3467 Coordinates : 34 ° 28.3 ′ N 114 ° 20.8 ′ W  /  34.4717 ° N 114.3467 ° W  / 34.4717 ; - 114.3467 Carries McCulloch Boulevard Crosses Bridgewater Channel Canal Locale Lake Havasu City , Arizona , United States Characteristics Design Arch bridge Material Clynelish ( Brora ) sandstone and various granite mixes Total length 930 feet ( 280 m ; 167 sm ) Longest span 45.6 metres ( 150 ft ) No. of spans 5 History Designer John Rennie Construction start 1968 Construction end 1971 ( reconstructed ) Closed 1967 ( pre-move ) Statistics Toll None London Bridge is a bridge in Lake Havasu City , Arizona . It was built in the 1830s and formerly spanned the River Thames in London , England . It was dismantled in 1967 and relocated to Arizona . The Arizona bridge is a reinforced concrete structure clad in the original masonry of the 1830s bridge , which was purchased by Robert P. McCulloch from the City of London . McCulloch had exterior granite blocks from the original bridge numbered and transported to America to construct the present bridge in Lake Havasu City , a planned community he established in 1964 on the shore of Lake Havasu . The bridge was completed in 1971 ( along with a canal ) , and links an island in the Colorado River with the main part of Lake Havasu City . The song `` London Bridge is Falling Down '' is a nursery rhyme that predates the bridge 's original 19th - century construction . Contents ( hide ) 1 History 2 In popular culture 3 Image gallery 4 References 5 External links History ( edit ) This section needs additional citations for verification . Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . ( October 2012 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) The 1831 London Bridge was the last project of engineer John Rennie and was completed by his son , John Rennie the Younger . By 1962 , the bridge was not sound enough to support the increased load of modern traffic , and it was sold by the City of London . The purchaser , Robert P. McCulloch , the chairman of McCulloch Oil Corporation , was the founder of Lake Havasu City , his retirement real estate development on the east shore of Lake Havasu , a large reservoir on the Colorado River . McCulloch purchased the bridge as a tourist attraction for Lake Havasu , which was then far from the usual tourist track . The idea was successful , bringing interested tourists and retirement home buyers to the area . Originally , the deserted Lake Havasu vacant land was given to the state of Arizona by the U.S. Federal Government . The federal property was an abandoned military landing strip . McCulloch made a deal with the state government and received the property for free with a promise to develop the land . But the real estate agents could not bring in prospective buyers , because the land was far from centers of population and had a very hot , arid climate . McCulloch 's real estate agent , Robert Plumer , learned that London Bridge was for sale and convinced McCulloch to buy it and bring it to the area to attract potential land buyers . The initial response from McCulloch was , `` That 's the craziest idea I have ever heard , '' but after consideration , he decided to go ahead with the purchase . Plumer then arranged with a cargo shipping company that was going to sail a newly - built ship from Great Britain to the United States without any cargo . Plumer said they would pay for all operating costs of the sailing , which was far less than the going rate shipping costs . The bridge 's facing stones were disassembled , and each was numbered . After the bridge was dismantled , it was transported to Merrivale Quarry where 15 to 20 cm ( 5.9 to 7.9 inches ) were sliced off many of the original stones . The bridge arrived in pieces at the Port of Long Beach , California and was transported overland to Lake Havasu City , where re-assembly began in 1968 . On 23 September 1968 , the foundation stone was relaid by Sir Gilbert Inglefield , Lord Mayor of London . The original stonework was used to clad a new concrete structure . The reconstruction took slightly over three years and was completed in late 1971 . The bridge was not reconstructed over a river , but rather it was rebuilt on land in a position between the main part of the city and Pittsburgh Point , at that time a peninsula jutting into Lake Havasu . Once completed , the Bridgewater Channel Canal was dredged under the bridge and flooded , separating Pittsburgh Point from the city , creating an island . As a result , the bridge now traverses a navigable shortcut between the Thompson Bay part of Lake Havasu south of Pittsburgh Point , and the remainder of Lake Havasu to the north . London Bridge in 1972 , showing the canal After the bridge was reconstructed , prospective buyers of land were attracted to visit the bridge and take a tour of properties for sale . Land sales improved , and McCulloch recouped all his expenses on the purchase and shipping of the bridge . Since he had obtained the land at no cost , the sale of the properties paid for the bridge and more . Recent years have seen much development in the area of the bridge to increase tourist interest . The original `` English Village '' , a quaint English - style open - air mall with hedge maze and historical museum deteriorated , with sections leveled . A revitalization of the English Village was undertaken by the Lake Havasu City Convention & Visitors Bureau . Condos were proposed in 2011 by the owner , Virtual Realty Enterprises . In popular culture ( edit ) It is a popular rumor that the bridge was bought in the belief that it was London 's more recognizable Tower Bridge , but this was ardently denied by McCulloch himself and by Ivan Luckin , who sold the bridge . American soft rock band Bread recorded a song called `` London Bridge '' on their first album Bread in 1969 , when lead singer David Gates learned that London Bridge was sold and to be relocated in Lake Havasu City , Arizona . His thought at the time , according to the liner notes on Bread 's album Retrospective was , `` is nothing sacred anymore ? '' The live country - western album Viva Terlingua , by Jerry Jeff Walker , includes an amusing song written by Gary P. Nunn entitled `` London Homesick Blues . '' It is the lament of a Texan trapped in London and quite out of his element . A line in the song is `` and even London Bridge has fallen down and moved to Arizona '' . In the 1970 song P.F. _Sloan_ ( song ) from the album `` Words and Music '' by American singer - songwriter Jimmy Webb he refers to the relocation of London Bridge in the lines `` The London Bridge was finally found , they moved it to another town , and now all the people gather ' round to watch the bridge fall down , but I do n't think it will no more . '' Image gallery ( edit ) London Bridge in the early 1890s London Bridge around 1900 with traffic Bridge reconstruction at Lake Havasu in March 1971 The rebuilt London Bridge in 2003 Sign on the bridge Numbered stone still visible Aerial photo of the bridge in 2011 A panoramic view of the entire bridge . London Bridge in about 1870 when it crossed the River Thames in London References ( edit ) ^ Jump up to : Jackson , Donald C. ( 1988 ) . Great American Bridges and Dams . Wiley . p. 245 . ISBN 0 - 471 - 14385 - 5 . Jump up ^ London Bridge ( 1831 ) at Structurae Jump up ^ John Murray 1874 `` Handbook to London As It Is '' , p. 43 . Jump up ^ Elborough , Travis ( 2013 - 02 - 07 ) . London Bridge in America : The Tall Story of a Transatlantic Crossing . Random House . pp. 211 -- 212 . ISBN 9781448181674 . Retrieved 30 July 2014 . Jump up ^ Frederic B. Wildfang ( 29 September 2005 ) . Lake Havasu City . Chicago : Arcadia Publishing . pp. 105 -- 122 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 7385 - 3012 - 3 . Retrieved 2 May 2013 . Jump up ^ https://golakehavasu.com/activities/attractions/london-bridge/the-english-village/ the - english - village Jump up ^ http://www.havasunews.com/news/english-village-owner-in-lake-havasu-city-to-present-big/article_ae609cba-2423-5beb-b1dd-f48ca2c674ce.html Jump up ^ Polaris EX2100 / LE2100 Sport Boats Popular Mechanics , December 2003 , archived on September 30 , 2007 from Polaris EX2100 / LE2100 the original Jump up ^ Oliver , Mark ( 2004 - 12 - 14 ) . `` Bridges '' . The Guardian . Retrieved 2010 - 05 - 11 . Jump up ^ ' If That 's The Acropolis , How Come It Do n't Chime ? ' in Alan Coren The Sanity Inspector Coronet Books , 1974 . ISBN 0 - 340 - 19912 - 1 Jump up ^ How London Bridge Was Sold To The States This Is Local London , March 27 , 2002 Jump up ^ http://www.albumlinernotes.com/Bread_-_Retrospective.html Jump up ^ http://www.allmusic.com/song/pf-sloan-mt0034428498 Jump up ^ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jimmy_Webb External links ( edit ) Wikimedia Commons has media related to London Bridge Lake Havasu . London Bridge ( 1971 ) at Structurae Historic American Engineering Record ( HAER ) No . AZ - 57 , `` London Bridge , Spanning manmade channel ( moved from London , UK ) , Lake Havasu City , Mohave County , AZ '' , 3 photos , 5 data pages , 1 photo caption page Lake Havasu City Convention & Visitors Bureau about London Bridge RoadTrip America about London Bridge Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=London_Bridge_(Lake_Havasu_City)&oldid=803302492 '' Categories : Road bridges in Arizona Bridges completed in 1831 Bridges completed in 1971 Landmarks in Arizona Lower Colorado River Valley Former buildings and structures in the City of London Rebuilt buildings and structures in the United States Relocated buildings and structures in Arizona Transportation in Mohave County , Arizona 1968 establishments in Arizona Tourist attractions in Mohave County , Arizona Buildings and structures in Mohave County , Arizona Lake Havasu City , Arizona Historic American Engineering Record in Arizona Arch bridges in the United States Concrete bridges in the United States Hidden categories : Structurae ID different from Wikidata Coordinates on Wikidata Articles needing additional references from October 2012 All articles needing additional references Talk Contents About Wikipedia Deutsch Français 한국어 Magyar Edit links This page was last edited on 1 October 2017 , at 18 : 04 . About Wikipedia

4988326746697423597

where does the term cherry picker come from

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Cherry_picking&oldid=793859973

Cherry picking - wikipedia Cherry picking Jump to : navigation , search For other uses , see Cherry picking ( disambiguation ) . Cherry picking can be found in many logical fallacies . Cherry picking , suppressing evidence , or the fallacy of incomplete evidence is the act of pointing to individual cases or data that seem to confirm a particular position , while ignoring a significant portion of related cases or data that may contradict that position . It is a kind of fallacy of selective attention , the most common example of which is the confirmation bias . Cherry picking may be committed intentionally or unintentionally . This fallacy is a major problem in public debate . The term is based on the perceived process of harvesting fruit , such as cherries . The picker would be expected to only select the ripest and healthiest fruits . An observer who only sees the selected fruit may thus wrongly conclude that most , or even all , of the tree 's fruit is in a likewise good condition . This can also give a false impression of the quality of the fruit ( since it is only a sample and is not a representative sample ) . Cherry picking has a negative connotation as it directly suppresses evidence that could lead to a more complete picture . A concept sometimes confused with cherry picking is the idea of gathering only the fruit that is easy to harvest , while ignoring other fruit that is higher up on the tree and thus more difficult to obtain ( see low - hanging fruit ) . Cherry picking can be found in many logical fallacies . For example , the `` fallacy of anecdotal evidence '' tends to overlook large amounts of data in favor of that known personally , `` selective use of evidence '' rejects material unfavorable to an argument , while a false dichotomy picks only two options when more are available . Cherry picking can refer to the selection of data or data sets so a study or survey will give desired , predictable results which may be misleading or even completely contrary to reality . Contents ( hide ) 1 In science 2 In medicine 3 In argumentation 4 One - sided argument 5 See also 6 References 7 External links In science ( edit ) Choosing to make selective choices among competing evidence , so as to emphasize those results that support a given position , while ignoring or dismissing any findings that do not support it , is a practice known as `` cherry picking '' and is a hallmark of poor science or pseudo-science . -- Richard Somerville , Testimony before the US House of Representatives Committee on Energy and Commerce Subcommittee on Energy and Power , March 8 , 2011 . Rigorous science looks at all the evidence ( rather than cherry picking only favorable evidence ) , controls for variables as to identify what is actually working , uses blinded observations so as to minimize the effects of bias , and uses internally consistent logic . '' -- Steven Novella , `` A Skeptic In Oz '' , April 26 , 2011 In Medicine ( edit ) In a 2002 study , researchers `` reviewed 31 antidepressant efficacy trials to identify the primary exclusion criteria used in determining eligibility for participation . Their findings suggest that patients in current antidepressant trials represent only a minority of patients treated in routine clinical practice for depression . Excluding potential clinical trial subjects with certain profiles means that the ability to generalize the results of antidepressant efficacy trials lacks empirical support , according to the authors . '' In argumentation ( edit ) In argumentation , the practice of `` quote mining '' is a form of cherry picking , in which the debater selectively picks some quotes supporting a position ( or exaggerating an opposing position ) while ignoring those that moderate the original quote or put it into a different context . Cherry picking in debates is a large problem as the facts themselves are true , but need to be put in context . Because research can not be done live and is often untimely , cherry picked facts or quotes usually stick in the public mainstream and , even when corrected , lead to widespread misrepresentation of groups targeted . One - sided argument ( edit ) A one - sided argument ( also known as card stacking , stacking the deck , ignoring the counterevidence , slanting , and suppressed evidence ) is an informal fallacy that occurs when only the reasons supporting a proposition are supplied , while all reasons opposing it are omitted . Peter Suber has written : `` The one - sidedness fallacy does not make an argument invalid . It may not even make the argument unsound . The fallacy consists in persuading readers , and perhaps ourselves , that we have said enough to tilt the scale of evidence and therefore enough to justify a judgment . If we have been one - sided , though , then we have n't yet said enough to justify a judgment . The arguments on the other side may be stronger than our own . We wo n't know until we examine them . So the one - sidedness fallacy does n't mean that your premises are false or irrelevant , only that they are incomplete . '' `` With rational messages , you need to decide if you want to use a one - sided argument or a two - sided argument . A one - sided argument only presents the pro side of the argument , while a two - sided argument presents both sides . Which one you use will depend on which one meets your needs and the type of audience . Generally , one - sided arguments are better with audiences already favorable to your message . Two - sided arguments are best with audiences who are opposed to your argument , are better educated or have already been exposed to counter arguments . '' Card stacking is a propaganda technique that seeks to manipulate audience perception of an issue by emphasizing one side and repressing another . Such emphasis may be achieved through media bias or the use of one - sided testimonials , or by simply censoring the voices of critics . The technique is commonly used in persuasive speeches by political candidates to discredit their opponents and to make themselves seem more worthy . The term originates from the magician 's gimmick of `` stacking the deck '' , which involves presenting a deck of cards that appears to have been randomly shuffled but which is , in fact , ' stacked ' in a specific order . The magician knows the order and is able to control the outcome of the trick . In poker , cards can be stacked so that certain hands are dealt to certain players . The phenomenon can be applied to any subject and has wide applications . Whenever a broad spectrum of information exists , appearances can be rigged by highlighting some facts and ignoring others . Card stacking can be a tool of advocacy groups or of those groups with specific agendas . For example , an enlistment poster might focus upon an impressive picture , with words such as `` travel '' and `` adventure '' , while placing the words , `` enlist for two to four years '' at the bottom in a smaller and less noticeable point size . See also ( edit ) Logic portal Philosophy portal Ad hoc Biased sample Confirmation bias Data dredging Fallacy of quoting out of context False balance Hasty generalization Hawthorne effect Jumping to conclusions Othello error Proof by example Quasi-experiment Selection bias Pars destruens / pars construens Special pleading References ( edit ) Jump up ^ The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy , `` Fallacies '' , Bradley Dowden ( 2010 ) Jump up ^ Cherry Picking Jump up ^ Klass , Gary . `` Just Plain Data Analysis : Common Statistical Fallacies in Analyses of Social Indicator Data . Department of Politics and Government , Illinois State University '' ( PDF ) . statlit.org. ~ 2008 . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on March 25 , 2014 . Retrieved March 25 , 2014 . Jump up ^ Goldacre , Ben ( 2008 ) . Bad Science . HarperCollins Publishers . pp. 97 -- 99 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 00 - 728319 - 4 . ^ Jump up to : `` Devious deception in displaying data : Cherry picking '' , Science or Not , April 3 , 2012 , retrieved 16 February 2015 Jump up ^ Novella , Steven ( 26 April 2011 ) . `` A Skeptic In Oz '' . Science - Based Medicine . Retrieved 16 February 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Typical Depression Patients Excluded from Drug Trials ; exclusion criteria : is it `` cherry picking '' ? `` . The Brown University Psychopharmacology Update . Wiley Periodicals. 13 ( 5 ) : 1 -- 3 . May 2002 . ISSN 1068 - 5308 . Based on the studies : Posternak , MA ; Zimmerman , M ; Keitner , GI ; Miller , IW ( February 2002 ) . `` A reevaluation of the exclusion criteria used in antidepressant efficacy trials '' . The American Journal of Psychiatry . 159 ( 2 ) : 191 -- 200 . PMID 11823258 . doi : 10.1176 / appi. ajp. 159.2. 191 . Zimmerman , M ; Mattia , JI ; Posternak , MA ( March 2002 ) . `` Are subjects in pharmacological treatment trials of depression representative of patients in routine clinical practice ? '' . The American Journal of Psychiatry . 159 ( 3 ) : 469 -- 73 . PMID 11870014 . doi : 10.1176 / appi. ajp. 159.3. 469 . Jump up ^ `` One - Sidedness - The Fallacy Files '' . Retrieved 14 October 2014 . ^ Jump up to : Peter Suber . `` The One - Sidedness Fallacy '' . Retrieved 25 September 2012 . Jump up ^ The fine art of propaganda : a study of Father Coughlin 's s = Institute for Propaganda Analysis . Harcourt Brace and Company . 1939 . pp. 95 -- 101 . Retrieved November 24 , 2010 . Jump up ^ C.S. Kim , John ( 1993 ) . The art of creative critical thinking . University Press of America . pp. 317 -- 318 . Retrieved November 24 , 2010 . Jump up ^ Ruchlis , Hyman ; Sandra Oddo ( 1990 ) . Clear thinking : a practical introduction . Prometheus Books . pp. 195 -- 196 . Retrieved November 24 , 2010 . Jump up ^ James , Walene ( 1995 ) . Immunization : the reality behind the myth , Volume 3 . Greenwood Publishing Group . pp. 193 -- 194 . Retrieved November 24 , 2010 . Jump up ^ Shabo , Magedah ( 2008 ) . Techniques of Propaganda and Persuasion . Prestwick House Inc . pp. 24 -- 29 . Retrieved November 24 , 2010 . External links ( edit ) The One - Sidedness Fallacy - Peter Suber , Philosophy Department , Earlham College Developing a Promotional Strategy - Michigan State University , Extension Bulletin E-1939 A characterization of the one - sidedness fallacy within the framework of the cognitive distortions , Paul Franceschi , 2009 ( hide ) Informal fallacies Equivocation Equivocation False attribution Quoting out of context Loki 's Wager No true Scotsman Reification Question - begging fallacies Circular reasoning / Begging the question Loaded language ( Leading question ) Compound question / Loaded question No true Scotsman Correlative - based fallacies False dilemma ( Perfect solution fallacy ) Denying the correlative Suppressed correlative Fallacies of illicit transference Composition Division Deductive fallacies Accident Converse accident Inductive fallacies Anecdotal evidence Sampling bias ( Cherry picking McNamara fallacy ) Base rate fallacy / Conjunction fallacy Double counting False analogy Hasty generalization / Slothful induction Misleading vividness Overwhelming exception Vagueness / ambiguity Accent Amphibology Continuum fallacy / Sorites paradox False precision Moving the goalposts Slippery slope Questionable cause Animistic ( Furtive ) Correlation proves causation ( Cum hoc ergo propter hoc ) Gambler 's ( inverse ) Post hoc Regression Single cause Slippery slope Texas sharpshooter Third - cause Wrong direction List of fallacies Other types of fallacy Philosophy portal Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cherry_picking&oldid=793859973 '' Categories : Inductive fallacies Informal fallacies Cognitive inertia Metaphors referring to food and drink Misuse of statistics Public relations techniques Error Misconduct Cheating Talk Contents About Wikipedia Català Deutsch Español فارسی Français 한국어 Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית Nederlands 日本 語 Português Русский Simple English Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Tagalog ไทย Tiếng Việt 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 4 August 2017 , at 11 : 36 . 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Popeye - wikipedia Popeye Jump to : navigation , search For other uses , see Popeye ( disambiguation ) . Popeye Popeye and J. Wellington Wimpy in E.C. Segar 's Thimble Theatre ( August 20 , 1933 ) Author ( s ) E.C. Segar ( creator , 1919 -- 1937 , 1938 ) Doc Winner ( 1937 , 1938 ) Tom Sims & Bela Zaboly ( 1938 -- 1955 ) Ralph Stein & Bela Zaboly ( 1954 -- 1959 ) Bud Sagendorf ( 1959 -- 1994 ) Bobby London ( 1986 -- 1992 ) Hy Eisman ( 1994 -- present ) Actors Robin Williams ( 1980 film ) Voice actors William Costello ( 1933 -- 1935 ) Detmar Poppen ( 1935 -- 1936 , radio only ) Floyd Buckley ( Be Kind To Animals , 1936 -- 1937 radio appearances ) Jack Mercer ( 1935 -- 1945 and 1947 -- 1984 ) Mae Questel ( Shape Ahoy ) Harry Foster Welch ( 1945 -- 1947 ) Maurice LaMarche ( 1985 -- present ) Billy West ( Popeye 's Voyage : The Quest for Pappy , Drawn Together , Minute Maid commercials ) Keith Scott ( Popeye and Bluto 's Bilge - Rat Barges ) Scott Innes ( commercials ) Tom Kenny ( 2014 animation test ) Website www.popeye.com comicskingdom.com/popeye Current status / schedule New strips on Sundays , reprints Monday through Saturday Launch date December 19 , 1919 End date July 30 , 1994 ( date of last first - run daily strip , Sunday strips continue ) Syndicate ( s ) King Features Syndicate Publisher ( s ) King Features Syndicate Genre ( s ) Humor , adventure Popeye the Sailor is a cartoon fictional character created by Elzie Crisler Segar . The character first appeared in the daily King Features comic strip , Thimble Theatre , on January 17 , 1929 , and Popeye became the strip 's title in later years ; Popeye has also appeared in theatrical and television animated cartoons . Segar 's Thimble Theatre strip was in its 10th year when Popeye made his debut , but the one - eyed ( left ) sailor quickly became the main focus of the strip , and Thimble Theatre became one of King Features ' most popular properties during the 1930s . After Segar 's death in 1938 , Thimble Theatre was continued by several writers and artists , most notably Segar 's assistant Bud Sagendorf . The strip continues to appear in first - run installments in its Sunday edition , written and drawn by Hy Eisman . The daily strips are reprints of old Sagendorf stories . In 1933 , Max Fleischer adapted the Thimble Theatre characters into a series of Popeye the Sailor theatrical cartoon shorts for Paramount Pictures . These cartoons proved to be among the most popular of the 1930s , and Fleischer -- and later Paramount 's own Famous Studios -- continued production through 1957 . These cartoon shorts are now owned by Turner Entertainment , a subsidiary of Time Warner , and distributed by its sister company Warner Bros. Entertainment . Over the years , Popeye has also appeared in comic books , television cartoons , arcade and video games , hundreds of advertisements , and peripheral products ( ranging from spinach to candy cigarettes ) , and the 1980 live - action film directed by Robert Altman , starring comedian Robin Williams as Popeye . In an interview , Charles Schulz said `` Popeye was a great favorite of mine ... I think Popeye was a perfect comic strip , consistent in drawing and humor '' . In 2002 , TV Guide ranked Popeye # 20 on its `` 50 Greatest Cartoon Characters of All Time '' list . In 2015 it was announced that the Popeye animated feature created by Genndy Tartakovsky ( Samurai Jack , Dexter 's Laboratory , Hotel Transylvania ) had been cancelled by Sony Pictures Animation , though a trailer for the film was released in 2016 and it was announced that screenwriter T.J. Fixman ( Ratchet & Clank ) has taken the project over with the intention of completing a new Popeye film . Contents ( hide ) 1 Fictional character and story 2 Thimble Theatre and Popeye comic strips 2.1 Artists after Segar 2.2 Reprints 3 Comic books 4 Theatrical animated cartoons 5 Original television cartoons 6 Theme song 7 Other media 7.1 Radio 7.2 Films 7.2. 1 Popeye ( 1980 ) 7.2. 2 Upcoming film 7.3 Video and pinball games 7.4 Marketing , tie - ins , and endorsements 8 Cultural origins and impact 8.1 The Popeye Dance 8.2 Spinach 8.3 Word coinages 8.4 Events and honors 9 Thimble Theatre / Popeye characters 9.1 Characters originating in the comic strips 9.2 Characters originating in the cartoons 10 Filmography 10.1 Theatrical 10.2 Television 10.3 Television specials 10.4 Live - action Feature Films 10.5 DVD collections 11 References 12 Further reading 13 External links Fictional character and story ( edit ) Differences in Popeye 's story and characterization vary depending on the medium . Originally , Popeye got his strength from rubbing the head of the Whiffle Hen , changing to spinach by 1932 . Swee'Pea is definitively Popeye 's ward in the comic strips , but he is often depicted as belonging to Olive Oyl in cartoons . The cartoons also occasionally feature members of Popeye 's family who have never appeared in the strip , notably his lookalike nephews Peepeye , Pupeye , Pipeye , and Poopeye . There is no absolute sense of continuity in the stories , although certain plot and presentation elements remain mostly constant , including purposeful contradictions in Popeye 's capabilities . Popeye seems bereft of manners and uneducated , yet he is often depicted as capable of coming up with solutions to problems that seem insurmountable to the police or , most importantly , the scientific community . Popeye has , alternatively , displayed Sherlock Holmes - like investigative prowess ( determining , for instance , that his beloved Olive was abducted by estimating the depth of the villains ' footprints in the sand ) , scientific ingenuity ( as his construction , within a few hours , of a `` spinach - drive '' spacecraft ) , or oversimplified ( yet successful ) diplomatic arguments ( by presenting his own existence -- and superhuman strength -- as the only true guarantee of world peace at diplomatic conferences ) . Popeye 's pipe also proves to be highly versatile . Among other things , it has served as a cutting torch , jet engine , propeller , periscope , and , of course , a whistle with which he produces his trademark toot . Popeye also on occasion eats spinach through his pipe , sometimes sucking in the can itself along with the contents . Since the 1970s , Popeye is seldom depicted using his pipe to smoke tobacco . Popeye 's exploits are also enhanced by a few recurring plot elements . One is the love triangle among Popeye , Olive , and Bluto , and the latter 's endless machinations to claim Olive at Popeye 's expense . Another is his near - saintly perseverance in overcoming any obstacle to please Olive , who often renounces Popeye for Bluto 's dime - store advances . She is the only character that Popeye will permit to give him a thumping . Finally , Popeye usually uncovers villainous plots by accidentally sneaking up on the antagonists as they brag about or lay out their schemes . Thimble Theatre and Popeye comic strips ( edit ) This section needs additional citations for verification . Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . ( January 2015 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) Thimble Theatre was cartoonist E. C. Segar 's third published strip when it first appeared in the New York Journal on December 19 , 1919 . The paper 's owner William Randolph Hearst also owned King Features Syndicate , which syndicated the strip . Thimble Theatre was intended as a replacement for Midget Movies by Ed Wheelan ( Wheelan having recently resigned from King Features ) . It did not attract a large audience at first , and at the end of its first decade appeared in only half a dozen newspapers . In its early years , the strip featured characters acting out various stories and scenarios in theatrical style ( hence the strip 's name ) . It could be classified as a gag - a-day comic in those days . Thimble Theatre 's first main characters were the thin Olive Oyl and her boyfriend Harold Hamgravy . After the strip moved away from its initial focus , it settled into a comedy - adventure style featuring Olive , Ham Gravy , and Olive 's enterprising brother Castor Oyl . Olive 's parents Cole and Nana Oyl also made frequent appearances . Popeye first appeared in the strip on January 17 , 1929 as a minor character . He was initially hired by Castor Oyl and Ham to crew a ship for a voyage to Dice Island , the location of a casino owned by the crooked gambler Fadewell . Castor intended to break the bank at the casino using the unbeatable good luck conferred by stroking the hairs on the head of Bernice the Whiffle Hen . Weeks later , on the trip back , Popeye was shot many times by Jack Snork , a stooge of Fadewell 's , but survived by rubbing Bernice 's head . After the adventure , Popeye left the strip but , due to reader reaction , he was quickly brought back . The Popeye character became so popular that he was given a larger role , and the strip was expanded into many more newspapers as a result . Initial strips presented Olive as being less than impressed with Popeye , but she eventually left Ham Gravy to become Popeye 's girlfriend and Ham Gravy left the strip as a regular . Over the years , however , she has often displayed a fickle attitude towards the sailor . Castor Oyl continued to come up with get - rich - quick schemes and enlisted Popeye in his misadventures . Eventually , he settled down as a detective and later on bought a ranch out West . Castor has seldom appeared in recent years . In 1933 , Popeye received a foundling baby in the mail , whom he adopted and named `` Swee'Pea . '' Other regular characters in the strip were J. Wellington Wimpy , a hamburger - loving moocher who would `` gladly pay you Tuesday for a hamburger today '' ( he was also soft - spoken and cowardly ; Vickers Wellington bombers were nicknamed `` Wimpys '' after the character ) ; George W. Geezil , a local cobbler who spoke in a heavily affected accent and habitually attempted to murder or wish death upon Wimpy ; and Eugene the Jeep , a yellow , vaguely dog - like animal from Africa with magical powers . In addition , the strip featured the Sea Hag , a terrible pirate , as well as the last witch on earth ( her even more terrible sister excepted ) ; Alice the Goon , a monstrous creature who entered the strip as the Sea Hag 's henchwoman and continued as Swee'Pea's babysitter ; and Toar , a caveman . Segar 's strip was quite different from the cartoons that followed . The stories were more complex , with many characters that never appeared in the cartoons ( King Blozo , for example ) . Spinach usage was rare and Bluto made only one appearance . Segar would sign some of his early Popeye comic strips with a cigar , due to his last name being a homophone of `` cigar '' ( pronounced SEE - gar ) . The success of the strip meant Segar was earning $100,000 a year at the time of his death . Thimble Theatre became one of King Features ' most popular strips during the 1930s . A poll of adult comic strip readers in the April 1937 issue of Fortune magazine voted Popeye their second favourite comic strip ( after Little Orphan Annie ) . By 1938 , Thimble Theatre was running in 500 newspapers , and over 600 licensed `` Popeye '' products were on sale . Following an eventual name change to Popeye in the 1970s , the comic remains one of the longest running strips in syndication today . After Mussolini came to power in Italy , he banned all American comic strips , but Popeye was so popular the Italians made him bring it back . The strip carried on after Segar 's death in 1938 , at which point he was replaced by a series of artists . In the 1950s , a spinoff strip was established , called Popeye the Sailorman . Artists after Segar ( edit ) Tom Sims and Bill Zaboly 's Thimble Theatre ( December 2 , 1951 ) After Segar 's death in 1938 , many different artists were hired to draw the strip . Tom Sims , the son of a Coosa River channel - boat captain , continued writing Thimble Theatre strips and established the Popeye the Sailorman spin - off . Doc Winner and Bela Zaboly , successively , handled the artwork during Sims 's run . Eventually , Ralph Stein stepped in to write the strip until the series was taken over by Bud Sagendorf in 1959 . Sagendorf wrote and drew the daily strip until 1986 , and continued to write and draw the Sunday strip until his death in 1994 . Sagendorf , who had been Segar 's assistant , made a definite effort to retain much of Segar 's classic style , although his art is instantly discernible . Sagendorf continued to use many obscure characters from the Segar years , especially O.G. Wotasnozzle and King Blozo . Sagendorf 's new characters , such as the Thung , also had a very Segar - like quality . What set Sagendorf apart from Segar more than anything else was his sense of pacing . Where plotlines moved very quickly with Segar , it would sometimes take an entire week of Sagendorf 's daily strips for the plot to be advanced even a small amount . From 1986 to 1992 , the daily strip was written and drawn by Bobby London , who , after some controversy , was fired from the strip for a story that could be taken to satirize abortion . London 's strips put Popeye and his friends in updated situations , but kept the spirit of Segar 's original . One classic storyline , titled `` The Return of Bluto '' , showed the sailor battling every version of the bearded bully from the comic strip , comic books , and animated films . The Sunday edition of the comic strip is currently drawn by Hy Eisman , who took over in 1994 . The daily strip began featuring reruns of Sagendorf 's strips after London was fired and continues to do so today . On January 1 , 2009 , 70 years since the death of his creator , Segar 's character of Popeye ( though not the various films , TV shows , theme music and other media based on him ) became public domain in most countries , but remains under copyright in the United States . Because Segar was an employee of King Features Syndicate when he created the Popeye character for the company 's Thimble Theatre strip , Popeye is treated as a work for hire under U.S. copyright law . Works for hire are protected for 95 years from publication or 120 years from creation , whichever is shorter . Since Popeye made his first appearance in January 1929 , and all U.S. copyrights expire on December 31 of the year that the term ends , Popeye will enter the public domain in the U.S. on January 1 , 2025 , assuming no amendments to U.S. copyright law before that date . Reprints ( edit ) Popeye the Sailor , Nostalgia Press , 1971 , reprints three daily stories from 1936 . Thimble Theatre , Hyperion Press , 1977 , ISBN 0 - 88355 - 663 - 4 , reprints daily from September 10 , 1928 missing 11 dailies which are included in the Fantagraphics reprints . Popeye , the First Fifty Years by Bud Sagendorf , Workman Publishing , 1979 ISBN 0 - 89480 - 066 - 3 , the only Popeye reprint in full color . The Complete E.C. Segar Popeye , Fantagraphics , 1980s , reprints all Segar Sundays featuring Popeye in 4 volumes , all Segar dailies featuring Popeye in 7 volumes , missing 4 dailies which are included in the Hyperion reprint , November 20 -- 22 , 1928 , August 22 , 1929 . Popeye . The 60th Anniversary Collection , Hawk Books Limited , 1989 , ISBN 0 - 948248 - 86 - 6 featuring reprints a selection of strips and stories from the first newspaper strip in 1929 onwards , along with articles on Popeye in comics , books , collectables , etc . E.C. Segar 's Popeye , between 2006 and 2011 , Fantagraphics Books published six oversized hardcover volumes , reprinting all dailies and Sundays ( in color , along with Sappo ) featuring Popeye , plus various extras . Vol. 1 : I Yam What I Yam -- covers 1928 -- 30 ( November 22 , 2006 , ISBN 978 - 1 - 56097 - 779 - 7 ) Vol. 2 : Well Blow Me Down ! -- covers 1930 -- 32 ( December 19 , 2007 , ISBN 978 - 1 - 56097 - 874 - 9 ) Vol. 3 : Let 's You and Him Fight ! -- covers 1932 -- 33 ( November 15 , 2008 , ISBN 978 - 1 - 56097 - 962 - 3 ) Vol. 4 : Plunder Island -- covers 1933 -- 35 ( December 22 , 2009 , ISBN 978 - 1 - 60699 - 169 - 5 ) Vol. 5 : Wha 's a Jeep -- covers 1935 -- 37 ( March 21 , 2011 , ISBN 978 - 1 - 60699 - 404 - 7 ) Vol. 6 : Me Li'l Swee'Pea -- covers 1937 -- 38 ( November 15 , 2011 , ISBN 978 - 1 - 60699 - 483 - 2 ) Comic books ( edit ) Bud Sagendorf 's cover of Popeye # 50 ( Oct. - Dec. 1959 ) shows Popeye with his corncob pipe , single good eye and girlfriend Olive Oyl . There have been a number of Popeye comic books , from Dell , King Comics , Gold Key Comics , Charlton Comics and others , originally written and illustrated by Bud Sagendorf . In the Dell comics , Popeye became something of a crimefighter , thwarting evil organizations and Bluto 's criminal activities . The new villains included the numerous Misermite dwarfs , who were all identical . Popeye appeared in the British `` TV Comic '' series , a News of the World publication , becoming the cover story in 1960 with stories written and drawn by `` Chick '' Henderson . Bluto was referred to as Brutus and was Popeye 's only nemesis throughout the entire run . A variety of artists have created Popeye comic book stories since then ; for example , George Wildman drew Popeye stories for Charlton Comics from 1969 until the late 1970s . The Gold Key series was illustrated by Wildman and scripted by Bill Pearson , with some issues written by Nick Cuti . In 1988 , Ocean Comics released the Popeye Special written by Ron Fortier with art by Ben Dunn . The story presented Popeye 's origin story , including his given name of `` Ugly Kidd '' and attempted to tell more of a lighthearted adventure story as opposed to using typical comic strip style humor . The story also featured a more realistic art style and was edited by Bill Pearson , who also lettered and inked the story as well as the front cover . A second issue , by the same creative team , followed in 1988 . The second issue introduced the idea that Bluto and Brutus were actually twin brothers and not the same person , an idea also used in the comic strip on December 28 , 2008 and April 5 , 2009 . In 1999 , to celebrate Popeye 's 70th anniversary , Ocean Comics revisited the franchise with a one - shot comic book , entitled The Wedding of Popeye and Olive Oyl , written by Peter David . The comic book brought together a large portion of the casts of both the comic strip and the animated shorts , and Popeye and Olive Oyl were finally wed after decades of courtship . However , this marriage has not been reflected in all media since the comic was published . In 1989 , a special series of short Popeye comic books were included in specially marked boxes of Instant Quaker Oatmeal , and Popeye also appeared in three TV commercials for Quaker Oatmeal , which featured a parrot delivering the tag line `` Popeye wants a Quaker ! '' The plots were similar to those of the films : Popeye loses either Olive Oyl or Swee'Pea to a muscle - bound antagonist , eats something invigorating , and proceeds to save the day . In this case , however , the invigorating elixir was not his usual spinach , but rather one of four flavors of Quaker Oatmeal . ( A different flavor was showcased with each mini-comic . ) The comics ended with the sailor saying , `` I 'm Popeye the Quaker Man ! '' , which offended members of the Religious Society of Friends or Quakers . Members of this religious group ( which has no connection to the cereal company ) are pacifists and do not believe in using violence to resolve conflicts . For Popeye to call himself a `` Quaker man '' after beating up someone was offensive to the Quakers and considered a misrepresentation of their faith and religious beliefs . In addition , the submissiveness of Olive Oyl went against the Quakers ' emphasis on women 's rights . The Quaker Oatmeal company apologized and removed the `` Popeye the Quaker man '' reference from commercials and future comic book printings . In 2012 , writer Roger Langridge teamed with cartoonists Bruce Ozella , Ken Wheaton , and Tom Neely ( among others ) to revive the spirit of Segar in IDW 's 12 - issue comic book miniseries , Popeye , Critic PS Hayes reviewed : Langridge writes a story with a lot of dialogue ( compared to your average comic book ) and it 's all necessary , funny , and entertaining . Bruce Ozella draws the perfect Popeye . Not only Popeye , but Popeye 's whole world . Everything looks like it should , cartoony and goofy . Plus , he brings an unusual amount of detail to something that does n't really need it . You 'll swear that you 're looking at an old Whitman Comics issue of Popeye , only it 's better . Ozella is a great storyteller and even though the issue is jam packed with dialog , the panels never look cramped at all . In late 2012 , IDW began reprinting the original 1940s -- 1950s Sagendorf Popeye comic books under the title of Classic Popeye . Theatrical animated cartoons ( edit ) Main article : Popeye the Sailor ( animated cartoons ) Play media Popeye the Sailor Meets Sindbad the Sailor In November 1932 , King Features signed an agreement with Fleischer Studios to have Popeye and the other Thimble Theatre characters begin appearing in a series of animated cartoons . The first cartoon in the series was released in 1933 , and Popeye cartoons , released by Paramount Pictures , would remain a staple of Paramount 's release schedule for nearly 25 years . William Costello was the original voice of Popeye , a voice that would be replicated by later performers , such as Jack Mercer and even Mae Questel . Many of the Thimble Theatre characters , including Wimpy , Poopdeck Pappy , and Eugene the Jeep , eventually made appearances in the Paramount cartoons , though appearances by Olive Oyl 's extended family and Ham Gravy were notably absent . Thanks to the animated - short series , Popeye became even more of a sensation than he had been in comic strips , and by 1938 , polls showed that the sailor was Hollywood 's most popular cartoon character . In every Popeye cartoon , the sailor is invariably put into what seems like a hopeless situation , upon which ( usually after a beating ) , a can of spinach which he apparently regularly carries with him falls out from inside his shirt . Popeye immediately pops the can open and gulps the entire contents of it into his mouth , or sometimes sucks in the spinach through his corncob pipe . Upon swallowing the spinach , Popeye 's physical strength immediately becomes superhuman , and he is easily able to save the day ( and very often rescue Olive Oyl from a dire situation ) . It did not stop there , as spinach could also give Popeye the skills and powers he needed , as in The Man on the Flying Trapeze , where it gave him acrobatic skills . ( When the antagonist is the Sea Hag , it is Olive who eats the spinach ; Popeye ca n't hit a lady . ) Play media Bride and Gloom In May 1942 , Paramount Pictures assumed ownership of Fleischer Studios , fired the Fleischers and began reorganizing the studio , which they renamed Famous Studios . The early Famous - era shorts were often World War II - themed , featuring Popeye fighting Nazis and Japanese soldiers , most notably the 1942 short You 're a Sap , Mr. Jap . In late 1943 , the Popeye series was moved to Technicolor production , beginning with Her Honor the Mare . Famous / Paramount continued producing the Popeye series until 1957 , with Spooky Swabs being the last of the 125 Famous shorts in the series . Paramount then sold the Popeye film catalog to Associated Artists Productions , which was bought out by United Artists in 1958 and merged with Metro - Goldwyn - Mayer 23 years later , which was itself purchased by Turner Entertainment in 1986 . Then Turner sold off the production end of MGM / UA shortly after , but retained the film catalog , giving it the rights to the theatrical Popeye library . The black - and - white Popeye shorts were shipped to South Korea in 1985 , where artists retraced them into color . The retraced shorts were syndicated in 1987 on a barter basis , and remained available until the early 1990s . Turner merged with Time Warner in 1996 , and Warner Bros. ( through its Turner subsidiary ) therefore currently controls the rights to the Popeye shorts . In 2001 , the Cartoon Network , under the supervision of animation historian Jerry Beck , created a new incarnation of The Popeye Show . The show aired the Fleischer and Famous Studios Popeye shorts in versions approximating their original theatrical releases by editing copies of the original opening and closing credits ( taken or recreated from various sources ) onto the beginnings and ends of each cartoon , or in some cases , in their complete , uncut original theatrical versions direct from such prints that originally contained the front - and - end Paramount credits . The series aired 135 Popeye shorts over forty - five episodes , until March 2004 . The Popeye Show continued to air on Cartoon Network 's spin - off network Boomerang . While many of the Paramount Popeye cartoons remained unavailable on video , a handful of those cartoons had fallen into public domain and were found on numerous low budget VHS tapes and later DVDs . When Turner Entertainment acquired the cartoons in 1986 , a long and laborious legal struggle with King Features kept the majority of the original Popeye shorts from official video releases for more than 20 years . King Features instead opted to release a DVD boxed set of the 1960s made - for - television Popeye the Sailor cartoons , to which it retained the rights , in 2004 . In the meantime , home video rights to the Associated Artists Productions library were transferred from CBS / Fox Video to MGM / UA Home Video in 1986 , and eventually to Warner Home Video in 1999 . In 2006 , Warner Home Video announced it would release all of the Popeye cartoons produced for theatrical release between 1933 and 1957 on DVD , restored and uncut . Three volumes were released between 2007 and 2008 , covering all of the Fleischer era and the beginnings of the Famous era . Original television cartoons ( edit ) In 1960 , King Features Syndicate commissioned a new series of cartoons entitled Popeye the Sailor , but this time for television syndication . Al Brodax served as executive producer of the cartoons for King Features . Jack Mercer , Mae Questel , and Jackson Beck returned for this series , which was produced by a number of companies , including Jack Kinney Productions , Rembrandt Films ( William L. Snyder and Gene Deitch ) , Larry Harmon Productions , Halas and Batchelor , Paramount Cartoon Studios ( formerly Famous Studios ) , and Southern Star Entertainment ( formerly Southern Star Productions ) . The artwork was streamlined and simplified for the television budgets , and 220 cartoons were produced in only two years , with the first set of them premiering in the autumn of 1960 , and the last of them debuting during the 1961 -- 1962 television season . Since King Features had exclusive rights to these Popeye cartoons , 85 of them were released on DVD as a 75th anniversary Popeye boxed set in 2004 . For these cartoons , Bluto 's name was changed to `` Brutus '' , as King Features believed at the time that Paramount owned the rights to the name `` Bluto '' . Many of the cartoons made by Paramount used plots and storylines taken directly from the comic strip sequences -- as well as characters like King Blozo and the Sea Hag . The 1960s cartoons have been issued on both VHS and DVD . On September 9 , 1978 , The All New Popeye Hour debuted on the CBS Saturday morning lineup . It was an hour - long animated series produced by Hanna - Barbera Productions , which tried its best to retain the style of the original comic strip ( Popeye returned to his original costume and Brutus to his original name of Bluto ) , while complying with the prevailing content restrictions on violence . In addition to providing many of the cartoon scripts , Mercer continued to voice Popeye , while Marilyn Schreffler and Allan Melvin became the new voices of Olive Oyl and Bluto , respectively . ( Mae Questel actually auditioned for Hanna - Barbera to recreate Olive Oyl , but was rejected in favor of Schreffler . ) The All New Popeye Hour ran on CBS until September 1981 , when it was cut to a half - hour and retitled The Popeye and Olive Show . It was removed from the CBS lineup in September 1983 , the year before Jack Mercer 's death . These cartoons have also been released on VHS and DVD . During the time these cartoons were in production , CBS aired The Popeye Valentine 's Day Special -- Sweethearts at Sea on February 14 , 1979 . In the UK , the BBC aired a half - hour version of The All New Popeye Show , from the early - 1980s to 2004 . Popeye briefly returned to CBS in 1987 for Popeye and Son , another Hanna - Barbera series , which featured Popeye and Olive as a married couple with a son named Popeye Jr. , who hates the taste of spinach but eats it to boost his strength . Maurice LaMarche performed Popeye 's voice ; Mercer had died in 1984 . The show lasted for one season . Popeye as he appeared in Drawn Together In 2004 , Lions Gate Entertainment produced a computer - animated television special , Popeye 's Voyage : The Quest for Pappy , which was made to coincide with the 75th anniversary of Popeye . Billy West performed the voice of Popeye , describing the production as `` the hardest job I ever did , ever '' and the voice of Popeye as `` like a buzzsaw on your throat '' . The uncut version was released on DVD on November 9 , 2004 ; and was aired in a re-edited version on Fox on December 17 , 2004 and again on December 30 , 2005 . Its style was influenced by the 1930s Fleischer cartoons , and featured Swee'Pea , Wimpy , Bluto ( who is Popeye 's friend in this version ) , Olive Oyl , Poopdeck Pappy and the Sea Hag as its characters . On November 6 , 2007 , Lions Gate Entertainment re-released Popeye 's Voyage on DVD with redesigned cover art . Popeye has made brief parody appearances in modern animated productions , including : A typical Popeye style rescue was spoofed in The Simpsons episode `` Jaws Wired Shut '' . In The Critic , Jay Sherman 's father Franklin flashes back to saving his wife Popeye style with alcohol instead of spinach . Popeye appeared in the Drawn Together episode `` The Lemon - AIDS Walk '' , voiced by Billy West . In the Family Guy episode `` You May Now Kiss the ... Uh ... Guy Who Receives '' , Popeye 's unique behavior and speech patterns are explained as being the result of a stroke , and his massive forearm muscles are actually cancerous tumors . Popeye co-stars in a short from Seth MacFarlane 's Cavalcade of Cartoon Comedy giving Bob Dylan a hard time about him not singing his hit song , `` Blowin ' in the Wind '' . Popeye appeared in the Robot Chicken episodes `` The Sack '' , `` Squaw Bury Shortcake '' and `` Yancy the Yo - Yo Boy '' , voiced by Dave Coulier ( which he was known to perform often during his co-starring role on the ABC sitcom Full House ) . Popeye appeared in the South Park `` Imaginationland '' three - parter as one of the members of the Council of Nine . Popeye 's appearance in one scene evoked that of the character Karl in the movie Sling Blade , as Popeye sharpened a blade , much as Karl sharpened a lawnmower blade near the end of Sling Blade . Theme song ( edit ) Popeye 's theme song , titled `` I 'm Popeye The Sailor Man '' , composed by Sammy Lerner in 1933 for Fleischer 's first Popeye the Sailor cartoon , has become forever associated with the sailor . `` The Sailor 's Hornpipe '' has often been used as an introduction to Popeye 's theme song . A cover of the theme song , performed by Face to Face , is included on the 1995 tribute album Saturday Morning : Cartoons ' Greatest Hits , produced by Ralph Sall for MCA Records . A jazz version , performed by Ted Kooshian 's Standard Orbit Quartet , appears on their 2009 Summit Records release Underdog and Other Stories . Playground song parodies of the theme have become part of children 's street culture around the world , usually interpolating `` frying pan '' or `` garbage can '' into the lyrics as Popeye 's dwelling place and ascribing to the character various unsavory actions or habits that transform the character into an `` Anti-Popeye '' , and changing his exemplary spinach - based diet into an inedible morass of worms , onions , flies , tortillas and snot . Other media ( edit ) The success of Popeye as a comic - strip and animated character has led to appearances in many other forms . For more than 20 years , Stephen DeStefano has been the artist drawing Popeye for King Features licensing . Radio ( edit ) Popeye was adapted to radio in several series broadcast over three different networks by two sponsors from 1935 to 1938 . Popeye and most of the major supporting characters were first featured in a thrice - weekly 15 - minute radio program , Popeye the Sailor , which starred Detmar Poppen as Popeye along with most of the major supporting characters -- Olive Oyl ( Olive Lamoy ) , Wimpy ( Charles Lawrence ) , Bluto ( Jackson Beck ) and Swee'Pea ( Mae Questel ) . In the first episode , Popeye adopted Sonny ( Jimmy Donnelly ) , a character later known as Matey the Newsboy . This program was broadcast Tuesday , Thursday and Saturday nights at 7 : 15pm . September 10 , 1935 through March 28 , 1936 on the NBC Red Network ( 87 episodes ) , initially sponsored by Wheatena , a whole - wheat breakfast cereal , which would routinely replace the spinach references . Music was provided by Victor Irwin 's Cartoonland Band . Announcer Kelvin Keech sang ( to composer Lerner 's `` Popeye '' theme ) `` Wheatena is his diet / He asks you to try it / With Popeye the sailor man . '' Wheatena paid King Features Syndicate $1,200 per week . The show was next broadcast Mondays , Wednesdays and Fridays from 7 : 15 to 7 : 30pm on WABC and ran from August 31 , 1936 to February 26 , 1937 ( 78 episodes ) . Floyd Buckley played Popeye , and Miriam Wolfe portrayed both Olive Oyl and the Sea Hag . Once again , reference to spinach was conspicuously absent . Instead , Popeye sang , `` Wheatena 's me diet / I ax ya to try it / I 'm Popeye the Sailor Man '' . The third series was sponsored by the maker of Popsicle three nights a week for 15 minutes at 6 : 15 pm on CBS from May 2 , 1938 through July 29 , 1938 . Of the three series , only 20 of the 204 episodes are known to be preserved . Popeye was recently featured on the Brad and John : Mornings on KISM `` When Animals Attack '' segment . Films ( edit ) Popeye ( 1980 ) ( edit ) Popeye Village Main article : Popeye ( 1980 film ) Director Robert Altman used the character in Popeye , a 1980 live - action musical feature film , starring Robin Williams as Popeye ( his first movie role ) , Shelley Duvall as Olive Oyl , and Paul L. Smith as Bluto , with songs by Harry Nilsson and Van Dyke Parks . The script was by Jules Feiffer , who adapted the 1971 Nostalgia Press book of 1936 strips for his screenplay , thus retaining many of the characters created by Segar . A co-production of Paramount Pictures and Walt Disney Productions , the movie was filmed almost entirely on Malta , in the village of Mellieħa on the northwest coast of the island . The set is now a tourist attraction called Popeye Village . The US box office earnings were double the film 's budget , making it a success . Upcoming film ( edit ) In March 2010 , it was reported that Sony Pictures Animation is developing a 3 - D computer - animated Popeye film , with Avi Arad producing it . In November 2011 , Sony Pictures Animation announced that Jay Scherick and David Ronn , the writers of The Smurfs , are writing the screenplay for the film . In June 2012 , it was reported that Genndy Tartakovsky had been set to direct the feature , which he planned to make `` as artful and unrealistic as possible . '' In November 2012 , Sony Pictures Animation set the release date for September 26 , 2014 , which was , in May 2013 , pushed back to 2015 . In March 2014 , Sony Pictures Animation updated its slate , scheduling the film for 2016 , and announcing Tartakovsky as the director of Hotel Transylvania 2 , which he was directing concurrently with Popeye . On September 18 , 2014 , Tartakovsky revealed an `` animation test '' footage , about which he said , `` It 's just something that kind of represents what we want to do . I could n't be more excited by how it turned out . '' In March 2015 , Tartakovsky announced that despite the well - received test footage , he was no longer working on the project , and would instead direct Can You Imagine ? , which is based on his own original idea . Nevertheless , Sony Pictures Animation stated the project still remains in active development . In January 2016 , it was announced that T.J. Fixman would write the film . Video and pinball games ( edit ) Nintendo created a widescreen Game & Watch called Popeye in 1981 . The handheld game featured Popeye on a boat , and the aim was to catch bottles , pineapples , and spinach cans thrown by Olive Oyl while trying to avoid Bluto 's boat . If Bluto hit Popeye on the head with his mallet or Popeye failed to catch an object three times , the game would end . The Nintendo arcade game Donkey Kong was originally conceived as a Popeye video game by Shigeru Miyamoto . But due to licensing disagreements with King Features , this idea was scrapped . When Donkey Kong went on to enormous success , King Features agreed to license the characters to Nintendo to create a Popeye arcade game in 1982 . It was later ported to the Commodore 64 home computer as well as various home game consoles : Intellivision , Atari 2600 , ColecoVision , Famicom / NES , and Odyssey . The goal was to avoid Bluto ( referred to as `` Brutus '' ) and the Sea Hag while collecting items produced by Olive Oyl such as hearts , musical notes , or the letters in the word `` help '' ( depending on the level ) . Hitting a can of spinach gave Popeye a brief chance to strike back at Brutus . Other characters such as Wimpy and Swee ' Pea appeared in the game but did not greatly affect gameplay . A board game based on the video game was released by Parker Brothers . A table top Game & Watch style game was also released by Nintendo in 1983 , which featured Popeye trying to rescue Olive while engaging in fisticuffs with Bluto . Nintendo created another Popeye game for the Famicom , Popeye no Eigo Asobi , in 1983 . This was an educational game designed to teach Japanese children English words . Two Popeye games published by Sigma Enterprises were spawned for the Game Boy . The first Game Boy Popeye game , which was released exclusively in Japan in 1990 , and Popeye 2 in 1991 . Popeye 2 was also released in North America ( 1993 ) and Europe ( 1994 ) by Activision . In 1994 , Technos Japan released Popeye : Beach Volleyball for the Game Gear , and Popeye : Volume of the Malicious Witch Seahag ( Popeye : Ijiwaru Majo Shihaggu no Maki ) for the Japanese Super Famicom . A side scrolling adventure game that was mixed with a board game , the game never saw US release , but a ROM of the game can be found at various emulation sites . It featured many characters from the Thimble Theatre series as well . In the game , Popeye had to recover magical hearts scattered across the level to restore his frozen friends as part of a spell cast upon them by the Sea Hag in order to get revenge on Popeye . Midway ( under the Bally label ) released Popeye Saves the Earth , a SuperPin pinball game , in 1994 . In 2003 , Nova Productions released a strength tester called Popeye Strength Tester . In 2005 , Namco released a Game Boy Advance video game called Popeye : Rush for Spinach . Released June 2007 , the video game The Darkness featured televisions that played full - length films and television shows that had expired copyrights . Most of the cartoons viewable on the `` Toon TV '' channel are Famous Studios Popeye shorts . In fall 2007 , Namco Networks released the original Nintendo Popeye arcade game for mobile phones with new features including enhanced graphics and new levels . Marketing , tie - ins , and endorsements ( edit ) From early on , Popeye was heavily merchandised . Everything from soap to razor blades to spinach was available with Popeye 's likeness on it . Most of these items are rare and sought - after by collectors , but some merchandise is still being produced . Games and toys Mezco Toyz makes classic - style Popeye figures in two sizes . KellyToys produces plush stuffed Popeye characters . Restaurants Popeyes Louisiana Kitchen ( aka Popeyes Chicken & Biscuits ) , a fast food restaurant chain , is not named after Popeye the Sailor but after the character `` Popeye '' Doyle from the 1971 film The French Connection , who was in turn named after real police detective Eddie Egan , who was called `` Pop Eye '' because of his keen observational skills . The restaurant chain would later obtain a license for use of the cartoon character and advertise the name as Popeye 's after Popeye the Sailor , causing some confusion as to the source of the name . Popeyes Louisiana Kitchen locations in Puerto Rico make extensive use of Popeye the Sailor and associated characters . Wimpy 's name was borrowed for the Wimpy restaurant chain , one of the first international fast food restaurants featuring hamburgers , which they call `` Wimpy Burgers '' . Retail foods and beverages Allen Canning Company produces its own line of spinach , called `` Popeye Spinach '' , in various canned varieties . The cartoon Popeye serves as the mascot on the can . In 1961 , Buitoni Pasta marketed Popeye - shaped spinach macaroni . Popeye appeared in a 1979 Dr Pepper commercial during the `` Be a Pepper '' campaign ( possibly as a tie - in for the movie , going so far as to modify his traditional catchphrase to `` I 'm Popeye the Pepper - man '' ) . Since 1989 , `` Popeye 's Supplements '' has been a chain of Canadian Sports Nutrition Stores . In 1989 , Popeye endorsed Instant Quaker Oatmeal , citing it as a better food than spinach to provide strength . The commercials had the tagline `` Can the spinach , I wants me Quaker Oatmeal ! '' The Religious Society of Friends ( also known as the Quakers ) was offended by the promotion given the physical aggression from `` Popeye the Quaker man '' and also the excessive submissiveness of Olive Oyl . In 2001 , Popeye ( along with Bluto , Olive , and twin Wimpys ) appeared in a television commercial for Minute Maid Orange juice . The commercial , produced by Leo Burnett Co , showed Popeye and Bluto as friends ( and neglecting Olive Oyl ) due to their having had Minute Maid Orange Juice that morning . The ad agency 's intention was to show that even the notable enemies would be in a good mood after their juice , but some , including Robert Knight of the Culture and Family Institute , felt the commercial 's intent was to portray the pair in a homosexual romantic relationship -- while there is nothing wrong with that , it is a suggestion that Minute Maid denies . Knight was interviewed by Stephen Colbert on Comedy Central 's The Daily Show about this issue . World Candies Inc. produced Popeye - branded `` candy cigarettes '' , which were small sugar sticks with red dye at the end to simulate a flame . They were sold in a small box , similar to a cigarette pack . The company still produces the item , but has since changed the name to `` Popeye Candy Sticks '' and has ceased putting the red dye at the end . In 2013 , McLean Design produced a packaging design using licensed characters and artwork for a Popeye branded energy drink . The drink is launching in the US with two flavors . Sports Starting in 1940 , Popeye became the mascot of Flamengo ( Rio de Janeiro -- Brazil ) , the most popular soccer team with almost 50 million fans around the world . The mascot of the soccer club is currently a cartoon vulture . World War II propaganda poster Other In 1979 , salsa singer Adalberto Santiago releases Adalberto Santiago Featuring Popeye El Marino . Fania Records JM 536 . During the 1960s , Popeye appeared in advertising for Crown gasoline . In 1987 , Stabur Graphics commissioned artist Will Elder to paint `` Popeye 's Wedding '' as oil on masonite . Released was a stamped , numbered and signed Limited Edition lithograph , edition size of 395 . The lithograph shows Popeye and Olive Oyl in front of the preacher ( Popeye slipping a lifesaver - ring onto Olive 's finger ) along with Nana Oyl , Alice the Goon , Swee'Pea ( cradled in Popeye 's free arm ) , Wimpy , Granny , Eugene the Jeep and Brutus ( holding a large cauldron of steaming , cooked rice ) . Twenty - one other characters watch from the pews . The litho is titled `` Wit Dis Lifesaver , I Dee Wed ! '' and is pictured on page 83 of the book `` Chicken Fat '' by Will Elder ( Fantagraphics , 2006 ) . In 1990 , Popeye appeared in an advertisement warning of the harmful effects of coastal pollution . Bluto is laughing as he carelessly dumps garbage over the side of his boat , to which Olive reacts in horror as seagulls and other sea creatures are caught in six pack ring holders . Popeye punches out Bluto and cleans up his garbage ; however , when some more plastic garbage sails by Popeye 's boat , he says unsurprisingly , `` I ca n't do it all meself , you know ! '' In 1995 , the Popeye comic strip was one of 20 included in the Comic Strip Classics series of commemorative U.S. postage stamps . From 1996 to 1999 , the Darien Lake theme park in Western New York operated a `` Popeye 's Seaport '' in the park . It was rebranded as `` Looney Tunes Seaport '' after Darien Lake came under the Six Flags banner . In the 1997 film Alien : Resurrection , John Vriess ( Dominique Pinion ) whistles the Popeye theme song . In 2006 , King Features Syndicate produced a radio spot and an industrial for the United States Power Squadrons featuring Robyn Gryphe as Olive and Allen Enlow as Popeye . In October 2007 , to coincide with the launch of the Popeye mobile game , Namco Networks and Sprint launched a Popeye the Sailorman sweepstakes offering the authorized edition four - disc Popeye the Sailor : 1933 -- 1938 Vol. 1 DVD set as grand prize . In Islands of Adventure , there is a river rafting water ride , Popeye and Bluto 's Bilge - Rat Barges , themed after Popeye the Sailor saving Olive Oyl from Bluto . Cultural origins and impact ( edit ) Popeye on a Spanish Republican Air Force Polikarpov I - 16 . Museo del Aire Local folklore in Chester , Illinois , Segar 's hometown , claims that Popeye is based on Frank `` Rocky '' Fiegel , a man who was handy with his fists . Fiegel was born on January 27 , 1868 . He lived as a bachelor his entire life . According to local Popeye historian Michael Brooks , Segar regularly sent money to Fiegel . Culturally , many consider Popeye a precursor to the superheroes who would eventually come to dominate US comic books . Such has been Popeye 's cultural impact that the medical profession sometimes refers to the biceps bulge symptomatic of a tendon rupture as the `` Popeye muscle . '' Note , however , that under normal ( non-spinach - influenced ) conditions , Popeye has pronounced muscles of the forearm , not of the biceps . In 1973 , Cary Bates created Captain Strong , a takeoff of Popeye , for DC Comics , as a way of having two cultural icons -- Superman and ( a proxy of ) Popeye -- meet . The 1988 Disney / Touchstone film Who Framed Roger Rabbit featured many classic cartoon characters , and the absence of Popeye was noted by some critics . Popeye ( along with Bluto and Olive Oyl ) actually had a role planned for the film . However , since the Popeye cartoons were based on a comic strip , Disney found they had to pay licensing fees to both King Features Syndicate and MGM / UA . MGM / UA 's pre-May 1986 library ( which included Popeye ) was being purchased by Turner Entertainment at the time , which created legal complications ; thus , the rights could not be obtained and Popeye 's cameo was dropped from the film . The Popeye dance ( edit ) The Popeye was a popular dance in the dance craze era of the late 1950s and early 1960s . Originating in New Orleans around 1962 , the Popeye was performed by shuffling and moving one 's arms , placing one arm behind and one arm in front and alternating them , going through the motion of raising a pipe up to the mouth , and alternate sliding or pushing one foot back in the manner of ice skating , similar to motions exhibited by the cartoon character . According to music historian Robert Pruter , the Popeye was even more popular than The Twist in New Orleans . The dance was associated with and / or referenced to in several songs , including Eddie Bo 's `` Check Mr. Popeye , '' Chris Kenner 's `` Something You Got '' and `` Land of a Thousand Dances , '' Frankie Ford 's `` You Talk Too Much , '' Ernie K - Doe 's `` Popeye Joe , '' Huey `` Piano '' Smith 's `` Popeye , '' and Harvey Fuqua 's `` Any Way You Wanta . '' A compilation of 23 Popeye dance songs was released in 1996 under the title `` New Orleans Popeye Party . '' Spinach ( edit ) Initially Popeye 's chief superhuman characteristic was his indestructibility , rather than super strength , which was attributed to his having rubbed the head of Bernice the Whiffle Hen numerous times after being shot . Popeye later attributed his strength to spinach . The popularity of Popeye helped boost spinach sales . Using Popeye as a role model for healthier eating may work ; a 2010 study revealed that children increased their vegetable consumption after watching Popeye cartoons . The spinach - growing community of Crystal City , Texas , erected a statue of the character in recognition of Popeye 's positive effects on the spinach industry . There is another Popeye statue in Segar 's hometown , Chester , Illinois , and statues in Springdale and Alma , Arkansas ( which claims to be `` The Spinach Capital of the World '' ) , at canning plants of Allen Canning , which markets Popeye - branded canned spinach . In addition to Allen Canning 's Popeye spinach , Popeye Fresh Foods markets bagged , fresh spinach with Popeye characters on the package . In 2006 , when spinach contaminated with E. coli was accidentally sold to the public , many editorial cartoonists lampooned the affair by featuring Popeye in their cartoons . A frequently circulated story claims that Fleischer 's choice of spinach to give Popeye strength was based on faulty calculations of its iron content . In the story , a scientist misplaced a decimal point in an 1870 measurement of spinach 's iron content , leading to an iron value ten times higher than it should have been . This faulty measurement was not noticed until the 1930s . While this story has gone through longstanding circulation , recent study has shown that this is a myth , and it was chosen for its vitamin A content alone ; see Spinach : Popeye and iron . Word coinages ( edit ) The strip is also responsible for popularizing , although not inventing , the word `` goon '' ( meaning a thug or lackey ) ; goons in Popeye 's world were large humanoids with indistinctly drawn faces that were particularly known for being used as muscle and slave labor by Popeye 's nemesis , the Sea Hag . One particular goon , the aforementioned female named Alice , was an occasional recurring character in the animated shorts , but she was usually a fairly nice character . Eugene the Jeep was introduced in the comic strip on March 13 , 1936 . Two years later the term `` jeep wagons '' was in use , later shortened to simply `` jeep '' with widespread World War II usage and then trademarked by Willys - Overland as `` Jeep '' . Events and honors ( edit ) The Popeye Picnic is held every year in Chester , Illinois on the weekend after Labor Day . Popeye fans attend from across the globe , including a visit by a film crew from South Korea in 2004 . The one - eyed sailor 's hometown strives to entertain devotees of all ages . In honor of Popeye 's 75th anniversary , the Empire State Building illuminated its notable tower lights green the weekend of January 16 -- 18 , 2004 as a tribute to the icon 's love of spinach . This special lighting marked the only time the Empire State Building ever celebrated the anniversary / birthday of a comic strip character . Thimble Theatre / Popeye characters ( edit ) Characters originating in the comic strips ( edit ) Popeye the Sailor Man Olive Oyl Ham Gravy ( full name Harold Hamgravy , Olive Oyl 's original boyfriend ) Castor Oyl ( Olive Oyl 's brother ) Cole Oyl ( Olive Oyl 's father ) Nana Oyl ( Olive Oyl 's mother ) Bernice ( The `` Whiffle Bird '' in 1960s King Features TV shorts ) Sutra oyl ( olive 's cousin ) Motor oyl ( sutra oyl 's punk husband ) The Sea Hag Salty the parott Ghost island 's ghost the doomsday doll The Sea Hag 's vultures , specifically Bernard J. Wellington Wimpy George W. Geezil ( the local cobbler who hates Wimpy ) Rough House ( a cook who runs a local restaurant , The Rough House ) Swee'Pea ( Popeye 's adopted baby son in the comics , Olive 's cousin in the cartoons ) King Blozo Misermites ( A race of thieving dwarves ) Toar ( a 900 - pound caveman living in the modern age ) Bluto / Brutus Goons , specifically Alice the Goon Poopdeck Pappy ( Popeye 's 99 - year - old long - lost father ; also a sailor ) Eugene the Jeep Saddarn Shahame ( dictator of Bananastan ) Barnacle ( salty ) Bill ( a fellow sailor and old friend ) Oscar Pooky Jones ( dwarf and poopdeck pappy 's best friend / partner in crime ) Horace ( Native American guide and friend of popeye ) Bolo ( Humanoid slave of the sea hag ) general Bunzo Patcheye the pirate ( popeye 's anscestor ) Oscar wimpy ( A.K.A. the nicest man on earth ) sir Pomeroy ( eplorator and later archeologist friend of popeye ) Liverstone ( popeye 's pet seagull ) Mary ann ( popeye 's adopted daughter for a few strips ) Jhonny Doodle ( pilot friend of olive ) Bill Squid ( rival of popeye ) Bullo Oxheart and his mother ( boxer rival of popeye ) Davy Jones Snagg and Baby Doll ( spinachovian criminals ) Battling McGnat ( popeye 's boxing manager ) B. Loony Bullony ( depressive cartoonist ) Georges the giant Dufus ( the son of a family friend ) Mars men ( coming in various forms ) Mr. Sloppy ( Co-owner of the rough house cafe ) SweetHaven short supremascist Granny ( Popeye 's grandmother and Poopdeck 's mother ) Professor O.G. Watasnozzle ( a character with a large nose , as his name indicates ) Otis O. Otis , `` The world 's smartest detective '' as well as Wimpy 's cousin filmmaker Otis Von Lens Cover Characters originating in the cartoons ( edit ) Pipeye , Pupeye , Poopeye , Peepeye ( Popeye 's identical nephews ) Shorty ( Popeye 's shipmate in three World War II - era Famous Studios shorts ) Diesel Oyl ( Olive 's identical niece , a conceited brat who appears in three of the 1960s King Features shorts ) Popeye , Jr. ( son of Popeye and Olive Oyl , exclusive of the series Popeye and Son ) Tank ( son of Brutus , exclusive of the series Popeye and Son ) Filmography ( edit ) Theatrical ( edit ) Popeye the Sailor ( produced by Fleischer Studios ) ( 1933 -- 1942 , 108 cartoons ) Popeye the Sailor ( produced by Famous Studios ) ( 1942 -- 1957 , 122 cartoons ) Television ( edit ) Popeye the Sailor ( 1960 -- 1962 ; produced by Jack Kinney Productions , Rembrandt Films ( animated by Gene Deitch ) , Halas and Batchelor , Larry Harmon Pictures , TV Spots , and Paramount Cartoon Studios for King Features Syndicate , 220 cartoons ) The All New Popeye Hour , later The Popeye and Olive Comedy Show ( 1978 -- 1983 , CBS ; produced by Hanna - Barbera Productions , 159 cartoons ) Popeye and Son ( 1987 -- 1988 , CBS ; produced by Hanna - Barbera Productions , 26 cartoons ) The Popeye Show ( 2001 -- 2003 , Cartoon Network , repeats ) Television specials ( edit ) Popeye Meets the Man Who Hated Laughter ( 1972 ) The Popeye Valentine 's Day Special : Sweethearts at Sea ( 1979 , produced by Hanna - Barbera Productions ) Popeye 's Voyage : The Quest for Pappy ( 2004 telefilm , produced by Mainframe Entertainment for Lions Gate Entertainment and King Features ) Live - action Feature Films ( edit ) Popeye ( 1980 live - action film , produced by Paramount Pictures and Walt Disney Productions , directed by Robert Altman ) DVD collections ( edit ) Popeye the Sailor : 1933 -- 1938 , Volume 1 ( released July 31 , 2007 ) features Fleischer cartoons released from 1933 through early 1938 and contains the color Popeye specials Popeye the Sailor Meets Sindbad the Sailor and Popeye the Sailor Meets Ali Baba 's Forty Thieves . Popeye the Sailor : 1938 -- 1940 , Volume 2 ( released June 17 , 2008 ) features Fleischer cartoons released from mid-1938 through 1940 and includes the last color Popeye special Aladdin and His Wonderful Lamp . Popeye the Sailor : 1941 -- 1943 , Volume 3 ( released November 4 , 2008 ) features the remaining black - and - white Popeye cartoons released from 1941 to 1943 , including the final Fleischer - produced and earliest Famous - produced entries in the series . Popeye -- 75th Anniversary Collector 's edition ( released April 27 , 2004 ) features 85 cartoons from the Popeye the Sailor 1960s series . Popeye and Friends : Volume 1 ( released June 17 , 2008 ) features a collection of eight cartoons from The All New Popeye Hour . A second volume containing cartoons from Popeye and Son was scheduled , but it was cancelled before being released ( it was subsequently released in the UK and Australia ) . References ( edit ) Jump up ^ Scott , Keith . `` Popeye 's Bilge - Rat Barges '' . Jump up ^ `` Popeye ( 2016 ) '' . behindthevoiceactors.com . Jump up ^ Segar , Elzie ( Crisler ) -- Encyclopædia Britannica Article . Britannica.com . Retrieved on March 29 , 2013 . ^ Jump up to : Goulart , Ron , `` Popeye '' , St. James Encyclopedia of Popular Culture . Detroit : St. James Press , 2000 . ( Volume 4 , pp. 87 - 8 ). ISBN 9781558624047 ^ Jump up to : Walker , Brian . The Comics : The Complete Collection . New York : Abrams ComicArts , 2011 . ( pp. 188 - 9,191 , 238 - 243 ) ISBN 9780810995956 Jump up ^ `` '' Popeye comes to DVD from Warner Home Video `` '' . Jump up ^ Mendelson , Lee and Schulz , Charles M. , Charlie Brown and Charlie Schulz : in celebration of the 20th anniversary of `` Peanuts '' . New York : New American Library , 1971 . ( p. 35 ) Jump up ^ TV Guide Book of Lists . Running Press . 2007 . p. 158 . ISBN 0 - 7624 - 3007 - 9 . Jump up ^ `` Sony Has Killed Genndy Tartakovsky 's ' Popeye ' '' . cartoonbrew.com . Jump up ^ `` Popeye Animated Movie Lands a New Screenwriter '' . screenrant.com . Jump up ^ `` 13 Interesting Popeye the Sailorman Facts '' . todayifoundout.com . December 3 , 2012 . ^ Jump up to : Clark , Alan and Laurel , Comics : An Illustrated History. London , Green Wood Publishing , 1992 . ISBN 9781872532554 ( p. 54 ) Jump up ^ Lambiek comic shop and studio in Amsterdam , The Netherlands ( June 16 , 2007 ) . `` Comic creator : Bill Zaboly '' . Lambiek.net . Retrieved November 30 , 2009 . Jump up ^ Bobby London Interview . comic-art.com . Retrieved on March 29 , 2013 . Jump up ^ CBC News , `` Popeye , Grey Owl and Robert Service join the public domain , '' January 12 , 2009 . Cbc.ca ( January 12 , 2009 ) . Retrieved on March 29 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Quinn , Gene ( January 5 , 2009 ) . `` Popeye Falls into Public Domain in Europe '' . IPWatchdog.com . Retrieved March 11 , 2011 . Jump up ^ Sterling , Mike ( September 20 , 2012 ) . `` I Sorta Do and Sorta Do n't Want This to Be Officially Part of Popeye 's Backstory '' . Progressive Ruin . Retrieved December 11 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Fortier , Ron ( w ) , Dunn , ( p ) , Pearson , Bill ( i ) . `` Borned to the Sea '' Popeye Special 1 ( June 1987 ) , Ocean Comics Jump up ^ Fortier , Ron ( w ) , Dunn , Ben , Grummett , Tom , Kato , Gary ( p ) , Barras , Dell ( i ) . `` Double Trouble Down Under '' Popeye Special 2 ( September 1988 ) , Ocean Comics Jump up ^ December 28 , 2008 Popeye Cartoon ; retrieved July 14 , 2009 . Jump up ^ April 5 , 2009 Popeye Cartoon ; retrieved July 14 , 2009 . ^ Jump up to : `` Popeye snubs his spinach for oatmeal '' . Pittsburgh Post-Gazette ( retrieved via Google News ) . 1990 - 03 - 28 . p. 22 . Retrieved 2013 - 08 - 29 . ^ Jump up to : Stieg , Bill ( 1990 - 04 - 24 ) . `` Popeye 's pugnacity steams up Quakers '' . Pittsburgh Post-Gazette ( retrieved via Google News ) . p. 6 . Retrieved 2013 - 08 - 29 . Jump up ^ `` Review : Popeye # 1 '' , Geeks of Doom , April 25 , 2012 . Geeksofdoom.com ( April 25 , 2012 ) . Retrieved on March 29 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` GAC Forums -- Popeye 's Popularity -- Article from 1935 '' . Forums.goldenagecartoons.com . Retrieved November 30 , 2009 . Jump up ^ `` Popeye From Strip To Screen '' . Awn.com . Retrieved November 30 , 2009 . Jump up ^ Ian . `` The S Dope Mailbag : Is Popeye 's nemesis named Bluto or Brutus ? '' . Straightdope.com . Retrieved November 30 , 2009 . Jump up ^ Penn 's Sunday School ( August 9 , 2012 ) . `` The many voices of Billy West '' -- via YouTube . Jump up ^ CD liner notes : Saturday Morning : Cartoons ' Greatest Hits , 1995 MCA Records Jump up ^ `` Popeye the Sailor Man '' . Jump up ^ `` Folklore from Contemporary Jamaicans '' . Jump up ^ `` popeye the sailor man '' . Jump up ^ `` Im Popeye the Sailor Man '' . Jump up ^ `` Yo Mama ! : New Raps , Toasts , Dozens , Jokes , and Children 's Rhymes from Urban Black America '' . Jump up ^ `` The Lore and Language of Schoolchildren '' ... for some reason he chiefly features in verses which are obscene . Jump up ^ `` American Children 's Folklore '' . Jump up ^ `` From Abba to Zoom : A Pop Culture Encyclopedia of the Late 20th Century '' . Jump up ^ `` Children 's Folklore : A SourceBook '' . Each parody creates a fictive world that stands as a miniature rite of rebellion , a vision of a counter-factual world inhabited by worm - eating garbage - can residents , and tortilla - wielding aunt - killers . The exemplary Popeye is converted into an anti-Popeye , exhibiting filthy and murderous qualities obviously anathema to the conventional etiquette . Jump up ^ `` A Clean Shaven Man '' , July 2010 . Fullecirclestuff.blogspot.com . Retrieved on March 29 , 2013 . Jump up ^ 1930s Popeye the Sailor Wheatena audio clip . Jump up ^ `` Sony making a CG Popeye Film '' . comingsoon.net . March 23 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Sony Pictures Animation and Arad Productions Set Jay Scherick & David Ronn to Write Animated POPEYE '' . Sony Pictures Animation via PR Newswire . November 3 , 2011 . Retrieved November 3 , 2011 . Jump up ^ Abrams , Rachel ( June 25 , 2012 ) . `` Helmer moves Sony 's 3D ' Popeye ' forward '' . Variety . Retrieved June 26 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Keegan , Rebecca ( August 25 , 2012 ) . `` Genndy Tartakovsky gets ' Hotel Transylvania ' open for business '' . Los Angeles Times . Retrieved August 28 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Kit , Borys ( November 9 , 2012 ) . `` ' Hotel Transylvania 2 ' in the Works for 2015 Release '' . The Hollywood Reporter . Retrieved November 10 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Jardine , William ( May 17 , 2013 ) . `` Sony Pushes Genndy Tartakovsky 's Popeye Back to 2015 '' . A113Animation . Retrieved May 22 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Kit , Borys ( March 12 , 2014 ) . `` Sony Animation Sets Slate : ' Smurfs ' , ' Transylvania 2 , ' More ( Exclusive ) '' . The Hollywood Reporter . Retrieved May 3 , 2014 . Jump up ^ McMillan , Graeme ( September 18 , 2014 ) . `` Sony Pictures Releases First Glimpse of Genndy Tartakovsky 's ' Popeye ' '' . The Hollywood Reporter . Retrieved March 14 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Han , Angie ( March 13 , 2015 ) . `` Genndy Tartakovsky Exits Sony 's ' Popeye ' '' . / Film . Retrieved March 14 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Khatchatourian , Maane ( March 14 , 2015 ) . `` Sony 's ' Popeye ' Loses Director Genndy Tartakovsky '' . Variety . Retrieved March 14 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Jaafar , Ali ( January 22 , 2016 ) . `` Sony Pictures Animation Brings In T.J. Fixman To Write ' Popeye ' '' . deadline.com . Jump up ^ `` Iwata Asks : New Super Mario Bros. Wii -- Mario Could n't Jump At First '' . Nintendo . Retrieved July 14 , 2011 . Jump up ^ `` Leading the Animation Conversation '' Popeyes in Puerto Rico `` . Cartoon Brew. April 24 , 2008 . Retrieved November 30 , 2009 . Jump up ^ `` Wimpy Burger -- Junk Food Heath Advice -- Wimpy Burgers , learn the truth '' . wimpyburgers.co.uk . Jump up ^ `` Popeye Spinach '' . Popeye Spinach . Retrieved November 30 , 2009 . Jump up ^ `` Popeye 's Supplements Canada ~ Over 120 Locations Across Canada ! - History '' . popeyescanada.com . Jump up ^ Punchy packaging for Popeye energy drink Food And Beverage News . Fandbnews.com ( January 30 , 2013 ) . Retrieved on March 29 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Club mascots ( in Portuguese ) . Flamengo official website . Retrieved January 18 , 2010 . Jump up ^ Namco Games . Jump up ^ Grandinetti , p. 4 . Jump up ^ Gregory , Ted ( 17 January 2004 ) . `` Popeye 's home fussin ' , fightin ' A Downstate town that gave birth 75 years ago to the spinach - chompin ' sailor is in a Bluto - type of brawl '' . Chicago Tribune . Retrieved 6 October 2016 . Jump up ^ Popeye : The First Fifty Years . New York : Workman Publishing . Pages 44 -- 45 . Jump up ^ Blackbeard , Bill , `` The First ( arf , arf ! ) Superhero of Them All '' . In Dick Lupoff & Don Thompson , ed. , All In Color For A Dime Arlington House , 1970 . Jump up ^ `` Management of Shoulder Impingement Syndrome and Rotator Cuff Tears -- February 15 , 1998 -- American Family Physician '' . Aafp.org . February 15 , 1998 . Retrieved November 30 , 2009 . Jump up ^ `` Guideline not published '' . Guideline.gov . Retrieved November 30 , 2009 . Jump up ^ Action Comics # 421 at OddballComics.com . Jump up ^ Superman and Cap'n Strong at the Quarter Bin . Jump up ^ O'Connor , John J. `` Who Framed Roger Rabbit -- Trailer -- Cast -- Showtimes -- NYTimes.com '' . Movies.nytimes.com . Retrieved November 30 , 2009 . Jump up ^ Robert Pruter . Chicago Soul . p. 196 . Jump up ^ `` Various Artists - New Orleans Popeye Party '' . allmusic.com . Retrieved June 11 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Bill Blackbeard , `` The First ( arf , arf ) Superhero of Them All '' . In All in Color for a Dime , ed. by Dick Lupoff and Don Thompson , Ace , 1970 . Jump up ^ Glen Weldon ; Michael Kantor . Superheroes ! : Capes cowls and the creation of comic book culture . p. 16 . Jump up ^ Hewitt , Katie ( August 16 , 2010 ) How to win the kids v. veggies battle , Toronto Globe and Mail Jump up ^ `` No Eats Me Spinach ! '' . Cagle.com . Retrieved November 30 , 2009 . Jump up ^ Hamblin , T.J. ( 1981 ) . `` Fake '' . BMJ. 283 ( 6307 ) : 1671 -- 4 . PMC 1507475 . PMID 6797607 . doi : 10.1136 / bmj. 283.6307. 1671 . Jump up ^ Gabbatt , Adam ( December 8 , 2009 ) . `` E.C. Segar , Popeye 's creator , celebrated with a Google doodle '' . London : guardian.co.uk . Retrieved May 5 , 2010 . Jump up ^ della Quercia , Jacopo ( May 3 , 2010 ) . `` The 7 Most Disastrous Typos Of All Time '' . Cracked.com . Retrieved May 5 , 2010 . Jump up ^ ( 1 ) Archived October 18 , 2012 , at the Wayback Machine . Jump up ^ ( 2 ) Jump up ^ Arbesman , Samuel ( September 27 , 2012 ) Paradox of Hoaxes : How Errors Persist , Even When Corrected . wired.com Jump up ^ Jeep . wordorigins.org Jump up ^ `` Chester , Illinois : Official Website '' . Popeye Picnic . Retrieved November 30 , 2009 . Jump up ^ `` Welcome to King Features Syndicate '' . Kingfeatures.com . November 17 , 2008 . Retrieved November 30 , 2009 . Jump up ^ `` July 29 , 2015 Popeye comic strip '' . Seattle Post-Intelligencer . Retrieved July 29 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` July 30 , 2015 Popeye comic strip '' . Seattle Post-Intelligencer . Retrieved July 30 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` July 28 , 2011 Popeye comic strip '' . Seattle Post-Intelligencer . Retrieved July 28 , 2011 . Jump up ^ `` October 1 , 2011 Popeye comic strip '' . Seattle Post-Intelligencer . Retrieved October 1 , 2011 . Jump up ^ `` October 3 , 2011 Popeye comic strip '' . Seattle Post-Intelligencer . Retrieved October 7 , 2011 . Further reading ( edit ) Grandinetti , Fred M. Popeye : An Illustrated Cultural History . 2nd ed . McFarland , 2004 . ISBN 0 - 7864 - 1605 - X External links ( edit ) Film in the United States portal Fictional characters portal Cartoon portal Comics portal Children 's literature portal Wikiquote has quotations related to : Popeye Wikimedia Commons has media related to Popeye . Popeye ) at Comics Kingdom Fleischer Popeye Tribute Popeye The Home of Popeye the Sailor Man Popeye on IMDb Fantagraphics archive collections Strip collections Barnaby Buz Sawyer Captain Easy Dennis the Menace Feiffer : The Collected Works Krazy Kat Little Nemo Little Orphan Annie Nancy The Complete Peanuts Pogo Poor Arnold 's Almanac The Complete E.C. Segar Popeye Prince Valiant Red Barry Sam 's Strip Walt Disney 's Mickey Mouse Comics collections The Complete Carl Barks Disney Library The Complete Crumb Comics The Don Rosa Library Humbug Powerhouse Pepper Popeye created by E.C. Segar Characters Main Popeye Bluto Olive Oyl Wimpy Supporting Swee'Pea Alice the Goon Eugene the Jeep George W. Geezil Harold Hamgravy Castor Oyl Poopdeck Pappy Sea Hag Authors and artists Hy Eisman Seymour Kneitel Roger Langridge Bobby London Bruce Ozella Bill Pearson Bud Sagendorf E.C. Segar Tom Sims George Wildman Doc Winner Bela Zaboly Theatrical shorts Popeye the Sailor Fleischer Studios cartoons Famous Studios cartoons Popeye the Sailor DVD series : Volume 1 , Volume 2 , Volume 3 , Volume 4 and Volume 5 Television shows Popeye the Sailor The All New Popeye Hour Popeye and Son The Popeye Show Film / specials Popeye the Sailor Meets Sindbad the Sailor Popeye the Sailor Meets Ali Baba 's Forty Thieves Aladdin and His Wonderful Lamp Popeye Meets the Man Who Hated Laughter The Popeye Valentine 's Day Special - Sweethearts at Sea Popeye ( 1980 ) Popeye 's Voyage : The Quest for Pappy Popeye Video games Arcade game Popeye ( Game Boy ) Popeye 2 Popeye no Eigo Asobi Popeye Saves the Earth Rush for Spinach Ijiwaru Majo Seahag no Maki Beach Volleyball Other Popeye Song Folio Popeye Village Popeye and Bluto 's Bilge - Rat Barges King Features Syndicate comics Current The Amazing Spider - Man Arctic Circle Baby Blues Barney Google and Snuffy Smith Beetle Bailey Between Friends Bizarro Blondie The Brilliant Mind of Edison Lee Buckles Carpe Diem Crankshaft Curtis Deflocked Dennis the Menace Dustin The Family Circus Flash Gordon Funky Winkerbean Hägar the Horrible Hazel Henry Hi and Lois Intelligent Life Judge Parker The Katzenjammer Kids Kevin and Kell Laff - a-Day The Lockhorns Mallard Fillmore Mandrake the Magician Mark Trail Marvin Mary Worth Moose & Molly Mother Goose and Grimm Mutts On the Fastrack The Pajama Diaries Pardon My Planet The Phantom Piranha Club Popeye Prince Valiant Pros & Cons Retail Rex Morgan , M.D. Rhymes with Orange Safe Havens Sally Forth Sam and Silo Sherman 's Lagoon Shoe Six Chix Slylock Fox & Comics for Kids Take It from the Tinkersons Tiger Todd the Dinosaur Zippy Zits Historical Abie the Agent Ace Drummond Agatha Crumm Alphonse and Gaston And Her Name Was Maud Apartment 3 - G Archie Art Linkletter 's Kids Barney Baxter Baron Bean The Better Half Betty Boop Betty Boop and Felix Big Ben Bolt Bleeker : The Rechargeable Dog Boner 's Ark Brick Bradford Bringing Up Father Buz Sawyer Captain Kate Count Screwloose from Tooloose Crock Dr. Kildare Donald Duck Dumb Dora Edge City Etta Kett Felix the Cat Flapper Filosofy Franklin Fibbs Gil Grandma Grin and Bear It Gummi Bears Half Hitch Happy Hooligan The Heart of Juliet Jones Heaven 's Love Thrift Shop Hejji Inside Woody Allen Johnny Hazard José Carioca Jungle Jim King of the Royal Mounted Krazy Kat Little Annie Rooney Little Iodine Little Jimmy The Little King The Lone Ranger Mister Breger Mickey Mouse My Cage Norb The Norm Oh , Brother ! Ollie and Quentin Ozark Ike Pete the Tramp Polly and Her Pals Quincy Radio Patrol Red Barry Redeye Reg'lar Fellers Rip Kirby Room and Board Rusty Riley Sam 's Strip Scamp Skippy Secret Agent X-9 Steve Canyon Steve Roper and Mike Nomad Strictly Richter Teena They 'll Do It Every Time Tillie the Toiler Tim Tyler 's Luck Tina 's Groove Toots and Casper Triple Take Trudy Tumbleweeds Tundra Uncle Remus Walt Disney 's Treasury of Classic Tales What a Guy ! Winnie the Pooh Wonder Woman Related Billy Ireland Cartoon Library & Museum Central Press Association DailyINK Jay Kennedy King Comics King Features Syndicate National Cartoonists Society The Sunday Funnies Kings Watch Fleischer Studios Founders Max Fleischer Dave Fleischer Theatrical short film series Out of the Inkwell ( 1918 -- 1926 ) Inkwell Imps ( 1927 -- 1929 ) Song Car - Tunes ( 1924 -- 1926 ) Screen Songs ( 1929 -- 1938 ) Talkartoons ( 1929 -- 1932 ) Betty Boop ( 1932 -- 1941 ) Popeye the Sailor ( 1933 -- 1942 , list of shorts ) Color Classics ( 1934 -- 1941 ) Hunky and Spunky ( 1938 -- 1941 ) Animated Antics ( 1939 -- 1941 ) Stone Age ( 1940 ) Gabby ( 1940 -- 1941 ) Superman ( 1941 -- 1942 ) One - shot theatrical short films Darwin 's Theory of Evolution ( 1923 ) The Einstein Theory of Relativity ( 1923 ) Raggedy Ann and Raggedy Andy ( 1941 ) The Raven ( 1942 ) Theatrical feature films Gulliver 's Travels ( 1939 ) Mr. Bug Goes to Town ( 1941 ) See also Bray Productions Famous Studios Paramount Pictures Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Popeye&oldid=801052337 '' Categories : Comics characters introduced in 1929 1929 comics debuts Gag - a-day comics Adventure comics Comics spin - offs Comics characters with superhuman strength Fictional sailors Fictional World War II veterans Popeye characters Comics adapted into radio series American comedy radio programs 1935 radio programme debuts 1938 radio programme endings Radio programs based on comic strips American comics adapted into films Comics adapted into animated series Comics adapted into video games Animated films based on comics Animated series based on comics Animated human characters Fictional characters based on real people Fictional smokers Male characters in comics Fictional characters from California Hidden categories : Webarchive template wayback links All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from June 2017 Use mdy dates from March 2013 Pages using deprecated image syntax All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from April 2013 Articles needing additional references from January 2015 All articles needing additional references Articles containing video clips Talk Contents About Wikipedia Wikiquote Asturianu বাংলা Беларуская Български Bosanski Català Čeština Chamoru Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Galego 한국어 हिन्दी Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano עברית Lietuvių Magyar മലയാളം Bahasa Melayu Nederlands 日本 語 Norsk ਪੰਜਾਬੀ پنجابی Piemontèis Polski Português Română Runa Simi Русский Scots Shqip Sicilianu Simple English Soomaaliga Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog తెలుగు ไทย Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt 粵語 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 17 September 2017 , at 10 : 49 . 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what is the real name of jethalal in taarak mehta ka ooltah chashmah

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Dilip_Joshi&oldid=799665089

Dilip Joshi - Wikipedia Dilip Joshi Jump to : navigation , search Dilip Joshi Joshi in 2014 Dilip Joshi ( 1968 - 05 - 26 ) May 26 , 1968 ( age 49 ) Porbandar , Gujarat , India Residence Mumbai , Maharashtra , India Nationality Indian Education N.M. College of Commerce and Economics , Mumbai Occupation Actor Years active 1989 -- present Known for Taarak Mehta Ka Ooltah Chashmah Spouse ( s ) Jaymala Joshi Children two Website twitter.com/dilipjoshie Dilip Joshi is an Indian film and television actor . He has appeared in a number of serials as well as films . He acts mostly in comedy and is currently playing the role of Jethalal Champaklal Gada in Taarak Mehta Ka Ooltah Chashmah . Contents ( hide ) 1 Personal life 2 Career 3 Dilip Joshi in Taarak Mehta Ka Ooltah Chashmah 4 Filmography 4.1 Television 4.2 Films 5 Awards 6 See also 7 References 8 External links Personal life ( edit ) Born into a Gujarati family from Porbandar , Joshi obtained a degree in Bachelor of Commerce ( B.Com . ) from N.M. College of Commerce and Economics , Mumbai . While doing B.Com. , he was awarded the INT ( Indian National Theatre ) best actor award twice . Joshi is married to Jaymala Joshi . The couple have 2 children , a son and a daughter . Joshi lives in Mumbai with his family . Joshi was jobless for a year just before he signed for Taarak Mehta Ka Ooltah Chashmah . Career ( edit ) Joshi has appeared in several Gujarati dramas , one of them being Bapu Tame Kamaal Kari with Sumeet Raghavan and Amit Mistry , the trio known for their television serial Shubh Mangal Savadhan . Joshi starred in the show Yeh Duniya Hai Rangeen and Kya Baat Hai in which he played a South Indian . He also appeared in films such as Maine Pyaar Kiya and Hum Aapke Hain Koun ... ! . He plays the role of Jethalal Gada in Taarak Mehta Ka Ooltah Chashmah . He is known as one of the best sitcom actors ever . Notable among his tele - serials in Hindi are Kabhi Yeh Kabhi Woh , Hum Sab Ek Hain , Shubh Mangal Savadhan , Kya Baat Hai , Daal Mein Kala and Meri Biwi Wonderful . He appeared in the children 's comedy serial Agadam Bagdam Tigdam as Uncle Tappu , as well as in the 2009 films Dhoondte Reh Jaaoge and Ashutosh Gowarikar 's What 's Your Raashee . Dilip Joshi in Taarak Mehta Ka Ooltah Chashmah ( edit ) Dilip Joshi has been playing the role of Jethalal Champaklal Gada in the very popular comedy series Taarak Mehta Ka Ooltah Chashmah which airs on SAB TV since year 2008 . Disha Vakani as Daya Jethalal Gada is paired opposite Dilip Joshi . Their unique comic timing is the main reason for the high ratings of the show . The show has high TRP mainly because of him . Filmography ( edit ) Television ( edit ) Year Serial Role Co-star Kya Baat Hai Rangaswami Mona Ambegaonkar 1998 Daal Mein Kala Bharat Sinha Renuka Shahane Kora Kagaz Do Aur Do Paanch Rahul Tanaaz Currim 1998 - 2001 Hum Sab Ek Hain Sohan Mohini 1999 Yeh Duniya Hai Rangeen Balkrishna Namudari 2002 - 2004 Shubh Mangal Savadhan Dilip Joshi Hritu Deepak 2002 - 2003 Meri Biwi Wonderful Raj Tanaaz Currim Aaj Ke Shrimaan Shrimati Sanjay Sarfare Shruti Ulfat Kudkudiya House No 43 Hum Sab Baraati Nathu Mehta Delnaaz Irani Bhagwan Bachaye Inko Gopi Hritu Deepak 2006 C.I.D Bob 2007 F.I.R. Victim Agadam Bagdam Tigdam Uncle Tappu 2008 -- present Taarak Mehta Ka Ooltah Chashmah Jethalal Champaklal Gada Disha Vakani Films ( edit ) Year Film Role Maine Pyar Kiya Ramu Hun Hunshi Hunshilal Hunshilal Hum Aapke Hain Koun ... ! Bhola Prasad Yash Gopi 1998 Sar Aakhon Par Sunday 2000 Phir Bhi Dil Hai Hindustani Sapney Khiladi 420 Arora One 2 Ka 4 Champak 2002 Humraaz Gauri Prasad Dil Hai Tumhaara Factory CEO 2008 Firaaq Deven Don Muthu Swami Fikarchand 2009 Dhoondte Reh Jaaoge Mama Nautanki What 's Your Raashee ? Jitubhai 2012 Jalsa Karo Jayantilal Jayantilal Chappu Ne Chappnu Nu Thai Kahi Nahi Lead role Awards ( edit ) Year Award Show Result 2003 2nd Indian Telly Awards Shubh Mangal Savadhan Best Actor in a Comic Role ( Popular ) Nominated 2009 9th Indian Telly Awards Taarak Mehta Ka Ooltah Chashmah Best Actor in a Comic Role ( Popular ) Won 3rd Boroplus Gold Awards Taarak Mehta Ka Ooltah Chashmah Best Comic Actor ( Popular ) Won 10th Indian Telly Awards Taarak Mehta Ka Ooltah Chashmah Most Popular Actor in a Comic Role Won Lions Gold Awards Taarak Mehta Ka Ooltah Chashmah Best Actor ( Comedy ) Won 2011 4th Boroplus Gold Awards Tarak Mehta Ka Ooltah Chashmah Best Comic Actor ( Popular ) Won 2011 BIG Star Entertainment Awards Tarak Mehta Ka Ooltah Chashmah Most Entertaining Actor Won 2011 Apsara Awards Taarak Mehta Ka Ooltah Chashmah Best Actor in Drama Series Won 2011 Lions Gold Awards Taarak Mehta Ka Ooltah Chashmah Best Actor ( Comedy ) Won 2012 11th Indian Telly Awards Taarak Mehta Ka Ooltah Chashmah Most Popular Actor in a Comic Role Won 2012 5th Boroplus Gold Awards Taarak Mehta Ka Ooltah Chashmah Best Comic Actor ( Popular ) Won 2012 People 's Choice Awards India Taarak Mehta Ka Ooltah Chashmah Best TV Actor - Comedy Won 2012 12th Indian Television Academy Awards Taarak Mehta Ka Ooltah Chasmah Best Actor - Comedy Won 2014 Zee Gold Awards Taarak Mehta Ka Ooltah Chashmah Best Actor In Comic Role ( Male ) Won 2014 12th Indian Television Academy Awards Taarak Mehta Ka Ooltah Chashmah Best Actor - Comedy Won 2016 Zee Gold Awards Taarak Mehta Ka Ooltah Chashmah Best Actor In Comic Role ( Male ) Won 2017 Lions Gold Awards Taarak Mehta Ka Ooltah Chashmah Best Actor ( Comedy ) Won See also ( edit ) India portal Bollywood portal Wikimedia Commons has media related to Dilip Joshi . List of Indian film actors List of Indian television actors References ( edit ) Jump up ^ `` I feel very blessed to be a part of Taarak Mehta : Dilip Joshi '' . tellychakkar.com . Retrieved 5 December 2015 . The character of Jethalal belongs to a Gujarati family and therefore depicts the happenings of a Gujarati family . You too hail from a Gujarati origin . Is it because of this reason that you have an easy grasp of the character ? Yes ! That is obvious . I am a typical Gujarati and therefore I am accustomed to speaking the language and acting like a Gujarati . I think the character connects to the people based on the acknowledgements that I have received from our viewers . Jump up ^ Article in Daily Bhaskar Jump up ^ `` I was jobless for a year : Dilip Joshi '' . http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com . Retrieved 12 August 2017 . External link in website = ( help ) External links ( edit ) Dilip Joshi on IMDb Awards for Dilip Joshi Indian Telly Award for Best Actor in a Comic Role Popular Pankaj Kapur ( 2002 ) Pankaj Kapur ( 2003 ) Rajeev Mehta ( 2004 ) Rajesh Kumar ( 2005 ) Satish Shah ( 2006 ) Deven Bhojani ( 2007 ) Deven Bhojani ( 2008 ) Dilip Joshi ( 2009 ) Dilip Joshi ( 2010 ) Dilip Joshi ( 2012 ) Dilip Joshi ( 2013 ) Kapil Sharma ( 2014 ) Jury Sumeet Raghavan ( 2010 ) Rajesh Kumar ( 2012 ) Ali Asgar ( 2013 ) Rohitash Gaud Krushna Abhishek ( 2014 ) Indian Television Academy Award for Best Actor in a Comic Role Jury Farooq Sheikh ( 2001 ) Pankaj Kapur ( 2002 ) Pankaj Kapur ( 2003 ) Pankaj Kapur ( 2004 ) Satish Shah ( 2005 ) Deven Bhojani ( 2006 ) Pankaj Kapur ( 2007 ) Cyrus Broacha ( 2008 ) Cyrus Broacha ( 2009 ) Rohitash Gaud ( 2010 ) Cyrus Broacha ( 2011 ) Dilip Joshi ( 2012 ) Kapil Sharma ( 2012 ) Kapil Sharma ( 2013 ) Dilip Joshi ( 2014 ) Kapil Sharma ( 2015 ) Producers Guild Film Award for Best Actor in a Leading Role Hrithik Roshan ( 2004 ) Not awarded ( 2005 ) Amitabh Bachchan ( 2006 ) Not awarded ( 2007 ) Shah Rukh Khan ( 2008 ) Hrithik Roshan ( 2009 ) Shah Rukh Khan ( 2010 ) Salman Khan ( 2011 ) Ranbir Kapoor ( 2012 ) Ranbir Kapoor ( 2013 ) Farhan Akhtar ( 2014 ) Shahid Kapoor ( 2015 ) Ranveer Singh ( 2016 ) Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dilip_Joshi&oldid=799665089 '' Categories : Living people VJs ( media personalities ) Indian television presenters People from Porbandar 21st - century Indian male actors Male actors in Hindi cinema Male actors from Gujarat Gujarati people 1968 births Hidden categories : CS1 errors : external links Use dmy dates from June 2016 Use Indian English from June 2016 All Wikipedia articles written in Indian English Pages using infobox person with unknown parameters Infobox person using religion Articles with hCards Talk Contents About Wikipedia বাংলা ગુજરાતી हिन्दी ಕನ್ನಡ मैथिली मराठी Edit links This page was last edited on 9 September 2017 , at 03 : 08 . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply . By using this site , you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia ® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation , Inc. , a non-profit organization . About Wikipedia

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what was agenda 21 of earth summit of rio de janeiro

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Agenda_21&oldid=814176823

Agenda 21 - wikipedia Agenda 21 Jump to : navigation , search Agenda 21 Cover of the first edition ( paperback ) Author United Nations Cover artist United Nations ( 1992 ) Country United States Language English , Chinese , Japanese , Russian , French , Spanish , Portuguese Genre Non-fiction Publisher United Nations Publication date April 23 , 1993 Media type Print ( Paperback ) & HTML Pages 300 pp ISBN 978 - 92 - 1 - 100509 - 7 Agenda 21 is a non-binding , action plan of the United Nations with regard to sustainable development . It is a product of the Earth Summit ( UN Conference on Environment and Development ) held in Rio de Janeiro , Brazil , in 1992 . It is an action agenda for the UN , other multilateral organizations , and individual governments around the world that can be executed at local , national , and global levels . The `` 21 '' in Agenda 21 refers to the 21st Century . Although it is also the area code for Greater Rio de Janeiro , plus Teresópolis and Mangaratiba in the countryside . It has been affirmed and had a few modifications at subsequent UN conferences . Contents ( hide ) 1 Structure and contents 2 Development and evolution 2.1 Rio + 5 ( 1997 ) 2.2 Rio + 10 ( 2002 ) 2.3 Agenda 21 for culture ( 2002 ) 2.4 Rio + 20 ( 2012 ) 2.5 Sustainable Development Summit ( 2015 ) 3 Implementation 3.1 Local level 4 Regional levels 4.1 Australia 4.2 Africa 4.3 North America 4.3. 1 United States 4.3. 1.1 Support 4.3. 1.2 Opposition 4.4 Europe and Russia 4.4. 1 France 4.4. 1.1 Opposition 4.4. 2 Baltic nations 5 See also 6 References 7 Further reading 8 External links Structure and contents ( edit ) Agenda 21 is a 350 - page document divided into 40 chapters that have been grouped into 4 sections : Section I : Social and Economic Dimensions is directed toward combating poverty , especially in developing countries , changing consumption patterns , promoting health , achieving a more sustainable population , and sustainable settlement in decision making . Section II : Conservation and Management of Resources for Development includes atmospheric protection , combating deforestation , protecting fragile environments , conservation of biological diversity ( biodiversity ) , control of pollution and the management of biotechnology , and radioactive wastes . Section III : Strengthening the Role of Major Groups includes the roles of children and youth , women , NGOs , local authorities , business and industry , and workers ; and strengthening the role of indigenous peoples , their communities , and farmers . Section IV : Means of Implementation includes science , technology transfer , education , international institutions and financial mechanisms . Development and evolution ( edit ) The full text of Agenda 21 was made public at the UN Conference on Environment and Development ( Earth Summit ) , held in Rio de Janeiro on June 13 , 1992 , where 178 governments voted to adopt the program . The final text was the result of drafting , consultation , and negotiation , beginning in 1989 and culminating at the two - week conference . Rio + 5 ( 1997 ) ( edit ) In 1997 , the UN General Assembly held a special session to appraise the status of Agenda 21 ( Rio + 5 ) . The Assembly recognized progress as `` uneven '' and identified key trends , including increasing globalization , widening inequalities in income , and continued deterioration of the global environment . A new General Assembly Resolution ( S - 19 / 2 ) promised further action . Rio + 10 ( 2002 ) ( edit ) Main article : World Summit on Sustainable Development The Johannesburg Plan of Implementation , agreed to at the World Summit on Sustainable Development ( Earth Summit 2002 ) , affirmed UN commitment to `` full implementation '' of Agenda 21 , alongside achievement of the Millennium Development Goals and other international agreements . Agenda 21 for Culture ( 2002 ) ( edit ) Main article : Agenda 21 for culture The first World Public Meeting on Culture , held in Porto Alegre , Brazil , in 2002 , came up with the idea to establish guidelines for local cultural policies , something comparable to what Agenda 21 was for the environment . They are to be included in various subsections of Agenda 21 and will be carried out through a wide range of sub-programs beginning with G8 countries . Rio + 20 ( 2012 ) ( edit ) Main article : United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development In 2012 , at the United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development the attending members reaffirmed their commitment to Agenda 21 in their outcome document called `` The Future We Want '' . 180 leaders from nations participated . Sustainable Development Summit ( 2015 ) ( edit ) Main article : Sustainable Development Goals Agenda 2030 , also known as the Sustainable Development Goals , was a set of goals decided upon at the UN Sustainable Development Summit in 2015 . It takes all of the goals set by Agenda 21 and re-asserts them as the basis for sustainable development , saying , `` We reaffirm all the principles of the Rio Declaration on Environment and Development ... '' Adding onto those goals from the original Rio document , a total of 17 goals have been agreed on , revolving around the same concepts of Agenda 21 ; people , planet , prosperity , peace , and partnership . Implementation ( edit ) The Commission on Sustainable Development acts as a high - level forum on sustainable development and has acted as preparatory committee for summits and sessions on the implementation of Agenda 21 . The UN Division for Sustainable Development acts as the secretariat to the Commission and works `` within the context of '' Agenda 21 . Implementation by member states remains voluntary , and its adoption has varied . Local level ( edit ) See also : International Council for Local Environmental Initiatives The implementation of Agenda 21 was intended to involve action at international , national , regional and local levels . Some national and state governments have legislated or advised that local authorities take steps to implement the plan locally , as recommended in Chapter 28 of the document . These programs are often known as `` Local Agenda 21 '' or `` LA21 '' . For example , in the Philippines , the plan is `` Philippines Agenda 21 '' ( PA21 ) . The group , ICLEI - Local Governments for Sustainability , formed in 1990 ; today its members come from over 1,000 cities , towns , and counties in 88 countries and is widely regarded as a paragon of Agenda 21 implementation . In many North American cases , an un-elected Regional Mayor will sign on with ICLEI , thereby agreeing to the terms of Agenda 21 . Europe turned out to be the continent where LA21 was best accepted and most implemented . In Sweden , for example , all local governments have implemented a Local Agenda 21 initiative . Regional levels ( edit ) This section needs expansion . You can help by adding to it . ( June 2012 ) The UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs ' Division for Sustainable Development monitors and evaluates progress , nation by nation , towards the adoption of Agenda 21 , and makes these reports available to the public on its website . Australia ( edit ) Australia is a signatory to Agenda 21 and 88 of its municipalities subscribe to ICLEI , an organization that promotes Agenda 21 globally . Australia 's membership is second only to that of the United States . Africa ( edit ) In Africa , national support for Agenda 21 is strong and most countries are signatories . But support is often closely tied to environmental challenges specific to each country ; for example , in 2002 Sam Nujoma , who was then President of Namibia , spoke about the importance of adhering to Agenda 21 at the 2002 Earth Summit , noting that as a semi-arid country , Namibia sets a lot of store in the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification ( UNCCD ) . Furthermore , there is little mention of Agenda 21 at the local level in indigenous media . Only major municipalities in sub-Saharan African countries are members of ICLEI . Agenda 21 participation in North African countries mirrors that of Middle Eastern countries , with most countries being signatories but little to no adoption on the local - government level . Countries in sub-Saharan Africa and North Africa generally have poorly documented Agenda 21 status reports . By contrast , South Africa 's participation in Agenda 21 mirrors that of modern Europe , with 21 city members of ICLEI and support of Agenda 21 by national - level government . North America ( edit ) United States ( edit ) The national focal point in the United States is the Division Chief for Sustainable Development and Multilateral Affairs , Office of Environmental Policy , Bureau of Oceans and International Environmental and Scientific Affairs , U.S. Department of State . A June 2012 poll of 1,300 United States voters by the American Planning Association found that 9 % supported Agenda 21 , 6 % opposed it , and 85 % thought they did n't have enough information to form an opinion . Support ( edit ) The United States is a signatory country to Agenda 21 , but because Agenda 21 is a legally non-binding statement of intent and not a treaty , the United States Senate did not hold a formal debate or vote on it . It is therefore not considered to be law under Article Six of the United States Constitution . President George H.W. Bush was one of the 178 heads of government who signed the final text of the agreement at the Earth Summit in 1992 , and in the same year Representatives Nancy Pelosi , Eliot Engel and William Broomfield spoke in support of United States House of Representatives Concurrent Resolution 353 , supporting implementation of Agenda 21 in the United States . Created by a 1993 Executive Order , the President 's Council on Sustainable Development ( PCSD ) is explicitly charged with recommending a national action plan for sustainable development to the President . The PCSD is composed of leaders from government and industry , as well as from environmental , labor and civil rights organizations . The PCSD submitted its report , `` Sustainable America : A New Consensus '' , to the President in early 1996 . In the absence of a multi-sectoral consensus on how to achieve sustainable development in the United States , the PCSD was conceived to formulate recommendations for the implementation of Agenda 21 . In the United States , over 528 cities are members of ICLEI , an international sustainability organization that helps to implement the Agenda 21 and Local Agenda 21 concepts across the world . The United States has nearly half of the ICLEI 's global membership of 1,200 cities promoting sustainable development at a local level . The United States also has one of the most comprehensively documented Agenda 21 status reports . In response to the opposition , Don Knapp , U.S. spokesman for the ICLEI , has said `` Sustainable development is not a top - down conspiracy from the U.N. , but a bottom - up push from local governments '' . The Arizona Chamber of Commerce and Industry successfully lobbied against an anti-sustainable development bill in 2012 , arguing `` It would be bad for business '' as it could drive away corporations that have embraced sustainable development . Opposition ( edit ) Anti-Agenda 21 conspiracy theories have circulated in the U.S. Some Tea Party movement activists and others promoted the notion that Agenda 21 was part of a UN plot to deny property rights , undermine U.S. sovereignty , or force citizens to move to cities . Activists believed that the non-binding UN resolution was `` the linchpin in a plot to subjugate humanity under an eco-totalitarian regime . '' The conspiracy theory had its roots in anti-environmentalist ideology and opposition to land - use regulation . Agenda 21 fears have played a role in opposition to local government 's efforts to promote resource and land conservation , build bike lanes , and construct hubs for public transportation . The non-profit group ICLEI -- Local Governments for Sustainability USA - was targeted by anti-Agenda 21 activists . In 2012 Glenn Beck co-wrote a dystopian novel titled Agenda 21 based in part on concepts discussed in the UN plan . In the same year , fears of Agenda 21 `` went mainstream '' when the Republican National Committee adopted a platform resolution stated that `` We strongly reject the U.N. Agenda 21 as erosive of American sovereignty . '' Several state and local governments have considered or passed motions and legislation opposing Agenda 21 . Most such bills failed , `` either dying in committee , getting defeated on the statehouse floor or -- in the case of Missouri 's 2013 bill -- getting vetoed by the governor . '' In Texas , for example , broadly worded legislation that would prohibit any governmental entity from accepting from or granting money to any `` nongovernmental or intergovernmental organization accredited by the United Nations to implement a policy that originated in the Agenda 21 plan '' was defeated because it could have cut off funding for groups such as 4 - H , the Boy Scouts of America , and the Texas Wildlife Association . In Arizona , a similarly sweeping bill was introduced in the Arizona State Legislature seeking to mandate that the state could not `` adopt or implement the creed , doctrine , or principles or any tenet '' of Agenda 21 and to prohibit the state `` implementing programs of , expending any sum of money for , being a member of , receiving funding from , contracting services from , or giving financial or other forms of aid to '' an array of sustainability organizations . The bill , which was opposed by the state chamber of commerce and the mayor of Phoenix , was defeated in 2012 . Alabama was one state that did adopt an anti-Agenda 21 resolution , unanimously passing in 2012 a measure to block `` any future effort to ' deliberately or inadvertently infringe or restrict private property rights without due process , as may be required by policy recommendations originating in , or traceable to ' Agenda 21 . ' '' Europe and russia ( edit ) European countries generally possess well documented Agenda 21 statuses . France ( edit ) France , whose national government , along with 14 cities , is a signatory , boasts nationwide programs supporting Agenda 21 . Opposition ( edit ) The French activist group Nouvelle Force announced in March 2012 that they viewed Agenda 21 as a `` sham '' . Baltic Nations ( edit ) Baltic nations formed the Baltic 21 coalition as a regional expression of Agenda 21 . See also ( edit ) Agenda 2030 Ecologically sustainable development EarthCheck Education for sustainable development Global Map Glocalization ICLEI Local Governments for Sustainability USA International Council for Local Environmental Initiatives Man and the Biosphere Programme National Strategy for a Sustainable America Think globally , act locally References ( edit ) Jump up ^ `` What is Agenda 21 ? '' . ICLEIUSA . Retrieved 8 Dec 2012 . Jump up ^ Agenda 21 for culture Jump up ^ `` United Nations Sustainable Development Summit 2015 . : . Sustainable Development Knowledge Platform '' . sustainabledevelopment.un.org . Retrieved 2017 - 12 - 06 . Jump up ^ `` Transforming our world : the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development . : . Sustainable Development Knowledge Platform '' . sustainabledevelopment.un.org . Retrieved 2017 - 12 - 06 . Jump up ^ `` Resolution adopted by the General Assembly on 25 September 2015 '' . www.un.org . Retrieved 2017 - 12 - 06 . Jump up ^ Manchester Metropolitan University Archived July 22 , 2009 , at the Wayback Machine . ^ Jump up to : Kaufman , Leslie ; Kate Zernike ( 3 February 2012 ) . `` Activists Fight Green Projects , Seeing U.N. Plot '' . New York Times . Retrieved 15 August 2012 . Jump up ^ Smardon , Richard ( 2008 ) . `` A comparison of Local Agenda 21 implementation in North American , European and Indian cities '' . Management of Environmental Quality : An International Journal . 19 ( 1 ) : 118 -- 137 . doi : 10.1108 / 14777830810840408 . Retrieved 9 October 2013 . Jump up ^ Jörby , Sofie ( 2002 ) . `` Local Agenda 21 in four Swedish Municipalities : a tool towards sustainability '' . Journal of Environmental Planning and Management . 45 ( 2 ) : 219 -- 244 . doi : 10.1080 / 09640560220116314 . Jump up ^ UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs . `` Areas of Work - National Information by Country or Organization '' . United Nations . Retrieved 15 August 2012 . ^ Jump up to : ICLEI . `` ICLEI Local Governments for Sustainability : Global Members '' . Archived from the original on 25 July 2012 . Retrieved 15 August 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Namibian president calls for implementation of Agenda 21 '' . Xinhua News Agency . 2 September 2002 . Retrieved 15 August 2012 . Jump up ^ `` United States of America '' . Sustainable Development Knowledge Platform . United Nations . ^ Jump up to : `` Tea Party Activists Fight Agenda 21 , Seeing Threatening U.N. Plot '' . Huffington Post . 15 October 2012 . Retrieved 16 October 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Senators attack sustainable development , Agenda 21 '' . The Courier - Journal . 20 February 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Secret agenda at city hall ? '' . Wyoming Tribune Eagle . 4 November 2012 . Jump up ^ Nancy Pelosi Support for Agenda 21 Jump up ^ Agenda 21 - United States ^ Jump up to : Kaufman , Leslie ; Kate Zernike ( February 4 , 2012 ) . `` Activists Fight Green Projects , Seeing U.N. Plot '' . The New York Times . ^ Jump up to : Greg Harman , Agenda 21 : a conspiracy theory puts sustainability in the crosshairs , The Guardian ( June 24 , 2015 ) . ^ Jump up to : Hinkes - Jones , Llewellyn ( 29 August 2012 ) . `` The Anti-Environmentalist Roots of the Agenda 21 Conspiracy Theory '' . Retrieved 16 October 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Agenda 21 By Glenn Beck , Harriet Parke '' . USA Today . 2012 . Jump up ^ Cypher , Sarah ( November 19 , 2012 ) . `` I got duped by Glenn Beck ! '' . Salon.com . Jump up ^ `` Best Sellers '' . The New York Times . December 9 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Jamison , Peter ( August 30 , 2012 ) . `` Fears of Agenda 21 go mainstream in the Republican Party platform '' . Tampa Bay Times . Retrieved October 23 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Laporte , Sébastien ( 12 March 2012 ) . `` Agenda 21 : l'opposition n'y voit qu'une '' imposture `` '' . l'Union : Champagne , Ardenne , Picardie ( in French ) . Retrieved 15 August 2012 . Jump up ^ http://www.cbss.org/sustainable-prosperous-region/egsd-baltic-2030-2/ Further reading ( edit ) Lenz , Ryan ( Spring 2012 ) . `` Antigovernment Conspiracy Theorists Rail Against UN 's Agenda 21 Program '' . Intelligence Report . Southern Poverty Law Center ( 145 ) . Earth Summit 2012 External links ( edit ) `` Agenda 21 text ( pdf ) '' ( PDF ) . unep.org . United Nations Sustainable Development Knowledge Platform ( hide ) Sustainability Principles Anthropocene Earth system governance Ecological modernization Environmental governance Environmentalism Global catastrophic risk Human impact on the environment Planetary boundaries Social sustainability Stewardship Sustainable development Consumption Anthropization Anti-consumerism Earth Overshoot Day Ecological footprint Ethical Over-consumption Simple living Sustainability advertising Sustainability brand Sustainability marketing myopia Sustainable Systemic change resistance Tragedy of the commons Population Birth control Family planning Control Overpopulation Zero growth Technology Appropriate Environmental Sustainable Biodiversity Biosecurity Biosphere Conservation biology Deep ecology Endangered species Holocene extinction Invasive species Energy Carbon footprint Climate change mitigation Conservation Descent Efficiency Emissions trading Fossil - fuel phase - out Peak oil Renewable Energy poverty Food Forest gardening Local Permaculture Security Sustainable agriculture Sustainable fishery Urban horticulture Water Conservation Crisis Efficiency Footprint Reclaimed Accountability Sustainability accounting Sustainability measurement Sustainability metrics and indices Sustainability reporting Standards and certification Sustainable yield Applications Advertising Architecture Art Business City College programs Community Design Ecovillage Education for Sustainable Development Fashion Gardening Geopark Green marketing Industries Landscape architecture Living Low - impact development Sustainable market Organizations Packaging Practices Procurement Tourism Transport Urban drainage systems Urban infrastructure Urbanism Management Environmental Fisheries Forest Materials Natural resource Planetary Waste Agreements UN Conference on the Human Environment ( Stockholm 1972 ) Brundtlandt Commission Report ( 1983 ) Our Common Future ( 1987 ) Earth Summit ( 1992 ) Rio Declaration on Environment and Development Agenda 21 ( 1992 ) Convention on Biological Diversity ( 1992 ) ICPD Programme of Action ( 1994 ) Earth Charter Lisbon Principles UN Millennium Declaration ( 2000 ) Earth Summit 2002 ( Rio + 10 , Johannesburg ) United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development ( Rio + 20 , 2012 ) Sustainable Development Goals Lists Outline Portal Science Studies Degrees Sustainable development portal United Nations portal Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Agenda_21&oldid=814176823 '' Categories : International environmental organizations United Nations documents 1992 in the United Nations Hidden categories : Webarchive template wayback links CS1 French - language sources ( fr ) Pages to import images to Wikidata All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from August 2012 Articles to be expanded from June 2012 All articles to be expanded Articles using small message boxes Articles with unsourced statements from September 2013 Articles with unsourced statements from October 2017 Talk Contents About Wikipedia Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Eesti Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Íslenska Italiano עברית Lietuvių മലയാളം Bahasa Melayu Nederlands 日本 語 Norsk Norsk nynorsk Polski Português Русский Shqip Slovenščina Српски / srpski Suomi Svenska Українська 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 7 December 2017 , at 08 : 28 . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply . By using this site , you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia ® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation , Inc. , a non-profit organization . About Wikipedia

7012260037231457401

who takes photos of planes in the air

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Aviation_photography&oldid=825986711

Aviation photography - wikipedia Aviation photography Jump to : navigation , search This article needs additional citations for verification . Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . ( September 2009 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) Air to air image of a Spitfire Aviation photography is the act of taking images of aircraft , either in flight , or on the ground . Types of aviation photography include air - to - air , ground - to - air , ground - static , and remote photography . Military aviation photography , especially air - to - air , requires additional skills , as the photo and target aircraft often fly at velocities of over Mach 1 , while under moderate to high G . Contents ( hide ) 1 Types 1.1 Ground - static 1.2 Airport Terminal 1.3 Ground - to - air 1.4 Air - to - air 1.4. 1 Remote 2 Databases 3 References 4 External links Types ( edit ) Ground - static ( edit ) A Douglas DC - 3 of BOAC , silhouetted by night at Gibraltar by the batteries of searchlights on the Rock In ground - static photography , photos of stationary aircraft are taken by photographers on the ground . Photos can be of aircraft exteriors , interiors , and aircraft details . The photographer has full control over lighting , aircraft placement , camera angles , and background . Involving other subjects such as the pilot or other aircraft is much easier to accomplish in ground - static photography than in other forms of aerial photography . Airport terminal ( edit ) Copa Airlines - Embraer 190 at Princess Juliana Airport ( SXM ) Photography from an airport terminal is shooting through the terminal window , usually waiting for a flight . Some airports have windows or observation areas that you can visit without having to go through security . A polarized filter is recommended when shooting through glass to better control glare from the terminal . Images can turn out well or some can be contorted by the double glass when shooting on an angle . Ground - to - air ( edit ) In ground - to - air photography , photos of aircraft in flight are taken with the photographer on the ground . This type of photography is common at airshows or airports . Generally , a long focus photographic lens is necessary due to the greater distance between the photographer and the target aircraft . Along with ground - static photography , this is the most popular form of aviation photography . Ground to air photograph of an Emirates Airbus A380 departing London Heathrow Airport A Qantas Boeing 747 - 400 overflying Starbeyevo , Moscow at 11,000 m . The aircraft was photographed from the ground using a Canon 400D , a 1200mm telescope and 2x Barlow lens . Fat Albert , a U.S. Marine Corps C - 130T Hercules with the Blue Angels , flies over Marines with the Silent Drill Platoon at Marine Corps Air Station Yuma Air - to - air ( edit ) Five Northrop Grumman E-2C Hawkeye NP all - weather early warning aircraft line up in formation in front of Mt . Fuji Air - to - air photography is the art of photographing aircraft in the air , while using another aircraft as a photo platform . The subject aircraft is photographed while both aircraft are in flight . This allows the photographer to position the subject in specific locations and angles to get the most desirable shot . Some things that must be considered to achieve best results are lighting and background . Proper lighting is achieved through correct placement of the aircraft relative to the sun , and is accomplished flying only at certain times of the day and / or by flying at a heading that lines the sun up on the subject aircraft properly . The background can highlight or distract from the subject and must be carefully considered when taking shots . Air - to - air photography uses include commercial use and advertising . Remote ( edit ) Remote photography is a variation on aerial air - to - air photography , whereby the camera is mounted onto the external aircraft structure away from the photographer and is triggered remotely using a mechanical or electrical shutter release . The image has to be composed when the aircraft is on the ground , because the photographer has no access to the camera while the aircraft is in flight . Much brainstorming and planning must be done while setting up the camera to get the desired shot . Remote photography is the least common type of aviation photography . The first time close head - on remote photography had been used was in 1977 when photographer Richard Cooke , working with Sqn Ldr Alan Voyle , Senior Engineering Officer of The Red Arrows , developed a camera bracket to fit on the underside of a spare Red Arrows Folland Gnat aircraft . The pilots were carefully briefed on the ground and then , in the air , the photographer operated the camera from the back seat of the camera aircraft , using a mechanical release triggered by a solenoid , operated through the anti-collision light . The Nikkormat camera with autowind pointed back at the Red Arrows team and was fitted with a wide angle 24mm Nikkor lens . The photography was commissioned by the Telegraph Sunday Magazine and made the front cover on 3 July 1977 . Databases ( edit ) Databases exist on the internet , cataloguing aviation photographs . These include airliners.net , jetphotos.net and airplane-pictures.net allow users to search them for photographs of aircraft based on user - specified criteria . References ( edit ) Jump up ^ Air - to - Air Photography - MilAvia Press External links ( edit ) AirTeamImages Aviation Photo library AJ - Aviation Photography v1images Aviation Media Group Pixstel Aviation Database Target Aviation Photography Mark Jayne Aviation Photography OPShots.net Aviation Photo gallery Photo Database International Society for Aviation Photography World-of-Aviation.de - Photo Database Aircraft.co.za - User - submitted aviation photography site Aviation Photo Forum Airplane - Pictures Photography Outline Terminology 35 mm equivalent focal length Angle of view Aperture Black and white Chromatic aberration Circle of confusion Color balance Color temperature Depth of field Depth of focus Exposure Exposure compensation Exposure value Zebra patterning F - number Film format Large Medium Film speed Focal length Guide number Hyperfocal distance Metering mode Orb ( optics ) Perspective distortion Photograph Photographic printing Photographic processes Reciprocity Red - eye effect Science of photography Shutter speed Sync Zone System Genres Abstract Aerial Architectural Astrophotography Banquet Conceptual Conservation Cloudscape Documentary Ethnographic Erotic Fashion Fine - art Fire Forensic Glamour High - speed Landscape Lomography Nature Neues Sehen Nude Photojournalism Pornography Portrait Post-mortem Selfie Social documentary Sports Still life Stock Street Vernacular Underwater Wedding Wildlife Techniques Afocal Bokeh Brenizer Burst mode Contre - jour Cyanotype ETTR Fill flash Fireworks Harris shutter HDRI High - speed Holography Infrared Intentional camera movement Kirlian Kite aerial Long - exposure Macro Mordançage Multiple exposure Night Panning Panoramic Photogram Print toning Redscale Rephotography Rollout Scanography Schlieren photography Sabatier effect Stereoscopy Stopping down Strip Slit - scan Sun printing Tilt -- shift Miniature faking Time - lapse Ultraviolet Vignetting Xerography Composition Diagonal method Framing Headroom Lead room Rule of thirds Simplicity Equipment Camera light - field field instant pinhole press rangefinder SLR still TLR toy view Darkroom enlarger safelight Film base format holder stock Filter Flash beauty dish cucoloris gobo hood hot shoe monolight Reflector snoot Softbox Lens Wide - angle lens Zoom lens Telephoto lens Manufacturers Monopod Movie projector Slide projector Tripod head Zone plate History Timeline of photography technology Analog photography Autochrome Lumière Box camera Calotype Camera obscura Daguerreotype Dufaycolor Heliography Painted photography backdrops Photography and the law Glass plate Visual arts Digital photography Digital camera D - SLR comparison MILC camera back Digiscoping Digital versus film photography Film scanner Image sensor CMOS APS CCD Three - CCD camera Foveon X3 sensor Image sharing Pixel Color photography Color Print film Reversal film Color management color space primary color CMYK color model RGB color model Photographic processing Bleach bypass C - 41 process Cross processing Developer Digital image processing Dye coupler E-6 process Fixer Gelatin silver process Gum printing Instant film K - 14 process Print permanence Push processing Stop bath Lists Most expensive photographs Photographers Norwegian Polish street women Portal Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aviation_photography&oldid=825986711 '' Categories : Occupations in aviation Aviation photographers Aviation media Photographs by topic Photography by genre Hidden categories : Use dmy dates from March 2014 Articles needing additional references from September 2009 All articles needing additional references Talk Contents About Wikipedia Български Čeština Slovenčina Edit links This page was last edited on 16 February 2018 , at 15 : 22 . 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-3630668852329184957

who bought the old london bridge and where is it now

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=London_Bridge_(Lake_Havasu_City)&oldid=852958770

London bridge ( Lake Havasu City ) - wikipedia London bridge ( Lake Havasu City ) London Bridge in Lake Havasu London Bridge in Lake Havasu City Coordinates 34 ° 28 ′ 18 '' N 114 ° 20 ′ 51 '' W  /  34.471599 ° N 114.347549 ° W  / 34.471599 ; - 114.347549 Coordinates : 34 ° 28 ′ 18 '' N 114 ° 20 ′ 51 '' W  /  34.471599 ° N 114.347549 ° W  / 34.471599 ; - 114.347549 Carries McCulloch Boulevard Crosses Bridgewater Channel Canal Locale Lake Havasu City , Arizona , United States Characteristics Design Arch bridge Material Clynelish ( Brora ) sandstone and various granite mixes Total length 930 feet ( 280 m ; 167 sm ) Longest span 45.6 metres ( 150 ft ) No. of spans 5 History Designer John Rennie Construction start 1968 Construction end 1971 ( reconstructed ) Closed 1967 ( pre-move ) Statistics Toll None London Bridge is a bridge in Lake Havasu City , Arizona . It was built in the 1830s and formerly spanned the River Thames in London , England . It was dismantled in 1967 and relocated to Arizona . The Arizona bridge is a reinforced concrete structure clad in the original masonry of the 1830s bridge , which was purchased by Robert P. McCulloch from the City of London . McCulloch had exterior granite blocks from the original bridge numbered and transported to America to construct the present bridge in Lake Havasu City , a planned community he established in 1964 on the shore of Lake Havasu . The bridge was completed in 1971 ( along with a canal ) , and links an island in the Colorado River with the main part of Lake Havasu City . Contents 1 History 2 In popular culture 3 Image gallery 4 References 5 External links History ( edit ) This section needs additional citations for verification . Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . ( October 2012 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) The 1831 London Bridge was the last project of engineer John Rennie and was completed by his son , John Rennie the Younger . By 1962 , the bridge was not sound enough to support the increased load of modern traffic , and it was sold by the City of London . The purchaser , Robert P. McCulloch , the chairman of McCulloch Oil Corporation , was the founder of Lake Havasu City , his retirement real estate development on the east shore of Lake Havasu , a large reservoir on the Colorado River . McCulloch purchased the bridge as a tourist attraction for Lake Havasu , which was then far from the usual tourist track . The idea was successful , bringing interested tourists and retirement home buyers to the area . Originally , the deserted Lake Havasu vacant land was given to the state of Arizona by the U.S. Federal Government . The federal property was an abandoned military landing strip . McCulloch made a deal with the state government and received the property for free with a promise to develop the land . But the real estate agents could not bring in prospective buyers , because the land was far from centers of population and had a very hot , arid climate . McCulloch 's real estate agent , Robert Plumer , learned that London Bridge was for sale and convinced McCulloch to buy it and bring it to the area to attract potential land buyers . The initial response from McCulloch was , `` That 's the craziest idea I have ever heard , '' but after consideration , he decided to go ahead and purchased it for $2.46 m ( £ 1.78 m ) . Plumer then arranged with a cargo shipping company that was going to sail a newly - built ship from Great Britain to the United States without any cargo . Plumer said they would pay for all operating costs of the sailing , which was far less than the going rate shipping costs . The bridge 's facing stones were disassembled , and each was numbered . After the bridge was dismantled , it was transported to Merrivale Quarry where 15 to 20 cm ( 5.9 to 7.9 inches ) were sliced off many of the original stones . The bridge arrived in pieces at the Port of Long Beach , California and was transported overland to Lake Havasu City , where re-assembly began in 1968 . On 23 September 1968 , the foundation stone was relaid by Sir Gilbert Inglefield , Lord Mayor of London . The original stonework was used to clad a new concrete structure . The reconstruction took slightly over three years and was completed in late 1971 . The bridge was not reconstructed over a river , but rather it was rebuilt on land in a position between the main part of the city and Pittsburgh Point , at that time a peninsula jutting into Lake Havasu . Once completed , the Bridgewater Channel Canal was dredged under the bridge and flooded , separating Pittsburgh Point from the city , creating an island . As a result , the bridge now traverses a navigable shortcut between the Thompson Bay part of Lake Havasu south of Pittsburgh Point , and the remainder of Lake Havasu to the north . London Bridge in 1972 , showing the canal After the bridge was reconstructed , prospective buyers of land were attracted to visit the bridge and take a tour of properties for sale . Land sales improved , and McCulloch recouped all his expenses on the purchase and shipping of the bridge . Since he had obtained the land at no cost , the sale of the properties paid for the bridge and more . Recent years have seen much development in the area of the bridge to increase tourist interest . The original `` English Village '' , a quaint English - style open - air mall with hedge maze and historical museum deteriorated , with sections leveled . A revitalization of the English Village was undertaken by the Lake Havasu City Convention & Visitors Bureau . Condos were proposed in 2011 by the owner , Virtual Realty Enterprises . In popular culture ( edit ) It is a popular rumor that the bridge was bought in the belief that it was London 's more recognizable Tower Bridge , but this was ardently denied by McCulloch himself and by Ivan Luckin , who sold the bridge . American soft rock band Bread recorded a song called `` London Bridge '' on their first album , Bread , in 1969 , when lead singer David Gates learned that London Bridge was sold and to be relocated in Lake Havasu City , Arizona . His thought at the time , according to the liner notes on Bread 's album Retrospective , was , `` is nothing sacred anymore ? '' The live country - western album Viva Terlingua , by Jerry Jeff Walker , includes an amusing song written by Gary P. Nunn entitled `` London Homesick Blues . '' It is the lament of a Texan trapped in London and quite out of his element . A line in the song is `` and even London Bridge has fallen down and moved to Arizona '' . In the 1970 song `` P.F. Sloan '' from the album Words and Music by American singer - songwriter Jimmy Webb , he refers to the relocation of London Bridge in the lines `` The London Bridge was finally found , they moved it to another town , and now all the people gather ' round to watch the bridge fall down , but I do n't think it will no more . '' In the 1983 psychological horror film Olivia ( directed by Ulli Lommel ) , the male lead character is depicted as one of the architects responsible for transferring the bridge to Lake Havasu . In the 1985 TV movie `` Terror at London Bridge '' ( aka Bridge Across Time ) , starring David Hasselhoff , Jack the Ripper is revived as the last original stone of the relocated London Bridge is laid . The London Bridge appears in the 1987 TV movie The Return of Sherlock Holmes , where it is mistaken by a lost and heat - stricken Sherlock Holmes ( Michael Pennington ) as a heavenly facsimile of his native London . London Bridge was also featured in the 1987 caper film Million Dollar Mystery as one of the bridges where a million dollars were hidden . In the 1993 movie Falling Down , starring Michael Douglas and Robert Duvall , the relocation of the bridge is mentioned and the lyrics and music of `` London Bridge Is Falling Down '' are heard . Image gallery ( edit ) London Bridge in the early 1890s London Bridge around 1900 with traffic Bridge reconstruction at Lake Havasu in March 1971 The rebuilt London Bridge in 2003 Sign on the bridge Labelled stone still visible Aerial photo of the bridge in 2011 A panoramic view of the entire bridge . London Bridge in about 1870 when it crossed the River Thames in London References ( edit ) ^ Jump up to : Jackson , Donald C. ( 1988 ) . Great American Bridges and Dams . Wiley . p. 245 . ISBN 0 - 471 - 14385 - 5 . Jump up ^ London Bridge ( 1831 ) at Structurae Jump up ^ John Murray 1874 `` Handbook to London As It Is '' , p. 43 . Jump up ^ Elborough , Travis ( 2013 - 02 - 07 ) . London Bridge in America : The Tall Story of a Transatlantic Crossing . Random House . pp. 211 -- 212 . ISBN 9781448181674 . Retrieved 30 July 2014 . Jump up ^ Frederic B. Wildfang ( 29 September 2005 ) . Lake Havasu City . Chicago : Arcadia Publishing . pp. 105 -- 122 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 7385 - 3012 - 3 . Retrieved 2 May 2013 . Jump up ^ https://golakehavasu.com/activities/attractions/london-bridge/the-english-village/ the - english - village Jump up ^ http://www.havasunews.com/news/english-village-owner-in-lake-havasu-city-to-present-big/article_ae609cba-2423-5beb-b1dd-f48ca2c674ce.html Jump up ^ Polaris EX2100 / LE2100 Sport Boats Popular Mechanics , December 2003 , archived on September 30 , 2007 from Polaris EX2100 / LE2100 the original Jump up ^ Oliver , Mark ( 2004 - 12 - 14 ) . `` Bridges '' . The Guardian . Retrieved 2010 - 05 - 11 . Jump up ^ ' If That 's The Acropolis , How Come It Do n't Chime ? ' in Alan Coren The Sanity Inspector Coronet Books , 1974 . ISBN 0 - 340 - 19912 - 1 Jump up ^ How London Bridge Was Sold To The States This Is Local London , March 27 , 2002 Jump up ^ http://www.albumlinernotes.com/Bread_-_Retrospective.html Jump up ^ http://www.allmusic.com/song/pf-sloan-mt0034428498 Jump up ^ Jimmy Webb Jump up ^ https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0088852/?ref_=ttpl_pl_tt Jump up ^ `` Holmes in Modern Media '' . Redmond , Christopher : Sherlock Holmes Handbook : Second Edition , pg. 243 . Dundurn Press , Toronto , Canada ( September 28 , 2009 ) . ISBN 978 - 1 - 55488 - 446 - 9 . External links ( edit ) Wikimedia Commons has media related to London Bridge Lake Havasu . London Bridge ( 1971 ) at Structurae Historic American Engineering Record ( HAER ) No . AZ - 57 , `` London Bridge , Spanning manmade channel ( moved from London , UK ) , Lake Havasu City , Mohave County , AZ '' , 3 photos , 5 data pages , 1 photo caption page Lake Havasu City Convention & Visitors Bureau about London Bridge RoadTrip America about London Bridge Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=London_Bridge_(Lake_Havasu_City)&oldid=852958770 '' Categories : Road bridges in Arizona Bridges completed in 1831 Bridges completed in 1971 Landmarks in Arizona Lower Colorado River Valley Former buildings and structures in the City of London Rebuilt buildings and structures in the United States Relocated buildings and structures in Arizona Transportation in Mohave County , Arizona 1968 establishments in Arizona Tourist attractions in Mohave County , Arizona Buildings and structures in Mohave County , Arizona Lake Havasu City , Arizona Historic American Engineering Record in Arizona Arch bridges in the United States Concrete bridges in the United States Hidden categories : Structurae ID different from Wikidata Coordinates on Wikidata Articles needing additional references from October 2012 All articles needing additional references All articles lacking reliable references Articles lacking reliable references from November 2017 All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from March 2018 Talk Contents About Wikipedia Deutsch Français 한국어 Italiano Magyar Edit links This page was last edited on 1 August 2018 , at 14 : 02 ( UTC ) . 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what is the function of the sensory system in the nervous system

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Sensory_nervous_system&oldid=839520579

Sensory nervous system - wikipedia Sensory nervous system Jump to : navigation , search Sensory nervous system Typical sensory system : the visual system , illustrated by the classic Gray 's FIG. 722 -- This scheme shows the flow of information from the eyes to the central connections of the optic nerves and optic tracts , to the visual cortex . Area V1 is the region of the brain which is engaged in vision . Details Identifiers Latin organa sensuum MeSH D012679 TA A15. 0.00. 000 FMA 75259 Anatomical terminology ( edit on Wikidata ) The visual system and the somatosensory system are active even during resting state fMRI Activation and response in the sensory nervous system The sensory nervous system is a part of the nervous system responsible for processing sensory information . A sensory system consists of sensory neurons ( including the sensory receptor cells ) , neural pathways , and parts of the brain involved in sensory perception . Commonly recognized sensory systems are those for vision , hearing , touch , taste , smell , and balance . In short , senses are transducers from the physical world to the realm of the mind where we interpret the information , creating our perception of the world around us . Organisms need information to solve at least three kinds of problems : ( a ) to maintain an appropriate environment , i.e. , homeostasis ; ( b ) to time activities ( e.g. , seasonal changes in behavior ) or synchronize activities with those of conspecifics ; and ( c ) to locate and respond to resources or threats ( e.g. , by moving towards resources or evading or attacking threats ) . Organisms also need to transmit information in order to influence another 's behavior : to identify themselves , warn conspecifics of danger , coordinate activities , or deceive . The receptive field is the area of the body or environment to which a receptor organ and receptor cells respond . For instance , the part of the world an eye can see , is its receptive field ; the light that each rod or cone can see , is its receptive field . Receptive fields have been identified for the visual system , auditory system and somatosensory system . Contents ( hide ) 1 Stimulus 2 Senses and receptors 2.1 Receptors 2.2 Chemoreceptors 2.3 Photoreceptors 2.4 Mechanoreceptors 2.5 Thermoreceptors 2.6 Nociceptors 3 Sensory cortex 3.1 Somatosensory cortex 3.2 Visual cortex 3.3 Auditory cortex 3.4 Primary olfactory cortex 3.5 Gustatory cortex 4 Human sensory system 5 Diseases 6 See also 7 References 8 External links Stimulus ( edit ) Sensory systems code for four aspects of a stimulus ; type ( modality ) , intensity , location , and duration . Arrival time of a sound pulse and phase differences of continuous sound are used for sound localization . Certain receptors are sensitive to certain types of stimuli ( for example , different mechanoreceptors respond best to different kinds of touch stimuli , like sharp or blunt objects ) . Receptors send impulses in certain patterns to send information about the intensity of a stimulus ( for example , how loud a sound is ) . The location of the receptor that is stimulated gives the brain information about the location of the stimulus ( for example , stimulating a mechanoreceptor in a finger will send information to the brain about that finger ) . The duration of the stimulus ( how long it lasts ) is conveyed by firing patterns of receptors . These impulses are transmitted to the brain through afferent neurons . Senses and receptors ( edit ) While debate exists among neurologists as to the specific number of senses due to differing definitions of what constitutes a sense , Gautama Buddha and Aristotle classified five ' traditional ' human senses which have become universally accepted : touch , taste , smell , sight , and hearing . Other senses that have been well - accepted in most mammals , including humans , include nociception , equilibrioception , kinaesthesia , and thermoception . Furthermore , some nonhuman animals have been shown to possess alternate senses , including magnetoception and electroreception . Receptors ( edit ) Main article : sensory receptor The initialization of sensation stems from the response of a specific receptor to a physical stimulus . The receptors which react to the stimulus and initiate the process of sensation are commonly characterized in four distinct categories : chemoreceptors , photoreceptors , mechanoreceptors , and thermoreceptors . All receptors receive distinct physical stimuli and transduce the signal into an electrical action potential . This action potential then travels along afferent neurons to specific brain regions where it is processed and interpreted . Chemoreceptors ( edit ) Main article : Chemoreceptor Chemoreceptors , or chemosensors , detect certain chemical stimuli and transduce that signal into an electrical action potential . The two primary types of chemoreceptors are : Distance chemoreceptors are integral to receiving stimuli in the olfactory system through both olfactory receptor neurons and neurons in the vomeronasal organ . Direct chemoreceptors include the taste buds in the gustatory system as well as receptors in the aortic bodies which detect changes in oxygen concentration . Photoreceptors ( edit ) Main article : Photoreceptor cell Photoreceptors are capable of phototransduction , a process which converts light ( electromagnetic radiation ) into , among other types of energy , a membrane potential . The three primary types of photoreceptors are : Cones are photoreceptors which respond significantly to color . In humans the three different types of cones correspond with a primary response to short wavelength ( blue ) , medium wavelength ( green ) , and long wavelength ( yellow / red ) . Rods are photoreceptors which are very sensitive to the intensity of light , allowing for vision in dim lighting . The concentrations and ratio of rods to cones is strongly correlated with whether an animal is diurnal or nocturnal . In humans rods outnumber cones by approximately 20 : 1 , while in nocturnal animals , such as the tawny owl , the ratio is closer to 1000 : 1 . Ganglion Cells reside in the adrenal medulla and retina where they are involved in the sympathetic response . Of the ~ 1.3 million ganglion cells present in the retina , 1 - 2 % are believed to be photosensitive ganglia . These photosensitive ganglia play a role in conscious vision for some animals , and are believed to do the same in humans . Mechanoreceptors ( edit ) Main article : Mechanoreceptor Mechanoreceptors are sensory receptors which respond to mechanical forces , such as pressure or distortion . While mechanoreceptors are present in hair cells and play an integral role in the vestibular and auditory systems , the majority of mechanoreceptors are cutaneous and are grouped into four categories : Slowly adapting type 1 receptors have small receptive fields and respond to static stimulation . These receptors are primarily used in the sensations of form and roughness . Slowly adapting type 2 receptors have large receptive fields and respond to stretch . Similarly to type 1 , they produce sustained responses to a continued stimuli . Rapidly adapting receptors have small receptive fields and underlie the perception of slip . Pacinian receptors have large receptive fields and are the predominant receptors for high - frequency vibration . Thermoreceptors ( edit ) Main article : Thermoreceptor Thermoreceptors are sensory receptors which respond to varying temperatures . While the mechanisms through which these receptors operate is unclear , recent discoveries have shown that mammals have at least two distinct types of thermoreceptors : The end - bulb of Krause , or bulboid corpuscle , detects temperatures above body temperature . Ruffini 's end organ detects temperatures below body temperature . Nociceptors ( edit ) Main article : Nociceptor Nociceptors respond to potentially damaging stimuli by sending signals to the spinal cord and brain . This process , called nociception , usually causes the perception of pain . They are found in internal organs , as well as on the surface of the body . Nociceptors detect different kinds of damaging stimuli or actual damage . Those that only respond when tissues are damaged are known as `` sleeping '' or `` silent '' nociceptors . Thermal nociceptors are activated by noxious heat or cold at various temperatures . Mechanical nociceptors respond to excess pressure or mechanical deformation . Chemical nociceptors respond to a wide variety of chemicals , some of which are signs of tissue damage . They are involved in the detection of some spices in food . Sensory cortex ( edit ) All stimuli received by the receptors listed above are transduced to an action potential , which is carried along one or more afferent neurons towards a specific area of the brain . While the term sensory cortex is often used informally to refer to the somatosensory cortex , the term more accurately refers to the multiple areas of the brain at which senses are received to be processed . For the five traditional senses in humans , this includes the primary and secondary cortexes of the different senses : the somatosensory cortex , the visual cortex , the auditory cortex , the primary olfactory cortex , and the gustatory cortex . Other modalities have corresponding sensory cortex areas as well , including the vestibular cortex for the sense of balance . Skin Somatosensory cortex ( edit ) Located in the parietal lobe , the primary somatosensory cortex is the primary receptive area for the sense of touch and proprioception in the somatosensory system . This cortex is further divided into Brodmann areas 1 , 2 , and 3 . Brodmann area 3 is considered the primary processing center of the somatosensory cortex as it receives significantly more input from the thalamus , has neurons highly responsive to somatosensory stimuli , and can evoke somatic sensations through electrical stimulation . Areas 1 and 2 receive most of their input from area 3 . There are also pathways for proprioception ( via the cerebellum ) , and motor control ( via Brodmann area 4 ) . See also : S2 Secondary somatosensory cortex . The human eye is the first element of a sensory system : in this case , vision , for the visual system . Visual cortex ( edit ) The visual cortex refers to the primary visual cortex , labeled V1 or Brodmann area 17 , as well as the extrastriate visual cortical areas V2 - V5 . Located in the occipital lobe , V1 acts as the primary relay station for visual input , transmitting information to two primary pathways labeled the dorsal and ventral streams . The dorsal stream includes areas V2 and V5 , and is used in interpreting visual ' where ' and ' how . ' The ventral stream includes areas V2 and V4 , and is used in interpreting ' what . ' Increases in Task - negative activity are observed in the ventral attention network , after abrupt changes in sensory stimuli , at the onset and offset of task blocks , and at the end of a completed trial . Ear Auditory cortex ( edit ) Located in the temporal lobe , the auditory cortex is the primary receptive area for sound information . The auditory cortex is composed of Brodmann areas 41 and 42 , also known as the anterior transverse temporal area 41 and the posterior transverse temporal area 42 , respectively . Both areas act similarly and are integral in receiving and processing the signals transmitted from auditory receptors . Nose Primary olfactory cortex ( edit ) Located in the temporal lobe , the primary olfactory cortex is the primary receptive area for olfaction , or smell . Unique to the olfactory and gustatory systems , at least in mammals , is the implementation of both peripheral and central mechanisms of action . The peripheral mechanisms involve olfactory receptor neurons which transduce a chemical signal along the olfactory nerve , which terminates in the olfactory bulb . The chemo - receptors involved in olfactory nervous cascade involve using G - protein receptors to send their chemical signals down said cascade . The central mechanisms include the convergence of olfactory nerve axons into glomeruli in the olfactory bulb , where the signal is then transmitted to the anterior olfactory nucleus , the piriform cortex , the medial amygdala , and the entorhinal cortex , all of which make up the primary olfactory cortex . In contrast to vision and hearing , the olfactory bulbs are not cross-hemispheric ; the right bulb connects to the right hemisphere and the left bulb connects to the left hemisphere . Tongue Gustatory cortex ( edit ) The gustatory cortex is the primary receptive area for taste . The word taste is used in a technical sense to refer specifically to sensations coming from taste buds on the tongue . The five qualities of taste detected by the tongue include sourness , bitterness , sweetness , saltiness , and the protein taste quality , called umami . In contrast , the term flavor refers to the experience generated through integration of taste with smell and tactile information . The gustatory cortex consists of two primary structures : the anterior insula , located on the insular lobe , and the frontal operculum , located on the frontal lobe . Similarly to the olfactory cortex , the gustatory pathway operates through both peripheral and central mechanisms . Peripheral taste receptors , located on the tongue , soft palate , pharynx , and esophagus , transmit the received signal to primary sensory axons , where the signal is projected to the nucleus of the solitary tract in the medulla , or the gustatory nucleus of the solitary tract complex . The signal is then transmitted to the thalamus , which in turn projects the signal to several regions of the neocortex , including the gustatory cortex . The neural processing of taste is affected at nearly every stage of processing by concurrent somatosensory information from the tongue , that is , mouthfeel . Scent , in contrast , is not combined with taste to create flavor until higher cortical processing regions , such as the insula and orbitofrontal cortex . Human sensory system ( edit ) The human sensory system consists of the following subsystems : Visual system consists of the photoreceptor cells , optic nerve , and V1 Auditory system Somatosensory system consists of the receptors , transmitters ( pathways ) leading to S1 , and S1 that experiences the sensations labelled as touch or pressure , temperature ( warm or cold ) , pain ( including itch and tickle ) , and the sensations of muscle movement and joint position including posture , movement , and facial expression ( collectively also called proprioception ) Gustatory system Olfactory system Vestibular system Diseases ( edit ) Disability - adjusted life year for sense organ diseases per 100,000 inhabitants in 2002 . no data less than 200 200 - 400 400 - 600 600 - 800 800 - 1000 1000 - 1200 1200 - 1400 1400 - 1600 1600 - 1800 1800 - 2000 2000 - 2300 more than 2300 Amblyopia Anacusis Color blindness Deafness See also ( edit ) Multisensory integration Neural adaptation Neural coding Sensor Sensory augmentation Sensory neuroscience Sensory systems in fish References ( edit ) Jump up ^ Krantz , John . `` Experiencing Sensation and Perception - Chapter 1 : What is Sensation and Perception ? '' ( Pdf ) . p. 1.6 . Retrieved May 16 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Bowdan , E. and G.A. Wyse 1996 . `` Sensory Ecology : Introduction '' , The Biological Bulletin , Vol. 191 , No. 1 , pp. 122 -- 3 , p. 122 . Jump up ^ Kolb & Whishaw : Fundamentals of Human Neuropsychology ( 2003 ) Jump up ^ Hofle , M. , Hauck , M. , Engel , A.K. , & Senkowski , D. ( 2010 ) . Pain processing in multisensory environments . ( Article ) . Neuroforum , 16 ( 2 ) , 172 . Jump up ^ ( 1 ) Archived January 12 , 2009 , at the Wayback Machine . Jump up ^ Satir , P. & Christensen , S.T. ( 2008 ) Structure and function of mammalian cilia. in Histochemistry and Cell Biology , Vol 129 : 6 ^ Jump up to : `` eye , human . '' Encyclopædia Britannica . Encyclopædia Britannica Ultimate Reference Suite . Chicago : Encyclopædia Britannica , 2010 . Jump up ^ Foster , R.G. ; Provencio , I. ; Hudson , D. ; Fiske , S. ; Grip , W. ; Menaker , M. ( 1991 ) . `` Circadian photoreception in the retinally degenerate mouse ( rd / rd ) '' . Journal of Comparative Physiology A 169 . doi : 10.1007 / BF00198171 Jump up ^ Jennifer L. Ecker , Olivia N. Dumitrescu , Kwoon Y . Wong , Nazia M. Alam , Shih - Kuo Chen , Tara LeGates , Jordan M. Renna , Glen T. Prusky , David M. Berson , Samer Hattar ( 2010 ) . `` Melanopsin - Expressing Retinal Ganglion - Cell Photoreceptors : Cellular Diversity and Role in Pattern Vision '' . Neuron. 67 ( 1 ) : 49 -- 60 . doi : 10.1016 / j. neuron. 2010.05. 023 . CS1 maint : Uses authors parameter ( link ) Jump up ^ Horiguchi , H. ; Winawer , J. ; Dougherty , R.F. ; Wandell , B.A. ( 2012 ) . `` Human trichromacy revisited '' . Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences . 110 ( 3 ) : E260 -- E269 . doi : 10.1073 / pnas. 1214240110 . ISSN 0027 - 8424 . Jump up ^ Winter , R. ; Harrar , V. ; Gozdzik , M. ; Harris , L.R. ( 2008 ) . `` The relative timing of active and passive touch . ( Proceedings Paper ) '' . Brain Research . 1242 : 54 -- 58 . doi : 10.1016 / j. brainres. 2008.06. 090 . Jump up ^ Krantz , John . Experiencing Sensation and Perception . Pearson Education , Limited , 2009 . p. 12.3 Jump up ^ Sherrington C. The Integrative Action of the Nervous System . Oxford : Oxford University Press ; 1906 . Jump up ^ Brynie , F.H. ( 2009 ) . Brain Sense : The Science of the Senses and How We Process the World Around Us . American Management Association . Jump up ^ Thomas Brandt . `` Vestibular cortex : its locations , functions , and disorders . '' . Vertigo . Springer . pp. 219 -- 231 . Jump up ^ McKeeff , T.J. ; Tong , F. ( 2007 ) . `` The timing of perceptual decisions for ambiguous face stimuli in the human ventral visual cortex . ( Article ) '' . Cerebral Cortex. 17 ( 3 ) : 669 -- 678 . doi : 10.1093 / cercor / bhk015 . Jump up ^ Hickey , C. ; Chelazzi , L. ; Theeuwes , J. ( 2010 ) . `` Reward Changes Salience in Human Vision via the Anterior Cingulate . ( Article ) '' . Journal of Neuroscience. 30 ( 33 ) : 11096 -- 11103 . doi : 10.1523 / jneurosci. 1026 - 10.2010 . Jump up ^ Downar , J. ; Crawley , A.P. ; Mikulis , D.J. ; Dav ( 2000 ) . `` multimodal cortical network for the detection of changes in the sensory environment '' . Nature Neuroscience. 3 : 277 -- 283 . doi : 10.1038 / 72991 . Jump up ^ Fox , M.D. ; Snyder , A.Z. ; Barch , D.M. ; Gusnard , D.A. ; Raichle , M.E. ( 2005 ) . `` Transient BOLD responses at block transitions '' . NeuroImage. 28 : 956 -- 966 . doi : 10.1016 / j. neuroimage. 2005.06. 025 . Jump up ^ Shulman , G.I. ; Tansy , A.P. ; Kincade , M. ; Petersen , S.E. ; McAvoy , M.P. ; Corbetta , M. ( 2002 ) . `` Reactivation of Networks Involved in Preparatory States '' . Cerebral Cortex. 12 : 590 -- 600 . doi : 10.1093 / cercor / 12.6. 590 . Jump up ^ Purves , Dale et al. 2008 . Neuroscience . Second Edition . Sinauer Associates Inc . Sunderland , MA . Jump up ^ Dana M. Small and Barry G. Green . `` A Proposed Model of a Flavor Modality '' . In Murray MM , Wallace MT . The Neural Bases of Multisensory Processes . CS1 maint : Uses authors parameter ( link ) CS1 maint : Uses editors parameter ( link ) Jump up ^ `` Mortality and Burden of Disease Estimates for WHO Member States in 2002 '' ( xls ) . World Health Organization . 2002 . External links ( edit ) Wikibooks has a book on the topic of : Sensory Systems Wikimedia Commons has media related to Sensory system . Human systems and organs Musculoskeletal Skeletal system Bone Carpus Collar bone ( clavicle ) Thigh bone ( femur ) Fibula Humerus Mandible Metacarpus Metatarsus Ossicles Patella Phalanges Radius Skull Tarsus Tibia Ulna Rib Vertebra Pelvis Sternum Cartilage Joints Fibrous joint Cartilaginous joint Synovial joint Muscular system Muscle Tendon Diaphragm Circulatory system Cardiovascular system peripheral Artery Vein Lymphatic vessel Heart Lymphatic system primary Bone marrow Thymus secondary Spleen Lymph node CNS equivalent Glymphatic system Nervous system Brain Spinal cord Nerve Sensory system Ear Eye Integumentary system Skin Subcutaneous tissue Breast Mammary gland Immune system Myeloid Myeloid immune system Lymphoid Lymphoid immune system Respiratory system Upper Nose Nasopharynx Larynx Lower Trachea Bronchus Lung Digestive system Mouth Salivary gland Tongue upper GI Oropharynx Laryngopharynx Esophagus Stomach lower GI Small intestine Appendix Colon Rectum Anus accessory Liver Biliary tract Pancreas Urinary system Genitourinary system Kidney Ureter Bladder Urethra Reproductive system Female Uterus Vagina Vulva Ovary Placenta Male Scrotum Penis Prostate Testicle Seminal vesicle Endocrine system Pituitary Pineal Thyroid Parathyroid Adrenal Islets of Langerhans The sensory system Special senses Sight Visual system Hearing Auditory system Smell Olfactory system Taste ( Gustatory system ) Touch and position Pain Nociception Temperature Thermoception Sense of balance Vestibular system Mechanoreception Pressure vibration Proprioception Sense of body parts and movement Other Sensory receptor Multisensory integration Sensory processing Chemoreception Anatomy of the globe of the human eye Fibrous tunic ( outer ) Sclera Episcleral layer Schlemm 's canal Trabecular meshwork Cornea Limbus layers Epithelium Bowman 's Stroma Dua 's layer Descemet 's Endothelium Uvea / vascular tunic ( middle ) Choroid Capillary lamina of choroid Bruch 's membrane Sattler 's layer Ciliary body Ciliary processes Ciliary muscle Pars plicata Pars plana Iris Stroma Pupil Iris dilator muscle Iris sphincter muscle Retina ( inner ) Layers Inner limiting membrane Nerve fiber layer Ganglion cell layer Inner plexiform layer Inner nuclear layer Outer plexiform layer Outer nuclear layer External limiting membrane Layer of rods and cones Retinal pigment epithelium Cells Photoreceptor cells ( Cone cell , Rod cell ) → ( Horizontal cell ) → Bipolar cell → ( Amacrine cell ) → Retina ganglion cell ( Midget cell , Parasol cell , Bistratified cell , Giant retina ganglion cells , Photosensitive ganglion cell ) → Diencephalon : P cell , M cell , K cell , Muller glia Other Macula Perifoveal area Parafoveal area Fovea Foveal avascular zone Foveola Optic disc Optic cup Ora serrata Anatomical regions of the eye Anterior segment Adnexa Fibrous tunic Anterior chamber Aqueous humour Iris Posterior chamber Ciliary body Lens Capsule of lens Zonule of Zinn Posterior segment Vitreous chamber Vitreous body Retina Choroid Other Keratocytes Ocular immune system Optical coherence tomography Eye care professional Eye disease Refractive error Accommodation Physiological Optics Visual perception Anatomy of hearing and balance Outer ear Auricle helix antihelix tragus antitragus intertragic notch earlobe Ear canal Auricular muscles Eardrum umbo pars flaccida Middle ear Tympanic cavity Medial structures oval window round window secondary tympanic membrane prominence of facial canal promontory of tympanic cavity Posterior structures mastoid cells aditus to mastoid antrum pyramidal eminence Ossicles Malleus superior ligament lateral ligament anterior ligament Incus superior ligament posterior ligament Stapes annular ligament Muscles stapedius tensor tympani Auditory tube / Eustachian tube Torus tubarius Inner ear / ( membranous labyrinth , bony labyrinth ) Auditory system / Cochlear labyrinth General cochlea Vestibular duct Helicotrema Tympanic duct Modiolus Cochlear cupula Perilymphatic space Perilymph Cochlear aqueduct Cochlear duct / scala media Reissner 's / vestibular membrane Basilar membrane Reticular membrane Endolymph Stria vascularis Spiral ligament Organ of Corti stereocilia tip links Tectorial membrane Sulcus spiralis externus internus Spiral limbus Cells Claudius cell Boettcher cell Vestibular system / Vestibular labyrinth Vestibule Utricle macula Saccule macula Kinocilium Otolith Vestibular aqueduct endolymphatic duct endolymphatic sac Ductus reuniens Semicircular canals Superior semicircular canal Posterior semicircular canal Horizontal semicircular canal Ampullary cupula Ampullae crista ampullaris Anatomy of taste Tongue Taste bud Lingual papilla Vallate papilla Foliate papilla Fungiform papilla Filiform papilla Path medulla Solitary tract VII IX X Solitary nucleus Gustatory nucleus pons Central tegmental tract Medial parabrachial nucleus Hypothalamus Amygdala thalamus Ventral posteromedial nucleus cerebrum Posterior limb of internal capsule Gustatory cortex Other Basic tastes Anatomy of smell Microanatomy Epithelium glands mucosa Sustentacular cell Tufted cell Olfactory nerve : 1 ° neuron Olfactory receptor neurons ( Olfactory receptor ) → Olfactory bulb ( Glomeruli ) Olfactory nerve : 2 ° neuron Mitral cells → Olfactory tract → Olfactory trigone Lateral olfactory stria / Primary olfactory cortex Piriform cortex EC - hippocampus system Entorhinal cortex Hippocampal formation Prepyriform area Periamygdaloid cortex Stria medullaris → Habenular nuclei Amygdala → Stria terminalis → Hypothalamus Medial forebrain bundle → Hypothalamus Medial olfactory stria Anterior olfactory nucleus Sensory receptors Touch Mechanoreceptor Vibration Lamellar corpuscle Light touch Tactile corpuscle Pressure Merkel nerve ending Stretch Bulbous corpuscle Pain Free nerve ending Nociceptors Temperature Thermoreceptors Proprioception Golgi organ Muscle spindle Intrafusal muscle fiber Nuclear chain fiber Nuclear bag fiber Other Hair cells Baroreceptor Systems science 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where did the movie safe haven take place

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Safe_Haven_(film)&oldid=803921544

Safe Haven ( film ) - wikipedia Safe Haven ( film ) Jump to : navigation , search Safe Haven Theatrical release poster Directed by Lasse Hallström Produced by Marty Bowen Chad Freet Wyck Godfrey Ryan Kavanaugh Screenplay by Gage Lansky Dana Stevens Based on Safe Haven by Nicholas Sparks Starring Josh Duhamel Julianne Hough Cobie Smulders David Lyons Music by Deborah Lurie Cinematography Terry Stacey Edited by Andrew Mondshein Production company Relativity Media Temple Hill Entertainment Distributed by Relativity Media Release date February 14 , 2013 ( 2013 - 02 - 14 ) Running time 116 minutes Country United States Language English Budget US $28 million Box office US $97,594,140 Safe Haven is a 2013 American romantic drama thriller film starring Julianne Hough , Josh Duhamel and Cobie Smulders . It was released theatrically in North America on February 14 , 2013 . The film was directed by Lasse Hallström , and is an adaptation of Nicholas Sparks ' 2010 novel Safe Haven . The film was originally set for a February 8 release , but was moved to February 14 , 2013 . Contents ( hide ) 1 Plot 2 Cast 3 Production 4 Reception 4.1 Box office 4.2 Critical reception 5 Accolades 5.1 In popular culture 6 Home media 7 References 8 External links Plot ( edit ) A frightened woman ( Julianne Hough ) flees her house in Boston , holding a bloody knife . After taking shelter with a neighbor , she is shown moments later at the bus station trying to flee town . She buys a bus ticket with her hair now cropped and bleached and stops in the small town of Southport , North Carolina . At the general store , she introduces herself as Katie Feldman . After acquiring a job as a waitress and renting a small house on the edge of town , Katie befriends her neighbor , Jo ( Cobie Smulders ) and meets Alex Wheatley ( Josh Duhamel ) , a widowed father of two young children , Josh ( Noah Lomax ) and Lexie ( Mimi Kirkland ) , who operates the local general store and gives Katie a bicycle so she wo n't have to walk . It 's not too long before Katie and Alex start a relationship , and she becomes like a mother to Josh and Lexie . Meanwhile , Kevin Tierney ( David Lyons ) , a Boston police detective , prepares wanted posters for a woman named `` Erin '' which describe that she is wanted for attempted murder . Alex sees Erin 's wanted poster in the police station and notices the picture bears a striking resemblance to Katie . He confronts Katie with the information , causing a huge fight . They break up , and Katie moves out of her house . As Katie is about to leave town , however , Alex intercepts her and says that he has fallen in love with her . Katie returns his love , and decides to stay in Southport . She tells Alex that she fled to Southport to escape her abusive and alcoholic husband . They got in a fight , and she stabbed him in self - defense before she fled south . Meanwhile , Kevin is suspended for creating the wanted posters , whereupon it is revealed that he is Katie 's ( Erin 's ) abusive and alcoholic husband . Enraged , he breaks into Katie 's former neighbor 's home back in Boston and finds the phone number to the Southport restaurant where Katie works . Arriving just in time for the town 's Fourth of July parade , a severely intoxicated Kevin sees Katie kissing Alex , which enrages him . That night , Katie has a dream that she is standing on the docks watching the fireworks when Jo comes up and tells Katie that `` he '' is here . Katie wakes up in the convenience store next to a sleeping Lexie when Kevin suddenly appears and confronts her , demanding that she go back with him . She refuses and tells him to leave . Kevin pulls a gun and pours gasoline all over the store , with the intent to burn it down . When he hesitates , Katie buys time by faking sympathy for him and agreeing to return home with him . When he lets his guard down , she pushes him into the water ; however , a firework spark lands on the gasoline , igniting a fire that engulfs the store . Alex sees the burning store , quickly makes his way across the harbor by boat , and saves Lexie . Meanwhile , Katie tries to fight off Kevin ; during the struggle , the gun goes off and kills Kevin , ridding her of him forever . In the aftermath of the fire , Alex recovers several letters which were written by his late wife Carly before she died . The letters prepared ahead of time for memorable events such as Josh 's eighteenth birthday and Lexie 's wedding day . Alex gives Katie a letter with the words `` To Her '' on the envelope ; the letter thanks the recipient for making Alex happy . Enclosed with the letter is a photo of Alex 's late wife , whom Katie is astonished to discover was actually Jo . This means that Jo was Carly , in the form of an angel , who led Katie to her husband , Alex . Cast ( edit ) Josh Duhamel as Alex Wheatley Julianne Hough as Erin Tierney / Katie Feldman Cobie Smulders as Jo / Carly David Lyons as Detective Kevin Tierney Mimi Kirkland as Lexie Wheatley Noah Lomax as Josh Wheatley Irene Ziegler as Mrs. Feldman Robin Mullins as Maddie Red West as Roger . This was West 's last film role before his death in July 2017 Juan Carlos Piedrahita as Detective Ramirez Cullen Moss as Deputy Bass Mike Pniewski as Lieutenant Robinson Production ( edit ) The film began principal photography on June 18 , 2012 in Wilmington and Southport , North Carolina . Parts of it were filmed in Louisiana and the opening scene with Katie on the Coach America bus is on the Linn Cove Viaduct along the Blue Ridge Parkway near Grandfather Mountain in Linville , North Carolina . Reception ( edit ) Box office ( edit ) Safe Haven grossed US $71,349,120 in North America and US $26,245,020 in other territories for a worldwide total of US $97,594,140 . In its opening weekend , the film grossed US $21,401,594 , finishing third at the box office behind A Good Day to Die Hard ( US $24,834,845 ) and Identity Thief ( US $23,674,295 ) . Critical reception ( edit ) Critical reaction for Safe Haven was largely negative . Peter Bradshaw , writing for The Guardian , called Safe Haven 's setting `` a sugary vision of small - town America that does not correspond with the real world at any point . '' Peter Travers of Rolling Stone gave the film zero stars out of four , and concluded his review by stating : `` I hate Safe Haven . It 's a terrible thing to do to your Valentine . '' The film has a score of 34 on Metacritic , a `` generally unfavorable '' score , based on 33 reviews . It holds a 12 % `` rotten '' rating on Rotten Tomatoes , based on 137 critic reviews . Accolades ( edit ) Award Recipient Result Ref ( s ) Teen Choice Awards Choice Movie : Romance Nominated Young Artist Awards Best Supporting Young Actress in a Feature Film Mimi Kirkland Nominated In popular culture ( edit ) Though the romance aspect dominates this movie , in the thriller component ( a deranged stalker ) , there is a slight echo of the two Cape Fear films , both the 1962 original with Robert Mitchum and Gregory Peck , and the Martin Scorsese 1991 remake with Robert De Niro and Nick Nolte . The town of Southport is on the Cape Fear waterway which was where the denouement of both movies occurs . Home Media ( edit ) Safe Haven was released on DVD and Blu - ray on May 7 , 2013 . References ( edit ) Jump up ^ `` Deborah Lurie to Score Lasse Hallstrom 's ' Safe Haven ' '' . FilmMusicReporter.com . Jump up ^ `` SAFE HAVEN ( 12A ) '' . British Board of Film Classification . 2013 - 01 - 21 . Retrieved 2013 - 01 - 21 . ^ Jump up to : `` Safe Haven ( 2013 ) '' . Boxofficemojo.com. 2013 - 02 - 14 . Retrieved 2013 - 02 - 28 . Jump up ^ `` Safe Haven ( 2013 ) '' . Boxoffice.com. 2013 - 03 - 04 . Retrieved 2013 - 06 - 01 . Jump up ^ `` ' Turkeys ' Gets Date , ' Safe Haven ' Shifts '' . Deadline.com . Retrieved 2013 - 02 - 24 . Jump up ^ `` Nicholas Sparks movie ' Safe Haven ' starts shooting in Wilmington '' . WWayTV3.com . Retrieved October 25 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Episode # 127 -- Safe Haven '' , `` The Flop House '' , 1 June 2013 , Retrieved on 29 November 2014 . Jump up ^ Sharkey , Betsy . `` Review : ' Safe Haven ' ca n't find refuge from a cheesy story '' , `` LA Times '' , 13 February 2013 . Retrieved on 29 November 2014 . Jump up ^ Holden , Stephen . `` Her Date Is a Single Dad ; His , a Possible Killer '' , `` New York Times '' , 13 February 2013 . Retrieved on 29 November 2014 . Jump up ^ Anderson , Melissa . `` Safe Haven : Unable to Ignite '' , 13 February 2013 . Retrieved on 29 November 2014 . Jump up ^ Roeper , Richard . `` Safe Haven '' , 12 February 2013 . Retrieved on 29 November 2014 . Jump up ^ Bradshaw , Peter . `` Safe Haven -- review '' , `` The Guardian '' , 28 February 2013 , Retrieved on 29 November 2014 . Jump up ^ Travers , Peter . `` Safe Haven '' , `` Rolling Stone '' , 14 February 2013 , Retrieved on 29 November 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Safe Haven Reviews '' , `` Metacritic '' , Retrieved on 29 November 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Safe Haven '' , Retrieved on 29 November 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Complete list of Teen Choice 2013 Awards winners '' . Los Angeles Times . Tribune Publishing . August 11 , 2013 . Retrieved June 10 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` 35th Annual Young Artist Awards '' . Young Artist Awards . Retrieved April 14 , 2014 . External links ( edit ) Safe Haven on IMDb Safe Haven at the TCM Movie Database Safe Haven at AllMovie Safe Haven at Box Office Mojo Safe Haven at Rotten Tomatoes Films directed by Lasse Hallström A Guy and a Gal ( 1975 ) ABBA : The Movie ( 1977 ) Father to Be ( 1979 ) Tuppen ( 1981 ) Happy We ( 1983 ) My Life as a Dog ( 1985 ) The Children of Noisy Village ( 1986 ) More About the Children of Noisy Village ( 1987 ) Once Around ( 1991 ) What 's Eating Gilbert Grape ( 1993 ) Something to Talk About ( 1995 ) The Cider House Rules ( 1999 ) Chocolat ( 2000 ) The Shipping News ( 2001 ) An Unfinished Life ( 2005 ) Casanova ( 2005 ) The Hoax ( 2007 ) Hachi : A Dog 's Tale ( 2009 ) Dear John ( 2010 ) Salmon Fishing in the Yemen ( 2011 ) The Hypnotist ( 2012 ) Safe Haven ( 2013 ) The Hundred - Foot Journey ( 2014 ) A Dog 's Purpose ( 2017 ) The Nutcracker and the Four Realms ( 2018 ) Nicholas Sparks Novels The Notebook ( 1996 ) Message in a Bottle ( 1998 ) A Walk to Remember ( 1999 ) The Rescue ( 2000 ) A Bend in the Road ( 2001 ) Nights in Rodanthe ( 2002 ) The Guardian ( 2003 ) The Wedding ( 2003 ) True Believer ( 2005 ) At First Sight ( 2006 ) Dear John ( 2006 ) The Choice ( 2007 ) The Lucky One ( 2008 ) The Last Song ( 2009 ) Safe Haven ( 2010 ) The Best of Me ( 2011 ) The Longest Ride ( 2013 ) See Me ( 2015 ) Two by Two ( 2016 ) Non-fiction Wokini : A Lakota Journey to Happiness and Self - Understanding ( 1990 ) Three Weeks with My Brother ( 2004 ) Film adaptations Message in a Bottle ( 1999 ) A Walk to Remember ( 2002 ) The Notebook ( 2004 ) Nights in Rodanthe ( 2008 ) Dear John ( 2010 ) The Last Song ( 2010 ) The Lucky One ( 2012 ) Safe Haven ( 2013 ) The Best of Me ( 2014 ) The Longest Ride ( 2015 ) The Choice ( 2016 ) Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Safe_Haven_(film)&oldid=803921544 '' Categories : 2013 films English - language films 2010s romance films 2010s thriller films American films American romance films American thriller films Films about domestic violence Films about families Films about widowhood Films based on romance novels Films based on works by Nicholas Sparks Films directed by Lasse Hallström Films set in Boston Films set in North Carolina Films shot in North Carolina Relativity Media films Temple Hill Entertainment films Romantic thriller films Hidden categories : Use mdy dates from December 2016 Talk Contents About Wikipedia Deutsch Español فارسی Français 한국어 Հայերեն Bahasa Indonesia Italiano Bahasa Melayu Nederlands 日本 語 Norsk Polski Português Русский Svenska Türkçe Українська 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 5 October 2017 , at 14 : 49 . 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where does manners maketh the man come from

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=William_Horman&oldid=806557369

William Horman - wikipedia William Horman Jump to : navigation , search William Horman ( c. 1440 -- April 1535 ) was a headmaster at Eton and Winchester College in the early Tudor period of English history . He is best known for his Latin grammar textbook the Vulgaria , which created controversy at the time due to its unconventional approach in first giving examples of translations of English writings on different topics , and later discussing the rules of grammar . He asserted , probably following Quintilian , that grammar can not be perfect without music . Contents ( hide ) 1 Life 2 Work 3 Bibliography 4 References 5 Sources 6 Further reading Life ( edit ) Horman was born in Salisbury , Wiltshire , England around 1440 . He was admitted as a pupil at Wykeham 's college at Winchester in 1468 . According to some accounts , he studied at the University of Cambridge . However , in 1477 he was elected a fellow of New College , Oxford , in the same year that William Caxton printed his first book in England . He took a Masters of Arts degree , and in 1485 became the headmaster of Eton . He left Eton in 1494 , and became headmaster of Winchester from 1495 to 1501 . At that time , the Winchester post was more prestigious and paid better . Later , Horman returned to Eton as a fellow and vice-provost , where there is evidence that both Greek and Latin were taught . He continued there until his death . When he was almost eighty years old , in 1519 Horman published the Vulgaria , a Latin textbook . He says in the introduction that he composed the book when a schoolmaster , `` many years before '' . In a contract dated 28 June 1519 , he ordered Richard Pynson to produce 800 whole and perfect copies of these Latin texts , in 35 chapters . The contract is notable as one of the earliest surviving agreements of this nature . Horman became an antagonist in the Grammarians ' War , which erupted when Robert Whittington attacked the new approach of teaching by example . Whittington at the time was England 's leading author of textbooks , and preferred the traditional system of learning the precepts of grammar by rote before progressing to examples . In some ways Horman was more traditional than Whittington , since he rejected the common vocabulary of Medieval Latin and idealised the `` pure '' Ciceronian form of Latin while Whittington was more pragmatic in his views . Horman died in April 1535 , when in his nineties , an extreme old age for the time . Work ( edit ) The Vulgaria is the more important of Horman 's surviving works , a Latin textbook based on humanist principles published in 1519 . The book was dedicated to William Atwater , Bishop of Lincoln . The preface of the book included verses by William Lilye and by Robert Aldrich , the master at Eton from 1515 to 1521 . The name Vulgaria is used in the Latin sense of `` common things '' , in this case `` everyday sayings '' . The book is a collection of English sentences followed by their Latin translations , covering subjects related to school , manners , upbringing , religion , natural history and many other subjects . The textbook is not radically different from previous Latin grammars , differing mainly in its arrangement by subject rather than by grammatical structure . In this , it followed the principles laid out by Erasmus . The Vulgaria draws from a variety of sources , for example including the saying `` It does no good for all truth to be told nor all wrong imputed '' derived from the Old English Durham Proverbs . Another example of a proverb to be translated is `` Somtyme of a myshappe cometh a good turne '' . The proverb `` necessity is the mother of invention '' appears , perhaps for the first time in English , translated as `` Mater artium necessitas '' . Other sayings included the advice not to `` offereth a candell to the deuyll '' , to remember that `` many a ragged colt proued to a good horse '' , `` it is better a chylde unborne than untaught '' , `` manners maketh man '' and `` one scabbed shepe marreth a hole flocke '' . `` That the whiche muste be wyll be '' reflects the Spanish `` Que Sera , Sera '' . The book gives practical advice . `` At a soden shyfte leere ( empty ) barellis , tyed together , with boardis above , make passage over a streme '' . He says that alleys in gardens , covered with vines , `` do great pleasure with the shadow in parchynge heat , and clusters of grapis maketh a pleasant walkynge alley '' . The Vulgaria is interesting in the light that it throws on the times . For example , the book is the first to mention `` ceruse '' , a mixture of white lead and vinegar used by wealthy women to whiten their skin . The book defines blotting paper : `` Blottynge papyr serveth to drye weete wryttynge , lest there be made blottis or blurris '' . Children 's rattles are first mentioned in the book . He describes the use of wooden swords , or `` wasters '' , used for training : `` Let us pley at buckeler and at waster in feyre game '' . The sentence `` We wyll playe with a ball full of wynde '' ( which Horman translates as `` lusui erit nobis follis pugillari spritu tumens '' ) is one of the earliest references to the game of football being played at public schools . He praised the value of sports in letting children find an outlet for their energy as a break from their studies : `` There muste be a measure in gyuynge of remedies or sportynge to chyldren , leste they be wery of goynge to theyr boke if they haue none , or waxe slacke if they haue to many '' . Horman 's Antibossicon G. Hormani ad G. Lilium published in 1521 is a riposte to criticism of the Vulgaria . It takes the form of a series of letters to Horman , and from him to William Lilye , another grammarian who supported the new teaching approach . Lilye also published an Antibossicum , and the two were published together as a pamphlet . In his Apologeticon contra Rob . Whittingtoni Protova tis Angliæ incivilem indoctamque criminationem , he dissected some of Whittington 's poetry and treated it to severe criticism . Horman also translated several of the Greek classics and wrote various treatises on philosophy and science , but these have not survived . Bibliography ( edit ) Horman , William ( 1519 ) . Vulgaria Uiri Doctissimi Guil . Hormani Caesariburgensis . BiblioLife . ISBN 1 - 171 - 33962 - 3 . References ( edit ) ^ Jump up to : Nugent 1956 , pp. 123 . Jump up ^ Griffiths 2006 , pp. 81ff . Jump up ^ Leach 1915a , pp. 645 . Jump up ^ Burgess & Heale 2008 , pp. 239 . ^ Jump up to : Maxwell - Lyte 1875 , pp. 108 -- 109 . Jump up ^ Murray 1900 , pp. 21 . ^ Jump up to : Journal of education . 26 . Oxford University Press . 1904 . p. 438 . Jump up ^ Collins 1865 , pp. 212 . Jump up ^ Leach 1915b , pp. 511 . Jump up ^ Fenlon 1981 , pp. 99 . Jump up ^ Barnes 1906 , pp. 383 . Jump up ^ Wheatley 1883 , pp. 99 . Jump up ^ Furnivall 1867 , pp. 364 . ^ Jump up to : Carlson 1991 , pp. 417 . ^ Jump up to : Clogan 2004 , pp. 2 -- 3 . Jump up ^ Mantello & Rigg 1996 , pp. 336 . Jump up ^ Davies 1716 , pp. 24 -- 25 . ^ Jump up to : à Wood & Bliss 1813 , pp. 78 -- 79 . ^ Jump up to : Simon 1979 , pp. 90 . Jump up ^ Whiting & Whiting 1968 , pp. 533 . Jump up ^ Abate 2005 , pp. 95 . Jump up ^ Martin 1996 . Jump up ^ Fox 2000 , pp. 116 . Jump up ^ Shapiro 2006 , pp. 617 . Jump up ^ Singer 1850 , pp. 292 . Jump up ^ Bailey 1963 . Jump up ^ Leed 2010 . Jump up ^ Rickards & Twyman 2000 , pp. 55 . Jump up ^ Orme 1995 . Jump up ^ Clements 1999 . Jump up ^ Magoun 1938 , pp. 20 . Jump up ^ Bailey 1995 . Jump up ^ Griffiths 2000 , pp. 319ff . Sources ( edit ) Abate , Michelle Ann ( 1 January 2005 ) . `` Oversight as Insight : Reading The Second Shepherd 's Play '' . Early Theatre . 8 ( 1 ) : 95 -- 108 . doi : 10.12745 / et. 8.1. 694 . ISSN 2293 - 7609 . Retrieved 5 December 2010 . Bailey , L.H. ( 1963 ) . `` Pergola '' . Standard Cyclopedia of Horticulture . MacMillan Co . Bailey , Steven ( May 1995 ) . `` Living Sports History : Football at Winchester , Eton and Harrow '' . Sports Historian. 15 : 23 -- 33 . doi : 10.1080 / 17460269508551675 . Barnes , Stapleton A. ( 1906 ) . Wiseman , Nicholas Patrick , ed . `` Winchester Mother of Schools '' . The Dublin review . W. Spooner. 139 : 383 -- 399 . Burgess , Clive ; Heale , Martin ( 2008 ) . The late medieval English college and its context . Boydell & Brewer . ISBN 1 - 903153 - 22 - 0 . Carlson , David R. ( August 1991 ) . `` Skelton 's Garland of Laurel and Robert Whittinton 's ' Lauri Apud Palladem expostulatio ' '' . The Review of English Studies . New Series . 42 ( 167 ) : 417 -- 424 . doi : 10.1093 / res / xlii. 167.417 . Retrieved 5 December 2010 . Clements , John ( 1999 ) . `` Get Thee a Waster ! '' . The Association for Renaissance Martial Arts . Retrieved 5 December 2010 . Clogan , Paul Maurice ( 2004 ) . Humanist educational theory , Gregory the Great , and culinary comedy . Rowman & Littlefield . ISBN 0 - 7425 - 3416 - 2 . Collins , William Lucas ( February 1865 ) . `` Etonia , Ancient and Modern . -- Part I '' . Blackwood 's Edinburgh magazine . 97 . Davies , Myles ( 1716 ) . Athenae Britannicae , or , A critical history of the Oxford and Cambridge writers and writings , . pp. 24 -- 25 . Fenlon , Iain ( 1981 ) . Music in medieval and early modern Europe : patronage , sources , and texts . Cambridge University Press . ISBN 0 - 521 - 23328 - 3 . Fox , Adam ( 2000 ) . Oral and literate culture in England , 1500 -- 1700 . Oxford studies in social history . Clarendon Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 19 - 820512 - 8 . Furnivall , Frederick James ( April 1867 ) . `` Pynson 's contracts with Horman for his Vulgaria , and Palsgrave for his Lesclaircissement , with Pynson 's letter of denization '' . Transactions of the Philological Society . 12 ( 1 ) : 362 -- 374 . doi : 10.1111 / j. 1467 - 968X. 1867. tb00834. x . Griffiths , Jane ( 2000 ) . `` The Grammarian as `` Poeta '' and `` Vates '' `` . In Houdt , Toon . Self - presentation and social identification : the rhetoric and pragmatics of letter writing in early modern times . Supplementa humanistica Lovaniensia. 18 . Leuven University Press . ISBN 978 - 90 - 5867 - 212 - 4 . Griffiths , Jane ( 2006 ) . `` '' Shredis of sentence `` : Imitation and Interpretation in Speke Parrot '' . John Skelton and poetic authority : defining the liberty to speak . Clarendon Press . doi : 10.1093 / acprof : oso / 9780199273607.003. 0005 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 19 - 927360 - 7 . Leach , Arthur Francis ( 1915a ) . `` Chorister 's Schools '' . In Monroe , Paul . A Cyclopedia of Education . 1 . New York : MacMillan . ISBN 1 - 4400 - 6149 - 1 . Leach , Arthur Francis ( 1915b ) . `` Eton College '' . In Monroe , Paul . A Cyclopedia of Education . 2 . New York : MacMillan . ISBN 978 - 1 - 4400 - 6150 - 9 . Leed , Drea ( 2010 ) . `` Elizabethan Make - up 101 '' . Elizabethan Costume Page . Retrieved 5 December 2010 . Magoun , Francis Peabody ( 1938 ) . History of football from the beginnings to 1871 . H. Pöppinghaus . Mantello , Frank Anthony Carl ; Rigg , A.G. ( 1996 ) . Medieval Latin : an introduction and bibliographical guide . CUA Press . ISBN 0 - 8132 - 0842 - 4 . Martin , Gary ( 1996 ) . `` Necessity is the mother of invention '' . The Phrase Finder . Retrieved 5 December 2010 . Maxwell - Lyte , Sir Henry Churchill ( 1875 ) . A history of Eton college . 1440 -- 1875 . Macmillan and co . Murray , James A.H. ( 1900 ) . The Evolution of English Lexicography . University of Oxford Clarendon Press . p. 21 . Nugent , Elizabeth M. , ed. ( 1956 ) . `` William Horman ( c. 1440 -- 1535 ) '' . The Thought and Culture of the English Renaissance : an Anthology of . Tudor Prose 1481 -- 1555 . Cambridge University Press . Orme , Nicholas ( August 1995 ) . `` The Culture of Children in Medieval England '' . Past & Present . Oxford University Press . 148 ( 1 ) . ISSN 0031 - 2746 . Rickards , Maurice ; Twyman , Michael ( 2000 ) . `` Blotting Paper '' . The encyclopedia of ephemera : a guide to the fragmentary documents of everyday life for the collector , curator , and historian . Routledge . ISBN 0 - 415 - 92648 - 3 . Shapiro , Fred R. ( 2006 ) . The Yale book of quotes . Yale University Press . ISBN 0 - 300 - 10798 - 6 . Simon , Joan ( 1979 ) . Education and Society in Tudor England . Cambridge University Press . ISBN 0 - 521 - 29679 - X . Singer , Samuel Weller ( 9 March 1850 ) . `` WHAT IS THE MEANING OF `` LAERIG ? '' `` . Notes & Queries , A Medium of Inter-Communication For Literary Men , Artists , Antiquaries , Genealogists , Etc. ( 19 ) : 292 . Retrieved 5 December 2010 . Wheatley , Henry Benjamin , ed. ( 1883 ) . `` Pynson 's contract with Horman '' . The Bibliographer ; a journal of book - lore . 4 . Elliot Stock . Whiting , Bartlett Jere ; Whiting , Helen Wescott ( 1968 ) . Proverbs , sentences , and proverbial phrases : from English writings mainly before 1500 . Cambridge , MA : Belknap Press of Harvard University Press . à Wood , Anthony ; Bliss , Philip ( 1813 ) . `` William Horman '' . Athenae Oxonienses : An exact history of all the writers and bishops who have had their education in the University of Oxford . To which are added the Fasti , or Annals of the said University . 1 ( 3rd ed . ) . London : Rivington . Further Reading ( edit ) Orme , Nicholas ( 2004 ) . `` Horman , William ( 1457 -- 1535 ) '' . Oxford Dictionary of National Biography . Oxford University Press . doi : 10.1093 / ref : odnb / 13779 . Leach , Arthur Francis ( 1899 ) . A history of Winchester College . C. Scribner 's Sons . pp. 110 , 208 , 227 -- 231 . Academic offices Preceded by Thomas Mache Head Master of Eton College 1485 -- 1494 Succeeded by Edward Powell VIAF : 256768807 LCCN : nr93005415 Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=William_Horman&oldid=806557369 '' Categories : 1535 deaths 15th - century English people 16th - century English educators 16th - century English writers People from Salisbury Eton College Fellows of New College , Oxford Grammarians of Latin Head Masters of Eton College Headmasters of Winchester College People educated at Winchester College People of the Tudor period Hidden categories : EngvarB from September 2014 Use dmy dates from September 2014 Wikipedia articles needing page number citations from December 2010 CS1 : Julian -- Gregorian uncertainty Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Year of birth uncertain Talk Contents About Wikipedia Add links This page was last edited on 22 October 2017 , at 20 : 13 . 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when does quinn get out of the wheelchair

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Quinn_Fabray&oldid=826982797

Quinn Fabray - wikipedia Quinn Fabray Jump to : navigation , search Quinn Fabray Glee character First appearance `` Pilot '' Last appearance `` Dreams Come True '' Created by Ryan Murphy Brad Falchuk Ian Brennan Portrayed by Dianna Agron Information Full name Lucy Quinn Fabray Occupation College school student Family Russell Fabray ( father ) Judy Fabray ( mother ) Frannie Fabray ( sister ) Significant other ( s ) Noah `` Puck '' Puckerman Finn Hudson Sam Evans Children Beth Religion Christian Quinn Fabray is a fictional character from the Fox musical comedy - drama series Glee . The character is portrayed by actress Dianna Agron , and has appeared in Glee since its pilot episode , first broadcast on May 19 , 2009 . She is the cheerleading captain at the fictional William McKinley High School in Lima , Ohio , as well as a member of the school 's glee club . In the first episode , Quinn is introduced as an antagonistic queen bee stock character . She joins the school glee club to keep an eye on her boyfriend Finn ( Cory Monteith ) and becomes a spy for cheerleading coach Sue Sylvester ( Jane Lynch ) ; she remains part of the club after she is removed from the cheerleading team , the `` Cheerios '' , due to her pregnancy . Over the course of the first season , her character matures and builds friendships with the other outcasts who make up the glee club . Quinn gives birth to a baby girl , Beth , whom she gives up for adoption . In the second season , she forms a bond with newcomer Sam Evans ( Chord Overstreet ) , and later romances her first boyfriend Finn , reigniting her animosity with club co-captain Rachel Berry ( Lea Michele ) . In the third season , Quinn intends to get full custody of her daughter , Beth , and her attempts to prove Shelby Corcoran ( Idina Menzel ) -- the adoptive mother of Beth -- an unfit mother fail ; eventually , she realizes that Shelby is Beth 's true mother . Quinn subsequently receives a college acceptance letter from Yale , and while driving to Finn and Rachel 's wedding , her car is struck by a truck and she suffers a spinal injury that requires her to use a wheelchair for many weeks . She is eventually able to walk again . Quinn was developed by Glee creators Ryan Murphy , Brad Falchuk and Ian Brennan . The last character to be cast , initial responses to her were positive , though they soured during season one as the pregnancy storyline continued . Songs performed by Agron as Quinn have been released as singles , available for download , and also feature on the show 's soundtrack albums . The role saw Agron nominated for the Teen Choice Award for `` Breakout Female Star '' in 2009 , and a Screen Actors Guild award that same year . She was initially described by Agron as Rachel 's enemy , and `` terrible , the meanest girl '' . Contents ( hide ) 1 Storylines 1.1 Season 1 1.2 Season 2 1.3 Season 3 1.4 Season 4 1.5 Season 5 1.6 Season 6 2 Development 2.1 Casting and creation 2.2 Characterization 3 Reception 3.1 Critical response 3.2 Musical performances 4 See also 5 References 6 External links Storylines ( edit ) Season 1 ( edit ) Quinn is introduced as the captain of the cheerleading squad at William McKinley High School , the `` Cheerios '' , coached by Sue Sylvester ( Jane Lynch ) . She comes from a conservative Christian family , and is president of the celibacy club . When her teenage boyfriend Finn Hudson ( Cory Monteith ) joins the glee club , New Directions , Quinn worries about his interaction with the group 's star , Rachel Berry ( Lea Michele ) , and joins New Directions herself along with her fellow Cheerios Santana ( Naya Rivera ) and Brittany ( Heather Morris ) . Sue then enlists the three of them to help her destroy the glee club from the inside . Upon discovering her pregnancy , Quinn convinces Finn that he is the father , despite the fact that they never actually had a sexual encounter . Quinn claims that due to his premature ejaculation problem , and during their time in a hot - tub , Finn had ejaculated in the tub and Quinn had received the sperm . The real father is Finn 's best friend Puck ( Mark Salling ) , who offers to support Quinn and the baby , but is rejected for his irresponsibility . Quinn decides to have the baby adopted , and agrees to give it to Terri ( Jessalyn Gilsig ) , the wife of glee club director Will Schuester ( Matthew Morrison ) , who is faking a pregnancy . When news of her pregnancy is revealed to the school , Quinn is cut from the cheerleading squad and her popularity declines . Her parents evict her , and Quinn moves in with Finn and his mother . She begins to reconsider having the baby adopted , and gives Puck a chance to prove himself , but he is not reliable so she returns to her plan of giving the baby to Terri . Quinn blackmails Sue into letting her rejoin the Cheerios , but ultimately decides against it , preferring to remain with the glee club , where she feels accepted . Finn learns the truth about the baby 's paternity from Rachel , and breaks up with Quinn . Puck again offers to support her , but she turns him down and tells him that she wants to handle the pregnancy by herself . She moves in with Puck 's family , but after forming a friendship with fellow New Directions member Mercedes Jones ( Amber Riley ) , Quinn lives with her family instead . She gives birth to a daughter , named Beth by Puck , who is adopted by Shelby Corcoran ( Idina Menzel ) , coach of rival glee club Vocal Adrenaline and Rachel 's biological mother . Season 2 ( edit ) At the beginning of the new school year , Quinn is reinstated as head cheerleader . She begins dating new glee club member Sam Evans ( Chord Overstreet ) , and later accepts a promise ring from him . When Sue forces Quinn , Santana and Brittany to choose between cheerleading and the glee club , all three initially go with the Cheerios to retain their popularity , but are later convinced by Finn to defect to New Directions . Quinn cheats on Sam with Finn , and Sam dumps Quinn after she lies to him about her time with Finn . She and Finn reunite , and Quinn starts campaigning for junior prom king and queen elections . Lauren Zizes ( Ashley Fink ) , Puck 's new girlfriend and one of Quinn 's rivals for prom queen , discovers that before transferring to McKinley High , Quinn was known by her first name , Lucy . She was overweight and unpopular , and after slimming down and having rhinoplasty , reinvented herself as Quinn , using her middle name . At prom , Finn is thrown out for fighting with Rachel 's date Jesse St. James ( Jonathan Groff ) . Quinn is not named prom queen , and blames Rachel for her loss . She slaps her , but immediately regrets it and apologizes . Finn later breaks up with Quinn when he realizes he has a deeper connection with Rachel . Season 3 ( edit ) At the start of her senior year , Quinn has completely reinvented herself and refuses to rejoin either the Cheerios or New Directions , although when New Directions performs `` You Ca n't Stop The Beat '' in the auditorium Quinn can be seen watching them with a conflicted look on her face . Shelby lets Puck see Beth , but rejects Quinn 's desire to do likewise due to Quinn 's bad - girl attitude , appearance and behavior . After seeing a picture of a happy Beth and Puck , Quinn resumes her normal appearance , and Will and the New Directions welcome her back into the club , but Quinn reveals to Puck she is only pretending to behave in order to take Beth back from Shelby , and intends to pursue full custody . After Puck tells Shelby of Quinn 's true intentions , Shelby informs Quinn that she does not want her in Beth 's life . Quinn later reveals a desire to have a second baby with Puck . Puck refuses , and tries to comfort her ; he offers to share an important secret if she promises not to tell anyone , which ultimately results in Quinn planning to get Shelby fired for sleeping with a student , Puck . Quinn decides not to reveal Shelby 's secret for Beth 's sake . Quinn advises Rachel to refuse Finn 's marriage proposal and leave her past behind . Quinn has done so , and she has been accepted at Yale . Quinn asks to allow her to rejoin the Cheerios , but Sue refuses . However , following Regionals , she changes her mind . Quinn also changes her mind about Finn and Rachel 's marriage and supports it . Rachel is reluctant to start the subsequent wedding without Quinn , and texts Quinn . Quinn is responding to Rachel 's text when a truck crashes into the driver 's side of her car . Quinn 's car accident has left her in a wheelchair , suffering from a severely compressed spine . By `` Prom - asaurus '' she is able to stand and to walk a few steps in the sessions . When Quinn is nominated for prom queen , Finn agrees to campaign with her , but is outraged when he discovers that she has been hiding the fact that she can now stand for the sympathy vote . When Quinn and Santana count the votes , they discover that Finn has won and so has Quinn . Quinn realizes that the victory means nothing . She and Santana falsely report the prom queen results as a write - in victory for Rachel . Her recovery is rapid enough to allow her to dance in the `` Nationals '' competition episode , which New Directions wins . Quinn helps Puck study for the test he needs to pass in order to graduate . She tells him that with all they went through , they are bonded for life , and she kisses him . Emboldened , Puck passes his test . Later , Quinn returns her cheerleading uniform to Sue , and the two have a tearful farewell . Season 4 ( edit ) Quinn returns to Lima for Thanksgiving in the eighth episode of the season , and helps to mentor the new members of New Directions as they prepare for Sectionals competition . Quinn is partnered with Kitty Wilde ( Becca Tobin ) . Kitty convinces Quinn , whom she idolizes , that Jake Puckerman ( Jacob Artist ) , Puck 's half brother , is pressuring Marley into having sex with him . Quinn becomes hostile towards Jake , Santana confronts Quinn about having discovered that Kitty has given Marley laxatives in order to further Marley 's bulimia . Quinn , who is dating one of her teachers at Yale , accuses Santana of being jealous of her and projecting her hostility in their surrogates , leading to a fight before Quinn storms out of the choir room . Quinn travels to New York to give Rachel helpful advice over whether or not to do a nude scene in a short film in `` Naked '' . Quinn returns to Lima for Will and Emma 's wedding in `` I Do '' , and evidently single again , vents her frustrations about men . She and Santana get drunk at the wedding reception and sleep together , which they agree was a fun one - time , and then two time , experimentation for Quinn . Season 5 ( edit ) Quinn returns to Lima with a new boyfriend , Biff , for the special 100th episode . Puck is jealous of their relationship , because he still loves her . Quinn is lying to him because she does not want him to know about her past yet . Puck convinces her to tell Biff the truth , which she does . Biff reacts wrongly and insults her , which causes a fight between Puck and Biff . They later break - up . Puck and Quinn talk about Finn and their relationship , and she realizes that she still loves him . They later start a relationship again , which is later confirmed in the next episode . Season 6 ( edit ) Quinn along with the New Directions alumni return in the episode `` Homecoming '' to help Rachel and Kurt rebuild the New Directions . Quinn , Santana , and Brittany attempt to recruit new members by performing in Cheerios Alumni outfits , but only recruit twins Mason and Madison when former Glee new member , Kitty , who was the only member not to be transferred as Sue saw her as a star player , announced she would n't return because of the way Artie treated her and everyone else when he left . Puck is still her boyfriend . She appears in `` Jagged Little Tapestry '' along with Tina to help Becky convince her new boyfriend that she is in every club of the school . Quinn , Tina , Sue , and Coach Roz get a huge surprise when they find out that Becky 's boyfriend , Darrell , does not have Down syndrome like Becky does . They all get a big lesson when they confront him and realize that a person with Down syndrome should be treated like everyone else . Despite being Santana and Brittany 's best friend , she is notably absent during their wedding in `` A Wedding '' . She is mentioned several times during the Pilot 's parallel episode `` 2009 '' , as Finn 's cheerleader girlfriend . She is later seen during Do n't Stop Believin ' watching the performance with Sue and Santana . She returns in the last minutes of the series finale `` Dreams Come True '' performing backing vocals for I Lived with the rest of the Glee Cast for the re-dedication of the Auditorium . Development ( edit ) Casting and creation ( edit ) Dianna Agron ( pictured ) plays Quinn . Quinn is portrayed by actress Dianna Agron . In casting Glee , series creator Ryan Murphy sought out actors who could identify with the rush of starring in theatrical roles . Instead of using traditional network casting calls , he spent three months on Broadway looking for unknown actors . Agron was the last primary actor to be cast , having won the role only days before the pilot began filming . Agron auditioned for Glee coming from a background in dancing and acting . She has been taking dance classes since the age of three , appeared in many music theatre productions and has appeared in television roles for Skidmarks , CSI : NY , and Heroes . Agron said in a 2009 interview pertaining to her casting session : `` I nearly bailed on my audition for the show . I was so nervous '' . With her wholesome good looks , Agron certainly looked the part , but the producers wondered if she appeared too innocent . Agron said in an interview : `` They told me to come back with straight hair and to dress sexier . Later that week , I started work . '' Agron auditioned with Frank Sinatra 's `` Fly Me to the Moon '' . The Glee producers said `` we really lucked out in finding Agron to play Quinn '' . In December 2010 , Ryan Murphy announced that the cast of Glee would be replaced at the end of the third season to coincide with their graduation . Murphy said : `` Every year we 're going to populate a new group . There 's nothing more depressing than a high schooler with a bald spot . '' He also revealed that some of the original cast will leave as early as 2012 : `` I think you have to be true to the fact that here is a group of people who come and go in these teachers ' lives . '' Although four graduating seniors were confirmed in January 2012 as returning in the fourth season -- Rachel , Finn , Kurt and Santana -- there had been no announcement regarding Quinn or any other seniors as of the end of February 2012 . As of May 2012 , Murphy stated that all graduating seniors will come back for season 4 but , not all will be doing `` all 22 episodes '' . Characterization ( edit ) Quinn is described by Agron as Rachel Berry 's ( Lea Michele ) enemy , and `` terrible , the meanest girl '' . Agron said that her favorite part of Quinn is that `` she 's smart . But she 's also human , and through her tough exterior , she 's often a little girl lost . '' Interviewmagazine. com 's Lauren Waterman has described her as being `` lovable , but occasionally a manipulative deposed queen bee . '' Agron commented : `` Yes , there is a stereotype with these characters and it would n't be fair if ( those stereotypes ) did n't exist a little bit . But ( co-creator ) Ryan Murphy has a way of taking everything and turning it upside down . That 's the great thing about this show and these characters : nobody is one note , which is amazing . '' Quinn was originally conceived as the antagonistic queen bee head cheerleader , a departure from Agron 's actual high school experience . Agron said in an interview with HitFix : `` I definitely was n't cool in high school . I really was n't . I did belong to many of the clubs and was in leadership on yearbook and did the musical theater route , so I had friends in all areas , but I certainly did not know what to wear , did not know how to do my hair , all those things . '' She added : `` I think that it shows that regardless of who you are and what group you belong to , that there are so many emotions behind each person in high school . Sometimes with teens , writers or directors , anybody , short - changes them and makes them be simple , simple individuals , you 're either the jock or the popular kid or the nerd . They do n't show those shades . Everybody has those shades to them . This show , it really expands upon vulnerability and excitement and anger all the experiences that you probably actually go through in high school . '' Quinn 's role as head cheerleader is central to understanding her character . Agron said that she had never had any prior cheer experience before the Pilot . `` If I had been ( a cheerleader ) , I would 've ended up on crutches , '' she told Emmy magazine . In an interview with HitFix she said , `` I have new respect for the craft , because I slightly hurt myself during the pilot , coming down from one of the stunts . It 's better now . I did n't tear something in my knee , but I strained it . Knees are very sensitive , I 've learned . It 's crazy , because I 've been dancing since I was three on my toes and all these things . And you should never say this , but I 've never injured myself ever . I 'd seen gnarly injuries with dance and all these things . You should n't say that , though , because every day is an opportunity to fall , hurt yourself , so that was my experience . '' Reception ( edit ) Critical response ( edit ) Quinn ( Agron , pictured ) has received positive reviews from critics . Quinn has received positive reviews from critics . The role saw Agron nominated for the Teen Choice Award for `` Female Breakout Star '' in 2009 . She and the other cast members were awarded the Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Comedy Series in 2010 , and nominated in the same category the following year . The character 's accidental pregnancy storyline received mixed reviews from critics . Tim Stack for Entertainment Weekly deemed it `` a good dramatic twist '' , but hoped that it would not be a long - lasting storyline . Reviews of her storyline became increasingly negative , though Agron was praised for her dramatic acting during the confrontation scene with Quinn 's parents in `` Ballad '' . Gerrick D. Kennedy , writing for the Los Angeles Times , was critical of the ongoing pregnancy plot in the episode `` Hairography '' , and noted that he cringed whenever Quinn appeared on screen . Conversely , Bobby Hankinson of the Houston Chronicle enjoyed Quinn in the episode , and wrote : `` I love that she can keep her Mean Girls edge while being heartbreakingly sad or as joyful as she was singing `` Papa Do n't Preach '' . Reviewing the episode `` Journey to Regionals '' , Entertainment Weekly 's Darren Franich called Quinn 's birthing scenes -- interspersed with Vocal Adrenaline performing Queen 's `` Bohemian Rhapsody '' -- both `` brilliant '' and `` terrible '' . He wrote , `` If nothing else , it was definitely the most visually arresting way to represent the birthing process I 've ever seen outside of The Miracle of Life . But I kind of liked it . Somewhere , Freddie Mercury is nodding proudly , and saying , ' World , I forgive you for We Will Rock You . ' '' Brett Berk , writing for Vanity Fair , was positive about the scripting of the Quinn character in the second season premiere , now that the pregnancy storyline was over , and was happy to see the return of `` evil Quinn '' . Joel Kelly of TV Squad criticized the decision to pair Quinn with Finn again in the Valentine 's Day oriented episode . He saw it as a regression of the characters , and commented : `` Yes , it feels like Glee Classic , because the series started with the two of them together . But both of them have changed -- Quinn more so than Finn -- and having them dating again seems like they 're going back to the days when Quinn was the icy lead Cheerio and Finn was the nice but dumb star quarterback . '' Quinn 's season three reinvention attracted mixed reviews . Lesley Goldberg of The Hollywood Reporter listed her change as a highlight of the episode , and hoped to see more of her new attitude . The Atlantic 's Kevin Fallon called it `` the most interesting thing Quinn has done since giving birth to a baby to the soundtrack of ' Bohemian Rhapsody ' '' , but VanDerWerff suggested the development hinged on the fact the producers no longer knew how to utilize Agron . She was ranked No. 13 in AfterEllen.com 's Top 50 Favorite Female TV Characters . Musical performances ( edit ) Several songs performed by Agron as Quinn have been released as singles , available for digital download , also featured on the show 's soundtrack albums . Agron made her musical debut at the end of the episode `` Showmance '' where she performed Dionne Warwick 's `` I Say a Little Prayer '' . Quinn 's next solo was in the episode `` Throwdown '' , where she performed The Supremes ' `` You Keep Me Hangin ' On '' . The song was released on Glee : The Music , Volume 1 . Flandez deemed the cover of `` Keep Holding On '' , the ensemble performance on the episode , an `` emotionally satisfying showstopper '' , however was critical of Quinn 's cover of `` You Keep Me Hangin ' On '' , which he called `` thin and jarring '' . Aly Semigran of MTV observed that Quinn spontaneously bursting into song brought Glee `` dangerously close to High School Musical territory '' . Agron later performed a solo in the episode `` Hairography '' singing Madonna 's `` Papa Do n't Preach '' after her father learns she is pregnant . This performance by Agron was released as a single . She performed a rendition of James Brown 's `` It 's a Man 's Man 's Man 's World '' in the episode `` Funk '' . CNN 's Lisa Respers France was `` slightly disturbed '' by Quinn 's `` weird '' performance of `` It 's a Man 's Man 's Man 's World '' using pregnant teenagers as backing dancers . Quinn ( right ) was romantically linked with Sam Evans ( left ) early in the second season ; they sang two duets together . In season two , Quinn performs `` Lucky '' with Sam Evans in the episode `` Duets '' , which was named by some critics as `` the most impressive number of the evening '' ; others called it `` absolutely fantastic '' with particular praise for Agron , who was said to be often overlooked . `` Lucky '' debuted at number twenty - seven on the Billboard Hot 100 ; it was at number seventeen on the Billboard Canadian Hot 100 . Quinn 's duet performance with Rachel Berry ( Lea Michele ) of the mash - up `` I Feel Pretty / Unpretty '' was the highest charted single featured in the episode `` Born This Way '' , debuting at number twenty - two on the Billboard Hot 100 . It also peaked at number thirteen on the Digital 100 charts and sold 112,000 digital downloads in the United States in its first week of release . It was the highest charting Glee single on the Billboard charts since `` Loser Like Me '' , which debuted at number six on the Billboard Hot 100 and sold over 210,000 downloads in its first week . In season three , Quinn sings her first solo number since the first season , `` Never Can Say Goodbye '' by The Jackson 5 , which received mostly positive reviews . Jen Chaney of The Washington Post gave the song a `` B − '' , and said it `` worked much better than every track that preceded it '' because it adapted the song to the show `` instead of trying to out - Jackson Jackson '' . Entertainment Weekly 's Joseph Brannigan Lynch called it `` a nice summation of her character 's journey , but not vocally impressive enough to justify listening to outside of the episode '' and gave it a `` B '' . Crystal Bell of HuffPost TV described it as a `` blah performance '' , but Kate Stanhope of TV Guide said it was `` sweet and reflective '' . Erica Futterman of Rolling Stone wrote that it was `` a tune well - suited for Quinn 's sultry voice and the flipped meaning she gives the lyrics '' , and TVLine 's Michael Slezak had a similar take : he gave it an `` A '' and called it a `` remarkably lovely fit '' for her voice . See also ( edit ) Glee portal List of Glee characters Dianna Agron filmography References ( edit ) Jump up ^ Season 2 , Episode 8 : Born This Way ^ Jump up to : `` Glee -- Dianna Agron '' . FoxSource . YouTube . May 18 , 2009 . Retrieved June 2 , 2009 . Jump up ^ Adly MacKenzie , Carina ( June 1 , 2010 ) . `` ' Glee ' introducing Christian character for Season 2 '' . Zap2it . Tribune Media Services . Retrieved August 23 , 2010 . Jump up ^ Ryan Murphy ( director , writer ) , Brad Falchuk ( writer ) , Ian Brennan ( writer ) ( September 2 , 2009 ) . `` Pilot '' . Glee . Season 1 . Episode 1 . Fox . Jump up ^ Ryan Murphy ( director , writer ) , Brad Falchuk ( writer ) , Ian Brennan ( writer ) ( September 9 , 2009 ) . `` Showmance '' . Glee . Season 1 . Episode 2 . Fox . Jump up ^ Brad Falchuk ( director , writer ) ( September 23 , 2009 ) . `` Preggers '' . Glee . Season 1 . Episode 4 . Fox . Jump up ^ Elodie Keene ( director ) , Ryan Murphy ( writer ) ( October 7 , 2009 ) . `` Vitamin D '' . Glee . Season 1 . Episode 6 . Fox . Jump up ^ Elodie Keene ( director ) , Ian Brennan ( writer ) ( October 21 , 2009 ) . `` Mash - Up '' . Glee . Season 1 . Episode 8 . Fox . Jump up ^ Brad Falchuk ( director , writer ) ( November 18 , 2009 ) . `` Ballad '' . Glee . Season 1 . Episode 10 . Fox . Jump up ^ Bill D'Elia ( director ) , Ian Brennan ( writer ) ( November 25 , 2010 ) . `` Hairography '' . Glee . Season 1 . Episode 11 . Fox . Jump up ^ Elodie Keene ( director ) , Ryan Murphy ( writer ) ( December 2 , 2009 ) . `` Mattress '' . Glee . Season 1 . Episode 12 . Fox . Jump up ^ Brad Falchuk ( director , writer ) ( December 9 , 2009 ) . `` Sectionals '' . Glee . Season 1 . Episode 13 . Fox . Jump up ^ Alfonso Gomez - Rejon ( director ) , Ryan Murphy ( writer ) ( May 11 , 2010 ) . `` Laryngitis '' . Glee . Season 1 . Episode 18 . Fox . Jump up ^ Elodie Keene ( director ) , Ian Brennan ( writer ) ( June 1 , 2010 ) . `` Funk '' . Glee . Season 1 . Episode 21 . Fox . Jump up ^ Brad Falchuk ( director , writer ) ( June 8 , 2010 ) . `` Journey to Regionals '' . Glee . Season 1 . Episode 22 . Fox . Jump up ^ Brad Falchuk ( director ) , Ian Brennan ( writer ) ( September 21 , 2010 ) . `` Audition '' . Glee . Season 2 . Episode 1 . Fox . Jump up ^ VanDerWerff , Todd ( October 13 , 2010 ) . `` Duets '' . The A.V. Club . Onion , Inc . Retrieved October 13 , 2010 . Jump up ^ Carol Banker ( director ) , Ryan Murphy ( writer ) ( November 23 , 2010 ) . `` Furt '' . Glee . Season 2 . Episode 8 . Fox . Jump up ^ Reiter , Amy ( February 7 , 2011 ) . `` ' Glee ' recap : A post-Super Bowl thriller ? '' . Los Angeles Times . Tribune Company . Retrieved March 5 , 2011 . Jump up ^ Alfonso Gomez - Rejon ( director ) , Ryan Murphy ( writer ) ( April 26 , 2011 ) . `` Born This Way '' . Glee . Season 2 . Episode 18 . Fox . Jump up ^ Bradley Buecker ( director ) , Ryan Murphy ( writer ) ( May 17 , 2011 ) . `` Funeral '' . Glee . Season 2 . Episode 21 . Fox . Jump up ^ Eric Stoltz ( director ) , Brad Falchuk ( writer ) ( September 20 , 2011 ) . `` The Purple Piano Project '' . Glee . Season 3 . Episode 1 . Fox . ^ Jump up to : Brad Falchuk ( director ) , Ryan Murphy ( writer ) ( September 27 , 2011 ) . `` I Am Unicorn '' . Glee . Season 3 . Episode 2 . Fox . Jump up ^ Eric Stoltz ( director ) , Michael Hitchcock ( writer ) ( November 15 , 2011 ) . `` Mash Off '' . Glee . Season 3 . Episode 6 . Fox . ^ Jump up to : Tate Donovan ( director ) , Matthew Hodgson ( writer ) ( November 29 , 2011 ) . `` I Kissed a Girl '' . Glee . Season 3 . Episode 7 . Fox . Jump up ^ Bradley Buecker ( director ) , Ross Maxwell ( writer ) ( December 6 , 2011 ) . `` Hold On to Sixteen '' . Glee . Season 3 . Episode 8 . Fox . ^ Jump up to : Alfonso Gomez - Rejon ( director ) , Ryan Murphy ( writer ) ( January 31 , 2012 ) . `` Michael '' . Glee . Season 3 . Episode 11 . Fox . ^ Jump up to : Bradley Buecker ( director ) , Roberto Aguirre - Sacasa ( writer ) ( February 21 , 2012 ) . `` On My Way '' . Glee . Season 3 . Episode 14 . Fox . Jump up ^ Paris Barclay ( director ) , Ross Maxwell ( writer ) ( April 24 , 2012 ) . `` Dance with Somebody '' . Glee . Season 3 . Episode 17 . Fox . ^ Jump up to : Eric Stoltz ( director ) , Ryan Murphy ( writer ) ( May 8 , 2012 ) . `` Prom - asaurus '' . Glee . Season 3 . Episode 19 . Fox . Jump up ^ Eric Stoltz ( director ) , Ali Adler ( writer ) ( May 15 , 2012 ) . `` Nationals '' . Glee . Season 3 . Episode 21 . Fox . ^ Jump up to : Bradley Buecker ( director ) , Russel Friend and Garrett Lerner ( writers ) ( November 29 , 2012 ) . `` Thanksgiving '' . Glee . Season 4 . Episode 8 . Fox . Jump up ^ Ian Brennan ( director ) , Ryan Murphy ( writer ) ( January 31 , 2013 ) . `` Naked '' . Glee . Season 4 . Episode 12 . Fox . Jump up ^ Brad Falchuk ( director ) , Ian Brennan ( writer ) ( February 14 , 2013 ) . `` I Do '' . Glee . Season 4 . Episode 14 . Fox . Jump up ^ Martin , Denise ( April 26 , 2009 ) . `` Video : ' Glee ' team rewrites the school musical '' . Los Angeles Times . Retrieved May 19 , 2009 . ^ Jump up to : `` Glee Casting : Quinn '' . Hulu.com . Archived from the original on March 13 , 2011 . Retrieved March 22 , 2011 . Jump up ^ `` Dianna Agron Biography '' . TV Guide . Retrieved February 18 , 2011 . ^ Jump up to : Waterman , Lauren . `` Dianna Agron '' . 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Arabic numerals - wikipedia Arabic numerals Jump to : navigation , search For other uses , see Arabic numerals ( disambiguation ) . Arabic numerals sans - serif Numeral systems Hindu -- Arabic numeral system Western Arabic Eastern Arabic Bengali Gurmukhi Indian Sinhala Tamil Balinese Burmese Dzongkha Gujarati Javanese Khmer Lao Mongolian Thai East Asian Chinese Suzhou Hokkien Japanese Korean Vietnamese Counting rods Alphabetic Abjad Armenian Āryabhaṭa Cyrillic Ge'ez Georgian Greek Hebrew Roman Former Aegean Attic Babylonian Brahmi Chuvash Egyptian Etruscan Inuit Kharosthi Mayan Muisca Quipu Prehistoric Positional systems by base 5 6 8 10 12 16 20 60 Non-standard positional numeral systems Bijective numeration ( 1 ) Signed - digit representation ( Balanced ternary ) factorial negative Complex - base system ( 2i ) Non-integer representation ( φ ) mixed Asymmetric numeral systems List of numeral systems Arabic numerals , also called Hindu -- Arabic numerals , are the ten digits : 0 , 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 , 7 , 8 , 9 , based on the Hindu -- Arabic numeral system , the most common system for the symbolic representation of numbers in the world today . In this numeral system , a sequence of digits such as `` 975 '' is read as a single number , using the position of the digit in the sequence to interpret its value . They are descended from the Hindu - Arabic numeral system developed by ancient Indian mathematicians around 500 CE . The system was adopted by Arabic mathematicians in Baghdad and passed on to the Arabs farther west . There is some evidence to suggest that the numerals in their current form developed from Arabic letters in the Maghreb , the western region of the Arab world . The current form of the numerals developed in North Africa , distinct in form from the Indian and Eastern Arabic numerals . It was in the North African city of Bejaia that the Italian scholar Fibonacci first encountered the numerals ; his work was crucial in making them known throughout Europe . The use of Arabic numerals spread around the world through European trade , books and colonialism . The term Arabic numerals is ambiguous . It most commonly refers to the numerals widely used in Europe and the Americas ; to avoid confusion , Unicode calls these European digits . Arabic numerals is also the European name for the entire family of related numerals of Arabic and Indian numerals . It may also be intended to mean the numerals used by Arabs , in which case it generally refers to the Eastern Arabic numerals . It would be more appropriate to refer to the Arabic numeral system , where the value of a digit in a number depends on its position . Although the phrase `` Arabic numeral '' is frequently capitalized , it is sometimes written in lower case : for instance , in its entry in the Oxford English Dictionary , which helps to distinguish it from `` Arabic numerals '' as the East Arabic numerals specific to the Arabs . Contents ( hide ) 1 History 1.1 Origins 1.1. 1 Popular myths 1.2 Adoption in Europe 1.3 Adoption in Russia 1.4 Adoption in China 2 Evolution of symbols 3 See also 4 References 5 Sources 6 Further reading 7 External links History ( edit ) Origins ( edit ) Main article : History of the Hindu -- Arabic numeral system The decimal Hindu -- Arabic numeral system was developed in India by around AD 700 . The development was gradual , spanning several centuries , but the decisive step was probably provided by Brahmagupta 's formulation of zero as a number in AD 628 . The system was revolutionary by including zero in positional notation , thereby limiting the number of individual digits to ten . It is considered an important milestone in the development of mathematics . One may distinguish between this positional system , which is identical throughout the family , and the precise glyphs used to write the numerals , which varied regionally . The glyphs most commonly used in conjunction with the Latin script since early modern times are 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 . The first universally accepted inscription containing the use of the 0 glyph in India is first recorded in the 9th century , in an inscription at Gwalior in Central India dated to 870 . Numerous Indian documents on copper plates exist , with the same symbol for zero in them , dated back as far as the 6th century AD , but their dates are uncertain . Inscriptions in Indonesia and Cambodia dating to AD 683 have also been found . Brahmi numerals ( lower row ) in India in the 1st century AD The numerals used in the Bakhshali manuscript , dated to sometime between the 3rd and 7th century AD . Modern - day Arab telephone keypad with two forms of Arabic numerals : Western Arabic / European numerals on the left and Eastern Arabic numerals on the right The numeral system came to be known to the court of Baghdad , where mathematicians such as the Persian Al - Khwarizmi , whose book On the Calculation with Hindu Numerals was written about 825 in Arabic , and the Arab mathematician Al - Kindi , who wrote four volumes , On the Use of the Indian Numerals ( Ketab fi Isti'mal al - ' Adad al - Hindi ) about 830 , propagated it in the Arab world . Their work was principally responsible for the diffusion of the Indian system of numeration in the Middle East and the West . In the 10th century , Middle - Eastern mathematicians extended the decimal numeral system to include fractions , as recorded in a treatise by Syrian mathematician Abu'l - Hasan al - Uqlidisi in 952 -- 953 . The decimal point notation was introduced by Sind ibn Ali , who also wrote the earliest treatise on Arabic numerals . A distinctive West Arabic variant of the symbols begins to emerge around the 10th century in the Maghreb and Al - Andalus , called ghubar ( `` sand - table '' or `` dust - table '' ) numerals , which are the direct ancestor of the modern Western Arabic numerals used throughout the world . Ghubar numerals themselves are probably of Roman origin . Popular myths ( edit ) Some popular myths have argued that the original forms of these symbols indicated their numeric value through the number of angles they contained , but no evidence exists of any such origin . Adoption in Europe ( edit ) Adoption of the Hindu numerals through the Arabs by Europe Woodcut showing the 16th century astronomical clock of Uppsala Cathedral , with two clockfaces , one with Arabic and one with Roman numerals . A German manuscript page teaching use of Arabic numerals ( Talhoffer Thott , 1459 ) . At this time , knowledge of the numerals was still widely seen as esoteric , and Talhoffer presents them with the Hebrew alphabet and astrology . Late 18th - century French revolutionary `` decimal '' clockface . In 825 Al - Khwārizmī wrote a treatise in Arabic , On the Calculation with Hindu Numerals , which survives only as the 12th - century Latin translation , Algoritmi de numero Indorum . Algoritmi , the translator 's rendition of the author 's name , gave rise to the word algorithm . The first mentions of the numerals in the West are found in the Codex Vigilanus of 976 . From the 980s , Gerbert of Aurillac ( later , Pope Sylvester II ) used his position to spread knowledge of the numerals in Europe . Gerbert studied in Barcelona in his youth . He was known to have requested mathematical treatises concerning the astrolabe from Lupitus of Barcelona after he had returned to France . Leonardo Fibonacci ( Leonardo of Pisa ) , a mathematician born in the Republic of Pisa who had studied in Béjaïa ( Bougie ) , Algeria , promoted the Indian numeral system in Europe with his 1202 book Liber Abaci : When my father , who had been appointed by his country as public notary in the customs at Bugia acting for the Pisan merchants going there , was in charge , he summoned me to him while I was still a child , and having an eye to usefulness and future convenience , desired me to stay there and receive instruction in the school of accounting . There , when I had been introduced to the art of the Indians ' nine symbols through remarkable teaching , knowledge of the art very soon pleased me above all else and I came to understand it . The numerals are arranged with their lowest value digit to the right , with higher value positions added to the left . This arrangement was adopted identically into the numerals as used in Europe . Languages written in the Latin alphabet run from left - to - right , unlike languages written in the Arabic alphabet . Hence , from the point of view of the reader , numerals in Western texts are written with the highest power of the base first whereas numerals in Arabic texts are written with the lowest power of the base first . The reason the digits are more commonly known as `` Arabic numerals '' in Europe and the Americas is that they were introduced to Europe in the 10th century by Arabic - speakers of North Africa , who were then using the digits from Libya to Morocco . Arabs , on the other hand , call the system `` Hindu numerals '' , referring to their origin in India . This is not to be confused with what the Arabs call the `` Hindi numerals '' , namely the Eastern Arabic numerals ( ٠ ‬ - ١ ‬ - ٢ ‬ - ٣ ‬ - ٤ ‬ - ٥ ‬ - ٦ ‬ - ٧ ‬ - ٨ ‬ - ٩ ‬ ) used in the Middle East , or any of the numerals currently used in Indian languages ( e.g. Devanagari : ०. १. २. ३. ४. ५. ६. ७. ८. ९ ) . The European acceptance of the numerals was accelerated by the invention of the printing press , and they became widely known during the 15th century . Early evidence of their use in Britain includes : an equal hour horary quadrant from 1396 , in England , a 1445 inscription on the tower of Heathfield Church , Sussex ; a 1448 inscription on a wooden lych-gate of Bray Church , Berkshire ; and a 1487 inscription on the belfry door at Piddletrenthide church , Dorset ; and in Scotland a 1470 inscription on the tomb of the first Earl of Huntly in Elgin Cathedral . ( See G.F. Hill , The Development of Arabic Numerals in Europe for more examples . ) In central Europe , the King of Hungary Ladislaus the Posthumous , started the use of Arabic numerals , which appear for the first time in a royal document of 1456 . By the mid-16th century , they were in common use in most of Europe . Roman numerals remained in use mostly for the notation of Anno Domini years , and for numbers on clockfaces . Today , Roman numerals are still used for enumeration of lists ( as an alternative to alphabetical enumeration ) , for sequential volumes , to differentiate monarchs or family members with the same first names , and ( in lower case ) to number pages in prefatory material in books . Adoption in Russia ( edit ) Cyrillic numerals were a numbering system derived from the Cyrillic alphabet , used by South and East Slavic peoples . The system was used in Russia as late as the early 18th century when Peter the Great replaced it with Arabic numerals . Adoption in China ( edit ) Iron plate with an order 6 magic square in Persian / Arabic numbers from China , dating to the Yuan Dynasty ( 1271 -- 1368 ) . Arabic numerals were introduced to China during the Yuan Dynasty ( 1271 -- 1368 ) by the Muslim Hui people . In the early 17th century , European - style Arabic numerals were introduced by Spanish and Portuguese Jesuits . Evolution of symbols ( edit ) Main article : Algorism The numeral system employed , known as algorism , is positional decimal notation . Various symbol sets are used to represent numbers in the Hindu -- Arabic numeral system , potentially including both symbols that evolved from the Brahmi numerals , and symbols that developed independently . The symbols used to represent the system have split into various typographical variants since the Middle Ages : The widespread Western Arabic numerals used with the Latin script , in the table below labelled European , descended from the West Arabic numerals developed in al - Andalus ( Andalucía , Spain ) and the Maghreb . Spanish scholars , because of the geographic proximity , trade , and constant warfare with the Muslim kingdoms of Southern Spain , saw a potential in the simplicity of Arabic numbers , and decided to adopt those symbols , and later other Europeans followed suit . There are two typographic styles for rendering European numerals , known as lining figures and text figures . The Arabic -- Indic or Eastern Arabic numerals , used with the Arabic script , developed primarily in what is now Iraq . A variant of the Eastern Arabic numerals used in the Persian and Urdu languages is shown below as East Arabic - Indic . The Devanagari numerals used with Devanagari and related variants are grouped as Indian numerals . The evolution of the numerals in early Europe is shown here in a table created by the French scholar Jean - Étienne Montucla in his Histoire de la Mathematique , which was published in 1757 : The Arabic numeral glyphs 0 -- 9 are encoded in ASCII and Unicode at positions 0x30 to 0x39 , matching up with the second hexadecimal digit for convenience : Binary Octal Decimal Hexadecimal Glyph 0011 0000 060 48 30 0 0011 0001 061 49 31 0011 0010 062 50 32 0011 0011 063 51 33 0011 0100 064 52 34 0011 0101 065 53 35 5 0011 0110 066 54 36 6 0011 0111 067 55 37 7 0011 1000 070 56 38 8 0011 1001 071 57 39 9 See also ( edit ) Abjad numerals Chinese numerals Counting rods -- decimal positional numeral system with zero Decimal Greek numerals Japanese numerals Maya numerals Regional variations in modern handwritten Arabic numerals References ( edit ) Jump up ^ Schipp , Bernhard ; Krämer , Walter ( 2008 ) , Statistical Inference , Econometric Analysis and Matrix Algebra : Festschrift in Honour of Götz Trenkler , Springer , p. 387 , ISBN 9783790821208 Jump up ^ Lumpkin , Beatrice ; Strong , Dorothy ( 1995 ) , Multicultural science and math connections : middle school projects and activities , Walch Publishing , p. 118 , ISBN 9780825126598 ^ Jump up to : Bulliet , Richard ; Crossley , Pamela ; Headrick , , Daniel ; Hirsch , Steven ; Johnson , Lyman ( 2010 ) . The Earth and Its Peoples : A Global History , Volume 1 . Cengage Learning . p. 192 . ISBN 1439084742 . Indian mathematicians invented the concept of zero and developed the `` Arabic '' numerals and system of place - value notation used in most parts of the world today Jump up ^ On the Origin of Arabic Numerals - A. Boucenna - Université Ferhat Abbas Setif ( in French ) Jump up ^ `` Arabic '' , Oxford English Dictionary , 2nd edition Jump up ^ O'Connor , J.J. and E.F. Robertson . 2000 . Indian Numerals , MacTutor History of Mathematics Archive , School of Mathematics and Statistics , University of St. Andrews , Scotland . Jump up ^ Plofker 2009 , p. 45 . Jump up ^ The MacTutor History of Mathematics archive Jump up ^ Gandz , Solomon ( November 1931 ) , `` The Origin of the Ghubār Numerals , or the Arabian Abacus and the Articuli '' , Isis , 16 ( 2 ) : 393 -- 424 , doi : 10.1086 / 346615 , JSTOR 224714 ^ Jump up to : Ifrah , Georges ( 1998 ) . The universal history of numbers : from prehistory to the invention of the computer ; translated from the French by David Bellos . London : Harvill Press . pp. 356 -- 357 . ISBN 9781860463242 . Jump up ^ Philosophy Of Mathematics Francis , John -- 2008 -- Page 38 Jump up ^ The Ellipse : A Historical and Mathematical Journey Arthur Mazer -- 2011 Jump up ^ `` al - Khwarizmi - Muslim mathematician '' . Jump up ^ Models of Computation : An Introduction to Computability Theory -- Page 1 Maribel Fernández -- 2009 Jump up ^ `` MATHORIGINS. COM_V '' . www.mathorigins.com . Jump up ^ Rowlett , Russ ( 4 July 2004 ) , Roman and `` Arabic '' Numerals , University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill , retrieved 22 June 2009 Jump up ^ Achenbach , Joel ( 16 September 1994 ) , Article : Take a Number , Please. , The Washington Post , retrieved 22 June 2009 Jump up ^ `` 14th century timepiece unearthed in Qld farm shed '' . ABC News . Jump up ^ Erdélyi : Magyar művelődéstörténet 1 - 2 . kötet . Kolozsvár , 1913 , 1918 Jump up ^ Mathforum.org Jump up ^ Helaine Selin , ed. ( 31 July 1997 ) . Encyclopaedia of the history of science , technology , and medicine in non-western cultures . Springer . pp. 198 -- . ISBN 978 - 0 - 7923 - 4066 - 9 . Retrieved 3 March 2012 . Jump up ^ Meuleman , Johan H. ( 23 August 2002 ) . Islam in the era of globalization : Muslim attitudes towards modernity and identity . Psychology Press . p. 272 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 7007 - 1691 - 3 . Retrieved 3 March 2012 . Jump up ^ Peng Yoke Ho ( 16 October 2000 ) . Li , Qi and Shu : An Introduction to Science and Civilization in China . Courier Dover Publications . p. 106 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 486 - 41445 - 4 . Retrieved 3 March 2012 . Sources ( edit ) Plofker , Kim ( 2009 ) , Mathematics in India , Princeton University Pres , ISBN 978 - 0 - 691 - 12067 - 6 Further reading ( edit ) Ore , Oystein ( 1988 ) , `` Hindu - Arabic numerals '' , Number Theory and Its History , Dover , pp. 19 -- 24 , ISBN 0486656209 . Burnett , Charles ( 2006 ) , `` The Semantics of Indian Numerals in Arabic , Greek and Latin '' , Journal of Indian Philosophy , Springer - Netherlands , 34 ( 1 -- 2 ) : 15 -- 30 , doi : 10.1007 / s10781 - 005 - 8153 - z . Encyclopædia Britannica ( Kim Plofker ) ( 2007 ) , `` mathematics , South Asian '' , Encyclopædia Britannica Online , 189 ( 4761 ) : 1 -- 12 , Bibcode : 1961Natur. 189S. 273. , doi : 10.1038 / 189273c0 , retrieved 18 May 2007 . Hayashi , Takao ( 1995 ) , The Bakhshali Manuscript , An ancient Indian mathematical treatise , Groningen : Egbert Forsten , ISBN 906980087X . Ifrah , Georges ( 2000 ) , A Universal History of Numbers : From Prehistory to Computers , New York : Wiley , ASIN 0471393401 , ISBN 0471393401 CS1 maint : ASIN uses ISBN ( link ) . Katz , Victor J. ( ed . ) ( 20 July 2007 ) , The Mathematics of Egypt , Mesopotamia , China , India , and Islam : A Sourcebook , Princeton , New Jersey : Princeton University Press , ISBN 0691114854 CS1 maint : Extra text : authors list ( link ) . External links ( edit ) Wikimedia Commons has media related to : Arabic numerals ( category ) Development of Hindu Arabic and Traditional Chinese Arithmetic History of Counting Systems and Numerals . Retrieved 11 December 2005 . The Evolution of Numbers. 16 April 2005 . O'Connor , J.J. and Robertson , E.F. Indian numerals . November 2000 . 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how many ots are there in the nfl

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=American_football_rules&oldid=864077647

American football rules - wikipedia American football rules The Tennessee Titans and the Houston Texans in formation before a play . Game play in American football consists of a series of downs , individual plays of short duration , outside of which the ball is dead or not in play . These can be plays from scrimmage -- passes , runs , punts , or field goal attempts ( from either a place kick or a drop kick ) -- or free kicks such as kickoffs and fair catch kicks . Substitutions can be made between downs , which allows for a great deal of specialization as coaches choose the players best suited for each particular situation . During a play , each team should have no more than 11 players on the field , and each of them has specific tasks assigned for that specific play . Contents 1 Objective of the game 2 Time of play 3 Overtime 3.1 NFL 3.1. 1 NFL Europa 3.2 World Football League 3.3 College and high school 3.4 XFL 4 Playing the game 4.1 Coin toss 4.1. 1 XFL 4.2 Downed player 5 Scrimmage downs 5.1 Positions 5.2 Starting the down 5.3 Dead ball 6 Free kick downs 6.1 Kickoffs 6.1. 1 Receiving a kickoff 6.2 Other free kicks 7 Scoring 7.1 Field goal ( 3 points ) 7.2 Touchdown ( 6 points ) 7.3 Try for extra point ( 1 or 2 points ) 7.3. 1 Defunct leagues 7.4 Safety ( 2 points ) 7.5 Fair catch kick 8 Officiating 9 Fouls and their penalties 10 Timeouts 11 Instant replay 12 Major rule differences between NFL and college football 13 See also 14 References 15 External links Objective of the game ( edit ) The objective of this game is to score more points than the other team during the allotted time . The team with the ball ( the offense ) has 4 plays ( downs ) to advance at least 10 yards , and can score points once they reach the opposite end of the field , which is home to a scoring zone called the end zone , as well as the goal posts . If the offense succeeds in advancing at least 10 yards , they earn a `` first down '' and the number of tries allotted is reset and they are again given 4 tries to advance an additional 10 yards , starting from the spot to which they last advanced . If the offense does not advance at least 10 yards during their 4 downs , the team without the ball ( the defense ) regains control of the ball ( called turnover on downs ) . On offense , points are scored by advancing the ball into the opponent 's end zone for a touchdown ( worth six points ) , or by kicking the ball from the playing field through the raised vertical posts ( the goal posts ) which are most commonly situated on the end line of the end zone for a field goal ( worth three points ) . After scoring a touchdown , the offense is given an additional opportunity from the 2 - yard line ( 3 - yard line in amateur football ) to attempt to score ( in the NFL , 15 - yard line on 1 - point conversions ) . Conversion attempts are used to score 1 or 2 points as follows : The offense may attempt a field goal kick which is worth 1 point . The offense may attempt to re-advance the ball into the opponent 's end zone for a two - point conversion worth 2 points . While the opposing team has possession , the defense attempts to prevent the offense from advancing the ball and scoring . If an offensive player loses the ball during play ( a fumble ) or the ball is caught by a defensive player while still in the air ( an interception ) , the defense may attempt to run into the offense 's end zone for a touchdown . The defense may also score points by tackling the ball carrier in the offense 's own end zone , called a safety ( which is worth two points ) . Time of play ( edit ) Collegiate and professional football games are 60 minutes long , divided into four quarters of 15 minutes each . In high school football , 12 minute quarters are usually played . The clock is stopped frequently , however , with the result that a typical college or professional game can exceed three hours in duration . The referee controls the game clock and stops the clock after any incomplete pass or any play that ends out of bounds . In addition , each team is allowed 3 timeouts in each half that they may use at their own discretion . The clock normally runs during the action of plays , with a few exceptions known as untimed plays . The clock may also be stopped for an officials ' time - out , after which , if the clock was running , it is restarted . For example : if there is a question whether or not a team has moved the ball far enough for a first down , the officials may use a measuring device ( the chains ) to determine the distance . While this measurement is taking place , the officials will signal for a stoppage of the clock . Once the measurement is finished and the ball is placed at the proper location ( spotted ) , the referee will then signal for the clock to restart . Additional situations where officials may take a time - out are to administer a penalty or for an injured player to be removed from the field . In addition to the game clock , a separate play clock is also used . This counts down the time the offense has to start the next play before it is assessed a penalty for delay of game ( see below ) . This clock is typically 25 seconds from when the referee marks the ball ready for play . The NFL and NCAA use a 40 - second play clock that starts immediately after the previous play ends , though for certain delays , such as penalty enforcement , the offense has 25 seconds from when the ball is marked ready . The purpose of the play clock is to ensure that the game progresses at a consistent pace , preventing unnecessary delays . Overall , clock management is a significant part of the game ; teams leading toward the end of the game will often try to run out the clock , while trailing teams attempt the opposite . Officials also call for media time - outs , which allow time for television and radio advertising . They also stop the clock after a change of possession of the ball from one team to the other . Successful PATs ( Point ( s ) After Touchdown ) , a field goal try , or a kickoff may also warrant stopping the clock . If an instant replay challenge is called during the game , the referees signal for a media time out . The referee signals these media time - outs by first using the time out signal , then extending both arms in a horizontal position . Teams change ends of the field at the end of the first quarter and the end of the third quarter , though otherwise the situation on the field regarding possession , downs remaining and distance - to - goal does not change at these occasions ( so a team with possession 5 yards from the opponent 's endzone at the end of the first quarter would resume play 5 yards from the endzone at the other end of the field , which they would then be attacking ) . Separating the first and second halves is halftime . Both halves , and any overtime , begin with kick - offs -- the kicking team is decided by a coin toss ( see below ) . In the NFL , an automatic timeout is called by the officials when there are two minutes left in both the second and the fourth quarters , and overtime ; this is most commonly referred to as the two - minute warning . No such warning is normally given in amateur football , though if there is no visible stadium clock , the referee will give a two - minute warning ( four minutes in high school ) . Overtime ( edit ) NFL ( edit ) If a game is tied at the end of four quarters , overtime is played . In overtime , the coin is tossed to determine which team will possess the ball first . The winner of the coin toss can choose to give the ball or receive the ball . If the first possession results in a field goal , the other team is given possession to match or better the field goal ; therefore continuing the game . If the first possession results in a touchdown or safety , the scoring team wins . During the regular season in the NFL , one overtime period is played ( with each team receiving two time outs ) . If both teams are tied after the 10 - minute overtime , the game officially ends in a tie . In the playoffs , 15 - minute overtime periods continue until a winner is determined . Overtime follows after a three - minute intermission following the end of the regulation game . Prior to start of overtime , a coin flip is performed where the captain of the visiting team calls the toss . The team that wins the coin flip has the option to either receive the kickoff or choose the side of the field they wish to defend . Ties are rare in the NFL ; a game between the Minnesota Vikings and Green Bay Packers on September 16 , 2018 ended in a 29 -- all draw . The previous occurrence was one week earlier , on September 9 , 2018 . Super Bowl LI was the first Super Bowl to go into overtime with a 28 - all tie between the Atlanta Falcons and New England Patriots , which the Patriots eventually won by scoring a touchdown on their first drive . Prior to the 2010 playoffs , the overtime winner was simply the first team to score any points ; however , they were changed to reduce the apparent advantage gained by the team that won the overtime coin toss . Under the prior rules , the team that won the coin toss would usually elect to receive the ball , then gain just enough yardage to win the game by kicking a field goal without the other team ever touching the ball . The coin toss winner won approximately 60 % of overtime games under that rule . The first overtime game played under the new overtime rules trial occurred in the 2011 -- 2012 NFL AFC Wildcard Playoff game between the Denver Broncos and Pittsburgh Steelers at Sports Authority Field at Mile High , Denver , Colorado . Denver won the game on the first play in overtime , an 80 - yard touchdown pass from Tim Tebow to Demaryius Thomas . The rule was expanded into the regular season for the 2012 season , and the first game in which both teams scored in overtime was a 43 -- 37 victory by the Houston Texans over the Jacksonville Jaguars on November 18 , 2012 . The rules for overtime changed for the 2016 -- 2017 season and tweaked again for the 2017 -- 2018 season . NFL Europa ( edit ) NFL Europa , a defunct league run by the NFL , used a 10 - minute overtime period , with the constraint that each team must have the opportunity of possession ; once both teams have had such an opportunity , the overtime proceeds in a manner similar to the NFL 's . Thus , if Team A has the first possession of overtime and scores a touchdown and converts their kick ( thus being 7 points ahead of Team B ) , Team A would then kick off to Team B ( In the NFL , the game would have ended with the touchdown , without a conversion being attempted ) . Team B would have to match or exceed the 7 point difference within this ensuing possession ; exceeding it would end the game immediately , while matching the difference would result in a kickoff to Team A. From this point , the overtime is sudden death . The defunct United Football League had also used this rule . World football league ( edit ) The defunct World Football League , in its first season of 1974 , used an overtime system more analogous to the system long used in international soccer . The overtime consisted of one 15 - minute period , which was played in its entirety and divided into two halves of 71⁄2 minutes each , with each half starting with a kickoff by one of the teams . The league changed to the NFL 's sudden - death format for its final season in 1975 . College and high school ( edit ) In college and high school football , an overtime procedure ( the Kansas plan ) ensures that each team has equal opportunity to score . In college , both teams are granted possession of the ball at their opponents ' 25 yard - line in succession . A coin flip takes place , with the winning team having the option either 1 ) to declare that they will take the ball first or second , or 2 ) to decide on which end of the field the series will occur ( both teams ' series occur on the same end of the field ) . The losing team will have the first option in any subsequent even - numbered overtime . In the first overtime , the team with first series attempts to score either a touchdown or a field goal ; their possession ends when either a touchdown or a field goal have been scored , they turn the ball over via a fumble or an interception , or they fail to gain a first down . After a touchdown , a team may attempt either an extra-point or a two - point conversion . However , if the team on defense during the first series recovers a fumble and returns it for a touchdown , or returns an interception for a touchdown , the defensive team wins the game . ( This is the only way for a college overtime game to end without both teams having possession . ) Otherwise , regardless of the outcome of the first team 's series ( be it touchdown , field goal , or turnover ) , the other team begins their series . If the score remains tied after both teams have completed a series , a second overtime begins . If the score remains tied after two overtimes , teams scoring touchdowns are required to attempt a two - point conversion from the third overtime on . Just as in regulation , if a defensive team recovers a fumble / returns an interception to the end zone during a two - point conversion attempt , they will receive two points . In high school football , individual state associations can choose any overtime format they want , or even elect to not play overtime at all ( ties stand in this case ) . However , most states use the Kansas Plan . In a majority of states , each team is granted possession of the ball at the 10 - yard line , meaning that a team can not make a first down without scoring except via a defensive penalty that carries an automatic first down ( such as defensive pass interference or roughing the passer ) . As is the case with the college overtime rule , the team that wins the coin toss will have the choice as to whether to take the ball first or second , or decide at which end of the field the overtime will be played . The other major difference between overtime in college football and high school football is that in high school football , if the defense forces a turnover , the ball is dead immediately , thus eliminating the possibility of scoring . However , in Texas , the college overtime rule is used , as both the University Interscholastic League , which governs interscholastic activities for Texas public high schools , and the Texas Association of Private and Parochial Schools , the largest analogous body for Texas private high schools , play by NCAA football rules with a few modifications for the high school level . Massachusetts also is another state that uses NCAA - style overtime rules . XFL ( edit ) The defunct XFL used a modified Kansas Plan which , upon the first team scoring , required the opponent to score the same or greater number of points in the same or fewer downs ( i.e. , if the first team scored a touchdown , and converted the one - point conversion in three downs , the opponent would have to match that touchdown and conversion in three downs as well ) . Each team started at the 20 - yard line , but like high school , there were no opportunities for first downs . The league also banned field goals except on a fourth down . Playing the game ( edit ) Cecil D. Haney flips the coin at the 2013 Pro Bowl . Coin toss ( edit ) Three minutes before the start of the game , the referee meets with captains from both teams for a coin toss . The visiting team calls the toss . The winner of the toss may defer their choice to the start of the second half , or they may take first choice of : Receiving the kickoff to start the game , or kicking off to start the game Choosing an end of the field to defend in the first quarter ( with the teams switching directions at the end of the first quarter and at the end of the third quarter ) The loser of the toss gets the remaining option . At the start of the second half , the team that did not choose first ( either because they deferred their choice or because they lost the toss ) gets the first choice of options . According to USA Today , in college games , the team that wins the toss defers their choice to the start of the second half over 90 % of the time . If a game goes to overtime , a coin toss is held before the start of overtime , but tosses are not held before the start of subsequent overtime periods . In college , for example , the loser of the toss to start overtime has first choice in the second overtime period . The choices available to the captains in overtime vary among the NFL , college , and various states ' high school rules . In high school , the coin toss may be held between the captains or coaches earlier before the start of the game . At three minutes before kickoff , the captains meet for a simulated coin toss , where the referee announces the results of the earlier toss . XFL ( edit ) The XFL did not implement a coin toss ; instead an event took place called the `` opening scramble '' , in which one player from each team fought to recover a football 20 yards away in order to determine possession . Both players lined up side - by - side on one of the 30 - yard lines , with the ball being placed at the 50 - yard line . At the whistle , the two players would run toward the ball and attempt to gain possession ; whichever player gained possession first was allowed to choose possession ( as if he had won a coin toss in other leagues ) . Downed player ( edit ) The rules vary from the college level to the professional level . In the NFL , unless you are tagged by an opposing player or give yourself up , you are not down . A player carrying the ball ( the runner ) is downed when any of the following occurs : Any part of the runner other than his hands or feet touches the ground . Ankles and wrists count as downed . This may be as a result of : Contact by an opponent ( called down by contact ) where the opponent tackles the runner by pushing him , grasping him and pulling him to the ground , sliding into his legs , or touching him in any manner prior to any part of the runner other than his hands or feet touching the ground . Unlike the use of the word tackle in other sports , if the opposing player fails to down the ball carrier , it is merely an attempted tackle . If the ball carrier falls onto another player but he does n't make contact with the ground , he can still get up and keep playing . A player on the ground is not considered part of the ground . Intentionally downing the ball : intentionally kneeling , verbally declaring `` I 'm down '' ( except in college ) , or similar actions . For example , to protect himself from violent hits by opponents attempting to tackle him , the quarterback may choose to slide to the ground feet - first . This slide is interpreted as intentionally downing the ball , and opponents may then be penalized for hitting him . In amateur football , a runner is downed when any part of his body other than his hands or feet touches the ground at any time ( unless he is the holder for a place kick ) . In professional football , the runner is not down for such accidental contact ; he must be down by contact with an opponent as described above . The runner goes out of bounds : that is , any part of his body ( including his hands or feet ) touches the ground , or anything other than another player or an official , on or past a sideline or an endline . Note that the sideline itself is out of bounds , so that the runner is deemed out of bounds if he steps on or touches any part of it . Note also that a runner may carry the ball in such a manner that it is over the sideline , so long as the ball or runner does not touch anything out of bounds . The runner 's forward progress toward the opponents ' goal line is stopped by contact with an opponent , with little chance to be resumed . The exact moment at which the player 's forward progress stops is subject to the judgment of the officials . In particular , for the protection of the quarterback , he is considered down as soon as an official judges that he is in the grasp of an opponent behind the line of scrimmage , and the tackling defensive player ( s ) will be awarded with a sack . If he is driven backward by the opponent , the ball will be spotted where his forward progress was stopped . Scrimmage downs ( edit ) The majority of a football game takes place on plays , or downs , that begin at the line of scrimmage . The officials spot the ball ( place it in a designated spot on the field ) on the line of scrimmage and declare it ready for play . Positions ( edit ) Main article : American football positions The width of the spotted football defines the width of the neutral zone , an area of the field no player other than the snapper may position himself in or above before the snap . Each team has its own line of scrimmage , thought of as a vertical plane from sideline to sideline that passes through the point of the ball nearest its own goal line . A formation at the line of scrimmage . Offensive players are marked by O symbols , defensive players by X symbols . This diagram shows two of the most common formations , the offense is in the I formation while the defense is in the 4 -- 3 formation . There are many different formations the players may take . A typical offense is made up of a quarterback , five offensive linemen , two wide receivers , a running back , a fullback , and a tight end , however teams will vary their personnel on the field to fit any given play . A quarterback is essentially the leader of the offense . It is most often their responsibility to pass along the play called to the rest of the players in the huddle before any given play . A quarterback is the primary ball handler on offense . It is their responsibility to call the snap count for the ball to enter play . Once the ball is hiked into play , it is their job to either hand the ball off to one of their running backs , or scout the field for an open receiver to throw the ball to . In some instances , the quarterback will run the ball themselves . A quarterback is guarded by their offensive linemen . The offensive line is made up of a left and right tackle , a left and right guard , and a center . It is the center 's responsibility to hike the ball to the quarterback . An offensive line has two different jobs . When the offense runs a pass play , it is their job to guard the quarterback from the defense that are rushing . When the offense runs a run play , it is their job to clear a path for the running back to run through . The running back also has multiple roles . They will either take the ball from the quarterback and run , move up and help the offensive line block , or go out and catch a pass . While the role of the fullback is deteriorating currently among professional leagues , it is their primary responsibility to lead the running back . Running backs and fullbacks are sometimes also called a halfback , a wingback , or a slotback . Like the running back , the tight end also has multiple roles . They will either help the offensive line protect the quarterback , block on run plays , or run or catch the ball themselves . The wide receivers primary role is to run out into the field of play and catch the ball , although they will also block in some instances . The players on offense must arrange themselves in a formation , all behind their line of scrimmage ( that is , on their side of the ball ) . For reasons of safety and competitive balance , there are strict rules which define the way in which the offensive players may line up . Seven players must line up directly on the line of scrimmage while four players line up behind the line of scrimmage . Within this formation , there are six eligible receivers who may receive a forward pass during play . These eligible receivers are either the running back , fullback , tight end , or wide receivers . The remaining five linemen , often called interior linemen do not normally handle the ball during a play . Because of these rules , various leagues of American football have enacted strict rules of uniform numbering so officials may more easily judge which players were eligible and which were not at the start of a play . For example , in college football , ineligible players wear numbers 50 -- 79 , while eligible receivers wear 1 -- 49 or 80 -- 99 . Even within this structure , offenses can still present a wide number of formations , so long as they maintain the `` seven and four '' arrangement . Receivers , for example , may play close to the other linemen or they may play some distance down the line of scrimmage , where they would sometimes be called split ends . Of the four backs , they may play behind the linemen , or may play `` split out '' to provide additional wide receivers . These additional receivers can be flankers ( if they play split far wide , but still in the backfield ) or slot receivers if they play in the `` slot '' between the split end and the rest of the offensive line . The players on defense may arrange themselves in any manner , as long as all players are `` behind the line '' ( that is , on the side of the line nearest their own end zone ) . Players who line up opposite the offensive line are called defensive linemen , usually with one or two defensive tackles in the middle ( a single defensive tackle is often called the nose guard or nose tackle ) and with one defensive end on each side . A defensive lineman 's job is typically to put pressure on the opposing teams quarterback by rushing the offensive line . The defensive line is also most often the first set of players the opponent must get through should they choose to run the ball . Behind the linemen are the linebackers . A linebackers job can be any number of things , including trying to rush the opposing teams quarterback , stopping the opponents running back on run plays , or covering the opponents tight end or wide receivers . Positioned opposite the wide receivers are the cornerbacks . Their primary responsibility is to cover the wide receivers . Farthest back from the line are the safeties , usually in the middle of the field behind the linebackers . The safeties are the last line of defense against the opponent . Like a linebacker , a safety 's role can vary , however their most common role is to help the cornerbacks cover the opponent 's wide receivers , which is called `` double coverage '' . The linemen and linebackers close to the line of scrimmage , are often referred to as playing `` in the box '' . Players outside `` the box '' ( usually cornerbacks and safeties ) are collectively referred to as the `` secondary '' . Starting the down ( edit ) A scrimmage down begins with a snap , where the center throws or hands the ball backward to one of the backs , usually the quarterback . The quarterback then either hands the ball off to a back , throws the ball , or runs with it himself . The down ends when the ball becomes dead ( see below ) . The ball is typically next spotted where the ball became dead ; however , if it became dead outside the hash marks , it is brought in on the same yard line to the nearest hash mark . This spot becomes the line of scrimmage for the next play . In the case of an incomplete forward pass , the ball is returned to the spot where it was last snapped to begin the next play . A fumbled ball that goes out of bounds is declared dead and possession remains with the team that most recently had control of the ball . Dead ball ( edit ) The ball becomes dead , and the down ends , when : the ball carrier is downed , as described above ; a forward pass falls incomplete ( it touches the ground before possession is secured by a player ) ; the ball carrier or ball touches the sideline or end line or otherwise goes outside the field of play ( `` out of bounds '' ) ; the ball carrier or the ball , except on a scoring field goal attempt , hits any part of the goalpost ( even if it bounces back onto the field ) ; a team scores ; a kick receiver makes a fair catch ( waving his arm above his head to signal a fair catch , where the kicking team is not allowed to interfere with him or hit him after the catch , but in return he is not allowed to run ) , or a member of the receiving team gains possession after a fair catch signal was given ; a member of the kicking team possesses a kicked ball beyond the line of scrimmage ( e.g. `` downing '' a punt allowed to roll by the receiving team by holding it to stop its roll ) ; a kicked ball comes to rest ; a touchback occurs ; or under NFL or college rules , on fourth down ( or , in the NFL , on any down after the two - minute warning in either half / overtime ) , a ball fumbled forward by the offensive team is recovered by an offensive team player other than the fumbler . The nearest official typically blows his whistle after the ball becomes dead to alert the players that the down has already ended . If the ball is alive and the official sounds an inadvertent whistle , then the ball still becomes dead , but the team in possession of the ball may elect to have the down replayed or take the spot where the ball was declared dead . If the ball was loose from a fumble , then the ball can be put into play at the spot of the fumble . If the ball was in flight from a kick or a pass , then the down is always replayed . Free kick downs ( edit ) A free kick is a down which does not occur from scrimmage . The kicking team begins behind the ball , while the receiving team must remain at least 10 yards downfield before the ball is kicked . Kickoffs ( edit ) A kickoff is a type of free kick where the ball is placed on a tee ( or held ) at the kicking team 's 35 - yard line ( 40 for high school ) . In the 2011 NFL Season , changes were made regarding kickoffs to limit injuries . Kickoffs were returned from the 30 - yard line to the 35 - yard line , repealing a 1994 rule change . In addition , players on the kickoff coverage team can not line up more than 5 yards behind the kickoff line , minimizing running starts and thus reducing the speed of collisions . The kicking team 's players may not cross this line until the ball is kicked ; members of the non-kicking ( or `` receiving '' ) team are similarly restrained behind a line 10 yards further downfield ( the 45 - yard line , or 50 for high school ) . A valid kickoff must travel at least this 10 - yard distance to the receiving team 's restraining line , after which any player of either team may catch or pick up the ball and try to advance it ( a member of the kicking team may only recover a kickoff and may not advance it ) before being downed ( see `` Downed player , '' below ) . In most cases , the ball is kicked as far as possible ( typically 40 to 70 yards ) , after which a player of the receiving team is usually able to secure possession ( since the members of the kicking team can not start downfield until after the ball is kicked ) . Occasionally , for tactical reasons , the kicking team may instead choose to attempt an onside kick , in which the kicker tries to kick the ball along the ground just over the required 10 - yard distance in such a manner that one of his own teammates can recover the ball for the kicking side . If it is touched before ten yards , the ball is dead and a re-kick or spot of the ball will be rewarded to the receiving team . Receiving a kickoff ( edit ) A member of the receiving team gaining possession of the ball on a kickoff may attempt to advance it as far as he can toward the kicking team 's goal line before being downed . Once the ball carrier is downed , the play is whistled dead and the ball is placed by the officials at the point where the play ended ; this spot then becomes the line of scrimmage for the ensuing play . A kick that travels through or goes out of bounds within the end zone without being touched , or is caught by the receiving team in the end zone but not advanced out of it , results in a touchback ; the ball is then placed at the receiving team 's 25 - yard line , which becomes the line of scrimmage . A kickoff that goes out of bounds anywhere other than the end zone before being touched by the receiving team is an illegal kick : the receiving team has the option of having the ball re-kicked from five yards closer to the kicking team 's goal line , or they may choose to take possession of the ball at the point where it went out of bounds or 30 yards from the point of the kick ( 25 yards in high school , and in college as of 2012 ) , whichever is more advantageous . Other free kicks ( edit ) A free kick is also used to restart the game following a safety . The team that was trapped in its own end zone , therefore conceding two points to the other team , kicks the ball from its own 20 - yard line . This can be a place kick ( in the NFL , a tee can not be used ) , drop kick or punt . In the NFL and high school , a free kick may be taken on the play immediately after a fair catch ; see `` fair catch kick '' below . Scoring ( edit ) Field goal ( 3 points ) ( edit ) Main article : Field goal A field goal is scored when the ball is place kicked , drop kicked , or free kicked after a fair catch or awarded fair catch ( High School or NFL only ) between the goal posts behind the opponent 's end zone . The most common type of kick used is the place kick . For a place kick , the ball must first be snapped to a placeholder , who holds the ball upright on the ground with his fingertip so that it may be kicked . Three points are scored if the ball crosses between the two upright posts and above the crossbar and remains over . If a field goal is missed , the ball is returned to the original line of scrimmage ( in the NFL , to the spot of the kick ; in high school , to the 20 - yard line if the ball enters the end zone , or otherwise where the ball becomes dead after the kick ) or to the 20 - yard line if that is further from the goal line , and possession is given to the other team . If the ball does not go out of bounds , the other team may catch the kicked ball and attempt to advance it , but this is usually not advantageous . One official is positioned under each goalpost ; if either one rules the field goal no good , then the field goal is unsuccessful . A successful field goal is signaled by an official extending both arms vertically above the head . A team that successfully kicks a field goal kicks off to the opposing team on the next play . Touchdown ( 6 points ) ( edit ) Main article : Touchdown A touchdown is earned when a player has legal possession of the ball and the ball touches or goes over the imaginary vertical plane above the opposing team 's goal line . After a touchdown , the scoring team attempts a try for 1 or 2 points ( see below ) . A successful touchdown is signaled by an official extending both arms vertically above the head . A touchdown is worth six points , except in the defunct WFL where it was worth seven points . For statistical purposes , the player who advances the ball into or catches it in the end zone is credited with the touchdown . If a forward pass was thrown on the play , the throwing player is also credited with a passing touchdown . Try for extra point ( 1 or 2 points ) ( edit ) Main articles : Conversion ( gridiron football ) and Two - point conversion A try is more frequently called an extra-point attempt or a PAT ( abbreviation of `` Point After Touchdown '' ) . Either one or two additional points may be scored during the try . The ball is spotted at the 15 - yard line ( for 1 - point conversions ) ; 2 - yard line ( for 2 - point conversions ) for the NFL and on 3 - yard line for college and high school , and the team is given one un-timed play to earn points . The offensive team may attempt to kick the ball through the goalposts , in the same manner that a field goal is kicked . If successful , the team is awarded one point , referred to as an extra point . This option is almost always chosen , because a two - point conversion attempt is much riskier . Since the extra point is almost always successful ( especially in NFL play ) , sportscasters will often refer to a team up or trailing by seven ( not six ) points as being `` up / trailing by a touchdown '' . The offensive team may attempt to advance the ball via run or pass into the end zone , much like a touchdown on the extra-point attempt , except that it receives two points . This is called a two - point conversion . The success rate for two - point conversions is about 48 percent in the NFL , making the two - point conversion attempt a risky tactic ; thus it is usually attempted only when two points will help the team but one point will not . For example , suppose that it is late in the game with a score of 21 -- 10 and the losing team scores a touchdown , making the score 21 -- 16 . The scoring team will usually attempt the two - point conversion , because if successful , a three - point deficit later could be matched with one field goal ; failure to convert would result in a five - point deficit that could be surmounted with another touchdown -- a situation no worse than the four - point deficit achieved with a kicked extra point . Another example would be if a team scores a late - game touchdown , and as a result is down by two points . A successful two - point conversion would tie the game , and likely force overtime . In very rare and risky instances , a trailing team who scored a touchdown , and as a result is down by 1 point , may attempt a two - point conversion to gamble on a win and avoid overtime ( or , under NCAA or NFHS rules , a subsequent overtime period ) . Two famous examples of this gamble were by Nebraska in the last minute of the 1984 Orange Bowl ( unsuccessful ) and by Boise State in the first overtime of the 2007 Fiesta Bowl ( successful ) . Note that under NCAA rules , teams are required to `` go for two '' starting with the third overtime procedure . Under college and NFL rules , if the defensive team gains possession and advances the ball the length of the field into the opposite end zone on the try ( for example by an interception or a fumble recovery , or by blocking a kick and legally recovering the ball ) , they score two points . This is officially recorded as a touchdown scored by the defense . The NCAA adopted this rule in 1988 ; the NFL added this in 2015 . This scenario can not occur under high school football rules ; the ball is ruled dead and the try is over immediately when the defense gains possession . In the extremely rare event that the offensive team scores a safety on the try , it receives one point . In college football , this can occur when , for example , the defense gains control of the ball and attempts to advance it , then fumbles it out of bounds in its own end zone . Prior to 2015 , only the offense could score a one - point safety in the NFL as the try ended once the defense gains possession . As of 2015 , either team may score a 1 - point safety due to the rule changes permitting the defense to return a try after a turnover . The game clock is not advanced during a try , however , the play clock is enforced . A delay of game penalty , false start , or similar penalty , by the offense results in a 5 - yard penalty assessed for the try . Typically , penalties charged against the defense give the offensive two options : half the distance to the goal for the try , or assessing the full penalty on the ensuing kickoff . Since the try is not timed by the game clock , if a touchdown is scored as regulation time expires ( and game clock subsequently reads 0 : 00.0 ) , the try is still allowed to be conducted . This instance is relatively common as teams score a game - tying ( or game - winning ) extra point after regulation has expired . During sudden - death overtime , particularly in the NFL , if a team scores a touchdown in the overtime period , the game is immediately over , and the try is not attempted . In NCAA overtime , if the second team to possess the ball in the overtime scores a touchdown which puts them ahead of the opponent in points the game ends immediately and no try is attempted . The officials ' signal for a successful try , whether an extra point or a two - point conversion , is the same as for a touchdown . After the try , the team that scored the touchdown kicks off to the opposing team . Defunct leagues ( edit ) In the WFL , PAT 's were called `` Action Points '' and could only be scored via a run or pass play ( as opposed to by kick as in the NFL ) , and were worth one point . The ball was placed on the two - and - a-half - yard line for an Action Point . This rule was a revival of a 1968 preseason experiment by the NFL and American Football League . The XFL employed a similar rule in which teams ran a single offensive down from the two - yard line ( functionally identical to the NFL / NCAA / CFL two - point conversion ) , also for one point . By the playoffs , two - point and three - point conversions had been added to the rules . Teams could opt for the bonus points by playing the conversion farther back from the goal line . Safety ( 2 points ) ( edit ) Main article : Safety ( gridiron football score ) The uncommon safety is scored if a player causes the ball to become dead in his own end zone ; two points are awarded to the opposing ( usually defending ) team . This can happen if a player is either downed or goes out of bounds in the end zone while carrying the ball , or if he fumbles the ball , and it goes out of bounds in the end zone . A safety is also awarded to the defensive team if the offensive team commits a foul which is enforced in its own end zone . A safety is not awarded if a player intercepts a pass or receives a kick in his own end zone and is downed there . This situation , in which the opponent caused the ball to enter the end zone , is called a touchback ; no points are scored , and the team that gained possession of the ball is awarded possession at its own 20 - yard line . If the interception or reception occurs outside the end zone , and the player is carried into the end zone by momentum , the ball is placed at the spot of the catch and no safety is awarded . A safety is signaled by a referee holding both palms together above the head , fingertips pointing upwards . After a safety , the team that conceded the safety kicks a free kick ( which may be a punt , place kick , or drop kick ) from its 20 - yard line . Fair catch kick ( edit ) Main article : Fair catch kick A free kick ( see above ) may be taken on the play immediately after any fair catch of a punt . In the NFL , if the receiving team elects to attempt this and time expired during the punt , the half / overtime is extended with an untimed down . The ball must be held on the ground by a member of the kicking team or drop kicked ; a tee may not be used . ( High school kickers may use a tee ) . This is both a field goal attempt and a free kick ; if the ball is kicked between the goal posts , three points are scored for the kicking team . This is the only case where a free kick may score points . This method of scoring is extremely rare , last successfully completed in the NFL by Ray Wersching in 1976 . It is only advantageous when a team catches a very short punt with very little time left . Note that a team is unlikely to be punting with only a few seconds left in a half or overtime , and it is rarer still for punts to be caught near field goal range . The officials ' signal for a successful fair catch kick is the same as for a field goal . Officiating ( edit ) Main article : Official ( American football ) The game is officiated by a crew of three to seven officials . Every crew will consist of a referee , who is generally in charge of the game and watches action on the quarterback and in the offensive backfield ; an umpire , who handles spotting the ball and watches action on the offensive line ; and a head linesman , who supervises placement of the down box and line - to - gain chains . The crew may also consist of a line judge , back judge , field judge and side judge , in the order listed : i.e. a crew of five officials has a referee , umpire , head linesman , line judge and back judge . Officials are selected by the teams in advance or appointed by the governing league . While the majority of officials at lower levels only officiate games on a part - time basis , the NFL is implementing a new system where seven officials will become full - time employees of the league , one for each official position ( i.e. back judge , field judge , side judge , etc . ) . In the other three major North American professional sports leagues -- Major League Baseball , the NBA and NHL -- officials are employed by their respective leagues . The sheer volume of games in the other three sports necessitates full - time officials ; the NFL regular season is only 16 games long , compared to 162 games for MLB and 82 for the NBA and NHL . During the game , the officials are assisted in the administration of the game by other persons , including : a clock operator to start and stop the game clock ( and possibly also the play clock ) ; a chain crew who hold the down indicator and the line - to - gain chains on the sideline ; and ball boys , who provide footballs to officials between downs ( e.g. a dry ball each down on a wet day ) . These individuals may be provided by the teams involved -- it is common for a high school coach 's son or daughter to act as ball boy for the team . Fouls and their penalties ( edit ) Main article : Penalty ( American football ) Because football is a high - contact sport requiring a balance between offense and defense , many rules exist that regulate equality , safety , contact , and actions of players on each team . It is very difficult to always avoid violating these rules without giving up too much of an advantage . Thus , an elaborate system of fouls and penalties has been developed to `` let the punishment fit the crime '' and maintain a balance between following the rules and keeping a good flow of the game . Players are constantly looking for ways to find an advantage that stretches the limitations imposed by the rules . Also , the frequency and severity of fouls can make a large difference in the outcome of a game , so coaches are constantly looking for ways to minimize the number and severity of infractions committed by their players . It is a common misconception that the term `` penalty '' is used to refer both to an infraction and the penal consequence of that infraction . A foul is a rule infraction for which a penalty is prescribed . Some of the more common fouls are listed below . In most cases when a foul occurs , the offending team will be assessed a penalty of 5 , 10 or 15 yards , depending on the foul . Also , in most cases , if the foul is committed while the ball is in play , the down will be replayed from the new position ( for example , if the offense commits a foul on a first - down play , the next play will still be first down , but the offense may have to go 15 yards , or farther , to achieve another first down . ) But if a defensive foul results in the ball advancing beyond the offense 's first - down objective , the next play will be the first down of a new series . Some penalties ( typically for more serious fouls ) , however , require a loss of down for the offense ; and some defensive fouls may result in an automatic first down regardless of the ball position . In all cases ( except for ejection of a player or , in rare cases , forfeiture of the game ) , the non-offending team is given the option of declining the penalty and letting the result of the play stand ( although the Referee may exercise this option on their behalf when it is obvious ) , if they believe it to be more to their advantage . For some fouls by the defense , the penalty is applied in addition to the yardage gained on the play . Most personal fouls , which involve danger to another player , carry 15 - yard penalties ; in rare cases , they result in offending players being ejected from the game . In the NFL , if a defensive foul occurs after time has expired at the end of a half , the half will be continued for a single , untimed play from scrimmage . Under college rules , any accepted penalty when time has expired at the end of any quarter results in an extension for one untimed down . In the NFL , with three exceptions , no penalty may move the ball more than half the distance toward the penalized team 's goal line . These exceptions are defensive pass interference ( see the discussion of that foul for more details ) , intentional grounding , and offensive holding -- but in this last case the exception pertains only if the infraction occurs within the offensive team 's own end zone , in which case an automatic safety is assessed ( intentional grounding from the end zone also carries an automatic safety ) . Under college rules , the same half - the - distance principle applies , but any offensive fouls involving contact in their end zone ( e.g. holding , illegal blocking or personal fouls ) result in a safety . Note : The neutral zone is the space between the two free - kick lines during a free - kick down and between the two scrimmage lines during a scrimmage down . For a free - kick down , the neutral zone is 10 yards wide and for a scrimmage down it is as wide as the length of the football . It is established when the ball is marked ready for play . No player may legally be in the neutral zone except for the snapper on scrimmage downs , and no one except the kicker and the holder for free kick downs . Timeouts ( edit ) Each team receives three timeouts per half ( if the game goes to overtime , each team receives additional timeouts ) , making for a total of six timeouts per team in a regulation game . Unused timeouts may not carry over to the second half or overtime . In professional football , a team must have at least one remaining timeout to challenge an official 's call . Instant replay ( edit ) Main article : Instant replay in American and Canadian football In the NFL , a number of rulings can be reviewed by officials or challenged by coaches . If a coach wants to challenge a play , he must do so before the next play begins , and he does so by throwing a red flag similar to the officials ' yellow flags . Coaches are allowed two challenges per game and are granted a third if their first two are successful . The team loses a timeout if they lose the challenge . Therefore , they can not challenge if they do not have timeouts . Plays within the two - minute - warning and overtime can not be challenged ; any review must be initiated by a replay official off - field . The referee performs the actual review via a video screen on the sideline . The referee will announce the result of instant replay reviews over his wireless microphone . Beginning in the 2011 NFL Season , an instant replay review by the booth official will now be automatic for every play ruled by the referees on the field to have scored points . This is seen as another step in the `` modernization '' of sports . Every scoring play will be reviewed now , which saves coaches from using up their challenges on close plays in the endzone . And since the 2012 season , the booth official also reviews all turnovers during the game . In college , coaches are allowed one challenge per game by first requesting a timeout . Otherwise , a replay official in the press box observes all plays . If he deems a ruling may be in error , he notifies the officials on the field to interrupt the game before the beginning of the next play . The replay official performs the review and relays the decision to the referee , who announces the result . Not every conference employs replay , which is optional . High school rules do not provide for video review of any decisions by officials during the game . Further , the use of television or video tape for coaching purposes during the game is prohibited . If a coach feels a rule has been misinterpreted , he may call timeout and request a coach - referee conference to discuss the ruling with the referee , but no replay equipment will be consulted during the conference . Major rule differences between NFL and college football ( edit ) Some of the major rule differences between NFL and college football include : NFL College football Number of feet a receiver must have in bounds for a completed pass Both Only one Down by contact rule Yes , a player is active until he is tackled or forced down by a member of the opposing team No , a player is automatically ruled down when any part of his body other than the feet or hands touches the ground Penalty for defensive pass interference Automatic first down at the spot of the foul Automatic first down , with the lesser of 15 yards from the previous spot or the spot of the foul Clock temporarily stops after the offense completes a first down so the chain crew can reset the chains No , the clock runs even after a first down Yes Spot where an opposing team takes possession after a missed field goal The greater of the spot of the kick or the opposing team 's 20 - yard line The greater of the previous line of scrimmage or opposing team 's 20 - yard line Two - minute warning ( an automatic time out when two minutes remain in each half / overtime ) Yes No , it is not used Starting point of a one - or two - point conversion 2 - yard line on 2 - point conversions ; 15 - yard line on 1 - point conversions 3 - yard line Overtime Sudden death using basically the same rules as in regulation . Except if the team that receives the kickoff scores a field goal on its first possession , it then kicks off to the opposing team with an opportunity to score ; if the score is tied again after that possession , true sudden death rules apply . During preseason and regular season games , only one overtime period is played and the game can simply end in a tie ; during playoff games , multiple overtime periods may be held until one team scores . Each team is given one possession from its opponent 's twenty - five yard line with no game clock . The team leading after both possessions is declared the winner . If the teams remain tied , overtime periods continue ; games can not end in a tie . Starting with the third overtime , teams are only allowed to attempt two - point conversions after a touchdown . Instant replay Scoring plays , turnovers , and plays during the final two minutes of each half and all overtime periods are subject to booth review . Coaches are issued two challenges ( with the option for a third if the first two are successful ) to request a review for all other plays All plays are subject to booth reviews . Each coach gets only one guaranteed challenge . If that challenge is successful , a second challenge is allowed . See also ( edit ) 1941 Oklahoma City vs. Youngstown football game , first use of the penalty flag References ( edit ) Jump up ^ `` The Unofficial Beginner 's Guide to Football '' . Archived from the original on November 5 , 2013 . Retrieved October 1 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Vikings , Packers Play To Tie '' . ESPN . Associated Press . November 23 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Patriots vs. Falcons - Game Recap - February 5 , 2017 - ESPN '' . ESPN.com . Retrieved 2017 - 12 - 09 . Jump up ^ `` Postseason overtime rules '' . NFL.com . Retrieved 2017 - 12 - 09 . Jump up ^ Battista , Judy ( December 9 , 2017 ) . `` N.F.L. 's New Overtime Rule Means Extra Choices '' -- via NYTimes.com . Jump up ^ `` NFL changes regular - season overtime to match postseason overtime '' . March 28 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Texans outlast Jaguars in amazing overtime finish '' . Jump up ^ `` What 's different about NFL overtime this season ? '' . SBNation.com . Retrieved 2017 - 12 - 09 . Jump up ^ `` WFL Rule Changes '' . Retrieved 2017 - 12 - 27 . Jump up ^ Bell , Jarrett ( April 2 , 2008 ) . `` Coin toss switch tops list of NFL rule changes '' . USA Today . Retrieved September 28 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` NFL moves kickoffs to 35 yard line ; touchbacks unchanged '' . Retrieved August 15 , 2011 . Jump up ^ 2007 Official Rules of the NFL . Triumph Books . October 1 , 2007 . ISBN 978 - 1 - 60078 - 028 - 8 . Jump up ^ Stuart , Chase ( November 15 , 2016 ) . `` More NFL Teams Are Going For Two -- Just As They Should Be '' . Jump up ^ `` NFL Rules Digest : Try '' . Retrieved February 4 , 2014 . Jump up ^ `` NFL Rulebook , rule 11 - 3 - 2. c '' . Retrieved September 21 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Carl Johnson named NFL 's first full - time game official '' . Jump up ^ NCAA Rule 2 - 9 Jump up ^ `` What You Need To Know About The New NFL Rule Changes -- 2011 '' . External links ( edit ) National Football League Official Playing Rules and Casebook National Football League Digest of Rules National Football League Beginner 's Guide to Football National Football League Official Signals National Collegiate Athletic Association Football Rules and Interpretations Gridiron football concepts Codes American Glossary History Early Modern Rules Canadian American -- Canadian comparison Burnside rules Glossary Arena Indoor 9 - man 8 - man 6 - man Flag Touch Street / Backyard Powderpuff Wheelchair Rules of gridiron football codes Levels of play Youth / midget Pop Warner AYF High school Varsity Junior varsity College Club Sprint Semi-pro Professional Women 's International Field Lines Yard lines Hash marks Goal line Sidelines Line of scrimmage Field goal range Spaces End zone Red zone Dead zone Neutral zone Coffin corner Flat Gap Hole Pocket Scoring Touchdown One - point conversion Two - point conversion Field goal Safety Single ( rouge ) Turnovers Fumble Interception Muffed punt Turnover on downs Downs First down Three - and - out Fourth down conversion Dead ball Play clock Timeout Kneel Spike Time warnings 3 min . 2 min . 1 min . Clock management Running out the clock Untimed play Garbage time Statistics Carry Completion Rushing yards Passing yards Passer rating Total quarterback rating Reception Receiving yards Pass deflected Sack Return yards Total offense Yards after catch Yards from scrimmage All - purpose yardage Touchdown pass Practice Two - a-days Oklahoma drill Three - cone drill Film session Officiating Official ( American , Canadian ) Chain crew Penalty Penalty flag Instant replay Miscellaneous Ball Coaching tree Concussions Equipment 12th man Letterman Overtime Practice squad Running up the score Touchdown celebration Gatorade shower Tuck rule Uniform number Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=American_football_rules&oldid=864077647 '' Categories : American football Gridiron football rules Hidden categories : Use mdy dates from September 2014 Articles containing potentially dated statements from 2012 All articles containing potentially dated statements Articles containing potentially dated statements from 2015 Talk Contents About Wikipedia Add links This page was last edited on 14 October 2018 , at 23 : 37 ( UTC ) . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply . By using this site , you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia ® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation , Inc. , a non-profit organization . About Wikipedia

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when do you need to blind bake pastry

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Blind-baking&oldid=791692900

Blind - baking - wikipedia Blind - baking Jump to : navigation , search Pie shell after blind baking Baking blind ( sometimes called pre-baking ) is the process of baking a pie crust or other pastry without the filling . Blind baking a pie crust is necessary when it will be filled with an unbaked filling ( such as with pudding or cream pies ) , in which case the crust must be fully baked . It is also called for if the filling has a shorter bake time than the crust , in which case the crust is partly baked . Blind baking is also used to keep pie crust from becoming soggy due to a wet filling . A close - up photograph of ceramic pie weights Blind baking can be accomplished by different methods . In one technique , the pie crust is lined with aluminium foil or parchment paper , then filled with pastry - or pie weights ( sometimes called `` baking beans '' ) to ensure the crust retains its shape while baking . Pie - weights are available as ceramic or metal beads , but rice , dried peas , lentils , beans or other pulses can be used instead . When using this method for a fully baked crust , the weights are removed before the pre-baking is complete in order to achieve a browned crust . Another technique dispenses with weights by placing a second pie tin on top of the crust , then inverting the tins to bake . In this method , the crust browns between the tins . A further simplified technique involves piercing the crust repeatedly with the tines of a fork to produce small holes , allowing steam to escape and preventing the crust from bubbling up , but that does not work with soft doughs such as pâte sucrée . See also ( edit ) Huff paste Pie bird References ( edit ) ^ Jump up to : Michel Suas ( 2008 ) . Advanced Bread and Pastry . Cengage Learning . pp. 496 ; 526 . ISBN 1 - 4180 - 1169 - X . ^ Jump up to : `` Bake Blind '' . CooksInfo.com. 2007 - 03 - 03 . Retrieved 2014 - 03 - 13 . Jump up ^ Leslie Bilderback ( 2007 ) . The Complete Idiot 's Guide to Comfort Food . Penguin Group ( USA ) Incorporated . p. 229 . ISBN 978 - 1 - 59257 - 633 - 3 . External links ( edit ) Blind - baking ( Pre-baking ) of Pie Crust Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Blind-baking&oldid=791692900 '' Categories : Baking Talk About Wikipedia Bahasa Melayu Edit links This page was last edited on 21 July 2017 , at 21 : 56 . About Wikipedia

5940116972435933830

what is the accounting rate of return on the​ investment

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Accounting_rate_of_return&oldid=828105367

Accounting rate of return - Wikipedia Accounting rate of return Jump to : navigation , search This article is about a capital budgeting concept . For other uses , see ARR . Part of a series on Accounting Historical cost Constant purchasing power Management Tax Major types ( show ) Auditing Cost Forensic Financial Fund Governmental Management Social Tax Key concepts ( show ) Accounting period Accrual Constant purchasing power Economic entity Fair value Going concern Historical cost Matching principle Materiality Revenue recognition Unit of account Selected accounts ( show ) Assets Cash Cost of goods sold Depreciation / Amortization Equity Expenses Goodwill Liabilities Profit Revenue Accounting standards ( show ) Generally - accepted principles Generally - accepted auditing standards Convergence International Financial Reporting Standards International Standards on Auditing Management Accounting Principles Financial statements ( show ) Annual report Balance sheet Cash - flow Equity Income Management discussion Notes to the financial statements Bookkeeping ( show ) Bank reconciliation Debits and credits Double - entry system FIFO and LIFO Journal Ledger / General ledger T accounts Trial balance Auditing ( show ) Financial Internal Firms Report People and organizations ( show ) Accountants Accounting organizations Luca Pacioli Development ( show ) History Research Positive accounting Sarbanes -- Oxley Act Business portal Accounting rate of return , also known as the Average rate of return , or ARR is a financial ratio used in capital budgeting . The ratio does not take into account the concept of time value of money . ARR calculates the return , generated from net income of the proposed capital investment . The ARR is a percentage return . Say , if ARR = 7 % , then it means that the project is expected to earn seven cents out of each dollar invested ( yearly ) . If the ARR is equal to or greater than the required rate of return , the project is acceptable . If it is less than the desired rate , it should be rejected . When comparing investments , the higher the ARR , the more attractive the investment . More than half of large firms calculate ARR when appraising projects . The key advantage of ARR is that it is easy to compute and understand . The main disadvantage of ARR is that it disregards the time factor in terms of time value of money or risks for long term investments . The ARR is built on evaluation of profits and it can be easily manipulated with changes in depreciation methods . The ARR can give misleading information when evaluating investments of different size . Basic formulas ( edit ) ARR = Average return during period Average investment ( \ displaystyle ( \ text ( ARR ) ) = ( \ frac ( \ text ( Average return during period ) ) ( \ text ( Average investment ) ) ) ) where : Average investment = Book value at beginning of year 1 + Book value at end of useful life 2 ( \ displaystyle ( \ text ( Average investment ) ) = ( \ frac ( \ text ( Book value at beginning of year 1 + Book value at end of useful life ) ) ( \ text ( 2 ) ) ) ) ARR = Incremental revenue − Incremental expenses ( including depreciation ) Initial investment ( \ displaystyle ( \ mbox ( ARR ) ) = ( ( \ mbox ( Incremental revenue ) ) - ( \ mbox ( Incremental expenses ( including depreciation ) ) ) \ over ( \ mbox ( Initial investment ) ) ) ) Average profit = Profit after tax Life of investment ( \ displaystyle ( \ mbox ( Average profit ) ) = ( ( \ mbox ( Profit after tax ) ) \ over ( \ mbox ( Life of investment ) ) ) ) Pitfalls ( edit ) This technique is based on profits rather than cash flow . It ignores cash flow from investment . Therefore , it can be affected by non-cash items such as bad debts and depreciation when calculating profits . The change of methods for depreciation can be manipulated and lead to higher profits . This technique does not adjust for the risk to long term forecasts . ARR does n't take into account the time value of money . References ( edit ) Jump up ^ Accounting Rate of Return - ARR Jump up ^ Arnold , G. ( 2007 ) . Essentials of corporate financial management . London : Pearson Education , Ltd . Jump up ^ `` How to Calculate Accounting Rate of Return Tiduko.com Never Stop Learning '' . tiduko.com . Retrieved 2017 - 04 - 25 . This accounting - related article is a stub . You can help Wikipedia by expanding it . Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Accounting_rate_of_return&oldid=828105367 '' Categories : Financial ratios Capital budgeting Accounting stubs Talk About Wikipedia 한국어 Tiếng Việt Edit links This page was last edited on 28 February 2018 , at 16 : 18 . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply . By using this site , you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia ® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation , Inc. , a non-profit organization . About Wikipedia

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where does the bronx get its name from

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=The_Bronx&oldid=854641588

The Bronx - Wikipedia The Bronx `` Bronx '' redirects here . For other uses , see Bronx ( disambiguation ) . Borough of New York City , County of New York State in New York , United States The Bronx Bronx County Borough of New York City County of New York State Yankee Stadium ( center ) , Bronx County Courthouse and the Grand Concourse towards the top . To the right of the current stadium is the site of its predecessor . Flag Seal Motto ( s ) : Ne cede malis -- `` Yield Not To Evil '' ( lit . `` Yield Not to Evil Things '' ) Location of the Bronx , shown in red , in New York City Coordinates : 40 ° 50 ′ 14 '' N 73 ° 53 ′ 10 '' W  /  40.83722 ° N 73.88611 ° W  / 40.83722 ; - 73.88611 Coordinates : 40 ° 50 ′ 14 '' N 73 ° 53 ′ 10 '' W  /  40.83722 ° N 73.88611 ° W  / 40.83722 ; - 73.88611 Country United States State New York County Bronx ( Coterminous ) City New York City Borough created 1898 ( County in 1914 ) Named for Jonas Bronck Government Type Borough ( New York City ) Borough President Rubén Díaz Jr . ( D ) -- ( Borough of the Bronx ) District Attorney Darcel Clark -- ( Bronx County ) Area Total 57 sq mi ( 150 km ) Land 42 sq mi ( 110 km ) Water 15 sq mi ( 40 km ) 27 % Highest elevation 280 ft ( 90 m ) Population ( 2017 ) Total 1,471,160 Density 35,027.6 / sq mi ( 13,524.2 / km ) Time zone Eastern Standard Time ( North America ) ( UTC − 05 : 00 ) Summer ( DST ) Eastern Daylight Time ( UTC − 04 : 00 ) ZIP Code prefix 104 Area code ( s ) 718 / 347 / 929 , 917 Website Official website of the Bronx Borough President borough and county of New York City The Bronx is the northernmost of the five boroughs of New York City , in the U.S. state of New York . It is south of Westchester County ; north and east of Manhattan , across the Harlem River ; and north of Queens , across the East River . Since 1914 , the borough has had the same boundaries as Bronx County , the third-most densely populated county in the United States . The Bronx has a land area of 42 square miles ( 109 km ) and a population of 1,471,160 in 2017 . Of the five boroughs , it has the fourth - largest area , fourth - highest population , and third - highest population density . It is the only borough predominantly on the U.S. mainland . The Bronx is divided by the Bronx River into a hillier section in the west , and a flatter eastern section . East and west street names are divided by Jerome Avenue -- the continuation of Manhattan 's Fifth Avenue . The West Bronx was annexed to New York City in 1874 , and the areas east of the Bronx River in 1895 . Bronx County was separated from New York County in 1914 . About a quarter of the Bronx 's area is open space , including Woodlawn Cemetery , Van Cortlandt Park , Pelham Bay Park , the New York Botanical Garden , and the Bronx Zoo in the borough 's north and center . These open spaces are situated primarily on land deliberately reserved in the late 19th century as urban development progressed north and east from Manhattan . The name `` Bronx '' originated with Jonas Bronck , who established the first settlement in the area as part of the New Netherland colony in 1639 . The native Lenape were displaced after 1643 by settlers . In the 19th and 20th centuries , the Bronx received many immigrant and migrant groups as it was transformed into an urban community , first from various European countries ( particularly Ireland , Germany , and Italy ) and later from the Caribbean region ( particularly Puerto Rico , Haiti , Jamaica , and the Dominican Republic ) , as well as African American migrants from the southern United States . This cultural mix has made the Bronx a wellspring of Latin music , hip hop and rock . The Bronx contains one of the five poorest congressional districts in the United States , the 15th , but its wide diversity also includes affluent , upper - income and middle - income neighborhoods such as Riverdale , Fieldston , Spuyten Duyvil , Schuylerville , Pelham Bay , Pelham Gardens , Morris Park , and Country Club . The Bronx , particularly the South Bronx , saw a sharp decline in population , livable housing , and the quality of life in the late 1960s and the 1970s , culminating in a wave of arson . Since then the communities have shown significant redevelopment starting in the late 1980s before picking up pace from the 1990s until today . Contents 1 Etymology and naming 1.1 Early names 1.2 Use of definite article 2 History 2.1 Before 1914 2.2 After 1914 2.2. 1 New York City expands 2.2. 2 Decline 2.3 Revitalization 3 Geography 3.1 Location and physical features 3.2 Parks and open space 3.3 Neighborhoods 3.3. 1 East Bronx 3.3. 1.1 City Island and Hart Island 3.3. 2 West Bronx 3.3. 2.1 Northwestern Bronx 3.3. 2.2 South Bronx 3.4 Adjacent counties 4 Transportation 4.1 Roads and streets 4.1. 1 Surface streets 4.1. 2 Highways 4.1. 3 Bridges and tunnels 4.2 Mass transit 5 Demographics 5.1 Race , ethnicity , language , and immigration 5.1. 1 2013 estimates 5.1. 2 2010 Census 5.1. 3 2009 Community Survey 5.1. 4 Older estimates 5.2 Population and housing 5.3 Individual and household income 6 Government and politics 6.1 Local government 6.2 Representatives in the U.S. Congress 6.3 Votes for other offices 7 Economy 7.1 Shopping districts 8 Education 8.1 Educational attainment 8.2 High schools 8.3 Colleges and universities 9 Culture and institutions 9.1 Founding of hip - hop 9.2 Sports 9.3 Off - Off - Broadway 9.4 Arts 9.5 Maritime heritage 9.6 Community celebrations 9.7 Press and broadcasting 9.7. 1 Newspapers 9.7. 2 Radio and television 10 In popular culture 10.1 Film and television 10.1. 1 Mid-20th century 10.1. 2 As a symbolism 10.1. 3 As a setting 10.2 In literature 10.2. 1 Books 10.2. 2 Poetry 10.2. 3 Bronx Memoir Project 10.3 In songs 11 See also 12 References 12.1 Notes 12.2 Citations 12.3 Further reading 13 External links New York City 's five boroughs Jurisdiction Population Land area Density Borough County Estimate ( 2017 ) square miles square km persons / sq. mi persons / sq. km Manhattan New York 1,664,727 22.83 59.13 72,033 27,826 The Bronx Bronx 1,471,160 42.10 109.04 34,653 13,231 Brooklyn Kings 2,648,771 70.82 183.42 37,137 14,649 Queens Queens 2,358,582 108.53 281.09 21,460 8,354 Staten Island Richmond 479,458 58.37 151.18 8,112 3,132 City of New York 8,622,698 302.64 783.83 28,188 10,947 State of New York 19,849,399 47,214 122,284 416.4 159 Sources : and see individual borough articles Etymology and naming ( edit ) Early names ( edit ) Map of the Bronx in 1867 The Bronx was called Rananchqua by the native Siwanoy band of Lenape ( also known historically as the Delawares ) , while other Native Americans knew the Bronx as Keskeskeck . It was divided by the Aquahung River . The origin of the person of Jonas Bronck ( c. 1600 -- 43 ) is contested . Some sources claim he was a Swedish born emigrant from Komstad , Norra Ljunga parish in Småland , Sweden , who arrived in New Netherland during the spring of 1639 . Bronck became the first recorded European settler in the area now known as the Bronx and built a farm named `` Emmanus '' close to what today is the corner of Willis Avenue and 132nd Street in Mott Haven . He leased land from the Dutch West India Company on the neck of the mainland immediately north of the Dutch settlement in Harlem ( on Manhattan Island ) , and bought additional tracts from the local tribes . He eventually accumulated 500 acres ( 200 ha ) between the Harlem River and the Aquahung , which became known as Bronck 's River or the Bronx ( River ) . Dutch and English settlers referred to the area as Bronck 's Land . The American poet William Bronk was a descendant of Pieter Bronck , either Jonas Bronck 's son or his younger brother . More recent research indicates that Pieter was probably Jonas ' nephew or cousin , but certainly of the same family . Use of definite article ( edit ) The Bronx is referred to with the definite article as `` The Bronx '' , both legally and colloquially . The County of Bronx does not place `` The '' immediately before `` Bronx '' in formal references , unlike the coextensive Borough of the Bronx , nor does the United States Postal Service in its database of Bronx addresses ( the city and state mailing - address format is simply `` Bronx , NY '' ) . The region was apparently named after the Bronx River and first appeared in the `` Annexed District of The Bronx '' created in 1874 out of part of Westchester County . It was continued in the `` Borough of The Bronx '' , which included a larger annexation from Westchester County in 1898 . The use of the definite article is attributed to the style of referring to rivers . Another explanation for the use of the definite article in the borough 's name is that the original form of the name was a possessive or collective one referring to the family , as in visiting `` the Broncks '' , `` the Bronck 's '' , or `` the Broncks ' '' . The capitalization of The Bronx 's name is sometimes disputed . Generally , the definite article is lowercase in place names ( `` the Bronx '' ) except in official references to the borough . It would be capitalized ( `` The Bronx '' ) at the beginning of a sentence or in any other situation when a normally lowercase word would be capitalized . However , some people and groups refer to the borough with a capital letter at all times , such as Lloyd Ultan , a Bronx County Historical Society historian , and the Great and Glorious Grand Army of The Bronx , a Bronx - based organization . These people say that the definite article is part of the proper name . In particular , the Great and Glorious Grand Army of The Bronx is leading efforts to make the city refer to the borough with an uppercase definite article in all uses , comparing the lowercase article in The Bronx 's name to `` not capitalizing the ' s ' in ' Staten Island . ' '' History ( edit ) See also : Timeline of the Bronx European colonization of the Bronx began in 1639 . The Bronx was originally part of Westchester County , but it was ceded to New York County in two major parts ( West Bronx , 1874 and East Bronx , 1895 ) before it became Bronx County . Originally , the area was part of the Lenape 's Lenapehoking territory inhabited by Siwanoy of the Wappinger Confederacy . Over time , European colonists converted the borough into farmlands . Before 1914 ( edit ) See also : List of former municipalities in New York City The development of the Bronx is directly connected to its strategic location between New England and New York ( Manhattan ) . Control over the bridges across the Harlem River plagued the period of British colonial rule . The King 's Bridge , built in 1693 where Broadway reached the Spuyten Duyvil Creek , was a possession of Frederick Philipse , lord of Philipse Manor . The tolls were resented by local farmers on both sides of the creek , and in 1759 , Jacobus Dyckman and Benjamin Palmer led them into building a free bridge across the Harlem River . After the American Revolutionary War , the King 's Bridge toll was abolished . The territory now contained within Bronx County was originally part of Westchester County , one of the 12 original counties of the English Province of New York . The present Bronx County was contained in the town of Westchester and parts of the towns in Yonkers , Eastchester , and Pelham . In 1846 , a new town was created by division of Westchester , called West Farms . The town of Morrisania was created , in turn , from West Farms in 1855 . In 1873 , the town of Kingsbridge was established within the former borders of Yonkers , roughly corresponding to the modern Bronx neighborhoods of Kingsbridge , Riverdale , and Woodlawn . Among famous settlers in the Bronx during the 19th and early 20th centuries were author Willa Cather , tobacco merchant Pierre Lorillard , and inventor Jordan L. Mott , who established Mott Haven to house the workers at his iron works . The consolidation of the Bronx into New York City proceeded in two stages . In 1873 , the state legislature annexed Kingsbridge , West Farms , and Morrisania to New York , effective in 1874 ; the three towns were soon abolished in the process . The whole territory east of the Bronx River was annexed to the city in 1895 , three years before New York 's consolidation with Brooklyn , Queens , and Staten Island . This included the Town of Westchester ( which had voted against consolidation in 1894 ) and portions of Eastchester and Pelham . The nautical community of City Island voted to join the city in 1896 . On January 1 , 1898 , the consolidated City of New York was born , including the Bronx as one of the five distinct boroughs . ( At the same time , the Bronx 's territory moved from Westchester County into New York County , which already contained Manhattan and the rest of pre-1874 New York City . ) On April 19 , 1912 , those parts of New York County which had been annexed from Westchester County in the past decades were newly constituted as Bronx County , the 62nd and last county to be created by the state , effective in 1914 . Bronx County 's courts opened for business on January 2 , 1914 ( the same day that John P. Mitchel started work as Mayor of New York City ) . Marble Hill , Manhattan was now connected to the Bronx , but it did not become part of that county by a historical accident due to changes in waterways . After 1914 ( edit ) Bronx residents born abroad or overseas , 1930 and 2000 1930 United States Census 2000 United States Census Total population of the Bronx 1,265,258 Total population of the Bronx 1,332,650 All born abroad or overseas 524,410 39.4 % Puerto Rico 126,649 9.5 % Foreign - born Whites 477,342 37.7 % All foreign - born 385,827 29.0 % White persons born in Russia 135,210 10.7 % Dominican Republic 124,032 9.3 % White persons born in Italy 67,732 5.4 % Jamaica 51,120 3.8 % White persons born in Poland 55,969 4.4 % Mexico 20,962 1.6 % White persons born in Germany 43,349 3.4 % Guyana 14,868 1.1 % White persons born in the Irish Free State 34,538 2.7 % Ecuador 14,800 1.1 % Other foreign birthplaces of Whites 140,544 11.1 % Other foreign birthplaces 160,045 12.0 % † the 26 counties now within the Republic of Ireland ‡ beyond the 50 states & District of Columbia The history of the Bronx during the 20th century may be divided into four periods : a boom period during 1900 -- 29 , with a population growth by a factor of six from 200,000 in 1900 to 1.3 million in 1930 . The Great Depression and post World War II years saw a slowing of growth leading into an eventual decline . The mid to late century were hard times , as the Bronx declined 1950 -- 85 from a predominantly moderate - income to a predominantly lower - income area with high rates of violent crime and poverty . The Bronx has experienced an economic and developmental resurgence starting in the late 1980s that continues into today . New York City expands ( edit ) Grand Concourse and 161st Street as it appeared around 1900 The Simpson Street ( IRT White Plains Road ) elevated station ' was built in 1904 and opened on November 26 , 1904 . It was listed in the National Register of Historic Places on September 17 , 2004 , reference # 04001027 . The Bronx was a mostly rural area for many generations , small farms supplying the city markets , but it grew into a railroad suburb in the late 19th century . Faster transportation enabled rapid population growth in the late 19th century , involving the move from horse - drawn street cars to elevated railways and the subway system , which linked to Manhattan in 1904 . The South Bronx was a manufacturing center for many years and was noted as a center of piano manufacturing in the early part of the 20th century . In 1919 , the Bronx was the site of 63 piano factories employing more than 5,000 workers . At the end of World War I , the Bronx hosted the rather small 1918 World 's Fair at 177th Street and DeVoe Avenue . The Bronx underwent rapid urban growth after World War I. Extensions of the New York City Subway contributed to the increase in population as thousands of immigrants came to the Bronx , resulting in a major boom in residential construction . Among these groups , many Irish Americans , Italian Americans , and especially Jewish Americans settled here . In addition , French , German , Polish , and other immigrants moved into the borough . The Jewish population also increased notably during this time . In 1937 , 592,185 Jews lived in The Bronx ( 43.9 % of the borough 's population ) , while only 54,000 Jews lived in the borough in 2011 . Many synagogues still stand in the Bronx , but most have been converted to other uses . Decline ( edit ) Bootleggers and gangs were active in the Bronx during Prohibition ( 1920 -- 33 ) . Irish , Italian , Jewish , and Polish gangs smuggled in most of the illegal whiskey , and the oldest sections of the borough became poverty - stricken . Between 1930 and 1960 , moderate and upper income Bronxites ( predominantly non-Hispanic Whites ) began to relocate from the southwestern neighborhoods of the borough . This migration has left a mostly poor African American and Hispanic ( largely Puerto Rican ) population in the West Bronx . One significant factor that shifted the racial and economic demographics was the construction of Co-op City , built with the intent of housing middle - class residents in family - sized apartments . The high - rise complex played a significant role in draining middle - class residents from older tenement buildings in the borough 's southern and western fringes . Most predominantly non-Hispanic White communities today are located in the eastern and northwestern sections of the borough . From the early 1960s to the early 1980s , the quality of life declined sharply for many Bronx residents . Historians and social scientists have suggested many factors , including the theory that Robert Moses ' Cross Bronx Expressway destroyed existing residential neighborhoods and created instant slums , as put forward in Robert Caro 's biography The Power Broker . Another factor in the Bronx 's decline may have been the development of high - rise housing projects , particularly in the South Bronx . Yet another factor may have been a reduction in the real estate listings and property - related financial services offered in some areas of the Bronx , such as mortgage loans or insurance policies -- a process known as redlining . Others have suggested a `` planned shrinkage '' of municipal services , such as fire - fighting . There was also much debate as to whether rent control laws had made it less profitable ( or more costly ) for landlords to maintain existing buildings with their existing tenants than to abandon or destroy those buildings . In the 1970s , the Bronx was plagued by a wave of arson . The burning of buildings was predominantly in the poorest communities , such as the South Bronx . One explanation of what occurred was that landlords decided to burn their low property - value buildings and take the insurance money , as it was more lucrative to get insurance money than to refurbish or sell a building in a severely distressed area . The Bronx became identified with a high rate of poverty and unemployment , which was mainly a persistent problem in the South Bronx . Out of 289 census tracts in the Bronx borough , 7 tracts lost more than 97 % of their buildings to fire and abandonment between 1970 and 1980 ; another 44 tracts had more than 50 % of their buildings meet the same fate . By the early 1980s , the South Bronx was considered one of the most blighted urban areas in the country , with a loss of 60 % of the population and 40 % of housing units . However , starting in the 1990s , many burned - out and run - down tenements were replaced by multi-unit housing . Revitalization ( edit ) Row houses on a location where there was once burnt rubble . The Bronx has seen an increase in revitalization in recent years . Since the late 1980s , significant development has occurred in the Bronx , first stimulated by the city 's `` Ten - Year Housing Plan '' and community members working to rebuild the social , economic and environmental infrastructure by creating affordable housing . Groups affiliated with churches in the South Bronx erected the Nehemiah Homes with about 1,000 units . The grass roots organization Nos Quedamos ' endeavor known as Melrose Commons began to rebuild areas in the South Bronx . The IRT White Plains Road Line ( 2 and ​ 5 trains ) began to show an increase in riders . Chains such as Marshalls , Staples , and Target opened stores in the Bronx . More bank branches opened in the Bronx as a whole ( rising from 106 in 1997 to 149 in 2007 ) , although not primarily in poor or minority neighborhoods , while the Bronx still has fewer branches per person than other boroughs . In 1997 , the Bronx was designated an All America City by the National Civic League , acknowledging its comeback from the decline of the mid-century . In 2006 , The New York Times reported that `` construction cranes have become the borough 's new visual metaphor , replacing the window decals of the 1980s in which pictures of potted plants and drawn curtains were placed in the windows of abandoned buildings . '' The borough has experienced substantial new building construction since 2002 . Between 2002 and June 2007 , 33,687 new units of housing were built or were under way and $4.8 billion has been invested in new housing . In the first six months of 2007 alone total investment in new residential development was $965 million and 5,187 residential units were scheduled to be completed . Much of the new development is springing up in formerly vacant lots across the South Bronx . In addition , there is a revitalization of the existing housing market in areas such as Hunts Point , the Lower Concourse , and the neighborhoods surrounding the Third Avenue Bridge as people buy apartments and renovate them . Several boutique and chain hotels have opened in recent years in the South Bronx . New developments are underway . The Bronx General Post Office on the corner of the Grand Concourse and East 149th Street is being converted into a market place , boutiques , restaurants and office space with a USPS concession . The Kingsbridge Armory , often cited as the largest armory in the world , is scheduled for redevelopment as the Kingsbridge National Ice Center . Under consideration for future development is the construction of a platform over the New York City Subway 's Concourse Yard adjacent to Lehman College . The construction would permit approximately 2,000,000 square feet ( 190,000 m ) of development and would cost US $350 -- 500 million . In addition , a La Quinta Inn has been proposed for the Mott Haven waterfront . Geography ( edit ) Main article : Geography of New York City Location and physical features ( edit ) The New York Times 1896 map of parks and transit in the newly annexed Bronx . Marble Hill is in pink , cut off by water from the rest of Manhattan in orange . Parks are light green , Woodlawn Cemetery medium green , sports facilities dark green , the not - yet - built Jerome Park Reservoir light blue , St. John 's College ( now Fordham University ) in violet , and the city limits of the newly expanded New York in red . According to the U.S. Census Bureau , Bronx County has a total area of 57 square miles ( 150 km ) , of which 42 square miles ( 110 km ) is land and 15 square miles ( 39 km ) ( 27 % ) is water . The Bronx is the only part of New York City that is almost entirely situated on the North American mainland . Its bedrock is primarily Fordham gneiss , a high - grade heavily banded metamorphic rock containing significant amounts of pink feldspar . Marble Hill -- politically part of Manhattan but now physically attached to the Bronx -- is so - called because of the formation of Inwood marble there as well as in Inwood , Manhattan and parts of the Bronx and Westchester County . The Hudson River separates the Bronx on the west from Alpine , Tenafly and Englewood Cliffs in Bergen County , New Jersey ; the Harlem River separates it from the island of Manhattan to the southwest ; the East River separates it from Queens to the southeast ; and to the east , Long Island Sound separates it from Nassau County in western Long Island . Directly north of the Bronx are ( from west to east ) the adjoining Westchester County communities of Yonkers , Mount Vernon , Pelham Manor and New Rochelle . ( There is also a short southern land boundary with Marble Hill in the Borough of Manhattan , over the filled - in former course of the Spuyten Duyvil Creek . Marble Hill 's postal ZIP code , telephonic area codes and fire service , however , are shared with the Bronx and not Manhattan . ) The Bronx River flows south from Westchester County through the borough , emptying into the East River ; it is the only entirely freshwater river in New York City . A smaller river , the Hutchinson River ( named after the religious leader Anne Hutchinson , killed along its banks in 1641 ) , passes through the East Bronx and empties into Eastchester Bay . The Bronx also includes several small islands in the East River and Long Island Sound , such as City Island and Hart Island . Rikers Island in the East River , home to the large jail complex for the entire city , is also part of the Bronx . See also : List of smaller islands in New York City The Bronx 's highest elevation at 280 feet ( 85 m ) is in the northwest corner , west of Van Cortlandt Park and in the Chapel Farm area near the Riverdale Country School . The opposite ( southeastern ) side of the Bronx has four large low peninsulas or `` necks '' of low - lying land that jut into the waters of the East River and were once salt marsh : Hunt 's Point , Clason 's Point , Screvin 's Neck and Throggs Neck . Further up the coastline , Rodman 's Neck lies between Pelham Bay Park in the northeast and City Island . The Bronx 's irregular shoreline extends for 75 square miles ( 194 km ) . Parks and open space ( edit ) See also : Category : Parks in the Bronx Sample of Bronx open spaces and parks Acquired Name acres mi hectares 1863 Woodlawn Cemetery 400 0.6 162 1888 Pelham Bay Park 2,764 4.3 1,119 Van Cortlandt Park 1,146 1.8 464 Bronx Park 718 1.1 291 Crotona Park 128 0.2 52 St. Mary 's Park 35 0.05 14 1890 Jerome Park Reservoir 94 0.15 38 1897 St. James Park 11 0.02 4.6 1899 Macombs Dam Park † 28 0.04 12 1909 Henry Hudson Park 9 0.01 1937 Ferry Point Park 414 0.65 168 Soundview Park 196 0.31 79 1962 Wave Hill 21 0.03 8.5 Land area of the Bronx in 2000 26,897 42.0 10,885 Water area 9,855 15.4 3,988 Total area 36,752 57.4 14,873 † closed in 2007 to build a new park & Yankee Stadium Main source : New York City Department of Parks & Recreation Although Bronx County was the third most densely populated county in the United States as of 2006 ( after Manhattan and Brooklyn ) , 7,000 acres ( 28 km ) of the Bronx -- about one - fifth of the Bronx 's area , and one - quarter of its land area -- is given over to parkland . The vision of a system of major Bronx parks connected by park - like thoroughfares is usually attributed to John Mullaly . Woodlawn Cemetery , one of the largest cemeteries in New York City , sits on the western bank of the Bronx River near Yonkers . It opened in 1863 , at a time when the Bronx was still considered a rural area . The northern side of the borough includes the largest park in New York City -- Pelham Bay Park , which includes Orchard Beach -- and the third - largest , Van Cortlandt Park , which is west of Woodlawn Cemetery and borders Yonkers . Also in the northern Bronx , Wave Hill , the former estate of George W. Perkins -- known for a historic house , gardens , changing site - specific art installations and concerts -- overlooks the New Jersey Palisades from a promontory on the Hudson in Riverdale . Nearer the borough 's center , and along the Bronx River , is Bronx Park ; its northern end houses the New York Botanical Gardens , which preserve the last patch of the original hemlock forest that once covered the entire county , and its southern end the Bronx Zoo , the largest urban zoological gardens in the United States . Just south of Van Cortlandt Park is the Jerome Park Reservoir , surrounded by 2 miles ( 3 km ) of stone walls and bordering several small parks in the Bedford Park neighborhood ; the reservoir was built in the 1890s on the site of the former Jerome Park Racetrack . Further south is Crotona Park , home to a 3.3 - acre ( 1.3 ha ) lake , 28 species of trees , and a large swimming pool . The land for these parks , and many others , was bought by New York City in 1888 , while land was still open and inexpensive , in anticipation of future needs and future pressures for development . Some of the acquired land was set aside for the Grand Concourse and Pelham Parkway , the first of a series of boulevards and parkways ( thoroughfares lined with trees , vegetation and greenery ) . Later projects included the Bronx River Parkway , which developed a road while restoring the riverbank and reducing pollution , Mosholu Parkway and the Henry Hudson Parkway . Northern tip of Hunter Island in Pelham Bay Park In 2006 , a five - year , $220 - million program of capital improvements and natural restoration in 70 Bronx parks was begun ( financed by water and sewer revenues ) as part of an agreement that allowed a water filtration plant under Mosholu Golf Course in Van Cortlandt Park . One major focus is on opening more of the Bronx River 's banks and restoring them to a natural state . Neighborhoods ( edit ) This article needs additional citations for verification . Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . ( January 2016 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) See also : List of Bronx neighborhoods , Bronx Community Board , and Timeline of town creation in Downstate New York The number , locations , and boundaries of the Bronx 's neighborhoods ( many of them sitting on the sites of 19th - century villages ) have become unclear with time and successive waves of newcomers . In 2006 , Manny Fernandez of The New York Times wrote , According to a Department of City Planning map of the city 's neighborhoods , the Bronx has 49 . The map publisher Hagstrom identifies 69 . The borough president , Adolfo Carrión Jr. , says 61 . The Mayor 's Community Assistance Unit , in a listing of the borough 's community boards , names 68 . Wikipedia , the online encyclopedia , lists 44 . Notable Bronx neighborhoods include the South Bronx ; Little Italy on Arthur Avenue in the Belmont section ; and Riverdale . East Bronx ( edit ) Main article : East Bronx ( Bronx Community Boards 9 ( south central ) , 10 ( east ) , 11 ( east central ) and 12 ( north central ) ) The neighborhood of Co-op City is the largest cooperative housing development in the world . East of the Bronx River , the borough is relatively flat and includes four large low peninsulas , or ' necks , ' of low - lying land which jut into the waters of the East River and were once saltmarsh : Hunts Point , Clason 's Point , Screvin 's Neck ( Castle Hill Point ) and Throgs Neck . The East Bronx has older tenement buildings , low income public housing complexes , and multifamily homes , as well as single family homes . It includes New York City 's largest park : Pelham Bay Park along the Westchester - Bronx border . Neighborhoods include : Clason 's Point , Harding Park , Soundview , Castle Hill , Parkchester ( Board 9 ) ; Throggs Neck , Country Club , City Island , Pelham Bay , Edgewater Park , Co-op City ( Board 10 ) ; Westchester Square , Van Nest , Pelham Parkway , Morris Park ( Board 11 ) ; Williamsbridge , Eastchester , Baychester , Edenwald and Wakefield ( Board 12 ) . City Island and Hart Island ( edit ) Main articles : City Island , Bronx and Hart Island , New York A sunken boat off the shore of City Island . ( Bronx Community Board 10 ) City Island is located east of Pelham Bay Park in Long Island Sound and is known for its seafood restaurants and private waterfront homes . City Island 's single shopping street , City Island Avenue , is reminiscent of a small New England town . It is connected to Rodman 's Neck on the mainland by the City Island Bridge . East of City Island is Hart Island , which is uninhabited and not open to the public . It once served as a prison and now houses New York City 's potter 's field for unclaimed bodies . West Bronx ( edit ) Main article : West Bronx Grand Concourse at East 165th Street ( Bronx Community Boards 1 to 8 , progressing roughly from south to northwest ) The western parts of the Bronx are hillier and are dominated by a series of parallel ridges , running south to north . The West Bronx has older apartment buildings , low income public housing complexes , multifamily homes in its lower income areas as well as larger single family homes in more affluent areas such as Riverdale and Fieldston . It includes New York City 's third - largest park : Van Cortlandt Park along the Westchester - Bronx border . The Grand Concourse , a wide boulevard , runs through it , north to south . Northwestern Bronx ( edit ) ( Bronx Community Boards 7 ( between the Bronx and Harlem Rivers ) and 8 ( facing the Hudson River ) -- plus part of Board 12 ) Neighborhoods include : Fordham - Bedford , Bedford Park , Norwood , Kingsbridge Heights ( Board 7 ) , Kingsbridge , Riverdale ( Board 8 ) , and Woodlawn ( Board 12 ) . ( Marble Hill , Manhattan is now connected by land to the Bronx rather than Manhattan and is served by Bronx Community Board 8 . ) South Bronx ( edit ) Main article : South Bronx ( Bronx Community Boards 1 to 6 plus part of Board 7 -- progressing northwards , Boards 2 , 3 and 6 border the Bronx River from its mouth to Bronx Park , while 1 , 4 , 5 and 7 face Manhattan across the Harlem River ) Like other neighborhoods in New York City , the South Bronx has no official boundaries . The name has been used to represent poverty in the Bronx and is applied to progressively more northern places so that by the 2000s , Fordham Road was often used as a northern limit . The Bronx River more consistently forms an eastern boundary . The South Bronx has many high - density apartment buildings , low income public housing complexes , and multi-unit homes . The South Bronx is home to the Bronx County Courthouse , Borough Hall , and other government buildings , as well as Yankee Stadium . The Cross Bronx Expressway bisects it , east to west . The South Bronx has some of the poorest neighborhoods in the country , as well as very high crime areas . Neighborhoods include : The Hub ( a retail district at Third Avenue and East 149th Street ) , Port Morris , Mott Haven ( Board 1 ) , Melrose ( Board 1 & Board 3 ) , Morrisania , East Morrisania ( also known as Crotona Park East ) ( Board 3 ) , Hunts Point , Longwood ( Board 2 ) , Highbridge , Concourse ( Board 4 ) , West Farms , Belmont , East Tremont ( Board 6 ) , Tremont , Morris Heights ( Board 5 ) , University Heights . ( Board 5 & Board 7 ) . Adjacent counties ( edit ) The Bronx adjoins : Westchester County -- north Nassau County , New York -- southeast ( across the East River ) Queens County , New York ( Queens ) -- south ( across the East River ) New York County , New York ( Manhattan ) -- southwest Bergen County , New Jersey -- west ( across the Hudson River ) Transportation ( edit ) See also : Transportation in New York City Roads and streets ( edit ) Bronx -- Whitestone Bridge Surface streets ( edit ) The Bronx street grid is irregular . Like the northernmost part of upper Manhattan , the West Bronx 's hilly terrain leaves a relatively free - style street grid . Much of the West Bronx 's street numbering carries over from upper Manhattan , but does not match it exactly ; East 132nd Street is the lowest numbered street in the Bronx . This dates from the mid-19th century when the southwestern area of Westchester County west of the Bronx River , was incorporated into New York City and known as the Northside . The East Bronx is considerably flatter , and the street layout tends to be more regular . Only the Wakefield neighborhood picks up the street numbering , albeit at a misalignment due to Tremont Avenue 's layout . At the same diagonal latitude , West 262nd Street in Riverdale matches East 237th Street in Wakefield . Three major north - south thoroughfares run between Manhattan and the Bronx : Third Avenue , Park Avenue , and Broadway . Other major north - south roads include the Grand Concourse , Jerome Avenue , Sedgwick Avenue , Webster Avenue , and White Plains Road . Major east - west thoroughfares include Mosholu Parkway , Gun Hill Road , Fordham Road , Pelham Parkway , and Tremont Avenue . Most east - west streets are prefixed with either East or West , to indicate on which side of Jerome Avenue they lie ( continuing the similar system in Manhattan , which uses Fifth Avenue as the dividing line ) . The historic Boston Post Road , part of the long pre-revolutionary road connecting Boston with other northeastern cities , runs east - west in some places , and sometimes northeast - southwest . Mosholu and Pelham Parkways , with Bronx Park between them , Van Cortlandt Park to the west and Pelham Bay Park to the east , are also linked by bridle paths . As of the 2000 Census , approximately 61.6 % of all Bronx households do not have access to a car . Citywide , the percentage of autoless households is 55 % . Highways ( edit ) Several major limited access highways traverse the Bronx . These include : the Bronx River Parkway the Bruckner Expressway ( I - 278 / I - 95 ) the Cross Bronx Expressway ( I - 95 / I - 295 ) the New England Thruway ( I - 95 ) the Henry Hudson Parkway ( NY - 9A ) the Hutchinson River Parkway the Major Deegan Expressway ( I - 87 ) Bridges and tunnels ( edit ) An aerial view of the Throgs Neck Bridge Thirteen bridges and three tunnels connect the Bronx to Manhattan , and three bridges connect the Bronx to Queens . These are , from west to east : To Manhattan : the Spuyten Duyvil Bridge , the Henry Hudson Bridge , the Broadway Bridge , the University Heights Bridge , the Washington Bridge , the Alexander Hamilton Bridge , the High Bridge , the Concourse Tunnel , the Macombs Dam Bridge , the 145th Street Bridge , the 149th Street Tunnel , the Madison Avenue Bridge , the Park Avenue Bridge , the Lexington Avenue Tunnel , the Third Avenue Bridge ( southbound traffic only ) , and the Willis Avenue Bridge ( northbound traffic only ) . To both Manhattan and Queens : the Robert F. Kennedy Bridge , formerly known as the Triborough Bridge . To Queens : the Bronx -- Whitestone Bridge and the Throgs Neck Bridge . Mass transit ( edit ) Middletown Road subway station on the 6 and < 6 > ​ trains NYC Transit bus operating on the Bx40 route in University Heights The Bronx is served by seven New York City Subway services along six physical lines , with 70 stations in the Bronx : IND Concourse Line ( B and ​ D trains ) IRT Broadway -- Seventh Avenue Line ( 1 train ) IRT Dyre Avenue Line ( 5 train ) IRT Jerome Avenue Line ( 4 train ) IRT Pelham Line ( 6 and < 6 > ​ trains ) IRT White Plains Road Line ( 2 and ​ 5 trains ) There are also many MTA Regional Bus Operations bus routes in the Bronx . This includes local and express routes as well as Bee - Line Bus System routes . Two Metro - North Railroad commuter rail lines ( the Harlem Line and the Hudson Line ) serve 11 stations in the Bronx . ( Marble Hill , between the Spuyten Duyvil and University Heights stations , is actually in the only part of Manhattan connected to the mainland . ) In addition , trains serving the New Haven Line stop at Fordham Road . Demographics ( edit ) Main article : Demographics of the Bronx Race , ethnicity , language , and immigration ( edit ) See also : List of people from the Bronx 2013 estimates ( edit ) Racial / ethnic concentrations within the Bronx , by block . ( Red indicates Hispanic of any race ; Blue indicates non-Hispanic White ; and Green indicates non-Hispanic Black or African - American . ) hide Racial composition 2013 1990 1970 1940 White 45.8 % 35.7 % 73.4 % 98.3 % -- Non-Hispanic 10.5 % 22.6 % n / a n / a Black or African American 43.3 % 37.3 % 24.3 % 1.7 % Hispanic or Latino ( of any race ) 54.6 % 43.5 % 27.7 % n / a Asian 4.2 % 3.0 % 0.5 % 0.1 % Other race N / A 23.5 % 1.6 % ( X ) According to a 2013 Census Bureau estimate , 45.8 % of the Bronx 's population was white , 43.3 % was black or African American , 4.2 % Asian , 3.0 % American Indian , 0.4 % Pacific Islander , and 3.3 % of two or more races . In addition , 54.6 % of the population was of Hispanic or Latino origin , of any race . The Census Bureau considers the Bronx to be the most diverse area in the country . There is an 89.7 percent chance that any two residents , chosen at random , would be of different race or ethnicity . The borough 's most populous racial group , white , declined from 98.3 % in 1940 to 45.8 % in 2013 . 31.7 % of the population were foreign born and another 8.9 % were born in Puerto Rico , U.S. Island areas , or born abroad to American parents . 55.6 % spoke a language other than English at home and 16.4 % had a bachelor 's degree or higher . Approximately 44.3 % of the population over the age of five spoke only English at home , which is roughly 570,000 people . The majority ( 55.7 % ) of the population spoke a language other than English at home . Over 580,600 people ( 45.2 % of the population ) spoke Spanish at home . 2010 Census ( edit ) Historical population Census Pop . % ± 1790 1,781 -- 1800 1,755 − 1.5 % 1810 2,267 29.2 % 1820 2,782 22.7 % 1830 3,023 8.7 % 1840 5,346 76.8 % 1850 8,032 50.2 % 1860 23,593 193.7 % 1870 37,393 58.5 % 1880 51,980 39.0 % 1890 88,908 71.0 % 1900 200,507 125.5 % 1910 430,980 114.9 % 1920 732,016 69.8 % 1930 1,265,258 72.8 % 1940 1,394,711 10.2 % 1950 1,451,277 4.1 % 1960 1,424,815 − 1.8 % 1970 1,471,701 3.3 % 1980 1,168,972 − 20.6 % 1990 1,203,789 3.0 % 2000 1,332,650 10.7 % 1,385,108 3.9 % Est. 2017 1,471,160 6.2 % Sources : 1790 -- 1990 ; According to the 2010 Census , 53.5 % of Bronx 's population was of Hispanic , Latino , or Spanish origin ( they may be of any race ) ; 30.1 % non-Hispanic Black or African American , 10.9 % of the population was non-Hispanic White , 3.4 % non-Hispanic Asian , 0.6 % from some other race ( non-Hispanic ) and 1.2 % of two or more races ( non-Hispanic ) . The U.S. Census considers the Bronx to be the most diverse area in the country . There is an 89.7 percent chance that any two residents , chosen at random , would be of different race or ethnicity . As of 2010 , 46.29 % ( 584,463 ) of Bronx residents aged five and older spoke Spanish at home , while 44.02 % ( 555,767 ) spoke English , 2.48 % ( 31,361 ) African languages , 0.91 % ( 11,455 ) French , 0.90 % ( 11,355 ) Italian , 0.87 % ( 10,946 ) various Indic languages , 0.70 % ( 8,836 ) other Indo - European languages , and Chinese was spoken at home by 0.50 % ( 6,610 ) of the population over the age of five . In total , 55.98 % ( 706,783 ) of the Bronx 's population age five and older spoke a language at home other than English . A Garifuna - speaking community from Honduras and Guatemala also makes the Bronx its home . 2009 Community survey ( edit ) According to the 2009 American Community Survey , White Americans of both Hispanic and non-Hispanic origin represented over one - fifth ( 22.9 % ) of the Bronx 's population . However , non-Hispanic whites formed under one - eighth ( 12.1 % ) of the population , down from 34.4 % in 1980 . Out of all five boroughs , the Bronx has the lowest number and percentage of white residents . 320,640 whites called the Bronx home , of which 168,570 were non-Hispanic whites . The majority of the non-Hispanic European American population is of Italian and Irish descent . People of Italian descent numbered over 55,000 individuals and made up 3.9 % of the population . People of Irish descent numbered over 43,500 individuals and made up 3.1 % of the population . German Americans and Polish Americans made up 1.4 % and 0.8 % of the population respectively . The Bronx is the only New York City borough with a Hispanic majority , many of whom are Puerto Ricans and Dominicans . At the 2009 American Community Survey , Black Americans made the second largest group in the Bronx after Hispanics and Latinos . Blacks of both Hispanic and non-Hispanic origin represented over one - third ( 35.4 % ) of the Bronx 's population . Blacks of non-Hispanic origin made up 30.8 % of the population . Over 495,200 blacks resided in the borough , of which 430,600 were non-Hispanic blacks . Over 61,000 people identified themselves as `` Sub-Saharan African '' in the survey , making up 4.4 % of the population . Native Americans are a very small minority in the borough . Only some 5,560 individuals ( out of the borough 's 1.4 million people ) are Native American , which is equal to just 0.4 % of the population . In addition , roughly 2,500 people are Native Americans of non-Hispanic origin . In 2009 , Hispanic and Latino Americans represented 52.0 % of the Bronx 's population . Puerto Ricans represented 23.2 % of the borough 's population . Over 72,500 Mexicans lived in the Bronx , and they formed 5.2 % of the population . Cubans numbered over 9,640 members and formed 0.7 % of the population . In addition , over 319,000 people were of various Hispanic and Latino groups , such as Dominican , Salvadoran , and so on . These groups collectively represented 22.9 % of the population . At the 2010 Census , 53.5 % of Bronx 's population was of Hispanic , Latino , or Spanish origin ( they may be of any race ) . Asian Americans are a small but sizable minority in the borough . Roughly 49,600 Asians make up 3.6 % of the population . Roughly 13,600 Indians call the Bronx home , along with 9,800 Chinese , 6,540 Filipinos , 2,260 Vietnamese , 2,010 Koreans , and 1,100 Japanese . Multiracial Americans are also a sizable minority in the Bronx . People of multiracial heritage number over 41,800 individuals and represent 3.0 % of the population . People of mixed Caucasian and African American heritage number over 6,850 members and form 0.5 % of the population . People of mixed Caucasian and Native American heritage number over 2,450 members and form 0.2 % of the population . People of mixed Caucasian and Asian heritage number over 880 members and form 0.1 % of the population . People of mixed African American and Native American heritage number over 1,220 members and form 0.1 % of the population . Older estimates ( edit ) The Census of 1930 counted only 1.0 % ( 12,930 ) of the Bronx 's population as Negro ( while making no distinct counts of Hispanic or Spanish - surname residents ) . Foreign or overseas birthplaces of Bronx residents , 1930 and 2000 1930 United States Census 2000 United States Census Total population of the Bronx 1,265,258 Total population of the Bronx 1,332,650 All born abroad or overseas 524,410 39.4 % Puerto Rico 126,649 9.5 % Foreign - born Whites 477,342 37.7 % All foreign - born 385,827 29.0 % White persons born in Russia 135,210 10.7 % Dominican Republic 124,032 9.3 % White persons born in Italy 67,732 5.4 % Jamaica 51,120 3.8 % White persons born in Poland 55,969 4.4 % Mexico 20,962 1.6 % White persons born in Germany 43,349 3.4 % Guyana 14,868 1.1 % White persons born in the Irish Free State 34,538 2.7 % Ecuador 14,800 1.1 % Other foreign birthplaces of Whites 140,544 11.1 % Other foreign birthplaces 160,045 12.0 % † the 26 counties now within the Republic of Ireland ‡ beyond the 50 states & District of Columbia Population and housing ( edit ) Poverty concentrations within the Bronx , by Census Tract At the 2010 Census , there were , 1,385,108 people living in Bronx , a 3.9 % increase since 2000 . As of the United States Census of 2000 , there were 1,332,650 people , 463,212 households , and 314,984 families residing in the borough . The population density was 31,709.3 inhabitants per square mile ( 12,242.2 / km2 ) . There were 490,659 housing units at an average density of 11,674.8 per square mile ( 4,507.4 / km2 ) . Recent Census estimates place total population of Bronx county at 1,392,002 as of 2012 . There were 463,212 households out of which 38.1 % had children under the age of 18 living with them , 31.4 % were married couples living together , 30.4 % had a female householder with no husband present , and 32.0 % were non-families. 27.4 % of all households were made up of individuals and 9.4 % had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older . The average household size was 2.78 and the average family size was 3.37 . The age distribution of the population in the Bronx was as follows : 29.8 % under the age of 18 , 10.6 % from 18 to 24 , 30.7 % from 25 to 44 , 18.8 % from 45 to 64 , and 10.1 % 65 years of age or older . The median age was 31 years . For every 100 females , there were 87.0 males . Individual and household income ( edit ) This article needs to be updated . Please update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information . ( April 2017 ) The 1999 median income for a household in the borough was $27,611 , and the median income for a family was $30,682 . Males had a median income of $31,178 versus $29,429 for females . The per capita income for the borough was $13,959 . About 28.0 % of families and 30.7 % of the population were below the poverty line , including 41.5 % of those under age 18 and 21.3 % of those age 65 or over . From 2015 Census data , the median income for a household was ( in 2015 dollars ) $34,299 . Per capita income in past 12 months ( in 2015 dollars ) : $18,456 with persons in poverty at 30.3 % . Government and politics ( edit ) Local government ( edit ) Main article : Government of New York City Since New York City 's consolidation in 1898 , the Bronx has been governed by the New York City Charter that provides for a `` strong '' mayor - council system . The centralized New York City government is responsible for public education , correctional institutions , libraries , public safety , recreational facilities , sanitation , water supply , and welfare services in the Bronx . Borough Presidents of the Bronx Name Party Term † Louis F. Haffen Democratic 1898 -- Aug. 1909 John F. Murray Democratic Aug. 1909 -- 1910 Cyrus C. Miller Democratic 1910 -- 1914 Douglas Mathewson Republican - Fusion 1914 -- 1918 Henry Bruckner Democratic 1918 -- 1934 James J. Lyons Democratic 1934 -- 1962 Joseph F. Periconi Republican - Liberal 1962 -- 1966 Herman Badillo Democratic 1966 -- 1970 Robert Abrams Democratic 1970 -- 1979 Stanley Simon Democratic 1979 -- April 1987 Fernando Ferrer Democratic April 1987 -- 2002 Adolfo Carrión , Jr . Democratic 2002 -- March 2009 Ruben Diaz , Jr . Democratic May 2009 -- † Terms begin and end in January where the month is not specified . The office of Borough President was created in the consolidation of 1898 to balance centralization with local authority . Each borough president had a powerful administrative role derived from having a vote on the New York City Board of Estimate , which was responsible for creating and approving the city 's budget and proposals for land use . In 1989 the Supreme Court of the United States declared the Board of Estimate unconstitutional on the grounds that Brooklyn , the most populous borough , had no greater effective representation on the Board than Staten Island , the least populous borough , a violation of the Fourteenth Amendment 's Equal Protection Clause pursuant to the high court 's 1964 `` one man , one vote '' decision . Since 1990 the Borough President has acted as an advocate for the borough at the mayoral agencies , the City Council , the New York state government , and corporations . Until March 1 , 2009 , the Borough President of the Bronx was Adolfo Carrión Jr. , elected as a Democrat in 2001 and 2005 before retiring early to direct the White House Office of Urban Affairs Policy . His successor , Democratic New York State Assembly member Rubén Díaz , Jr. , who won a special election on April 21 , 2009 by a vote of 86.3 % ( 29,420 ) on the `` Bronx Unity '' line to 13.3 % ( 4,646 ) for the Republican district leader Anthony Ribustello on the `` People First '' line , became Borough President on May 1 . All of the Bronx 's currently elected public officials have first won the nomination of the Democratic Party ( in addition to any other endorsements ) . Local party platforms center on affordable housing , education and economic development . Controversial political issues in the Bronx include environmental issues , the cost of housing , and annexation of parkland for new Yankee Stadium . Since its separation from New York County on January 1 , 1914 , the Bronx , has had , like each of the other 61 counties of New York State , its own criminal court system and District Attorney , the chief public prosecutor who is directly elected by popular vote . Darcel D. Clark has been the Bronx County District Attorney since 2016 . Her predecessor was Robert T. Johnson , was the District Attorney from 1989 to 2015 . He was the first African - American District Attorney in New York State . Eight members of the New York City Council represent districts wholly within the Bronx ( 11 -- 18 ) , while a ninth represents a Manhattan district ( 8 ) that also includes a small area of the Bronx . One of those members , Joel Rivera ( District 15 ) , has been the Council 's Majority Leader since 2002 . In 2008 , all of them were Democrats . The Bronx also has twelve Community Boards , appointed bodies that field complaints and advise on land use and municipal facilities and services for local residents , businesses and institutions . ( They are listed at Bronx Community Boards ) . Representatives in the U.S. congress ( edit ) Candidates winning non-judicial elections in the Bronx since 2004 Year Office Winner of the Bronx † ( failed to win overall contest ) Bronx % Over - all % Borough - wide votes U.S. President & V.P. † John Kerry -- John Edwards , D - WF 81.8 % 48.3 % 2005 Mayor of New York † Fernando Ferrer , D 59.8 % 39.0 % Public Advocate Betsy Gotbaum , D 93.8 % 90.0 % City Comptroller William C. Thompson , Jr. , D - WF 95.5 % 92.6 % Borough President Adolfo Carrión , Jr. , D 83.8 % 2006 U.S. Senator Hillary Clinton , D - WF - Independence 89.5 % 67.0 % Governor & Lt Gov . Eliot Spitzer -- David Paterson , D - WF - Indpce 88.8 % 69.0 % State Comptroller Alan G. Hevesi , D - WF - Independence 84.5 % 56.8 % NY Attorney - General Andrew M. Cuomo , D - Working Families 82.6 % 58.3 % 2007 Bronx Dist . Attorney Robert T. Johnson , D-R - Conservative 100 -- % 2008 Democratic Pres . † Hillary Clinton 61.2 % 48.0 % Republican Pres . John McCain 54.4 % 46.6 % U.S. President & V.P. Barack Obama -- Joe Biden , D - WF 87.8 % 52.9 % 2009 Borough President Ruben Diaz , Jr. , Bronx Unity 86.3 % Individual legislative districts 2005 New York City Council Council District 8 Melissa Mark Viverito , D - WF 100. % 100. % Council District 11 G. Oliver Koppell , D 81.1 % Council District 12 Larry B. Seabrook , D 87.2 % Council District 13 James Vacca , D 64.4 % Council District 14 María Baez , D 94.7 % Council District 15 Joel Rivera , D ( majority leader ) 91.0 % Council District 16 Helen D. Foster , D-R - Working Families 98.6 % Council District 17 María Del Carmen Arroyo , D - Indep'ce 98.3 % Council District 18 Annabel Palma , D - WF 89.1 % 2006 U.S. House of Representatives Cong . District 7 Joseph Crowley , D - WF 84.9 % 84.0 % Cong . District 16 José E. Serrano , D - WF 95.3 % Cong . District 17 Eliot L. Engel , D - WF 89.3 % 76.4 % New York State Senate Senate District 28 José M. Serrano , D - WF 100. % 100. % Senate District 31 Eric T. Schneiderman , D - WF 88.8 % 92.3 % Senate District 32 Rubén Díaz , D 92.5 % Senate District 33 Efraín González , Jr. , D 96.9 % Senate District 34 Jeffrey D. Klein , D - WF 64.8 % 61.2 % Senate District 36 Ruth H. Thompson , D - WF 95.4 % 95.4 % New York State Assembly Assembly District 76 Peter M. Rivera , D - WF 91.8 % Assembly District 77 Aurelia Greene , D - WF 94.9 % Assembly District 78 José Rivera , D 89.7 % Assembly District 79 Michael A. Benjamin , D 95.1 % Assembly District 80 Naomi Rivera , D 74.6 % Assembly District 81 Jeffrey Dinowitz , D - WF 95.1 % Assembly District 82 Michael R. Benedetto , D - WF 81.4 % Assembly District 83 Carl E. Heastie , D - WF 94.1 % Assembly District 84 Carmen E. Arroyo , D 92.7 % Assembly District 85 Rubén Díaz , Jr. , D 94.8 % Assembly District 86 Luís M. Diaz , D 94.6 % D = Democratic Party ; R = Republican Party ; WF = Working Families Party ; Indpce = Independence Party of New York In 2008 , three Democrats represented almost all of the Bronx in the United States House of Representatives . José E. Serrano ( first elected in March 1990 ) represents New York 's 16th congressional district , which covers much of the South Bronx . It was , in 2000 , the poorest of the nation 's 435 districts ( 42.8 % below the poverty line ) ; it was also the most Hispanic of New York state 's 29 congressional districts ( 62.8 % ) and the youngest ( 34.5 % under 18 years old ; 6.7 % over 65 ) . Eliot Engel ( first elected in 1988 ) represents the 17th District which includes parts of the northwest Bronx as well as parts of Westchester and Rockland counties . Joseph Crowley ( first elected in 1998 ) represents the 7th District which spans the East Bronx and includes Co-op City , City Island , Pelham Bay , Morris Park , Pelham Parkway , Parkchester , Castle Hill and Throgs Neck , as well as parts of northwest Queens . ( Riker 's Island , the city 's main jail complex , is included in the 15th District , which covers Upper Manhattan and utilities facilities in Astoria , Queens . It is represented by Charles B. Rangel , first elected in 1970 . In 2006 , the Congressional election returns in this district included no votes from the Bronx or Queens . ) All of these Representatives won over 75 % of their districts ' respective votes in both 2004 and 2006 . National Journal 's neutral rating system placed all of their voting records in 2005 and 2006 somewhere between very liberal and extremely liberal . 11 out of 150 members of the New York State Assembly ( the lower house of the state legislature ) represent districts wholly within the Bronx . Six State Senators out of 62 represent Bronx districts , half of them wholly within the County , and half straddling other counties . All these legislators are Democrats who won between 65 % and 100 % of their districts ' vote in 2006 . Votes for other offices ( edit ) In the 2004 presidential election , Senator John F. Kerry received 81.8 % of the vote in the Bronx ( 79.8 % on the Democratic line plus 2 % on the Working Families Party 's line ) while President George W. Bush received 16.3 % ( 15.5 % Republican plus 0.85 % Conservative ) . In the 2008 presidential election , Democrat Barack Obama improved on Kerry 's showing , and took 88.7 % of the vote in the Bronx to Republican John McCain 's 10.9 % . In 2005 , the Democratic former Bronx Borough President Fernando Ferrer won 59.8 % of the borough 's vote against 38.8 % ( 35.3 % Republican , 3.5 % Independence Party ) for Mayor Michael Bloomberg , who carried every other borough in his winning campaign for re-election . In 2006 , successfully reelected Senator Hillary Clinton won 89.5 % of the Bronx 's vote ( 82.8 % Dem . + 4.1 % Working Families + 2.6 % Independence ) against Yonkers ex-Mayor John Spencer 's 9.6 % ( 8.2 % Republican + 1.4 % Cons . ) , while Eliot Spitzer won 88.8 % of the Borough 's vote ( 82.1 % Dem . + 4.1 % Working Families + 2.5 % Independence Party ) in winning the Governorship against John Faso , who received 9.7 % of the Bronx 's vote ( 8.2 % Republican + 1.5 % Cons . ) In the Presidential primary elections of February 5 , 2008 , Sen. Clinton won 61.2 % of the Bronx 's 148,636 Democratic votes against 37.8 % for Barack Obama and 1.0 % for the other four candidates combined ( John Edwards , Dennis Kucinich , Bill Richardson and Joe Biden ) . On the same day , John McCain won 54.4 % of the borough 's 5,643 Republican votes , Mitt Romney 20.8 % , Mike Huckabee 8.2 % , Ron Paul 7.4 % , Rudy Giuliani 5.6 % , and the other candidates ( Fred Thompson , Duncan Hunter and Alan Keyes ) 3.6 % between them . After becoming a separate county in 1914 , the Bronx has supported only two Republican Presidential candidates . It voted heavily for the winning Republican Warren G. Harding in 1920 , but much more narrowly on a split vote for his victorious Republican successor Calvin Coolidge in 1924 ( Coolidge 79,562 ; John W. Davis , Dem. , 72,834 ; Robert La Follette , 62,202 equally divided between the Progressive and Socialist lines ) . Since then , the Bronx has always supported the Democratic Party 's nominee for President , starting with a vote of 2 -- 1 for the unsuccessful Al Smith in 1928 , followed by four 2 -- 1 votes for the successful Franklin D. Roosevelt . ( Both had been Governors of New York , but Republican former Gov. Thomas E. Dewey won only 28 % of the Bronx 's vote in 1948 against 55 % for Pres . Harry Truman , the winning Democrat , and 17 % for Henry A. Wallace of the Progressives . It was only 32 years earlier , by contrast , that another Republican former Governor who narrowly lost the Presidency , Charles Evans Hughes , had won 42.6 % of the Bronx 's 1916 vote against Democratic President Woodrow Wilson 's 49.8 % and Socialist candidate Allan Benson 's 7.3 % . ) The Bronx has often shown striking differences from other boroughs in elections for Mayor . The only Republican to carry the Bronx since 1914 was Fiorello La Guardia in 1933 , 1937 and 1941 ( and in the latter two elections , only because his 30 % to 32 % vote on the American Labor Party line was added to 22 % to 23 % as a Republican ) . The Bronx was thus the only borough not carried by the successful Republican re-election campaigns of Mayors Rudolph Giuliani in 1997 and Michael Bloomberg in 2005 . The anti-war Socialist campaign of Morris Hillquit in the 1917 mayoral election won over 31 % of the Bronx 's vote , putting him second and well ahead of the 20 % won by the incumbent pro-war Fusion Mayor John P. Mitchel , who came in second ( ahead of Hillquit ) everywhere else and outpolled Hillquit citywide by 23.2 % to 21.7 % . The Bronx County vote for President and Mayor since 1952 President and Vice President of the United States Mayor of the City of New York Year Republican , Conservative & Independence Democratic , Liberal & Working Families Won the Bronx Elected President Year Candidate carrying the Bronx Elected Mayor 2016 9.5 % 37,797 88.5 % 353,646 Hillary Clinton Donald Trump 2017 Bill de Blasio , D - Working Families Bill de Blasio , D - Working Families 2012 8.1 % 29,967 91.5 % 339,211 Barack Obama Barack Obama 2013 Bill de Blasio , D - Working Families Bill de Blasio , D - Working Families 2008 10.9 % 41,683 88.7 % 338,261 Barack Obama Barack Obama 2009 William C. Thompson , Jr , D - Working Families Michael Bloomberg , R -- Indep'ce / Jobs & Educ'n 16.3 % 56,701 81.8 % 283,994 John F. Kerry George W. Bush 2005 Fernando Ferrer , D Mike Bloomberg , R / Lib - Indep'ce 2000 11.8 % 36,245 86.3 % 265,801 Al Gore George W. Bush Mark Green , D - Working Families Michael Bloomberg , R - Independence 10.5 % 30,435 85.8 % 248,276 Bill Clinton Bill Clinton Ruth Messinger , D Rudolph Giuliani , R - Liberal 1992 20.7 % 63,310 73.7 % 225,038 Bill Clinton Bill Clinton David Dinkins , D Rudolph Giuliani , R - Liberal 1988 25.5 % 76,043 73.2 % 218,245 Michael Dukakis George H.W. Bush David Dinkins , D David Dinkins , D 1984 32.8 % 109,308 66.9 % 223,112 Walter Mondale Ronald Reagan 1985 Edward Koch , D - Indep . Edward Koch , D - Independent 1980 30.7 % 86,843 ' 64.0 % 181,090 Jimmy Carter Ronald Reagan 1981 Edward Koch , D-R Edward Koch , D-R 1976 28.7 % 96,842 70.8 % 238,786 Jimmy Carter Jimmy Carter 1977 Edward Koch , D Edward Koch , D 1972 44.6 % 196,756 55.2 % 243,345 George McGovern Richard Nixon 1973 Abraham Beame , D Abraham Beame , D 1968 32.0 % 142,314 62.4 % 277,385 Hubert Humphrey Richard Nixon 1969 Mario Procaccino , D - Nonpartisan - Civil Svce Ind . John V. Lindsay , Liberal 1964 25.2 % 135,780 74.7 % 403,014 Lyndon B. Johnson Lyndon B. Johnson 1965 Abraham Beame , D - Civil Service Fusion John Lindsay , R - Liberal - Independent Citizens 1960 31.8 % 182,393 67.9 % 389,818 John F. Kennedy John F. Kennedy 1961 Robert F. Wagner , Jr. , D - Liberal - Brotherhood Robert F. Wagner , Jr. , D - Liberal - Brotherhood 1956 42.8 % 256,909 57.2 % 343,656 Adlai Stevenson II Dwight D. Eisenhower 1957 Robert F. Wagner , Jr. , D - Liberal - Fusion Robert F. Wagner , Jr. , D - Liberal - Fusion 1952 37.3 % 241,898 60.6 % 309,482 Adlai Stevenson II Dwight D. Eisenhower 1953 Robert F. Wagner , Jr. , D Robert F. Wagner , Jr. , D Republican and Democratic columns for Presidential elections also include their candidates ' votes on other lines , such as the New York State Right to Life Party and the Working Families Party . For details of votes and parties in a particular election , click the year or see New York City mayoral elections . Presidential elections results Year Republican Democratic Third parties 2016 9.5 % 37,797 88.5 % 353,646 2.0 % 8,079 2012 8.1 % 29,967 91.5 % 339,211 0.5 % 1,760 2008 10.9 % 41,683 88.7 % 338,261 0.4 % 1,378 16.5 % 56,701 82.8 % 283,994 0.7 % 2,284 2000 11.8 % 36,245 86.3 % 265,801 2.0 % 6,017 10.5 % 30,435 85.8 % 248,276 3.7 % 10,639 1992 20.7 % 63,310 73.7 % 225,038 5.6 % 17,112 1988 25.5 % 76,043 73.2 % 218,245 1.3 % 3,793 1984 32.8 % 109,308 66.9 % 223,112 0.4 % 1,263 1980 30.7 % 86,843 64.0 % 181,090 5.3 % 14,914 1976 28.7 % 96,842 70.8 % 238,786 0.5 % 1,763 1972 44.6 % 196,754 55.2 % 243,345 0.2 % 1,075 1968 32.0 % 142,314 62.4 % 277,385 5.6 % 24,818 1964 25.2 % 135,780 74.7 % 403,014 0.2 % 800 1960 31.8 % 182,393 67.9 % 389,818 0.4 % 2,071 1956 42.8 % 257,382 57.2 % 343,823 0.0 % 0 1952 37.3 % 241,898 60.6 % 392,477 2.1 % 13,420 1948 27.8 % 173,044 54.2 % 337,129 18.0 % 112,182 1944 31.8 % 211,158 67.7 % 450,525 0.5 % 3,352 1940 31.8 % 198,293 67.1 % 418,931 1.1 % 6,980 1936 17.6 % 93,151 79.4 % 419,625 3.0 % 16,042 1932 19.2 % 76,587 70.4 % 281,330 10.5 % 42,002 1928 28.7 % 98,636 67.7 % 232,766 3.7 % 12,545 1924 36.7 % 79,583 33.6 % 72,840 29.6 % 64,234 1920 56.6 % 106,050 24.4 % 45,741 19.0 % 35,538 1916 42.6 % 40,938 49.8 % 47,870 7.7 % 7,396 Economy ( edit ) See also : Economy of New York City Shopping malls and markets in the Bronx include : Bay Plaza Shopping Center Bronx Terminal Market Hunts Point Cooperative Market Shopping districts ( edit ) The Hub on Third Avenue Renovated Prow Building , part of the original Bronx Terminal Market An aerial view of the Bronx , Harlem River , Harlem , Hudson River , and George Washington Bridge Morris Heights , a Bronx neighborhood of over 45,000 Street scene on Fordham Road , a major street in the Bronx Prominent shopping areas in the Bronx include Fordham Road , Bay Plaza in Co-op City , The Hub , the Riverdale / Kingsbridge shopping center , and Bruckner Boulevard . Shops are also concentrated on streets aligned underneath elevated railroad lines , including Westchester Avenue , White Plains Road , Jerome Avenue , Southern Boulevard , and Broadway . The Gateway Center at Bronx Terminal Market contains several big - box stores , which opened in 2009 south of Yankee Stadium . There are three primary shopping centers in the Bronx : The Hub , Gateway Center and Southern Boulevard . The Hub -- Third Avenue Business Improvement District ( B.I.D. ) , in The Hub , is the retail heart of the South Bronx , located where four roads converge : East 149th Street , Willis , Melrose and Third Avenues . It is primarily located inside the neighborhood of Melrose but also lines the northern border of Mott Haven . The Hub has been called `` the Broadway of the Bronx '' , being likened to the real Broadway in Manhattan and the northwestern Bronx . It is the site of both maximum traffic and architectural density . In configuration , it resembles a miniature Times Square , a spatial `` bow - tie '' created by the geometry of the street . The Hub is part of Bronx Community Board 1 . The Gateway Center at Bronx Terminal Market , in the West Bronx , is a shopping center that encompasses less than one million square feet of retail space , built on a 17 acres ( 7 ha ) site that formerly held the Bronx Terminal Market , a wholesale fruit and vegetable market as well as the former Bronx House of Detention , south of Yankee Stadium . The $500 million shopping center , which was completed in 2009 , saw the construction of new buildings and two smaller buildings , one new and the other a renovation of an existing building that was part of the original market . The two main buildings are linked by a six - level garage for 2,600 cars . The center has earned itself a LEED `` Silver '' designation in its design . Education ( edit ) See also : Education in New York City , List of public elementary schools in New York City , and Category : Charter schools in New York ( state ) Education in the Bronx is provided by a large number of public and private institutions , many of which draw students who live beyond the Bronx . The New York City Department of Education manages public noncharter schools in the borough . In 2000 , public schools enrolled nearly 280,000 of the Bronx 's residents over 3 years old ( out of 333,100 enrolled in all pre-college schools ) . There are also several public charter schools . Private schools range from élite independent schools to religiously affiliated schools run by the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of New York and Jewish organizations . A small portion of land that is between Pelham and Pelham Bay Park , with a total of 35 houses , is a part of the Bronx , but is cut off from the rest of the borough due to the way the county boundaries were established ; the New York City government pays for the residents ' children to go to Pelham Union Free School District schools , including Pelham Memorial High School , since that is more cost effective than sending school buses to take the students to New York City schools . This arrangement has been in place since 1948 . Educational attainment ( edit ) In 2000 , according to the U.S. Census , out of the nearly 800,000 people in the Bronx who were then at least 25 years old , 62.3 % had graduated from high school and 14.6 % held a bachelor 's or higher college degree . These percentages were lower than those for New York 's other boroughs , which ranged from 68.8 % ( Brooklyn ) to 82.6 % ( Staten Island ) for high school graduates over 24 , and from 21.8 % ( Brooklyn ) to 49.4 % ( Manhattan ) for college graduates . ( The respective state and national percentages were ( NY ) 79.1 % & 27.4 % and ( US ) 80.4 % & 24.4 % . ) High schools ( edit ) See also : List of high schools in New York City § Bronx The Bronx High School of Science In the 2000 Census , 79,240 of the nearly 95,000 Bronx residents enrolled in high school attended public schools . Many public high schools are located in the borough including the elite Bronx High School of Science , Celia Cruz Bronx High School of Music , DeWitt Clinton High School , High School for Violin and Dance , Bronx Leadership Academy 2 , Bronx International High School , the School for Excellence , the Morris Academy for Collaborative Study , Wings Academy for young adults , The Bronx School for Law , Government and Justice , Validus Preparatory Academy , The Eagle Academy For Young Men , Bronx Expeditionary Learning High School , Bronx Academy of Letters , Herbert H. Lehman High School and High School of American Studies . The Bronx is also home to three of New York City 's most prestigious private , secular schools : Fieldston , Horace Mann , and Riverdale Country School . High schools linked to the Catholic Church include : Saint Raymond 's Academy for Girls , All Hallows High School , Fordham Preparatory School , Monsignor Scanlan High School , St. Raymond High School for Boys , Cardinal Hayes High School , Cardinal Spellman High School , The Academy of Mount Saint Ursula , Aquinas High School , Preston High School , St. Catharine Academy , Mount Saint Michael Academy , and St. Barnabas High School . The SAR Academy and SAR High School are Modern Orthodox Jewish Yeshiva coeducational day schools in Riverdale , with roots in Manhattan 's Lower East Side . In the 1990s , New York City began closing the large , public high schools in the Bronx and replacing them with small high schools . Among the reasons cited for the changes were poor graduation rates and concerns about safety . Schools that have been closed or reduced in size include John F. Kennedy , James Monroe , Taft , Theodore Roosevelt , Adlai Stevenson , Evander Childs , Christopher Columbus , Morris , Walton , and South Bronx High Schools . More recently the City has started phasing out large middle schools , also replacing them with smaller schools . Fordham University 's Keating Hall Colleges and universities ( edit ) See also : List of colleges and universities in New York City In 2000 , 49,442 ( 57.5 % ) of the 86,014 Bronx residents seeking college , graduate or professional degrees attended public institutions . Several colleges and universities are located in the Bronx . Fordham University was founded as St. John 's College in 1841 by the Diocese of New York as the first Catholic institution of higher education in the northeast . It is now officially an independent institution , but strongly embraces its Jesuit heritage . The 85 - acre ( 340,000 m ) Bronx campus , known as Rose Hill , is the main campus of the university , and is among the largest within the city ( other Fordham campuses are located in Manhattan and Westchester County ) . Three campuses of the City University of New York are in the Bronx : Hostos Community College , Bronx Community College ( occupying the former University Heights Campus of New York University ) and Herbert H. Lehman College ( formerly the uptown campus of Hunter College ) , which offers both undergraduate and graduate degrees . The College of Mount Saint Vincent is a Catholic liberal arts college in Riverdale under the direction of the Sisters of Charity of New York . Founded in 1847 as a school for girls , the academy became a degree - granting college in 1911 and began admitting men in 1974 . The school serves 1,600 students . Its campus is also home to the Academy for Jewish Religion , a transdenominational rabbinical and cantorial school . Manhattan College is a Catholic college in Riverdale which offers undergraduate programs in the arts , business , education , engineering , and science . It also offers graduate programs in education and engineering . Albert Einstein College of Medicine , part of the Montefiore Medical Center , is in Morris Park . Two colleges based in Westchester County have Bronx campuses . The Catholic and nearly all - female College of New Rochelle maintains satellite campuses at Co-op City and in The Hub . The coeducational and non-sectarian Mercy College in Dobbs Ferry , founded by the Catholic Sisters of Mercy in 1950 , has a campus near Westchester Square . By contrast , the private , proprietary Monroe College , focused on preparation for business and the professions , started in the Bronx in 1933 but now has a campus in New Rochelle ( Westchester County ) as well the Bronx 's Fordham neighborhood . The State University of New York Maritime College in Fort Schuyler ( Throggs Neck ) -- at the far southeastern tip of the Bronx -- is the national leader in maritime education and houses the Maritime Industry Museum . ( Directly across Long Island Sound is Kings Point , Long Island , home of the United States Merchant Marine Academy and the American Merchant Marine Museum . ) As of 2017 , graduates from the university earned an average annual salary of $144,000 , the highest of any university graduates in the United States . Culture and institutions ( edit ) See also : Culture of New York City ; Music of New York City ; List of people from the Bronx ; and List of Registered Historic Places in Bronx County , New York The Bronx Zoo is the largest zoo in New York City , and among the largest in the country . The Bronx 's P.L.A.Y.E.R.S. Club Steppers performing at the 2007 Fort Greene Park Summer Literary Festival in Brooklyn . ( Note the T - shirts ' inscription `` I ♥ BX '' ( Bronx ) , echoing the ubiquitous slogan `` I ♥ NY '' ( I Love New York ) ) . Author Edgar Allan Poe spent the last years of his life ( 1846 to 1849 ) in the Bronx at Poe Cottage , now located at Kingsbridge Road and the Grand Concourse . A small wooden farmhouse built around 1812 , the cottage once commanded unobstructed vistas over the rolling Bronx hills to the shores of Long Island . Poe moved there to get away from the Manhattan city air and crowding in hope that the then rural area would be beneficial for his wife 's tuberculosis . It was in the Bronx that Poe wrote one of his most famous works , Annabel Lee . More than a century later , the Bronx would evolve from a hot bed of Latin jazz to an incubator of hip hop as documented in the award - winning documentary , produced by City Lore and broadcast on PBS in 2006 , `` From Mambo to Hip Hop : A South Bronx Tale . '' Hip Hop first emerged in the South Bronx in the early 1970s . The New York Times has identified 1520 Sedgwick Avenue `` an otherwise unremarkable high - rise just north of the Cross Bronx Expressway and hard along the Major Deegan Expressway '' as a starting point , where DJ Kool Herc presided over parties in the community room . The 2016 Netflix series The Get Down is based on the development of hip hop in 1977 in the South Bronx . Ten years earlier , the Bronx Opera had been founded . Founding of hip - hop ( edit ) On August 11 , 1973 , DJ Kool Herc was a D.J. and M.C. at a party in the recreation room of 1520 Sedgwick Avenue in the Bronx adjacent to the Cross Bronx Expressway . While it was not the actual `` Birthplace of Hip Hop '' -- the genre developed slowly in several places in the 1970s -- it was verified to be the place where one of the pivotal and formative events occurred . Specifically : ( Cool Herc ) extended an instrumental beat ( mixing or scratching ) to let people dance longer ( B - boying ) and began MC'ing ( rapping ) during the extended breakdancing ... ( This ) helped lay the foundation for a cultural revolution . -- History Detectives Beginning with the advent of beat match DJing , in which Bronx disc jockeys ) including Grandmaster Flash , Afrika Bambaataa and DJ Kool Herc extended the breaks of funk records , a major new musical genre emerged that sought to isolate the percussion breaks of hit funk , disco and soul songs . As hip hop 's popularity grew , performers began speaking ( `` rapping '' ) in sync with the beats , and became known as MCs or emcees . The Herculoids , made up of Herc , Coke La Rock , and Clark Kent , were the earliest to gain major fame . The Bronx is referred to in hip - hop slang as `` The Boogie Down Bronx '' , or just `` The Boogie Down '' . This was hip - hop pioneer KRS - One 's inspiration for his group BDP , or Boogie Down Productions , which included DJ Scott La Rock . Newer hip hop artists from the Bronx include Big Pun , Lord Tariq and Peter Gunz , Camp Lo , Swizz Beatz , Drag - On , Fat Joe , Terror Squad and Cory Gunz . Hush Hip Hop Tours , a tour company founded in 2002 by local licensed sightseeing tour guide Debra Harris , has established a sightseeing tour of the Bronx showcasing the locations that helped shape hip hop culture , and features some of the pioneers of hip hop as tour guides . The Bronx 's recognition as an important center of African - American culture has led Fordham University to establish the Bronx African - American History Project ( BAAHP ) . Sports ( edit ) New Yankee Stadium at 161st and River Avenue The Bronx is the home of the New York Yankees , nicknamed `` the Bronx Bombers '' , of Major League Baseball . The original Yankee Stadium opened in 1923 on 161st Street and River Avenue , a year that saw the Yankees bring home their first of 27 World Series Championships . With the famous facade , the short right field porch and Monument Park , Yankee Stadium has been home to many of baseball 's greatest players including Babe Ruth , Lou Gehrig , Joe DiMaggio , Whitey Ford , Yogi Berra , Mickey Mantle , Reggie Jackson , Thurman Munson , Don Mattingly , Derek Jeter and Mariano Rivera . The original stadium was the scene of Lou Gehrig 's Farewell Speech in 1939 , Don Larsen 's perfect game in the 1956 World Series , Roger Maris ' record breaking 61st home run in 1961 , and Reggie Jackson 's 3 home runs to clinch Game 6 of the 1977 World Series . The Stadium was the former home of the New York Giants of the National Football League from 1956 to 1973 . The original Yankee Stadium closed in 2008 to make way for a new Yankee Stadium in which the team started play in 2009 . It is located north - northeast of the 1923 Yankee Stadium , on the former site of Macombs Dam Park . The current Yankee Stadium is also the home of New York City FC of Major League Soccer , who began play in 2015 . Off - off - Broadway ( edit ) Main article : Off - Off - Broadway The Bronx is home to several Off - Off - Broadway theaters , many staging new works by immigrant playwrights from Latin America and Africa . The Pregones Theater , which produces Latin American work , opened a new 130 - seat theater in 2005 on Walton Avenue in the South Bronx . Some artists from elsewhere in New York City have begun to converge on the area , and housing prices have nearly quadrupled in the area since 2002 . However rising prices directly correlate to a housing shortage across the city and the entire metro area . Arts ( edit ) The Bronx Academy of Arts and Dance , founded in 1998 by Arthur Aviles and Charles Rice - Gonzalez , provides dance , theatre and art workshops , festivals and performances focusing on contemporary and modern art in relation to race , gender , and sexuality . It is home to the Arthur Aviles Typical Theatre , a contemporary dance company , and the Bronx Dance Coalition . The Academy was formerly in the American Bank Note Company Building before relocating to a venue on the grounds of St. Peter 's Episcopal Church . The Bronx Museum of the Arts , founded in 1971 , exhibits 20th century and contemporary art through its central museum space and 11,000 square feet ( 1,000 m ) of galleries . Many of its exhibitions are on themes of special interest to the Bronx . Its permanent collection features more than 800 works of art , primarily by artists from Africa , Asia and Latin America , including paintings , photographs , prints , drawings , and mixed media . The museum was temporarily closed in 2006 while it underwent a major expansion designed by the architectural firm Arquitectonica . The Bronx has also become home to a peculiar poetic tribute in the form of the `` Heinrich Heine Memorial '' , better known as the Lorelei Fountain . After Heine 's German birthplace of Düsseldorf had rejected , allegedly for anti-Semitic motives , a centennial monument to the radical German - Jewish poet ( 1797 -- 1856 ) , his incensed German - American admirers , including Carl Schurz , started a movement to place one instead in Midtown Manhattan , at Fifth Avenue and 59th Street . However , this intention was thwarted by a combination of ethnic antagonism , aesthetic controversy and political struggles over the institutional control of public art . In 1899 , the memorial by Ernst Gustav Herter was placed in Joyce Kilmer Park , near the Yankee Stadium . In 1999 , it was moved to 161st Street and the Concourse . Maritime heritage ( edit ) The peninsular borough 's maritime heritage is acknowledged in several ways. The City Island Historical Society and Nautical Museum occupies a former public school designed by the New York City school system 's turn - of - the - last - century master architect C.B.J. Snyder . The state 's Maritime College in Fort Schuyler ( on the southeastern shore ) houses the Maritime Industry Museum . In addition , the Harlem River is reemerging as `` Scullers ' Row '' due in large part to the efforts of the Bronx River Restoration Project , a joint public - private endeavor of the city 's parks department . Canoeing and kayaking on the borough 's namesake river have been promoted by the Bronx River Alliance . The river is also straddled by the New York Botanical Gardens , its neighbor , the Bronx Zoo , and a little further south , on the west shore , Bronx River Art Center . Community celebrations ( edit ) `` Bronx Week , '' traditionally held in May , originated as a one day celebration . Initiated by Bronx historian Lloyd Ultan and supported by then borough president Robert Abrams , the original one - day program was based on the `` Bronx Borough Day '' festival which took place in the 1920s . The following year , at the height of the decade 's civil unrest , the festival was extended to a one - week event . In the 1980s the key event , the `` Bronx Ball , '' was launched . The week includes the Bronx Week Parade as well as inductions into the `` Bronx Walk of Fame . '' Various Bronx neighborhoods conduct their own community celebrations . The Arthur Avenue `` Little Italy '' neighborhood conducts an annual Autumn Ferragosto Festival that celebrates Italian culture . Hunts Point hosts an annual `` Fish Parade and Summer Festival '' at the start of summer . Edgewater Park hosts an annual `` Ragamuffin '' children 's walk in November . There are several events to honor the borough 's veterans . Albanian Independence Day is also observed . There are also parades to celebrate Dominican , Italian , and Irish heritage . Press and broadcasting ( edit ) The Bronx is home to several local newspapers and radio and television studios . Newspapers ( edit ) The Bronx has several local newspapers , including The Bronx News , Parkchester News , City News , The Norwood News , The Riverdale Press , Riverdale Review , The Bronx Times Reporter , Inner City Press ( which now has more of a focus on national issues ) and Co-op City Times . Four non-profit news outlets , Norwood News , Mount Hope Monitor , Mott Haven Herald and The Hunts Point Express serve the borough 's poorer communities . The editor and co-publisher of The Riverdale Press , Bernard Stein , won the Pulitzer Prize for Editorial Writing for his editorials about Bronx and New York City issues in 1998 . ( Stein graduated from the Bronx High School of Science in 1959 . ) The Bronx once had its own daily newspaper , The Bronx Home News , which started publishing on January 20 , 1907 , and merged into the New York Post in 1948 . It became a special section of the Post , sold only in the Bronx , and eventually disappeared from view . Radio and television ( edit ) One of New York City 's major non-commercial radio broadcasters is WFUV , a National Public Radio - affiliated 50,000 - watt station broadcasting from Fordham University 's Rose Hill campus in the Bronx . The radio station 's antenna is atop an apartment building owned by Montefiore Medical Center . The City of New York has an official television station run by NYC Media and broadcasting from Bronx Community College , and Cablevision operates News 12 The Bronx , both of which feature programming based in the Bronx . Co-op City was the first area in the Bronx , and the first in New York beyond Manhattan , to have its own cable television provider . The local public - access television station BronxNet originates from Herbert H. Lehman College , the borough 's only four year CUNY school , and provides government - access television ( GATV ) public affairs programming in addition to programming produced by Bronx residents . In popular culture ( edit ) Film and television ( edit ) See also : List of films set in New York City and List of television shows set in New York City Mid-20th century ( edit ) Mid-20th century movies set in the Bronx portrayed densely settled , working - class , urban culture . Hollywood films such as From This Day Forward ( 1946 ) , set in Highbridge , occasionally delved into Bronx life . Paddy Chayefsky 's Academy Award - winning Marty was the most notable examination of working class Bronx life was also explored by Chayefsky in his 1956 film The Catered Affair , and in the 1993 Robert De Niro / Chazz Palminteri film , A Bronx Tale , Spike Lee 's 1999 movie Summer of Sam , centered in an Italian - American Bronx community , 1994 's I Like It Like That that takes place in the predominantly Puerto Rican neighborhood of the South Bronx , and Doughboys , the story of two Italian - American brothers in danger of losing their bakery thanks to one brother 's gambling debts . The Bronx 's gritty urban life had worked its way into the movies even earlier , with depictions of the `` Bronx cheer '' , a loud flatulent - like sound of disapproval , allegedly first made by New York Yankees fans . The sound can be heard , for example , on the Spike Jones and His City Slickers recording of `` Der Fuehrer 's Face '' ( from the 1942 Disney animated film of the same name ) , repeatedly lambasting Adolf Hitler with : `` We 'll Heil ! ( Bronx cheer ) Heil ! ( Bronx cheer ) Right in Der Fuehrer 's Face ! '' As a symbolism ( edit ) Some movies have also used the term Bronx for comic effect , such as `` Bronx '' , the character on the Disney animated series Gargoyles . Starting in the 1970s , the Bronx often symbolized violence , decay , and urban ruin . The wave of arson in the South Bronx in the 1960s and 1970s inspired the observation that `` The Bronx is burning '' : in 1974 it was the title of both a The New York Times editorial and a BBC documentary film . The line entered the pop - consciousness with Game Two of the 1977 World Series , when a fire broke out near Yankee Stadium as the team was playing the Los Angeles Dodgers . Numerous fires had previously broken out in the Bronx prior to this fire . As the fire was captured on live television , announcer Howard Cosell is wrongly remembered to have said something like , `` There it is , ladies and gentlemen : the Bronx is burning '' . Historians of New York City frequently point to Cosell 's remark as an acknowledgement of both the city and the borough 's decline . A new feature - length documentary film by Edwin Pagan called Bronx Burning is in production in 2006 , chronicling what led up to the numerous arson - for - insurance fraud fires of the 1970s in the borough . Bronx gang life was depicted in the 1974 novel The Wanderers by Bronx native Richard Price and the 1979 movie of the same name . They are set in the heart of the Bronx , showing apartment life and the then - landmark Krums ice cream parlor . In the 1979 film The Warriors , the eponymous gang go to a meeting in Van Cortlandt Park in the Bronx , and have to fight their way out of the borough and get back to Coney Island in Brooklyn . A Bronx Tale ( 1993 ) depicts gang activities in the Belmont `` Little Italy '' section of the Bronx . The 2005 video game adaptation features levels called Pelham , Tremont , and `` Gunhill '' ( a play off the name Gun Hill Road ) . This theme lends itself to the title of The Bronx Is Burning , an eight - part ESPN TV mini-series ( 2007 ) about the New York Yankees ' drive to winning baseball 's 1977 World Series . The TV series emphasizes the boisterous nature of the team , led by manager Billy Martin , catcher Thurman Munson and outfielder Reggie Jackson , as well as the malaise of the Bronx and New York City in general during that time , such as the blackout , the city 's serious financial woes and near bankruptcy , the arson for insurance payments , and the election of Ed Koch as mayor . The 1981 film Fort Apache , The Bronx is another film that used the Bronx 's gritty image for its storyline . The movie 's title is from the nickname for the 41st Police Precinct in the South Bronx which was nicknamed `` Fort Apache '' . Also from 1981 is the horror film Wolfen making use of the rubble of the Bronx as a home for werewolf type creatures . Knights of the South Bronx , a true story of a teacher who worked with disadvantaged children , is another film also set in the Bronx released in 2005 . The Bronx was the setting for the 1983 film Fuga dal Bronx , also known as Bronx Warriors 2 and Escape 2000 , an Italian B - movie best known for its appearance on the television series Mystery Science Theater 3000 . The plot revolves around a sinister construction corporation 's plans to depopulate , destroy and redevelop the Bronx , and a band of rebels who are out to expose the corporation 's murderous ways and save their homes . The film is memorable for its almost incessant use of the phrase , `` Leave the Bronx ! '' Many of the movie 's scenes were filmed in Queens , substituting as the Bronx . Rumble in the Bronx , filmed in Vancouver , was a 1995 Jackie Chan kung - fu film , another which popularized the Bronx to international audiences . Last Bronx , a 1996 Sega game played on the bad reputation of the Bronx to lend its name to an alternate version of post-Japanese bubble Tokyo , where crime and gang warfare is rampant . As a setting ( edit ) Bronx native Nancy Savoca 's 1989 comedy , True Love , explores two Italian - American Bronx sweethearts in the days before their wedding . The film , which debuted Annabella Sciorra and Ron Eldard as the betrothed couple , won the Grand Jury Prize at that year 's Sundance Film Festival . The CBS television sitcom Becker , 1998 -- 2004 , was more ambiguous . The show starred Ted Danson as Dr. John Becker , a doctor who operated a small practice and was constantly annoyed by his patients , co-workers , friends , and practically everything and everybody else in his world . It showed his everyday life as a doctor working in a small clinic in the Bronx . Penny Marshall 's 1990 film Awakenings , which was nominated for several Oscars , is based on neurologist Oliver Sacks ' 1973 account of his psychiatric patients at Beth Abraham Hospital in the Bronx who were paralyzed by a form of encephalitis but briefly responded to the drug L - dopa . Robin Williams played the physician ; Robert De Niro was one of the patients who emerged from a catatonic ( frozen ) state . The home of Williams ' character was shot not far from Sacks ' actual City Island residence . A 1973 Yorkshire Television documentary and `` A Kind of Alaska '' , a 1985 play by Harold Pinter , were also based on Sacks ' book . Gus Van Sant 's 2000 Finding Forrester was quickly billed `` Good Will Hunting in the Hood . '' Sean Connery is in the title role of a reclusive old man who 50 years earlier wrote a single novel that garnered the Pulitzer Prize . He meets 16 - year - old Jamal , portrayed by Rob Brown , a gifted basketball player and aspiring writer from the Bronx , and becomes his mentor . The movie includes stock footage of Bronx housing projects from 1990 , as well as some other scenes shot in Manhattan and Brooklyn . The 2012 documentary `` South Bronx United '' features the Mott Haven neighborhood and its conflict over the online grocery delivery service Fresh Direct 's move of their trucking facility from Long Island City to the South Bronx . In literature ( edit ) See also : List of books set in New York City Books ( edit ) The Bronx has been featured significantly in fiction literature . All of the characters in Herman Wouk 's City Boy : The Adventures of Herbie Bookbinder ( 1948 ) live in the Bronx , and about half of the action is set there . Kate Simon 's Bronx Primitive : Portraits of a Childhood is directly autobiographical , a warm account of a Polish - Jewish girl in an immigrant family growing up before World War II , and living near Arthur Avenue and Tremont Avenue . In Jacob M. Appel 's short story , `` The Grand Concourse '' ( 2007 ) , a woman who grew up in the iconic Lewis Morris Building returns to the Morrisania neighborhood with her adult daughter . Similarly , in Avery Corman 's book The Old Neighborhood ( 1980 ) , an upper - middle class white protagonist returns to his birth neighborhood ( Fordham Road and the Grand Concourse ) , and learns that even though the folks are poor , Hispanic and African - American , they are good people . By contrast , Tom Wolfe 's Bonfire of the Vanities ( 1987 ) portrays a wealthy , white protagonist , Sherman McCoy , getting lost off the Major Deegan Expressway in the South Bronx and having an altercation with locals . A substantial piece of the last part of the book is set in the resulting riotous trial at the Bronx County Courthouse . However , times change , and in 2007 , The New York Times reported that `` the Bronx neighborhoods near the site of Sherman 's accident are now dotted with townhouses and apartments . '' In the same article , the Reverend Al Sharpton ( whose fictional analogue in the novel is `` Reverend Bacon '' ) asserts that `` twenty years later , the cynicism of The Bonfire of the Vanities is as out of style as Tom Wolfe 's wardrobe . '' Don DeLillo 's Underworld ( 1997 ) is also set in the Bronx and offers a perspective on the decline of the area from the 1950s onwards . John Patrick Shanley 's `` Savage in Limbo '' is set in a 1980s Bronx bar called ' Scales ' where the frustrated characters feel they are unable to move . Poetry ( edit ) In poetry , the Bronx has been immortalized by one of the world 's shortest couplets : The Bronx No Thonx Ogden Nash , The New Yorker , 1931 Nash repented 33 years after his calumny , penning in 1964 the following prose poem to the Dean of Bronx Community College : I ca n't seem to escape the sins of my smart - alec youth ; Here are my amends . I wrote those lines , `` The Bronx ? No thonx `` ; I shudder to confess them . Now I 'm an older , wiser man I cry , `` The Bronx ? God bless them ! '' In 2016 , W.R. Rodriguez published Bronx Trilogy -- consisting of the shoe shine parlor poems et al , concrete pastures of the beautiful bronx , and from the banks of brook avenue . The trilogy celebrates Bronx people , places , and events . DeWitt Clinton High School , St. Mary 's Park , and Brook Avenue are a few of the schools , parks , and streets Rodriguez uses as subjects for his poems . Nash 's couplet `` The Bronx No Thonx '' and his subsequent blessing are mentioned in Bronx Accent : A Literary and Pictorial History of the Borough , edited by Llyod Ultan and Barbara Unger and published in 2000 . The book , which includes the work of Yiddish poets , offers a selection from Allen Ginsberg 's Kaddish , as his Aunt Elanor and his mother , Naomi , lived near Woodlawn Cemetery . Also featured is Ruth Lisa Schecther 's poem , `` Bronx '' , which is described as a celebration of the borough 's landmarks . There is a selection of works from poets such as Sandra María Esteves , Milton Kessler , Joan Murray , W.R. Rodriguez , Myra Shapiro , Gayl Teller , and Terence Wynch . `` Bronx Migrations '' by Michelle M. Tokarczyk is a collection that spans five decades of Tokarczyk 's life in the Bronx , from her exodus in 1962 to her return in search of her childhood tenement . Bronx Memoir Project ( edit ) Bronx Memoir Project : Vol. 1 is a published anthology by the Bronx Council on the Arts and brought forth through a series of workshops meant to empower Bronx residents and shed the stigma on the Bronx 's burning past . The Bronx Memoir Project was created as an ongoing collaboration between the Bronx Council on the Arts and other cultural institutions , including The Bronx Documentary Center , The Bronx Library Center , the ( Edgar Allan ) Poe Park Visitor Center , Mindbuilders , and other institutions and funded through a grant from the National Endowment for the Arts . The goal was to develop and refine memoir fragments written by people of all walks of life that share a common bond residing within the Bronx . In songs ( edit ) The theme song to the 1960s U.S. television comedy series Car 54 , Where Are You ? begins ( ( Car 54 , Where Are You ? # Theme song `` There 's a holdup in the Bronx '' . The song `` New York , New York '' from the 1944 musical comedy and 1949 film , On the Town explains that `` The Bronx is up and the Battery 's down . '' `` Manhattan '' by Rodgers and Hart for the 1925 musical The Garrick Gaieties declares `` We 'll have Manhattan , / The Bronx and Staten / Island too. / It 's lovely going through / the zoo . '' In Marc Ferris 's 5 - page , 15 - column list of `` Songs and Compositions Inspired by New York City '' in The Encyclopedia of New York City ( 1995 ) , only a handful refer to the Bronx ; most refer to New York City proper , especially Manhattan and Brooklyn . Ferris 's extensive but selective 1995 list mentions only four songs referring specifically to the Bronx : `` On the Banks of the Bronx '' ( 1919 ) , William LeBaron , Victor Jacobi ; `` Bronx Express '' ( 1922 ) , Henry Creamer and Henry Creamer ; `` The Tremont Avenue Cruisewear Fashion Show '' ( 1973 ) , Jerry Livingston , Mark David ; `` I Love the New York Yankees '' ( 1987 ) , Paula Lindstrom . The following songs also mention the Bronx ( see also list of songs about New York City ) : `` Bronx Season '' by Cardi B on her 2017 album Gangsta Bitch Music , Vol. 2 `` Alfie from the Bronx '' ( 1983 ) by the Toy Dolls `` Back to the Bronx '' by 2 Live Crew `` Boogie Down Bronx '' by Man Parrish `` Bronx '' by Kurtis Blow `` The Bronx '' by Regina Spektor `` Bronx Backyard '' by The Johnny Seven Band `` Bronx Bombers '' by Grandmaster Flash `` The Bronx Is Beautiful '' by Robert Klein `` Bronx Keeps Creating It '' by Fat Joe `` Bronx Tale '' by Fat Joe `` Bronx War Stories '' by A.I.G. `` BX Warrior '' by Tim Dog `` BX We Invented Hip - Hop '' by Tim Dog `` Cousin in the Bronx '' by Kaiser Chiefs `` Cross Bronx Expressway '' by Lord Tariq and Peter Gunz `` Deja Vu ( Uptown Baby ) '' by Lord Tariq & Peter Gunz `` From BX '' by Tim Dog `` Ha Ya Doin ? Yankees '' -- The Haya Doin ' ? Boys `` Here Come the Yankees '' , by Bob Bundin and Lou Stallman `` Jenny from the Block '' by Jennifer Lopez featuring Styles P & Jadakiss `` On The Streets Of the Bronx '' by The Moonglows `` Our Lady of the Bronx '' by Black 47 `` Rockin ' the Bronx '' by Black 47 `` School of Hard Knocks '' by Swizz Beatz and Drag - On `` South Bronx '' by Boogie Down Productions `` Lost in the Flood '' by Bruce Springsteen `` Bulls In the Bronx '' by Pierce the Veil See also ( edit ) New York City portal New York portal Bronx Borough Hall Bronx court system delays Joseph P. Day , early land auctioneer List of people from the Bronx National Register of Historic Places listings in the Bronx General : List of counties in New York References ( edit ) Notes ( edit ) Jump up ^ This data was as of 2006 . By May 25 , 2014 , English Wikipedia listed 58 . Jump up ^ Not Clark Kent ( producer ) . Citations ( edit ) ^ Jump up to : `` QuickFacts Bronx County ( Bronx Borough ) , New York '' . U.S. Census Bureau . Retrieved March 31 , 2018 . ^ Jump up to : New York State Department of Health , Population , Land Area , and Population Density by County , New York State -- 2010 , retrieved on August 8 , 2015 . ^ Jump up to : Lloyd Ultann , Bronx Borough Historian , `` History of the Bronx River , '' Paper presented to the Bronx River Alliance , November 5 , 2002 ( notes taken by Maarten de Kadt , November 16 , 2002 ) , retrieved on August 29 , 2008 . This 21⁄2 hour talk covers much of the early history of the Bronx as a whole , in addition to the Bronx River . ^ Jump up to : On the start of business for Bronx County : Bronx County In Motion . New Officials All Find Work to Do on Their First Day . The New York Times , January 3 , 1914 ( PDF retrieved on June 26 , 2008 ) : `` Despite the fact that the new Bronx County Court House is not completed there was no delay yesterday in getting the court machinery in motion . All the new county officials were on hand and the County Clerk , the District Attorney , the Surrogate , and the County Judge soon had things in working order . The seal to be used by the new county was selected by County Judge Louis D. Gibbs . It is circular . In the center is a seated figure of Justice . To her right is an American shield and over the figure is written ' Populi Suprema . ' ... '' `` Surrogate George M.S. Schulz , with his office force , was busy at the stroke of 9 o'clock . Two wills were filed in the early morning , but owing to the absence of a safe they were recorded and then returned to the attorneys for safe keeping ... '' `` There was a rush of business to the new County Clerk 's office . Between seventy - five and a hundred men applied for first naturalization papers . Two certificates of incorporation were issued , and seventeen judgments , seven lis pendens , three mechanics ' liens and one suit for negligence were filed . '' `` Sheriff O'Brien announced several additional appointments . '' ^ Jump up to : Ladies and gentlemen , the Bronx is blooming ! by Beth J. Harpaz , Travel Editor of Associated Press ( AP ) , June 30 , 2008 , retrieved on July 11 , 2008 Archived May 1 , 2011 , at the Wayback Machine . Jump up ^ Wylie , Jonathon ( 1987 ) . The Faroe Islands : Interpretations of History . University of Kentucky Press . p. 209 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 8131 - 1578 - 8 . Jónas Bronck ( or Brunck ) was the son of Morten Jespersen Bronck ... Jónas seems to have gone to school in Roskilde in 1619 , but found his way to Holland where he joined an expedition to Amsterdam . Jump up ^ * `` Jonas Bronx '' . Bronx Notables . Bronx Historical Society . Archived from the original on May 9 , 2008 . Retrieved January 20 , 2012 . van Laer , A.J.F. ( October 1916 ) . `` Scandinavian Immigrants in New York , 1630 -- 1674 '' . The American Historical Review . Chicago : The University of Chicago Press on behalf of the American Historical Association . 22 ( 1 ) : 164 -- 166 . doi : 10.1086 / ahr / 22.1. 164 . JSTOR 1836219 . `` ... Jonas Bronck was a Dane ... '' . Burrows , Edwin G. ; Wallace , Mike ( Michael L . ) ( 1999 ) . Gotham , A History of New York City to 1898 . 1 . Oxford , New York : Oxford University Press . pp. 30 -- 37 . ISBN 0 - 19 - 511634 - 8 ... many of these colonists , perhaps as many as half of them , represented the same broad mixture of nationalities as New Amsterdam itself . Among them were Swedes , Germans , French , Belgians , Africans , and Danes ( such as a certain Jonas Bronck ) ... ^ Jump up to : Van Rensselaer , Mariana Griswold ( 1909 ) . History of the city of New York in the seventeenth century . 1 . New York : The Macmillan Company . p. 161 . Jump up ^ Braver ( 1998 ) ^ Jump up to : The Almanac of American Politics 2008 , edited by Michael Barone with Richard E. Cohen and Grant Ujifusa , National Journal Group , Washington , D.C. , 2008 ISBN 978 - 0 - 89234 - 117 - 7 ( paperback ) or ISBN 978 - 0 - 89234 - 116 - 0 ( hardback ) , chapter on New York state ^ Jump up to : U.S. Census Bureau , Statistical Abstract of the United States : 2003 , Section 31 , Table 1384 . Congressional District Profiles -- 108th Congress : 2000 Jump up ^ See the `` Historical Populations '' table in History above and its sources . Jump up ^ `` Current Population Estimates : NYC '' . NYC.gov . Retrieved June 10 , 2017 . Jump up ^ QuickFacts New York city , New York ; Bronx County ( Bronx Borough ) , New York ; Kings County ( Brooklyn Borough ) , New York ; New York County ( Manhattan Borough ) , New York ; Queens County ( Queens Borough ) , New York ; Richmond County ( Staten Island Borough ) , New York , United States Census Bureau . Accessed June 11 , 2018 . Jump up ^ `` Bronx History : What 's in a Name ? '' . New York Public Library . Retrieved March 15 , 2008 . The Native Americans called the land Rananchqua , but the Dutch and English began to refer to it as Broncksland . Jump up ^ `` Harding Park '' . New York City Department of Parks and Recreation . Retrieved March 15 , 2008 . Jump up ^ Ellis , Edward Robb ( 1966 ) . The Epic of New York City . Old Town Books . p. 55 . ISBN 0 - 7867 - 1436 - 0 . ^ Jump up to : Hansen , Harry ( 1950 ) . North of Manhattan . Hastings House . OCLC 542679 . , excerpted at The Bronx ... Its History & Perspective Jump up ^ van Laer , A.J.F. ( 1916 ) . `` Scandinavian Immigrants in New York , 1630 -- 1674 '' . The American Historical Review . Chicago : The University of Chicago Press on behalf of the American Historical Association . 22 ( 1 ) : 164 -- 166 . doi : 10.2307 / 1836219 . JSTOR 1836219 ... Jonas Bronck was a Swede ... Jump up ^ Burrows , Edwin G. ; Wallace , Mike ( Michael L . ) ( 1999 ) . Gotham , A History of New York City to 1898 . 1 . Oxford , New York : Oxford University Press . pp. 30 -- 37 . ISBN 0 - 19 - 511634 - 8 . ... many of these colonists , perhaps as many as half of them , represented the same broad mixture of nationalities as New Amsterdam itself . Among them were Swedes , Germans , French , Belgians , Africans , and Danes ( such as a certain Jonas Bronck ) ... Jump up ^ `` The first Bronxite '' . The Advocate . Bronx County Bar Association . 24 : 59 . 1977 . It is widely accepted that Bronck came from Sweden , but claims have also been made by the Frisian Islands on the North Sea coast and by a small town in Germany . Jump up ^ Karl Ritter , `` Swedish town celebrates link to the Bronx '' Associated Press , August 21 , 2014 . ( 1 ) which also refers to a claim by the Faeroe Islands . Jump up ^ `` The Bronx Mall -- Cultural Mosaic -- The Bronx ... Its History & Perspective '' . Bronxmall.com . Retrieved July 12 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Excerpts from an Interview with William Bronk by Mark Katzman '' . uiuc.edu . Jump up ^ See , for example , New York City Administrative Code § 2 -- 202 Archived September 28 , 2007 , at the Wayback Machine . Jump up ^ See , for example , references on the New York City website Jump up ^ `` ZIP Code Lookup '' . United States Postal Service . Note that the database also does not use punctuation , and other articles ( such as the ) to improve automated scanning of addresses . Jump up ^ Clarke , Erin `` What 's in a Name : How ' The ' Bronx Got the ' The ' '' , NY1 , June 7 , 2015 , Retrieved on February 6 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Steven Hess , `` From The Hague to the Bronx : Definite Articles in Place Names '' , Journal of the North Central Name Society , Fall 1987 . Jump up ^ Rev. David J. Born , letter to William F. Buckley , Jr. in `` Notes & Asides '' , National Review , January 28 , 2002 , retrieved on July 3 , 2008 . Jump up ^ `` 3 . Capitalization Rules '' ( PDF ) . gpo.gov . United States Government Publishing Office . p. 29 . Retrieved July 26 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Why The Bronx ? '' . The New York Times . May 9 , 1993 . ISSN 0362 - 4331 . Retrieved July 27 , 2016 . ^ Jump up to : Slattery , Denis . `` Bronx residents call on media and city agencies to capitalize ' The Bronx ' '' . nydailynews.com . New York Daily News . Retrieved July 27 , 2016 . ^ Jump up to : `` Final Supplemental Environmental Impact Statement for the Croton Water Treatment Plant at the Harlem River Site ; 7.12 : Historic and Archaeological Resources '' ( PDF ) . New York City Department of Environmental Protection . June 30 , 2004 . Retrieved January 2 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Dyckman House -- History '' . fordham.edu . Jump up ^ Stephen Jenkins ( 1912 ) . The Story of the Bronx from the Purchase Made by the Dutch from the Indians in 1639 to the Present Day . G.P. Putnam 's Sons . pp. 177 -- 208 . Retrieved January 2 , 2017 . Jump up ^ For Jordan L. Mott : John Thomas Scharf ( 1886 ) . History of Westchester County : New York , Including Morrisania , Kings Bridge , and West Farms , which Have Been Annexed to New York City . L.E. Preston & Company . pp. 830 -- 832 . Troxell Freedley , Edwin ; Young , Edward ( 1868 ) . A History of American Manufactures from 1608 to 1860 ... : Comprising Annals of the Industry of the United States in Machinery , Manufactures and Useful Arts , with a Notice of the Important Inventions , Tariffs , and the Results of Each Decennial Census . E. Young . pp. 576 -- 578 . ^ Jump up to : Thorne , Kathryn Ford ( 1993 ) . Long , John H. , ed . New York Atlas of Historical County Boundaries . Simon & Schuster . pp. 33 , 118 -- 133 . ISBN 0 - 13 - 051962 - 6 . Jump up ^ New York . Laws of New York . 1873 , 96th Session , Chapter 613 , Section 1 . p. 928 . Jump up ^ Articles on `` consolidation '' ( by David C. Hammack ) and the `` Bronx '' ( by David C. Hermalyn and Lloyd Ultan ) in The Encyclopedia of New York City , Yale 1995 Jump up ^ New York . Laws of New York . 1895 , 118th Session , Chapter 934 , Section 1 . p. 1948 . Jump up ^ Peck , Richard . `` In the Bronx , the Gentry Live On ; The Gentry Live On '' , The New York Times , December 2 , 1973 . Accessed July 17 , 2008 . `` But the Harlem riverfront was industrializing , and in 1874 the city annexed the area west of the Bronx River : Morrisania , West Farms and Kingsbridge . A second annexation in 1894 gathered in Westchester and portions of Eastchester and Pelham . '' However , 1894 must refer to the referendum , since the enabling act was not passed or signed until 1895 . Jump up ^ New York . Laws of New York . 1912 , 135th Session , Chapter 548 , Section 1 . p. 1352 . ^ Jump up to : Historical Census Browser Archived August 15 , 2007 , at the Wayback Machine . University of Virginia , Geospatial and Statistical Data Center , retrieved on August 7 , 2008 , querying 1930 Census for New York State . `` The data and terminology presented in the Historical Census Browser are drawn directly from historical volumes of the U.S. Census of Population and Housing . '' `` Archived copy '' . Archived from the original on August 15 , 2007 . Retrieved 2008 - 08 - 07 . ^ Jump up to : Quick Tables QT - P15 and QT - P22 , U.S. Census Bureau , retrieved on August 10 , 2008 Archived June 6 , 2011 , at the Wayback Machine . ^ Jump up to : Olmsted ( 1989 ) ; Olmsted ( 1998 ) Jump up ^ `` Piano Workers May Strike '' ( PDF ) . The New York Times . August 29 , 1919 . Retrieved January 25 , 2011 . Jump up ^ Christopher Gray , `` Streetscapes : The New York Coliseum ; From Auditorium To Bus Garage to ... '' The New York Times , Real Estate section , March 22 , 1992 , retrieved on July 2 , 2008 Jump up ^ The World Almanac and Book of Facts , 1943 , page 494 , citing the American Jewish Committee and the Jewish Statistical Bureau of the Synagogue Council of America Jump up ^ Remembrance of Synagogues Past : The Lost Civilization of the Jewish South Bronx , by Seymour J. Perlin , Ed. D. ( retrieved on August 10 , 2008 ) , citing population estimates in `` The Jewish Community Study of New York : 2002 '' , UJA ( United Jewish Appeal ) Federation of New York , June 2004 , and his own survey of synagogue sites . Jump up ^ Alfred A. Knopf , New York , 1974 ; ISBN 0 - 394 - 72024 - 5 Jump up ^ `` American Realities '' . American Realities . Jump up ^ Roderick Wallace : `` A synergism of plagues : ' planned shrinkage , ' contagious housing destruction , and AIDS in the Bronx . '' Environmental Research , October 1988 , Vol. 47 , No. 1 , pp. 1 -- 33 , and `` Urban desertification , public health and public order : ' planned shrinkage ' , violent death , substance abuse and AIDS in the Bronx '' , Social Science & Medicine , Vol. 37 , No. 7 ( 1990 ) pp. 801 -- 813 -- abstracts retrieved on July 5 , 2008 from PubMed . One sentence in the abstract of the 1990 article reads , `` Empirical and theoretical analyses strongly imply present sharply rising levels of violent death , intensification of deviant behaviors implicated in the spread of AIDS , and the pattern of the AIDS outbreak itself , have been gravely affected , and even strongly determined , by the outcomes of a program of ' planned shrinkage ' directed against African - American and Hispanic communities , and implemented through systematic and continuing denial of municipal services -- particularly fire extinguishment resources -- essential for maintaining urban levels of population density and ensuring community stability . '' Jump up ^ Issues such as redlining , hospital quality , and what looked like the planned shrinkage of garbage collection were alleged as the motivations which sparked the Puerto Rican activists known as the Young Lords . The Young Lords coalesced with similar groups who claimed to be fighting for neighborhood empowerment , such as the Black Panthers , to protest urban renewal and arson for profit with sit - ins , marches , and violence . See pages 6 -- 9 of the guide to ¡ Palante Siempre Palante ! The Young Lords a `` P.O.V. '' ( Point of View ) documentary on the Public Broadcasting Service . Jump up ^ For an example of this argument , as well as of several other theses mentioned here , see `` When the Bronx was burning '' City - data forum ( blog ) , 2007 , where rubygreta writes : `` Rent control destroyed the Bronx , especially starting in the 1960s and 1970s , when oil prices rose through the roof , and heavily subsidized Coop City opened in the East Bronx . Essentially , tenants never moved out of their apartments because they had below - market rents thanks to rent control . The apartments deteriorated and common areas deteriorated because the landlords had no cash - flow . And no cash flow meant that they could not get mortgages for major repairs such as boilers , roofs and window replacement . '' Jump up ^ `` Arson for Hate and Profit '' . Time . October 31 , 1977 . Retrieved March 14 , 2008 . ^ Jump up to : Gonzalez ( 2004 ) Jump up ^ PERSPECTIVES : The 10 - Year Housing Plan ; Issues for the 90 's : Management and Costs , The New York Times , January 7 , 1990 Jump up ^ Neighborhood Change and the City of New York 's Ten - Year Housing Plan Housing Policy Debate Volume 10 , Issue 4 . Fannie Mae Foundation 1999 . Jump up ^ NOS QUEDAMOS / WE STAY Melrose Commons , Bronx , New York Sustainable Communities Network Case Studies Sustainability in Action 1997 , retrieved on July 6 , 2008 Jump up ^ David Gonzalez , Yolanda Garcia , 53 , Dies ; A Bronx Community Force , The New York Times , February 19 , 2005 , retrieved on July 6 , 2008 Jump up ^ Meera Subramanian , Homes and Gardens in the South Bronx Archived August 21 , 2008 , at the Wayback Machine. , Portfolio , November 8 , 2005 , New York University Department of Journalism , retrieved on July 6 , 2008 Jump up ^ Powell , Michael ( July 27 , 2011 ) . `` How the South Bronx 's Ruins Became Fertile Ground '' . City Room . Retrieved November 1 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Wealthy are drowning in new bank branches , says study , New York Daily News , Monday , September 10 , 2007 Jump up ^ Superintendent Neiman Addresses the Ninth Annual Bronx Bankers Breakfast Archived January 9 , 2009 , at the Wayback Machine . June 15 , 2007 . Among the remarks of Richard H. Neiman , New York State 's Superintendent of Banks , were these : `` The Bronx was an economically stable community until the mid-1960s when the entire South Bronx struggled with major construction , real estate issues , red - lining , and block busting . This included a thoroughfare that divided communities , the deterioration of property as a result of rent control , and decrease in the value of real estate . Due to strong community leadership , advances in policing , social services , and changing economic migration patterns to New York City , the Bronx is undergoing a resurgence , with new housing developments and thriving business . From 2000 to 2006 , there was a 2.2 % increase in population , and home ownership rates increased by 19.6 % . Still , bank branches were absent in places such as Community districts 1 , 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 , 9 , and 12 . Jump up ^ New bank targets Latinos in South Bronx December 11 , 2007 Jump up ^ On June 30 , 2005 , there were 129 Federally insured banking offices in the Bronx , for a ratio of 1.0 offices for every 10,000 inhabitants . By contrast the national financial center of Manhattan had 555 for a ratio of 3.5 / 10,000 , Staten Island a ratio of 1.9 , Queens 1.7 and Brooklyn 1.1 . In New York State as a whole the ratio was 2.6 and in the United States , 3.5 ( a single office can serve more people in a more - densely - populated area ) . U.S. Census Bureau , City and County Data Book , 2007 Table B - 11 . Counties -- Banking , Retail Trade , and Accommodation and Food Services For 1997 and 2007 , Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation , Summary of Deposits ; summary tables Archived December 18 , 2008 , at the Wayback Machine . Deposits of all FDIC - Insured Institutions Operating in New York : State Totals by County -- all retrieved on July 15 -- 16 , 2008 . Jump up ^ Smalls , F. Romall ( July 20 , 1997 ) . `` The Bronx Is Named an ' All - America ' City '' . The New York Times . Retrieved November 1 , 2015 . ^ Jump up to : Williams , Timothy ( June 27 , 2006 ) . `` Celebrities Now Give Thonx for Their Roots in the Bronx '' . The New York Times . Retrieved March 14 , 2008 . Jump up ^ Topousis , Tom ( July 23 , 2007 ) . `` Bx is Booming '' . New York Post . Archived from the original on January 11 , 2009 . Retrieved March 15 , 2008 . Jump up ^ Kaysen , Rhonda ( September 17 , 2015 ) . `` The South Bronx Beckons '' . The New York Times . Jump up ^ Slattery , Denis ( September 15 , 2014 ) . `` The Bronx is booming with boutique and luxury hotels '' . New York Daily News . Jump up ^ `` NYC Post Offices to observe Presidents ' Day Archived June 6 , 2011 , at the Wayback Machine ... '' United States Postal Service . February 11 , 2009 . Retrieved on May 5 , 2009 . Jump up ^ `` Post Office Location -- BRONX GPO . '' United States Postal Service . Retrieved on May 5 , 2009 . Jump up ^ Anthony , Madeline ( March 18 -- 24 , 2016 ) . `` Bronx GPO conversion to retail space in motion '' . Bronx Times Reporter . p. 28 . Jump up ^ `` Residents fear gentrification around Ice Center '' . News 12 : The Bronx . February 17 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Wirsing , Robert ( February 12 , 2016 ) . `` Concourse Yard revisited as ' new ' development site '' . Bronx Times Reporter . Jump up ^ Anthony , Madeline ( February 12 , 2016 ) . `` Inn planned for Mott Haven waterfront '' . Bronx Times Reporter . Jump up ^ FUTURE OF NEW WARDS ; New - York 's Possession in Westchester County Rapidly Developing . The New York Times , Wednesday , May 17 , 1896 , page 15 ( The subheadlines continue `` Trolley and Steam Road Systems Vast Areas Being Brought Close to the Heart of the City -- Miles of New Streets and Sewers . Botanical and Zoological Gardens . Advantages That Will Soon Relieve Crowded Sections of the City of Thousands of Their Inhabitants . '' ) This is a very useful glimpse into the state of the Bronx ( and the hopes of Manhattan 's pro-Consolidation forces ) as parks , housing and transit were all being rapidly developed . ^ Jump up to : `` 2010 Census Gazetteer Files '' . United States Census Bureau . August 22 , 2012 . Archived from the original on May 19 , 2014 . Retrieved January 3 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Find a County '' . National Association of Counties . Archived from the original on May 31 , 2011 . Retrieved June 7 , 2011 . Jump up ^ The fact that the immediate layer of bedrock in the Bronx is Fordham gneiss , while that of Manhattan is schist has led to the expression : `` The Bronx is gneiss ( nice ) but Manhattan is schist . '' Eldredge , Niles & Horenstein , Sidney ( 2014 ) . Concrete Jungle : New York City and Our Last Best Hope for a Sustainable Future . Berkeley , California : University of California Press . p. 42 , n1 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 520 - 27015 - 2 . Jump up ^ Berger , Joseph ( July 19 , 2010 ) . `` Reclaimed Jewel Whose Attraction Can Be Perilous '' . The New York Times . Retrieved July 21 , 2010 . Jump up ^ Bronx High Point and Ascent of Bronx Point on June 24 , 2008 at Peakbaggers.com , retrieved on July 22 , 2008 Jump up ^ Waterfront Development Initiative Archived September 19 , 2008 , at the Wayback Machine. , Bronx Borough President 's office , March 19 , 2004 , retrieved on July 29 , 2008 Jump up ^ Last Section Of Macombs Dam Park Closes To The Public For Redevelopment On - site construction begins on Garage A and the New Macombs Dam Park , Press Release , November 1 , 2007 , New York City Department of Parks and Recreation retrieved on July 19 , 2008 Jump up ^ `` Van Cortlandt Park : NYC Parks '' . Nycgovparks.org . Retrieved August 26 , 2017 . ^ Jump up to : In September 2008 , Fordham University and its neighbor , the Wildlife Conservation Society , a global research organization which operates the Bronx Zoo , will begin a joint program leading to a Master of Science degree in adolescent science education ( biology grades 7 -- 12 ) . Jump up ^ Jerome Park ( New York City Department of Parks and Recreation , retrieved on July 12 , 2008 ) . Jump up ^ Crotona Park New York City Department of Parks and Recreation , retrieved on July 20 , 2008 Jump up ^ Article on the Bronx by Gary Hermalyn and Lloyd Ultan in The Encyclopedia of New York City ( 1995 -- see Further reading for bibliographic details ) Jump up ^ Bronx Parks for the 21st Century Archived June 17 , 2008 , at the Wayback Machine. , New York City Department of Parks and Recreation , retrieved on July 20 , 2008 . This links to both an interactive map and a downloadable ( 1.7 MB PDF ) map showing nearly every public park and green space in the Bronx . Jump up ^ As Maps and Memories Fade , So Do Some Bronx Boundary Lines by Manny Fernandez , The New York Times , September 16 , 2006 , retrieved on August 3 , 2008 Jump up ^ Most correlations with Community Board jurisdictions in this section come from Bronx Community Boards at the Bronx Mall web - site , and New York : a City of Neighborhoods Archived September 15 , 2012 , at the Wayback Machine. , New York City Department of City Planning , both retrieved on August 5 , 2008 Jump up ^ Fischler , Marcelle Sussman ( September 13 , 2015 ) . `` City Island , a Quainter Side of the Bronx '' . The New York Times . Retrieved January 23 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Walshe , Sadhbh ( June 3 , 2015 ) . `` ' Like a prison for the dead ' : welcome to Hart Island , home to New York City 's pauper graves '' . The Guardian . Retrieved January 23 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Fieldston Property Owners ' Association , Inc . By - Laws Archived July 21 , 2011 , at the Wayback Machine. , by the FPOA , September 17 , 2006 Jump up ^ Areas touching Bronx County , MapIt . Accessed August 1 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Unlock the Grid , Then Ditch the Maps and Apps '' , WNET , February 24 , 2012 . Accessed August 1 , 2016 . `` Jerome Avenue is the Bronx 's Fifth Avenue : Jerome Avenue divides the eastern and western halves of the Bronx . Much of the West Bronx 's numbering continues where Upper Manhattan 's street grid left off . '' Jump up ^ Bronx factsheet , Tri ‐ State Transportation Campaign . Accessed August 1 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Subway Map '' ( PDF ) . Metropolitan Transportation Authority . January 18 , 2018 . Retrieved January 18 , 2018 . Jump up ^ `` Bronx Bus Map '' ( PDF ) . Metropolitan Transportation Authority . September 2017 . Retrieved April 24 , 2018 . ^ Jump up to : `` Bronx County QuickFacts from the US Census Bureau '' . census.gov . Archived from the original on July 18 , 2011 . ^ Jump up to : `` New York -- Race and Hispanic Origin for Selected Cities and Other Places : Earliest Census to 1990 '' . U.S. Census Bureau . Archived from the original on August 6 , 2012 . Retrieved May 4 , 2012 . Jump up ^ From 15 % sample ^ Jump up to : `` Photos : Bronx Residents on Obama '' . Newsweek . January 17 , 2009 . Retrieved May 12 , 2011 . Jump up ^ `` American FactFinder '' . Factfinder.census.gov . Archived from the original on January 3 , 2011 . Retrieved November 7 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` American FactFinder '' . Factfinder.census.gov . Archived from the original on October 17 , 2012 . Retrieved November 7 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` American FactFinder '' . Factfinder.census.gov . Archived from the original on January 3 , 2011 . Retrieved November 7 , 2012 . Jump up ^ ( 1 ) Population 1790 -- 1960 : The World Almanac and Book of Facts 1966 , page 452 , citing estimates of the Department of Health , City of New York . ( 2 ) Population 1790 -- 1990 : Article on `` population '' by Nathan Kantrowitz in The Encyclopedia of New York City , edited by Kenneth T. Jackson ( Yale University Press , 1995 ISBN 0 - 300 - 05536 - 6 ) , citing the United States Census Bureau N.B. , Estimates in ( 1 ) and ( 2 ) before 1920 re-allocate the Census population from the counties whose land is now partly occupied by Bronx County . ( 3 ) Population 1920 -- 1990 : Population of Counties by Decennial Census : 1900 to 1990 , Compiled and edited by Richard L. Forstall , Population Division , US Bureau of the Census , United States Census Bureau , Washington , D.C. 20233 , March 27 , 1995 , retrieved July 4 , 2008 . Jump up ^ `` Bronx County , New York '' . Modern Language Association . Archived from the original on June 19 , 2006 . Retrieved August 10 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Claudio Torrens ( May 28 , 2011 ) . `` Some NY immigrants cite lack of Spanish as barrier '' . San Diego Union - Tribune . Retrieved February 10 , 2013 . ^ Jump up to : `` American FactFinder '' . United States Census Bureau . Retrieved January 31 , 2008 . Jump up ^ `` Bronx County QuickFacts from the US Census Bureau '' . Archived from the original on July 18 , 2011 . Retrieved February 8 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Cornell Law School Supreme Court Collection : Board of Estimate of City of New York v. Morris , accessed June 12 , 2006 Jump up ^ Trymaine Lee , `` Bronx Voters Elect Díaz as New Borough President '' , The New York Times , New York edition , April 22 , 2009 , page A24 , retrieved on May 13 , 2009 Jump up ^ The Board of Elections in the City of New York , Bronx Borough President special election results , April 21 , 2009 Archived July 25 , 2011 , at the Wayback Machine . ( PDF with details by Assembly District , April 29 , 2009 ) , retrieved on May 13 , 2009 Jump up ^ New York State Board of Elections : 2006 Results Page , retrieved on July 23 , 2008 . Jump up ^ Board of Elections in the City of New York election results , retrieved on July 8 , 2008 . Jump up ^ Board of Elections in the City of New York Summary of Election Results ( 1999 -- 2008 ) , retrieved on July 21 , 2008 . Jump up ^ The World Almanac and Book of Facts for 1929 & 1957 ; Our Campaigns ( New York Counties Bronx President History ) ; The Encyclopedia of New York City , edited by Kenneth T. Jackson ( Yale University Press and the New - York Historical Society , New Haven , Connecticut , 1995 ISBN 0 - 300 - 05536 - 6 ) , article on `` government and politics '' Jump up ^ ( The Republican line exceeded the ALP 's in every other borough ) Jump up ^ To see a comparison of borough votes for Mayor , see New York City mayoral elections # How the boroughs voted Jump up ^ Leip , David . `` Dave Leip 's Atlas of U.S. Presidential Elections '' . uselectionatlas.org . Retrieved August 26 , 2017 . Jump up ^ The Hub Archived January 6 , 2010 , at the Wayback Machine . Jump up ^ Bronx Neighborhood Histories Archived May 15 , 2008 , at the Wayback Machine . Jump up ^ Bronx Hub revival gathers steam Archived November 12 , 2007 , at the Wayback Machine . Jump up ^ `` Michael Sorkin Studio '' . Michael Sorkin Studio . Archived from the original on August 1 , 2009 . Jump up ^ `` Chains of Silver : Gateway Center At Bronx Terminal Market Earns LEED Silver Bona Fides '' ^ Jump up to : QT - P19 . School Enrollment : 2000 ; Data Set : Census 2000 Summary File 3 ( SF 3 ) -- Sample Data ; Geographic Area : Bronx County , New York , U.S. Census Bureau , retrieved August 22 , 2008 Archived January 16 , 2009 , at the Wayback Machine . Jump up ^ Gross , Jane ( May 6 , 1997 ) . `` A Tiny Strip of New York That Feels Like the Suburbs '' . The New York Times . Archived from the original on June 28 , 2016 . Retrieved June 9 , 2012 . ( ) Jump up ^ U.S. Census Bureau , County and City Data Book : 2007 , Table B - 4 . Counties -- Population Characteristics Jump up ^ Chronopoulos , Themis . `` '' Urban Decline and the Withdrawal of New York University from University Heights , The Bronx . '' The Bronx County Historical Society Journal XLVI ( Spring / Fall 2009 ) : 4 -- 24 `` . Archived from the original on October 31 , 2014 . Retrieved October 2 , 2014 . Jump up ^ Monroe College history ( from the College 's web site ) retrieved on July 27 , 2008 . Jump up ^ Gary M. Stern ( March 16 , 2017 ) . `` The Young Mariners of Throgs Neck '' . The New York Times . Retrieved March 17 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` 2007 Fort Greene Park Summer Literary Festival '' . July 29 , 2007 . Archived from the original on July 29 , 2007 . Retrieved August 26 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Photograph album of the 2007 Festival '' . Flickr.com . Retrieved August 26 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Edgar Allan Poe Cottage '' . Archived from the original on October 5 , 2006 . Retrieved October 9 , 2006 . Jump up ^ Stamp , Jimmy ( January 28 , 2014 ) . `` When Edgar Allan Poe Needed to Get Away , He Went to the Bronx '' . Smithsonian Magazine . Jump up ^ The Bronx on IMDb Jump up ^ David Gonzalez , `` Will Gentrification Spoil the Birthplace of Hip - Hop ? '' , The New York Times , May 21 , 2007 , retrieved on July 1 , 2008 Jump up ^ Jennifer Lee , `` Tenants Might Buy the Birthplace of Hip - Hop '' , The New York Times , January 15 , 2008 , retrieved on July 1 , 2008 Jump up ^ `` The Get Down review -- an insanely extravagant love letter to 70s New York '' by Sam Wollaston , The Guardian , August 15 , 2016 ^ Jump up to : Tukufu Zuberi ( `` detective '' ) , `` Birthplace of Hip Hop '' , History Detectives , Season 6 , Episode 11 , New York City , found at PBS official website . Accessed February 24 , 2009 . Jump up ^ Kugelberg , Johan , ed. ( 2007 ) . Born in the Bronx : A Visual Record of the Early Days of Hip Hop . New York : Rizzoli New York . p. 31 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 7893 - 1540 - 3 . Jump up ^ Jody Rosen ( February 12 , 2006 ) . `` A Rolling Shout - Out to Hip - Hop History '' . The New York Times . Retrieved April 4 , 2009 . Jump up ^ `` Bronx African American History Project '' . Jump up ^ `` About '' . BAAD ! Bronx Academy of Arts and Dance . Retrieved August 26 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Christopher Gray , `` Sturm und Drang Over a Memorial to Heinrich Heine '' , The New York Times , May 27 , 2007 , retrieved on July 3 , 2008 . Archived on July 12 , 2012 . See also Public Art in the Bronx : Joyce Kilmer Park , from Lehman College Archived March 6 , 2014 , at the Wayback Machine . Jump up ^ Maritime Industry Museum , retrieved on August 21 , 2008 Archived July 25 , 2008 , at the Wayback Machine . Jump up ^ `` Harlem River Community Rowing '' . Harlem River Community Rowing . Jump up ^ ( 2 ) Jump up ^ `` Bronx River Art Center : : Welcome '' . bronxriverart.org . Jump up ^ Mitchell , Alex ( May 11 , 2018 ) . `` Top Bronx Week events set for May 19 -- 20 weekend '' . Bronx Times Reporter . p. 42 . Jump up ^ `` Ferragosto festival brings lively celebration of Italian culture '' . News12 : The Bronx . September 10 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Slattery , Denis ( June 19 , 2014 ) . `` There 's something fishy going on in the Bronx '' . The New York Daily News . Jump up ^ Wirsing , Robert ( November 24 , 2017 ) . `` Edgewater Park Hosts Annual Ragamuffin Parade '' . The Bronx Times . Jump up ^ Rocchio , Patrick ( November 11 , 2017 ) . `` Plethora of Bronx Veterans Day events on Nov. 11th '' . Bronx Times . Jump up ^ Samuels , Tanyanika ( November 27 , 2012 ) . `` In Bronx and beyond , local Albanians to mark the 100th anniversary of independence from Turkish rule '' . Jump up ^ `` Thousands turn out for parade celebrating Dominican pride '' . News12 : The Bronx . July 30 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Rocchio , Patrick ( October 6 , 2017 ) . `` Bronx Columbus Parade steps off on Sunday '' . Bronx Times . Jump up ^ `` Bronx St Patrick 's Day Parade in Throgs Neck '' . Bronx Buzz NYC . March 12 , 2018 . Jump up ^ bxnews.net Archived June 10 , 2012 , at the Wayback Machine . Jump up ^ `` ( some ) About Us '' . Inner City Press . Retrieved November 7 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Its website showcases very short selections ( less than 20 seconds and over 2 MB each in uncompressed AIFF format ) from Bronx Music Vol. 1 , an out - of - press compact disc of the old and new sounds and artists of the Bronx . Archived August 13 , 2007 , at the Wayback Machine . Jump up ^ Chronopoulos , Themis . `` '' Paddy Chayefsky 's ' Marty ' and Its Significance to the Social History of Arthur Avenue , The Bronx , in the 1950s . '' The Bronx County Historical Society Journal XLIV ( Spring / Fall 2007 ) : 50 -- 59 `` . Archived from the original on 2013 - 01 - 20 . Jump up ^ David Hinkley , `` Scorn and disdain : Spike Jones giffs Hitler der old birdaphone , 1942 . '' New York Daily News , `` March 3 , 2004. http://www.nydailynews.com/archives/news/2004/03/03/2004-03-03_scorn_and_disdain_spike_jone.html Jump up ^ Mahler , Jonathan ( 2005 ) . Ladies and Gentlemen , the Bronx is Burning . Farrar , Straus and Giroux . ISBN 0 - 312 - 42430 - 2 . Jump up ^ `` Bronx Burning ( 2008 ) '' . IMDb.com . January 15 , 2009 . Archived from the original on January 15 , 2009 . Retrieved August 26 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Opportunities for Arts Organizations and Community Based Organizations '' . E-News Update . Bronx Council on the Arts . January 2006 . Jump up ^ ( ISBN 0 - 573 - 12129 - X ) Jump up ^ Kate Simon , Bronx Primitive : Portraits in a Childhood . New York : Harper Colophon , 1983 . Jump up ^ The Threepenny Review , Volume 109 , Spring 2007 Jump up ^ Avery Corman , The Old Neighborhood , Simon & Schuster , 1980 ; ISBN 0 - 671 - 41475 - 5 Jump up ^ Tom Wolfe , The Bonfire of the Vanities , Farrar , Straus and Giroux 1987 ( hardback ) ISBN 978 - 0 - 374 - 11535 - 7 , Picador Books 2008 ( paperback ) ISBN 978 - 0 - 312 - 42757 - 3 Jump up ^ Anne Barnard , Twenty Years After ' Bonfire , ' A City No Longer in Flames , The New York Times , December 10 , 2007 , retrieved on July 1 , 2008 Jump up ^ `` From the Banks of Brook Avenue by W.R. Rodriguez '' . Kirkusreviews.com . Retrieved August 26 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Ultan , Lloyd ; Unger , Barbara ( 2006 ) . Bronx Accent : A Literary and Pictorial History of the Borough . Rivergate Regionals Collection . Rutgers University Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 8135 - 3862 - 4 . Retrieved 2017 - 08 - 02 . Jump up ^ Tokarczyk , M.M. ( 2016 ) . Bronx Migrations . Cherry Castle Publishing . ISBN 978 - 0 - 692 - 73765 - 1 . Retrieved 2018 - 01 - 11 . Jump up ^ Daniels , Jim ( December 2016 ) . `` Tokarczyk , Michelle M. ( 2016 ) Bronx Migrations , Cherry Castle Publishing , Columbia , Md '' ( PDF ) . Journal of Working - Class Studies . 1 ( 1 ) . Jump up ^ `` A trio of Bronx tomes tell the tales of the borough '' . NY Daily News . Retrieved January 24 , 2016 . ^ Jump up to : `` Writing to Heal in the Bronx '' . The Huffington Post . Retrieved January 24 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Bronx Council on the Arts Receives National Endowment for the Arts Grant for The Bronx Memoir Project -- Bronx , NY '' . www.americantowns.com . Retrieved January 24 , 2016 . Jump up ^ The Encyclopedia of New York City , edited by Kenneth T. Jackson ( Yale University Press and the New - York Historical Society , New Haven , Connecticut , 1995 ISBN 0 - 300 - 05536 - 6 ) , pages 1091 -- 1095 Jump up ^ `` Man Parrish Featuring Freeze Force -- Boogie Down ( Bronx ) '' . Discogs . Further reading ( edit ) See also : Bibliography of the history of the Bronx General : Barrows , Edward , and Mike Wallace . Gotham : A History of New York City to 1898 ( 1999 ) Baver , Sherrie L ( 1988 ) . `` Development of New York 's Puerto Rican Community '' . Bronx County Historical Society Journal . 25 ( 1 ) : 1 -- 9 . Briggs , Xavier de Souza , Anita Miller and John Shapiro . 1996 . `` CCRP in the South Bronx . '' Planners ' Casebook , Winter . Corman , Avery . `` My Old Neighborhood Remembered , A Memoir . '' Barricade Books ( 2014 ) Chronopoulos , Themis . `` Paddy Chayefsky 's ' Marty ' and Its Significance to the Social History of Arthur Avenue , The Bronx , in the 1950s . '' The Bronx County Historical Society Journal XLIV ( Spring / Fall 2007 ) : 50 -- 59 . Chronopoulos , Themis . `` Urban Decline and the Withdrawal of New York University from University Heights , The Bronx . '' The Bronx County Historical Society Journal XLVI ( Spring / Fall 2009 ) : 4 -- 24 . de Kadt , Maarten . The Bronx River : An Environmental and Social History . The History Press ( 2011 ) DiBrino , Nicholas . The History of the Morris Park Racecourse and the Morris Family ( 1977 ) Federal Writers ' Project . New York City Guide : A Comprehensive Guide to the Five Boroughs of the Metropolis : Manhattan , Brooklyn , the Bronx , Queens , and Richmond ( 1939 ) online edition Gonzalez , Evelyn . The Bronx . ( Columbia University Press , 2004 . 263 ISBN 0 - 231 - 12114 - 8 ) , scholarly history focused on the slums of the South Bronx online edition Goodman , Sam . `` The Golden Ghetto : The Grand Concourse in the Twentieth Century '' , Bronx County Historical Society Journal 2004 41 ( 1 ) : 4 -- 18 and 2005 42 ( 2 ) : 80 -- 99 Jackson , Kenneth T. , ed . The Encyclopedia of New York City , ( Yale University Press and the New - York Historical Society , ( 1995 ) ISBN 0 - 300 - 05536 - 6 ) , has entries , maps , illustrations , statistics and bibliographic references on almost all of the significant topics in this article , from the entire borough to individual neighborhoods , people , events and artistic works . Jonnes , Jull . South Bronx Rising : The Rise , Fall , and Resurrection of an American City ( 2002 ) online edition McNamara , John History In Asphalt : The Origin of Bronx Street and Place Names ( 1993 ) ISBN 0 - 941980 - 16 - 2 McNamara , John McNamara 's Old Bronx ( 1989 ) ISBN 0 - 941980 - 25 - 1 Olmsted , Robert A ( 1989 ) . `` A History of Transportation in the Bronx '' . Bronx County Historical Society Journal . 26 ( 2 ) : 68 -- 91 . Olmsted , Robert A ( 1998 ) . `` Transportation Made the Bronx '' . Bronx County Historical Society Journal . 35 ( 2 ) : 166 -- 180 . Rodríguez , Clara E. Puerto Ricans : Born in the U.S.A ( 1991 ) online edition Samtur , Stephen M. and Martin A. Jackson . The Bronx : Lost , Found , and Remembered , 1935 -- 1975 ( 1999 ) online review , nostalgia Twomey , Bill and Casey , Thomas Images of America Series : Northwest Bronx ( 2011 ) Twomey , Bill and McNamara , John . Throggs Neck Memories ( 1993 ) Twomey , Bill and McNamara , John . Images of America Series : Throggs Neck - Pelham Bay ( 1998 ) Twomey , Bill and Moussot , Peter . Throggs Neck ( 1983 ) , pictorial Twomey , Bill . Images of America Series : East Bronx ( 1999 ) Twomey , Bill . Images of America Series : South Bronx ( 2002 ) Twomey , Bill . The Bronx in Bits and Pieces ( 2007 ) Ultan , Lloyd . The Northern Borough : A History Of The Bronx ( 2009 ) , popular general history Ultan , Lloyd . The Bronx in the frontier era : from the beginning to 1696 ( 1994 ) Ultan , Lloyd . The Beautiful Bronx ( 1920 -- 1950 ) ( 1979 ) , heavily illustrated Ultan , Lloyd . The Birth of the Bronx , 1609 -- 1900 ( 2000 ) , popular Ultan , Lloyd . The Bronx in the Innocent years , 1890 -- 1925 ( 1985 ) , popular Ultan , Lloyd . The Bronx : It Was Only Yesterday , `` The Bronx : It Was Only Yesterday 1935 -- 1965 ( 1992 ) , heavily illustrated popular history Bronx history : Barrows , Edward , and Mike Wallace . Gotham : A History of New York City to 1898 ( 1999 ) Baver , Sherrie L ( 1988 ) . `` Development of New York 's Puerto Rican Community '' . Bronx County Historical Society Journal . 25 ( 1 ) : 1 -- 9 . Federal Writers ' Project . New York City Guide : A Comprehensive Guide to the Five Boroughs of the Metropolis : Manhattan , Brooklyn , the Bronx , Queens , and Richmond ( 1939 ) online edition Fitzpatrick Benedict . The Bronx and Its People ; A History 1609 -- 1927 ( The Lewis Historical Publishing Company , 1927 . 3 volumes ) , Narrative history plus many biographies of prominent citizens Gonzalez , Evelyn . The Bronx . ( Columbia University Press , 2004 . 263 pp. 0 -- 231 - 12114 - 8 ) , scholarly history focused on the slums of the South Bronx online edition Goodman , Sam . `` The Golden Ghetto : The Grand Concourse in the Twentieth Century '' , Bronx County Historical Society Journal 2004 41 ( 1 ) : 4 -- 18 and 2005 42 ( 2 ) : 80 -- 99 Greene , Anthony C. , `` The Black Bronx : A Look at the Foundation of the Bronx 's Black Communities until 1900 '' , Bronx County Historical Society Journal , 44 ( Spring -- Fall 2007 ) , 1 -- 18 . Jackson , Kenneth T. , ed . The Encyclopedia of New York City , ( Yale University Press and the New - York Historical Society , ( 1995 ) ISBN 0 - 300 - 05536 - 6 ) , has entries , maps , illustrations , statistics and bibliographic references on almost all of the significant topics in this article , from the entire borough to individual neighborhoods , people , events and artistic works . Jonnes , Jull . South Bronx Rising : The Rise , Fall , and Resurrection of an American City ( 2002 ) online edition Melancholy in the Bronx , but Not Because of the Stadium by David Gonzales , The New York Times , published and retrieved on September 19 , 2008 Olmsted , Robert A ( 1989 ) . `` A History of Transportation in the Bronx '' . Bronx County Historical Society Journal . 26 ( 2 ) : 68 -- 91 . Olmsted , Robert A ( 1998 ) . `` Transportation Made the Bronx '' . Bronx County Historical Society Journal . 35 ( 2 ) : 166 -- 180 . Purnell , Brian ( 2009 ) . `` Desegregating the Jim Crow North : Racial Discrimination in the Postwar Bronx and the Fight to Integrate the Castle Hill Beach Club ( 1953 -- 1973 ) '' . Afro - Americans in New York Life and History . 33 : 47 -- 78 . Purnell , Brian ; LaBennett , Oneka ( 2009 ) . `` The Bronx African American History Project ( BAAHP ) and Approaches to Scholarship about / for Black Communities '' . Afro - Americans in New York Life and History . 33 : 7 -- 23 . Rodríguez , Clara E. Puerto Ricans : Born in the U.S.A ( 1991 ) online edition Samtur , Stephen M. and Martin A. Jackson . The Bronx : Lost , Found , and Remembered , 1935 -- 1975 ( 1999 ) online review , nostalgia Ultan , Lloyd . The Northern Borough : A History Of The Bronx ( 2009 ) , popular general history Ultan , Lloyd . The Bronx in the frontier era : from the beginning to 1696 ( 1994 ) Ultan , Lloyd . The Beautiful Bronx ( 1920 -- 1950 ) ( 1979 ) , heavily illustrated Ultan , Lloyd . The Birth of the Bronx , 1609 -- 1900 ( 2000 ) , popular Ultan , Lloyd . The Bronx in the innocent years , 1890 -- 1925 ( 1985 ) , popular Ultan , Lloyd . The Bronx : It Was Only Yesterday , `` The Bronx : It Was Only Yesterday 1935 -- 1965 ( 1992 ) , heavily illustrated popular history External links ( edit ) Find more aboutThe Bronxat Wikipedia 's sister projects Definitions from Wiktionary Media from Wikimedia Commons News from Wikinews Quotations from Wikiquote Texts from Wikisource Textbooks from Wikibooks Travel guide from Wikivoyage Learning resources from Wikiversity Bronx Borough President 's Office Bronx County at Curlie ( based on DMOZ ) Newspapers : The Bronx Times Reporter The Bronx Times Weekly Bronx Report from Inner City Press The Hunts Point Express The Mott Haven Herald Norwood News The Riverdale Press Blogs : Welcome2TheBronx Associations : The Bronx River Alliance Bronx Council for Environmental Quality Throggs Neck Merchant Association The Bronx Market The South Bronx Overall Economic Development Corporation Bronx County , NY Website History : City Island Nautical Museum East Bronx History Forum Kingsbridge Historical Society Museum of Bronx History The Bronx County Historical Society The Bronx : A Swedish Connection Report of the Bronx Parkway Commission , December 31 , 1918 , retrieved on July 24 , 2008 Remembrance of Synagogues Past : The Lost Civilization of the Jewish South Bronx by Seymour Perlin , retrieved on August 10 , 2008 Forgotten New York : Relics of a Rich History in the Everyday Life of New York City Places adjacent to The Bronx Westchester County Bergen County , New Jersey Bronx County , New York Eastchester Bay New York County ( Manhattan ) Queens County ( Queens ) Links to related articles Neighborhoods in the New York City borough of The Bronx South Bronx Hunts Point Longwood Melrose Morrisania East Morrisania / Crotona Park East Mott Haven Port Morris West Bronx Bedford Park Belmont Concourse Village Fordham Highbridge Kingsbridge Kingsbridge Heights Van Cortlandt Village Morris Heights Norwood Riverdale North Riverdale Fieldston Hudson Hill Mosholu Spuyten Duyvil Tremont East Tremont University Heights West Farms Woodlawn East Bronx Allerton Baychester Bronx Manor Castle Hill City Island Clason Point Harding Park Co-op City Country Club Eastchester Morris Park Olinville Pelham Bay Pelham Gardens Parkchester Pelham Parkway Soundview Throggs Neck Edgewater Park Locust Point Schuylerville Van Nest Wakefield Westchester Square Williamsbridge Related areas Marble Hill Rikers Island Retail districts Arthur Avenue Fordham Plaza The Hub Community districts 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 New York City articles By topic History timeline Neighborhoods ethnic enclaves Architecture monuments skyscrapers People Media Economy companies Geography Flags Environment food and water Demographics history Boroughs The Bronx ( Bronx County ) Brooklyn ( Kings County ) Manhattan ( New York County ) Queens ( Queens County ) Staten Island ( Richmond County ) Government Mayor Elections Council Borough presidents Community Districts Politics Emergency services Hospitals Fire Police crime law enforcement Emergency Management Transportation History Entities DOT former BOT Vision Zero Initiative Metropolitan Transportation Authority Subway Bus Staten Island Railway Long Island Rail Road Metro - 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what are four functions of the cell or plasma membrane

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Cell_membrane&oldid=807029274

Cell membrane - wikipedia Cell membrane Jump to : navigation , search Illustration of a Eukaryotic cell membrane Comparison of Eukaryotes vs. Prokaryotes The cell membrane ( also known as the plasma membrane or cytoplasmic membrane , and historically referred to as the plasmalemma ) is a biological membrane that separates the interior of all cells from the outside environment ( the extracellular space ) . It consists of a lipid bilayer with embedded proteins . The basic function of the cell membrane is to protect the cell from its surroundings . The cell membrane controls the movement of substances in and out of cells and organelles . In this way , it is selectively permeable to ions and organic molecules . In addition , cell membranes are involved in a variety of cellular processes such as cell adhesion , ion conductivity and cell signalling and serve as the attachment surface for several extracellular structures , including the cell wall , the carbohydrate layer called the glycocalyx , and the intracellular network of protein fibers called the cytoskeleton . In the field of synthetic biology , cell membranes can be artificially reassembled . Contents ( hide ) 1 History 2 Composition 2.1 Lipids 2.2 Phospholipids forming lipid vesicles 2.3 Carbohydrates 2.4 Proteins 3 Function 4 Prokaryotes 5 Structures 5.1 Fluid mosaic model 5.2 Lipid bilayer 5.3 Membrane polarity 5.4 Membrane structures 5.5 Cytoskeleton 5.6 Organelles 5.7 Variation 6 Permeability 7 See also 8 Notes and references 9 External links History Main article : History of cell membrane theory The structure has been variously referred to by different writers as the ectoplast ( de Vries , 1885 ) , Plasmahaut ( plasma skin , Pfeffer , 1877 , 1891 ) , Hautschicht ( skin layer , Pfeffer , 1886 ; used with a different meaning by Hofmeister , 1867 ) , plasmatic membrane ( Pfeffer , 1900 ) , plasma membrane , cytoplasmic membrane , cell envelope and cell membrane . Some authors that did not believe that there was a functional permeable boundary at the surface of the cell preferred to use the term plasmalemma ( coined by Mast , 1924 ) for the external region of the cell . Composition Cell membranes contain a variety of biological molecules , notably lipids and proteins . Material is incorporated into the membrane , or deleted from it , by a variety of mechanisms : Fusion of intracellular vesicles with the membrane ( exocytosis ) not only excretes the contents of the vesicle but also incorporates the vesicle membrane 's components into the cell membrane . The membrane may form blebs around extracellular material that pinch off to become vesicles ( endocytosis ) . If a membrane is continuous with a tubular structure made of membrane material , then material from the tube can be drawn into the membrane continuously . Although the concentration of membrane components in the aqueous phase is low ( stable membrane components have low solubility in water ) , there is an exchange of molecules between the lipid and aqueous phases . Lipids Examples of the major membrane phospholipids and glycolipids : phosphatidylcholine ( PtdCho ) , phosphatidylethanolamine ( PtdEtn ) , phosphatidylinositol ( PtdIns ) , phosphatidylserine ( PtdSer ) . The cell membrane consists of three classes of amphipathic lipids : phospholipids , glycolipids , and sterols . The amount of each depends upon the type of cell , but in the majority of cases phospholipids are the most abundant . In RBC studies , 30 % of the plasma membrane is lipid . The fatty chains in phospholipids and glycolipids usually contain an even number of carbon atoms , typically between 16 and 20 . The 16 - and 18 - carbon fatty acids are the most common . Fatty acids may be saturated or unsaturated , with the configuration of the double bonds nearly always `` cis '' . The length and the degree of unsaturation of fatty acid chains have a profound effect on membrane fluidity as unsaturated lipids create a kink , preventing the fatty acids from packing together as tightly , thus decreasing the melting temperature ( increasing the fluidity ) of the membrane . The ability of some organisms to regulate the fluidity of their cell membranes by altering lipid composition is called homeoviscous adaptation . The entire membrane is held together via non-covalent interaction of hydrophobic tails , however the structure is quite fluid and not fixed rigidly in place . Under physiological conditions phospholipid molecules in the cell membrane are in the liquid crystalline state . It means the lipid molecules are free to diffuse and exhibit rapid lateral diffusion along the layer in which they are present . However , the exchange of phospholipid molecules between intracellular and extracellular leaflets of the bilayer is a very slow process . Lipid rafts and caveolae are examples of cholesterol - enriched microdomains in the cell membrane . Also , a fraction of the lipid in direct contact with integral membrane proteins , which is tightly bound to the protein surface is called annular lipid shell ; it behaves as a part of protein complex . In animal cells cholesterol is normally found dispersed in varying degrees throughout cell membranes , in the irregular spaces between the hydrophobic tails of the membrane lipids , where it confers a stiffening and strengthening effect on the membrane . Phospholipids forming lipid vesicles Lipid vesicles or liposomes are circular pockets that are enclosed by a lipid bilayer . These structures are used in laboratories to study the effects of chemicals in cells by delivering these chemicals directly to the cell , as well as getting more insight into cell membrane permeability . Lipid vesicles and liposomes are formed by first suspending a lipid in an aqueous solution then agitating the mixture through sonication , resulting in a vesicle . By measuring the rate of efflux from that of the inside of the vesicle to the ambient solution , allows researcher to better understand membrane permeability . Vesicles can be formed with molecules and ions inside the vesicle by forming the vesicle with the desired molecule or ion present in the solution . Proteins can also be embedded into the membrane through solubilizing the desired proteins in the presence of detergents and attaching them to the phospholipids in which the liposome is formed . These provide researchers with a tool to examine various membrane protein functions . Carbohydrates Plasma membranes also contain carbohydrates , predominantly glycoproteins , but with some glycolipids ( cerebrosides and gangliosides ) . For the most part , no glycosylation occurs on membranes within the cell ; rather generally glycosylation occurs on the extracellular surface of the plasma membrane . The glycocalyx is an important feature in all cells , especially epithelia with microvilli . Recent data suggest the glycocalyx participates in cell adhesion , lymphocyte homing , and many others . The penultimate sugar is galactose and the terminal sugar is sialic acid , as the sugar backbone is modified in the Golgi apparatus . Sialic acid carries a negative charge , providing an external barrier to charged particles . Proteins Type Description Examples Integral proteins or transmembrane proteins Span the membrane and have a hydrophilic cytosolic domain , which interacts with internal molecules , a hydrophobic membrane - spanning domain that anchors it within the cell membrane , and a hydrophilic extracellular domain that interacts with external molecules . The hydrophobic domain consists of one , multiple , or a combination of α - helices and β sheet protein motifs . Ion channels , proton pumps , G protein - coupled receptor Lipid anchored proteins Covalently bound to single or multiple lipid molecules ; hydrophobically insert into the cell membrane and anchor the protein . The protein itself is not in contact with the membrane . G proteins Peripheral proteins Attached to integral membrane proteins , or associated with peripheral regions of the lipid bilayer . These proteins tend to have only temporary interactions with biological membranes , and once reacted , the molecule dissociates to carry on its work in the cytoplasm . Some enzymes , some hormones The cell membrane has large content of proteins , typically around 50 % of membrane volume These proteins are important for cell because they are responsible for various biological activities . Approximately a third of the genes in yeast code specifically for them , and this number is even higher in multicellular organisms . The cell membrane , being exposed to the outside environment , is an important site of cell -- cell communication . As such , a large variety of protein receptors and identification proteins , such as antigens , are present on the surface of the membrane . Functions of membrane proteins can also include cell -- cell contact , surface recognition , cytoskeleton contact , signaling , enzymatic activity , or transporting substances across the membrane . Most membrane proteins must be inserted in some way into the membrane . For this to occur , an N - terminus `` signal sequence '' of amino acids directs proteins to the endoplasmic reticulum , which inserts the proteins into a lipid bilayer . Once inserted , the proteins are then transported to their final destination in vesicles , where the vesicle fuses with the target membrane . Function A detailed diagram of the cell membrane Illustration depicting cellular diffusion The cell membrane ( or plasma membrane or plasmalemma ) surrounds the cytoplasm of living cells , physically separating the intracellular components from the extracellular environment . The cell membrane also plays a role in anchoring the cytoskeleton to provide shape to the cell , and in attaching to the extracellular matrix and other cells to hold them together to form tissues . Fungi , bacteria , most archaea , and plants also have a cell wall , which provides a mechanical support to the cell and precludes the passage of larger molecules . The cell membrane is selectively permeable and able to regulate what enters and exits the cell , thus facilitating the transport of materials needed for survival . The movement of substances across the membrane can be either `` passive '' , occurring without the input of cellular energy , or `` active '' , requiring the cell to expend energy in transporting it . The membrane also maintains the cell potential . The cell membrane thus works as a selective filter that allows only certain things to come inside or go outside the cell . The cell employs a number of transport mechanisms that involve biological membranes : 1 . Passive osmosis and diffusion : Some substances ( small molecules , ions ) such as carbon dioxide ( CO ) and oxygen ( O ) , can move across the plasma membrane by diffusion , which is a passive transport process . Because the membrane acts as a barrier for certain molecules and ions , they can occur in different concentrations on the two sides of the membrane . Such a concentration gradient across a semipermeable membrane sets up an osmotic flow for the water . 2 . Transmembrane protein channels and transporters : Nutrients , such as sugars or amino acids , must enter the cell , and certain products of metabolism must leave the cell . Such molecules diffuse passively through protein channels such as aquaporins ( in the case of water ( H O ) ) in facilitated diffusion or are pumped across the membrane by transmembrane transporters . Protein channel proteins , also called permeases , are usually quite specific , recognizing and transporting only a limited food group of chemical substances , often even only a single substance . 3 . Endocytosis : Endocytosis is the process in which cells absorb molecules by engulfing them . The plasma membrane creates a small deformation inward , called an invagination , in which the substance to be transported is captured . The deformation then pinches off from the membrane on the inside of the cell , creating a vesicle containing the captured substance . Endocytosis is a pathway for internalizing solid particles ( `` cell eating '' or phagocytosis ) , small molecules and ions ( `` cell drinking '' or pinocytosis ) , and macromolecules . Endocytosis requires energy and is thus a form of active transport . 4 . Exocytosis : Just as material can be brought into the cell by invagination and formation of a vesicle , the membrane of a vesicle can be fused with the plasma membrane , extruding its contents to the surrounding medium . This is the process of exocytosis . Exocytosis occurs in various cells to remove undigested residues of substances brought in by endocytosis , to secrete substances such as hormones and enzymes , and to transport a substance completely across a cellular barrier . In the process of exocytosis , the undigested waste - containing food vacuole or the secretory vesicle budded from Golgi apparatus , is first moved by cytoskeleton from the interior of the cell to the surface . The vesicle membrane comes in contact with the plasma membrane . The lipid molecules of the two bilayers rearrange themselves and the two membranes are , thus , fused . A passage is formed in the fused membrane and the vesicles discharges its contents outside the cell . Prokaryotes Gram - negative bacteria have both a plasma membrane and an outer membrane separated by periplasm . Other prokaryotes have only a plasma membrane . Bacteria are also surrounded by a cell wall composed of peptidoglycan ( amino acids and sugars ) . Some eukaryotic cells also have cell walls , but none that are made of peptidoglycan . The outer membrane of gram negative bacteria is rich in lipopolysaccharides . The outer membrane can bleb out into periplasmic protrusions under stress conditions or upon virulence requirements while encountering a host target cell , and thus such blebs may work as virulence organelles . Structures Fluid mosaic model According to the fluid mosaic model of S.J. Singer and G.L. Nicolson ( 1972 ) , which replaced the earlier model of Davson and Danielli , biological membranes can be considered as a two - dimensional liquid in which lipid and protein molecules diffuse more or less easily . Although the lipid bilayers that form the basis of the membranes do indeed form two - dimensional liquids by themselves , the plasma membrane also contains a large quantity of proteins , which provide more structure . Examples of such structures are protein - protein complexes , pickets and fences formed by the actin - based cytoskeleton , and potentially lipid rafts . Lipid bilayer Diagram of the arrangement of amphipathic lipid molecules to form a lipid bilayer . The yellow polar head groups separate the grey hydrophobic tails from the aqueous cytosolic and extracellular environments . Lipid bilayers form through the process of self - assembly . The cell membrane consists primarily of a thin layer of amphipathic phospholipids that spontaneously arrange so that the hydrophobic `` tail '' regions are isolated from the surrounding water while the hydrophilic `` head '' regions interact with the intracellular ( cytosolic ) and extracellular faces of the resulting bilayer . This forms a continuous , spherical lipid bilayer . Hydrophobic interactions ( also known as the hydrophobic effect ) are the major driving forces in the formation of lipid bilayers . An increase in interactions between hydrophobic molecules ( causing clustering of hydrophobic regions ) allows water molecules to bond more freely with each other , increasing the entropy of the system . This complex interaction can include noncovalent interactions such as van der Waals , electrostatic and hydrogen bonds . Lipid bilayers are generally impermeable to ions and polar molecules . The arrangement of hydrophilic heads and hydrophobic tails of the lipid bilayer prevent polar solutes ( ex. amino acids , nucleic acids , carbohydrates , proteins , and ions ) from diffusing across the membrane , but generally allows for the passive diffusion of hydrophobic molecules . This affords the cell the ability to control the movement of these substances via transmembrane protein complexes such as pores , channels and gates . Flippases and scramblases concentrate phosphatidyl serine , which carries a negative charge , on the inner membrane . Along with NANA , this creates an extra barrier to charged moieties moving through the membrane . Membranes serve diverse functions in eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells . One important role is to regulate the movement of materials into and out of cells . The phospholipid bilayer structure ( fluid mosaic model ) with specific membrane proteins accounts for the selective permeability of the membrane and passive and active transport mechanisms . In addition , membranes in prokaryotes and in the mitochondria and chloroplasts of eukaryotes facilitate the synthesis of ATP through chemiosmosis . Membrane polarity See also : Epithelial polarity Alpha intercalated cell The apical membrane of a polarized cell is the surface of the plasma membrane that faces inward to the lumen . This is particularly evident in epithelial and endothelial cells , but also describes other polarized cells , such as neurons . The basolateral membrane of a polarized cell is the surface of the plasma membrane that forms its basal and lateral surfaces . It faces outwards , towards the interstitium , and away from the lumen . Basolateral membrane is a compound phrase referring to the terms `` basal ( base ) membrane '' and `` lateral ( side ) membrane '' , which , especially in epithelial cells , are identical in composition and activity . Proteins ( such as ion channels and pumps ) are free to move from the basal to the lateral surface of the cell or vice versa in accordance with the fluid mosaic model . Tight junctions join epithelial cells near their apical surface to prevent the migration of proteins from the basolateral membrane to the apical membrane . The basal and lateral surfaces thus remain roughly equivalent to one another , yet distinct from the apical surface . Membrane structures Diagram of the Cell Membrane 's structures and their function . Cell membrane can form different types of `` supramembrane '' structures such as caveola , postsynaptic density , podosome , invadopodium , focal adhesion , and different types of cell junctions . These structures are usually responsible for cell adhesion , communication , endocytosis and exocytosis . They can be visualized by electron microscopy or fluorescence microscopy . They are composed of specific proteins , such as integrins and cadherins . Cytoskeleton The cytoskeleton is found underlying the cell membrane in the cytoplasm and provides a scaffolding for membrane proteins to anchor to , as well as forming organelles that extend from the cell . Indeed , cytoskeletal elements interact extensively and intimately with the cell membrane . Anchoring proteins restricts them to a particular cell surface -- for example , the apical surface of epithelial cells that line the vertebrate gut -- and limits how far they may diffuse within the bilayer . The cytoskeleton is able to form appendage - like organelles , such as cilia , which are microtubule - based extensions covered by the cell membrane , and filopodia , which are actin - based extensions . These extensions are ensheathed in membrane and project from the surface of the cell in order to sense the external environment and / or make contact with the substrate or other cells . The apical surfaces of epithelial cells are dense with actin - based finger - like projections known as microvilli , which increase cell surface area and thereby increase the absorption rate of nutrients . Localized decoupling of the cytoskeleton and cell membrane results in formation of a bleb . Organelles In eukaryotic cells , membrane - bound organelles within the cytoplasm may have a single membrane ( e.g. , endoplasmic reticulum , Golgi apparatus , lysosomes and peroxisomes ) while others ( e.g. the nucleus , mitochondria and chloroplasts ) may have multiple membrane systems . Variation The cell membrane has different lipid and protein compositions in distinct types of cells and may have therefore specific names for certain cell types : Sarcolemma in myocytes Oolemma in oocytes Axolemma in neuronal processes - axons Permeability The permeability of a membrane is the rate of passive diffusion of molecules through the membrane . These molecules are known as permeant molecules . Permeability depends mainly on the electric charge and polarity of the molecule and to a lesser extent the molar mass of the molecule . Due to the cell membrane 's hydrophobic nature , small electrically neutral molecules pass through the membrane more easily than charged , large ones . The inability of charged molecules to pass through the cell membrane results in pH partition of substances throughout the fluid compartments of the body . See also Ammonium transporter Annular lipid shell AP2 adaptors Artificial cell Bacterial cell structure Bangstad syndrome Cell cortex Cell damage , including damage to cell membrane Cell theory Cytoneme Elasticity of cell membranes Gram - positive bacteria Membrane models Membrane nanotubule History of cell membrane theory Lipid raft Trogocytosis Notes and references Jump up ^ Kimball 's Biology pages , Cell Membranes Jump up ^ Singleton P ( 1999 ) . Bacteria in Biology , Biotechnology and Medicine ( 5th ed . ) . New York : Wiley . ISBN 0 - 471 - 98880 - 4 . ^ Jump up to : Alberts B , Johnson A , Lewis J , et al. ( 2002 ) . Molecular Biology of the Cell ( 4th ed . ) . New York : Garland Science . ISBN 0 - 8153 - 3218 - 1 . Jump up ^ Budin , Itay ; Devaraj , Neal K. ( December 29 , 2011 ) . `` Membrane Assembly Driven by a Biomimetic Coupling Reaction '' . Journal of the American Chemical Society . 134 ( 2 ) : 751 -- 753 . doi : 10.1021 / ja2076873 . Retrieved February 18 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Staff ( January 25 , 2012 ) . `` Chemists Synthesize Artificial Cell Membrane '' . ScienceDaily . Retrieved February 18 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Staff ( January 26 , 2012 ) . `` Chemists create artificial cell membrane '' . kurzweilai.net . Retrieved February 18 , 2012 . Jump up ^ de Vries , H. 1885 . Plasmolytische Studien über die Wand der Vakuolen . Jahrb . wiss . Bot. 16 , 465 -- 598 Jump up ^ Pfeffer , W. 1877 . Osmotische Untersuchungen : Studien zur Zell Mechanik . Engelmann , Leipzig . Jump up ^ Pfeffer , W. , 1900 -- 1906 . The Physiology of Plants , ( 1 ) . Translated by A.J. Ewart from the 2nd German ed. of Pflanzenphysiologie , 1897 - 1904 , ( 2 ) . Clarendon Press , Oxford . Jump up ^ Sharp , L.W. ( 1921 ) . Introduction To Cytology . New York : McGraw Hill , p. 42 . Jump up ^ Kleinzeller , A. 1999 . Charles Ernest Overton 's concept of a cell membrane . In : Membrane permeability : 100 years since Ernest Overton ( ed . Deamer D.W. , Kleinzeller A. , Fambrough D.M. ) , pp. 1 -- 18 , Academic Press , San Diego , ( 3 ) . Jump up ^ Mast , S.O. 1924 . Structure and locomotion in Amoeba proteus . Anat . Rec. 29 : 88 , ( 4 ) . Jump up ^ Plowe , J.Q. ( 1931 ) . Membranes in the plant cell . I. Morphological membranes at protoplasmic surfaces . Protoplasma 12 , 196 - 220 , ( 5 ) . Jump up ^ Wayne , R. 2009 . Plant Cell Biology : From Astronomy to Zoology . Amsterdam : Elsevier / Academic Press , p. 17 . ^ Jump up to : Lodish H , Berk A , Zipursky LS , et al. ( 2000 ) . Molecular Cell Biology ( 4th ed . ) . New York : Scientific American Books . ISBN 0 - 7167 - 3136 - 3 . ^ Jump up to : Jesse Gray ; Shana Groeschler ; Tony Le ; Zara Gonzalez ( 2002 ) . `` Membrane Structure '' ( SWF ) . Davidson College . Retrieved 2007 - 01 - 11 . Jump up ^ YashRoy , R.C. ( 1999 ) . `` A structural model for virulence organellae of gram negative organisms with reference to Salmonella pathogenicity in chicken ileum '' . Indian Journal of Poultry Science . 34 ( 2 ) : 213 -- 219 . Jump up ^ Singer SJ , Nicolson GL ( Feb 1972 ) . `` The fluid mosaic model of the structure of cell membranes '' . Science . 175 ( 4023 ) : 720 -- 31 . PMID 4333397 . doi : 10.1126 / science. 175.4023. 720 . Jump up ^ Doherty GJ , McMahon HT ( 2008 ) . `` Mediation , Modulation and Consequences of Membrane - Cytoskeleton Interactions '' . Annual Review of Biophysics. 37 : 65 -- 95 . PMID 18573073 . doi : 10.1146 / annurev. biophys. 37.032807. 125912 . External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to Cell membrane . Lipids , Membranes and Vesicle Trafficking - The Virtual Library of Biochemistry and Cell Biology Cell membrane protein extraction protocol Membrane homeostasis , tension regulation , mechanosensitive membrane exchange and membrane traffic 3D structures of proteins associated with plasma membrane of eukaryotic cells Lipid composition and proteins of some eukariotic membranes ( 6 ) Structures of the cell / organelles ( TH H1. 00.01. 2 - 3 ) Endomembrane system Cell membrane Nucleus Nucleolus Endoplasmic reticulum Golgi apparatus Parenthesome Autophagosome Vesicles Exosome Lysosome Endosome Phagosome Vacuole Acrosome Cytoplasmic granules Melanosome Microbody Glyoxysome Peroxisome Weibel -- Palade body Cytoskeleton Microfilaments Intermediate filaments Microtubules Prokaryotic cytoskeleton MTOCs Centrosome Centriole Basal body Spindle pole body Myofibril Endosymbionts Mitochondrion Plastids Chloroplast Chromoplast Gerontoplast Leucoplast Amyloplast Elaioplast Proteinoplast Tannosome Other internal RNA Ribosome Spliceosome Vault Cytoplasm Proteasome External Undulipodium Cilium Flagellum Axoneme Radial spoke Extracellular matrix Cell wall Structures of the cell membrane Membrane lipids Lipid bilayer Phospholipids Proteolipids Sphingolipids Sterols Membrane proteins Membrane glycoproteins Integral membrane proteins / transmembrane protein Peripheral membrane protein / Lipid - anchored protein Other Caveolae / Coated pits Cell junctions Glycocalyx Lipid raft / microdomains Membrane contact sites Membrane nanotubes Myelin sheath Nodes of Ranvier Nuclear envelope Phycobilisomes Porosomes NDL : 00569973 Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cell_membrane&oldid=807029274 '' Categories : Membrane biology Organelles Cell anatomy Hidden categories : Wikipedia pages semi-protected against vandalism Wikipedia articles needing clarification from October 2012 Talk View source Contents About Wikipedia Azərbaycanca বাংলা Беларуская Български Bosanski Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Gaelg Galego 한국어 Հայերեն हिन्दी Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano עברית Basa Jawa ქართული Қазақша Kiswahili Kreyòl ayisyen Kurdî Кыргызча Latviešu Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Magyar Македонски മലയാളം Bahasa Melayu Nederlands 日本 語 Norsk Norsk nynorsk Occitan Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча ភាសា ខ្មែរ Polski Português Română Русский Scots Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Basa Sunda Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் ไทย Türkçe Українська اردو Tiếng Việt 粵語 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 25 October 2017 , at 13 : 12 . 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who is given credit for inventing the printing press

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Movable_type&oldid=799093575

Movable type - wikipedia Movable type Jump to : navigation , search For the weblog software , see Movable Type . Part of a series on the History of printing Woodblock printing 200 Movable type 1040 Printing press c. 1440 Etching c. 1515 Mezzotint 1642 Aquatint 1772 Lithography 1796 Chromolithography 1837 Rotary press 1843 Hectograph 1869 Offset printing 1875 Hot metal typesetting 1884 Mimeograph 1886 Photostat and rectigraph 1907 Screen printing 1911 Spirit duplicator 1923 Dot matrix printing 1925 Xerography 1938 Phototypesetting 1949 Inkjet printing 1951 Dye - sublimation 1957 Laser printing 1969 Thermal printing c. 1972 3D printing 1981 Solid Ink printing 1986 Digital printing 1991 Movable type ( US English ; moveable type in British English ) is the system and technology of printing and typography that uses movable components to reproduce the elements of a document ( usually individual letters or punctuation ) usually on the medium of paper . The world 's first movable type printing press technology for printing paper books was made of porcelain materials and was invented around AD 1040 in China during the Northern Song Dynasty by the inventor Bi Sheng ( 990 -- 1051 ) . Subsequently in 1377 , the world 's oldest extant movable metal print book , Jikji , was printed in Korea during the Goryeo dynasty . Because of this , the diffusion of both movable - type systems was , to some degree , limited to primarily East Asia , although various sporadic reports of movable type technology were brought back to Europe by Christian missionaries , traders and business people who were returning to Europe after having worked in China for several years and influenced the development of printing technology in Europe . Some of these medieval European accounts are still preserved in the library archives of the Vatican and Oxford University among many others . Around 1450 Johannes Gutenberg , introduced the metal movable - type printing press in Europe , along with innovations in casting the type based on a matrix and hand mould . The small number of alphabetic characters needed for European languages was an important factor . Gutenberg was the first to create his type pieces from an alloy of lead , tin , and antimony -- and these materials remained standard for 550 years . For alphabetic scripts , movable - type page setting was quicker than woodblock printing . The metal type pieces were more durable and the lettering was more uniform , leading to typography and fonts . The high quality and relatively low price of the Gutenberg Bible ( 1455 ) established the superiority of movable type in Europe and the use of printing presses spread rapidly . The printing press may be regarded as one of the key factors fostering the Renaissance and due to its effectiveness , its use spread around the globe . The 19th - century invention of hot metal typesetting and its successors caused movable type to decline in the 20th century . Contents ( hide ) 1 Precursors to movable type 1.1 Letter punch and coins 1.2 Seals and stamps 1.3 Woodblock printing 2 History 2.1 Ceramic movable type 2.2 Wooden movable type 2.3 Metal movable type in China 2.4 Metal movable type in Korea 2.5 Metal movable type in Europe 3 Type - founding 4 Typesetting 5 Metal type combined with other methods 6 See also 7 References 8 Further reading 9 External links Precursors to movable type ( edit ) Letter punch and coins ( edit ) Movable type traces its origins to the punches used to make coins : the reverse face of a Tetradrachm Greek coin from Athens , 5th century BC , featuring various letters and the owl symbol of Athena . The technique of imprinting multiple copies of symbols or glyphs with a master type punch made of hard metal first developed around 3000 BC in ancient Sumer . These metal punch types can be seen as precursors of the letter punches adapted in later millennia to printing with movable metal type . Cylinder seals were used in Mesopotamia to create an impression on a surface by rolling the seal on wet clay . They were used to `` sign '' documents and mark objects as the owner 's property . Cylinder seals were a related form of early typography capable of printing small page designs in relief ( cameo ) on wax or clay -- a miniature forerunner of rotogravure printing used by wealthy individuals to seal and certify documents . By 650 BC the ancient Greeks were using larger diameter punches to imprint small page images onto coins and tokens . The designs of the artists who made the first coin punches were stylized with a degree of skill that could not be mistaken for common handiwork -- salient and very specific types designed to be reproduced ad infinitum . Unlike the first typefaces used to print books in the 13th century , coin types were neither combined nor printed with ink on paper , but `` published '' in metal -- a more durable medium -- and survived in substantial numbers . As the portable face of ruling authority , coins were a compact form of standardized knowledge issued in large editions , an early mass medium that stabilized trade and civilization throughout the Mediterranean world of antiquity . Seals and stamps ( edit ) Main articles : Mudbrick stamp , Cylinder seal , and Phaistos Disc Brick `` stamp mold '' for the King of Larsa , Sin - Iddinam . ( for Sun God , Utu , foundation deposit of temple ) A replica of the Phaistos Disc Seals and stamps may have been precursors to movable type . The uneven spacing of the impressions on brick stamps found in the Mesopotamian cities of Uruk and Larsa , dating from the 2nd millennium BC , has been conjectured by some archaeologists as evidence that the stamps were made using movable type . The enigmatic Minoan Phaistos Disc of 1800 -- 1600 BC has been considered by one scholar as an early example of a body of text being reproduced with reusable characters : it may have been produced by pressing pre-formed hieroglyphic `` seals '' into the soft clay . A few authors even view the disc as technically meeting all definitional criteria to represent an early incidence of movable - type printing . Recently it has been alleged by Jerome Eisenberg that the disk is a forgery . The Prüfening dedicatory inscription is medieval example of movable type stamps being used . Woodblock printing ( edit ) Main article : Woodblock printing The intricate frontispiece of the Diamond Sutra from Tang Dynasty China , an early woodblock - printed book , AD 868 ( British Museum ) Following the invention of paper in the 2nd century AD during the Chinese Han Dynasty , writing materials became more portable and economical than the bones , shells , bamboo slips , metal or stone tablets , silk , etc. previously used . Yet copying books by hand was still labour - consuming . Not until the Xiping Era ( 172 -- 178 AD ) , towards the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty did sealing print and monotype appear . It was soon used for printing designs on fabrics , and later for printing texts . Woodblock printing , invented by about the 8th century during the Tang Dynasty , worked as follows . First , the neat hand - copied script was stuck on a relatively thick and smooth board , with the front of the paper , which was so thin that it was nearly transparent , sticking to the board , and characters showing in reverse , but distinctly , so that every stroke could be easily recognized . Then carvers cut away the parts of the board that were not part of the character , so that the characters were cut in relief , completely differently from those cut intaglio . When printing , the bulging characters would have some ink spread on them and be covered by paper . With workers ' hands moving on the back of paper gently , characters would be printed on the paper . By the Song Dynasty , woodblock printing came to its heyday . Although woodblock printing played an influential role in spreading culture , there remained some apparent drawbacks . Firstly , carving the printing plate required considerable time , labour and materials ; secondly , it was not convenient to store these plates ; and finally , it was difficult to correct mistakes . With woodblock printing , one printing plate could be used for tens of hundreds of books , playing a magnificent role in spreading culture . Yet carving the plate was time and labour consuming . Huge books cost years of effort . The plates needed a lot of storage space , and were often damaged by deformation , worms and corrosion . If books had a small print run , and were not reprinted , the printing plates would become nothing but waste ; and worse , if a mistake was found , it was difficult to correct it without discarding the whole plate . History ( edit ) Further information : Letterpress printing and History of printing in East Asia Ceramic movable type ( edit ) Bi Sheng ( 毕 昇 / 畢昇 ) ( 990 -- 1051 ) developed the first known movable - type system for printing in China around 1040 AD during the Northern Song dynasty , using ceramic materials . As described by the Chinese scholar Shen Kuo ( 沈括 ) ( 1031 -- 1095 ) : When he wished to print , he took an iron frame and set it on the iron plate . In this he placed the types , set close together . When the frame was full , the whole made one solid block of type . He then placed it near the fire to warm it . When the paste ( at the back ) was slightly melted , he took a smooth board and pressed it over the surface , so that the block of type became as even as a whetstone . For each character there were several types , and for certain common characters there were twenty or more types each , in order to be prepared for the repetition of characters on the same page . When the characters were not in use he had them arranged with paper labels , one label for each rhyme - group , and kept them in wooden cases . If one were to print only two or three copies , this method would be neither simple nor easy . But for printing hundreds or thousands of copies , it was marvelously quick . As a rule he kept two forms going . While the impression was being made from the one form , the type was being put in place on the other . When the printing of the one form was finished , the other was then ready . In this way the two forms alternated and the printing was done with great rapidity . In 1193 , Zhou Bida , an officer of Southern Song Dynasty , made a set of clay movable - type method according to the method described by Shen Kuo in his Dream Pool Essays , and printed his book Notes of The Jade Hall ( 《 玉堂 杂记 》 ) . The claim that Bi Sheng 's clay types were `` fragile '' and `` not practical for large - scale printing '' and `` short lived '' was refuted by facts and experiments . Bao Shicheng ( 1775 -- 1885 ) wrote that baked clay moveable type was `` as hard and tough as horn '' ; experiments show that clay type , after being baked in an oven , becomes hard and difficult to break , such that it remains intact after being dropped from a height of two metres onto a marble floor . The length of clay movable types in China was 1 to 2 centimetres , not 2mm , thus hard as horn . There has been an ongoing debate regarding the success of ceramic printing technology as there have been no printed materials found with ceramic movable types . However , it is historically recorded to have been used as late as 1844 in China from the Song dynasty through the Qing dynasty . Wooden movable type ( edit ) Bi Sheng ( 990 -- 1051 ) also pioneered the use of wooden movable type around 1040 AD , as described by the Chinese scholar Shen Kuo ( 1031 -- 1095 ) . However , this technology was abandoned in favour of clay movable types due to the presence of wood grains and the unevenness of the wooden type after being soaked in ink . A revolving typecase for wooden type in China , from Wang Zhen 's book published in 1313 In 1298 , Wang Zhen ( 王 祯 / 王 禎 ) , a Yuan dynasty governmental official of Jingde County , Anhui Province , China , re-invented a method of making movable wooden types . He made more than 30,000 wooden movable types and printed 100 copies of Records of Jingde County ( 《 旌 德 县志 》 ) , a book of more than 60,000 Chinese characters . Soon afterwards , he summarized his invention in his book A method of making moveable wooden types for printing books . Although the wooden type was more durable under the mechanical rigors of handling , repeated printing wore the character faces down , and the types could only be replaced by carving new pieces . This system was later enhanced by pressing wooden blocks into sand and casting metal types from the depression in copper , bronze , iron or tin . This new method overcame many of the shortcomings of woodblock printing . Rather than manually carving an individual block to print a single page , movable type printing allowed for the quick assembly of a page of text . Furthermore , these new , more compact type fonts could be reused and stored . The set of wafer - like metal stamp types could be assembled to form pages , inked , and page impressions taken from rubbings on cloth or paper . In 1322 , a Fenghua county officer Ma Chengde ( 马 称 德 ) in Zhejiang , made 100,000 wooded movable types and printed the 43 - volume Daxue Yanyi ( 《 大学 衍 义 》 ) . Wooden movable types were used continually in China . Even as late as 1733 , a 2300 - volume Wuying Palace Collected Gems Edition ( 《 武英 殿 聚珍 版 丛书 》 ) was printed with 253,500 wooden movable types on order of the Yongzheng Emperor , and completed in one year . A number of books printed in Tangut script during the Western Xia ( 1038 -- 1227 ) period are known , of which the Auspicious Tantra of All - Reaching Union that was discovered in the ruins of Baisigou Square Pagoda in 1991 is believed to have been printed sometime during the reign of Emperor Renzong of Western Xia ( 1139 -- 1193 ) . It is considered by many Chinese experts to be the earliest extant example of a book printed using wooden movable type . The logistical problems of handling the several thousand logographs ( required for full literacy in Chinese language ) posed a particular difficulty . It was faster to carve one woodblock per page than to composit a page from so many different types . However , if one used movable type to produce multiple copies of the same document , the speed of printing would increase relatively . Metal movable type in China ( edit ) At least 13 material finds in China indicate the invention of bronze movable type printing in China no later than the 12th century , with the country producing large - scale bronze - plate - printed paper money and formal official documents issued by the Jin ( 1115 -- 1234 ) and Southern Song ( 1127 -- 1279 ) dynasties with embedded bronze metal types for anti-counterfeit markers . Such paper - money printing might date back to the 11th - century jiaozi of Northern Song ( 960 -- 1127 ) . Copperplate of 1215 -- 1216 5000 - cash Jin dynasty ( 1115 -- 1234 ) paper money with bronze movable type counterfeit markers The typical example of this kind of bronze movable type embedded copper - block printing is a printed `` check '' of the Jin Dynasty with two square holes for embedding two bronze movable - type characters , each selected from 1,000 different characters , such that each printed paper note has a different combination of markers . A copper - block printed note dated between 1215 -- 1216 in the collection of Luo Zhenyu 's Pictorial Paper Money of the Four Dynasties , 1914 , shows two special characters -- one called Ziliao , the other called Zihao -- for the purpose of preventing counterfeiting ; over the Ziliao there is a small character ( 輶 ) printed with movable copper type , while over the Zihao there is an empty square hole -- apparently the associated copper metal type was lost . Another sample of Song dynasty money of the same period in the collection of the Shanghai Museum has two empty square holes above Ziliao as well as Zihou , due to the loss of the two copper movable types . Song dynasty bronze block embedded with bronze metal movable type printed paper money was issued on a large scale and remained in circulation for a long time . The 1298 book Zao Huozi Yinshufa ( 《 造 活字 印 书法 》 / 《 造 活字 印 書法 》 ) by the Yuan dynasty ( 1271 -- 1368 ) official Wang Zhen mentions tin movable type , used probably since the Southern Song dynasty ( 1127 -- 1279 ) , but this was largely experimental . It was unsatisfactory due to its incompatibility with the inking process . During the Mongol Empire ( 1206 -- 1405 ) , printing using movable type spread from China to Central Asia . The Uyghurs of Central Asia used movable type , their script type adopted from the Mongol language , some with Chinese words printed between the pages -- strong evidence that the books were printed in China . A page from bronze movable - type book by Hua Sui , printed in 1490 During the Ming Dynasty ( 1368 -- 1644 ) , Hua Sui in 1490 used bronze type in printing books . In 1574 the massive 1000 - volume encyclopedia Imperial Readings of the Taiping Era ( 《 太平 御 览 》 / 《 太平 御覧 》 ) was printed with bronze movable type . In 1725 the Qing Dynasty government made 250,000 bronze movable - type characters and printed 64 sets of the encyclopedic Gujin Tushu Jicheng ( 《 古今 图书 集成 》 / 《 古今 圖書 集成 》 , Complete Collection of Illustrations and Writings from the Earliest to Current Times ) . Each set consisted of 5,040 volumes , making a total of 322,560 volumes printed using movable type . Metal movable type in Korea ( edit ) Korean movable type from 1377 used for the Jikji ; In 1234 the first books known to have been printed in metallic type set were published in Goryeo Dynasty Korea . They form a set of ritual books , Sangjeong Gogeum Yemun , compiled by Choe Yun - ui . While these books have not survived , the oldest book in the world printed in metallic movable types is Jikji , printed in Korea in 1377 . The Asian Reading Room of the Library of Congress in Washington , D.C. displays examples of this metal type . Commenting on the invention of metallic types by Koreans , French scholar Henri - Jean Martin described this as `` ( extremely similar ) to Gutenberg 's '' . The techniques for bronze casting , used at the time for making coins ( as well as bells and statues ) were adapted to making metal type . The Joseon dynasty scholar Seong Hyeon ( 성현 , 成 俔 , 1439 -- 1504 ) records the following description of the Korean font - casting process : At first , one cuts letters in beech wood . One fills a trough level with fine sandy ( clay ) of the reed - growing seashore . Wood - cut letters are pressed into the sand , then the impressions become negative and form letters ( moulds ) . At this step , placing one trough together with another , one pours the molten bronze down into an opening . The fluid flows in , filling these negative moulds , one by one becoming type . Lastly , one scrapes and files off the irregularities , and piles them up to be arranged . A potential solution to the linguistic and cultural bottleneck that held back movable type in Korea for 200 years appeared in the early 15th century -- a generation before Gutenberg would begin working on his own movable - type invention in Europe -- when Sejong the Great devised a simplified alphabet of 24 characters ( hangul ) for use by the common people , which could have made the typecasting and compositing process more feasible . But Korea 's cultural elite , `` appalled at the idea of losing hanja , the badge of their elitism '' , stifled the adoption of the new alphabet . A `` Confucian prohibition on the commercialization of printing '' also obstructed the proliferation of movable type , restricting the distribution of books produced using the new method to the government . The technique was restricted to use by the royal foundry for official state publications only , where the focus was on reprinting Chinese classics lost in 1126 when Korea 's libraries and palaces had perished in a conflict between dynasties . Scholarly debate and speculation has occurred as to whether Eastern movable type spread to Europe between the late 14th century and early 15th centuries . Metal movable type in Europe ( edit ) Main articles : History of Western typography and Spread of European movable type printing The Printing Revolution in the 15th century : Within several decades around 270 European towns took up movable type printing . European output of movable type printing from Gutenberg to 1800 Johannes Gutenberg of Mainz , Germany is acknowledged as the first to invent a metal movable - type printing system in Europe , the printing press . Gutenberg was a goldsmith familiar with techniques of cutting punches for making coins from moulds . Between 1436 and 1450 he developed hardware and techniques for casting letters from matrices using a device called the hand mould . Gutenberg 's key invention and contribution to movable - type printing in Europe , the hand mould was the first practical means of making cheap copies of letterpunches in the vast quantities needed to print complete books , making the movable - type printing process a viable enterprise . Before Gutenberg , books were copied out by hand on scrolls and paper , or printed from hand - carved wooden blocks . It was extremely time - consuming ; even a small book could take months to complete , and because the carved letters or blocks were flimsy and the wood susceptible to ink the blocks had a limited lifespan . Gutenberg and his associates developed oil - based inks ideally suited to printing with a press on paper , and the first Latin typefaces . His method of casting type may have been different from the hand mould used in subsequent decades . Detailed analysis of the type used in his 42 - line Bible has revealed irregularities in some of the characters that can not be attributed to ink spread or type wear under the pressure of the press . Scholars conjecture that the type pieces may have been cast from a series of matrices made with a series of individual stroke punches , producing many different versions of the same glyph . Editing with movable metal -- cca. 1920 It has also been suggested that the method used by Gutenberg involved using a single punch to make a mould , but the mould was such that the process of taking the type out disturbed the casting , creating variants and anomalies , and that the punch - matrix system came into use possibly around the 1470s . This raises the possibility that the development of movable type in the West may have been progressive rather than a single innovation . Gutenberg 's movable - type printing system spread rapidly across Europe , from the single Mainz printing press in 1457 to 110 presses by 1480 , of which 50 were in Italy . Venice quickly became the center of typographic and printing activity . Significant were the contributions of Nicolas Jenson , Francesco Griffo , Aldus Manutius , and other printers of late 15th - century Europe . Type - founding ( edit ) A piece of cast metal type , Garamond style long s i ligature . See also : Sort . Type - founding as practiced in Europe and the west consists of three stages . Punchcutting If the glyph design includes enclosed spaces ( counters ) then a counterpunch is made . The counter shapes are transferred in relief ( cameo ) onto the end of a rectangular bar of mild steel using a specialized engraving tool called a graver . The finished counterpunch is hardened by heating and quenching ( tempering ) , or exposure to a cyanide solution ( case hardening ) . The counterpunch is then struck against the end of a similar rectangular steel bar -- the letterpunch -- to impress the counter shapes as recessed spaces ( intaglio ) . The outer profile of the glyph is completed by scraping away with a graver the material outside the counter spaces , leaving only the stroke or lines of the glyph . Progress toward the finished design is checked by successive smoke proofs ; temporary prints made from a thin coating of carbon deposited on the punch surface by a candle flame . The finished letter punch is finally hardened to withstand the rigors of reproduction by striking . One counterpunch and one letterpunch are produced for every letter or glyph making up a complete font . Matrix The letterpunch is used to strike a blank die of soft metal to make a negative letter mould , called a matrix . Casting The matrix is inserted into the bottom of a device called a hand mould . The mould is clamped shut and molten type metal alloy consisting mostly of lead and tin , with a small amount of antimony for hardening , is poured into a cavity from the top . Antimony has the rare property of expanding as it cools , giving the casting sharp edges . When the type metal has sufficiently cooled , the mould is unlocked and a rectangular block approximately 4 centimeters long , called a sort , is extracted . Excess casting on the end of the sort , called the tang , is later removed to make the sort the precise height required for printing , known as `` type height '' . The type - height was quite different in different countries . The Monotype Corporation Limited in London UK produced moulds in various heights : 0.918 inches ( 23.3 mm ) : United Kingdom , Canada , U.S. 0.928 inches ( 23.6 mm ) : France , Germany , Switzerland and most other European countries 0.933 inches ( 23.7 mm ) : Belgium height 0.9785 inches ( 24.85 mm ) : Dutch height A Dutch printers manual mentions a tiny difference between French and German Height : 62.027 points Didot = 23.30 millimetres ( 0.917 in ) = English height 62.666 points Didot = 23.55 millimetres ( 0.927 in ) = French height 62.685 points Didot = 23.56 millimetres ( 0.928 in ) = German height 66.047 points Didot = 24.85 millimetres ( 0.978 in ) = Dutch Height Tiny differences in type - height will cause quite bold images of characters . Typesetting ( edit ) A case of cast metal type pieces and typeset matter in a composing stick Main articles : Typesetting and Type case Modern , factory - produced movable type was available in the late 19th century . It was held in the printing shop in a job case , a drawer about 2 inches high , a yard wide , and about two feet deep , with many small compartments for the various letters and ligatures . The most popular and accepted of the job case designs in America was the California Job Case , which took its name from the Pacific coast location of the foundries that made the case popular . Traditionally , the capital letters were stored in a separate drawer or case that was located above the case that held the other letters ; this is why capital letters are called `` upper case '' characters while the non-capitals are `` lower case '' . Compartments also held spacers , which are blocks of blank type used to separate words and fill out a line of type , such as em and en quads ( quadrats , or spaces . A quadrat is a block of type whose face is lower than the printing letters so that it does not itself print . ) . An em space was the width of a capital letter `` M '' -- as wide as it was high -- while an en space referred to a space half the width of its height ( usually the dimensions for a capital `` N '' ) . Individual letters are assembled into words and lines of text with the aid of a composing stick , and the whole assembly is tightly bound together to make up a page image called a forme , where all letter faces are exactly the same height to form a flat surface of type . The forme is mounted on a printing press , a thin coating of viscous ink is applied and impressions made on paper under great pressure in the press . `` Sorts '' is the term given to special characters not freely available in the typical type case , such as the `` @ '' mark . Metal type combined with other methods ( edit ) Ceramic type from the collections of University of Reading . Sometimes it is erroneously stated that printing with metal type replaced the earlier methods . In the industrial era printing methods would be chosen to suit the purpose . For example , when printing large scale letters in posters etc. the metal type would have proved too heavy and economically unviable . Thus , large scale type was made as carved wood blocks as well as ceramics plates . Also in many cases where large scale text was required , it was simpler to hand the job to a sign painter than a printer . Images could be printed together with movable type if they were made as woodcuts or wood engravings as long as the blocks were made to the same type height . If intaglio methods , such as copper plates , were used for the images , then images and the text would have required separate print runs on different machines . See also ( edit ) History of printing in East Asia History of Western typography Letterpress printing Odhecaton -- the first sheet music printed with movable type Spread of European movable type printing Type foundry Typesetting References ( edit ) Jump up ^ Needham , Joseph ( 1994 ) . The Shorter Science and Civilisation in China , Volume 4 . Cambridge University Press . p. 14 . ISBN 9780521329958 . Bi Sheng ... who first devised , about 1045 , the art of printing with movable type Jump up ^ He , Zhou ( 1994 ) . `` Diffusion of Movable Type in China and Europe : Why Were There Two Fates ? '' . International Communication Gazette. 53 ( 3 ) : 153 -- 173 . doi : 10.1177 / 001654929405300301 . Jump up ^ Beckwith , Christopher I. ( 2009 ) . Empires of the Silk Road : A History of Central Eurasia from the Bronze Age to the Present . Princeton University Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 691 - 15034 - 5 . Jump up ^ Encyclopædia Britannica . Retrieved November 27 , 2006 , from Encyclopædia Britannica Ultimate Reference Suite DVD -- entry `` printing '' Jump up ^ Eisenstein , Elizabeth L. , The Printing Revolution in Early Modern Europe , Cambridge University Press , 1983 Jump up ^ Clair , Kate ; Busic - Snyder , Cynthia ( 2012 ) . A Typographic Workbook : A Primer to History , Techniques , and Artistry . John Wiley & Sons . p. 4 . ISBN 978 - 1 - 118 - 39988 - 0 . Jump up ^ Sass , Benjamin ; Marzahn , Joachim ( 2010 ) . Aramaic and Figural Stamp Impressions on Bricks of the Sixth Century B.C. from Babylon . Harrassowitz Verlag . pp. 11 , 20 , 160 . ISBN 978 - 3 - 447 - 06184 - 1 . `` the latter has cuneiform signs that look as if made with a movable type , and impressions from Assur display the same phenomenon Jump up ^ Herbert E. Brekle , `` Das typographische Prinzip '' , Gutenberg - Jahrbuch , Vol. 72 ( 1997 ) , pp. 58 -- 63 ( 60f . ) Jump up ^ Hogan , C. Michael ( 29 December 2007 ) . `` Knossos Fieldnotes '' . The Modern Antiquarian . Retrieved 2012 - 08 - 15 . Jump up ^ Alberge , Dalya ( 2008 - 07 - 12 ) . `` Phaistos Disc declared as fake by scholar '' . Times Online . Retrieved 2008 - 09 - 01 . ^ Jump up to : Tsien , Tsuen - Hsuin ( 1985 ) . Paper and Printing . Needham , Joseph Science and Civilization in China . vol. 5 part 1 . Cambridge University Press . pp. 201 -- 217 . ISBN 0 - 521 - 08690 - 6 . ; also published in Taipei : Caves Books , Ltd. , 1986 . ^ Jump up to : Man , John ( 2002 ) . The Gutenberg Revolution : The story of a genius that changed the world . London : Headline Book Publishing . ISBN 0 - 7472 - 4504 - 5 . A detailed examination of Gutenberg 's life and invention , interwoven with the underlying social and religious upheaval of Medieval Europe on the eve of the Renaissance . ^ Jump up to : Xu Yinong , Moveable Type Books ( 徐忆农 《 活字 本 》 ) ISBN 7 - 80643 - 795 - 9 Jump up ^ Sohn , Pow - Key ( 1959 ) . `` Early Korean Printing '' . Journal of the American Oriental Society . 79 ( 2 ) : 96 -- 103 . JSTOR 595851 . doi : 10.2307 / 595851 . ^ Jump up to : Pan Jixing , A history of movable metal type printing technique in China 2001 Jump up ^ Shen Kuo . Dream Pool Essays . Jump up ^ Zhang Yuzhen ( 张玉珍 ) ( 2003 ) . `` 世界 上 现存 最早 的 木 活字 印本 -- 宁夏 贺兰山 方 塔 出土 西夏 文 佛经 《 吉祥 遍 至 口 和 本 续 》 介绍 '' ( The world 's oldest extant book printed with wooden movable type ) . Library and Information ( 《 图书 与 情报 》 ) ( 1 ) . ISSN 1003 - 6938 . Archived from the original on 2012 - 04 - 02 . Jump up ^ Hou Jianmei ( 侯 健美 ) ; Tong Shuquan ( 童曙泉 ) ( 20 December 2004 ) . `` 《 大 夏 寻 踪 》 今 展 国博 '' ( ' In the Footsteps of the Great Xia ' now exhibiting at the National Museum ) . Beijing Daily ( 《 北京 日报 》 ) . Jump up ^ 韩国 剽窃 活字 印刷 发明 权 只是 第 一 步 Jump up ^ A History of Moveable Type Printing in China , by Pan Jixing , Professor of the Institute for History of Science , Academy of Science , Beijing , China , English Abstract , p. 273 . Jump up ^ Wang Zhen ( 1298 ) . Zao Huozi Yinshufa ( 《 造 活字 印 書法 》 ) . 近世 又 铸 锡 作 字 , 以 铁 条 贯 之 ( rendering : In the modern times , there 's melten Tin Movable type , and linked them with iron bar ) ^ Jump up to : Chinese Paper and Printing , A Cultural History , by Tsien , Tsuen - Hsuin ^ Jump up to : Thomas Christensen ( 2007 ) . `` Did East Asian Printing Traditions Influence the European Renaissance ? '' . Arts of Asia Magazine ( to appear ) . Retrieved 2006 - 10 - 18 . Jump up ^ Sohn , Pow - Key ( Summer 1993 ) . `` Printing Since the 8th Century in Korea '' . Koreana. 7 ( 2 ) : 4 -- 9 . Jump up ^ Twyman , Michael ( 1998 ) . The British Library Guide to Printing : History and Techniques . London : The British Library . p. 21 . Jump up ^ World Treasures of the Library of Congress . Retrieved 26 December 2006 . Jump up ^ Briggs , Asa and Burke , Peter ( 2002 ) A Social History of the Media : from Gutenberg to the Internet , Polity , Cambridge , pp. 15 -- 23 , 61 -- 73 . ^ Jump up to : Burke ^ Jump up to : von Polenz , Peter ( 1991 ) . Deutsche Sprachgeschichte vom Spätmittelalter bis zur Gegenwart : I. Einführung , Grundbegriffe , Deutsch in der frühbürgerlichen Zeit ( in German ) . New York / Berlin : Walter de Gruyter GmbH . Jump up ^ Juan González de Mendoza ( 1585 ) . Historia de las cosas más notables , ritos y costumbres del gran reyno de la China ( in Spanish ) . Jump up ^ Thomas Franklin Carter , The Invention of Printing in China and its Spread Westward , The Ronald Press , NY 2nd ed. 1955 , pp. 176 -- 178 Jump up ^ `` Incunabula Short Title Catalogue '' . British Library . Retrieved 2 March 2011 . Jump up ^ Buringh , Eltjo ; van Zanden , Jan Luiten ( 2009 ) . `` Charting the ' Rise of the West ' : Manuscripts and Printed Books in Europe , A Long - Term Perspective from the Sixth through Eighteenth Centuries '' . The Journal of Economic History . 69 ( 2 ) : 409 -- 445 . JSTOR 40263962 p. 417 , table 2 . Jump up ^ Agüera y Arcas , Blaise ; Paul Needham ( November 2002 ) . `` Computational analytical bibliography '' . Proceedings Bibliopolis Conference The future history of the book . The Hague ( Netherlands ) : Koninklijke Bibliotheek . Jump up ^ `` What Did Gutenberg Invent ? -- Discovery '' . BBC / Open University . 2006 . Retrieved 2006 - 10 - 25 . Jump up ^ Adams , James L. ( 1991 ) . Flying Buttresses , Entropy and O - Rings : the World of an Engineer . Harvard University Press . Jump up ^ `` Answers.com page on antimony '' . McGraw - Hill Encyclopedia of Science and Technology . McGraw - Hill . 2005 - 01 - 01 . Retrieved 2009 - 06 - 30 . Jump up ^ Blankenstein A.H.G. , Wetser Ad : Zetten , uitgebreide leerstof , deel 1 , p. 26 , Edecea , Hoorn , The Netherlands , 5th edition , ( ~ 1952 ) Jump up ^ National Amateur Press Association , Monthly Bundle Sample , Campane 194 , The California Typecase by Lewis A. Pryor ( Edited ) Jump up ^ Glossary of Typesetting Terms , by Richard Eckersley , Charles Ellerston , Richard Hendel , Page 18 Jump up ^ Meggs , Philip B. , Purvis , Alston W. `` Graphic Design and the Industrial Revolution '' History of Graphic Design . Hoboken , N.J : Wiley , 2006 . p. 139 . Further Reading ( edit ) Nesbitt , Alexander . The History and Technique of Lettering ( c ) 1957 , Dover Publications , Inc . ISBN 0 - 486 - 40281 - 9 , Library of Congress Catalogue Card Number : 57 - 13116 . The Dover edition is an abridged and corrected republication of the work originally published in 1950 by Prentice - Hall , Inc. under the title Lettering : The History and Technique of Lettering as Design . The classic manual of hand - press technology is Moxon , Joseph ( 1683 -- 84 ) . `` Mechanick Exercises on the Whole Art of Printing '' ( ed . Herbert Davies & Harry Carter . New York : Dover Publications , 1962 , reprint ed . ) . External links ( edit ) Wikimedia Commons has media related to Printing letters . International Printing Museum Web site Typography terminology Page Canons of page construction Column Even working Margin Page numbering Pagination Pull quote Recto and verso Paragraph Alignment Justification Leading River Sentence spacing Widows and orphans Character Typeface anatomy Counter Diacritics Dingbat Glyph Initial Kerning Letter - spacing Ligature Subscript and superscript Swash Text figures Tittle Capitalization ALL CAPS CamelCase Letter case Petite caps Small caps Visual distinction Italics Oblique Bold Color Underline Blackboard bold Blackletter Infɑnt Vertical aspects Ascender Baseline Cap height Descender Median Overshoot x-height Classifications Roman type Antiqua ( old style ) Didone ( modern ) Sans - serif Script Serif Slab serif Transitional Reverse - contrast Blackletter type Fraktur Rotunda Schwabacher Textualis Gaelic type Insular Uncial Specialist Record type Punctuation Dashes Hanging punctuation Hyphen - minus Hyphenation Prime mark Quotation mark Typesetting Calligraphy etaoin shrdlu Font computer monospaced Font catalog Letterpress Lorem ipsum Microtypography Movable type Pangram Phototypesetting Punchcutting Type color Type design Typeface Microprint list Typographic units Agate Cicero Em En Figure space Measure Paren space Pica Point traditional point - size names Thin space Digital typography Character encoding Font formats Hinting Rasterization Typesetting software Typographic features Web typography Related Intentionally blank page Style guide Type foundry Commons Portal Letterpress printing History of printing Printer Ways to make impressions Movable type Type casting Type metal Punchcutter Matrix Blocks and plates Stereotype Logographic printing Wood engraving Electrotype Zinc etching Typesetting Manual typesetting Type case Composing stick Sort Slug Strut Reglet Furniture Leading Quoin Chase Forme Hellbox Hot metal typesetting Linotype machine Monotype System Ludlow Typograph Intertype Machine Paige Compositor Printing press Parts of a press Platen Frisket Tympan Bed Inking Offset ink Ink ball Composition roller Types of presses Hand press Stanhope Columbian Albion Jobbing press Golding & Company Chandler & Price Colt 's Armory Cylinder press Rotary press Other equipment Folding machine Paper cutter Addressograph Related arts Typography Bookbinding Printmaking Papermaking NDL : 00565235 Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Movable_type&oldid=799093575 '' Categories : Book arts Chinese inventions Typography Relief printing History of printing Hidden categories : CS1 German - language sources ( de ) CS1 Spanish - language sources ( es ) All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from June 2016 Wikipedia articles needing clarification from February 2012 Commons category without a link on Wikidata Talk Contents About Wikipedia Bân - lâm - gú Esperanto فارسی 한국어 Italiano Magyar 日本 語 Русский Тоҷикӣ Winaray 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 5 September 2017 , at 16 : 10 . 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who has priority at a 4 way stop

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=All-way_stop&oldid=836778170

All - way stop - wikipedia All - way stop Jump to : navigation , search This article is missing information about the history of the subject . Please expand the article to include this information . Further details may exist on the talk page . ( September 2011 ) A 4 - way stop An all - way stop ( or four - way stop when there are four approaches to the intersection ) is an intersection system used predominantly in the United States of America and Canada where traffic approaching it from all directions is required to stop before proceeding through the intersection . An all - way stop may have multiple approaches and may be marked with a supplemental plate stating the number of approaches . Contents ( hide ) 1 Operation 2 Application 3 Benefits and disadvantages 4 Worldwide comparisons 5 See also 6 References Operation ( edit ) A motorist approaching an all - way stop is always required to come to a full stop before the crosswalk or stop line . In most jurisdictions that use all - way stops , pedestrians always have priority at a crosswalk , even if the crosswalk is not delineated with pavement markings . Within some U.S. jurisdictions , such as the state of Idaho , bicyclists are exempt from the need to make a complete stop , but must give way to other vehicles as otherwise required by law . After a full - stop has been made , vehicles usually have the right - of - way to proceed through the intersection in the order that they arrived at the intersection . In the United States , if vehicles arrive at approximately the same time , each driver must yield to the drivers on their right . Some areas have additional formal and informal rules which may or may not include special procedures for when all stop signs are approached simultaneously . Application ( edit ) All roads leading into an all - way stop have an octagonal `` stop '' sign In the United States , the Federal Highway Administration 's Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices ( MUTCD ) defines the standards commonly used for the application of all - way stops . Where a stop has been determined to qualify , it is signed at all approaches to the intersections with a standard octagonal `` Stop '' sign , with a supplemental `` ALL WAY '' plaque . Earlier editions of the MUTCD allowed supplemental plaques specifying the number of approaches in an all - way stop , as in `` 3 WAY '' or `` 4 WAY '' . According to the MUTCD , installation of an all - way stop should be based on a traffic engineering study to determine if minimum traffic volume or safety criteria are met . These intersections are often found where roads with considerably equal traffic levels meet each other but the overall level of traffic present at the intersection does not justify a traffic light , and or in a location where the right of way was otherwise unclear . An all - way stop may also be justified if the intersection has a demonstrated history of crashes in a given period of a type susceptible to correction by installing an all - way stop . All - way stops may also be used as an interim measure preceding the placement of a traffic light , to provide a low - speed area for pedestrians to cross , where a cross street experiences considerable difficulty finding safe gaps due to heavy traffic volumes , or where traffic is frequently delayed by turning conflicts . Additionally , the MUTCD advocates the placement of all - way stops at intersections between through roads in residential areas if an engineering study can show that traffic flow would be improved by installing the all - way stop control . Despite published guidelines , all - way stops are routinely placed by jurisdictions due to political pressure from adjacent residents . Intersections between two minor highways with similar traffic counts , two collector roads in an urban or suburban setting or a collector road and a local road in a busy setting ( such as near a school ) are the most common locations for an all - way stop . Traffic signals will sometimes flash red indications in all directions following a malfunction , or all - red flashing operation may be scheduled to reduce delay or handle construction activity or unusual traffic patterns . When a traffic signal flashes in all - red mode , it legally operates as an all - way stop . When all approaches to an intersection are controlled in this way the rules for an all - way stop apply . However , it must also be noted that traffic signals may also flash yellow to major directions and flash red to minor directions during off - peak times to minimize traffic delays , in which case only side - street traffic is required to stop and yield the right of way to crossing traffic on the major street . During electrical outages when a traffic signal does not display any indications including flashing red , some jurisdictions require that the intersection be treated as an all - way stop . Other jurisdictions treat a dark signal as an uncontrolled intersection , where standard rules of right - of - way apply without the requirement of a complete stop . Benefits and disadvantages ( edit ) The main reason for the use of stop signs at road junctions is safety . According to an international study of locations where the system is in use , all - way stop control applied to four - legged intersections may reduce accident occurrence by 45 % . However , given alternative methods of intersection control and some of the disadvantages of all - way stops , the Handbook of Road Safety Measures recommends that four - way stops are best used between minor roads away from urbanized areas . Another benefit of all - way stops is assurance that vehicles enter the intersection at a low speed and have more time to take heed of the traffic situation , especially useful when sight distance is highly restricted . Some of the disadvantages associated with all - way stops are : Increased emissions of hydrocarbons . Increased average delay . Discouraging bicycling . That once installed , stop signs in general are unsafe to remove , accidents that result in injury may increase by 40 % . Once an all - way stop is installed , removal is difficult and risky , as habitual drivers may continue to expect an all - way stop condition . Worldwide comparisons ( edit ) Few countries outside North America -- least of all , those in Europe -- have intersections at which all users must stop at all times ; the conditions for stop sign placement may indeed preclude such an arrangement in many places . In Sweden all - way stops ( Flervägsstopp ) have been tested since the 1980s but are little used even though they are now permitted . In the UK they have always been very uncommon and were formally prohibited by the Department for Transport in 2002 . At four - legged intersections within Europe , a roundabout or mini-roundabout is commonly used to assign a relative priority to each approach . ( Roundabouts remain rare in North America , where early failures of rotaries and traffic circles caused such designs to lose favor until the gradual introduction of the modern roundabout in the late 20th century . ) Alternatively , at smaller intersections , priority to the right is widely used in most countries with right - hand traffic . See also ( edit ) Pedestrian scramble , where all directions are red , allowing diagonal pedestrian crossing References ( edit ) Jump up ^ `` Bicycle - related Idaho Code '' ( PDF ) . Idaho Vehicle Code Title 49 , Chapter 7 . Idaho Transportation Department . Retrieved 7 February 2013 . Jump up ^ http://thedrivingcenteronline.net/ded/read/b2r.pdf Jump up ^ https://driversed.com/driving-information/signs-signals-and-markings/right-of-way.aspx Jump up ^ `` Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices , 2003 revised version , section 2B -. 07 Multi-Way Stop Applications '' ( PDF ) . Jump up ^ New Mexico statute 66 - 7 - 107 Archived 12 July 2012 at the Wayback Machine . Jump up ^ Florida title XXIII statute 316.076 Jump up ^ California Vehicle Code section 21457 : Flashing signals ^ Jump up to : Elvik , Rune ; Alena Hoye ; Truls Vaa ; Michael Sorensen ( 2009 ) . Handbook of Road Safety Measures . London : Emerald Group . ISBN 1 - 84855 - 250 - 5 . OCLC 42603066 . Jump up ^ `` Why Bicyclists Hate Stop Signs ( J. Fajans and M. Curry ) '' ( PDF ) . Jump up ^ Johansson , Fillip ( 2007 ) . `` All - way - stop - controlled intersections -- A traffic safety measure that is seldom used '' ( Flervägsstopp i korsningar -- Trafiksäker åtgärd som sällan används ) ( PDF ) . Department of Society and Technology , Thesis 117 ( in Swedish ) . Lund , Sweden : Lund Institute of Technology Traffic and Road . ISSN 1653 - 1922 . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on 21 August 2010 . Retrieved 22 February 2010 . Jump up ^ Oxford Mail ( 2 September 2015 ) . `` Junction markings branded a danger '' . ( hide ) Traffic law and safety Rules of the road All - way stop Assured clear distance ahead Australian Road Rules Boulevard rule Green Cross Code Move over law New Zealand Road Code Overtaking Left - and right - hand traffic Right - of - way School bus traffic stop laws Traffic code Turn on red Vienna Convention on Road Traffic Road user guides Driver 's manual The Highway Code The Highway Code ( Malta ) Road Users ' Code Rules of the Road ( Ireland ) Enforcement Breathalyzer Camera Enforcement Red light Highway patrol / State police Parking enforcement Road traffic control Textalyzer Traffic court Traffic guard Traffic stop Traffic ticket Warning Speed limit Advisory speed limit Assured clear distance ahead National Maximum Speed Law School zone Speed limit enforcement Speed limits by country Category : Speed limits by country Moving violations Driving under the influence Canada United States Distracted driving Mobile phones and driving Texting while driving Reckless driving Street racing Tailgating Vehicular homicide Wrong - way driving Driver licensing Commercial driver 's license European driving licence Graduated driver licensing Inter-American Driving Permit International Driving Permit Learner 's permit Point system Driving licences by country List of countries by minimum driving age Traffic violations reciprocity Commercial Driver 's License Information System Driver License Agreement Driver License Compact Non-Resident Violator Compact Parking Alternate - side parking Decriminalised parking enforcement Disabled parking permit Double parking Parking chair Parking violation Wheel clamp Car safety Seat belt laws Click It or Ticket Clunk Click Every Trip Road safety Tachograph Digital tachograph Drivers ' working hours ( Europe ) Epilepsy and driving Hours of service ( US ) `` How 's my driving ? '' sign Old age and driving Sleep deprived driving Slow moving vehicle Vision Zero Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=All-way_stop&oldid=836778170 '' Categories : Traffic signs Traffic law Hidden categories : Webarchive template wayback links CS1 Swedish - language sources ( sv ) Articles to be expanded from September 2011 Use dmy dates from May 2011 Talk Contents About Wikipedia Deutsch Italiano Polski Edit links This page was last edited on 16 April 2018 , at 19 : 56 . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply . By using this site , you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia ® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation , Inc. , a non-profit organization . About Wikipedia

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who pays taxes a short introduction to tax incidence

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Tax_incidence&oldid=817117472

Tax incidence - wikipedia Tax incidence Jump to : navigation , search Taxation An aspect of fiscal policy Policies ( show ) Government revenue Tax revenue Non-tax revenue Tax law Tax bracket Tax threshold Exemption Credit Deduction Tax shift Tax cut Tax holiday Tax advantage Tax incentive Tax reform Tax harmonization Tax competition Double taxation Representation Unions Medical savings account Tax , tariff and trade Economics ( show ) Price effect Excess burden Tax incidence Laffer curve Optimal tax Theory Optimal capital income taxation Collection ( show ) Revenue service Revenue stamp Tax assessment Taxable income Tax lien Tax refund Tax shield Tax residence Tax preparation Tax investigation Tax shelter Private tax collection Tax farming Noncompliance ( show ) Tax avoidance Tax evasion Tax resistance Tax haven Smuggling Black market Transfer mispricing Unreported employment Tax shelter Distribution ( show ) Tax rate Progressive Regressive Proportional Types ( show ) Direct Indirect Per unit Ad valorem In rem Capital gains Carbon Consumption Dividend Ecotax Excise Fuel Georgist Gift Gross receipts Income Inheritance ( estate ) Land value Payroll Pigovian Property Sales Sin Single Stamp Steering Turnover Value - added ( VAT ) Corporate profit Excess profits Windfall profits Negative ( income ) Flat Wealth International ( show ) Financial transaction tax Currency transaction tax Tobin tax Spahn tax Tax equalization Tax treaty Permanent establishment Transfer pricing European Union FTT Foreign revenue rule Trade ( show ) Custom Duty Tariff Import Export Tariff war Free trade Free trade zone Trade agreement Religious ( show ) Church tax Eight per thousand Teind Tithe Fiscus Judaicus Leibzoll Temple tax Tolerance tax Jizya Kharaj Khums Nisab Zakat By country ( show ) List of countries by tax rates Tax revenues as % GDP Albania Algeria Argentina Australia Azerbaijan Bangladesh Bhutan Bulgaria BVI Canada China Colombia Denmark France Germany Greece Iceland India Indonesia Iran Ireland Israel Italy Japan Kazakhstan Lithuania Malta Namibia Netherlands New Zealand Norway Pakistan Palestine Peru Philippines Poland Russia Singapore South Africa Sweden Switzerland Taiwan Tanzania United Kingdom United States Uruguay In economics , tax incidence or tax burden is the analysis of the effect of a particular tax on the distribution of economic welfare . The introduction of a tax drives a wedge between the price consumers pay and the price producers receive for a product , which typically imposes an economic burden on both producers and consumers . The concept was brought to attention by the French Physiocrats , in particular François Quesnay , who argued that the incidence of all taxation falls ultimately on landowners and is at the expense of land rent . Tax incidence is said to `` fall '' upon the group that ultimately bears the burden of , or ultimately has to pay , the tax . The key concept is that the tax incidence or tax burden does not depend on where the revenue is collected , but on the price elasticity of demand and price elasticity of supply . The theory of tax incidence has a number of practical results . For example , United States Social Security payroll taxes are paid half by the employee and half by the employer . However , some economists think that the worker bears almost the entire burden of the tax because the employer passes the tax on in the form of lower wages . The tax incidence is thus said to fall on the employee . However , it could equally well be argued that in some cases the incidence of the tax falls on the employer . This is because both the price elasticity of demand and price elasticity of supply affect on whom the incidence of the tax falls . Price controls such as the minimum wage which sets a price floor and market distortions such as subsidies or welfare payments also complicate the analysis . Contents ( hide ) 1 Example of tax incidence 2 Graphical analysis 2.1 Inelastic supply , elastic demand 2.2 Elastic supply , inelastic demand 2.3 Similarly elastic supply and demand 3 Macroeconomic perspective 3.1 Other considerations of tax burden 3.2 Tax burden of a country relative to GDP 3.3 Clarification 4 Other practical results 5 Assessment 6 See also 7 Notes Example of tax incidence ( edit ) Imagine a $1 tax on every barrel of apples an apple farmer produces . If the product ( apples ) is price inelastic to the consumer the farmer is able to pass the entire tax on to consumers of apples by raising the price by $1 . In this example , consumers bear the entire burden of the tax ; the tax incidence falls on consumers . On the other hand , if the apple farmer is unable to raise prices because the product is price elastic the farmer has to bear the burden of the tax or face decreased revenues : the tax incidence falls on the farmer . If the apple farmer can raise prices by an amount less than $1 , then consumers and the farmer are sharing the tax burden . When the tax incidence falls on the farmer , this burden will typically flow back to owners of the relevant factors of production , including agricultural land and employee wages . Where the tax incidence falls depends ( in the short run ) on the price elasticity of demand and price elasticity of supply . Tax incidence falls mostly upon the group that responds least to price ( the group that has the most inelastic price - quantity curve ) . If the demand curve is inelastic relative to the supply curve the tax will be disproportionately borne by the buyer rather than the seller . If the demand curve is elastic relative to the supply curve , the tax will be born disproportionately by the seller . If PED = PES the tax burden is split equally between buyer and seller . Tax incidence can be calculated using the pass - through fraction . The pass - through fraction for buyers is PES / ( PES - PED ) . So if PED for apples is - 0.4 and PES is 0.5 then the pass - through fraction to buyer would be calculated as follows : PES / ( PES - PED ) = 0.5 / ( 0.5 - ( -. 0.4 ) ) = 0.5 / 0.9 = 56 % . 56 % of any tax increase would be `` paid '' by the buyer ; 44 % would be `` paid '' by the seller . From the perspective of the seller , the formula is - PED / ( PES - PED ) = - ( - 0.4 ) / ( 0.5 - ( - 0.4 ) ) = 0.4 ∕. 9 = 44 % Graphical analysis ( edit ) For a primer on reading supply and demand graphs , see Supply and demand . For a primer on the economic effects of a tax , see Tax . Inelastic supply , elastic demand ( edit ) Because the producer is perfectly inelastic , they will produce the same quantity no matter the price . Because the consumer is elastic , the consumer is very sensitive to price . A small increase in price leads to a large drop in the quantity demanded . The imposition of the tax causes the market price to increase from P without tax to P with tax and the quantity demanded to fall from Q without tax to Q with tax . Because the consumer is elastic , the quantity change is significant . Because the producer is inelastic , the price does n't change much . The producer is unable to pass the tax onto the consumer and the tax incidence falls on the producer . In this example , the tax is collected from the producer and the producer bears the tax burden . This is known as back shifting . Tax incidence or burden does not in any way depend on where the revenue has been collected . It rather depends on the price elasticity of demand as well as the price elasticity of the supply . Tax burden as seen refers to the people who pay the taxes whether producer or consumer and considers the societal effects that result . It is said to fall entirely on the group that bears the burden or who has to pay the tax . Elastic supply , inelastic demand ( edit ) If , in contrast to the previous example , the producer is perfectly inelastic , he will continue producing the same quantity no matter the price . In case that the consumer is elastic ; the consumer becomes very sensitive and weary of the price ( Melville 24 ) . A small increase in the price of something leads to a large drop in the quantity that is being demanded . The imposition of taxes causes the market price to have an increase from P without taxes . It rises to P with taxes . In most markets , elasticities of the supply and demand are similar to the short - run and result in the burden of the taxes that has been imposed . The tax that has been imposed is shared between two groups and in varying proportions . In general , the group that will have a greater tax burden is the one that exhibits greater relative inelasticity ( Prasad 49 ) . When there is an increase in elasticity in one place , the demand for the quantity changes so that it can suit the different needs that have been set by the tax burden . Tax burden , therefore , varies a lot with elasticity in materials . Similarly elastic supply and demand ( edit ) Most markets fall between these two extremes , and ultimately the incidence of tax is shared between producers and consumers in varying proportions . In this example , the consumers pay more than the producers , but not all of the tax . The area paid by consumers is obvious as the change in equilibrium price ( between P without tax and P with tax ) ; the remainder , being the difference between the new price and the cost of production at that quantity , is paid by the producers . Inelastic supply , elastic demand : the burden is on producers Similar elasticities : burden shared Macroeconomic perspective ( edit ) The supply and demand for a good is deeply intertwined with the markets for the factors of production and for alternate goods and services that might be produced or consumed . Although legislators might be seeking to tax the apple industry , in reality it could turn out to be truck drivers who are hardest hit , if apple companies shift toward shipping by rail in response to their new cost . Or perhaps orange manufacturers will be the group most affected , if consumers decide to forgo oranges to maintain their previous level of apples at the now higher price . Ultimately , the burden of the tax falls on people -- the owners , customers , or workers . However , the true burden of the tax can not be properly assessed without knowing the use of the tax revenues . If the tax proceeds are employed in a manner that benefits owners more than producers and consumers then the burden of the tax will fall on producers and consumers . If the proceeds of the tax are used in a way that benefits producers and consumers , then owners suffer the tax burden . These are class distinctions concerning the distribution of costs and are not addressed in current tax incidence models . The US military offers major benefit to owners who produce offshore . Yet the tax levy to support this effort falls primarily on American producers and consumers . Corporations simply move out of the tax jurisdiction but still receive the property rights enforcement that is the mainstay of their income . Other considerations of tax burden ( edit ) Consider a 7 % import tax applied equally to all imports ( oil , autos , hula hoops , and brake rotors ; steel , grain , everything ) and a direct refund of every penny of collected revenue in the form of a direct egalitarian `` Citizen 's Dividend '' to every person who files Income Tax returns . At the macro level ( aggregate ) the people as a whole will break even . But the people who consume foreign produced goods will bear more of the burden than the people who consume a mix of goods . The people who consume no foreign goods will bear none of the burden and actually receive an increase in utility . On the producer side , the tax burden distribution will depend on whether a firm produces its goods within the sovereignty or outside the sovereignty . Firms that produce goods inside the sovereignty will increase their market share and their profits when compared to firms who offshore their production . And if the current mix of firms is tilted toward offshore production then the owners of firms will be burdened more than the consumers while the workers / employees will benefit from greater employment opportunities . Tax burden of a country relative to GDP ( edit ) A country or state 's tax burden as a percentage of GDP is the ratio of tax collection against the national gross domestic product ( GDP ) . This is one way of illustrating how high and broad the tax base is in any particular place . Some countries , like Sweden , have a high tax - to - GDP ratio ( as high as 54 % ) . Other countries , like India , have a low ratio . Some states increase the tax - to - GDP ratio by a certain percentage in order to cover deficiencies in the state budget revenue . In states where the tax revenue has gone up significantly , the percentage of tax revenue that is applied towards state revenue and foreign debt is sometimes higher . When tax revenues grow at a slower rate than the GDP of a country , the tax - to - GDP ratio drops . Taxes paid by individuals and corporations often account for the majority of tax receipts , especially in developed countries . Clarification ( edit ) The burden from taxation is not just the quantity of tax paid ( directly or indirectly ) , but the magnitude of the lost consumer surplus or producer surplus . The concepts are related but different . For example , imposing a $1000 per gallon of milk tax will raise no revenue ( because legal milk production will stop ) , but this tax will cause substantial economic harm ( lost consumer surplus and lost producer surplus ) . When examining tax incidence , it is the lost consumer and producer surplus that is important . See the tax article for more discussion . Other practical results ( edit ) The theory of tax incidence has a large number of practical results , although economists dispute the magnitude and significance of these results : If the government requires employers to provide employees with health care , some of the burden will fall on the employee as the employer will pass it on in the form of lower wages . Some of the burden will be borne by employer ( and ultimately the customer in form of higher prices or lower quality ) since both the supply of and demand for labor are highly inelastic and have few perfect substitutes . Employers need employees largely to the extent they can substitute employees for machines , and employees need employers largely to the extent they can become self - employed entrepreneurs . An uneducated population is therefore more susceptible to bearing the burden because they are more easily replaced by machines able to do unskilled work , and because they have less knowledge of how to make money on their own . Taxes on easily substitutable goods , such as oranges and tangerines , may be borne mostly by the producer because the demand curve for easily substitutable goods is quite elastic . Similarly , taxes on a business that can easily be relocated are likely to be borne almost entirely by the residents of the taxing jurisdiction and not the owners of the business . The burden of tariffs ( import taxes ) on imported vehicles might fall largely on the producers of the cars because the demand curve for foreign cars might be elastic if car consumers may substitute a domestic car purchase for a foreign car purchase . If consumers drive the same number of miles regardless of gas prices , then a tax on gasoline will be paid for by consumers and not oil companies ( this is assuming that the price elasticity of supply of oil is high ) . Who actually bears the economic burden of the tax is not affected by whether government collects the tax at the pump or directly from oil companies . Assessment ( edit ) Assessing tax incidence is a major economics subfield within the field of public finance . Most public finance economists acknowledge that nominal tax incidence ( i.e. who writes the check to pay a tax ) is not necessarily identical to actual economic burden of the tax , but disagree greatly among themselves on the extent to which market forces disturb the nominal tax incidence of various types of taxes in various circumstances . The effects of certain kinds of taxes , for example , the property tax , including their economic incidence , efficiency properties and distributional implications , have been the subject of a long and contentious debate among economists . The empirical evidence tends support different economic models under different circumstances . For example , empirical evidence on property tax incidents tends to support one economic model , known as the `` benefit tax '' view in suburban areas , while tending to support another economic model , known as the `` capital tax '' view in urban and rural areas . There is an inherent conflict in any model between considering many factors , which complicates the model and makes it hard to apply , and using a simple model , which may limit the circumstances in which its predictions are empirically useful . Lower and higher taxes were tested in the United States from 1980 to 2010 and it was found that the periods of greatest economic growth occurred during periods of higher taxation . This does not prove causation . It is possible that the time of higher economic growth provided government with more leeway to impose higher taxes . See also ( edit ) Effect of taxes and subsidies on price Excess burden of taxation Externalities and Pigovian taxes Fiscal incidence Flypaper theory of tax incidence Optimal tax List of countries by tax revenue as percentage of GDP Notes ( edit ) Jump up ^ International Burdens of the Corporate Income Tax Jump up ^ The Tax Foundation - Who Really Pays the Corporate Income Tax ? Jump up ^ `` Forms of Taxation - Lawrance George Jump up ^ `` Tax - To - GDP Ratio '' Jump up ^ See , e.g. , Zodrow GR , Mieszkowski P . `` The Incidence of the Property Tax . The Benefit View vs. the New View '' . In : Local Provision of Public Services : The Tiebout Model after Twenty - Five Years -- Zodrow GR , ed. ( 1983 ) New York : Academic Press . 109 -- 29 . Jump up ^ Zodrow , The Property Tax Incidence Debate and the Mix of State and Local Finance of Local Public Expenditures ( 2008 ) , citing Fischel , Regulatory Takings : Law , Economics , and Politics ( 1995 ) Jump up ^ LEONHARDT , DAVID ( September 15 , 2012 ) . `` Do Tax Cuts Lead to Economic Growth ? '' . nytimes.com . The New York Times Company . Retrieved 16 April 2014 . Jump up ^ Blodget , Henry ( 21 September 2012 ) . `` BOMBSHELL : New Study Destroys Theory That Tax Cuts Spur Growth '' . www.businessinsider.com . Business Insider , Inc . Retrieved 16 April 2014 . Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tax_incidence&oldid=817117472 '' Categories : Tax incidence Talk Contents About Wikipedia Deutsch Eesti Español Français Italiano עברית Latviešu Norsk Polski Svenska தமிழ் Tiếng Việt 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 26 December 2017 , at 07 : 09 . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply . By using this site , you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia ® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation , Inc. , a non-profit organization . About Wikipedia

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what is a sapper in the canadian army

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Sapper&oldid=856058031

Sapper - wikipedia Sapper This article needs additional citations for verification . Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . ( January 2018 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) For other uses , see Sapper ( disambiguation ) . The sappers ( `` sapeurs '' ) of the French Foreign Legion traditionally sport large beards , wear leather aprons and gloves in their ceremonial dress , and carry axes . A sapper , also called pioneer or combat engineer , is a combatant or soldier who performs a variety of military engineering duties such as breaching fortifications , demolitions , bridge - building , laying or clearing minefields , preparing field defenses , as well as working on road and airfield construction and repair . They are also trained to serve as infantry personnel in defensive and offensive operations . A sapper 's duties are devoted to tasks involving facilitating movement , defence and survival of allied forces and impeding those of enemies . The term `` sapper '' is used in the British Army and Commonwealth nations , Polish Army and the U.S. military . The phrase `` sapper '' comes from the French saper ( to undermine , to dig under a wall or building to cause its collapse ) . Contents 1 Historical origin 1.1 Sapping 1.2 Miner 2 Specific usage 2.1 Commonwealth of Nations 2.2 Australia 2.3 Canada 2.4 Indian Army 2.5 Israel 2.6 France 2.6. 1 History 2.6. 2 Firefighters 2.6. 3 Pioneers 2.7 Greece 2.8 Italy 2.9 Portugal 2.10 Pakistan Army 2.11 United States Army 2.12 PAVN and Viet Cong 2.13 Ottoman Empire 3 Honours 4 In fiction 5 See also 6 References 7 External links Historical origin ( edit ) Sapping ( edit ) See also : Sapping Soldiers of No 2 Field Company , Bombay Sappers and Miners on duty in China in 1900 . The mule carries the tools required for field engineering tasks . A sapper , in the sense first used by the French military , was one who dug trenches to allow besieging forces to advance towards the enemy defensive works and forts , over ground that is under the defenders ' musket or artillery fire . This digging was referred to as sapping the enemy fortifications . Saps were excavated by brigades of trained sappers or instructed troops . When an army was defending a fortress with cannons , they had an obvious height and therefore range advantage over the attacker 's guns . The attacking army 's artillery had to be brought forward , under fire , so as to facilitate effective counter-battery fire . This was achieved by digging what the French termed a sappe ( derived from the archaic French word for spade or entrenching tool ) . Using techniques developed and perfected by Vauban , the sappers began the trench at such an angle so as to avoid enemy fire enfilading the sappe by firing down its length . As they pressed forward , a position was prepared from which cannon could suppress the defenders on the fort 's bastions . The sappers would then change the course of their trench , zig - zagging toward the fortress wall . Each leg brought the attacker 's artillery closer until the besieged cannon would be sufficiently suppressed for the attackers to breach the walls . Broadly speaking , sappers were originally experts at demolishing or otherwise overcoming or bypassing fortification systems . Miner ( edit ) See also : Mining ( military ) The fort of Ghazni which fell as a result of mining by a mixed contingent of the Bombay and Bengal Sappers during the First Afghan War on 23 July 1839 . An additional term applied to sappers of the British Indian Army was `` miner '' . The native engineer corps were called `` sappers and miners '' , as for example , the Royal Bombay Sappers and Miners . The term arose from a task done by sappers to further the battle after saps were dug . The saps permitted cannon to be brought into firing range of the besieged fort and its cannon , but often the cannon themselves were unable to breach the fort walls . The engineers would dig a tunnel from the forward-most sap up to and under the fort wall , then place a charge of gunpowder and ignite it , causing a tremendous explosion that would destroy the wall and permit attacking infantry to close with the enemy . This was dangerous work , often lethal to the sappers , and was fiercely resisted by the besieged enemy . Since the two tasks went hand in hand and were done by the same troops , native Indian engineer corps came to be called `` sappers and miners '' . Specific usage ( edit ) Commonwealth of nations ( edit ) Sapper ( abbreviated Spr ) is the Royal Engineers ' equivalent of private . This is also the case within the Indian Army Corps of Engineers , Pakistan Army Corps of Engineers Royal Canadian Engineers , Royal Australian Engineers , South African Army Engineer Formation and Royal New Zealand Engineers . The term `` sapper '' was introduced in 1856 when the Corps of Royal Sappers and Miners was amalgamated with the officer corps of the Royal Engineers to form the Corps of Royal Engineers . Australia ( edit ) Main article : Royal Australian Engineers Jisr Benat Yakub repaired ( September 1918 ) During the Sinai and Palestine Campaign of World War I Australian sappers repaired a bridge at the historic crossing of the Jordan River at Jisr Benat Yakub ( also known as Jacob 's Ford ) . Here the retreating Ottoman and German rearguard had blown up the bridge 's central arch which was repaired in five hours by sappers attached to the Australian Mounted Division . While the light horse brigades forded the river , continuing the Desert Mounted Corps ' advance to Damascus , the sappers worked through the night of 27 / 28 September 1918 , to repair the bridge to enable the division 's wheeled vehicles and guns to follow on 28 September . Canada ( edit ) Main article : Royal Canadian Engineers In the Canadian Forces , sappers exist both in the regular force and reserve force . The rank of sapper is used instead of private trained to signify completion of the Engineer DP1 course . Canadian sappers have been deployed in many major conflicts in recent history including World War I , World War II , the Korean War , and the War in Afghanistan . The roles of a sapper entail : Bridge building with the ACROW , Bailey , or Medium Girder Bridge bridging systems ; explosive ordnance disposal ; operating the advanced reverse - osmosis water purification unit , used mainly in domestic operations ; maintaining roadways and airfields ; combat diving ; tactical breaching ; and erecting and tearing down friendly living spaces . Ultimately , the objective of the sappers is to facilitate the living , moving , and fighting for friendly troops on the battlefield , and denying the same to enemy forces . The motto of the Canadian Military Engineers is Ubique ( Latin : everywhere ) a motto shared with the Royal Canadian Artillery . The patron saint of combat engineers is Saint Barbara , and 4 December is the corps ' day of celebration . Indian Army ( edit ) Main article : Indian Army Corps of Engineers The term `` sappers '' , in addition to the connotation of rank of engineer private , is used collectively to informally refer to the Engineer Corps as a whole and also forms part of the informal names of the three combat engineer groups , viz . Madras Sappers , Bengal Sappers and the Bombay Sappers . Each of these groups consist of about twenty battalion - sized engineer regiments and additional company - sized minor engineer units . The three sapper groups are descended from the sapper and miner groups of the East India Company and later the British Indian Army of the British Raj . Israel ( edit ) Main article : Israeli Combat Engineering Corps In the Israel Defense Forces a sapper ( in Hebrew : פלס , palas ) is the military profession of a combat soldier who went through basic combat engineering training . Most of the sappers are soldiers of the Combat Engineering Corps , but there are also infantry sappers , who are part of the infantry brigades and are organized in engineering companies called פלחה `` ן ( palchan ) . These companies are integral part of the infantry brigades . Combat engineering corps sappers are arranged in battalions . Each sapper goes through high level infantry training , which qualifies him as rifleman 06 ( רובאי 06 ) . Combat engineering sappers are qualified as `` sapper 06 '' ( פלס 06 ) . They are skilled in infantry combat , basic sabotage , landmine planting and demining , use of explosives , breaching and opening routes , trench warfare , and operating the IDF Puma combat engineering vehicle . Combat engineering commanders are qualified as `` sapper 08 '' while combat engineering officers are qualified as `` sapper 11 '' . Both go through additional advance training to gain the skills needed for high level sapper profession . The Israel Police also maintains a bomb disposal specialist unit . All police sappers must graduate from a 10 - month training program at the bomb disposal training center in Beit Shemesh , which includes operational exercises , theoretical studies , and fieldwork . France ( edit ) Insignia of the military sappers French sappers during the Battle of Berezina in 1812 In France , sapper ( sapeur ) is the title of military combat engineers and firefighters , both civil and military , ( sapper - fireman or sapeur - pompier ) . Military sappers fall under the umbrella of the Engineering Arm or Arme du Génie . A related title is pioneer ( pionnier ) , used only in the French Foreign Legion . Sapper : title of combat engineers in most Engineer Regiments ( 3rd , 13th , 19th and 31st ) , except in the French Foreign Legion ( 1st Foreign Engineer Regiment and 2nd Foreign Engineer Regiment ) Air Sapper ( sapeur de l'air ) : title of the privates of the 25th Air Engineering Regiment , an Army regiment seconded to the Air Force . Parachute Sapper ( sapeur parachutiste ) : title of the privates of the 17th Parachute Engineer Regiment , the combat engineering unit of the 11th Parachute Brigade Marine Sapper ( sapeur de marine ) : since 2006 , title of the privates of the 6th Engineer Regiment , the combat engineering unit of the 9th Light Armoured Marine Brigade . Sapper firefighter ( sapeur - pompier ) : title of the firefighters in the civilian fire services and the Paris Fire Brigade . Sapper - miner ( sapeur - mineur ) : since World War Two , combat engineers specialized in demining . History ( edit ) French Imperial Guard sappers , 1810 The French Corps of Engineers was created under the command of Marshall Vauban during the late 17th century . Its members were called sappers if their function was to destroy enemy fortifications by using trenches or sape and miners if they engaged in tunnel warfare or mine . The Corps of the Engineers was suppressed during two short periods ( 1720 - 1729 and 1769 - 1793 ) and sappers and miners were part of the Artillery regiments . In 1793 , the Corps was reorganized into companies of miners and battalions of sappers , each assigned to a particular division . Eventually , as the missions of the Corps grew more diversified , additional titles were used by combat engineers , such as Conductor ( sapeur - conducteur ) in 1810 , entrusted with the logistics of the Corps , Firefighter ( sapeur - pompier ) in 1810 or telegraph sapper ( sapeur - télégraphiste ) . In 1814 , the companies of miners were integrated into the sapper battalions , themselves organized in Engineers Regiments ( régiments du génie ) . In 1875 , the distinction between miners and sappers was abolished and all members of the Corps of Engineers were titled sappers - miners , though only sapper was used in common usage . In 1894 , the pontonniers or bridgemakers were transferred from the Artillery Corps to the Engineers , thus creating the title sapeurs - pontonniers . In 1909 , the Engineering Arm of the Army Staff was entrusted the burgeoning Air Service ( Aérostation militaire ) , its personal was titled sapper - airman ( sapeur - aérostier ) . The titled was disused in 1914 when the Air Service took its independence from the Engineering Arm . Firefighters ( edit ) Sapeurs - pompiers de Paris ( Paris Fire Brigade ) on parade The first fire company created by Napoléon I was a military sapper company of the French Imperial Guard , created in 1810 . This company was tasked with the protection of the Imperial palaces after the tragic fire of the Austrian embassy in Paris on July 1 , 1810 . The Paris Fire Service ( gardes - pompes ) , a civilian institution , was re-organized as a military unit in September 1811 , becoming the Paris Sappers - Firefighters Battalion . Other cities kept or created civilian firefighters services but used the military ranks and organization of the Paris Battalion . In 1831 , National Guard engineers companies became the reserve components of the Fire Services and kept their military organization even after the disappearance of the National Guard in 1852 . Sapper - firefighter is the common title of the civilian and Paris firefighters in France , but the other military firefighters units , such as the Marseille Naval Fire Battalion , do not use the sapper title , as they had no military engineers lineage . Pioneers ( edit ) Main article : Foreign Legion Pioneers ( Pionniers ) Since the 18th century , every grenadier battalion in the French Army had a small unit of pioneers , sometimes called sappers - pioneers ( sapeurs - pionniers ) . They had the mission to advance under enemy fire in order to destroy the obstacles drawn by the enemy and to clear the way for the rest of the infantry . The danger of such missions resulted in pioneers having short life expectancies . Because of this , the army allowed them certain privileges such as the authorization to wear beards . In addition to their beards and axes , they traditionally wear leather aprons and gloves . The pioneers units disappeared during the mid-20th c. century , their last appearance being the short - lived Pioneers Regiments of 1939 - 1944 , a military public works service using the older draftees in the army . Only the Foreign Legion kept using a pioneer unit , mainly for representation duty . The current pioneer unit of the Legion reintroduced the symbols of the Napoleonic pioneers : the beard , the axe , the leather apron , the crossed - axes insignia and the leather gloves . If the parades of the Legion are opened by this unit , it is to commemorate the traditional role of the pioneers `` opening the way '' for the troops . The pioneer unit is made up for parades of selected men taken in both the Infantry and the Engineers regiments of the Legion . Greece ( edit ) In the Hellenic Army , there is the `` mechanic '' or `` Corps of Engineers '' ( μηχανικό ; michaniko ) . Italy ( edit ) The Italian Army uses the term `` Guastatore '' for their combat engineers and other specialized sapper units ( sappers paratroopers and alpini 's sappers ) , who are associated with Special Forces to clear obstacles and perform engineering duties . 2nd Alpine Engineer Regiment 32nd Alpine Engineer Regiment 8th Parachute Assault Engineer Regiment Portugal ( edit ) In Portugal , the term `` sapper '' is used both in the military and in the civilian environment. bIn the Portuguese Army , a sapador de engenharia ( engineering sapper ) is a soldier of the engineer branch that has specialized combat engineer training . A sapador de infantaria ( infantry sapper ) is a soldier of the infantry branch that has a similar training and that usually serves in the combat support sapper platoon of an infantry battalion . A sapador NBQ ( NBC sapper ) is an engineer branch soldier specialized in nuclear , biological and chemical warfare . The bombeiros - sapadores ( `` sapper - firefighters '' ) are the civil municipal professional firefighters that exist in the main cities of the country . The largest unit of this type is the Regimento de Bombeiros Sapadores ( `` sapper - firefighters regiment '' ) maintained by the Lisbon municipal council . The sapadores florestais ( forest sappers ) are the professionals maintained by the government , local authorities and large private forestry companies , who cleans and maintain forests and prevents and fights forest fires . Pakistan Army ( edit ) In the Pakistan Army , sapper officers perform combat and normal engineer duties . The Corps is led by Engineer - in - Chief who is a Lt Gen. The current Engineer - in - Chief is Lt Gen Khalid Asghar . The Frontier Works Organization , Military Engineering Service and the Survey of Pakistan is part of the corps . Initially part of the Indian Corps of Engineers , it dates back to 1780 but came to its modern form in 1947 following the Independence of Pakistan . Since then it has taken part in all wars including 1965 War , 1971 War and Kargil War . It has completed the Pakistan portion of Karakoram Highway . The corps is taking part in Operation Zarb - e-Azb United States Army ( edit ) See also : Sapper Tab US combat engineer setting a charge in World War II In the United States Army , sappers are combat engineers who support the front - line infantry , and they have fought in every war in U.S. history . For example , after the Battle of Yorktown , General Washington cited Louis Lebègue Duportail , the Chief of Engineers , for conduct which afforded `` brilliant proofs of his military genius . '' Designation as a sapper nowadays is earned as an additional proficiency . The U.S. Army authorizes four skill tabs for permanent wear above the unit patch on the left shoulder ( Army Regulation 670 - 1 Chapter 29 - 13 , Sub-Paragraph f ) . Along with the Sapper Tab , the Special Forces Tab , the Ranger Tab , and the President 's Hundred Tab identify soldiers who have passed a demanding course of military instruction and demonstrated their competence in particular specialities and skills . To wear the Sapper Tab , a soldier must graduate from the sapper leader course which is operated by the U.S. Army Engineer School at Fort Leonard Wood , Missouri . The sapper leader course is a 28 - day course designed to train joint - service leaders in small unit tactics , leadership skills , and tactics required to perform as part of a combined arms team . The course is open to enlisted soldiers in the grades of E-4 ( P ) ( in the army , specialist on the list for promotion to sergeant ) E-5 , and above , cadets , and officers O - 3 ( army captain ) and below . Students can come from any combat or combat support branch of the service , but priority is given to engineer , cavalry , and infantry soldiers . PAVN and Viet công ( edit ) Sapper formation - PAVN / Viet Cong PAVN ( People 's Army of Vietnam ) and Viet Cong sappers , as they were called by US forces , are better described as commando units . The Vietnamese term đặc công can be literally translated as `` special task '' . Thousands of specially trained elite fighters served in the PAVN and Viet Cong commando -- sapper units which were organized as independent formations . While not always successful due to lack of appropriate personal weapon types for combat and assault like other special forces , at times they inflicted heavy damage against their enemies . They have been armed with various types of bombs , mines , explosive charges , grenades and even steel - pellet mines which were much more devastating than the U.S. M18 Claymore and are still the main weapons of the đặc công . These elite units served as raiders against American / ARVN troops , and infiltrated spearheads during the final Ho Chi Minh Campaign in 1975 , where they seized key road and bridge assets , destroyed installations , attacked command and control nodes located deep inside enemy territory , planted explosives on U.S. water craft , and otherwise helped the PAVN 's rapid mobile forces advance . A typical PAVN / VC đặc công organization is shown in the diagram . The raiding force was usually grouped into assault teams , each broken down into several 3 -- 5 man assault cells . Overall , there were generally four operational echelons . Ottoman empire ( edit ) Ottomans had an infantry corp named Lağımcılar Ocağı ( Tr : ( 1 ) ) ( literally : Sapper Corps ) . These infantries were used in most of the Empires ' sieges , demolishing enemy fortifications and defences . Honours ( edit ) Sapper Island , St. Joseph Channel , Algoma District , Ontario was named in honour of sappers , especially those who graduated from the Royal Military College of Canada . 46 ° 18 ′ 56 '' N 83 ° 57 ′ 29 '' W  /  46.31556 ° N 83.95806 ° W  / 46.31556 ; - 83.95806 In fiction ( edit ) In the 1978 song by Australian rock band Cold Chisel , `` Khe Sanh '' , the narrator ( a fictional Australian army Vietnam War veteran ) says `` I left my heart to the sappers round Khe Sanh '' . However , the only sappers or combat engineers present at the historical Battle of Khe Sanh belonged to US , South Vietnamese and ( opposing ) North Vietnamese units . See also ( edit ) Assault pioneer List of military engineer nomenclatures Trooper ( rank ) Viet Cong and PAVN Sapper attacks References ( edit ) This article includes a list of references , but its sources remain unclear because it has insufficient inline citations . Please help to improve this article by introducing more precise citations . ( June 2013 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) Citations Jump up ^ James , Charles ( 1816 ) . `` Sape '' . An Universal Military Dictionary , in English and French : In which are Explained the Terms of the Principal Sciences that are Necessary for the Information of an Officer . T. Egerton . p. 781 . Archived from the original on 26 July 2018 . Retrieved 14 March 2018 . Sappe not only signifies the opening which is made but also the act of sapping . Richelet , Boyer , and others write the word with one p , Trevoux and Belidor with two ; but the mere spelling of a word seems not to have been much attended to , even by the best French writers . Jump up ^ Brachet , Auguste ( 1882 ) . `` Sape '' . An Etymological Dictionary of the French Language : Crowned by the French Academy . Clarendon Press . p. 352 . Archived from the original on 26 July 2018 . Retrieved 14 March 2018 . Image of p. 352 at Google Books Jump up ^ `` Roman military entrenching tool '' . Museum of London Prints . Archived from the original on 15 March 2018 . Retrieved 14 March 2018 . Jump up ^ Jobson 2009 , p. 96 . Jump up ^ Preston pp. 261 -- 2 Jump up ^ Carver 2003 p. 242 Jump up ^ Falls 1930 Vol. 2 p. 568 Jump up ^ Efraim , Omri ( 20 September 2011 ) . `` Israel Police get 1st female sapper '' . Israel News . Archived from the original on 2 April 2015 . Retrieved 12 March 2015 . Jump up ^ AR 670 - 1 : Wear and Appearance of Army Uniforms and Insignia Archived 16 July 2011 at the Wayback Machine . U.S. Army , revised : 11 May 2012 . Jump up ^ Sapper Course , US Army , archived from the original on 9 September 2006 Jump up ^ Ott 1975 , pp. 1 -- 42 . Jump up ^ Ontario History , Papers and Records , Vol . X , Ontario Historical Society , 1913 . Retrieved 28 October 2010 . Bibliography Carver , Michael , Field Marshal Lord ( 2003 ) . The National Army Museum Book of The Turkish Front 1914 -- 1918 : The Campaigns at Gallipoli , in Mesopotamia and in Palestine . London : Pan Macmillan . ISBN 978 - 0 - 283 - 07347 - 2 . Falls , Cyril ; A.F. Becke ( maps ) ( 1930 ) . Military Operations Egypt & Palestine from June 1917 to the End of the War . Official History of the Great War Based on Official Documents by Direction of the Historical Section of the Committee of Imperial Defence. 2 Part II . London : H.M. Stationery Office . OCLC 256950972 . Jobson , Christopher ( 2009 ) . Looking Forward , Looking Back : Customs and Traditions of the Australian Army . Wavell Heights , Queensland : Big Sky Publishing . ISBN 978 - 0 - 9803251 - 6 - 4 . Ott , David Ewing , ( 1975 ) . Vietnam Studies , Field Artillery , 1954 -- 1973 . Washington , D.C. : United States Army Center of Military History . Preston , R.M.P. ( 1921 ) . The Desert Mounted Corps : An Account of the Cavalry Operations in Palestine and Syria 1917 -- 1918 . London : Constable & Co . OCLC 3900439 . External links ( edit ) Royal Engineers Museum -- History of the Royal Engineers ( The Sappers ) Royal Engineers Museum -- Origins of the term `` Sapper '' - Site for tracking down former members of the Royal Engineers . Dec 1918 Popular Science World War 1 article about a French engineer using a ground stethoscope to listen for German sappers -- Listening to Enemy Sappers , Popular Science monthly , January 1919 , page 27 , Scanned by Google Books Sapper - Museum , virtual museum of Russian engineering troops A. - M. Zielenski , Colonel ( sapper ) , Military Engineer Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sapper&oldid=856058031 '' Categories : Land warfare Combat occupations Military engineering Military ranks of the Commonwealth Military ranks of British India Hidden categories : Webarchive template wayback links Articles needing additional references from January 2018 All articles needing additional references Use dmy dates from May 2013 Articles containing Latin - language text Wikipedia articles needing clarification from August 2015 All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from May 2010 Articles lacking in - text citations from June 2013 All articles lacking in - text citations All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from May 2018 Articles with permanently dead external links Talk Contents About Wikipedia Беларуская Български Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Español Français 한국어 Հայերեն Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית Nederlands 日本 語 Norsk Polski Português Русский Slovenčina Svenska Українська 中文 15 more Edit links This page was last edited on 22 August 2018 , at 15 : 43 ( UTC ) . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply . By using this site , you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia ® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation , Inc. , a non-profit organization . About Wikipedia

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where did the chinese fire drill come from

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Chinese_fire_drill&oldid=797207220

Chinese fire drill - wikipedia Chinese fire drill Jump to : navigation , search `` Chinese fire drill '' is a slang term for a situation that is chaotic or confusing , possibly due to poor or misunderstood instructions . Contents ( hide ) 1 Origins 2 Other uses 3 See also 4 References Origins ( edit ) The term goes back to the early 1900s , and is alleged to have originated when a ship run by British officers and a Chinese crew practiced a fire drill for a fire in the engine room . The bucket brigade drew water from the starboard side , took it to the engine room , and poured it onto the ' fire ' . To prevent flooding , a separate crew hauled the accumulated water from the engine room , up to the main deck and heaved the water over the port side . The drill had previously gone according to plan until the orders became confused in translation . The bucket brigade began to draw the water from the starboard side , run over to the port side and then throw the water overboard , bypassing the engine room completely . Additionally , the term is documented to have been used in the U.S. Marine Corps during World War II , where it was often expressed in the phrase `` as screwed up as a Chinese fire drill '' . It was also commonly used by Americans during the Korean War and the Vietnam War . Historians trace Westerners ' use of the word Chinese to denote `` confusion '' and `` incomprehensibility '' to the earliest contacts between Europeans and Chinese people in the 1600s , and attribute it to Europeans ' inability to understand and appreciate China 's radically different culture and world view . In his 1989 Dictionary of Invective , British editor Hugh Rawson lists 16 phrases that use the word Chinese to denote `` incompetence , fraud and disorganization '' . Other examples of such use include : `` Chinese home run '' , a baseball term for either a home run that just barely clears the fence closest to home plate , usually in a park with an unusually short fence , and often derided as unearned or undeserved ; or a foul ball hit high and backward , i.e. , in the wrong direction . The former sense was once in wide use but is now considered offensive and dated ; the latter is still used in the U.S. region of New England . `` Chinese puzzle '' , a puzzle with no or a hard - to - fathom solution . `` Chinese whispers '' , a children 's game in which a straightforward statement is shared through a line of players , one player at a time , until it reaches the end , often having been comically transformed along the way into a completely different statement . `` Chinese ace '' , an inept pilot , derived from the term One Wing Low ( which supposedly sounds like a Chinese name ) , an aeronautical technique . Other uses ( edit ) The term is also used to describe an American college prank ( also known as red - light green - light ) performed by a vehicle 's occupants when stopped at a traffic light , especially when there is a need to swap drivers or fetch something from the trunk . Before the light changes to green , each occupant gets out , runs around the vehicle , and gets back inside , but not necessarily in their original seats . A lagging participant may be left behind . See also ( edit ) List of practical joke topics Stereotypes of East Asians in the United States References ( edit ) Look up chinese fire drill in Wiktionary , the free dictionary . Jump up ^ Partridge , Eric ( 2008 ) . The Concise New Partridge Dictionary of Slang and Unconventional English . New York : Routledge . p. 135 . ISBN 0 - 203 - 96211 - 7 . Jump up ^ Chinese Fire Drill an article from archives of The Digerati Peninsula Archived 2012 - 12 - 24 at Archive.is Jump up ^ Safire , William ( 1984 ) . I Stand Corrected : More on Language . New York : Times Books . p. 84 . ISBN 0 - 8129 - 1097 - 4 . Jump up ^ Jensen , Richard J. ( 2003 ) . Trans - Pacific Relations : America , Europe , and Asia in the Twentieth Century . Praeger . p. 155 . ISBN 0 - 7914 - 6022 - 3 . Jump up ^ Dale , Corinne H. ( 2004 ) . Chinese Aesthetics and Literature : A Reader . New York : State University of New York Press . pp. 15 -- 25 . ISBN 0 - 7914 - 6022 - 3 . Jump up ^ Hughes , Geoffrey ( 2006 ) . An Encyclopedia of Swearing : The Social History of Oaths , Profanity , Foul Language , and Ethnic Slurs in the English - speaking World . M.E. Sharpe . p. 76 . ISBN 0 - 7656 - 1231 - 3 . Jump up ^ Dickson , Paul ( 2011 ) . Skip McAfee , ed . The Dickson Baseball Dictionary ( 3d ed . ) . New York : W.W. Norton & Co. pp. 182 -- 84 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 393 - 07349 - 2 . Retrieved March 10 , 2015 . ^ Jump up to : Blue Moons , Chinese Fire Drill , Cocktail , Galoot , Whazzat thing ? , Scotious and Stocious Jump up ^ The Mavens ' Word of the Day Jump up ^ Dorson , Richard Merser ( 1986 ) . Handbook of American Folklore . Indiana University Press . p. 176 . ISBN 0 - 253 - 32706 - 7 . Jump up ^ Jeff Walls . `` The World According to Lenny ! '' Fenceviewer ( Ellsworth Anmerican ) . 10 June 2010 . Retrieved 1 August 2010 . ( `` We would get to the first red light and we would do a Chinese fire drill with 44 kids running around a school bus '' ) Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Chinese_fire_drill&oldid=797207220 '' Categories : Human behavior Practical jokes Car games Hazardous motor vehicle activities Metaphors referring to objects Hidden categories : Webarchive template archiveis links Talk Contents About Wikipedia Add links This page was last edited on 25 August 2017 , at 16 : 01 . About Wikipedia

8848527010251792102

who does santana end up with in glee

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Santana_Lopez&oldid=843462563

Santana Lopez - wikipedia Santana Lopez Jump to : navigation , search Santana Lopez Naya Rivera as Santana on the Glee Live ! In Concert ! tour . First appearance `` Pilot '' Last appearance `` Dreams Come True '' Created by Ryan Murphy Brad Falchuk Ian Brennan Portrayed by Naya Rivera Information Occupation Waitress Student Family Maribel Lopez ( mother ) Alma Lopez ( grandmother ) Hector Lopez ( grandfather ; deceased ) Pedro Lopez ( step - grandfather ; deceased ) Spouse ( s ) Brittany Pierce Significant other ( s ) Noah `` Puck '' Puckerman Finn Hudson Sam Evans Dave Karofsky Santana Lopez is a fictional character from the Fox musical comedy - drama series Glee . The character is portrayed by actress Naya Rivera , and has appeared in Glee from its pilot episode , first broadcast on May 19 , 2009 . Santana was developed by Glee creators Ryan Murphy , Brad Falchuk and Ian Brennan . Introduced as a minor antagonist and a sidekick to Quinn Fabray ( Dianna Agron ) in first episode of Glee , Santana 's role grew over the course of the show 's first season . In the second season , Rivera was promoted to series regular , and Santana was given more high - profile storylines , such as the development of her romantic feelings for her best friend Brittany Pierce ( Heather Morris ) , and subsequent realization that she is a lesbian . Rivera , who has been vocally supportive of the love story between her and Morris ' character , has received widespread praise for her portrayal of Santana , as well as for her for vocal work in numerous songs performed as part of the show 's central glee club , New Directions . Santana is introduced alongside Quinn and Brittany as one of the three most popular cheerleaders at the fictional William McKinley High School in Lima , Ohio , where the show is set . She joins the school 's glee club , and soon is spying on it for Sue Sylvester ( Jane Lynch ) , coach of the cheerleading team the Cheerios . As the season progresses , she becomes more sympathetic to other glee club members , saying she is staying in the club not because Sue is forcing her , but because she likes it . She has several romantic relationships , briefly dating Puck ( Mark Salling ) , taking Finn Hudson 's ( Cory Monteith ) virginity , and carrying on a friends with benefits relationship with Brittany . In season two , the show delves into the motivations behind Santana 's antagonism and her sexual aggressiveness towards boys ; it is later revealed that her cruel attitude is because she is struggling with her romantic feelings towards Brittany , and subsequently with her lesbian identity . This storyline has been positively received by critics . Contents ( hide ) 1 Storylines 2 Development 3 Reception 3.1 Critical response 3.2 Accolades 4 References 5 External links Storylines ( edit ) Santana is introduced as a popular cheerleader at William McKinley High School . Santana and her friends , cheerleaders Quinn Fabray ( Dianna Agron ) and Brittany Pierce ( Heather Morris ) , join the school glee club , New Directions , because Quinn wants to keep an eye on her boyfriend Finn Hudson ( Cory Monteith ) ; cheerleading coach Sue Sylvester ( Jane Lynch ) then enlists the three of them to help her destroy the glee club from the inside . Initially romantically linked to football player Noah `` Puck '' Puckerman ( Mark Salling ) , Santana soon breaks up with him over his bad credit score , though the two have an on - again , off - again relationship well into the show 's second season . Brittany also reveals in an offhand comment that she and Santana have slept together . When the two are accused of giving Sue the New Directions set list for their first show choir competition , Santana defends herself and admits that she has come to enjoy participating in the club . After Quinn is kicked off the cheerleading squad due to her pregnancy , Santana takes over as head cheerleader . At Sue 's behest , Santana and Brittany go on a date with Finn , who is now the glee club co-captain . Santana takes his virginity , though Finn immediately regrets sleeping with her . When Puck briefly dates Mercedes Jones ( Amber Riley ) , Santana is jealous and confronts her with an aggressive duet of `` The Boy Is Mine '' . A similar confrontation , though entirely physical , occurs in the second season after Puck sings a love song to Lauren Zizes ( Ashley Fink ) in front of the glee club , though Santana loses badly to Lauren . In season two , Santana is demoted from her position as head cheerleader when Quinn reveals that she had breast implants over the summer , leading to a physical fight between the two . While making out , Brittany suggests to Santana that the two of them should sing Melissa Etheridge 's `` Come To My Window '' for a glee club duet competition . Alarmed , Santana claims that she was only sleeping with Brittany because Puck was temporarily unavailable . Brittany begins to date club member Artie Abrams ( Kevin McHale ) , which piques Santana 's jealousy . She briefly quits the glee club with Brittany and Quinn when Sue demands that they choose between being in glee club and being cheerleaders , but Finn convinces them to reverse their decision , and they quit the Cheerios instead . Temporarily without a boyfriend after Puck begins dating Lauren , she breaks up Quinn and her boyfriend Sam Evans ( Chord Overstreet ) , and dates him herself for several weeks . Confronted by Brittany about her feelings for her , Santana confesses that she is in love with her but fears being ostracized by the student body for being in a same - sex relationship , due to what had happened to Kurt ( Chris Colfer ) , who is openly gay , so many times that year . Brittany says she reciprocates her love , but as she also loves Artie , she will not break up with him . In the hope of convincing Brittany to drop Artie and be with her , Santana runs for school prom queen . She blackmails closeted jock and Kurt 's bully Dave Karofsky ( Max Adler ) into becoming her beard and running mate , and to also start an anti-bullying campaign with her to get Kurt to transfer back , as he only left McKinley to go to Dalton Academy for a safe school environment because Karofsky had threatened to kill him . He wins prom king , but Santana is not named queen ; instead , it is Kurt . Brittany comforts her , and encourages her to embrace her true identity . In season three , Santana and Brittany rejoin the Cheerios , and Sue appoints Santana co-captain along with Becky Jackson ( Lauren Potter ) . Santana is briefly banished from New Directions for disloyalty , and though she is soon allowed to return , she leaves again to join Mercedes in a newly formed all - girl glee club , the Troubletones , and convinces Brittany , who is now her girlfriend , to come with her . In `` Mash Off '' , Santana pushes the growing rivalry between the clubs to a new level by bullying Finn and Rory . When her supposed apology to Finn becomes another stream of insults , he accuses her of being a coward for tearing other people down because she ca n't admit that she 's in love with Brittany , thus outing her in a crowded public hallway . They are overheard , and Santana 's now - revealed lesbianism is used in an `` attack '' ad against Sue by one of her opponents in the congressional election campaign . Though Santana is warned before the ad runs , she is nevertheless devastated by being publicly outed : she had n't yet come out to her family . She does so , and while her parents accept her declaration , her grandmother is offended that Santana has made her sexuality public and disowns her , leaving Santana heartbroken . After slapping Finn for outing her , she was made to apologize while Finn received no repercussions for the outing which caused the slap . The Troubletones are defeated by New Directions at Sectionals , and Quinn convinces Santana , Brittany and Mercedes to return to the New Directions , having arranged for them to be guaranteed one Troubletones number in all future competitions . When Principal Figgins tells Santana and Brittany in `` Heart '' to stop kissing publicly at school because he 's received complaints , despite not enforcing the same ban on heterosexual couples , Santana is angry , and uses the God Squad 's singing - valentine fundraiser to make a point by hiring them to deliver a lovesong valentine to Brittany . New Directions competes at Regionals , and with the aid of the Troubletones number featuring Santana , Brittany and Mercedes , the club wins . Later season plots including the leaking of Brittany and Santana 's sex tape and Santana 's anxiety about her future . In the season finale , after the New Directions win Nationals in Chicago , Santana 's mother ( Gloria Estefan ) writes her a check so she can pursue her dreams in New York if she really wants to . Santana is attending the University of Louisville in Kentucky on a cheerleading scholarship . She and Brittany make attempts at a long - distance relationship , although they break up when they agree it wo n't work in `` The Break Up '' . Santana comes by McKinley to help out with the school musical in `` Glease '' and again for Thanksgiving and to help New Directions prepare for the upcoming Sectionals competition in `` Thanksgiving '' . As a mentor , she works with Marley Rose ( Melissa Benoist ) . Santana suspects something is wrong with her , and later finds laxatives in Marley 's backpack . She confronts Quinn that she suspects cheerleader , glee clubber and Quinn 's apprentice , Kitty Wilde ( Becca Tobin ) , is trying to deliberately hurt Marley . She is present for the Sectionals performance , and her suspicions appear to be confirmed when Marley collapses on stage due to starvation and anxiety . She visits Ohio for Christmas in `` Glee , Actually '' and visits Kurt and Rachel in New York in the episode `` Naked '' . After a jealous unsuccessful attempt to break up her exes Sam and Brittany in `` Diva '' , Santana realizes she belongs in New York with Rachel and Kurt and moves in with them . In `` I Do '' she and Quinn sleep together at Will and Emma 's wedding , which they agree was a fun one - time experimentation for Quinn . Later , Kurt and Rachel are shown attempting to adjust to Santana , who is making herself at home in the loft a little too quickly for their comfort . In `` Girls ( and Boys ) On Film '' , Santana later confronts Rachel about a used pregnancy test she found in the garbage , causing Rachel to break down in Santana 's arms . In `` Feud '' , Santana takes Rachel to the doctor , where they discover her pregnancy was a false alarm . However , Santana also learns that Rachel 's boyfriend , Brody Weston , is a gigolo . She confronts Brody over this and eventually informs Finn , who tries to scare Brody into leaving town . Later she tells Rachel the truth herself , for which Rachel is ultimately grateful , in `` Guilty Pleasures '' . In season five , Santana is employed at a diner in New York . Rachel and Kurt subsequently join her as employees . Santana meets Dani ( Demi Lovato ) , a fellow waitress at the diner who is also a lesbian . They begin a relationship in `` Tina in the Sky with Diamonds '' . Santana also stars in a commercial for Yeast - I - Stat which she is proud of and shares with Rachel . Santana returns to Lima for Finn 's funeral and memorial in `` The Quarterback '' . She sings The Band Perry 's `` If I Die Young '' but she breaks down midway through the song . She later confeses to Kurt that she had planned on being nice and telling everyone about the nice things Finn had done for her . Kurt then gives Santana Finn 's letterman jacket . Santana joins Kurt 's new band in the episode `` A Katy or a Gaga '' and suggests that they name the band the Apocalypsticks , which is shot down by Kurt . Brittany states her unhappiness at being a math genius and kisses her ex-girlfriend Santana . In `` New Directions '' , Brittany agrees to dropping out of MIT before going on a trip to Lesbos with Santana . Santana asks Brittany to go with her to New York after their trip , Brittany accepts . Santana returned to New York in `` Opening Night '' to watch her friend , Rachel 's Broadway debut in the revival of Funny Girl . In `` The Back - Up Plan '' , Santana helps Mercedes to finish her album . In the studio , Santana suggests that they should get out of the studio and explore New York . While leaving the studio , Mercedes and Santana sang Lauryn Hill 's Doo Wop ( That Thing ) . However , Mercedes ' producer rejected their duet because Santana is n't famous enough . Because of that , Mercedes asked Santana to sign a contract so that Santana could sing a duet with Mercedes in the latter 's album . When Santana found out that Rachel is stuck in Los Angeles because of her audition for a television show , she suggests that she would play Fanny Brice for the night . The next day , Santana said that she would be a better friend . In `` Old Dog New Tricks '' she became Rachel 's publicist . She sang Eddie Money 's `` Take Me Home Tonight '' with Artie , Blaine , Kurt , Maggie , Mercedes , Rachel , and Sam . In `` The Untitled Rachel Berry Project '' , Santana was not in New York because she was shooting a Yeast - I - Stat commercial . Brittany and Mercedes will meet her in Reno for Mercedes ' mall tour . At the beginning of season six , Santana , Brittany and the rest of Glee Club alumni return to McKinley High School in Homecoming . Along with Quinn and Brittany , she performs `` Problem '' by Ariana Grande in an attempt to recruit cheerleaders to join the revamped New Directions , currently being revived by Rachel . Their attempt got discouraged by Kitty , the current Cheerios captain and a former glee club member who is bitter with the alumni . Santana succeeds in persuading two twin cheerleaders to audition . She also performs `` Take On Me '' and `` Home '' with the alumni around the school . In Jagged Little Tapestry , Santana and the alumni stick around for another week to help Rachel recruit for New Directions . After a sweet performance of `` Hand In My Pocket '' / `` I Feel the Earth Move '' with Brittany , Santana proposes and Brittany accepts . However , Kurt disagrees with their decision , but Santana insults him by telling him that Blaine broke off his proposal because Kurt is weird . Santana and Brittany then return in What The World Needs Now to deal with Santana 's disapproving grandmother Alma -- with whom she has n't spoken since coming out as a lesbian . Brittany takes matters into her own hands and tries to invite Alma to the wedding , but Alma 's prejudice is too strong and she rejects their engagement , and Brittany tells her off for doing so . Later the New Directions serenade them in an attempt to be invited to their upcoming wedding . She and Brittany are wed in a double ceremony with Kurt and Blaine , because Brittany wanted it that way , in the eighth episode A Wedding . Before the ceremony , Sue arrives with Alma , who she has helped to realize that although she may not believe females should marry each other , family is the most important thing , leading her and Santana to reconcile . Santana and Brittany return briefly in the series final `` Dreams Come True '' for a last performance with the rest of the Glee Cast . Development ( edit ) Over the course of the series , Santana ( Rivera , pictured ) begins to struggle with her sexual identity . Before her casting on Glee , Naya Rivera had made numerous appearances in small roles on popular primetime television shows . In casting Glee , series creator Ryan Murphy sought actors who could identify with the rush of starring in theatrical roles . Auditioning actors with no theatrical experience were required to prove they could sing and dance as well as act . Rivera drew on her own high school experience of unpopularity to prepare for the role , as well as watching films such as Mean Girls to `` really get in the zone and feel like a bitchy Sophomore '' . She has described Santana as `` your typical high school cheerleader , for the most part , '' explaining : `` She 's really mean and loves boys . She 's really witty so I love playing her . '' She has characterized Santana as `` a bit of a bad girl '' who is `` really snarky and always has these really witty one - liners she throws out there . '' Rivera enjoys the fact Santana is competitive and headstrong as she herself shares those traits , but dislikes Santana 's mean streak . She auditioned for the role as she loves singing , dancing and acting , and had never before had the opportunity to combine all three skills in one project . She finds the show 's pacing challenging , especially the dancing , and commented in June 2009 that her most memorable moment on Glee was performing the Cheerios ' glee club audition piece , `` I Say a Little Prayer '' . Santana played a more prominent part in the last nine episodes of Glee 's first season . Rivera commented : `` Santana 's been wreaking havoc with people 's boyfriends and people 's babies and teachers -- she 's the high school terror , and she 's going to continue to be the villain . '' Although Santana continues to step over others to get what she wants , she exhibits moments of compassion and loyalty to the glee club . Rivera has been vocal in her support of the Santana / Brittany relationship , and her attitudes toward Santana 's emotional attachment have informed her portrayal of the character . In April 2010 , when asked if any of `` the guys '' were Santana 's soul mate , Rivera answered , `` I think that Brittany is her soul mate . I think that they should end up together . They 're in love . '' A month later , when interviewed by The Advocate , she reiterated this point , saying , `` Maybe they 'll fall in love . I do think they 're soul mates . Brittany just gets Santana , even though a lot of people do n't like her . '' On December 8 , 2010 , after a surge of fan disappointment over Twitter at the recent absence of Brittana , Rivera tweeted , `` There 's been a Brittana fan uproar ... Do n't worry , I miss it too . '' In January 2011 , after several more `` Brittana fan uproars '' , in an article entitled `` The future of Brittana : Outlook Not so good '' , Rivera expressed the reason for such strong fan response : `` Honestly , on a deeper level , to the girls that are going through that and it 's not so comical in their world , in their everyday lives , they kind of looked up to us , in a sense . That 's kind of my reason for hoping they continue the storyline . '' Ironically , soon after this pessimistic article , Brad Falchuk , co-creator of Glee , tweeted on January 20 , `` Brittana is on . Brittana was always on . '' Santana 's arc following `` Sexy '' , where she admits her romantic feelings for Brittany , sees Santana come to terms with her sexual orientation . Falchuk describes Santana , from this point , as having come out internally to herself , but being afraid of coming out to her peers . `` Santana is a lesbian . She might not be ready to come out yet , but she is . '' By the middle of the third season , Santana is both out to her peers , and in a public romantic relationship with Brittany . Reception ( edit ) Critical response ( edit ) The relationship between Santana ( Naya Rivera , left ) and Brittany ( Heather Morris , right ) has been well received by critics and viewers . When a promotional clip for the episode `` Sectionals '' indicated that Brittany and Santana had slept together , Dorothy Snarker , writing for lesbian entertainment website AfterEllen.com , praised the pairing , referring to them by the portmanteau `` Brittana '' . Snarker called the two her `` new favorite Glee pairing '' , commenting that : `` While Heather Morris ( Brittany ) and Naya Rivera ( Santana ) have had minimal screen time , they 've made it count . ( ... ) Never mind Finn and Rachel -- I 'm on Team Brittana now . '' She was ranked first in AfterEllen. com 's Top 50 Favorite Female TV Characters . Santana was included in TV Guide 's list of the best TV bitches . She was also listed in MTV 's Best TV Characters of 2011 . For her role in `` Sexy '' , Santana has received critical acclaim . Sandra Gonzalez of Entertainment Weekly was somewhat surprised by the storyline , observing that Santana had not previously been portrayed as `` so serious and vulnerable '' , but enjoyed the depth it brought to her character . She and Time 's James Poniewozik both praised Rivera 's acting , with Gonzalez calling her `` heartbreakingly perfect '' . Poniewozik did not find Santana 's revelation sudden ; he was impressed that the episode found `` pathos and heartbreak '' in a coupling formerly treated humorously . Todd VanDerWerff of The A.V. Club deemed it the best storyline of the episode , saying it was almost alone the reason the episode received a `` B '' . He called the scene where Santana confessed her feelings for Brittany one of the best moments of the season . Patrick Burns of The Atlantic was pleased that the storyline was `` treated with a tender realness , '' something generally lacking on network television , and Brown , though unconvinced that Santana 's conflicted sexuality adequately explained her abrasive personality , praised the series for `` exploring some of the more complicated aspects of adolescent sexuality '' , writing that `` Glee does an admirable job of attempting to be all - inclusive . '' VanDerWerff praised the character development of Santana , calling it the highlight of the episode `` Born This Way '' . He continued , `` The best thing about this episode is Naya Rivera 's work as Santana and the story the three writers have cooked up for her . Rivera 's really come into her own this season , going from just a generic bitchy cheerleader to an actual character who has motivations and might be a better villain for the show than Sue . ( ... ) On a show where we 're meant to accept that the characters do whatever the fuck the writers need them to from scene to scene , the storyline of Santana realizing she was in love with Brittany and ( ... ) is probably a lesbian has been nicely plotted and surprisingly deep . The reveal about Santana has n't washed away her less savory qualities ; indeed , it 's heightened them , to a degree , as she struggles to be true to herself and still maintain her status as the hottest girl in school . '' The episode `` Mash Off '' 's concluding musical number , `` Rumour Has It '' / `` Someone Like You '' , was acclaimed as its main highlight . Wall Street Journal writer Raymund Flandez described Rivera 's vocals as `` electrifying '' and `` golden '' . Rolling Stone contributor Erica Futterman wrote that the performance was one of Glee 's best sequences : `` Mercedes and Santana nail their vocals and the song combines great tracks from one of the year 's biggest albums while capturing both the sass and sadness of the Troubletones at this particular moment . '' Billboard editor Rae Votta called it the best performance since the cast 's rendition of `` Do n't Stop Believin ' '' in the season one finale , `` Journey to Regionals '' , and stated , `` Naya Rivera 's powerful vocals and the strong arrangement still packs the emotional punch Glee was targeting . '' Jen Chaney of The Washington Post awarded the sequence an `` A + '' grade : `` Given the emotional stakes raised by Santana 's outing , which happened in the scene right before this performance , and the fact that it marked the series 's 300th musical performance , this marriage '' of the two Adele songs , `` Rumour Has It '' and `` Someone Like You '' , was `` all the more powerful '' . Brian Moyler of Gawker asserted that the number was `` perfection '' and said , `` This is why I watch Glee . It is just brilliant from Mercedes first belting to the snaps on the beat to the choreography with the girls walking in a circle and making little whispers to Santana bringing tears to my eyes singing ' Someone Like You ' as if it was the last song she 'll ever sing in her damn life . '' Cinema Blend 's Melissa Duko stated that the show `` hit it out of the park '' and added that it was her favorite performance of the season . TVLine correspondent Michael Slezak gave the number an `` A + '' and wrote , `` Nobody can completely match Adele doing Adele , and yet Naya Rivera and Amber Riley somehow made the sum of this mashup a worthy equal to Adele 's glorious original parts . '' Accolades ( edit ) At the 2010 AfterEllen.com Visibility Awards , Brittany and Santana were nominated for the Favorite Fictional Lesbian Couple award , and Rivera was nominated in the Favorite TV Actress category . Also that year , Rivera was nominated in the Best Supporting Actress / Television category at the Imagen Awards , and she and her co-stars won the Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Comedy Series . They were nominated in the same category the following year . At the 2011 ALMA Awards , Rivera was nominated in the Favorite TV Actress -- Leading Role in a Comedy category . References ( edit ) ^ Jump up to : S6EP6 : What The World Needs Now Jump up ^ Kelly , Mike ( May 17 , 2009 ) . `` ' Glee ' series set in a Lima high school has Toledo connection too '' . The Blade . The Toledo Times . Retrieved May 19 , 2009 . Jump up ^ Ryan Murphy ( director , writer ) , Brad Falchuk ( writer ) , Ian Brennan ( writer ) ( September 9 , 2009 ) . `` Showmance '' . Glee . Season 1 . Episode 2 . Fox . Jump up ^ John Scott ( director ) , Ryan Murphy ( writer ) ( September 16 , 2009 ) . `` Acafellas '' . Glee . Season 1 . Episode 3 . Fox . Jump up ^ Brad Falchuk ( director , writer ) ( December 9 , 2009 ) . `` Sectionals '' . Glee . Season 1 . Episode 13 . Fox . Jump up ^ Brad Falchuk ( director ) , Ian Brennan ( writer ) ( April 13 , 2010 ) . `` Hell - O '' . Glee . Season 1 . Episode 14 . Fox . Jump up ^ Goldman , Eric ( May 11 , 2010 ) . `` Glee : `` The Power of Madonna '' Review `` . IGN . Retrieved September 24 , 2010 . Jump up ^ Alfonso Gomez - Rejon ( director ) , Ryan Murphy ( writer ) ( May 11 , 2010 ) . `` Laryngitis '' . Glee . Season 1 . Episode 18 . Fox . Jump up ^ Tate Donovan ( director ) , Ryan Murphy ( writer ) ( February 8 , 2011 ) . `` Silly Love Songs '' . Glee . Season 2 . Episode 12 . Fox . Jump up ^ Brad Falchuk ( director ) , Ian Brennan ( writer ) ( September 22 , 2010 ) . `` Audition '' . Glee . Season 2 . Episode 1 . Fox . Jump up ^ Eric Stoltz ( director ) , Ian Brennan ( writer ) ( October 12 , 2010 ) . `` Duets '' . Glee . Season 2 . Episode 4 . Fox . Jump up ^ Brad Falchuk ( director ) , Ian Brennan ( writer ) ( February 6 , 2011 ) . `` The Sue Sylvester Shuffle '' . Glee . Season 2 . Episode 11 . Fox . Jump up ^ Bradley Buecker ( director ) , Ryan Murphy ( writer ) ( February 15 , 2011 ) . `` Comeback '' . Glee . Season 2 . Episode 13 . Fox . Jump up ^ Ryan Murphy ( director ) , Brad Falchuk ( writer ) ( March 8 , 2011 ) . `` Sexy '' . Glee . Season 2 . Episode 15 . Fox . Jump up ^ Eric Stoltz ( director ) , Ian Brennan ( writer ) ( May 10 , 2011 ) . `` Prom Queen '' . Glee . Season 2 . Episode 20 . Fox . Jump up ^ Eric Stoltz ( director ) , Brad Falchuk ( writer ) ( September 20 , 2011 ) . `` The Purple Piano Project '' . Glee . Season 3 . Episode 1 . Fox . Jump up ^ Adam Shankman ( director ) , Ali Adler ( writer ) ( November 1 , 2011 ) . `` Pot o ' Gold '' . Glee . Season 3 . Episode 4 . Fox . Jump up ^ Eric Stoltz ( director ) , Michael Hitchcock ( writer ) ( November 15 , 2011 ) . `` Mash Off '' . Glee . Season 3 . Episode 6 . Fox . Jump up ^ Tate Donovan ( director ) , Matthew Hodgson ( writer ) ( November 29 , 2011 ) . `` I Kissed a Girl '' . Glee . Season 3 . Episode 7 . Fox . Jump up ^ Bradley Buecker ( director ) , Ross Maxwell ( writer ) ( December 6 , 2011 ) . `` Hold On to Sixteen '' . Glee . Season 3 . Episode 8 . Fox . Jump up ^ Brad Falchuk ( director ) , Ali Adler ( writer ) ( February 14 , 2012 ) . `` Heart '' . Glee . Season 3 . Episode 13 . Fox . Jump up ^ Bradley Buecker ( director ) , Roberto Aguirre - Sacasa ( writer ) ( February 21 , 2012 ) . `` On My Way '' . Glee . Season 3 . Episode 14 . Fox . Jump up ^ Martin , Denise ( April 26 , 2009 ) . `` Video : ' Glee ' team rewrites the school musical '' . Los Angeles Times . Tribune Company . Retrieved May 19 , 2009 . ^ Jump up to : Steinberg , Jamie ( May 2009 ) . `` Naya Rivera - Filled With Glee '' . Starry Constellation Magazine . Retrieved June 2 , 2009 . Jump up ^ `` TWIST Chats With Glee 's Naya Rivera '' . Twist . Bauer Publishing . September 15 , 2009 . Archived from the original on November 16 , 2009 . Retrieved December 18 , 2009 . Jump up ^ Simpson , Melody ( March 17 , 2009 ) . `` Meet Cory Monteith & Naya Rivera of Glee '' . Hollywood the Write Way . Retrieved December 18 , 2009 . Jump up ^ Ninojosa , Stacy ( December 3 , 2009 ) . `` Naya Rivera From ' Glee ' Talks Santana , Singing and Spencer Pratt '' . Just So You Know . Retrieved December 18 , 2009 . Jump up ^ dos Santos , Kristin ( December 14 , 2009 ) . `` Spoiler Chat : Is Jenny Humphrey a Gossip Girl Homewrecker ? '' . E ! Online . Retrieved December 18 , 2009 . Jump up ^ dos Santos , Kristin ( April 13 , 2010 ) . `` '' Glee '' Gets Romantic `` . E ! Online . Retrieved March 2 , 2011 . Jump up ^ Voss , Brandon ( May 4 , 2010 ) . `` Naya Rivera : Bring It On Bitch ! '' . The Advocate . Archived from the original on June 28 , 2011 . Retrieved March 2 , 2011 . Jump up ^ Rivera , Naya ( December 8 , 2010 ) . `` December 08 Tweet '' . Retrieved March 2 , 2011 . Jump up ^ Bendix , Trish ( January 12 , 2011 ) . `` The future of Brittana : Outlook not so good '' . AfterEllen . Logo . Retrieved March 2 , 2011 . Jump up ^ Falchuk , Brad ( January 20 , 2011 ) . `` January 20 Tweet '' . Retrieved March 2 , 2011 . Jump up ^ Goldberg , Lesley ( March 17 , 2011 ) . `` Ryan Murphy says `` Santana is a lesbian '' `` . AfterEllen.com . Archived from the original on March 20 , 2011 . Retrieved March 17 , 2011 . Jump up ^ Snarker , Dorothy ( December 7 , 2009 ) . `` '' Glee '' spoils us with an unexpected coupling `` . AfterEllen.com . Archived from the original on May 22 , 2013 . Retrieved December 7 , 2009 . Jump up ^ `` AfterEllen. com 's Top 50 Favorite Female TV Characters '' . AfterEllen.com . February 27 , 2012 . Archived from the original on June 25 , 2012 . Retrieved June 24 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Naya Rivera Pictures - Photo Gallery : The Best TV B -- -- es '' . TV Guide . Retrieved September 14 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Best TV Characters 2011 - Sanatana Lopez '' . MTV . Viacom . December 7 , 2011 . Retrieved July 13 , 2012 . ^ Jump up to : Gonzalez , Sandra ( March 9 , 2011 ) . `` ' Glee ' recap : Let 's Talk About Sex '' . Entertainment Weekly . Time Inc . Retrieved March 9 , 2011 . Jump up ^ Poniewozik , James ( March 9 , 2011 ) . `` Glee Watch : Drowning in Goop '' . Time . Time Inc . Retrieved March 9 , 2011 . Jump up ^ VanDerWerff , Todd ( March 9 , 2011 ) . `` Sexy '' . The A.V. Club . The Onion . Retrieved March 9 , 2011 . ^ Jump up to : Fallon , Kevin ; Burns , Patrick ; Brown , Meghan ( March 9 , 2011 ) . `` ' Glee ' : Gwyneth Paltrow Brings Sexy Back '' . The Atlantic . Atlantic Media Company . Retrieved March 9 , 2011 . Jump up ^ VanDerWerff , Todd ( April 26 , 2011 ) . `` Born This Way '' . The A.V. Club . Onion , Inc . Retrieved April 29 , 2011 . Jump up ^ Flandez , Raymund ( November 15 , 2011 ) . `` ' Glee ' Season 3 , Episode 6 , ' Mash Off ' : TV Recap '' . Wall Street Journal . Les Hinton . Retrieved December 27 , 2011 . Jump up ^ Futterman , Erica ( November 16 , 2011 ) . `` ' Glee ' Recap : Adele Makes ' Mash Off ' a Resounding Success '' . Rolling Stone . Jann Wenner . Retrieved December 27 , 2011 . Jump up ^ Votta , Rae ( November 16 , 2011 ) . `` ' Glee ' Tugs At Heartstrings With Adele Mashup , Falls Flat Elsewhere '' . Billboard . Prometheus Global Media . Retrieved December 27 , 2011 . Jump up ^ Chaney , Jen ( November 16 , 2011 ) . `` ' Glee ' by the musical numbers : A ' Mash Off ' to remember '' . The Washington Post . The Washington Post Company . Retrieved December 27 , 2011 . Jump up ^ Moyler , Brian ( November 16 , 2011 ) . `` Glee : The Monster Mash - Ups '' . Gawker . Gawker Media . Archived from the original on December 16 , 2011 . Retrieved December 27 , 2011 . Jump up ^ Duko , Melissa ( November 16 , 2011 ) . `` Glee Watch : Season 3 , Episode 6 - Mash - Off '' . Cinema Blend . Retrieved December 27 , 2011 . Jump up ^ Slezak , Michael ( November 15 , 2011 ) . `` Glee Recap : Take Your Mashin ' , and Make It Happen '' . TVLine . Mail.com Media . Retrieved December 27 , 2011 . Jump up ^ AfterEllen.com Staff ( December 1 , 2010 ) . `` The AfterEllen.com 2010 Visibility Awards -- Vote Now ! '' . AfterEllen.com . Logo . Archived from the original on December 3 , 2010 . Retrieved December 2 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Nominees for 25th Annual Imagen Awards Announced '' . Imagen Foundation . Retrieved December 2 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` 16th Annual Screen Actors Guild Awards scorecard '' . Los Angeles Times . Tribune Company . January 23 , 2010 . Retrieved January 24 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Nominations Announced for the 17th Annual Screen Actors Guild Awards '' . www.sag.org . Screen Actors Guild . December 16 , 2010 . Retrieved December 16 , 2010 . Jump up ^ Powers , Lindsay ( July 28 , 2011 ) . `` ' The Voice 's ' Christina Aguilera , Selena Gomez Among ALMA Award Nominees '' . The Hollywood Reporter . Prometheus Global Media . Retrieved August 2 , 2011 . External links ( edit ) Santana Lopez at Fox.com ( hide ) Glee Awards and nominations Merchandise Episodes Season : 1 5 6 Characters Artie Abrams Blaine Anderson Coach Beiste Rachel Berry Mike Chang Tina Cohen - Chang Shelby Corcoran Dani Sam Evans Quinn Fabray Rory Flanagan Elliott Gilbert Holly Holliday Finn Hudson Burt Hummel Kurt Hummel Mercedes Jones Dave Karofsky Santana Lopez Ryder Lynn Brittany Pierce Emma Pillsbury Noah Puckerman Terri Schuester Will Schuester Sue Sylvester Kitty Wilde Lauren Zizes Songs Season : 1 5 6 Original songs `` Get It Right '' `` Loser like Me '' `` Pretending '' `` Light Up the World '' `` This Time '' Albums Volume 1 Volume 2 Volume 3 Showstoppers The Christmas Album Volume 4 Volume 5 Presents the Warblers Volume 6 The 3D Concert Movie The Christmas Album Volume 2 Volume 7 The Graduation Album Season 4 , Volume 1 The Christmas Album Volume 3 Sings the Beatles Extended plays The Power of Madonna Journey to Regionals The Rocky Horror Glee Show Britney 2.0 Presents Glease The Quarterback The Christmas Album Volume 4 Related Glee Live ! In Concert ! The Glee Project Glee : The 3D Concert Movie `` See the USA in Your Chevrolet '' This Ai n't Glee XXX Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Santana_Lopez&oldid=843462563 '' Categories : Glee ( TV series ) characters Fictional lesbians Fictional characters from Ohio Fictional characters introduced in 2009 Fictional cheerleaders Fictional dancers Fictional Hispanic and Latino American people Fictional singers Fictional waiting staff Fictional LGBT characters in television Hidden categories : Pages using deprecated image syntax Talk Contents About Wikipedia فارسی Français Bahasa Indonesia Italiano Nederlands Português Suomi Türkçe Edit links This page was last edited on 29 May 2018 , at 09 : 17 . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply . By using this site , you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . 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how did jessica jones get her powers in the show

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Jessica_Jones&oldid=842402029

Jessica Jones - wikipedia Jessica Jones Jump to : navigation , search This article is about the character . For the television series , see Jessica Jones ( TV series ) . For the comic book , see Jessica Jones ( comic book ) . For other uses , see Jessica Jones ( disambiguation ) . Jessica Jones Jessica Jones on the cover of The Pulse # 14 . Art by Mike Mayhew . Pictured clockwise from top left : Jones as Jewel ; with husband Luke Cage ; with daughter Danielle ; as Knightress . Publication information Publisher Marvel Comics First appearance Alias # 1 ( November 2001 ) Created by Brian Michael Bendis ( writer ) Michael Gaydos ( artist ) In - story information Full name Jessica Campbell Jones Cage Team affiliations New Avengers The Pulse Magazine Alias Private Investigations Daily Bugle Defenders Partnerships Luke Cage Carol Danvers Notable aliases Jewel , Knightress , Power Woman Abilities Superhuman strength and endurance Flight Jessica Campbell Jones is a fictional superhero appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics . The character was created by writer Brian Michael Bendis and artist Michael Gaydos , and first appeared in Alias # 1 ( November 2001 ) , as part of Marvel 's Max , an imprint for more mature content . Within the context of Marvel 's shared universe , Jones is a former superhero who becomes the owner and sole employee of Alias Private Investigations . Bendis originally envisioned the series centered on Jessica Drew and only decided to create Jones once he noticed that the main character had a distinct voice and background that differentiated her from Drew . Jones has since starred in three ongoing series , Alias , The Pulse and Jessica Jones . Alias ran for 28 issues before ending in 2004 , while The Pulse ran for 14 issues from April 2004 to May 2006 . Jessica Jones debuted in October 2016 . She became a member of the New Avengers , alongside her husband , Luke Cage , during Marvel 's 2010 Heroic Age campaign . She has used various aliases throughout her history , including Jewel , Knightress , and Power Woman . The character is portrayed by actress Krysten Ritter in the various TV series of the Marvel Cinematic Universe , including Marvel 's Jessica Jones , and The Defenders . She has also been featured in various video games , in which she has been voiced by actors including Michelle Phan , Mary Elizabeth McGlynn and Tara Strong . Contents ( hide ) 1 Creation 2 Fictional character biography 2.1 Origin 2.2 Early years 2.3 The Pulse and Young Avengers 2.4 `` Civil War '' , `` Secret Invasion '' and `` Dark Reign '' 2.5 2010 -- present 3 Powers and abilities 4 Other versions 5 In other media 5.1 Television 5.2 Video games 6 References 7 External links Creation ( edit ) Jessica Jones debuted in the Marvel MAX imprint series Alias in November 2001 . The character and series were created by writer Brian Michael Bendis and artist Michael Gaydos . Alias ran for 28 issues from 2001 to 2004 , with most covers drawn by David W. Mack . After the end of the series , Jones and other characters from the series moved to Bendis ' subsequent series , The Pulse . In a 2005 interview , Bendis claimed : `` Originally , Alias was going to star Jessica Drew , but it became something else entirely . Which is good , because had we used Jessica , it would have been off continuity and bad storytelling . '' Previously , Bendis commented , `` I was at one time toying with doing Jessica Drew ( in Alias ) because she has the best hair of any superhero in comics , but this book is entirely different than what that idea was to be . '' By the time Bendis was actively developing the title , Jones was his central character , one with a distinct background and voice from Drew 's . Jessica Jones appeared as a regular character throughout the 2010 -- 2013 New Avengers series , from issue # 1 ( August 2010 ) through its final issue # 34 ( January 2013 ) . In a Marvel Comics podcast , Bendis expressed his desire to incorporate Jones into the parallel universe Ultimate Marvel imprint . In Ultimate Spider - Man # 106 , she appears as a senior at Peter Parker 's school . Her adoptive surname Jones is of Welsh origin . Fictional character biography ( edit ) Origin ( edit ) Midtown High student Jessica Campbell goes to school with Peter Parker , on whom she has a crush and is present when he is bitten by the irradiated spider which gives him radioactive powers . Jessica 's father receives tickets for Disney World from his boss Tony Stark . On the way home , their car collides with a military convoy carrying radioactive chemicals . Her family is killed , and she spends several months in a coma . Upon waking , she is placed in an orphanage and adopted by the Jones family . Jessica later discovers that her radiation exposure granted her super strength , limited invulnerability , and flight . Jessica 's adoptive parents re-enroll her at Midtown High , where she is ostracized by her classmates , especially Flash Thompson . Peter Parker ( who has since become Spider - Man ) senses in Jessica a kindred spirit -- someone who has also lost her family due to a tragic circumstance . Jessica mistakes his kind attention for pity and lashes out at him . She later witnesses a fight between Spider - Man and the villain Sandman in her school . This inspires her to use her abilities for positive ends . Early years ( edit ) Main article : Alias ( comics ) As Jewel , Jones has a fairly uneventful superhero career until she intervenes in a disturbance at a restaurant involving Zebediah Killgrave , the Purple Man . Killgrave uses his power of mind control to place Jones under his command , psychologically torturing her and forcing her to aid his criminal schemes . After Killgrave sends her to kill Daredevil at the Avengers Mansion , Jones is rescued by Carol Danvers , the only Avenger who actually knows her . Jones undergoes psychic therapy with Jean Grey of the X-Men , who places a special mental command in Jones 's subconscious to protect her from further mind control . During this time , Jones develops a brief romantic relationship with S.H.I.E.L.D. agent Clay Quartermain . Due to the traumatic violation of her mind by Killgrave and the fact that she was barely noticed missing for eight months , a demoralized and depressed Jones gives up her costumed superhero life . She briefly adopts a darker identity as the Knightress and interrupts a crime meeting between the Owl and a mafioso , through which she meets up with fellow superhero Luke Cage . After defeating the Owl , she and Cage develop a lasting friendship . No longer a superhero , Jones opens a private detective agency . Longtime friend Carol Danvers sets Jones up with Scott Lang ( the second Ant - Man ) , and the two date for several months . She also has an off - and - on affair with Cage . Killgrave , still obsessed with Jones , escapes from high - security incarceration , but with the mental defenses Grey gave her , Jones breaks his control and subsequently beats him to death . Later , Cage and Jones admit their feelings for each other , and after she becomes pregnant with their child , they begin a committed relationship . The Pulse and Young Avengers ( edit ) Main article : The Pulse ( comics ) Jones takes a leave from the detective business and joins the staff of the Daily Bugle as a superhero correspondent and consultant , becoming a main character of the comic book The Pulse , and a contributor to the same - name fictional newspaper supplement within . A pregnant Jones is attacked by the Green Goblin after the Bugle reported that he was secretly industrialist Norman Osborn . In response , Cage retaliates and Osborn is irrevocably exposed as the Goblin upon his defeat and incarceration . Jones quits her job with the Bugle after publisher J. Jonah Jameson uses the paper to smear the New Avengers . Jones and Cage are living together when she gives birth to their child , whom they name Danielle after Luke 's best friend , Danny Rand . Cage and Jones marry in New Avengers Annual # 1 . Jones appears as a supporting character in Young Avengers until the series ended . She returns in Avengers : The Children 's Crusade # 6 in which she , Beast and Hawkeye attempted to defuse the situation between the Avengers and X-Men who were fighting over who was to punish the Scarlet Witch . She helps fight Doctor Doom and is present when Stature and the Vision are killed . She is seen hugging Hulkling in the final panel when the team is declared full - fledged Avengers by Captain America . `` Civil War '' , `` Secret Invasion '' and `` dark reign '' ( edit ) In Marvel 's 2006 -- 2007 crossover storyline `` Civil War '' , Jones and Cage reject Iron Man and Ms. Marvel 's offer to join the Superhuman Registration Act . As part of the New Avengers , Jones moved into Doctor Strange 's Sanctum Sanctorum , but after an attack involving the demonic villain the Hood , Jones , shaken by the experience and desperate to protect her child , left the New Avengers and registered for the Superhuman Registration Act , ending her relationship with Luke Cage for the time being . Jones is among the heroes who emerge from the crashed Skrull ship wearing her Jewel costume , although it is later revealed this Jones was a Skrull . The real Jessica Jones appears in Secret Invasion # 7 , in which she joins in the heroes ' fight against the Skrulls and was able to be reunited with her husband . After the Skrull surrender , the Skrull impersonating Jarvis disappears with their daughter , leaving Jessica desperate . Jessica is unaware that Luke has asked Norman Osborn for help in their search for Danielle . Osborn helped Luke recover Danielle , and Luke gave the baby back to Jessica . Spider - Man revealed himself as Peter Parker to the New Avengers , leaving Jones shocked to see that her former classmate is Spider - Man . She then tells Peter of her former crush on him , only to find out that he did not recognize her all this time , let alone remember her name , only remembering her as `` Coma Girl '' , upsetting her . She later assists the Avengers in rescuing Clint after being captured by Norman Osborn . Jessica reveals that she was inspired to become a superheroine after witnessing an early battle between Spider - Man and the Sandman . Peter then tries to convince Jessica to return to the life of a superhero , suggesting that she could provide a better example for her daughter by going into action as a hero rather than simply telling her daughter about her old career . 2010 -- present ( edit ) Jessica Jones as the titular character of her own comic book series . Artwork for the cover of Jessica Jones 1 ( October 2016 Marvel Comics ) . Art by Alex Maleev . ( Variant cover art ) During the storylines of Marvel 's 2010 `` Heroic Age '' branding campaign , Jessica returned to her costumed identity of Jewel and became a member of the New Avengers when the title relaunched in June 2010 . She and Luke began searching for a nanny , interviewing characters featured from other comics set in the Marvel Universe . Ultimately , Squirrel Girl was chosen as Danielle 's nanny . In New Avengers # 8 , Jessica took the name Power Woman to both honor her husband , Power Man ( Luke Cage ) , and to be a role model for their daughter . However following several incidents revolving around Thule Society attacking Avengers Mansion , and Norman Osborn 's threat , Jessica quit the team and went into hiding , realizing that it was too dangerous for Danielle to remain in Avengers Mansion due to the numerous potential threats . Jessica later appeared as an ally to the Mighty Avengers team formed by Luke Cage . Jessica and Danielle lived in the apartment of the Gem Theater , which was serving as the Mighty Avenger 's base of operations . She and Luke would later be confronted by the Superior Spider - Man and his Spider Robots , who offered her a place on a different type of Avengers team that was to be run by him . Jessica swiftly found a babysitter for her child and refused before delivering a powerful punch to Spider - Man 's face for his threat . The group was later backed up by She - Hulk and she and Jessica decided to go out for coffee . Jessica and Luke would later switch apartments with an old friend of Luke 's named David Griffiths . While moving in , Jessica spoke to the Blue Marvel about what it 's like to raise a child of superheroes and expressed both her support and annoyance at her husband 's choice to start another team of Avengers . During the `` Secret Empire '' storyline , Jessica Jones became a member of the Defenders alongside Daredevil , Iron Fist , and Luke Cage . They alongside Cloak and Dagger , Doctor Strange , and Spider - Woman fought the Army of Evil during Hydra 's rise to power where they were defeated by Nitro . Jessica Jones and those with him were trapped in the Darkforce dome by Blackout when his powers were enhanced by Baron Helmut Zemo using the Darkhold . In October 2016 , a new ongoing series featuring the character , titled Jessica Jones , began . In 2017 , a new ongoing Defenders series was launched , featuring Jessica as one of the main characters . During the `` Hunt for Wolverine '' storyline , Jessica Jones and Luke Cage assist Iron Man and Spider - Man find Wolverine when his body has gone missing from his unmarked grave . When the four of them arrive undercover at a submarine in international waters upon hearing that a genetic material will be auctioned off , Jessica and Luke are shocked to find that the genetic material that will be auctioned off belongs to their daughter Danielle . Powers and abilities ( edit ) After coming into contact with experimental chemicals and spending some time in a coma , Jessica emerged with superhuman abilities . She possesses superhuman strength , as well as flight , and can block mind control . She shows the capacity to lift a two - ton police car with little effort . Her strength allowed her to lift up a giant - sized Goliath by the nostrils and toss him a short distance , break Atlas ' nose , and render her fellow superheroine Jessica Drew unconscious with a single punch to the face . She later withstood being punched by a human on Mutant - Growth Hormone and sustained only mild bruising and a bloody nose and was able to recover in moments after being shocked by Jessica Drew 's venom blasts . Despite this resistance to harm , Jessica sustained severe injuries , including a damaged spine and neck , a detached retina , and a broken nose after being attacked by both the Vision and Iron Man . Jessica is also able to fly , and while she was able to fly quite well during her early years as a heroine , she has admitted that her flying ability degenerated while she was no longer an active hero . She has since displayed improved flying ability after joining the New Avengers . After her ordeal at the hands of the Purple Man , Jessica was given a degree of psionic protection by Jean Grey of the X-Men . This psionic protection was sufficient to protect Jessica against a second attack by the Purple Man , though she had to `` trigger '' this resistance on her own . In addition to her superhuman powers , Jessica is a skilled detective and investigative journalist . Other versions ( edit ) Ultimate Jessica Jones . Art by David Lafuente . Multiple versions of Jessica Jones have appeared in Marvel 's multiverse . In the 2005 `` House of M '' storyline , Jessica was apparently dating Scott Lang . In What If , Jones accepted Captain America 's offer to work for S.H.I.E.L.D. . Perceiving that something was amiss with Wanda Maximoff ( the Scarlet Witch ) , she alerted the other Avengers , ensuring that the catastrophic events depicted in `` Avengers Disassembled '' and `` House of M '' would never occur . Jessica married Captain America . In Ultimate Spider - Man , Jones appeared as a senior student in the school Peter Parker attended . She was the executive producer of the school 's television network . She later became jealous of Mary Jane Watson 's superior film skills . She attempted to deduce Spider - Man 's secret identity for the school newspaper and may have been suspicious about Peter Parker . Later on after the events of Ultimatum , she claimed to have abandoned her attempts to figure out who Spider - Man was and instead wanted to focus on his heroics . In Spider - Man Loves Mary Jane , Jessica was a student at Mary Jane 's high school and was a former friend of Mary Jane until she became a goth . Mary Jane spent more time with Jessica after her breakup with Ned Leeds and became more goth - like until Jessica told Mary Jane it was n't her . In other media ( edit ) Television ( edit ) Krysten Ritter as Jessica Jones in the Netflix original series , Marvel 's Jessica Jones . On November 20 , 2015 , Jessica Jones was released on Netflix , with the title character portrayed by Krysten Ritter as an adult and by Elizabeth Cappuccino as a teenager . As a child , she was in a car accident that killed her parents and put her in a coma . After she regained consciousness , Jessica was legally adopted by talent agent Dorothy Walker , therefore becoming the adopted sister of Trish Walker . As an adult , Jessica crosses paths with Kilgrave and spends a year under his control , snapping out of it after she kills Luke Cage 's wife Reva Connors on Kilgrave 's orders . She experiences post-traumatic stress disorder as a result of what Kilgrave did to her , and drinks to excess to numb her pain and guilt . Her Jewel costume from the comics appears briefly in the fifth episode of season 1 , `` AKA : The Sandwich Saved Me '' , although she refuses to wear it and rejects Trish 's suggestion of Jewel as an alias , saying `` Jewel is a stripper 's name , a really slutty stripper . And if I wear that thing you 're going to have to call me Camel Toe . '' In the eighth episode of Iron Fist , Joy Meachum indirectly mentions to her brother Ward that she hired Jessica in the past to take compromising pictures of members on the Rand Enterprises board of directors . Ritter reprised her role in The Defenders , a 2017 crossover miniseries . A second season of Jessica Jones was released on Netflix on March 8 , 2018 , on International Women 's Day . Video games ( edit ) Jessica Jones appears in a series of Marvel mobile and video games , such as Marvel : War of Heroes , and Marvel : Future Fight . Her appearance in all of them is based off the Netflix version . A teenage version of Jones appears in Marvel Avengers Academy , where she is voiced by Michelle Phan . She initially resembles her Netflix counterpart but gains the Jewel costume once she is upgraded . Jones appears in Marvel Heroes , where she is voiced by Mary Elizabeth McGlynn and Tara Strong . Jones a playable character in Lego Marvel 's Avengers , voiced by Tara Strong . This version is based on her Jewel variant . Her mission requires the player to find Mantis , She - Hulk , Squirrel Girl , and Echo , who have applied to be a potential nanny for Danielle . She appears as a playable character in Marvel : Avengers Alliance . Jessica Jones appears as a playable character in Marvel Puzzle Quest . Jessica Jones appears as a playable character in Marvel Avengers Academy . References ( edit ) Jump up ^ New Avengers vol. 1 , # 50 ( April 2009 ) . Marvel Comics . Jump up ^ Weiland , Jonah ( August 5 , 2005 ) . `` Spider - Love : Bendis on ' Spider - Woman : Origin ' and New Ongoing Series '' . Comic Book Resources . Retrieved 2011 - 02 - 06 . Jump up ^ Powers # 11 , letters pages Jump up ^ Cronin , Brian ( July 27 , 2006 ) . `` Comic Book Urban Legends Revealed # 61 '' . Comic Book Resources . Retrieved 2011 - 02 - 06 . Jump up ^ `` Marvel Comics podcast '' . Retrieved 2011 - 02 - 06 . ^ Jump up to : Bendis , Brian Michael ( w ) . Alias # 22 . Marvel Comics Jump up ^ Bendis , Brian Michael ( w ) . Alias # 23 . Marvel Comics Jump up ^ The Amazing Spider - Man # 600 ( 2009 ) . Marvel Comics Jump up ^ Bendis , Brian Michael ( w ) . Alias # 25 . Marvel Comics ^ Jump up to : Bendis , Brian Michael ( w ) . Alias # 26 . Marvel Comics ^ Jump up to : Bendis , Brian Michael ( w ) . Alias # 28 . Marvel Comics Jump up ^ Bendis , Brian Michael ( w ) . Alias # 25 -- 26 . Marvel Comics . ^ Jump up to : Bendis , Brian Michael ( w ) . Pulse # 14 . Marvel Comics Jump up ^ Bendis , Brian Michael ( w ) . Alias . Marvel Comics Jump up ^ Bendis , Brian Michael ( w ) . Alias # 28 . Marvel Comics Jump up ^ New Avengers Annual # 1 . Marvel Comics Jump up ^ New Avengers Annual # 2 ( 2008 ) . Marvel Comics Jump up ^ Secret Invasion # 2 ( May 2008 ) . Marvel Comics Jump up ^ Secret Invasion # 5 ( August 2008 ) Jump up ^ Secret Invasion # 8 ( December 2008 ) . Marvel Comics Jump up ^ New Avengers # 48 . Marvel Comics Jump up ^ New Avengers # 49 . Marvel Comics Jump up ^ New Avengers # 51 . Marvel Comics Jump up ^ New Avengers Annual # 3 . Marvel Comics Jump up ^ Amazing Spider - Man # 601 ( October 2009 ) . Marvel Comics Jump up ^ The battle between Spider - Man and the Sandman occurred during the villain 's first published appearance in Amazing Spider - Man # 4 ( September 1963 ) . Marvel Comics . Jump up ^ `` Jessica Jones is a New Avenger '' . Comic Book Resources . March 4 , 2010 . Jump up ^ New Avengers # 7 . Marvel Comics Jump up ^ New Avengers # 8 . Marvel Comics Jump up ^ New Avengers vol. 2 # 15 -- 16 Jump up ^ New Avengers # 24 Jump up ^ New Avengers # 24 . Marvel Comics Jump up ^ Secret Empire # 0 Jump up ^ Hunt for Wolverine : The Adamantium Agenda # 1 . Marvel Comics . Jump up ^ Bendis , Brian Michael ( w ) . Alias # 1 -- 28 . Marvel Comics Jump up ^ House of M # 6 . Marvel Comics Jump up ^ What If Jessica Jones Had Joined the Avengers ? Vol. 3 , # 1 , February , 2005 ^ Jump up to : Ultimate Spider - Man # 106 , Marvel Comics Jump up ^ Strom , Marc ( December 5 , 2014 ) . `` Krysten Ritter to Star in Marvel 's A.K.A. Jessica Jones '' . Marvel.com . Archived from the original on December 5 , 2014 . Retrieved December 5 , 2014 . Jump up ^ Jayson , Jay ( June 8 , 2015 ) . `` Confirmed ! Marvel Drops AKA From Jessica Jones Title '' . ComicBook.com . Archived from the original on June 9 , 2015 . Retrieved June 8 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Hairston , Tahirah ( November 30 , 2015 ) . `` Jessica Jones does n't wear a superhero costume . Here 's why that 's so powerful '' . Fusion . Retrieved December 1 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Truitt , Brian ( November 20 , 2015 ) . `` ' Jessica Jones ' star Mike Colter a powerhouse as Luke Cage '' . USA Today . Retrieved December 1 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Gajanan , Martha ( February 13 , 2018 ) . `` Jessica Jones Season 2 Is Netflix 's Next Marvel Binge . Here 's What to Expect '' . TIME . Retrieved March 12 , 2018 . Jump up ^ `` ' LEGO Marvel 's Avengers : Age of Ultron ' Mixes Action , Humor & Fan - Favorite Scenes '' . Comic Book Resources . Jump up ^ `` Marvel Adds Netflix Heroes To Rosters Of Popular Mobile Games '' . Comic Book Resources . Jump up ^ `` Jessica Jones '' . Retrieved 2016 - 02 - 26 . Jump up ^ `` Behind The Voice Actors -- Voice Of Jessica Jones '' . Behind The Voice Actors . Retrieved 2016 - 04 - 05 . Jump up ^ Brian Waggoner ( @ Asros ) ( September 29 , 2016 ) . `` Also , for those who are wondering , the amazing @ tarastrong voices Jessica Jones in @ MarvelHeroes '' ( Tweet ) . Retrieved June 22 , 2017 -- via Twitter . Jump up ^ Martinez , Phillip ( November 17 , 2015 ) . `` Marvel Avengers Alliance Spec Ops 31 : Jessica Jones Confirmed As Next Reward Hero '' . iDigitalTimes . Archived from the original on February 2 , 2017 . Jump up ^ https://news.marvel.com/games/85936/piecing-together-marvel-puzzle-quest-jessica-jones/ Jump up ^ https://news.marvel.com/games/87421/this-week-in-marvel-games-runaways-jessica-jones-and-proxima-midnight/ External links ( edit ) Jessica Jones at Marvel.com Bendis Interview at Comic Book Resources ( August 2005 ) Comic Book Urban Legends Revealed : Which Jessica for Alias ? Jessica Jones Brian Michael Bendis Michael Gaydos Supporting characters Luke Cage Carol Danvers Jessica Drew Ben Urich Enemies Man Mountain Marko Purple Man Publications Alias The Pulse Jessica Jones In other media Jessica Jones season 1 characters Related articles Daily Bugle New Avengers Luke Cage Archie Goodwin John Romita Sr . Supporting characters Big Ben Donovan Noah Burstein David Griffith Iron Fist Jessica Jones Misty Knight Claire Temple Colleen Wing Enemies Black Mariah Bushmaster Chemistro Cheshire Cat Circus of Crime Comanche Cottonmouth Diamondback Discus Dontrell Hamilton El Aguila Gideon Mace Goldbug Erik Josten Maggia Mr. Fish Nightshade Purple Man Señor Muerte / Señor Suerte Shades Spear Steeplejack Stiletto Zzzax Teams Defenders Heroes for Hire Mighty Avengers New Avengers Thunderbolts Publications Power Man and Iron Fist In other media Luke Cage season 1 characters soundtrack Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jessica_Jones&oldid=842402029 '' Categories : Marvel Comics superheroes Characters created by Brian Michael Bendis Comics characters introduced in 2001 Female characters in comics Fictional adoptees Fictional alcohol abusers Fictional characters with posttraumatic stress disorder Fictional female detectives Fictional orphans Fictional private investigators Fictional reporters Fictional sexual assault victims Fictional sole survivors Marvel Comics characters with superhuman strength Marvel Comics mutates Marvel Comics television characters Hidden categories : Character pop Converted comics character infoboxes Converted category character infoboxes Comics articles needing issue citations Articles with unsourced statements from November 2015 Talk Contents About Wikipedia Català Deutsch Español فارسی Français 한국어 Italiano עברית Nederlands Português Русский Suomi Svenska Tagalog اردو 中文 7 more Edit links This page was last edited on 22 May 2018 , at 06 : 32 . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply . By using this site , you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia ® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation , Inc. , a non-profit organization . About Wikipedia

8394238569735603187

tom petty don't come around here no more meaning

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Don%27t_Come_Around_Here_No_More&oldid=847822566

Do n't Come around Here No More - wikipedia Do n't Come around Here No More `` Do n't Come Around Here No More '' Single by Tom Petty and the Heartbreakers from the album Southern Accents B - side `` Trailer '' Released February 28 , 1985 Format 7 '' Recorded 1984 Genre Psychedelic rock Length 5 : 07 Label MCA Songwriter ( s ) Tom Petty , David A. Stewart Producer ( s ) Tom Petty , David A. Stewart , Jimmy Iovine Tom Petty and the Heartbreakers singles chronology `` Change of Heart '' ( 1983 ) `` Do n't Come Around Here No More '' ( 1985 ) `` Rebels '' ( 1985 ) `` Change of Heart '' ( 1983 ) `` Do n't Come Around Here No More '' ( 1985 ) `` Rebels '' ( 1985 ) `` Do n't Come Around Here No More '' is a song written by Tom Petty of Tom Petty and the Heartbreakers and David A. Stewart of Eurythmics . It was released in February 1985 as the lead single from Tom Petty and the Heartbreakers ' Southern Accents album . Contents ( hide ) 1 Background and writing 2 Music video 3 Personnel 4 Chart performance 5 Cover versions 6 References Background and writing ( edit ) The original inspiration was a romantic encounter that producer David A. Stewart of Eurythmics had with Stevie Nicks of Fleetwood Mac . On The Howard Stern Show , Stewart explained that the title 's phrase was actually uttered by Nicks . She had broken up with Eagles guitarist Joe Walsh the night before , and invited Stewart to her place for a party after an early Eurythmics show in Los Angeles . Stewart did not know who she was at the time , but went anyway . When the partygoers all disappeared to a bathroom for a couple of hours to snort cocaine , he decided to go upstairs to bed . He woke up at 5am to find Nicks in his room trying on Victorian clothing and described the entire scenario as very much reminiscent of Alice in Wonderland . Later that morning , she told Walsh , `` Do n't come around here no more . '' Music video ( edit ) The music video is themed around Alice in Wonderland and was directed by Jeff Stein . Dave Stewart appears as the caterpillar at the beginning , sitting on a mushroom with a hookah water pipe while playing a sitar . Petty appears in the video dressed as The Mad Hatter , and actress Louise `` Wish '' Foley played Alice . At the climax of the video , Alice is turned into a cake and is eaten by Petty and even friends of her own . The video ends with her being swallowed whole by Petty , after which he gives a small burp and pats his mouth dry . Personnel ( edit ) The Heartbreakers Tom Petty -- lead vocals , piano Mike Campbell -- guitar , bass synthesizer Benmont Tench -- string synthesizer Stan Lynch -- drums , percussion Howie Epstein -- bass guitar , vocals Additional personnel David A. Stewart -- electric sitar , synthesizer , vocals Dean Garcia -- intro bass guitar Daniel Rothmuller -- cello Marilyn Martin -- backing vocals Stephanie Sprull -- backing vocals Sharon Celani -- backing vocals Alan `` Bugs '' Weidel -- wild dog piano Chart performance ( edit ) Chart ( 1985 ) Peak position Australia ( Kent Music Report ) 61 Canadian Top 100 Singles ( RPM ) 20 New Zealand ( Recorded Music NZ ) 42 UK Singles Chart 50 US Billboard Hot 100 13 US Album Rock Tracks ( Billboard ) Cover versions ( edit ) Susanna of Susanna and the Magical Orchestra gives the song a low - key , piano - based cover on her 2008 album Flower of Evil . Indie band Vampire Weekend covers the song on a steady basis during live shows . British indie pop singer - songwriter Diana Vickers covered the song as a promotional track ahead of the release of her second album . The song was parodied by Bob Rivers. . Showrunner Noah Hawley and composer Jeff Russo also performed a cover for a season two episode of the TV show Legion . References ( edit ) Jump up ^ https://www.allmusic.com/song/dont-come-around-here-no-more-mt0009210688 Jump up ^ Do n't Come Around Here No More Songfacts Jump up ^ Conversations With Tom Petty , 2005 Jump up ^ ( 1 ) . Jump up ^ Kent , David ( 1993 ) . Australian Chart Book 1970 -- 1992 . St Ives , NSW : Australian Chart Book . ISBN 0 - 646 - 11917 - 6 . Jump up ^ Top Singles - Volume 42 , No. 11 , May 25 1985 . collectionscanada.gc.ca . Retrieved September 2 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Charts.org.nz -- Tom Petty & The Heartbreakers -- Do n't Come Around Here No More '' . Top 40 Singles . Retrieved September 2 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Tom Petty Chart History ( Hot 100 ) '' . Billboard . Retrieved September 2 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Do n't Bum Around Here no More hide Tom Petty and the Heartbreakers Tom Petty Mike Campbell Benmont Tench Ron Blair Scott Thurston Steve Ferrone Stan Lynch Howie Epstein Studio albums Tom Petty and the Heartbreakers You 're Gonna Get It ! Damn the Torpedoes Hard Promises Long After Dark Southern Accents Let Me Up ( I 've Had Enough ) Into the Great Wide Open Songs and Music from `` She 's the One '' Echo The Last DJ Mojo Hypnotic Eye Live albums Official Live ' Leg Pack Up the Plantation : Live ! The Live Anthology Mojo Tour 2010 Compilations Greatest Hits Playback Anthology : Through the Years Videography Pack Up the Plantation : Live ! Hard to Handle w / Bob Dylan Playback Live at the Olympic : The Last DJ Runnin ' Down a Dream Songs `` Breakdown '' `` American Girl '' `` Anything That 's Rock ' n ' Roll '' `` I Need to Know '' `` Listen to Her Heart '' `` Do n't Do Me Like That '' `` Refugee '' `` Here Comes My Girl '' `` Even the Losers '' `` The Waiting '' `` A Woman in Love ( It 's Not Me ) '' `` You Got Lucky '' `` Change of Heart '' `` Do n't Come Around Here No More '' `` Rebels '' `` Make It Better ( Forget About Me ) '' `` Jammin ' Me '' `` Learning to Fly '' `` Into the Great Wide Open '' `` Mary Jane 's Last Dance '' `` Walls ( Circus ) '' `` The Last DJ '' Related articles Discography Songs Awards Mudcrutch Blue Stingrays `` Stop Draggin ' My Heart Around '' Unchained Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Don%27t_Come_Around_Here_No_More&oldid=847822566 '' Categories : Tom Petty songs 1985 singles Songs written by Tom Petty Songs written by David A. Stewart Song recordings produced by Jimmy Iovine Songs based on actual events MCA Records singles 1985 songs Hidden categories : Articles with hAudio microformats Singlechart usages for New Zealand Singlechart usages for Billboardhot100 Singlechart called without song Talk More Contents About Wikipedia Italiano Norsk nynorsk Русский Edit links This page was last edited on 28 June 2018 , at 01 : 04 ( UTC ) . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply . By using this site , you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia ® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation , Inc. , a non-profit organization . About Wikipedia

2465071880314423467

where did the word tar heel come from

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Tar_Heel&oldid=803403924

Tar Heel - wikipedia Tar Heel Jump to : navigation , search For other uses , see Tar Heel ( disambiguation ) . Tar Heel is a nickname applied to the U.S. state of North Carolina and its inhabitants . It is also the nickname of the University of North Carolina athletic teams , students , alumni , and fans . The exact etymology of the nickname is unknown , but most folklore believe its roots come from the fact that tar , pitch , and turpentine created from the vast pine forests were some of North Carolina 's most important exports early in the state 's history . For a time after the American Civil War , the name Tar Heel was derogatory , but it was later reappropriated by the people of North Carolina . Because the exact history of the term is unknown , a number of legends have developed to explain it . One such legend claims it to be a nickname given during the U.S. Civil War , because of the state 's importance on the Confederate side , and the fact that the troops `` stuck to their ranks like they had tar on their heels '' . The term `` Tar Heel '' gained popularity during the Civil War . Contents ( hide ) 1 History of term 2 Legendary explanations 2.1 River fording by General Cornwallis 2.2 Ability to hold ground 2.3 Reluctant secession 2.4 Robert E. Lee quotation 3 Early known uses of the term 4 See also 5 References 6 Further reading 7 External links History of term ( edit ) Front page of the first issue of The Tar Heel , published on 23 Feb 1893 . The paper was later renamed The Daily Tar Heel . In its early years as a colony , North Carolina settlements became an important source of the naval stores tar , pitch , and turpentine , especially for the British navy . Tar and pitch were largely used to paint the bottom of wooden British ships both to seal the ship and to prevent shipworms from damaging the hull . At one time , an estimated 100,000 barrels ( 16,000 m ) of tar and pitch were shipped annually to England . After 1824 , North Carolina became the leader in the United States for naval stores . By the Civil War , North Carolina had more than 1600 turpentine distilleries , and two thirds of all turpentine in the United States came from North Carolina and one - half from the counties of Bladen and New Hanover . Historians Hugh Lefler and Albert Newsome claim in North Carolina : the History of a Southern State ( 3rd edition , 1973 ) that North Carolina led the world in production of naval stores from about 1720 to 1870 . At the time , tar was created by piling up pine logs and burning them until hot oil seeped out from a spout . The vast production of tar from North Carolina led many , including Walt Whitman , to give the derisive nickname of `` Tarboilers '' to the residents of North Carolina . North Carolina was nicknamed the `` Tar and Turpentine State '' because of this industry . Somehow , these terms evolved until the nickname Tar Heel was used to refer to residents of North Carolina and gained prominence during the American Civil War . During this time , the nickname Tar Heel was a pejorative , but starting around 1865 , the term began to be used as a source of pride . In 1893 , the students of the University of North Carolina founded a newspaper and named it The Tar Heel , which was later renamed The Daily Tar Heel . By the early 1900s the term was embraced by many as a non-derisive term for North Carolinians by those from inside and outside the state of North Carolina . Legendary explanations ( edit ) The following legends and anecdotes have arisen trying to explain the history of the term Tar Heel . River fording by general Cornwallis ( edit ) According to this legend , the troops of British General Cornwallis during the American Revolutionary War were fording what is now known as the Tar River between Rocky Mount and Battleboro when they discovered that tar had been dumped into the stream to impede the crossing of British soldiers . When they finally got across the river , they found their feet completely black with tar . Thus , the soldiers observed that anyone who waded through North Carolina rivers would acquire `` tar heels . '' Ability to hold ground ( edit ) In the third volume of Walter Clark 's Histories of the Several Regiments from North Carolina in the Great War , the author explains that the nickname came about when North Carolina troops held their ground during a battle in Virginia during the American Civil War while other supporting troops retreated . After the battle , supporting troops asked the victorious North Carolinians : `` Any more tar down in the Old North State , boys ? '' and they replied : `` No , not a bit ; old Jeff 's bought it all up . '' The supporting troops continued : `` Is that so ? What is he going to do with it ? '' The North Carolinian troops ' response : `` He is going to put it on you'ns ' heels to make you stick better in the next fight . '' Reluctant secession ( edit ) The State of North Carolina was the next to last state to secede from the United States of America , and as a result the state was nicknamed `` the reluctant state '' by others in the south . The joke circulating around at the beginning of the war went something like : `` Got any tar ? '' `` No , Jeff Davis has bought it all . '' `` What for ? '' `` To put on you fellows ' heels to make you stick . '' As the war continued , many North Carolinian troops developed smart replies to this term of ridicule : The 4th Texas Infantry lost its flag at Sharpsburg . As they were passing by the 6th North Carolina a few days afterward , the Texans called out , `` Tar Heels ! '' , and the reply was , `` If'n you had had some tar on your heels , you would have brought your flag back from Sharpsburg . '' Robert E. Lee quotation ( edit ) The book Grandfather Tales of North Carolina History ( 1901 ) states that : During the late unhappy war between the States it ( North Carolina ) was sometimes called the `` Tar - heel State , '' because tar was made in the State , and because in battle the soldiers of North Carolina stuck to their bloody work as if they had tar on their heels , and when General Lee said , `` God bless the Tar - heel boys , '' they took the name . ( p. 6 ) A letter found in 1991 ( dating from 1864 in the North Carolina `` Tar Heel Collection '' ) by North Carolina State Archivist David Olson supports the theory that Lee might have stated something similar to this . A Colonel Joseph Engelhard , describing the Battle of Ream 's Station in Virginia , wrote : `` It was a ' Tar Heel ' fight , and ... we got Gen'l Lee to thanking God , which you know means something brilliant . '' Early known uses of the term ( edit ) The earliest surviving written use of the term can be found in the diary of 2nd Lieutenant Jackson B.A. Lowrance , who wrote the following on February 6 , 1863 while in Pender County , southeastern North Carolina : `` I know now what is meant by the Piney Woods of North Carolina and the idea occurs to me that it is no wonder we are called ' Tar Heels ' . '' After the Battle of Murfreesboro in Tennessee in early January 1863 , John S. Preston of Columbia , S.C. , the commanding general , rode along the fighting line commending his troops . Before the 60th Regiment from North Carolina , Preston praised them for advancing farther than he had anticipated , concluding with : `` This is your first battle of any consequence , I believe . Indeed , you Tar Heels have done well . '' An August 1869 article in Overland Monthly magazine recounted an anecdote regarding `` a brigade of North Carolinians , who , in one of the great battles ( Chancellorsville , if I remember correctly ) failed to hold a certain hill , and were laughed at by the Mississippians for having forgotten to tar their heels that morning . Hence originated their cant name ' Tarheels ' . '' In a letter dated 1864 ( in the North Carolina `` Tar Heel Collection '' ) , a Colonel Joseph Engelhard described the Battle of Ream 's Station in Virginia . In it , he states : `` It was a ' Tar Heel ' fight , and ... we got Gen'l Lee to thanking God , which you know means something brilliant '' . North Carolina State Governor Vance said in one of his speeches to the troops : `` I do not know what to call you fellows . I can not say fellow soldiers , because I am not a soldier , nor fellow citizens , because we do not live in this state ; so I have concluded to call you fellows Tar Heels . '' A piece of sheet music , `` Wearin ' of the Grey '' , identified as `` Written by Tar Heel '' and published in Baltimore in 1866 , is probably the earliest printed use of Tar Heel . On New Year 's Day , 1868 , Stephen Powers set out from Raleigh on a walking tour that , in part , would trace in reverse the march of Gen. William T. Sherman at the end of the Civil War . As a part of his report on North Carolina , Powers described the pine woods of the state and the making of turpentine . Having entered South Carolina , he recorded in his 1872 book , Afoot & Alone , that he spent the night `` with a young man , whose family were away , leaving him all alone in a great mansion . He had been a cavalry sergeant , wore his hat on the side of his head , and had an exceedingly confidential manner . '' `` You see , sir , the Tar ‐ heels have n't no sense to spare , '' Powers quotes the sergeant as saying . `` Down there in the pines the sun do n't more'n half bake their heads . We always had to show ' em whar the Yankees was , or they 'd charge to the rear , the wrong way , you see . '' In Congress on February 10 , 1875 , an African American representative from South Carolina stated that some whites were `` the class of men thrown up by the war , that rude class of men I mean , the ' tar ‐ heels ' and the ' sand ‐ hillers , ' and the ' dirt eaters ' of the South -- it is with that class we have all our trouble ... '' Tar Heel was used in the 1884 edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica , which reported that the people who lived in the region of pine forests were `` far superior to the tar heel , the nickname of the dwellers in barrens . '' In Congress in 1878 , Rep. David B. Vance , trying to persuade the government to pay one of his constituents , J.C. Clendenin , for building a road , described Clendenin in glowing phrases , concluding with : `` He is an honest man ... he is a tar ‐ heel . '' In Pittsboro on December 11 , 1879 , the Chatham Record informed its readers that Jesse Turner had been named to the Arkansas Supreme Court . The new justice was described as `` a younger brother of our respected townsman , David Turner , Esq. , and we are pleased to know that a fellow tar ‐ heel is thought so much of in the state of his adoption . '' John R. Hancock of Raleigh wrote Sen. Marion Butler on January 20 , 1899 , to commend him for his efforts to obtain pensions for Confederate veterans . This was an action , Hancock wrote , `` we Tar Heels , or a large majority of us , do most heartily commend . '' The New York Tribune stated on September 20 , 1903 , regarding some North Carolinians , that `` the men really like to work , which is all but incomprehensible to the true ' tar heel ' . '' On August 26 , 1912 , The New York Evening Post identified Josephus Daniels and Thomas J. Pence as two Tar Heels holding important posts in Woodrow Wilson 's campaign . See also ( edit ) University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill Tar Heel , North Carolina Tarheel , North Carolina Tar River Tarboro Naval stores industry References ( edit ) ^ Jump up to : `` Article on history of term from UNC Alumni webpage '' . Jump up ^ `` Carolina Traditions '' . www.unc.edu . Archived from the original on February 17 , 2009 . Retrieved 2009 - 03 - 30 . Jump up ^ `` Tar Heel Collection '' . ncrec.dcr.state.nc.us . Archived from the original on September 25 , 2006 . Retrieved 2008 - 06 - 22 . Jump up ^ Article on shipworm ^ Jump up to : The tar heel state : a history of North Carolina . Jump up ^ State Symbols from NC library Jump up ^ `` Tar Heel Traditions '' . Carolina Traditions . Archived from the original on February 6 , 2005 . Retrieved March 22 , 2005 . Jump up ^ `` Origins of the Term Tarheel '' . 1st NC Cavalry . Retrieved November 1 , 2006 . Jump up ^ NC State library page Jump up ^ Link to scan of actual letter Archived 2006 - 09 - 25 at the Wayback Machine . Jump up ^ Link to NC State library page Jump up ^ `` Link to Diary of William B.A. Lowrance , November 2 , 1862 - February 6 , 1863 '' . Archived from the original on September 25 , 2006 . Jump up ^ Link to NC State library page Jump up ^ Taylor , Michael . `` Tar Heel '' . NCpedia . Retrieved 27 January 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Link to pdf of Sheet Music '' . Archived from the original on 2006 - 09 - 25 . Further reading ( edit ) Michael W. Taylor : Tar Heels : How North Carolinians got their nickname . Division of Archives and History , North Carolina Dept. of Cultural Resources 1999 , ISBN 0 - 86526 - 288 - 8 External links ( edit ) Barteby dictionary entry with suggested etymology North Carolina Outer Banks Chamber of Commerce explanation Early postcard of the icon of a Tar Heel from UNC library , Link to UNC library site on civil war images NC Museum of History answer in pdf format ( hide ) University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill Located in : Chapel Hill , North Carolina Academics Scholarships Center for Global Initiatives Center for the Study of the American South Kenan -- Flagler Business School School of Information and Library Science School of Media and Journalism School of Law School of Medicine School of Pharmacy School of Public Health School of Social Work Southern Observatory for Astrophysical Research L.L. 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2 facts about the great wall of china

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Great_Wall_of_China&oldid=851212424

Great Wall of China - wikipedia Great Wall of China `` Great Wall '' redirects here . For other uses , see Great Wall ( disambiguation ) . wall along the historical northern borders of China Great Wall of China 萬里 長城 The Great Wall of China at Jinshanling Map of all the wall constructions General information Type Fortification Country China Coordinates 40 ° 41 ′ N 117 ° 14 ′ E  /  40.68 ° N 117.23 ° E  / 40.68 ; 117.23 Coordinates : 40 ° 41 ′ N 117 ° 14 ′ E  /  40.68 ° N 117.23 ° E  / 40.68 ; 117.23 Technical details Size 21,196 km ( 13,171 mi ) UNESCO World Heritage Site Official name The Great Wall Type Cultural Criteria i , ii , iii , iv , vi Designated 1987 ( 11th session ) Reference no . 438 State Party China Region Asia - Pacific Great Wall of China Simplified Chinese 长城 Traditional Chinese 長城 Literal meaning `` The Long Wall '' show Transcriptions Standard Mandarin Hanyu Pinyin Chángchéng Wade -- Giles Ch'ang - ch'eng IPA ( ʈʂhǎŋ. ʈʂhə̌ŋ ) Wu Romanization Saon sen Yue : Cantonese Yale Romanization Cheung sing IPA ( tshœ̏ːŋ. sȅŋ ) Jyutping Coeng sing Southern Min Hokkien POJ Tn̂g - siân Tâi - lô Tn̂g - siânn Alternative Chinese name Simplified Chinese 万里 长城 Traditional Chinese 萬里 長城 Literal meaning `` The 10,000 - li Long Wall '' show Transcriptions Wu Romanization Vae - li saon - sen Yue : Cantonese Yale Romanization Maan lei Cheung sing IPA ( màːn. le̬i tshœ̏ːŋ. sȅŋ ) Jyutping Maan - lei coeng - sing Southern Min Tâi - lô Bān - lí tn̂g - siânn The Great Wall of China is a series of fortifications made of stone , brick , tamped earth , wood , and other materials , generally built along an east - to - west line across the historical northern borders of China to protect the Chinese states and empires against the raids and invasions of the various nomadic groups of the Eurasian Steppe with an eye to expansion . Several walls were being built as early as the 7th century BC ; these , later joined together and made bigger and stronger , are collectively referred to as the Great Wall . Especially famous is the wall built in 220 -- 206 BC by Qin Shi Huang , the first Emperor of China . Little of that wall remains . The Great Wall has been rebuilt , maintained , and enhanced over various dynasties ; the majority of the existing wall is from the Ming Dynasty ( 1368 -- 1644 ) . Apart from defense , other purposes of the Great Wall have included border controls , allowing the imposition of duties on goods transported along the Silk Road , regulation or encouragement of trade and the control of immigration and emigration . Furthermore , the defensive characteristics of the Great Wall were enhanced by the construction of watch towers , troop barracks , garrison stations , signaling capabilities through the means of smoke or fire , and the fact that the path of the Great Wall also served as a transportation corridor . The frontier walls built by different dynasties have multiple courses . Collectively , they stretch from Dandong in the east to Lop Lake in the west , from present - day Sino - Russian border in the north to Qinghai in the south ; along an arc that roughly delineates the edge of Mongolian steppe . A comprehensive archaeological survey , using advanced technologies , has concluded that the walls built by the Ming dynasty measure 8,850 km ( 5,500 mi ) . This is made up of 6,259 km ( 3,889 mi ) sections of actual wall , 359 km ( 223 mi ) of trenches and 2,232 km ( 1,387 mi ) of natural defensive barriers such as hills and rivers . Another archaeological survey found that the entire wall with all of its branches measures out to be 21,196 km ( 13,171 mi ) . Today , the Great Wall is generally recognized as one of the most impressive architectural feats in history . Contents 1 Names 2 History 2.1 Early walls 2.2 Ming era 2.3 Foreign accounts 3 Course 4 Characteristics 5 Condition 6 Visibility from space 6.1 From the Moon 6.2 From low Earth orbit 7 Gallery 8 See also 9 Notes 10 References 11 Further reading 12 External links Names The collection of fortifications known as the Great Wall of China has historically had a number of different names in both Chinese and English . In Chinese histories , the term `` Long Wall ( s ) '' ( 長城 , changcheng ) appears in Sima Qian 's Records of the Grand Historian , where it referred both to the separate great walls built between and north of the Warring States and to the more unified construction of the First Emperor . The Chinese character 城 is a phono - semantic compound of the `` place '' or `` earth '' radical 土 and 成 , whose Old Chinese pronunciation has been reconstructed as * deŋ . It originally referred to the rampart which surrounded traditional Chinese cities and was used by extension for these walls around their respective states ; today , however , it is much more often the Chinese word for `` city '' . The longer Chinese name `` Ten - Thousand Mile Long Wall '' ( 萬里 長城 , Wanli Changcheng ) came from Sima Qian 's description of it in the Records , though he did not name the walls as such . The AD 493 Book of Song quotes the frontier general Tan Daoji referring to `` the long wall of 10,000 miles '' , closer to the modern name , but the name rarely features in pre-modern times otherwise . The traditional Chinese mile ( 里 , lǐ ) was an often irregular distance that was intended to show the length of a standard village and varied with terrain but was usually standardized at distances around a third of an English mile ( 540 m ) . Since China 's metrication in 1930 , it has been exactly equivalent to 500 metres or 1,600 feet , which would make the wall 's name describe a distance of 5,000 km ( 3,100 mi ) . However , this use of `` ten - thousand '' ( wàn ) is figurative in a similar manner to the Greek and English myriad and simply means `` innumerable '' or `` immeasurable '' . Because of the wall 's association with the First Emperor 's supposed tyranny , the Chinese dynasties after Qin usually avoided referring to their own additions to the wall by the name `` Long Wall '' . Instead , various terms were used in medieval records , including `` frontier ( s ) '' ( 塞 , sāi ) , `` rampart ( s ) '' ( 垣 , yuán ) , `` barrier ( s ) '' ( 障 , zhàng ) , `` the outer fortresses '' ( 外 堡 , wàibǎo ) , and `` the border wall ( s ) '' ( t 邊 牆 , s 边 墙 , biānqiáng ) . Poetic and informal names for the wall included `` the Purple Frontier '' ( 紫 塞 , Zǐsāi ) and `` the Earth Dragon '' ( t 土 龍 , s 土 龙 , Tǔlóng ) . Only during the Qing period did `` Long Wall '' become the catch - all term to refer to the many border walls regardless of their location or dynastic origin , equivalent to the English `` Great Wall '' . The current English name evolved from accounts of `` the Chinese wall '' from early modern European travelers . By the 19th century , `` The Great Wall of China '' had become standard in English , French , and German , although other European languages continued to refer to it as `` the Chinese wall . '' History Main article : History of the Great Wall of China Early walls The Great Wall of the Qin The Great Wall of the Han The Chinese were already familiar with the techniques of wall - building by the time of the Spring and Autumn period between the 8th and 5th centuries BC . During this time and the subsequent Warring States period , the states of Qin , Wei , Zhao , Qi , Yan , and Zhongshan all constructed extensive fortifications to defend their own borders . Built to withstand the attack of small arms such as swords and spears , these walls were made mostly by stamping earth and gravel between board frames . King Zheng of Qin conquered the last of his opponents and unified China as the First Emperor of the Qin dynasty ( `` Qin Shi Huang '' ) in 221 BC . Intending to impose centralized rule and prevent the resurgence of feudal lords , he ordered the destruction of the sections of the walls that divided his empire among the former states . To position the empire against the Xiongnu people from the north , however , he ordered the building of new walls to connect the remaining fortifications along the empire 's northern frontier . `` Build and move on '' was a central guiding principle in constructing the wall , implying that the Chinese were not erecting a permanently fixed border . Transporting the large quantity of materials required for construction was difficult , so builders always tried to use local resources . Stones from the mountains were used over mountain ranges , while rammed earth was used for construction in the plains . There are no surviving historical records indicating the exact length and course of the Qin walls . Most of the ancient walls have eroded away over the centuries , and very few sections remain today . The human cost of the construction is unknown , but it has been estimated by some authors that hundreds of thousands , if not up to a million , workers died building the Qin wall . Later , the Han , the Sui , and the Northern dynasties all repaired , rebuilt , or expanded sections of the Great Wall at great cost to defend themselves against northern invaders . The Tang and Song dynasties did not undertake any significant effort in the region . The Liao , Jin , and Yuan dynasties , who ruled Northern China throughout most of the 10th -- 13th centuries , constructed defensive walls in the 12th century but those were located much to the north of the Great Wall as we know it , within China 's province of Inner Mongolia and in Mongolia itself . Ming era The extent of the Ming Empire and its walls Main article : Ming Great Wall The Great Wall concept was revived again under the Ming in the 14th century , and following the Ming army 's defeat by the Oirats in the Battle of Tumu . The Ming had failed to gain a clear upper hand over the Mongolian tribes after successive battles , and the long - drawn conflict was taking a toll on the empire . The Ming adopted a new strategy to keep the nomadic tribes out by constructing walls along the northern border of China . Acknowledging the Mongol control established in the Ordos Desert , the wall followed the desert 's southern edge instead of incorporating the bend of the Yellow River . Unlike the earlier fortifications , the Ming construction was stronger and more elaborate due to the use of bricks and stone instead of rammed earth . Up to 25,000 watchtowers are estimated to have been constructed on the wall . As Mongol raids continued periodically over the years , the Ming devoted considerable resources to repair and reinforce the walls . Sections near the Ming capital of Beijing were especially strong . Qi Jiguang between 1567 and 1570 also repaired and reinforced the wall , faced sections of the ram - earth wall with bricks and constructed 1,200 watchtowers from Shanhaiguan Pass to Changping to warn of approaching Mongol raiders . During the 1440s -- 1460s , the Ming also built a so - called `` Liaodong Wall '' . Similar in function to the Great Wall ( whose extension , in a sense , it was ) , but more basic in construction , the Liaodong Wall enclosed the agricultural heartland of the Liaodong province , protecting it against potential incursions by Jurched - Mongol Oriyanghan from the northwest and the Jianzhou Jurchens from the north . While stones and tiles were used in some parts of the Liaodong Wall , most of it was in fact simply an earth dike with moats on both sides . Towards the end of the Ming , the Great Wall helped defend the empire against the Manchu invasions that began around 1600 . Even after the loss of all of Liaodong , the Ming army held the heavily fortified Shanhai Pass , preventing the Manchus from conquering the Chinese heartland . The Manchus were finally able to cross the Great Wall in 1644 , after Beijing had already fallen to Li Zicheng 's rebels . Before this time , the Manchus had crossed the Great Wall multiple times to raid , but this time it was for conquest . The gates at Shanhai Pass were opened on May 25 by the commanding Ming general , Wu Sangui , who formed an alliance with the Manchus , hoping to use the Manchus to expel the rebels from Beijing . The Manchus quickly seized Beijing , and eventually defeated both the rebel - founded Shun dynasty and the remaining Ming resistance , establishing the Qing dynasty rule over all of China . Under Qing rule , China 's borders extended beyond the walls and Mongolia was annexed into the empire , so constructions on the Great Wall were discontinued . On the other hand , the so - called Willow Palisade , following a line similar to that of the Ming Liaodong Wall , was constructed by the Qing rulers in Manchuria . Its purpose , however , was not defense but rather migration control . Foreign accounts Part of the Great Wall of China ( April 1853 , X , p. 41 ) The Great Wall in 1907 None of the Europeans who visited Yuan China or Mongolia , such as Marco Polo , Giovanni da Pian del Carpine , William of Rubruck , Giovanni de ' Marignolli and Odoric of Pordenone , mentioned the Great Wall . The North African traveler Ibn Battuta , who also visited China during the Yuan dynasty ca . 1346 , had heard about China 's Great Wall , possibly before he had arrived in China . He wrote that the wall is `` sixty days ' travel '' from Zeitun ( modern Quanzhou ) in his travelogue Gift to Those Who Contemplate the Wonders of Cities and the Marvels of Travelling . He associated it with the legend of the wall mentioned in the Qur'an , which Dhul - Qarnayn ( commonly associated with Alexander the Great ) was said to have erected to protect people near the land of the rising sun from the savages of Gog and Magog . However , Ibn Battuta could find no one who had either seen it or knew of anyone who had seen it , suggesting that although there were remnants of the wall at that time , they were n't significant . Soon after Europeans reached Ming China by ship in the early 16th century , accounts of the Great Wall started to circulate in Europe , even though no European was to see it for another century . Possibly one of the earliest European descriptions of the wall and of its significance for the defense of the country against the `` Tartars '' ( i.e. Mongols ) , may be the one contained in João de Barros 's 1563 Asia . Other early accounts in Western sources include those of Gaspar da Cruz , Bento de Goes , Matteo Ricci , and Bishop Juan González de Mendoza . In 1559 , in his work `` A Treatise of China and the Adjoyning Regions , '' Gaspar da Cruz offers an early discussion of the Great Wall . Perhaps the first recorded instance of a European actually entering China via the Great Wall came in 1605 , when the Portuguese Jesuit brother Bento de Góis reached the northwestern Jiayu Pass from India . Early European accounts were mostly modest and empirical , closely mirroring contemporary Chinese understanding of the Wall , although later they slid into hyperbole , including the erroneous but ubiquitous claim that the Ming Walls were the same ones that were built by the First Emperor in the 3rd century BC . When China opened its borders to foreign merchants and visitors after its defeat in the First and Second Opium Wars , the Great Wall became a main attraction for tourists . The travelogues of the later 19th century further enhanced the reputation and the mythology of the Great Wall , such that in the 20th century , a persistent misconception exists about the Great Wall of China being visible from the Moon or even Mars . Course The main sections of the Great Wall that are still standing today An area of the sections of the Great Wall at Jinshanling Although a formal definition of what constitutes a `` Great Wall '' has not been agreed upon , making the full course of the Great Wall difficult to describe in its entirety , the course of the main Great Wall line following Ming constructions can be charted . The Jiayu Pass , located in Gansu province , is the western terminus of the Ming Great Wall . Although Han fortifications such as Yumen Pass and the Yang Pass exist further west , the extant walls leading to those passes are difficult to trace . From Jiayu Pass the wall travels discontinuously down the Hexi Corridor and into the deserts of Ningxia , where it enters the western edge of the Yellow River loop at Yinchuan . Here the first major walls erected during the Ming dynasty cuts through the Ordos Desert to the eastern edge of the Yellow River loop . There at Piantou Pass ( t 偏 頭 關 , s 偏 头 关 , Piāntóuguān ) in Xinzhou , Shanxi province , the Great Wall splits in two with the `` Outer Great Wall '' ( t 外 長城 , s 外 长城 , Wài Chǎngchéng ) extending along the Inner Mongolia border with Shanxi into Hebei province , and the `` inner Great Wall '' ( t 內 長城 , s 內 长城 , Nèi Chǎngchéng ) running southeast from Piantou Pass for some 400 km ( 250 mi ) , passing through important passes like the Pingxing Pass and Yanmen Pass before joining the Outer Great Wall at Sihaiye ( 四海 冶 , Sìhǎiyě ) , in Beijing 's Yanqing County . The sections of the Great Wall around Beijing municipality are especially famous : they were frequently renovated and are regularly visited by tourists today . The Badaling Great Wall near Zhangjiakou is the most famous stretch of the Wall , for this is the first section to be opened to the public in the People 's Republic of China , as well as the showpiece stretch for foreign dignitaries . South of Badaling is the Juyong Pass ; when used by the Chinese to protect their land , this section of the wall had many guards to defend China 's capital Beijing . Made of stone and bricks from the hills , this portion of the Great Wall is 7.8 m ( 25 ft 7 in ) high and 5 m ( 16 ft 5 in ) wide . One of the most striking sections of the Ming Great Wall is where it climbs extremely steep slopes in Jinshanling . There it runs 11 km ( 7 mi ) long , ranges from 5 to 8 m ( 16 ft 5 in to 26 ft 3 in ) in height , and 6 m ( 19 ft 8 in ) across the bottom , narrowing up to 5 m ( 16 ft 5 in ) across the top . Wangjinglou ( t 望 京 樓 , s 望 京 楼 , Wàngjīng Lóu ) is one of Jinshanling 's 67 watchtowers , 980 m ( 3,220 ft ) above sea level . Southeast of Jinshanling is the Mutianyu Great Wall which winds along lofty , cragged mountains from the southeast to the northwest for 2.25 km ( 1.40 mi ) . It is connected with Juyongguan Pass to the west and Gubeikou to the east . This section was one of the first to be renovated following the turmoil of the Cultural Revolution . At the edge of the Bohai Gulf is Shanhai Pass , considered the traditional end of the Great Wall and the `` First Pass Under Heaven '' . The part of the wall inside Shanhai Pass that meets the sea is named the `` Old Dragon Head '' . 3 km ( 2 mi ) north of Shanhai Pass is Jiaoshan Great Wall ( 焦 山 長城 ) , the site of the first mountain of the Great Wall . 15 km ( 9 mi ) northeast from Shanhaiguan is Jiumenkou ( t 九 門口 , s 九 门口 , Jiǔménkǒu ) , which is the only portion of the wall that was built as a bridge . Beyond Jiumenkou , an offshoot known as the Liaodong Wall continues through Liaoning province and terminates at the Hushan Great Wall , in the city of Dandong near the North Korean border . In 2009 , 180 km of previously unknown sections of the wall concealed by hills , trenches and rivers were discovered with the help of infrared range finders and GPS devices . In March and April 2015 nine sections with a total length of more than 10 km ( 6 mi ) , believed to be part of the Great Wall , were discovered along the border of Ningxia autonomous region and Gansu province . Characteristics The Great Wall at Mutianyu , near Beijing Great Wall of China in tourist season Before the use of bricks , the Great Wall was mainly built from rammed earth , stones , and wood . During the Ming , however , bricks were heavily used in many areas of the wall , as were materials such as tiles , lime , and stone . The size and weight of the bricks made them easier to work with than earth and stone , so construction quickened . Additionally , bricks could bear more weight and endure better than rammed earth . Stone can hold under its own weight better than brick , but is more difficult to use . Consequently , stones cut in rectangular shapes were used for the foundation , inner and outer brims , and gateways of the wall . Battlements line the uppermost portion of the vast majority of the wall , with defensive gaps a little over 30 cm ( 12 in ) tall , and about 23 cm ( 9.1 in ) wide . From the parapets , guards could survey the surrounding land . Communication between the army units along the length of the Great Wall , including the ability to call reinforcements and warn garrisons of enemy movements , was of high importance . Signal towers were built upon hill tops or other high points along the wall for their visibility . Wooden gates could be used as a trap against those going through . Barracks , stables , and armories were built near the wall 's inner surface . Condition A more rural portion of the Great Wall that stretches throughout the mountains , here seen in slight disrepair The Great Wall of China at Badaling While portions north of Beijing and near tourist centers have been preserved and even extensively renovated , in many other locations the Wall is in disrepair . Those parts might serve as a village playground or a source of stones to rebuild houses and roads . Sections of the Wall are also prone to graffiti and vandalism , while inscribed bricks were pilfered and sold on the market for up to 50 renminbi . Parts have been destroyed because the Wall is in the way of construction . A 2012 report by the State Administration of Cultural Heritage states that 22 % of the Ming Great Wall has disappeared , while 1,961 km ( 1,219 mi ) of wall have vanished . More than 60 km ( 37 mi ) of the wall in Gansu province may disappear in the next 20 years , due to erosion from sandstorms . In some places , the height of the wall has been reduced from more than 5 m ( 16 ft 5 in ) to less than 2 m ( 6 ft 7 in ) . Various square lookout towers that characterize the most famous images of the wall have disappeared . Many western sections of the wall are constructed from mud , rather than brick and stone , and thus are more susceptible to erosion . In 2014 a portion of the wall near the border of Liaoning and Hebei province was repaired with concrete . The work has been much criticized . Visibility from space From the Moon One of the earliest known references to the myth that the Great Wall can be seen from the moon appears in a letter written in 1754 by the English antiquary William Stukeley . Stukeley wrote that , `` This mighty wall ( Hadrian 's wall ) of four score miles ( 130 km ) in length is only exceeded by the Chinese Wall , which makes a considerable figure upon the terrestrial globe , and may be discerned at the Moon . '' The claim was also mentioned by Henry Norman in 1895 where he states `` besides its age it enjoys the reputation of being the only work of human hands on the globe visible from the Moon . '' The issue of `` canals '' on Mars was prominent in the late 19th century and may have led to the belief that long , thin objects were visible from space . The claim that the Great Wall is visible from the moon also appears in 1932 's Ripley 's Believe It or Not ! strip and in Richard Halliburton 's 1938 book Second Book of Marvels . The claim that the Great Wall is visible from the moon has been debunked many times , but is still ingrained in popular culture . The wall is a maximum 9.1 m ( 29 ft 10 in ) wide , and is about the same color as the soil surrounding it . Based on the optics of resolving power ( distance versus the width of the iris : a few millimeters for the human eye , meters for large telescopes ) only an object of reasonable contrast to its surroundings which is 110 km ( 70 mi ) or more in diameter ( 1 arc - minute ) would be visible to the unaided eye from the Moon , whose average distance from Earth is 384,393 km ( 238,851 mi ) . The apparent width of the Great Wall from the Moon is the same as that of a human hair viewed from 3 km ( 2 mi ) away . To see the wall from the Moon would require spatial resolution 17,000 times better than normal ( 20 / 20 ) vision . Unsurprisingly , no lunar astronaut has ever claimed to have seen the Great Wall from the Moon . From low earth orbit A satellite image of a section of the Great Wall in northern Shanxi , running diagonally from lower left to upper right and not to be confused with the more prominent river running from upper left to lower right . The region pictured is 12 km × 12 km ( 7 mi × 7 mi ) . A more controversial question is whether the Wall is visible from low Earth orbit ( an altitude of as little as 160 km ( 100 mi ) ) . NASA claims that it is barely visible , and only under nearly perfect conditions ; it is no more conspicuous than many other man - made objects . Other authors have argued that due to limitations of the optics of the eye and the spacing of photoreceptors on the retina , it is impossible to see the wall with the naked eye , even from low orbit , and would require visual acuity of 20 / 3 ( 7.7 times better than normal ) . Astronaut William Pogue thought he had seen it from Skylab but discovered he was actually looking at the Grand Canal of China near Beijing . He spotted the Great Wall with binoculars , but said that `` it was n't visible to the unaided eye . '' U.S. Senator Jake Garn claimed to be able to see the Great Wall with the naked eye from a space shuttle orbit in the early 1980s , but his claim has been disputed by several U.S. astronauts . Veteran U.S. astronaut Gene Cernan has stated : `` At Earth orbit of 100 to 200 miles ( 160 to 320 km ) high , the Great Wall of China is , indeed , visible to the naked eye . '' Ed Lu , Expedition 7 Science Officer aboard the International Space Station , adds that , `` it 's less visible than a lot of other objects . And you have to know where to look . '' In 2001 , Neil Armstrong stated about the view from Apollo 11 : `` I do not believe that , at least with my eyes , there would be any man - made object that I could see . I have not yet found somebody who has told me they 've seen the Wall of China from Earth orbit ... I 've asked various people , particularly Shuttle guys , that have been many orbits around China in the daytime , and the ones I 've talked to did n't see it . '' In October 2003 , Chinese astronaut Yang Liwei stated that he had not been able to see the Great Wall of China . In response , the European Space Agency ( ESA ) issued a press release reporting that from an orbit between 160 and 320 km ( 100 and 200 mi ) , the Great Wall is visible to the naked eye . In an attempt to further clarify things , the ESA published a picture of a part of the `` Great Wall '' photographed from low orbit . However , in a press release a week later , they acknowledged that the `` Great Wall '' in the picture was actually a river . Leroy Chiao , a Chinese - American astronaut , took a photograph from the International Space Station that shows the wall . It was so indistinct that the photographer was not certain he had actually captured it . Based on the photograph , the China Daily later reported that the Great Wall can be seen from ' space ' with the naked eye , under favorable viewing conditions , if one knows exactly where to look . However , the resolution of a camera can be much higher than the human visual system , and the optics much better , rendering photographic evidence irrelevant to the issue of whether it is visible to the naked eye . Gallery `` The First Mound '' -- at Jiayuguan , the western terminus The Great Wall of China at Badaling A portion of the Great Wall of China at Simatai , overlooking the gorge Mutianyu Great Wall , China . This is atop the wall on a section that has not been restored The Old Dragon Head , the Great Wall where it meets the sea in the vicinity of Shanhaiguan See also Defense of the Great Wall Gates of Alexander Great Wall of China hoax Great Wall Marathon Great Wall of Qi Huangya Pass Jiankou List of World Heritage Sites in China Notes Jump up ^ `` China 's Great Wall Found To Measure More Than 20,000 Kilometers '' . Bloomberg . June 5 , 2012 . Retrieved June 6 , 2012 . Jump up ^ The New York Times with introduction by Sam Tanenhaus ( 2011 ) . The New York Times Guide to Essential Knowledge : A Desk Reference for the Curious Mind . St. Martin 's Press of Macmillan Publishers . p. 1131 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 312 - 64302 - 7 . Beginning as separate sections of fortification around the 7th century B.C.E and unified during the Qin Dynasty in the 3rd century B.C.E , this wall , built of earth and rubble with a facing of brick or stone , runs from east to west across China for over 4,000 miles . Jump up ^ `` Great Wall of China '' . Encyclopædia Britannica . Large parts of the fortification system date from the 7th through the 4th century BC . In the 3rd century BC Shihuangdi ( Qin Shi Huang ) , the first emperor of a united China ( under the Qin dynasty ) , connected a number of existing defensive walls into a single system . Traditionally , the eastern terminus of the wall was considered to be Shanhai Pass ( Shanhaiguan ) in eastern Hebei province along the coast of the Bo Hai ( Gulf of Chihli ) , and the wall 's length -- without its branches and other secondary sections -- was thought to extend for some 6,690 km ( 4,160 mi ) . ^ Jump up to : `` Great Wall of China ' even longer ' '' . BBC . April 20 , 2009 . Retrieved April 20 , 2009 . Jump up ^ `` Great Wall of China even longer than previously thought '' . Canadian Broadcasting Corporation . June 6 , 2012 . Retrieved June 6 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Great Wall of China '' . History . April 20 , 2009 . Jump up ^ Waldron 1983 , p. 650 . Jump up ^ Baxter , William H. & al. ( September 20 , 2014 ) . `` Baxter -- Sagart Old Chinese Reconstruction , Version 1.1 '' ( PDF ) . Ann Arbor : University of Michigan . Retrieved January 22 , 2015 . Jump up ^ See Lovell 2006 , p. 25 Jump up ^ Waldron 1990 , p. 202 . Tan Daoji 's exact quote : `` So you would destroy your Great Wall of Ten Thousand Li ! '' ( 乃 復 壞 汝 萬里 之 長城 ) Note the use of the particle 之 zhi that differentiates the quote from the modern name . Jump up ^ Byron R. Winborn ( 1994 ) . Wen Bon : a Naval Air Intelligence Officer behind Japanese lines in China . University of North Texas Press . p. 63 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 929398 - 77 - 8 . Jump up ^ `` The Weights and Measures Act ( 1929 ) '' . The Legislative Yuan of the Republic of China . Archived from the original on April 25 , 2014 . ^ Jump up to : Lindesay , William ( 2007 ) . The Great Wall Revisited : From the Jade Gate to Old Dragon 's Head . Beijing : Wuzhou Publishing . p. 21 . ISBN 7 - 5085 - 1032 - 1 . ^ Jump up to : Waldron 1983 , p. 651 . ^ Jump up to : Lovell 2006 , p. 15 . Jump up ^ Waldron 1990 , p. 49 . Jump up ^ Waldron 1990 , p. 21 . Jump up ^ Waldron 1988 , p. 69 . ^ Jump up to : Hessler 2007 , p. 59 . Jump up ^ 歷代 王朝 修 長城 ( in Chinese ) . Chiculture.net . Retrieved October 24 , 2010 . Jump up ^ 古代 长城 -- 战争 与 和平 的 纽带 ( in Chinese ) . Newsmth.net . Retrieved October 24 , 2010 . Jump up ^ 万里 长城 ( in Chinese ) . Newsmth.net . Retrieved October 24 , 2010 . Jump up ^ Burbank , Jane ; Cooper , Frederick ( 2010 ) . Empires in World History : Power and the Politics of Difference . Princeton , New Jersey : Princeton University Press . p. 45 . Jump up ^ Slavicek , Mitchell & Matray 2005 , p. 35 . Jump up ^ Evans 2006 , p. 3 . Jump up ^ `` Defense and Cost of The Great Wall -- page 3 '' . Paul and Bernice Noll 's Window on the World . Retrieved July 26 , 2011 . Jump up ^ Coonan , Clifford ( February 27 , 2012 ) . `` British researcher discovers piece of Great Wall ' marooned outside China ' '' . The Irish Times . Retrieved February 28 , 2012 . ^ Jump up to : Waldron 1983 , p. 653 . Jump up ^ Waldron 1983 , p. 654 ; Haw 2006 , pp. 52 -- 54 . Jump up ^ Karnow 2008 , p. 192 . Jump up ^ Szabó , Dávid & Loczy 2010 , p. 220 . Jump up ^ Evans 2006 , p. 177 . Jump up ^ `` Great Wall at Mutianyu '' . Great Wall of China . Archived from the original on March 9 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Edmonds 1985 , pp. 38 -- 40 . Jump up ^ Lovell 2006 , p. 254 . Jump up ^ Elliott 2001 , pp. 1 -- 2 . Jump up ^ `` Part of the Great Wall of China '' . The Wesleyan Juvenile Offering : A Miscellany of Missionary Information for Young Persons . Wesleyan Missionary Society . X : 41 . April 1853 . Retrieved February 29 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Ruysbroek , Willem van ( 1900 ) ( 1255 ) . The Journey of William of Rubruck to the Eastern Parts of the World , 1253 -- 55 , as Narrated by Himself , with Two Accounts of the Earlier Journey of John of Pian de Carpine . Translated from the Latin by William Woodville Rockhill . London : The Hakluyt Society . Jump up ^ Haw 2006 , pp. 53 -- 54 . Jump up ^ Haw 2006 , pp. 54 -- 55 . Jump up ^ Qur'an , XVIII : `` The Cave '' . English translations hosted at Wikisource include Maulana Muhammad Ali 's , E.H. Palmer 's , and the Progressive Muslims Organization 's . Jump up ^ Haw 2006 , pp. 53 -- 55 . Jump up ^ Barros , João de ( 1777 ) ( 1563 ) . Ásia de João de Barros : Dos feitos que os portugueses fizeram no descobrimento dos mares e terras do Oriente . V. Lisbon . 3a Década , pp. 186 -- 204 ( originally Vol. II , Ch . vii ) . ^ Jump up to : Waldron 1990 , pp. 204 -- 05 . Jump up ^ Yule 1866 , p. 579This section is the report of Góis 's travel , as reported by Matteo Ricci in De Christiana expeditione apud Sinas ( published 1615 ) , annotated by Henry Yule ) . Jump up ^ Waldron 1990 , pp. 2 -- 4 . ^ Jump up to : Waldron 1990 , p. 206 . Jump up ^ Waldron 1990 , p. 209 . Jump up ^ Waldron 1990 , p. 214 . Jump up ^ Hessler 2007 , p. 60 . Jump up ^ Rojas 2010 , p. 140 . Jump up ^ Lindesay 2008 , p. 212 . Jump up ^ `` Jiaoshan Great Wall '' . TravelChinaGuide.com . Retrieved September 15 , 2010 . Jiaoshan Great Wall is located about 3 km ( 2 mi ) from Shanhaiguan ancient city . It is named after Jiaoshan Mountain , which is the highest peak to the north of Shanhai Pass and also the first mountain the Great Wall climbs up after Shanhai Pass . Therefore Jiaoshan Mountain is noted as `` The first mountain of the Great Wall '' . Jump up ^ `` The Great Wall : Liaoning Province '' . Global Times . October 14 , 2014 . Retrieved December 4 , 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Great Wall of China longer than believed as 180 missing miles found '' . The Guardian . April 20 , 2009 . Retrieved April 18 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Newly - discovered remains redraw path of Great Wall '' . China Daily . April 15 , 2015 . Retrieved April 18 , 2015 . ^ Jump up to : Turnbull 2007 , p. 29 . Jump up ^ Ford , Peter ( November 30 , 2006 ) . New law to keep China 's Wall looking great . Christian Science Monitor , Asia Pacific section . Retrieved March 17 , 2007 . ^ Jump up to : Wong , Edward ( June 29 , 2015 ) . `` China Fears Loss of Great Wall , Brick by Brick '' . The New York Times . Retrieved July 1 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Bruce G. Doar : The Great Wall of China : Tangible , Intangible and Destructible . China Heritage Newsletter , China Heritage Project , Australian National University Jump up ^ `` China 's Wall becoming less and less Great '' . Reuters . August 29 , 2007 . Retrieved August 30 , 2007 . Jump up ^ CNN , Ben Westcott and Serenitie Wang . `` China 's Great Wall covered in cement '' . Jump up ^ The Family Memoirs of the Rev. William Stukeley ( 1887 ) Vol. 3 , p. 142 . ( 1754 ) . Jump up ^ Norman , Henry , The Peoples and Politics of the Far East , p. 215 . ( 1895 ) . Jump up ^ `` The Great Wall of China , Ripley 's Believe It or Not , 1932 . Jump up ^ Urban Legends.com website . Accessed May 12 , 2010 . `` Can you see the Great Wall of China from the moon or outer space ? '' , Answers.com . Accessed May 12 , 2010 . Cecil Adams , `` Is the Great wall of China the only manmade object byou can see from space ? '' , The Straight Dope . Accessed May 12 , 2010 . Snopes , `` Great wall from space '' , last updated July 21 , 2007 . Accessed May 12 , 2010 . `` Is China 's Great Wall Visible from Space ? '' , Scientific American , February 21 , 2008 . `` ... the wall is only visible from low orbit under a specific set of weather and lighting conditions . And many other structures that are less spectacular from an earthly vantage point -- desert roads , for example -- appear more prominent from an orbital perspective . '' Jump up ^ `` Metro Tescos '' , The Times ( London ) , April 26 , 2010 . Found at The Times website . Accessed May 12 , 2010 . ^ Jump up to : López - Gil 2008 , pp. 3 -- 4 . Jump up ^ `` NASA -- Great Wall of China '' . Nasa.gov . Retrieved July 31 , 2010 . Jump up ^ Dr. Stephen E. Ambrose ; Dr. Douglas Brinkley ( September 19 , 2001 ) . `` Johnson Space Center Oral History Project Oral History Transcript -- Neil Armstrong '' ( PDF ) . NASA . Retrieved July 31 , 2010 . Jump up ^ Markus , Francis . ( April 19 , 2005 ) . Great Wall visible in space photo . BBC News , Asia - Pacific section . Retrieved March 17 , 2007 . References Edmonds , Richard Louis ( 1985 ) . Northern Frontiers of Qing China and Tokugawa Japan : A Comparative Study of Frontier Policy . University of Chicago , Department of Geography ; Research Paper No. 213 . ISBN 0 - 89065 - 118 - 3 . Elliott , Mark C. ( 2001 ) . The Manchu Way : The Eight Banners and Ethnic Identity in Late Imperial China . Stanford University Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 8047 - 4684 - 7 . Evans , Thammy ( 2006 ) . Great Wall of China : Beijing & Northern China . Bradt Travel Guide . Bradt Travel Guides . p. 3 . ISBN 1 - 84162 - 158 - 7 . Haw , Stephen G. ( 2006 ) . Marco Polo 's China : a Venetian in the realm of Khubilai Khan . Volume 3 of Routledge studies in the early history of Asia . Psychology Press . ISBN 0 - 415 - 34850 - 1 . Hessler , Peter ( 2007 ) . `` Letter from China : Walking the Wall '' . The New Yorker ( May 21 , 2007 ) : 58 -- 67 . Karnow , Mooney , Paul and Catherine ( 2008 ) . National Geographic Traveler : Beijing . National Geographic Books . p. 192 . ISBN 1 - 4262 - 0231 - 8 . Lindesay , William ( 2008 ) . The Great Wall Revisited : From the Jade Gate to Old Dragon 's Head . Harvard University Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 674 - 03149 - 4 . López - Gil , Norberto ( 2008 ) . `` Is it Really Possible to See the Great Wall of China from Space with a Naked Eye ? '' ( PDF ) . Journal of Optometry. 1 ( 1 ) : 3 -- 4 . doi : 10.3921 / joptom. 2008.3 . PMC 3972694 . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on September 10 , 2008 . Lovell , Julia ( 2006 ) . The Great Wall : China against the world 1000 BC -- AD 2000 . Sydney : Picador Pan Macmillan . ISBN 978 - 0 - 330 - 42241 - 3 . Rojas , Carlos ( 2010 ) . The Great Wall : a cultural history . Cambridge , Massachusetts : Harvard University Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 674 - 04787 - 7 . Slavicek , Louise Chipley ; Mitchell , George J. ; Matray , James I. ( 2005 ) . The Great Wall of China . Infobase Publishing . p. 35 . ISBN 0 - 7910 - 8019 - 6 . Szabó , József ; Dávid , Lóránt ; Loczy , Denes , eds. ( 2010 ) . Anthropogenic Geomorphology : A Guide to Man - made Landforms . Springer . ISBN 978 - 90 - 481 - 3057 - 3 . Turnbull , Stephen R ( January 2007 ) . The Great Wall of China 221 BC -- AD 1644 . Osprey Publishing . ISBN 978 - 1 - 84603 - 004 - 8 . Waldron , Arthur ( 1983 ) . `` The Problem of The Great Wall of China '' . Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies . Harvard - Yenching Institute . 43 ( 2 ) : 643 -- 63 . JSTOR 2719110 . Waldron , Arthur ( 1988 ) . `` The Great Wall Myth : Its Origins and Role in Modern China '' . The Yale Journal of Criticism . Johns Hopkins University Press . 2 ( 1 ) : 67 -- 104 . Waldron , Arthur ( 1990 ) . The Great Wall of China : from history to myth . Cambridge England New York : Cambridge University Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 521 - 42707 - 4 . Yule , Sir Henry , ed. ( 1866 ) . Cathay and the way thither : being a collection of medieval notices of China . Issues 36 -- 37 of Works issued by the Hakluyt Society . Printed for the Hakluyt society . Further reading Arnold , H.J.P , `` The Great Wall : Is It or Is n't It ? '' Astronomy Now , 1995 . Beckwith , Christopher I. ( 2009 ) : Empires of the Silk Road : A History of Central Eurasia from the Bronze Age to the Present . Princeton : Princeton University Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 691 - 13589 - 2 . Luo , Zewen , et al. and Baker , David , ed. ( 1981 ) . The Great Wall . Maidenhead : McGraw - Hill Book Company ( UK ) . ISBN 0 - 07 - 070745 - 6 Man , John . ( 2008 ) . The Great Wall . London : Bantam Press . 335 pages . ISBN 978 - 0 - 593 - 05574 - 8 . Michaud , Roland and Sabrina ( photographers ) , & Michel Jan , The Great Wall of China . Abbeville Press , 2001 . ISBN 0 - 7892 - 0736 - 2 Schafer , Edward H. ( 1985 ) The Golden Peaches of Samarkand . Berkeley : University of California Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 520 - 05462 - 2 . Yamashita , Michael ; Lindesay , William ( 2007 ) . The Great Wall -- From Beginning to End . New York : Sterling . 160 pages . ISBN 978 - 1 - 4027 - 3160 - 0 . 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why did the us send aid to greece and turkey in 1947

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Truman_Doctrine&oldid=856780829

Truman Doctrine - wikipedia Truman Doctrine U.S. President Harry Truman . The Truman Doctrine was an American foreign policy whose stated purpose was to counter Soviet geopolitical expansion during the Cold War . It was announced to Congress by President Harry S. Truman on March 12 , 1947 , and further developed on July 12 , 1948 , when he pledged to contain threats to Greece and Turkey . Direct American military force was usually not involved , but Congress appropriated financial aid to support the economies and militaries of Greece and Turkey . More generally , the Truman Doctrine implied American support for other nations allegedly threatened by Soviet communism . The Truman Doctrine became the foundation of American foreign policy , and led , in 1949 , to the formation of NATO , a military alliance that is still in effect . Historians often use Truman 's speech to date the start of the Cold War . Truman told Congress that `` it must be the policy of the United States to support free people who are resisting attempted subjugation by armed minorities or by outside pressures . '' Truman claims that because totalitarian regimes coerced free peoples , they automatically represented a threat to international peace and the national security of the United States . Truman made the plea in the midst of the Greek Civil War ( 1946 -- 49 ) . He argued that if Greece and Turkey did not receive the aid , they would inevitably fall to communism with grave consequences throughout the region . Because Turkey and Greece were historic rivals , it was considered necessary to help both equally even though the crisis in Greece was far more intense . Critics of the policy have observed that the governments of Greece and Turkey were themselves far from democratic at this time , and neither were facing Soviet subversion in the spring of 1949 . Historian Eric Foner writes that the Doctrine `` set a precedent for American assistance to anticommunist regimes throughout the world , no matter how undemocratic , and for the creation of a set of global military alliances directed against the Soviet Union . '' For years , Britain had supported Greece , but was now near bankruptcy and was forced to radically reduce its involvement . In February 1947 , Britain formally requested for the United States to take over its role in supporting the royalist Greek government . The policy won the support of Republicans who controlled Congress and involved sending $400 million in American money but no military forces to the region . The effect was to end the Greek revolt , and in 1952 , both Greece and Turkey joined NATO , a military alliance , to guarantee their stability . The Truman Doctrine was informally extended to become the basis of American Cold War policy throughout Europe and around the world . It shifted American foreign policy toward the Soviet Union from détente ( a relaxation of tension ) to a policy of containment of Soviet expansion as advocated by diplomat George Kennan . It was distinguished from rollback by implicitly tolerating the previous Soviet takeovers in Eastern Europe . Contents 1 Turkish Straits crisis 2 Greek crisis 3 Truman 's address 4 Long - term policy and metaphor 5 See also 6 References 7 Bibliography 8 External links Turkish Straits crisis ( edit ) Main article : Turkish Straits crisis The Turkish Straits At the conclusion of World War II , Turkey was pressured by the Soviet government to allow Russian shipping to flow freely through the Turkish Straits , which connected the Black Sea to the Mediterranean . As the Turkish government would not submit to the Soviet Union 's requests , tensions arose in the region , leading to a show of naval force on the side of the Soviets . Since British assistance to Turkey had ended in 1947 , the U.S. dispatched military aid to ensure that Turkey would retain chief control of the passage . Turkey received $100 million in economic and military aid and the U.S sent the aircraft carrier Franklin D. Roosevelt . The postwar period from 1946 started with a `` multi-party period '' and the Democratic Party government of Adnan Menderes . Greek crisis ( edit ) Main articles : White Terror ( Greece ) and Greek Civil War King George II of Greece ( r . 1922 -- 24 , 1935 -- 47 ) , whose rule was opposed by a communist insurgency in the Greek Civil War Six weeks after the Axis powers abandoned Greece in October 1944 , the British helped retake Athens from the victorious National Liberation Front ( EAM ) , controlled effectively by the Greek Communist Party ( KKE ) . This began with a mass killing of largely unarmed EAM supporters known as the Dekemvriana on December 3 . The leftists attempted to retaliate , but were outgunned by the British - backed government and subjected to the White Terror . With the full outbreak of civil war ( 1946 -- 49 ) , guerrilla forces controlled by the Greek Communist Party sustained a revolt against the internationally recognized Greek government which was formed after 1946 elections boycotted by the KKE . The British realized that the KKE were being directly funded by Josip Broz Tito in neighboring Yugoslavia . In line with the Churchill - Stalin `` percentages agreement '' , the Greek communists received no help from the Soviet Union , and Yugoslavia provided them support and sanctuary against Stalin 's wishes . By late 1946 , Britain informed the United States that due to its own weakening economy , it could no longer continue to provide military and economic support to royalist Greece . In 1946 -- 47 , the United States and the Soviet Union moved from being wartime allies to Cold War adversaries . The breakdown of Allied cooperation in Germany provided a backdrop of escalating tensions for the Truman Doctrine . To Truman , the growing unrest in Greece began to look like a pincer movement against the oil - rich areas of the Middle East and the warm - water ports of the Mediterranean . George F. Kennan ( 1904 -- 2005 ) proposed the doctrine of containment in 1946 . In February 1946 , Kennan , an American diplomat in Moscow , sent his famed `` Long Telegram '' , which predicted the Soviets would only respond to force and that the best way to handle them would be through a long - term strategy of containment , that is stopping their geographical expansion . After the British warned that they could no longer help Greece , and following Prime Minister Konstantinos Tsaldaris 's visit to Washington in December 1946 to ask for American assistance , the U.S. State Department formulated a plan . Aid would be given to both Greece and Turkey , to help cool the long - standing rivalry between them . American policy makers recognized the instability of the region , fearing that if Greece was lost to communism , Turkey would not last long . Similarly , if Turkey yielded to Soviet demands , the position of Greece would be endangered . A regional domino effect threat therefore guided the American decision . Greece and Turkey were strategic allies important for geographical reasons as well , for the fall of Greece would put the Soviets on a particularly dangerous flank for the Turks , and strengthen the Soviet Union 's ability to cut off allied supply lines in the event of war . Truman 's address ( edit ) Dean Acheson ( 1893 -- 1971 ) , who helped craft Truman 's doctrine , was named his secretary of state the following year . To pass any legislation Truman needed the support of the Republicans , who controlled both houses of Congress . The chief Republican spokesman Senator Arthur H. Vandenberg strongly supported Truman and overcame the doubts of isolationists such as Senator Robert A. Taft . Truman laid the groundwork for his request by having key congressional leaders meet with himself , Secretary of State George Marshall , and Undersecretary of State Dean Acheson . Acheson laid out the `` domino theory '' in the starkest terms , comparing a communist state to a rotten apple that could spread its infection to an entire barrel . Vandenberg was impressed , and advised Truman to appear before Congress and `` scare the hell out of the American people . '' On March 7 , Acheson warned Truman that Greece could fall to the communists within weeks without outside aid . When a draft for Truman 's address was circulated to policymakers , Marshall , Kennan , and others criticized it for containing excess `` rhetoric . '' Truman responded that , as Vandenberg had suggested , his request would only be approved if he played up the threat . On March 12 , 1947 , Truman appeared before a joint session of Congress . In his eighteen - minute speech , he stated : I believe it must be the policy of the United States to support free peoples who are resisting attempted subjugation by armed minorities or by outside pressures . I believe that we must assist free peoples to work out their own destinies in their own way . I believe that our help should be primarily through economic and financial aid which is essential to economic stability and orderly political processes . The reaction to Truman 's speech was broadly positive , though there were dissenters . Anti-communists in both parties supported both Truman 's proposed aid package and the doctrine behind it , and Collier 's described it as a `` popularity jackpot '' for the President . Influential columnist Walter Lippmann was more skeptical , noting the open - ended nature of Truman 's pledge ; he felt so strongly that he almost came to blows while arguing with Acheson over the doctrine . Others argued that the Greek monarchy Truman proposed to defend was itself a repressive government , rather than a democracy . Despite these objections , the fear of the growing communist threat almost guaranteed the bill 's passage . In May 1947 , two months after Truman 's request , a large majority of Congress approved $400 million in military and economic aid to Greece and Turkey . Increased American aid helped defeat the KKE , after interim defeats for government forces from 1946 to 1948 . The Truman Doctrine was the first in a series of containment moves by the United States , followed by economic restoration of Western Europe through the Marshall Plan and military containment by the creation of NATO in 1949 . Long - term policy and metaphor ( edit ) The Truman Doctrine underpinned American Cold War policy in Europe and around the world . In the words of historian James T. Patterson , `` The Truman Doctrine was a highly publicized commitment of a sort the administration had not previously undertaken . Its sweeping rhetoric , promising that the United States should aid all ' free people ' being subjugated , set the stage for innumerable later ventures that led to globalistic commitments . It was in these ways a major step . '' The doctrine endured , historian Dennis Merill argues , because it addressed a broader cultural insecurity regarding modern life in a globalized world . It dealt with Washington 's concern over communism 's domino effect , it enabled a media - sensitive presentation of the doctrine that won bipartisan support , and it mobilized American economic power to modernize and stabilize unstable regions without direct military intervention . It brought nation - building activities and modernization programs to the forefront of foreign policy . The Truman Doctrine became a metaphor for emergency aid to keep a nation from communist influence . Truman used disease imagery not only to communicate a sense of impending disaster in the spread of communism but also to create a `` rhetorical vision '' of containing it by extending a protective shield around non-communist countries throughout the world . It echoed the `` quarantine the aggressor '' policy Truman 's predecessor , Franklin D. Roosevelt , had sought to impose to contain German and Japanese expansion in 1937 ( `` quarantine '' suggested the role of public health officials handling an infectious disease ) . The medical metaphor extended beyond the immediate aims of the Truman Doctrine in that the imagery combined with fire and flood imagery evocative of disaster provided the United States with an easy transition to direct military confrontation in later years with communist forces in Korea and Vietnam . By framing ideological differences in life or death terms , Truman was able to garner support for this communism - containing policy . See also ( edit ) Liberal internationalism Anti-communism Reverse course Turkey -- United States relations Greece - United States relations References ( edit ) ^ Jump up to : McCullough , David ( 1992 ) . Truman . New York : Simon & Schuster . Jump up ^ Michael Beschloss ( 2006 ) . Our Documents : 100 Milestone Documents From The National Archives . Oxford University Press . pp. 194 -- 99 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 19 - 530959 - 1 . Jump up ^ Eric Foner , Give Me Liberty ! An American History ( 2nd ed. , 2008 ) p. 892 Jump up ^ Alan Bullock , Ernest Bevin : Foreign Secretary pp 368 -- 9 ; Arnold Offner , Another Such Victory : President Truman and the Cold War , 1945 -- 2002 ( 2002 ) p 197 ; Denise M. Bostdorff , Proclaiming the Truman Doctrine ( 2008 ) p 51 ^ Jump up to : Merrill 2006 . Jump up ^ Barın Kayaoğlu , `` Strategic imperatives , Democratic rhetoric : The United States and Turkey , 1945 -- 52 . '' Cold War History , Aug 2009 , Vol. 9 ( 3 ) pp. 321 -- 345 Jump up ^ Gerolymatos , André ( 2017 - 01 - 03 ) . An International Civil War : Greece , 1943 - 1949 . Yale University Press . pp. 100 -- 111 . ISBN 9780300180602 . Jump up ^ Gerolymatos , André ( 2017 - 01 - 03 ) . An International Civil War : Greece , 1943 - 1949 . Yale University Press . pp. 194 -- 203 . ISBN 9780300180602 . Jump up ^ Bærentzen , Lars , John O. Iatrides , and Ole Langwitz. Smith . Studies in the History of the Greek Civil War , 1945 -- 1949 . Copenhagen : Museum Tusculanum , 1987 . 273 - 280 . Google Books . Web . 28 Apr. 2010 . online Jump up ^ Bullock , Ernest Bevin : Foreign Secretary ( 1983 ) ch 8 Jump up ^ Painter 2012 , p. 29 : `` Although circumstances differed greatly in Greece , Turkey , and Iran , U.S. officials interpreted events in all three places as part of a Soviet plan to dominate the eastern Mediterranean and the Middle East . Mention of oil was deliberately deleted from Truman 's March 12 , 1947 , address before Congress pledging resistance to communist expansion anywhere in the world ; but guarding access to oil was an important part of the Truman Doctrine . The Truman Doctrine was named after Harry S. Truman . This doctrine stated that that the United States would provide political , military and economic assistance to all democratic nations under threat from external or internal authoritarian forces . '' One draft , for example , of Truman 's speech spoke of the `` great natural resources '' of the Middle East at stake ( Kolko & Kolko 1972 , p. 341 ) . Jump up ^ Freeland , Richard M. ( 1970 ) . The Truman Doctrine and the Origins of McCarthyism . Alfred A. Knopf , Inc . pp. g. 90 . Jump up ^ Spalding , Elizabeth Edwards ( 2006 ) . The First Cold Warrior : Harry Truman , Containment , and the Remaking of Liberal Internationalism . The University Press of Kentucky . p. 64 . Jump up ^ McGhee , George ( 1990 ) . The US - Turkish - NATO Middle East Connection : How the Truman Doctrine Contained the Soviets in the Middle East . St. Harry 's Press . pp. g. 21 . ^ Jump up to : Patterson , James T. ( 1996 ) . Grand Expectations . New York : Oxford University Press . ^ Jump up to : Herring , George C. ( 2008 ) . From Colony to Superpower : U.S. Foreign Relations Since 1776 . New York : Oxford University Press . ISBN 9780195078220 . Jump up ^ Ivie 1999 . Bibliography ( edit ) Beisner , Robert L. Dean Acheson : A Life in the Cold War ( 2006 ) Bostdorff , Denise M. Proclaiming the Truman Doctrine : The Cold War Call to Arms ( 2008 ) excerpt and text search Bullock , Alan . Ernest Bevin : Foreign Secretary , 1945 -- 1951 ( 1983 ) on British roles Edwards , Lee . `` Congress and the Origins of the Cold War : The Truman Doctrine , '' World Affairs , Vol. 151 , 1989 online edition Frazier , Robert . `` Acheson and the Formulation of the Truman Doctrine '' Journal of Modern Greek Studies 1999 17 ( 2 ) : 229 -- 251 . ISSN 0738 - 1727 Frazier , Robert . `` Kennan , ' Universalism , ' and the Truman Doctrine , '' Journal of Cold War Studies , Spring 2009 , Vol. 11 Issue 2 , pp 3 -- 34 Gaddis , John Lewis . `` Reconsiderations : Was the Truman Doctrine a Real Turning Point ? '' Foreign Affairs 1974 52 ( 2 ) : 386 -- 402 . ISSN 0015 - 7120 Hinds , Lynn Boyd , and Theodore Otto Windt Jr . The Cold War as Rhetoric : The Beginnings , 1945 -- 1950 ( 1991 ) online edition Iatrides , John O. and Nicholas X . Rizopoulos . `` The International Dimension of the Greek Civil War . '' World Policy Journal 2000 17 ( 1 ) : 87 -- 103 . ISSN 0740 - 2775 Fulltext : in Ebsco Ivie , Robert L. ( 1999 ) . `` Fire , Flood , and Red Fever : Motivating Metaphors of Global Emergency in the Truman Doctrine Speech '' . Presidential Studies Quarterly . 29 ( 3 ) : 570 -- 591 . doi : 10.1111 / j. 0268 - 2141.2003. 00050. x . Jeffrey , Judith S. Ambiguous Commitments and Uncertain Policies : The Truman Doctrine in Greece , 1947 -- 1952 ( 2000 ) . 257 pp . Jones , Howard . `` A New Kind of War '' : America 's Global Strategy and the Truman Doctrine in Greece ( 1989 ) . 327 pp Kayaoğlu , Barın . `` Strategic imperatives , Democratic rhetoric : The United States and Turkey , 1945 -- 52. , '' Cold War History , Aug 2009 , Vol. 9 ( 3 ) . pp. 321 -- 345 Kolko , Joyce ; Kolko , Gabriel ( 1972 ) . The Limits of Power : The World and United States Foreign Policy , 1945 -- 1954 . New York , NY : Harper & Row . ISBN 978 - 0 - 06 - 012447 - 2 . Leffler , Melvyn P. `` Strategy , Diplomacy , and the Cold War : the United States , Turkey , and NATO , 1945 -- 1952 '' Journal of American History 1985 71 ( 4 ) : 807 -- 825 . ISSN 0021 - 8723 in JSTOR Lykogiannis , Athanasios . Britain and the Greek Economic Crisis , 1944 -- 1947 : From Liberation to the Truman Doctrine . U. of Missouri Press , 2002 . 287 pp. online edition McGhee , George . The U.S. - Turkish - NATO Middle East Connection : How the Truman Doctrine and Turkey 's NATO Entry Contained the Soviets in the Middle East . ( 1990 ) . 224 pp . Merrill , Dennis ( 2006 ) . `` The Truman Doctrine : Containing Communism and Modernity '' . Presidential Studies Quarterly . 36 ( 1 ) : 27 -- 37 . doi : 10.1111 / j. 1741 - 5705.2006. 00284. x . Meiertöns , Heiko : The Doctrines of US Security Policy -- An Evaluation under International Law ( 2010 ) , ISBN 978 - 0 - 521 - 76648 - 7 . Offner , Arnold A. `` ' Another Such Victory ' : President Truman , American Foreign Policy , and the Cold War . '' Diplomatic History 1999 23 ( 2 ) : 127 -- 155. ISSN 0145 - 2096 Pach Jr. , Chester J. Arming the Free World : The Origins of the United States Military Assistance Program , 1945 -- 1950 , ( 1991 ) online edition Painter , David S. ( 2012 ) . `` Oil and the American Century '' ( PDF ) . The Journal of American History . 99 ( 1 ) : 24 -- 39 . doi : 10.1093 / jahist / jas073 . Pieper , Moritz A. ( 2012 ) . `` Containment and the Cold War : Reexaming the Doctrine of Containment as a Grand Strategy Driving US Cold War Interventions '' . StudentPulse.com . Retrieved 22 August 2012 . Spalding , Elizabeth Edwards . The First Cold Warrior : Harry Truman , Containment , And the Remaking of Liberal Internationalism ( 2006 ) External links ( edit ) Wikisource has original text related to this article : Truman Doctrine Truman Comments on Greek Politicking , 1947 Shapell Manuscript Foundation Truman Library website with papers related to the Truman Doctrine Full text of the speech Full text and audio of the speech Cartoon on display at the LoC Harry S. 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percentage of organised and unorganised sector in india

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Labour_in_India&oldid=834421776

Labour in India - wikipedia Labour in India Labour availability map for the world . In 2011 , India had about 487 million workers compared to China 's 355 million and United States ' 154 million . Labour in India refers to employment in the economy of India . In 2012 , there were around 487 million workers in India , the second largest after China . Of these over 94 percent work in unincorporated , unorganized enterprises ranging from pushcart vendors to home - based diamond and gem polishing operations . The organised sector includes workers employed by the government , state - owned enterprises and private sector enterprises . In 2008 , the organised sector employed 27.5 million workers , of which 17.3 million worked for government or government owned entities . Contents 1 Labour structure in India 2 Labour relations 2.1 Labour relations during 1950 -- 1990 2.2 Labour relations during 1990 - 2000 2.3 Labour relations during 2000 -- 2011 3 Unorganised labour issues 3.1 Migrant labours 3.2 Debt bondage 3.3 Child labour 4 Labour laws in India 4.1 Economists ' criticisms 5 See also 6 Notes 7 References 8 External links Labour structure in India ( edit ) A majority of labour in India is employed by unorganised sector ( unincorporated ) . These include family owned shops and street vendors . Above is a self - employed child labourer in the unorganised retail sector of India . Labour at an unorganised handicraft manufacturing enterprise . Flooring work at a Portico in Hyderabad , India Over 94 percent of India 's working population is part of the unorganised sector . In local terms , organised sector or formal sector in India refers to licensed organisations , that is , those who are registered and pay GST . These include the publicly traded companies , incorporated or formally registered entities , corporations , factories , shopping malls , hotels , and large businesses . Unorganised sector , also known as own account enterprises , refers to all unlicensed , self - employed or unregistered economic activity such as owner manned general stores , handicrafts and handloom workers , rural traders , farmers , etc . India 's Ministry of Labour , in its 2008 report , classified the unorganised labour in India into four groups . This classification categorized India 's unorganised labour force by occupation , nature of employment , specially distressed categories and service categories . The unorganised occupational groups include small and marginal farmers , landless agricultural labourers , sharecroppers , fishermen , those engaged in animal husbandry , beedi rolling , labeling and packing , building and construction workers , leather workers , weavers , artisans , salt workers , workers in brick kilns and stone quarries , workers in saw mills , and workers in oil mills . A separate category based on nature of employment includes attached agricultural labourers , bonded labourers , migrant workers , contract and casual labourers . Another separate category dedicated to distressed unorganised sector includes toddy tappers , scavengers , carriers of head loads , drivers of animal driven vehicles , loaders and unloaders . The last unorganised labour category includes service workers such as midwives , domestic workers , barbers , vegetable and fruit vendors , newspaper vendors , pavement vendors , hand cart operators , and the unorganised retail . The unorganised sector has low productivity and offers lower wages . Even though it accounted for over 94 percent of workers , India 's unorganised sector created just 57 percent of India 's national domestic product in 2006 , or about 9 fold less per worker than the organised sector . According to Bhalla , the productivity gap sharply worsens when rural unorganised sector is compared to urban unorganised sector , with gross value added productivity gap spiking an additional 2 to 4 fold depending on occupation . Some of lowest income jobs are in the rural unorganised sectors . Poverty rates are reported to be significantly higher in families where all working age members have only worked the unorganised sector throughout their lives . Agriculture , dairy , horticulture and related occupations alone employ 52 percent of labour in India . About 30 million workers are migrant workers , most in agriculture , and local stable employment is unavailable for them . India 's National Sample Survey Office in its 67th report found that unorganised manufacturing , unorganised trading / retail and unorganised services employed about 10 percent each of all workers nationwide , as of 2010 . It also reported that India had about 58 million unincorporated non-Agriculture enterprises in 2010 . In the organised private sector with more than 10 employees per company , the biggest employers in 2008 were manufacturing at 5 million ; social services at 2.2 million , which includes private schools and hospitals ; finance at 1.1 million which includes bank , insurance and real estate ; and agriculture at 1 million . India had more central and state government employees in 2008 , than employees in all private sector companies combined . If state - owned companies and municipal government employees were included , India had a 1.8 : 1 ratio between public sector employees and private sector employees . In terms of gender equality in employment , male to female ratio was 5 : 1 in government and government owned enterprises ; private sector fared better at 3 : 1 ratio . Combined , counting only companies with more than 10 employees per company , the organised public and private sector employed 5.5 million women and 22 million men . Given its natural rate of population growth and aging characteristics , India is adding about 13 million new workers every year to its labour pool . India 's economy has been adding about 8 million new jobs every year predominantly in low paying , unorganised sector . The remaining 5 million youth joining the ranks of poorly paid partial employment , casual labour pool for temporary infrastructure and real estate construction jobs , or in many cases , being unemployed . Labour relations ( edit ) About 7 per cent of the 400 million - strong workforce were employed in the formal sector ( comprising government and corporates ) in 2000 contributing 60 per cent of the nominal GDP of the nation . The Trade Unions Act 1926 provided recognition and protection for a nascent Indian labour union movement . The number of unions grew considerably after independence , but most unions are small and usually active in only one firm . In 1997 , India had about 59,000 trade unions registered with the government of India . Of these only 9,900 unions filed income and expenditure reports and claimed to represent 7.4 million workers . The state of Kerala at 9,800 trade unions had the highest number of registered unions , but only few filed income and expenditure reports with the government of India . The state of Karnataka had the fastest growth in number of unions between the 1950s to 1990s . In 1995 , India had 10 central federations of trade unions , namely ( arranged by number of member unions in 1980 ) : INTUC , CITU , BMS , AITUC , HMS , NLO , UTUC , AIUTUC , NFITU and TUCC . Each federation had numerous local trade union affiliates , with the smallest TUCC with 65 and INTUC with 1604 affiliated unions . By 1989 , BMS had become India 's largest federation of unions with 3,117 affiliated unions , while INTUC remained the largest federation by combined number of members at 2.2 million . The largest federation of trade unions , INTUC , represents about 0.5 % of India 's labour force in organised sector and unorganised sector . In 2010 , over 98 % of Indian workers did not belong to any trade unions and were not covered by any collective bargaining agreements . Labour relations during 1950 -- 1990 ( edit ) A number of economists ( e.g. : Fallon and Lucas , 1989 ; Besley and Burgess , 2004 ) have studied the industrial relations climate in India , with a large number of studies focusing on state - level differences in India 's Industrial Disputes Act . Some studies ( e.g. : Besley and Burges , 2004 ) purport to show that pro-worker amendments to the Industrial Disputes Act have had a negative impact on industrial output and employment - as well as on poverty . However these studies have faced serious criticism on the grounds that the data used are misinterpreted , and that the results are not robust with respect to standard econometric tests . Between 1950 and 1970 , labour disputes nearly tripled in India , from an average of 1000 labour disputes per year , to an average of 3000 labour disputes per year . The number of labour relations issues within a year peaked in 1973 at 3,370 labour disputes . The number of workers who joined labour disputes within the same year , and stopped work , peaked in 1979 , at 2.9 million workers . The number of lost man - days from labour relation issues peaked in 1982 at 74.6 million lost man - days , or about 2.7 % of total man - days in organised sector . While the 1970s experienced a spike in labour unions and disputes , a sudden reduction in labour disputes was observed during 1975 -- 1977 , when Indira Gandhi , then prime minister , declared an emergency and amongst other things suspended many civil rights including the worker 's right to strike . This is a table showing trend of organised Labour Force . Year Public Sector ( in millions ) Private Sector ( in millions ) Live ( Unemployment ) Register ( in millions ) 13.63 6.79 9.78 1980 15.48 7.40 17.84 1985 17.68 7.37 30.13 19.06 7.68 36.30 1995 19.43 8.51 37.43 2000 19.14 8.65 42.00 2005 18.19 8.77 41.47 17.55 11.45 40.17 Labour relations during 1990 - 2000 ( edit ) Union membership is concentrated in the organised sector , and in the early 1990s total membership was about 9 million . Many unions are affiliated with regional or national federations , the most important of which are the Indian National Trade Union Congress , the All India Trade Union Congress , the Centre of Indian Trade Unions , the Hind Mazdoor Sabha , and the Bharatiya Mazdoor Sangh . Politicians have often been union leaders , and some analysts believe that strikes and other labour protests are called primarily to further the interests of political parties rather than to promote the interests of the work force . The government recorded 1,825 strikes and lockouts in 1990 . As a result , 24.1 million workdays were lost , 10.6 million to strikes and 13.5 million to lockouts . More than 1.3 million workers were involved in these labour disputes . The number and seriousness of strikes and lockouts have varied from year to year . However , the figures for 1990 and preliminary data from 1991 indicate declines from levels reached in the 1980s , when between 33 and 75 million workdays per year were lost because of labour disputes . In 1999 , the government of India recorded about 927 strikes and lockouts , or about half of those for 1990 . The number of lost man - days were about the same for 1999 and 1991 , even though Indian economic output and number of workers had grown significantly over the 1990s . Labour relations during 2000 -- 2011 ( edit ) Between 2004 and 2011 , India has experienced a decline in unionised labour . The number of labour disputes has dropped to 400 annually over the same period , compared with over 1,000 in the 1990s . The annual number of man - days lost to labour disputes in early 1990s averaged around 27 million ; by 2010 , while Indian economy has grown significantly and Indian labour force has expanded , the average number of man - days lost has dropped by about 30 % . The downward trend continues both in terms of number of disputes and lost man - days per dispute . For example , India experienced 249 disputes in the first 5 months of 2010 , and 101 disputes in 2012 over the same period . Unorganised labour issues ( edit ) Many issues plague unorganised labour . India 's Ministry of Labour has identified significant issues with migrant , home or bondage labourers and child labour . Migrant labours ( edit ) Migrant skilled and unskilled labourers of India constitute about 40 to 85 percent of low wage working population in many parts of the Middle East . They are credited to having built many of the notable buildings in the Arab countries , including the Burj Khalifa in Dubai ( above ) . Various claims of poor living conditions and labour abuse have been reported . India has two broad groups of migrant labourers - one that migrates to temporarily work overseas , and another that migrates domestically on a seasonal and work available basis . About 4 million Indian - origin labourers are migrant workers in the middle east alone . They are credited to have been the majority of workers who built many of Dubai , Bahrain , Qatar and Persian Gulf modern architecture , including the Burj Khalifa , the tallest building in world 's history which opened in January 2010 . These migrant workers are attracted by better salaries ( typically US $2 to 5 per hour ) , possibility of earning overtime pay , and opportunity to remit funds to support their families in India . The Middle East - based migrant workers from India remitted about US $20 billion in 2009 . Once the projects are over , they are required to return at their own expenses , with no unemployment or social security benefits . In some cases , labour abuses such as unpaid salaries , unsafe work conditions and poor living conditions have been claimed . Domestic migrant workers have been estimated to be about 4.2 million - ( Domestic workers , not domestic migrant workers ) . These workers range from full - time to part - time workers , temporary or permanent workers . They are typically employed for remuneration in cash or kind , in any household through any agency or directly , to do the household work , but do not include any member of the family of an employer . Some of these work exclusively for a single employer , while others work for more than one employer . Some are live - in workers , while some are seasonal . The employment of these migrant workers is typically at the will of the employer and the worker , and compensation varies . Debt bondage ( edit ) Further information : Debt bondage in India Bonded labour is a forced relationship between an employer and an employee , where the compulsion is derived from outstanding debt . Often the interest accrues at a rate that is so high that the bonded labour lasts a very long periods of time , or indefinitely . Sometimes , the employee has no options for employment in the organised or unorganised sectors of India , and prefers the security of any employment including one offered in bonded labour form . While illegal , bonded labour relationships may be reinforced by force , or they may continue from custom . Once an employee enters into a bonded relationships , they are characterised by asymmetry of information , opportunity , no time to search for alternative jobs and high exit costs . Estimates of bonded labour in India vary widely , depending on survey methods , assumptions and sources . Official Indian government estimates claim a few hundred thousand labourers are bonded labourers ; while a 1978 estimate placed bonded labour in India to be 2.62 million . The 32nd National Sample Survey Organisation survey in India estimated 343,000 bonded labourers in 16 major states , of which 285,379 were located and freed by 1996 . The major employment sectors for debt bonded labour include : agriculture , stone quarries , brick kilns , religious and temple workmen , pottery , rural weaving , fishing , forestry , betel and bidi workers , carpet , illegal mining and fireworks . Child labour has been found in family debt bonded situations . In each survey , debt bonded labourers have been found in unorganised , unincorporated sector . India enacted Bonded Labour System Abolition Act ( 1976 ) to prohibit any and all forms of bonded labour practice , to protect the bonded labour , and to criminalize individuals and entities that hire , keep or seek bonded labour . Child labour ( edit ) Further information : Child labour in India According to 2001 Census , India had 12.6 million children , aged 5 -- 14 , who work either part - time or full - time . Of these over 60 percent work in unorganised agriculture sector , and the rest in other unorganised labour markets . Poverty , lack of schools , poor education infrastructure and growth of unorganised economy are considered as the most important causes of child labour in India . A 2009 - 2010 nationwide survey found child labour prevalence had reduced to 4.98 million children ( or less than 2 % of children in 5 - 14 age group ) . Article 24 of India 's constitution prohibits child labour , but only in factories , mines or hazardous employment . The Indian Penal Code , the Juvenile Justice ( care and protection ) of Children Act - 2000 , and the Child Labour ( Prohibition and Abolition ) Act - 1986 provide a basis in law to identify , prosecute and stop child labour in India . Nevertheless , child labour is observed in almost all unorganised , small scale , informal sectors of the Indian economy . Scholars suggest inflexibility and structure of India 's labour market , size of informal economy , legal hurdles preventing industries from scaling up and lack of modern manufacturing technologies are major macroeconomic factors encouraging demand for and acceptability of child labour . Labour laws in India ( edit ) Main article : Indian labour law Labour law notices in India . The labour laws of India originated and express the socio - political views of leaders such as Nehru from pre-1947 independence movement struggle . These laws were expanded in part after debates in Constituent Assemblies and in part from international conventions and recommendations such as of International Labour Organisation . The current mosaic of Indian laws on employment are thus a combination of India 's history during its colonial heritage , India 's experiments with socialism , important human rights and the conventions and standards that have emerged from the United Nations . The laws cover the right to work of one 's choice , right against discrimination , prohibition of child labour , fair and humane conditions of work , social security , protection of wages , redress of grievances , right to organise and form trade unions , collective bargaining and participation in management . India has numerous labour laws such as those prohibiting discrimination and Child labour , those that aim to guarantee fair and humane conditions of work , those that provide social security , minimum wage , right to organise , form trade unions and enforce collective bargaining . India also has numerous rigid regulations such as maximum number of employees per company in certain sectors of economy , and limitations on employers on retrenchment and layoffs , requirement of paperwork , bureaucratic process and government approval for change in labour in companies even if these are because of economic conditions . Indian labour laws are considered to be very highly regulated and rigid as compared to those of other countries in the world . The intensity of these laws have been criticised as the cause of low employment growth , large unorganised sectors , underground economy and low per capita income . These have led many to demand reforms for Labour market flexibility in India . India has over 50 major Acts and numerous laws that regulate employers in matters relating to industrial relations , employee unions as well as who , how and when enterprises can employ or terminate employment . Many of these laws survive from British colonial times , while some have been enacted after India 's independence from Britain . India is a federal form of government . Labour is a subject in the concurrent list of the Indian Constitution and therefore labour matters are in the jurisdiction of both central and state governments . Both central and state governments have enacted laws on labour relations and employment issues . Some of the major laws relevant to India are : Workmen 's Compensation Act of 1923 The Workmen 's Compensation Act compensates a workman for any injury suffered during the course of his employment or to his dependents in the case of his death . The Act provides for the rate at which compensation shall be paid to an employee . This is one of many social security laws in India . Trade Unions Act of 1926 This Act enacted the rules and protections granted to Trade Unions in India . This law was amended in 2001 . Payment of Wages Act of 1936 The Payment of Wages Act regulates by when wages shall be distributed to employees by the employers . The law also provides the tax withholdings the employer must deduct and pay to the central or state government before distributing the wages . Industrial Employment ( Standing orders ) Act of 1946 This Act requires employers in industrial establishments to define and post the conditions of employment by issuing so - called standing orders . These standing orders must be approved by the government and duly certified . These orders aim to remove flexibility from the employer in terms of job , hours , timing , leave grant , productivity measures and other matters . The standing orders mandate that the employer classify its employees , state the shifts , payment of wages , rules for vacation , rules for sick leave , holidays , rules for termination amongst others . Industrial Disputes Act of 1947 The Industrial Disputes act 1947 regulates how employers may address industrial disputes such as lockouts , layoffs , retrenchment etc . It controls the lawful processes for reconciliation , adjudication of labour disputes . The Act also regulates what rules and conditions employers must comply before the termination or layoff of a workman who has been in continuous service for more than one year with the employer . The employer is required to give notice of termination to the employee with a copy of the notice to appropriate government office seeking government 's permission , explain valid reasons for termination , and wait for one month before the employment can be lawfully terminated . The employer may pay full compensation for one month in lieu of the notice . Furthermore , employer must pay an equivalent to 15 days average pay for each completed year of employees continuous service . Thus , an employee who has worked for 4 years in addition to various notices and due process , must be paid a minimum of the employee 's wage equivalent to 60 days before retrenchment , if the government grants the employer a permission to lay off . Minimum Wages Act of 1948 The Minimum Wages Act prescribes minimum wages in all enterprises , and in some cases those working at home per the schedule of the Act . Central and State Governments can and do revise minimum wages at their discretion . The minimum wage is further classified by nature of work , location and numerous other factors at the discretion of the government . The minimum wage ranges between ₹ 143 to 1120 per day for work in the so - called central sphere . State governments have their own minimum wage schedules . Industries ( Regulation and Development ) Act of 1951 This law declared numerous key manufacturing industries under its so - called First Schedule . It placed many industries under common central government regulations in addition to whatever laws state government enact . It also reserved over 600 products that can only be manufactured in small scale enterprises , thereby regulating who can enter in these businesses , and above all placing a limit on the number of employees per company for the listed products . The list included all key technology and industrial products in the early 1950s , including products ranging from certain iron and steel products , fuel derivatives , motors , certain machinery , machine tools , to ceramics and scientific equipment . Employees Provident Fund and Miscellaneous Provisions Act of 1952 This Act seeks to ensure the financial security of the employees in an establishment by providing for a system of compulsory savings . The Act provides for establishments of a contributory Provident Fund in which employees ' contribution shall be at least equal to the contribution payable by the employer . Minimum contribution by the employees shall be 10 - 12 % of the wages . This amount is payable to the employee after retirement and could also be withdrawn partly for certain specified purposes . Maternity Benefit Act of 1961 The Maternity Benefit Act regulates the employment of the women and maternity benefits mandated by law . Any woman employee who worked in any establishment for a period of at least 80 days during the 12 months immediately preceding the date of her expected delivery , is entitled to receive maternity benefits under the Act . The employer is required to pay maternity benefits , medical allowance , maternity leave and nursing breaks . Payment of Bonus Act of 1965 This Act , applies to an enterprise employing 20 or more persons . The Act requires employer to pay a bonus to persons on the basis of profits or on the basis of production or productivity . The Act was modified to require companies to pay a minimum bonus , even if the employer suffers losses during the accounting year . This minimum is currently 8.33 percent of the salary . Payment of Gratuity Act of 1972 This law applies to all establishments employing 10 or more workers . Gratuity is payable to the employee if he or she resigns or retires . The Indian government mandates that this payment be at the rate of 15 days salary of the employee for each completed year of service subject to a maximum of ₹ 1000000 . It is an act to provide for a scheme for the payment of gratuity to employees engaged in factories , mines , oilfields , ports , plantations , shops or other establishments and for matters connected therewith or incidental thereto . Economists ' criticisms ( edit ) Scholars suggest India 's rigid labour laws and excessive regulations assumed to protect the labour are the cause of slow employment growth in high paying , organised sector . India 's labour - related acts and regulations have led to labour - market rigidity . This encourages shadow economy for entrepreneurs , an economy that prefers to employ informal labour to avoid the complicated and opaque laws . In particular , Indian labour legislation such as the Industrial Disputes Act of 1947 added rigid labour laws and one sided trade union laws . Although the Act does not prohibit layoffs and retrenchments , it does require entrepreneurs and companies to get the permission from government officials to fire an employee for absenteeism , retrench employees for economic reasons , or to close an economically nonviable company . This bureaucratic process can stretch into years , and the government officials have consistently and almost always denied such permission . As a result , the scholars argue that India 's inflexible labour laws have created a strong disincentive to formally register new companies and hire additional workers in existing organised sector companies . Unlike China , Indian businesses have avoided substituting India 's abundant labour for export or domestic opportunities , or use labour instead of expensive equipment for quality control or other operations . These are reasons for India 's weak employment growth . More recently , a few scholars have completed a comparative study between states of India with different labour regulations . They compared states of India who have amended labour legislations to grant more flexibility to employers , to those states in India that have made their labour laws even more rigid and complicated to comply with . These studies find that states with flexible labour laws have grown significantly faster . Flexible labour states have been able to take advantage of the export opportunities , and the per capita household income has risen much faster in states with flexible labour laws . States with rigid labour laws have led local entrepreneurs to prefer casual workers or contract workers with finite employment time period ; in essence , more rigid and inflexible labour law states see increased informal employment . A 2007 article in The Economist finds India to have the most restrictive labour laws in any major economy of the world . India 's private sector , including its organised manufacturing sector , employs about 10 million Indians . Manufacturing firms need to obtain government permission to lay off workers from factories , and this permission is usually denied if they have more than 100 staff . This partly explains why most Indian firms are small : 87 percent of employment in India 's organised manufacturing sector is in firms with fewer than ten employees , compared with only 5 percent in China . Small Indian firms can not reap economies of scale or exploit the latest technology , and so suffer from lower productivity than if they scaled up , employed more people and were much bigger companies . This cripples Indian firms ability to rapidly expand or adjust with changes in global economy , both during early opportunity phase and during economic change . One exception is white collar jobs , where companies have stronger lobbies and employees are not unionised , so they have managed to operate freely with a much larger workforce and have been able to lay off a significant portion of their workforce without contravening labour laws . In almost all cases white collar employees are forced to resign under threat of negative recommendations and black - listing with industry associations . Djankov and Ramalho have reviewed a number of labour studies on developing countries including India . They find , consistent with above criticisms , that countries with rigid employment laws have larger unorganised sectors and higher unemployment , especially among young workers . They also report the rigid , inflexible labour laws are strongly related to low per capita income . International comparison of Indian labour laws The table below contrasts the labour laws of India to those of China and United States , as of 2011 . Relative regulations and rigidity in labor laws Practice required by law India China United States Minimum wage ( US $ / month ) 45 ( INR 2500 / month ) 182.5 1242.6 Standard work day 9 hours 8 hours 8 hours Minimum rest while at work 30 minutes per 5 - hour None None Maximum overtime limit 200 hours per year 432 hours per year None Premium pay for overtime 100 % 50 % 50 % Dismissal due to redundancy allowed ? Yes , if approved by government Yes , without approval of government Yes , without approval of government Government approval required for 1 person dismissal Yes No No Government approval required for 9 person dismissal Yes No No Government approval for redundancy dismissal granted Rarely Not applicable Not applicable Dismissal priority rules regulated Yes Yes No Severance pay for redundancy dismissal of employee with 1 - year tenure 2.1 week salary 4.3 - week salary None Severance pay for redundancy dismissal of employee with 5 - year tenure 10.7 - week salary 21.7 - week salary None See also ( edit ) Child labour in India Economy of India Industrial relations Indian labour law Bonded Labour System ( Abolition ) Act , 1976 Notes ( edit ) Jump up ^ `` India '' . CIA , United States . 2012 . ^ Jump up to : Planning Commission of India ( 2007 ) . `` Labour Laws and Other Labour Regulations '' ( PDF ) . The Government of India . Jump up ^ Chandra Korgaokar ; Geir Myrstad ( 1997 ) . `` Protecting children in the world of work ( see article on Child Labour in the Diamond Industry ) '' . International Labour Organization . pp. 51 -- 53 . Archived from the original on 27 September 2013 . ^ Jump up to : `` Economic Survey 2010 - 2011 '' ( PDF ) . The Government of India . 2012 . Jump up ^ M Swaminathan ( 1991 ) . `` Understanding the informal sector : a survey '' ( PDF ) . Jump up ^ S Chakrabarti . `` Gender Dimensions of the Informal Sector and Informal Employment in India '' ( PDF ) . p. 3 . Jump up ^ `` Unorganized Labour '' ( PDF ) . Ministry of Labour , Government of India . 2009 . Jump up ^ Nurul Amin ( 2002 ) . `` The Informal Sector in Asia from the Decent Work Perspective '' ( PDF ) . International Labour Office , Geneva . Jump up ^ Stephan Shankar Nath ( 2010 ) . Street Food Vendors in Delhi : Nomads in the storm of modernity ( PDF ) . University of Vienna . Jump up ^ A.C. KULSHRESHTHA ( May 2011 ) . `` MEASURING THE UNORGANIZED SECTOR IN INDIA '' . Review of Income and Wealth ( Special Issue : The Informal Economy in Developing Countries : Analysis and Measurement ) . 57 ( Supplement s1 ) : S123 -- S134 . doi : 10.1111 / j. 1475 - 4991.2011. 00452. x . Jump up ^ Sheila Bhalla ( 2003 ) . `` The restructuring of unorganised sector in India '' ( PDF ) . Planning Commission , Govt of India . Jump up ^ Kalpana Kochhar ; Pradeep Mitra ; Reema Nayar ( June 2012 ) . `` More jobs , better jobs '' . Finance and Development . 49 ( 2 ) . Jump up ^ Tripti Lahiri ( April 2011 ) . `` India Passes 1.2 Billion Mark '' . The Wall Street Journal . Jump up ^ 28m workers employed by 400k companies Archived 18 December 2010 at the Wayback Machine . ^ Jump up to : P.R.N. Sinha ( 2004 ) . Industrial Relations , Trade Unions , and Labour Legislation . Pearson Education . pp. 92 -- 110 . ISBN 9788177588132 . 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Ministry of Labour and Employment , Government of India . Archived from the original on 9 September 2011 . Retrieved 12 September 2011 . Jump up ^ `` Child labor - causes '' . ILO , United Nations . 2008 . Jump up ^ `` India Journal : The Basic Shortages that Plague Our Schools '' . The Wall Street Journal . 3 January 2012 . Jump up ^ Mario Biggeri ; Santosh Mehrotra ( 2007 ) . Asian Informal Workers : Global Risks , Local Protection . Routledge . ISBN 978 - 0 - 415 - 38275 - 5 . ^ Jump up to : Brown , D.K. , Deardorff , A.V. and Stern , R.M. Child Labor : Theory , Evidence , and Policy ( Chapter 3 , International Labor Standards : History , Theory , and Policy Options ) . doi : 10.1002 / 9780470754818. ch3 . ISBN 9781405105552 . CS1 maint : Multiple names : authors list ( link ) Jump up ^ Labour and Employment Statistics Archived 13 April 2014 at the Wayback Machine . Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation , Govt of India ( January 2014 ) , page 2 Jump up ^ `` National Legislation and Policies Against Child Labour in India '' . International Labour Organization - an Agency of the United Nations , Geneva . 2011 . Archived from the original on 9 August 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Child Labour '' . Labour.nic.in . Archived from the original on 12 May 2012 . Retrieved 13 July 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Archived copy '' . Archived from the original on 29 January 2012 . Retrieved 9 February 2012 . Jump up ^ Burra , Neera . `` Child labour in rural areas with a special focus on migration , agriculture , mining and brick kilns '' ( PDF ) . National Commission for Protection of Child Rights . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on 24 January 2009 . Retrieved 19 October 2009 . Jump up ^ Christiaan Grootaert ; Harry Anthony Patrinos ( 1999 ) . The Policy Analysis of Child Labor : A Comparative Study . Palgrave Macmillan . ISBN 978 - 0312221225 . 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Jump up ^ THE TRADE UNIONS ACT , 1926 Jump up ^ THE PAYMENT OF WAGES ACT , 1936 Jump up ^ INDUSTRIAL EMPLOYMENT ( STANDING ORDERS ) CENTRAL RULES , 1946 Jump up ^ THE INDUSTRIAL DISPUTES ACT , 1947 Jump up ^ THE MINIMUM WAGES ACT , 1948 Jump up ^ Minimum wage differs for each Indian state Jump up ^ The Industries ( Development and Regulation ) Act , 1951 Archived 19 January 2012 at the Wayback Machine . Jump up ^ THE EMPLOYEES ' PROVIDENT FUNDS AND MISCELLANEOUS PROVISIONS ACT , 1952 Archived 21 October 2012 at the Wayback Machine . Jump up ^ MATERNITY BENEFIT ACT , 1961 Jump up ^ THE PAYMENT OF BONUS ACT , 1965 Jump up ^ Payment of Gratuity Act , Gratuity Act , 1972 Jump up ^ Payment of Gratuity Act , 1972 ; Compliance and Applicability ^ Jump up to : Aghion , P. , R. Burgess , S. Redding and F. Zilibotti ( 2008 ) . `` The Unequal Effects of Liberalisation : Evidence from Dismantling the License Raj in India '' . American Economic Review . 94 ( 4 ) : 1397 -- 412 . 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The Review of Economics and Statistics . 89 ( 3 ) : 466 -- 481 . doi : 10.1162 / rest. 89.3. 466 . Jump up ^ `` Chronicles of the rise and fall of the Indian software engineer '' . Outlook Business . Outlook Publishing India Pvt. Ltd . Retrieved 14 March 2013 . Jump up ^ `` The labor law implementation in India is very weak compared to many developed economies '' . jobgayi.com . Retrieved 14 March 2013 . Jump up ^ MARKUS POSCHKE ( 2009 ) . `` Employment Protection , Firm Selection , and Growth '' ( PDF ) . Journal of Monetary Economics . 56 ( 8 ) : 1074 -- 1085 . doi : 10.1016 / j. jmoneco. 2009.10. 013 . Jump up ^ `` Employing Workers - 2011 data ( based on input from ILO , OECD , local governments and private employers ) '' . The World Bank . 2012 . Jump up ^ http://pib.nic.in/newsite/PrintRelease.aspx?relid=71533 . Jump up ^ `` Minimum wage hiked by Rs. 15 '' . The Hindu . Chennai , India . 8 April 2011 . Jump up ^ http://www.fairlabor.org/blog/entry/fair-labor-association-secures-commitment-limit-workers-hours-protect-pay-apples-largest References ( edit ) The Industrial Development of Bengal , 1900 - 1939 Vikas Publishing House Pvt Ltd : New Delhi , Pp. 256 , ISBN 0706915798 PM Cawthorne , ' Of Networks and Markets : The Rise and Rise of a South Indian Town , the Example of Tiruppur 's Cotton Knitwear Industry ' ( 1994 ) 23 ( 1 ) World Development 43 `` Library of Congress Country Studies '' . U.S. Library of Congress . Retrieved 6 October 2007 . `` Library of Congress -- Federal Research Division Country Profile : India , December 2004 ) '' ( PDF ) . Library of Congress Country Studies . Retrieved 6 November 2007 . Government and Business Attitudes towards Labour Welfare in Bengal : The Maternity Benefit Question ( 1919 - 1947 ) , in ' State and Business in India : A Historical Perspective ' , pp. 217 -- 257 ( New Delhi , 1987 ) , ISBN 8185054266 The Indian mines maternity benefit question , 1919 - 1947 , The Indian Economic & Social History Review 22 ( 3 ) , 329 - 351 The Problem of Middle Class Educated Unemployment in Bengal , 1912 - 1942 , The Indian Economic & Social History Review , 19 ( 1 ) , 27 - 45 Supply of Labour to Bengal Tea Industry 1900 - 1939 , Bangladesh Historical Studies , Vol. IV , pp. 49 -- 63 External links ( edit ) Social issues in India Economy Brain drain Communications Famine Farmers ' suicides Labour Land reforms Debt bondage National Pension Scheme Poverty BPL Public Distribution System Remittances Reverse brain drain Slums Standard of living Street vendors Transport Urbanisation Unemployment Widening income gap Education Literacy Ragging School corporal punishment Environment Conservation Global warming Manual scavenging Natural disasters Pollution Water supply and sanitation Water disputes Family Cohabitation Divorce Domestic violence Dowry system Family planning Hindu joint family Infertility Nuclear family Polyandry Polygamy Children Abortion Child labour Child marriage Child prostitution Child trafficking Female foeticide Female infanticide Street children Women Acid throwing Bride burning Devadasi Dowry death Eve teasing Women 's health Feminism Menstrual taboo Prostitution Rape Sati Sexism Widows Caste system Caste politics Caste - related violence Dalit Reservation Communalism Proposed states and territories Ethnic relations Religious conflicts Religious violence Secularism Separatist movements Crime Corruption Groom kidnapping Human trafficking Illegal housing Illegal immigration Illegal mining Organised crime Terrorism Vigilantism Cybercrime Health Epidemics HIV / AIDS Leprosy Malnutrition Obesity Suicide Media Censorship Internet Films about social issues Freedom of expression Social impact of Indian soap opera Other issues Feudalism Gambling Hijra Homosexuality Human rights Prohibition Religious and spiritual use of cannabis Superstitions Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Labour_in_India&oldid=834421776 '' Categories : Labour in India Indian labour law Hidden categories : Webarchive template wayback links CS1 maint : Multiple names : authors list EngvarB from May 2014 Use dmy dates from May 2014 All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from July 2012 All accuracy disputes Articles with disputed statements from May 2013 Talk Contents About Wikipedia فارسی Edit links This page was last edited on 5 April 2018 , at 17 : 05 ( UTC ) . 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when was the berlin wall built and why

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Berlin_Wall&oldid=864211685

Berlin Wall - Wikipedia Berlin Wall Not to be confused with the Inner German border or the chess moves also known as the Berlin Defence . For the video game , see The Berlin Wall ( video game ) . This article may be too long to read and navigate comfortably . Please consider splitting content into sub-articles , condensing it , or adding or removing subheadings . ( September 2018 ) Berlin Wall View from the West Berlin side of graffiti art on the Wall in 1986 . The Wall 's `` death strip '' , on the east side of the Wall , here follows the curve of the Luisenstadt Canal ( filled in 1932 ) . Map of the location of the Berlin Wall , showing checkpoints General information Type Wall Country East Germany East Berlin ( Soviet - occupied sector of Berlin ) Coordinates 52 ° 30 ′ 58 '' N 13 ° 22 ′ 37 '' E  /  52.51611 ° N 13.37694 ° E  / 52.51611 ; 13.37694 Coordinates : 52 ° 30 ′ 58 '' N 13 ° 22 ′ 37 '' E  /  52.51611 ° N 13.37694 ° E  / 52.51611 ; 13.37694 Construction started 13 August 1961 Other dimensions Border length around West Berlin : 155 km ( 96 mi ) Border length between West Berlin and East Germany : 111.9 km ( 69.5 mi ) Border length between West and East Berlin : 43.1 km ( 26.8 mi ) Border length through residential areas in East Berlin : 37 km ( 23 mi ) Concrete segment of wall height : 3.6 m ( 11.8 ft ) Concrete segment of wall length : 106 km ( 66 mi ) Wire mesh fencing : 66.5 km ( 41.3 mi ) Anti-vehicle trenches length : 105.5 km ( 65.6 mi ) Contact / signal fence length : 127.5 km ( 79.2 mi ) Column track width : 7 m ( 7.7 yd ) Column track length : 124.3 km ( 77.2 mi ) Number of watch towers : 302 Number of bunkers : 20 Technical details Size 155 km ( 96.3 mi ) Eastern Bloc Soviet Socialist Republics ( show ) Armenia Azerbaijan Byelorussia Estonia Georgia Kazakhstan Kirghizia Latvia Lithuania Moldavia Russian SFSR Tajikistan Turkmenia Ukraine Uzbekistan Allied states ( show ) Hungarian People 's Republic Polish People 's Republic Czechoslovak Socialist Republic Socialist Republic of Romania German Democratic Republic People 's Republic of Bulgaria Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia ( to 1948 ) People 's Socialist Republic of Albania ( to 1961 ) Republic of Cuba People 's Revolutionary Government of Grenada People 's Republic of Benin People 's Republic of the Congo People 's Republic of Angola People 's Republic of Mozambique People 's Democratic Republic of Ethiopia Somali Democratic Republic ( to 1977 ) People 's Democratic Republic of Yemen Democratic Republic of Afghanistan Mongolian People 's Republic People 's Republic of China ( to 1961 ) Democratic People 's Republic of Korea Socialist Republic of Vietnam Lao People 's Democratic Republic People 's Republic of Kampuchea Related organizations ( show ) Cominform COMECON Warsaw Pact World Federation of Trade Unions ( WFTU ) World Federation of Democratic Youth ( WFDY ) Dissent and opposition ( show ) Forest Brothers in Lithuania in Latvia in Estonia Operation `` Jungle '' Ukrainian Insurgent Army Goryani movement ( Bulgaria ) Romanian anti-communism Polish cursed soldiers 1953 uprisings in Plzeň in East Germany 1956 protests in Georgia in Poznań Hungarian Revolution of 1956 Novocherkassk massacre ( Russia ) 1968 events Prague Spring Invasion of Czechoslovakia Red Square demonstration Charter 77 ( Czechoslovakia ) Solidarity ( Poland ) Jeltoqsan ( Kazakhstan ) Braşov rebellion ( Romania ) January Events ( Lithuania ) The Barricades ( Latvia ) April 9 tragedy ( Georgia ) Black January ( Azerbaijan ) Cold War events ( hide ) Marshall Plan 1948 Czechoslovak coup d'état Tito -- Stalin Split Berlin Blockade Korean War 1956 `` Secret Speech '' Sino - Soviet Split 1961 Berlin Wall crisis 1962 Cuban Missile Crisis Vietnam War Cuban intervention in Angola Afghan War 1980 Moscow Olympics Decline ( show ) Singing Revolution Polish Round Table Agreement Revolutions of 1989 Fall of the Berlin Wall January 1991 in Lithuania in Latvia Breakup of Yugoslavia Yugoslav Wars End of the Soviet Union Fall of communism in Albania Dissolution of Czechoslovakia Satellite image of Berlin , with the Wall 's location marked in yellow West and East Berlin borders overlaying a current road map ( interactive map ) The Berlin Wall ( German : Berliner Mauer , pronounced ( bɛʁˈliːnɐ ˈmaʊ̯ɐ ) ( listen ) ) was a guarded concrete barrier that physically and ideologically divided Berlin from 1961 to 1989 . Constructed by the German Democratic Republic ( GDR , East Germany ) , starting on 13 August 1961 , the Wall cut off ( by land ) West Berlin from virtually all of surrounding East Germany and East Berlin until government officials opened it in November 1989 . Its demolition officially began on 13 June 1990 and finished in 1992 . The barrier included guard towers placed along large concrete walls , accompanied by a wide area ( later known as the `` death strip '' ) that contained anti-vehicle trenches , `` fakir beds '' and other defenses . The Eastern Bloc portrayed the Wall as protecting its population from fascist elements conspiring to prevent the `` will of the people '' in building a socialist state in East Germany . GDR authorities officially referred to the Berlin Wall as the Anti-Fascist Protection Rampart ( German : Antifaschistischer Schutzwall ) . The West Berlin city government sometimes referred to it as the `` Wall of Shame '' , a term coined by mayor Willy Brandt in reference to the Wall 's restriction on freedom of movement . Along with the separate and much longer Inner German border ( IGB ) , which demarcated the border between East and West Germany , it came to symbolize physically the `` Iron Curtain '' that separated Western Europe and the Eastern Bloc during the Cold War . Before the Wall 's erection , 3.5 million East Germans circumvented Eastern Bloc emigration restrictions and defected from the GDR , many by crossing over the border from East Berlin into West Berlin ; from there they could then travel to West Germany and to other Western European countries . Between 1961 and 1989 the Wall prevented almost all such emigration . During this period over 100,000 people attempted to escape and over 5,000 people succeeded in escaping over the Wall , with an estimated death toll ranging from 136 to more than 200 in and around Berlin . In 1989 a series of revolutions in nearby Eastern Bloc countries -- Poland and Hungary in particular -- caused a chain reaction in East Germany that ultimately resulted in the demise of the Wall . After several weeks of civil unrest , the East German government announced on 9 November 1989 that all GDR citizens could visit West Germany and West Berlin . Crowds of East Germans crossed and climbed onto the Wall , joined by West Germans on the other side in a celebratory atmosphere . Over the next few weeks , euphoric people and souvenir hunters chipped away parts of the Wall ; the governments later used industrial equipment to remove most of what was left . The `` fall of the Berlin Wall '' paved the way for German reunification , which formally took place on 3 October 1990 . Contents 1 Background 1.1 Post-war Germany 1.2 Eastern Bloc and the Berlin airlift 1.3 Emigration westward in the early 1950s 2 Erection of the inner German border 2.1 Berlin emigration loophole 2.2 Brain drain 2.3 How Khrushchev -- Kennedy relations affected the construction of the wall 3 Construction begins , 1961 3.1 Immediate effects 3.2 Secondary response 4 Structure and adjacent areas 4.1 Layout and modifications 4.2 Surrounding municipalities 5 Official crossings and usage 5.1 Crossing 5.2 Defection attempts 6 Concerts by Western artists and growing anti-Wall sentiment 6.1 David Bowie , 1987 6.2 Bruce Springsteen , 1988 6.3 David Hasselhoff , 1989 7 `` Ich bin ein Berliner '' and `` Mr. Gorbachev , tear down this Wall . '' 8 Fall of the Berlin Wall 8.1 Demolition 8.2 Opposition 8.3 Celebrations 8.4 20th anniversary celebrations 9 Legacy 9.1 Cultural differences 9.2 Wall segments around the world 9.3 50th anniversary commemoration 10 Related media 11 See also 12 References 13 External links Background Post-war Germany After the end of World War II in Europe , what remained of pre-war Germany west of the Oder - Neisse line was divided into four occupation zones ( as per the Potsdam Agreement ) , each one controlled by one of the four occupying Allied powers : the United States , the United Kingdom , France and the Soviet Union . The capital of Berlin , as the seat of the Allied Control Council , was similarly subdivided into four sectors despite the city 's location , which was fully within the Soviet zone . Within two years , political divisions increased between the Soviets and the other occupying powers . These included the Soviets ' refusal to agree to reconstruction plans making post-war Germany self - sufficient and to a detailed accounting of the industrial plants , goods and infrastructure already removed by the Soviets . France , the United Kingdom , the United States and the Benelux countries later met to combine the non-Soviet zones of the country into one zone for reconstruction and to approve the extension of the Marshall Plan . Eastern Bloc and the Berlin airlift Further information : Eastern Bloc and Berlin Blockade Play media Brandenburg Gate in 1945 , after the end of World War II Following World War II , Soviet leader Joseph Stalin headed a group of nations on his Western border , the Eastern Bloc , that then included Poland , Hungary and Czechoslovakia , which he wished to maintain alongside a weakened Soviet - controlled Germany . As early as 1945 , Stalin revealed to German communist leaders that he expected to slowly undermine the British position within the British occupation zone , that the United States would withdraw within a year or two , and that nothing would then stand in the way of a united communist Germany within the bloc . The major task of the ruling communist party in the Soviet zone was to channel Soviet orders down to both the administrative apparatus and the other bloc parties , which in turn would be presented as internal measures . Property and industry was nationalized in the East German zone . If statements or decisions deviated from the described line , reprimands and ( for persons outside public attention ) punishment would ensue , such as imprisonment , torture and even death . Indoctrination of Marxism - Leninism became a compulsory part of school curricula , sending professors and students fleeing to the West . The East Germans created an elaborate political police apparatus that kept the population under close surveillance , including Soviet SMERSH secret police . In 1948 , following disagreements regarding reconstruction and a new German currency , Stalin instituted the Berlin Blockade , preventing food , materials and supplies from arriving in West Berlin . The United States , the United Kingdom , France , Canada , Australia , New Zealand and several other countries began a massive `` airlift '' , supplying West Berlin with food and other supplies . The Soviets mounted a public relations campaign against the Western policy change . Communists attempted to disrupt the elections of 1948 , preceding large losses therein , while 300,000 Berliners demonstrated for the international airlift to continue . In May 1949 , Stalin lifted the blockade , permitting the resumption of Western shipments to Berlin . The German Democratic Republic ( East Germany ) was declared on 7 October 1949 . By a secret treaty , the Soviet Ministry of Foreign Affairs accorded the East German state administrative authority , but not autonomy . The Soviets permeated East German administrative , military and secret police structures and had full control . East Germany differed from West Germany ( Federal Republic of Germany ) , which developed into a Western capitalist country with a social market economy ( `` Soziale Marktwirtschaft '' in German ) and a democratic parliamentary government . Continual economic growth starting in the 1950s fuelled a 20 - year `` economic miracle '' ( `` Wirtschaftswunder '' ) . As West Germany 's economy grew , and its standard of living steadily improved , many East Germans wanted to move to West Germany . Emigration westward in the early 1950s Main articles : Eastern Bloc emigration and defection and Eastern Bloc After the Soviet occupation of Eastern Europe at the end of World War II , the majority of those living in the newly acquired areas of the Eastern Bloc aspired to independence and wanted the Soviets to leave . Taking advantage of the zonal border between occupied zones in Germany , the number of GDR citizens moving to West Germany totaled 187,000 in 1950 ; 165,000 in 1951 ; 182,000 in 1952 ; and 331,000 in 1953 . One reason for the sharp 1953 increase was fear of potential further Sovietization , given the increasingly paranoid actions of Joseph Stalin in late 1952 and early 1953 . 226,000 had fled in just the first six months of 1953 . Erection of the inner German border Further information : Inner German border and Eastern Bloc emigration and defection By the early 1950s , the Soviet approach to controlling national movement , restricting emigration , was emulated by most of the rest of the Eastern Bloc , including East Germany . The restrictions presented a quandary for some Eastern Bloc states , which had been more economically advanced and open than the Soviet Union , such that crossing borders seemed more natural -- especially where no prior border existed between East and West Germany . Up until 1952 , the demarcation lines between East Germany and the western occupied zones could be easily crossed in most places . On 1 April 1952 , East German leaders met the Soviet leader Joseph Stalin in Moscow ; during the discussions Stalin 's foreign minister Vyacheslav Molotov proposed that the East Germans should `` introduce a system of passes for visits of West Berlin residents to the territory of East Berlin ( so as to stop ) free movement of Western agents '' in the GDR . Stalin agreed , calling the situation `` intolerable '' . He advised the East Germans to build up their border defenses , telling them that `` The demarcation line between East and West Germany should be considered a border -- and not just any border , but a dangerous one ... The Germans will guard the line of defence with their lives . '' Consequently , the inner German border between the two German states was closed , and a barbed - wire fence erected . The border between the Western and Eastern sectors of Berlin , however , remained open , although traffic between the Soviet and the Western sectors was somewhat restricted . This resulted in Berlin becoming a magnet for East Germans desperate to escape life in the GDR , and also a flashpoint for tension between the United States and the Soviet Union . In 1955 , the Soviets gave East Germany authority over civilian movement in Berlin , passing control to a regime not recognized in the West . Initially , East Germany granted `` visits '' to allow its residents access to West Germany . However , following the defection of large numbers of East Germans under this regime , the new East German state legally restricted virtually all travel to the West in 1956 . Soviet East German ambassador Mikhail Pervukhin observed that `` the presence in Berlin of an open and essentially uncontrolled border between the socialist and capitalist worlds unwittingly prompts the population to make a comparison between both parts of the city , which unfortunately does not always turn out in favour of Democratic ( East ) Berlin . '' Berlin emigration loophole With the closing of the inner German border officially in 1952 , the border in Berlin remained considerably more accessible because it was administered by all four occupying powers . Accordingly , Berlin became the main route by which East Germans left for the West . On 11 December 1957 , East Germany introduced a new passport law that reduced the overall number of refugees leaving Eastern Germany . It had the unintended result of drastically increasing the percentage of those leaving through West Berlin from 60 % to well over 90 % by the end of 1958 . Those caught trying to leave East Berlin were subjected to heavy penalties , but with no physical barrier and subway train access still available to West Berlin , such measures were ineffective . The Berlin sector border was essentially a `` loophole '' through which Eastern Bloc citizens could still escape . The 3.5 million East Germans who had left by 1961 totalled approximately 20 % of the entire East German population . An important reason that crossing the inner German border was not stopped earlier was that doing so would cut off much of the railway traffic in East Germany . Construction of a new railway bypassing West Berlin , the Berlin outer ring , commenced in 1951 . Following the completion of the railway in 1961 , closing the border became a more practical proposition . ( See History of rail transport in Germany . ) Brain drain The emigrants tended to be young and well - educated , leading to the `` brain drain '' feared by officials in East Germany . Yuri Andropov , then the CPSU Director on Relations with Communist and Workers ' Parties of Socialist Countries , wrote an urgent letter on 28 August 1958 , to the Central Committee about the significant 50 % increase in the number of East German intelligentsia among the refugees . Andropov reported that , while the East German leadership stated that they were leaving for economic reasons , testimony from refugees indicated that the reasons were more political than material . He stated `` the flight of the intelligentsia has reached a particularly critical phase . '' An East German SED propaganda booklet published in 1955 dramatically described the serious nature of ' flight from the republic ' : Both from the moral standpoint as well as in terms of the interests of the whole German nation , leaving the GDR is an act of political and moral backwardness and depravity . Those who let themselves be recruited objectively serve West German Reaction and militarism , whether they know it or not . Is it not despicable when for the sake of a few alluring job offers or other false promises about a `` guaranteed future '' one leaves a country in which the seed for a new and more beautiful life is sprouting , and is already showing the first fruits , for the place that favours a new war and destruction ? Is it not an act of political depravity when citizens , whether young people , workers , or members of the intelligentsia , leave and betray what our people have created through common labour in our republic to offer themselves to the American or British secret services or work for the West German factory owners , Junkers , or militarists ? Does not leaving the land of progress for the morass of an historically outdated social order demonstrate political backwardness and blindness ? ... ( W ) orkers throughout Germany will demand punishment for those who today leave the German Democratic Republic , the strong bastion of the fight for peace , to serve the deadly enemy of the German people , the imperialists and militarists . By 1960 , the combination of World War II and the massive emigration westward left East Germany with only 61 % of its population of working age , compared to 70.5 % before the war . The loss was disproportionately heavy among professionals : engineers , technicians , physicians , teachers , lawyers and skilled workers . The direct cost of manpower losses to East Germany ( and corresponding gain to the West ) has been estimated at $7 billion to $9 billion , with East German party leader Walter Ulbricht later claiming that West Germany owed him $17 billion in compensation , including reparations as well as manpower losses . In addition , the drain of East Germany 's young population potentially cost it over 22.5 billion marks in lost educational investment . The brain drain of professionals had become so damaging to the political credibility and economic viability of East Germany that the re-securing of the German communist frontier was imperative . The exodus of emigrants from East Germany presented two minor potential benefits : an easy opportunity to smuggle East German secret agents to West Germany , and a reduction in the number of citizens hostile to the communist regime . Neither of these advantages , however , proved particularly useful . How Khrushchev -- Kennedy relations affected the construction of the Wall This article may be confusing or unclear to readers . Please help us clarify the article . There might be a discussion about this on the talk page . ( July 2018 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) In April 1961 , Khrushchev gained an impression that Kennedy is not very smart when he saw Washington supporting the failed invasion of Cuba by anti-communist exiles which were then left to their fate . Khrushchev decided to alarm rather than appease the president . He soon revealed his intention of signing the separate peace treaty with East Germany that would abolish allied rights in West Berlin . One of his intentions was therefore to get the whole of Berlin . However , this action had risks behind it . The risks that we are taking are justified . If we look at it in terms of a percentage , there is more than a 95 % chance that there will be no war . It meant that 5 % was an actual chance of having a war . Khrushchev 's assumptions about Kennedy were false . He made clear that the chance of having a war was bigger than 5 % . He showed the unpredictability of US policy . Allthough Soviet forces were not on high alert , the plans were nonetheless changed to deal with the consequences of Kennedy 's actions . It was then decided to block the access to West Berlin from the East . That is when the construction of the wall started . Construction begins , 1961 Play media Aerial footage of the wall as filmed by the CIA in 1961 East German Combat Groups of the Working Class close the border on 13 August 1961 in preparation for the Berlin Wall construction . East German construction workers building the Berlin Wall , 20 November 1961 . On 15 June 1961 , First Secretary of the Socialist Unity Party and GDR State Council chairman Walter Ulbricht stated in an international press conference , `` Niemand hat die Absicht , eine Mauer zu errichten ! '' ( No one has the intention of erecting a wall ! ) . It was the first time the colloquial term Mauer ( wall ) had been used in this context . The transcript of a telephone call between Nikita Khrushchev and Ulbricht on 1 August in the same year , suggests that the initiative for the construction of the Wall came from Khrushchev . However , other sources suggest that Khrushchev had initially been wary about building a wall , fearing negative Western reaction . What is beyond dispute , though , is that Ulbricht had pushed for a border closure for quite some time , arguing that East Germany 's very existence was at stake . Khrushchev had become emboldened upon seeing US President John F. Kennedy 's youth and inexperience show as weakness against Khrushchev 's brutal , undiplomatic aggression . This feeling of miscalculation and failure is admitted by Kennedy in the U.S. ambassador 's residence with New York Times columnist James `` Scotty '' Reston . Kennedy made the regrettable error of admitting that the US would not actively oppose this action in the Soviet sector of Berlin . On Saturday , 12 August 1961 , the leaders of the GDR attended a garden party at a government guesthouse in Döllnsee , in a wooded area to the north of East Berlin . There Ulbricht signed the order to close the border and erect a wall . At midnight , the police and units of the East German army began to close the border and , by Sunday morning , 13 August , the border with West Berlin was closed . East German troops and workers had begun to tear up streets running alongside the border to make them impassable to most vehicles and to install barbed wire entanglements and fences along the 156 kilometres ( 97 mi ) around the three western sectors , and the 43 kilometres ( 27 mi ) that divided West and East Berlin . The date of 13 August became commonly referred to as Barbed Wire Sunday in Germany . The barrier was built inside East Berlin or East German territory to ensure that it did not encroach on West Berlin at any point . Generally , the Wall was only slightly inside East Berlin , but in a few places it was some distance from the legal border , most notably at Potsdamer Bahnhof and the Lenné Triangle that is now much of the Potsdamer Platz development . Later , the initial barrier was built up into the Wall proper , the first concrete elements and large blocks being put in place on 17 August . During the construction of the Wall , National People 's Army ( NVA ) and Combat Groups of the Working Class ( KdA ) soldiers stood in front of it with orders to shoot anyone who attempted to defect . Additionally , chain fences , walls , minefields and other obstacles were installed along the length of East Germany 's western border with West Germany proper . A huge no man 's land was cleared to provide a clear line of fire at fleeing refugees . Immediate effects US President John F. Kennedy visiting the Berlin Wall on 26 June 1963 With the closing of the East - West sector boundary in Berlin , the vast majority of East Germans could no longer travel or emigrate to West Germany . Berlin soon went from being the easiest place to make an unauthorized crossing between East and West Germany to being the most difficult . Many families were split , while East Berliners employed in the West were cut off from their jobs . West Berlin became an isolated exclave in a hostile land . West Berliners demonstrated against the Wall , led by their Mayor ( Oberbürgermeister ) Willy Brandt , who strongly criticized the United States for failing to respond . Allied intelligence agencies had hypothesized about a wall to stop the flood of refugees , but the main candidate for its location was around the perimeter of the city . In 1961 , Secretary of State Dean Rusk proclaimed , `` The Wall certainly ought not to be a permanent feature of the European landscape . I see no reason why the Soviet Union should think it is -- it is to their advantage in any way to leave there that monument to communist failure . '' United States and UK sources had expected the Soviet sector to be sealed off from West Berlin , but were surprised by how long the East Germans took for such a move . They considered the Wall as an end to concerns about a GDR / Soviet retaking or capture of the whole of Berlin ; the Wall would presumably have been an unnecessary project if such plans were afloat . Thus they concluded that the possibility of a Soviet military conflict over Berlin had decreased . The East German government claimed that the Wall was an `` anti-fascist protective rampart '' ( German : `` antifaschistischer Schutzwall '' ) intended to dissuade aggression from the West . Another official justification was the activities of Western agents in Eastern Europe . The Eastern German government also claimed that West Berliners were buying out state - subsidized goods in East Berlin . East Germans and others greeted such statements with skepticism , as most of the time , the border was only closed for citizens of East Germany traveling to the West , but not for residents of West Berlin travelling to the East . The construction of the Wall had caused considerable hardship to families divided by it . Most people believed that the Wall was mainly a means of preventing the citizens of East Germany from entering or fleeing to West Berlin . Secondary response Play media Universal Newsreel of the 1st anniversary of the Berlin Wall The National Security Agency was the only American intelligence agency that was aware that East Germany was to take action to deal with the brain drain problem . On 9 August 1961 , the NSA intercepted an advance warning information of the Socialist Unity Party 's plan to close the intra-Berlin border between East and West Berlin completely for foot traffic . The interagency intelligence Berlin Watch Committee assessed that this intercept `` might be the first step in a plan to close the border . '' This warning did not reach U.S. President John F. Kennedy until noon on 13 August 1961 , while he was vacationing in his yacht off the Kennedy Compound in Hyannis Port , Massachusetts . While Kennedy was angry that he had no advance warning , he was relieved that the East Germans and the Soviets had only divided Berlin without taking any action against West Berlin 's access to the West . However , he denounced the Berlin Wall , whose erection worsened the relations between the United States and the Soviet Union . In response to the erection of the Berlin Wall , a retired general , Lucius D. Clay , was appointed by Kennedy as his special advisor and sent to Berlin with ambassadorial rank . Clay had been the Military Governor of the US Zone of Occupation in Germany during the period of the Berlin Blockade and had ordered the first measures in what became the Berlin Airlift . He was immensely popular with the residents of West Berlin , and his appointment was an unambiguous sign that Kennedy would not compromise on the status of West Berlin . Clay and Vice President Lyndon B. Johnson arrived at Tempelhof Airport on the afternoon of Saturday , 19 August 1961 . They arrived in a city defended by three Allied brigades -- one each from the UK , the US , and France ( the Forces Françaises à Berlin ) . On 16 August , Kennedy had given the order for them to be reinforced . Early on 19 August , the 1st Battle Group , 18th Infantry ( commanded by Colonel Glover S. Johns Jr . ) was alerted . On Sunday morning , U.S. troops marched from West Germany through East Germany , bound for West Berlin . Lead elements -- arranged in a column of 491 vehicles and trailers carrying 1,500 men , divided into five march units -- left the Helmstedt - Marienborn checkpoint at 06 : 34 . At Marienborn , the Soviet checkpoint next to Helmstedt on the West German - East German border , US personnel were counted by guards . The column was 160 kilometres ( 99 mi ) long , and covered 177 kilometres ( 110 mi ) from Marienborn to Berlin in full battle gear . East German police watched from beside trees next to the autobahn all the way along . The front of the convoy arrived at the outskirts of Berlin just before noon , to be met by Clay and Johnson , before parading through the streets of Berlin in front of a large crowd . At 04 : 00 on 21 August , Lyndon Johnson left West Berlin in the hands of General Frederick O. Hartel and his brigade of 4,224 officers and men . `` For the next three and a half years , American battalions would rotate into West Berlin , by autobahn , at three month intervals to demonstrate Allied rights to the city '' . The creation of the Wall had important implications for both German states . By stemming the exodus of people from East Germany , the East German government was able to reassert its control over the country : in spite of discontent with the Wall , economic problems caused by dual currency and the black market were largely eliminated . The economy in the GDR began to grow . But , the Wall proved a public relations disaster for the communist bloc as a whole . Western powers portrayed it as a symbol of communist tyranny , particularly after East German border guards shot and killed would - be defectors . Such fatalities were later treated as acts of murder by the reunified Germany . Structure and adjacent areas Layout and modifications The wall overview Length ( km ) Description 156.4 0 Bordering around West Berlin within 3.4 m and 4.2 m in height 111.9 0 Concrete walls 44.5 0 Metal mesh fence ( along death strip ) 112.7 0 Cross attachment in Potsdam 43.7 0 Cross attachment along the border of East and West Berlin 0.5 0 Remains of house fronts , land mansion bricks 58.95 Wall - shaped front wall with a height of 3.40 m 68.42 Expanded metal fence with a height of 2.90 m as a `` front barrier '' 161 00 Light strip 113.85 Limit signal and barrier fence ( GSSZ ) 127.5 0 Contact and signal fence 124.3 0 Border patrol Actual number Descriptions 186 Observation towers ( 302 in West - Berlin ) 31 Implementing agencies 259 Dog runs 20 Bunker East Berlin `` death strip '' of the Berlin Wall , as seen from the Axel Springer AG Building , 1984 . This section of the Wall 's `` death strip '' featured Czech hedgehogs , a guard tower and a cleared area , 1977 . The top of the Wall was lined with a smooth pipe , intended to make it more difficult to scale . The areas just outside the wall , including the sidewalk , are de jure Eastern Bloc territory . 1984 . Structure of the Berlin Wall . Position and course of the Berlin Wall and its border control checkpoints ( 1989 ) . The Berlin Wall was more than 140 kilometres ( 87 mi ) long . In June 1962 , a second , parallel fence was built some 100 metres ( 110 yd ) farther into East German territory . The houses contained between the fences were razed and the inhabitants relocated , thus establishing what later became known as the death strip . The death strip was covered with raked sand or gravel , rendering footprints easy to notice , easing the detection of trespassers and also enabling officers to see which guards had neglected their task ; it offered no cover ; and , most importantly , it offered clear fields of fire for the Wall guards . Through the years , the Berlin Wall evolved through four versions : Wire fence and concrete block wall ( 1961 ) Improved wire fence ( 1962 -- 1965 ) Improved concrete wall ( 1965 -- 1975 ) Grenzmauer 75 ( Border Wall 75 ) ( 1975 -- 1989 ) The `` fourth - generation Wall '' , known officially as `` Stützwandelement UL 12.11 '' ( retaining wall element UL 12.11 ) , was the final and most sophisticated version of the Wall . Begun in 1975 and completed about 1980 , it was constructed from 45,000 separate sections of reinforced concrete , each 3.6 metres ( 12 ft ) high and 1.2 metres ( 3.9 ft ) wide , and cost DDM 16,155,000 or about US $3,638,000 . The concrete provisions added to this version of the Wall were done to prevent escapees from driving their cars through the barricades . At strategic points , the Wall was constructed to a somewhat weaker standard , so that East German and Soviet armored vehicles could easily break through in the event of war . The top of the wall was lined with a smooth pipe , intended to make it more difficult to scale . The Wall was reinforced by mesh fencing , signal fencing , anti-vehicle trenches , barbed wire , dogs on long lines , `` beds of nails '' ( also known as `` Stalin 's Carpet '' ) under balconies hanging over the `` death strip '' , over 116 watchtowers , and 20 bunkers with hundreds of guards . This version of the Wall is the one most commonly seen in photographs , and surviving fragments of the Wall in Berlin and elsewhere around the world are generally pieces of the fourth - generation Wall . The layout came to resemble the inner German border in most technical aspects , except that the Berlin Wall had no landmines nor spring - guns . Maintenance was performed on the outside of the wall by personnel who accessed the area outside it either via ladders or via hidden doors within the wall . These doors could not be opened by a single person , needing two separate keys in two separate keyholes to unlock . As was the case with the inner German border , an unfortified strip of Eastern territory was left outside the wall . This outer strip was used by workers to paint over graffiti and perform other maintenance on the outside of the wall Unlike the inner German border , however , the outer strip was usually no more than four meters wide , and , in photos from the era , the exact location of the actual border in many places appears not even to have been marked . Also in contrast with the inner German border , little interest was shown by East German law enforcement in keeping outsiders off the outer strip ; sidewalks of West Berlin streets even ran inside it . Despite the East German government 's general policy of benign neglect , vandals were not unknown to have been pursued in the outer strip , and even arrested . In 1986 , defector and political activist Wolfram Hasch and four other defectors were standing inside the outer strip defacing the wall when East German personnel emerged from one of the hidden doors to apprehend them . All but Hasch escaped back into the western sector . Hasch himself was arrested , dragged through the door into the death strip , and later convicted of illegally crossing the de jure border outside the wall . Noted graffiti artist Thierry Noir has reported having often been pursued there by East German soldiers . While some graffiti artists were chased off the outer strip , others , such as Keith Haring , were seemingly tolerated . Surrounding municipalities Besides the sector - sector boundary within Berlin itself , the Wall also separated West Berlin from the present - day state of Brandenburg . The following present - day municipalities , listed in counter-clockwise direction , share a border with former West Berlin : Oberhavel : Mühlenbecker Land ( partially ) , Glienicke / Nordbahn , Hohen Neuendorf , Hennigsdorf Havelland : Schönwalde - Glien , Falkensee , Dallgow - Döberitz Potsdam ( urban district ) Potsdam - Mittelmark : Stahnsdorf , Kleinmachnow , Teltow Teltow - Fläming : Großbeeren , Blankenfelde - Mahlow Dahme - Spreewald : Schönefeld ( partially ) Official crossings and usage See also : Berlin border crossings A You Are Leaving sign at a border of the American sector Road sign delimiting the British zone of occupation in Berlin , 1984 There were nine border crossings between East and West Berlin . These allowed visits by West Berliners , other West Germans , Western foreigners and Allied personnel into East Berlin , as well as visits by GDR citizens and citizens of other socialist countries into West Berlin , provided that they held the necessary permits . These crossings were restricted according to which nationality was allowed to use it ( East Germans , West Germans , West Berliners , other countries ) . The most famous was the vehicle and pedestrian checkpoint at the corner of Friedrichstraße and Zimmerstraße , also known as Checkpoint Charlie , which was restricted to Allied personnel and foreigners . Several other border crossings existed between West Berlin and surrounding East Germany . These could be used for transit between West Germany and West Berlin , for visits by West Berliners into East Germany , for transit into countries neighbouring East Germany ( Poland , Czechoslovakia , Denmark ) , and for visits by East Germans into West Berlin carrying a permit . After the 1972 agreements , new crossings were opened to allow West Berlin waste to be transported into East German dumps , as well as some crossings for access to West Berlin 's exclaves ( see Steinstücken ) . Four autobahns connected West Berlin to West Germany , the most famous being the Berlin - Helmstedt autobahn , which entered East German territory between the towns of Helmstedt and Marienborn ( Checkpoint Alpha ) , and which entered West Berlin at Dreilinden ( Checkpoint Bravo for the Allied forces ) in southwestern Berlin . Access to West Berlin was also possible by railway ( four routes ) and by boat for commercial shipping via canals and rivers . Non-German Westerners could cross the border at Friedrichstraße station in East Berlin and at Checkpoint Charlie . When the Wall was erected , Berlin 's complex public transit networks , the S - Bahn and U-Bahn , were divided with it . Some lines were cut in half ; many stations were shut down . Three western lines traveled through brief sections of East Berlin territory , passing through eastern stations ( called Geisterbahnhöfe , or ghost stations ) without stopping . Both the eastern and western networks converged at Friedrichstraße , which became a major crossing point for those ( mostly Westerners ) with permission to cross . Crossing Travel orders to go to Berlin as used by U.S. forces in the 1980s . West Germans and citizens of other Western countries could generally visit East Germany , often after applying for a visa at an East German embassy several weeks in advance . Visas for day trips restricted to East Berlin were issued without previous application in a simplified procedure at the border crossing . However , East German authorities could refuse entry permits without stating a reason . In the 1980s , visitors from the western part of the city who wanted to visit the eastern part had to exchange at least DM 25 into East German currency at the poor exchange rate of 1 : 1 . It was forbidden to export East German currency from the East , but money not spent could be left at the border for possible future visits . Tourists crossing from the west had to also pay for a visa , which cost DM 5 ; West Berliners did not have to pay this . West Berliners initially could not visit East Berlin or East Germany at all -- all crossing points were closed to them between 26 August 1961 and 17 December 1963 . In 1963 , negotiations between East and West resulted in a limited possibility for visits during the Christmas season that year ( Passierscheinregelung ) . Similar , very limited arrangements were made in 1964 , 1965 and 1966 . In 1971 , with the Four Power Agreement on Berlin , agreements were reached that allowed West Berliners to apply for visas to enter East Berlin and East Germany regularly , comparable to the regulations already in force for West Germans . However , East German authorities could still refuse entry permits . East Berliners and East Germans could not , at first , travel to West Berlin or West Germany at all . This regulation remained in force essentially until the fall of the Wall , but over the years several exceptions to these rules were introduced , the most significant being : Elderly pensioners could travel to the West starting in 1965 Visits of relatives for important family matters People who had to travel to the West for professional reasons ( for example , artists , truck drivers , musicians , writers , etc . ) For each of these exceptions , GDR citizens had to apply for individual approval , which was never guaranteed . In addition , even if travel was approved , GDR travellers could exchange only a very small amount of East German Marks into Deutsche Marks ( DM ) , thus limiting the financial resources available for them to travel to the West . This led to the West German practice of granting a small amount of DM annually ( Begrüßungsgeld , or welcome money ) to GDR citizens visiting West Germany and West Berlin to help alleviate this situation . Citizens of other East European countries were in general subject to the same prohibition of visiting Western countries as East Germans , though the applicable exception ( if any ) varied from country to country . Allied military personnel and civilian officials of the Allied forces could enter and exit East Berlin without submitting to East German passport controls , purchasing a visa or being required to exchange money . Likewise , Soviet military patrols could enter and exit West Berlin . This was a requirement of the post-war Four Powers Agreements . A particular area of concern for the Western Allies involved official dealings with East German authorities when crossing the border , since Allied policy did not recognize the authority of the GDR to regulate Allied military traffic to and from West Berlin , as well as the Allied presence within Greater Berlin , including entry into , exit from , and presence within East Berlin . The Allies held that only the Soviet Union , and not the GDR , had authority to regulate Allied personnel in such cases . For this reason , elaborate procedures were established to prevent inadvertent recognition of East German authority when engaged in travel through the GDR and when in East Berlin . Special rules applied to travel by Western Allied military personnel assigned to the Military Liaison Missions accredited to the commander of Soviet forces in East Germany , located in Potsdam . Allied personnel were restricted by policy when travelling by land to the following routes : Transit between West Germany and West Berlin Road : the Helmstedt - Berlin autobahn ( A2 ) ( checkpoints Alpha and Bravo respectively ) . Soviet military personnel manned these checkpoints and processed Allied personnel for travel between the two points . Military personnel were required to be in uniform when traveling in this manner . Rail : Western Allied military personnel and civilian officials of the Allied forces were forbidden to use commercial train service between West Germany and West Berlin , because of GDR passport and customs controls when using them . Instead , the Allied forces operated a series of official ( duty ) trains that traveled between their respective duty stations in West Germany and West Berlin . When transiting the GDR , the trains would follow the route between Helmstedt and Griebnitzsee , just outside West Berlin . In addition to persons traveling on official business , authorized personnel could also use the duty trains for personal travel on a space - available basis . The trains traveled only at night , and as with transit by car , Soviet military personnel handled the processing of duty train travelers . ( See History of the Berlin S - Bahn . ) Entry into and exit from East Berlin Checkpoint Charlie ( as a pedestrian or riding in a vehicle ) As with military personnel , special procedures applied to travel by diplomatic personnel of the Western Allies accredited to their respective embassies in the GDR . This was intended to prevent inadvertent recognition of East German authority when crossing between East and West Berlin , which could jeopardize the overall Allied position governing the freedom of movement by Allied forces personnel within all Berlin . Ordinary citizens of the Western Allied powers , not formally affiliated with the Allied forces , were authorized to use all designated transit routes through East Germany to and from West Berlin . Regarding travel to East Berlin , such persons could also use the Friedrichstraße train station to enter and exit the city , in addition to Checkpoint Charlie . In these instances , such travelers , unlike Allied personnel , had to submit to East German border controls . Defection attempts Further information : List of deaths at the Berlin Wall NVA soldier Conrad Schumann defecting to West Berlin during the Wall 's early days in 1961 . During the years of the Wall , around 5,000 people successfully defected to West Berlin . The number of people who died trying to cross the Wall , or as a result of the Wall 's existence , has been disputed . The most vocal claims by Alexandra Hildebrandt , Director of the Checkpoint Charlie Museum and widow of the Museum 's founder , estimated the death toll to be well above 200 . A historic research group at the Center for Contemporary Historical Research ( ZZF ) in Potsdam has confirmed at least 140 deaths . Prior official figures listed 98 as being killed . The East German government issued shooting orders ( Schießbefehl ) to border guards dealing with defectors , though such orders are not the same as `` shoot to kill '' orders . GDR officials denied issuing the latter . In an October 1973 order later discovered by researchers , guards were instructed that people attempting to cross the Wall were criminals and needed to be shot : `` Do not hesitate to use your firearm , not even when the border is breached in the company of women and children , which is a tactic the traitors have often used '' . Early successful escapes involved people jumping the initial barbed wire or leaping out of apartment windows along the line , but these ended as the Wall was fortified . East German authorities no longer permitted apartments near the Wall to be occupied , and any building near the Wall had its windows boarded and later bricked up . On 15 August 1961 , Conrad Schumann was the first East German border guard to escape by jumping the barbed wire to West Berlin . On 22 August 1961 , Ida Siekmann was the first casualty at the Berlin Wall : she died after she jumped out of her third floor apartment at 48 Bernauer Strasse . The first person to be shot and killed while trying to cross to West Berlin was Günter Litfin , a twenty - four - year - old tailor . He attempted to swim across the Spree to West Berlin on 24 August 1961 , the same day that East German police had received shoot - to - kill orders to prevent anyone from escaping . Another dramatic escape was carried out on April 1963 by Wolfgang Engels , a 19 - year - old civilian employee of the Nationale Volksarmee ( NVA ) . Engels stole a Soviet armored personnel carrier from a base where he was deployed and drove it right into the Wall . He was fired at and seriously wounded by border guards . But a West German policeman intervened , firing his weapon at the East German border guards . The policeman removed Engels from the vehicle , which had become entangled in the barbed wire . Memorial to the Victims of the Wall , with graffiti , 1982 . East Germans successfully defected by a variety of methods : digging long tunnels under the Wall , waiting for favorable winds and taking a hot air balloon , sliding along aerial wires , flying ultralights and , in one instance , simply driving a sports car at full speed through the basic , initial fortifications . When a metal beam was placed at checkpoints to prevent this kind of defection , up to four people ( two in the front seats and possibly two in the boot ) drove under the bar in a sports car that had been modified to allow the roof and windscreen to come away when it made contact with the beam . They lay flat and kept driving forward . The East Germans then built zig - zagging roads at checkpoints . The sewer system predated the Wall , and some people escaped through the sewers , in a number of cases with assistance from the Unternehmen Reisebüro . An airborne escape was made by Thomas Krüger , who landed a Zlin Z 42 M light aircraft of the Gesellschaft für Sport und Technik , an East German youth military training organization , at RAF Gatow . His aircraft , registration DDR - WOH , was dismantled and returned to the East Germans by road , complete with humorous slogans painted on it by airmen of the Royal Air Force , such as `` Wish you were here '' and `` Come back soon '' . DDR - WOH is still flying today , but under the registration D - EWOH . If an escapee was wounded in a crossing attempt and lay on the death strip , no matter how close they were to the Western wall , Westerners could not intervene for fear of triggering engaging fire from the ' Grepos ' , the East Berlin border guards . The guards often let fugitives bleed to death in the middle of this ground , as in the most notorious failed attempt , that of Peter Fechter ( aged 18 ) . He was shot and bled to death , in full view of the Western media , on 17 August 1962 . Fechter 's death created negative publicity worldwide that led the leaders of East Berlin to place more restrictions on shooting in public places , and provide medical care for possible `` would - be escapers '' . The last person to be shot and killed while trying to cross the border was Chris Gueffroy on 6 February 1989 , while the final person to die in an escape attempt was Winfried Freudenberg who was killed when his homemade natural gas - filled balloon crashed on 8 March 1989 . The Wall gave rise to a widespread sense of desperation and oppression in East Berlin , as expressed in the private thoughts of one resident , who confided to her diary `` Our lives have lost their spirit ... we can do nothing to stop them . '' Concerts by Western artists and growing anti-wall sentiment Every stone bears witness to the moral bankruptcy of the society it encloses -- Margaret Thatcher commenting about the wall , West Berlin , 1982 David Bowie , 1987 On 6 June 1987 , David Bowie , who earlier for several years lived and recorded in West Berlin , played a concert close to the Wall . This was attended by thousands of Eastern concertgoers across the Wall , followed by violent rioting in East Berlin . According to Tobias Ruther , these protests in East Berlin were the first in the sequence of riots that led to those of November 1989 . Although other factors were probably more influential in the fall of the Wall , on his death , the German Foreign Office tweeted `` Good - bye , David Bowie . You are now among # Heroes . Thank you for helping to bring down the # wall . '' Bruce Springsteen , 1988 On 19 July 1988 , 16 months before the Wall came down , Bruce Springsteen and the E-Street Band , played Rocking the Wall , a live concert in East Berlin , which was attended by 300,000 in person and broadcast delayed on television . Springsteen spoke to the crowd in German , saying : `` I 'm not here for or against any government . I 've come to play rock ' n ' roll for you in the hope that one day all the barriers will be torn down '' . East Germany and its FDJ youth organization were worried they were losing an entire generation . They hoped that by letting Springsteen in , they could improve their sentiment among East Germans . However , this strategy of `` one step backwards , two steps forwards '' backfired and the concert only made East Germans hungrier for more of the freedoms that Springsteen epitomized . While John F. Kennedy and Ronald Reagan delivered their famous speeches from the safety of West Berlin , Springsteen 's speaking out against the Wall in the middle of East Berlin added to the euphoria . David Hasselhoff , 1989 On 31 December 1989 , American TV actor and pop music singer David Hasselhoff was the headlining performer for the Freedom Tour Live concert , which was attended by over 500,000 people on both sides of the Wall . The live concert footage was directed by music video director Thomas Mignone and aired on broadcast television station Zweites Deutsches Fernsehen ZDF throughout Europe . During shooting film crew personnel pulled people up from both sides to stand and celebrate on top of the wall . Hasselhoff sang his number one hit song `` Looking For Freedom '' on a platform at the end of a twenty - meter steel crane that swung above and over the Wall adjacent to the Brandenburg Gate . `` Ich bin ein Berliner '' and `` Mr. Gorbachev , tear down this Wall . '' Main articles : Ich bin ein Berliner and Tear down this wall ! Ich bin ein Berliner ( I am a Berliner ) speech Play media Speech from the Rathaus Schöneberg by John F. Kennedy , 26 June 1963 . Duration 9 : 01 . Ich bin ein Berliner ( `` I am a Berliner '' ) speech ( audio ) Audio - only version ( Duration 9 : 22 ) Problems playing these files ? See media help . Play media Complete speech by Ronald Reagan at the Brandenburg Gate , 12 June 1987 . Famous passage begins at 11 : 10 into this video . On 26 June 1963 , 22 months after the erection of the Berlin Wall , U.S. President John F. Kennedy visited West Berlin . Speaking from a platform erected on the steps of Rathaus Schöneberg for an audience of 450,000 he declared in his Ich bin ein Berliner speech the support of the United States for West Germany and the people of West Berlin in particular : Two thousand years ago , the proudest boast was civis romanus sum ( `` I am a Roman citizen '' ) . Today , in the world of freedom , the proudest boast is `` Ich bin ein Berliner ! '' ... All free men , wherever they may live , are citizens of Berlin , and therefore , as a free man , I take pride in the words `` Ich bin ein Berliner ! '' The message was aimed as much at the Soviets as it was at Berliners and was a clear statement of U.S. policy in the wake of the construction of the Berlin Wall . The speech is considered one of Kennedy 's best , both a notable moment of the Cold War and a high point of the New Frontier . It was a great morale boost for West Berliners , who lived in an exclave deep inside East Germany and feared a possible East German occupation . In a speech at the Brandenburg Gate commemorating the 750th anniversary of Berlin on 12 June 1987 , U.S. President Ronald Reagan challenged Mikhail Gorbachev , then the General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union , to tear down the Wall as a symbol of increasing freedom in the Eastern Bloc : We welcome change and openness ; for we believe that freedom and security go together , that the advance of human liberty can only strengthen the cause of world peace . There is one sign the Soviets can make that would be unmistakable , that would advance dramatically the cause of freedom and peace . General Secretary Gorbachev , if you seek peace , if you seek prosperity for the Soviet Union and eastern Europe , if you seek liberalization , come here to this gate . Mr. Gorbachev , open this gate . Mr. Gorbachev , tear down this Wall ! Fall of the Berlin Wall In June 1989 the Hungarian government began dismantling the electrified fence along its border with Austria ( with Western TV crews present ) , and then , in September , more than 13,000 East German tourists escaped through Hungary to Austria . This set up a chain of events . The Hungarians prevented many more East Germans from crossing the border and returned them to Budapest . These East Germans flooded the West German embassy and refused to return to East Germany . The East German government responded by disallowing any further travel to Hungary , but allowed those already there to return to East Germany . This triggered similar events in neighboring Czechoslovakia . This time , however , the East German authorities allowed people to leave , provided that they did so by train through East Germany . This was followed by mass demonstrations within East Germany itself . Protest demonstrations spread throughout East Germany in September 1989 . Initially , protesters were mostly people wanting to leave to the West , chanting `` Wir wollen raus ! '' ( `` We want out ! '' ) . Then protestors began to chant `` Wir bleiben hier ! '' ( `` We are staying here ! '' ) . This was the start of what East Germans generally call the `` Peaceful Revolution '' of late 1989 . The protest demonstrations grew considerably by early November . The movement neared its height on 4 November , when half a million people gathered to demand political change , at the Alexanderplatz demonstration , East Berlin 's large public square and transportation hub . The longtime leader of East Germany , Erich Honecker , resigned on 18 October 1989 and was replaced by Egon Krenz that day . Honecker had predicted in January of that year that the Wall would stand for 50 or 100 more years if the conditions that had caused its construction did not change . The wave of refugees leaving East Germany for the West kept increasing . By early November refugees were finding their way to Hungary via Czechoslovakia , or via the West German Embassy in Prague . This was tolerated by the new Krenz government , because of long - standing agreements with the communist Czechoslovak government , allowing free travel across their common border . However this movement of people grew so large it caused difficulties for both countries . To ease the difficulties , the politburo led by Krenz decided on 9 November to allow refugees to exit directly through crossing points between East Germany and West Germany , including between East and West Berlin . Later the same day , the ministerial administration modified the proposal to include private , round - trip , travel . The new regulations were to take effect the next day . Günter Schabowski , the party boss in East Berlin and the spokesman for the SED Politburo , had the task of announcing the new regulations . However , he had not been involved in the discussions about the new regulations and had not been fully updated . Shortly before a press conference on 9 November , he was handed a note announcing the changes , but given no further instructions on how to handle the information . These regulations had only been completed a few hours earlier and were to take effect the following day , so as to allow time to inform the border guards . But this starting time delay was not communicated to Schabowski . At the end of the press conference , Schabowski read out loud the note he had been given . One of the reporters , ANSA 's Riccardo Ehrman , asked when the regulations would take effect . After a few seconds ' hesitation , Schabowski assumed it would be the same day based on the wording of the note and replied , `` As far as I know , it takes effect immediately , without delay '' . After further questions from journalists , he confirmed that the regulations included the border crossings through the Wall into West Berlin , which he had not mentioned until then . Excerpts from Schabowski 's press conference were the lead story on West Germany 's two main news programs that night -- at 7 : 17 p.m. on ZDF 's heute and at 8 p.m. on ARD 's Tagesschau . As ARD and ZDF had broadcast to nearly all of East Germany since the late 1950s and had become accepted by the East German authorities , the news was broadcast there as well simultaneously . Later that night , on ARD 's Tagesthemen , anchorman Hanns Joachim Friedrichs proclaimed , `` This 9 November is a historic day . The GDR has announced that , starting immediately , its borders are open to everyone . The gates in the Wall stand open wide . '' After hearing the broadcast , East Germans began gathering at the Wall , at the six checkpoints between East and West Berlin , demanding that border guards immediately open the gates . The surprised and overwhelmed guards made many hectic telephone calls to their superiors about the problem . At first , they were ordered to find the `` more aggressive '' people gathered at the gates and stamp their passports with a special stamp that barred them from returning to East Germany -- in effect , revoking their citizenship . However , this still left thousands of people demanding to be let through `` as Schabowski said we can '' . It soon became clear that no one among the East German authorities would take personal responsibility for issuing orders to use lethal force , so the vastly outnumbered soldiers had no way to hold back the huge crowd of East German citizens . Finally , at 10 : 45 p.m. , Harald Jäger , the commander of the Bornholmer Straße border crossing yielded , allowing for the guards to open the checkpoints and allowing people through with little or no identity checking . As the Ossis swarmed through , they were greeted by Wessis waiting with flowers and champagne amid wild rejoicing . Soon afterward , a crowd of West Berliners jumped on top of the Wall , and were soon joined by East German youngsters . They danced together to celebrate their new freedom . Walking through Checkpoint Charlie , 10 November 1989 Germans stand on top of the Wall in the days before it was torn down At the Brandenburg Gate , 10 November 1989 Juggling on the Wall on 16 November 1989 `` Mauerspecht '' ( November 1989 ) The Fall of the Wall ( November 1989 ) Another border crossing to the south may have been opened earlier . An account by Heinz Schäfer indicates that he also acted independently and ordered the opening of the gate at Waltersdorf - Rudow a couple of hours earlier . This may explain reports of East Berliners appearing in West Berlin earlier than the opening of the Bornholmer Straße border crossing . Demolition Play media A Berlin Wall segment in Los Angeles at 5900 Wilshire Boulevard . 46 second video The fall of the Berlin Wall ( German : Mauerfall ) began the evening of 9 November 1989 and continued over the following days and weeks , with people nicknamed Mauerspechte ( wall woodpeckers ) using various tools to chip off souvenirs , demolishing lengthy parts in the process , and creating several unofficial border crossings . Television coverage of citizens demolishing sections of the Wall on 9 November was soon followed by the East German regime announcing ten new border crossings , including the historically significant locations of Potsdamer Platz , Glienicker Brücke , and Bernauer Straße . Crowds gathered on both sides of the historic crossings waiting for hours to cheer the bulldozers that tore down portions of the Wall to reconnect the divided roads . While the Wall officially remained guarded at a decreasing intensity , new border crossings continued for some time , including the Brandenburg Gate on 22 December 1989 . Initially the East German military attempted repairing damage done by the `` Wall peckers '' ; gradually these attempts ceased , and guards became more lax , tolerating the increasing demolitions and `` unauthorized '' border crossing through the holes . West Germans and West Berliners were allowed visa - free travel starting 23 December . Until then , they could only visit East Germany and East Berlin under restrictive conditions that involved application for a visa several days or weeks in advance and obligatory exchange of at least 25 DM per day of their planned stay , all of which hindered spontaneous visits . Thus , in the weeks between 9 November and 23 December , East Germans could actually travel more freely than Westerners . On 13 June 1990 , the East German military officially began dismantling the Wall , beginning in Bernauer Straße and around the Mitte district . From there , demolition continued through Prenzlauer Berg / Gesundbrunnen , Helligensee and throughout the city of Berlin until that December 1990 . According to estimates by the border troops , a total of around 1.7 million tonnes of building rubble was produced by the demolition . Unofficially , the demolition of the Bornholmer Straße began because of construction work on the railway . This involved a total of 300 GDR border guards and - after 3 October 1990 - 600 Pioneers of the Bundeswehr . These were equipped with 175 trucks , 65 cranes , 55 excavators and 13 bulldozers . Virtually every road that was severed by the Berlin Wall , every road that once linked from West Berlin to East Berlin , was reconstructed and reopened by 1 August 1990 . In Berlin alone , 184 km of wall , 154 km border fence , 144 km signal systems and 87 km barrier ditches were removed . What remained were six sections that were to be preserved as a memorial . Various military units dismantled the Berlin / Brandenberg border wall , completing the job in November 1991 . Painted wall segments with artistically valuable motifs were put up for auction in 1990 in Berlin and Monte Carlo . On 1 July , the day East Germany adopted the West German currency , all de jure border controls ceased , although the inter-German border had become meaningless for some time before that . The fall of the Wall marked the first critical step towards German reunification , which formally concluded a mere 339 days later on 3 October 1990 with the dissolution of East Germany and the official reunification of the German state along the democratic lines of the West German Basic Law . An East German guard talks to a Westerner through a broken seam in the wall in late November 1989 . A crane removes a section of the Wall near Brandenburg Gate on 21 December 1989 . Almost all of the remaining sections were rapidly chipped away . December 1990 . West Germans peer at East German border guards through a hole in the wall on 5 January 1990 . Short section of the Berlin Wall at Potsdamer Platz , March 2009 Souvenir chunk of concrete from the Wall Opposition In some European capitals at the time , there was a deep anxiety over prospects for a reunified Germany . In September 1989 , British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher pleaded with Soviet President Mikhail Gorbachev not to let the Berlin Wall fall and confided that she wanted the Soviet leader to do what he could to stop it . `` We do not want a united Germany . This would lead to a change to postwar borders and we can not allow that because such a development would undermine the stability of the whole international situation and could endanger our security , '' Thatcher told Gorbachev . After the fall of the Berlin Wall , French President François Mitterrand warned Thatcher that a unified Germany could make more ground than Adolf Hitler ever had and that Europe would have to bear the consequences . Celebrations On 21 November 1989 , Crosby , Stills & Nash performed the song `` Chippin ' Away '' from Graham Nash 's 1986 solo album Innocent Eyes in front of the Brandenburg Gate . On 25 December 1989 , Leonard Bernstein gave a concert in Berlin celebrating the end of the Wall , including Beethoven 's 9th symphony ( Ode to Joy ) with the word `` Joy '' ( Freude ) changed to `` Freedom '' ( Freiheit ) in the lyrics sung . The poet Schiller may have originally written `` Freedom '' and changed it to `` Joy '' out of fear . The orchestra and choir were drawn from both East and West Germany , as well as the United Kingdom , France , the Soviet Union , and the United States . On New Year 's Eve 1989 , David Hasselhoff performed his song `` Looking for Freedom '' while standing atop the partly demolished wall . Roger Waters performed the Pink Floyd album The Wall just north of Potsdamer Platz on 21 July 1990 , with guests including Bon Jovi , Scorpions , Bryan Adams , Sinéad O'Connor , Cyndi Lauper , Thomas Dolby , Joni Mitchell , Marianne Faithfull , Levon Helm , Rick Danko and Van Morrison . Over the years , there has been a repeated controversial debate as to whether 9 November would make a suitable German national holiday , often initiated by former members of political opposition in East Germany , such as Werner Schulz . Besides being the emotional apogee of East Germany 's peaceful revolution , 9 November is also the date of the 1918 abdication of Kaiser Wilhelm II and declaration of the Weimar Republic , the first German republic . However , 9 November is also the anniversary of the execution of Robert Blum in following the 1848 Vienna revolts , the 1923 Beer Hall Putsch and the infamous Kristallnacht pogroms of the Nazis in 1938 . Nobel Laureate Elie Wiesel criticized the first euphoria , noting that `` they forgot that 9 November has already entered into history -- 51 years earlier it marked the Kristallnacht . '' As reunification was not official and complete until 3 October , that day was finally chosen as German Unity Day . 20th anniversary celebrations On 9 November 2009 , Berlin celebrated the 20th Anniversary of the Fall of the Berlin Wall with a `` Festival of Freedom '' with dignitaries from around the world in attendance for an evening celebration around the Brandenburg Gate . A high point was when over 1,000 colourfully designed foam domino tiles , each over 8 feet ( 2.4 m ) tall , that were stacked along the former route of the Wall in the city center were toppled in stages , converging in front of the Brandenburg Gate . A Berlin Twitter Wall was set up to allow Twitter users to post messages commemorating the 20th anniversary . The Chinese government quickly shut down access to the Twitter Wall after masses of Chinese users began using it to protest the Great Firewall of China . In the United States , the German Embassy coordinated a public diplomacy campaign with the motto `` Freedom Without Walls '' , to commemorate the 20th anniversary of the fall of the Berlin Wall . The campaign was focused on promoting awareness of the fall of the Berlin Wall among current college students . Students at over 30 universities participated in `` Freedom Without Walls '' events in late 2009 . First place winner of the Freedom Without Walls Speaking Contest Robert Cannon received a free trip to Berlin for 2010 . An international project called Mauerreise ( Journey of the Wall ) took place in various countries . Twenty symbolic Wall bricks were sent from Berlin starting in May 2009 , with the destinations being Korea , Cyprus , Yemen , and other places where everyday life is characterised by division and border experience . In these places , the bricks will become a blank canvas for artists , intellectuals and young people to tackle the `` wall '' phenomenon . To commemorate the 20th Anniversary of the Fall of the Berlin Wall , Twinity reconstructed a true - to - scale section of the Wall in virtual Berlin . The MTV Europe Music Awards , on 5 November , had U2 and Tokio Hotel perform songs dedicated to , and about the Berlin Wall . U2 performed at the Brandenburg Gate , and Tokio Hotel performed `` World Behind My Wall '' . Palestinians in the town of Kalandia , West Bank pulled down parts of the Israeli West Bank barrier , in a demonstration marking the 20th Anniversary of the Fall of the Berlin Wall . The International Spy Museum in Washington DC hosted a Trabant car rally where 20 Trabants gathered in recognition of the 20th anniversary of the fall of the Berlin Wall . Rides were raffled every half - hour and a Trabant crashed through a Berlin Wall mock up . The Trabant was the East German people 's car that many used to leave DDR after the collapse . The Allied Museum in the Dahlem district of Berlin hosted a number of events to mark the Twentieth Anniversary of the Fall of the Berlin Wall . The museum held a Special Exhibition entitled `` Wall Patrol -- The Western Powers and the Berlin Wall 1961 -- 1990 '' which focused on the daily patrols deployed by the Western powers to observe the situation along the Berlin Wall and the fortifications on the GDR border . A sheet of `` Americans in Berlin '' Commemorative Cinderella stamps designed by T.H.E. Hill , the author of Voices Under Berlin , was presented to the Museum by David Guerra , Berlin veteran and webmaster of the site www.berlinbrigade.com . The stamps splendidly illustrate that even twenty years on , veterans of service in Berlin still regard their service there as one of the high points of their lives . Legacy Remaining stretch of the Wall near Ostbahnhof in Friedrichshain called East Side Gallery , August 2006 Remains of the Wall adjacent to the Topography of Terror , August 2007 A memorial of over a thousand crosses and a segment of the Wall for those who died trying to cross . The memorial stood for ten months in 2004 and 2005 before it was removed . A `` BERLINER MAUER 1961 -- 1989 '' plaque near Checkpoint Charlie signifying where the Wall stood Display of two sections of the Wall and a `` You are leaving '' sign at Fort Gordon , Georgia The Berlin Wall from the East Berlin side , 1967 A sign reading `` Until we see each other again in the capital of the GDR '' Czech hedgehog antitank obstacles and the Wall An exhibition dedicated to the 25th anniversary to the Berlin Wall destruction was located at Potsdamer Platz Arkaden Line indicating where the Wall once stood , just off Potsdamer Platz , in 2015 Little is left of the Wall at its original site , which was destroyed almost in its entirety . Three long sections are still standing : an 80 - metre - long ( 260 ft ) piece of the first ( westernmost ) wall at the Topography of Terror , site of the former Gestapo headquarters , halfway between Checkpoint Charlie and Potsdamer Platz ; a longer section of the second ( easternmost ) wall along the Spree River near the Oberbaumbrücke , nicknamed East Side Gallery ; and a third section that is partly reconstructed , in the north at Bernauer Straße , which was turned into a memorial in 1999 . Other isolated fragments , lampposts , other elements , and a few watchtowers also remain in various parts of the city . The former leadership in the Schlesischen Busch in the vicinity of the Puschkinallee -- the listed , twelve - meter high watchtower stands in a piece of the wall strip , which has been turned into a park , near the Lohmühleninsel The former `` Kieler Eck '' ( Kieler Eck ) on Kieler Strasse in Mitte , close to the Berlin - Spandau Schifffahrtskanal -- the tower is protected as a historic monument and now surrounded on three sides by new buildings . It houses a memorial site named after the Wallopfer Günter Litfin , who was shot at Humboldthafen in August 1961 . The memorial site , which is run by the initiative of his brother Jürgen Liftin , can be viewed after registration . The former management office at Nieder Neuendorf , in the district of Hennigsdorf of the same name -- here is the permanent exhibition on the history of the border installations between the two German states . The former management station at Bergfelde , today the district of Hohen Neuendorf -- The tower is located in an already reforested area of the border strip and is used together with surrounding terrain as a nature protection tower by the Deutschen Waldjugend . The only one of the much slimmer observation towers ( BT - 11 ) in the Erna - Berger - Strasse also in Mitte -- however , was moved by a few meters for construction work and is no longer in the original location ; There is an exhibition about the wall in the area of the Potsdamer Platz in planning . Nothing still accurately represents the Wall 's original appearance better than a very short stretch at Bernauer Straße associated with the Berlin Wall Documentation Center . Other remnants are badly damaged by souvenir seekers . Fragments of the Wall were taken and some were sold around the world . Appearing both with and without certificates of authenticity , these fragments are now a staple on the online auction service eBay as well as German souvenir shops . Today , the eastern side is covered in graffiti that did not exist while the Wall was guarded by the armed soldiers of East Germany . Previously , graffiti appeared only on the western side . Along some tourist areas of the city centre , the city government has marked the location of the former Wall by a row of cobblestones in the street . In most places only the `` first '' wall is marked , except near Potsdamer Platz where the stretch of both walls is marked , giving visitors an impression of the dimension of the barrier system . After the fall of Berlin Wall , there were initiatives that they want to preserve the death strip walkways and redevelop it into a hiking and cycling area , known as Berliner Mauerweg . It is part of the initiative by Berlin Senate since 2005 . Cultural differences For many years after reunification , people in Germany talked about cultural differences between East and West Germans ( colloquially Ossis and Wessis ) , sometimes described as Mauer im Kopf ( The wall in the head ) . A September 2004 poll found that 25 percent of West Germans and 12 percent of East Germans wished that East and West should be separated again by a `` Wall '' . A poll taken in October 2009 on the occasion of the 20th anniversary of the fall of the Wall indicated , however , that only about a tenth of the population was still unhappy with the unification ( 8 percent in the East ; 12 percent in the West ) . Although differences are still perceived between East and West , Germans make similar distinctions between North and South . A 2011 poll conducted by Russia 's VTsIOM , found that more than half of all Russians do not know who built the Berlin Wall . Ten percent of people surveyed thought Berlin residents built it themselves . Six percent said Western powers built it and four percent thought it was a `` bilateral initiative '' of the Soviet Union and the West . Fifty - eight percent said they did not know who built it , with just 24 percent correctly naming the Soviet Union and its then - communist ally East Germany . Wall segments around the World Segment of the Berlin wall in the Sanctuary of Fátima , Portugal Main article : List of Berlin Wall segments Not all segments of the Wall were ground up as the Wall was being torn down . Many segments have been given to various institutions in the world . They can be found , for instance , in presidential and historical museums , lobbies of hotels and corporations , at universities and government buildings , and in public spaces in different countries of the world . Remains of the Berlin wall , still in its original spot , 2016 50th anniversary commemoration On 13 August 2011 , Germany marked the 50th anniversary of East Germany beginning the erection of the Berlin Wall . Chancellor Angela Merkel joined with President Christian Wulff and Berlin Mayor Klaus Wowereit at the Bernauer Straße memorial park to remember lives and liberty . Speeches extolled freedom and a minute of silence at noon honored those who died trying to flee to the West . `` It is our shared responsibility to keep the memory alive and to pass it on to the coming generations as a reminder to stand up for freedom and democracy to ensure that such injustice may never happen again , '' entreated Mayor Wowereit . `` It has been shown once again : Freedom is invincible at the end . No wall can permanently withstand the desire for freedom '' , proclaimed President Wulff . '' Related media Documentary films specifically about the Berlin Wall : The Tunnel , a NBC News Special documentary film broadcast in December 1962 The Road to the Wall , a 1962 documentary film Something to Do with the Wall , 1991 documentary about the fall of the Berlin Wall by Ross McElwee and Marilyn Levine , originally conceived as a commemoration of the 25th anniversary of its construction . Rabbit à la Berlin , a 2009 documentary film , directed by Bartek Konopka , told from point of view of a group of wild rabbits that inhabited the zone between the two walls Fictional films featuring the Berlin Wall have included : The Spy Who Came in from the Cold , 1965 -- Cold War classic set on both sides of The Wall , from the book by John le Carré , directed by Martin Ritt The Boy and the Ball and the Hole in the Wall , Spanish - Mexican co-production , 1965 Funeral in Berlin , 1966 -- Spy movie starring Michael Caine , directed by Guy Hamilton Casino Royale , 1967 -- featuring a segment centred on a house apparently bisected by the Wall . The Wicked Dreams of Paula Schultz , 1968 -- Cold War spy farce about an Olympic athlete who defects . Director George Marshall Berlin Tunnel 21 , 1981 -- A made - for - TV movie about a former American officer leading an attempt to build a tunnel underneath The Wall as a rescue route . The Soldier , 1982 -- A renegade KGB team put nuclear weapons in Saudi Arabia to force America to make the Israelis pull out of the West Bank or the bomb will make 50 % of the world 's oil radioactive for decades . The title character of the movie has a team break into a missile silo in Smith Center , Kansas to obtain independent launch capability , then he and an Israeli security agent drive an automobile from West Germany over the Berlin Wall into East Germany where he informs the KGB agents that if the nuke goes off in Saudi Arabia , his team in Kansas will nuke Moscow . The Innocent , 1993 -- About the joint CIA / MI6 operation to build a tunnel under East Berlin in the 1950s . Directed by John Schlesinger The Tunnel , 2001 -- Dramatization of a collaborative tunnel under the Wall . Film by Roland Suso Richter In the 2015 film Bridge of Spies , Frederic Pryor , an American economics graduate student , visits his German girlfriend in East Berlin just as the Berlin Wall is being built . He tries to bring her back into West Berlin , but is stopped by Stasi agents and arrested as a spy . Some novels specifically about the Berlin Wall : John le Carré , The Spy Who Came in from the Cold , 1963 -- Classic Cold War spy fiction Len Deighton , Berlin Game , 1983 -- Classic Cold War spy fiction T.H.E. Hill , The Day Before the Berlin Wall : Could We Have Stopped It ? -- An Alternate History of Cold War Espionage , 2010 -- based on a legend told in Berlin in the 1970s John Marks , The Wall , 1999 NYT Review -- an American spy defects to the East just hours before the Wall falls Marcia Preston , West of the Wall ( published as Trudy 's Promise in North America ) , 2008 -- Left behind in East Berlin , the heroine waits for news of her husband after he makes his escape over the Berlin Wall Peter Schneider , The Wall Jumper , 1984 ( German : Der Mauerspringer , 1982 ) -- the Wall plays a central role in this novel set in Berlin of the 1980s Music related to the Berlin Wall `` West of the Wall , a 1962 top 40 hit by Toni Fisher , told the tale of two lovers separated by the newly - built Berlin Wall . `` Holidays in the Sun '' , a song by the English punk rock band The Sex Pistols prominently mentions the Wall , specifically singer Johnny Rotten 's fantasy of digging a tunnel under it . David Bowie 's `` Heroes '' was inspired by the image of a couple kissing at the Berlin Wall ( in reality , the couple was his producer Tony Visconti and backup singer Antonia Maaß ) . The song ( which , along with the album of the same name , were recorded in Berlin ) , makes lyrical references to the kissing couple , and to the `` Wall of Shame '' ( `` the shame was on the other side '' ) . Upon his death , the German Foreign Office paid homage to Bowie on Twitter , : see also above Over de muur ( nl ) , a 1984 song by Dutch pop band Klein Orkest ( nl ) , about the differences between East and West Berlin during the period of the Berlin Wall . `` Chippin ' Away '' , a song by Tom Fedora , as performed by Crosby , Stills & Nash on the Berlin Wall appeared on Graham Nash 's 1986 solo album Innocent Eyes . The music video for Liza Fox 's song `` Free '' ( 2013 ) contain video clips of the fall of the Berlin Wall . Art related to the Berlin Wall In the year 1982 the West - German artist Elsner ( de ) created about 500 artworks along the former border strip around West - Berlin as part of his work series `` Border Injuries '' . On one of his actions he even tore down a large part of the Wall , installed a prepared foil of 3x2m in it and finished the painting there before the border soldiers on patrol could detect him . This performance was even recorded on video . His actions are well - documented both in newspapers from that time and in recent scientific publications . Video games related to the Berlin Wall 1999 's SimCity 3000 featured a scenario taking place at the end of the Cold War , where the player must demolish the wall and re-unite East and West Berlin , being given 5 years in the game to complete the task . The longer it takes to complete the goals results in riots in the city . The `` First Strike '' downloadable content pack for 2010s Call of Duty : Black Ops includes a multiplayer map that takes place at the Berlin Wall ( `` Berlin Wall '' ) The introductory video to the Rise and Fall expansion for Civilization VI depicts a woman striking the wall with a sledgehammer . In April 2018 game publisher Playway S.A. announced that Polish game studio K202 is working on The Berlin Wall game that will be published in December 2018 . See also The Berlin Wall ( video game ) Brandenburg Gate Chapel of Reconciliation Checkpoint Charlie Checkpoint Charlie stand - off ( October 1961 ) Dissolution of the Soviet Union ( 1991 ) Green Line ( Beirut ) Inner German Border Korean Demilitarized Zone Military Demarcation Line List of walls Operation Gold Ostalgie Peace Lines ( Belfast ) Reunification of Jerusalem The Wall -- Live in Berlin ( rock opera / concert , 21 July 1990 ) References Notes ^ Jump up to : `` Untangling 5 myths about the Berlin Wall '' . Chicago Tribune . 31 October 2014 . Retrieved 1 November 2014 . Jump up ^ Video : Berlin , 1961 / 08 / 31 ( 1961 ) . Universal Newsreel. 1961 . Retrieved 20 February 2012 . Jump up ^ `` In Photos : 25 years ago todaythe Berlin Wall Fell '' . TheJournal.ie. 9 November 2014 . Jump up ^ Jack Marck Archived 29 August 2008 at the Wayback Machine . `` Over the Wall : A Once - in - a-Lifetime Experience '' American Heritage , October 2006 . Jump up ^ `` Berlin Wall : Five things you might not know '' . The Telegraph . 12 August 2011 . Retrieved 22 May 2017 . ^ Jump up to : https://www.cnn.com/2013/09/15/world/europe/berlin-wall-fast-facts/index.html Jump up ^ `` Freedom ! '' . Time . 20 November 1989 . Retrieved 9 November 2009 . ^ Jump up to : `` Forschungsprojekt `` Die Todesopfer an der Berliner Mauer , 1961 -- 1989 '' : BILANZ ( Stand : 7 . August 2008 ) ( in German ) `` . Retrieved 6 August 2011 . ^ Jump up to : `` Todesopfer an der Berliner Mauer '' ( Fatalities at the Berlin Wall ) ( in German ) . Chronik der Mauer . Retrieved 26 January 2018 . ^ Jump up to : Mary Elise Sarotte , Collapse : The Accidental Opening of the Berlin Wall , New York : Basic Books , 2014 Jump up ^ Miller 2000 , pp. 4 -- 5 Jump up ^ Miller 2000 , p. 16 Jump up ^ Miller 2000 , p. 10 Jump up ^ Miller 2000 , p. 13 ^ Jump up to : Wettig 2008 , p. 95 - 5 ^ Jump up to : Wettig 2008 , p. 96 Jump up ^ The political process contrasted with that in West German zones occupied by France , the United Kingdom , and the United States , where minister - presidents were chosen by freely elected parliamentary assemblies . ( Turner , Henry Ashby . The Two Germanies Since 1945 : East and West , Yale University Press , 1987 , ISBN 0 - 300 - 03865 - 8 , page 20 ) Jump up ^ Turner 1987 , p. 47 Jump up ^ Gaddis 2005 , p. 33 Jump up ^ Miller 2000 , pp. 65 -- 70 Jump up ^ Turner 1987 , p. 29 Jump up ^ Fritsch - Bournazel , Renata , Confronting the German Question : Germans on the East - West Divide , Berg Publishers , 1990 , ISBN 0 - 85496 - 684 - 6 , page 143 Jump up ^ Gaddis 2005 , p. 34 Jump up ^ Miller 2000 , pp. 180 -- 81 Jump up ^ Wettig 2008 , p. 179 Jump up ^ In a congratulatory telegram , Stalin emphasized that , with the creation of East Germany , the `` enslavement of European countries by the global imperialists was rendered impossible . '' ( Wettig , Gerhard , Stalin and the Cold War in Europe , Rowman & Littlefield , 2008 , ISBN 0 - 7425 - 5542 - 9 , page 179 ) Jump up ^ https://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/history/berlin-wall-what-you-need-to-know-about-the-barrier-that-divided-east-and-west-9847347.html ^ Jump up to : Thackeray 2004 , p. 188 Jump up ^ Bayerisches Staatsministerium für Arbeit und Sozialordnung , Familie und Frauen , Statistik Spätaussiedler Dezember 2007 , p. 3 ( in German ) Jump up ^ Loescher 2001 , p. 60 Jump up ^ Loescher 2001 , p. 68 Jump up ^ Dale 2005 , p. 17 Jump up ^ Dowty 1989 , p. 114 Jump up ^ Dowty 1989 , p. 116 ^ Jump up to : Dowty 1989 , p. 121 Jump up ^ Harrison 2003 , p. 240 - fn Jump up ^ Harrison 2003 , p. 98 ^ Jump up to : Harrison 2003 , p. 99 Jump up ^ Paul Maddrell , Spying on Science : Western Intelligence in Divided Germany 1945 -- 1961 , p. 56 . Oxford University Press , 2006 ^ Jump up to : Dowty 1989 , p. 122 ^ Jump up to : Harrison 2003 , p. 100 Jump up ^ English translation of `` Wer die Deutsche Demokratische Republik verläßt , stellt sich auf die Seite der Kriegstreiber '' ( `` He Who Leaves the German Democratic Republic Joins the Warmongers '' , Notizbuch des Agitators ( `` Agitator 's Notebook '' ) , Berlin : Socialist Unity Party 's Agitation Department , November 1955 . Jump up ^ Volker Rolf Berghahn , Modern Germany : Society , Economy and Politics in the Twentieth Century , p. 227 . Cambridge University Press , 1987 Jump up ^ Pearson 1998 , p. 75 Jump up ^ Crozier , Brian ( 1999 ) . The Rise and Fall of the Soviet Empire . Forum . p. 170 - 171 . ISBN 0 - 7615 - 2057 - 0 . Jump up ^ Afanasenko , E.I. ( 1964 - 03 - 01 ) . `` The Decisions of the June Plenary Meeting of the CPSU Central Committee and the Tasks of Public Education Bodies '' . Russian Education & Society . 6 ( 5 ) : 3 -- 13 . doi : 10.2753 / res1060 - 939306053 . ISSN 1060 - 9393 . Jump up ^ Leffler , Melvyn P. ; Westad , Odd Arne , eds. ( 2010 ) . `` The Cambridge History of the Cold War '' . doi : 10.1017 / chol9780521837200 . Jump up ^ Rottman , Gordon ( 2008 ) . The Berlin Wall and the Intra-German Border 1961 - 1989 . Oxford UK : Osprey Publishing . p. 29 . ISBN 978 - 184603 - 193 - 9 . Jump up ^ Wiegrefe , Klaus . `` Wir lassen euch jetzt ein , zwei Wochen Zeit '' , Spiegel Online -- einestages , May 2009 Jump up ^ `` Transcript of the telephone call between Khrushchev and Ulbricht on August 1 , 1961 '' ( in German ) . Welt.de. 30 May 2009 . Retrieved 6 August 2011 . ^ Jump up to : Sebetsyen , Victor ( 2009 ) . Revolution 1989 : The Fall of the Soviet Empire . New York City : Pantheon Books . ISBN 0 - 375 - 42532 - 2 . Jump up ^ http://blogs.reuters.com/berlin1961/2011/05/27/the-worst-day-of-jfks-life/ Jump up ^ Kempe , Frederick ( 2011 ) . Berlin 1961 . Penguin Group ( USA ) . p. 247 . ISBN 0 - 399 - 15729 - 8 . Jump up ^ http://www.historytoday.com/frederick-taylor/berlin-wall-secret-history Jump up ^ `` Exchanges of Territory '' . City of Berlin . Archived from the original on 4 March 2016 . Retrieved 23 January 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Exchanges of Territory : Lenné - Dreieck '' . City of Berlin . Archived from the original on 4 March 2016 . Retrieved 23 January 2016 . ^ Jump up to : `` Wall Goes Up in Berlin -- Events of 1961 -- Year in Review '' . UPI.com. 29 May 1998 . Retrieved 6 August 2011 . Jump up ^ Keeling , Drew ( 2014 ) , business-of-migration.com `` Berlin Wall and Migration , '' Migration as a travel business Jump up ^ Taylor , Frederick . The Berlin Wall : 13 August 1961 -- 9 November 1989 . Bloomsbury 2006 Jump up ^ `` Goethe - Institut -- Topics -- German - German History Goethe - Institut '' . Web.archive.org. 9 April 2008 . Archived from the original on 9 April 2008 . Retrieved 6 August 2011 . Jump up ^ `` Die Regierungen der Warschauer Vertragsstaaten wenden sich an die Volkskammer und an die Regierung der DDR mit dem Vorschlag , an der Westberliner Grenze eine solche Ordnung einzuführen , durch die der Wühltätigkeit gegen die Länder des sozialistischen Lagers zuverlässig der Weg verlegt und ringsum das ganze Gebiet West - Berlins eine verlässliche Bewachung gewährleistet wird . '' Die Welt : Berlin wird geteilt Jump up ^ `` Neues Deutschland : Normales Leben in Berlin , 14 August 1961 '' ( in German ) . Zlb.de . Archived from the original on 18 July 2011 . Retrieved 6 August 2011 . Jump up ^ Sarotte , Mary Elise ( 2014 ) . The Collapse : The Accidental Opening of the Berlin Wall . New York : Basic Books . p. 114 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 465 - 06494 - 6 . ^ Jump up to : `` Berlin Crisis After Dividing Berlin , August 1961 '' ( PDF ) . The National Security Archive at George Washington University in Washington , D.C . Retrieved 26 September 2013 . ^ Jump up to : Matthew M. Aid & William Burr ( 25 September 2013 ) . `` '' Disreputable if Not Outright Illegal `` : The National Security Agency versus Martin Luther King , Muhammad Ali , Art Buchwald , Frank Church , et al '' . The National Security Archive at the George Washington University in Washington , D.C . Retrieved 26 September 2013 . Jump up ^ See also Hackworth , About Face Jump up ^ Evans , Ben ( 2014 ) . Escaping The Bonds of Earth : The Fifties and the Sixties . Chichester UK : Praxis Publishing . p. 38 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 387 - 79093 - 0 . Jump up ^ Goodman , Micah ( 1996 ) `` After the Wall : The Legal Ramifications of the East German Border Guard Trials in Unified Germany , '' Cornell International Law Journal : Vol. 29 : Iss. 3 , Article 3 . p 728 Jump up ^ Berliner Mauer ( Stand 31 . Juli 1989 ) Polizeipräsident von Berlin . Jump up ^ Bundeszentrale für politische Bildung : Ministerium für Staatssicherheit der DDR , siehe : Statistiken + `` Grenzsicherung in Berlin '' 1989 . ^ Jump up to : According to Hagen Koch , former Stasi - officer , in Geert Mak 's documentary In Europa ( series ) , episode 1961 -- DDR , 25 January 2009 ^ Jump up to : https://www.thoughtco.com/the-berlin-wall-28-year-history-1779495 Jump up ^ Burkhardt , Heiko . `` Facts of Berlin Wall -- History of Berlin Wall '' . Dailysoft.com . Retrieved 9 November 2009 . ^ Jump up to : P. Dousset ; A. Souquet ; S. Lelarge . `` Berlin Wall '' . Web.archive.org . Archived from the original on 13 September 2006 . Retrieved 9 November 2009 . Jump up ^ Heiko Burkhardt . `` Fourth Generation of Berlin Wall -- History of Berlin Wall '' . Dailysoft.com . Retrieved 9 November 2009 . ^ Jump up to : Rise and Fall of the Berlin Wall . History Channel , 2009 . DVD - ROM . Jump up ^ Popiolek . `` The Berlin wall : History of Berlin Wall : Facts '' . Die-berliner-mauer.de . Archived from the original on 12 October 2007 . Retrieved 9 November 2009 . Jump up ^ Rottman , Gordon L. ( 20 October 2012 ) . `` The Berlin Wall and the Intra-German Border 1961 - 89 '' . Bloomsbury Publishing -- via Google Books . Jump up ^ https://www.youtube.com/watch?time_continue=275&v=OwQsTzGkbiY Jump up ^ Rottman , Gordon L. ( 20 October 2012 ) . `` The Berlin Wall and the Intra-German Border 1961 - 89 '' . Bloomsbury Publishing -- via Google Books . Jump up ^ Rottman , Gordon L. ( 20 October 2012 ) . `` The Berlin Wall and the Intra-German Border 1961 - 89 '' . Bloomsbury Publishing -- via Google Books . Jump up ^ Rottman , Gordon L. ( 20 October 2012 ) . `` The Berlin Wall and the Intra-German Border 1961 - 89 '' . Bloomsbury Publishing -- via Google Books . Jump up ^ https://www.upi.com/Archives/1987/01/09/Foreign-News-Briefs/9799537166800/ Jump up ^ https://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/gallery/2014/apr/03/thierry-noir-graffiti-berlin-wall Jump up ^ https://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/2014/nov/03/east-german-punks-berlin-wall-radical-art-stunt Jump up ^ Harrison 2003 , pp. 206 -- 14 ^ Jump up to : https://history.howstuffworks.com/historical-events/berlin-wall1.htm ^ Jump up to : https://mashable.com/2014/11/06/berlin-wall-fence/#h6xI9DEA5PqH Jump up ^ Willis , Jim ( 19 March 1946 ) . Daily Life behind the Iron Curtain . Santa Barbara , California : ABC - CLIO . ISBN 9780313397639 . Retrieved 5 November 2014 . Jump up ^ `` E German ' licence to kill ' found '' . BBC News . 12 August 2007 . Retrieved 12 August 2007 . A newly discovered order is the firmest evidence yet that the communist regime gave explicit shoot - to - kill orders , says Germany 's director of Stasi files . Jump up ^ `` Conrad Schumann , 56 , Symbol of E. Berlin escapes '' ; North Sports Final Edition Associated Press . Chicago Tribune , Chicago , Ill. : 23 June 1998 . pg. 8 Jump up ^ `` Chronik der Mauer -- Bau und Fall der Berliner Mauer Opfer der Mauer '' . Chronik-der-mauer.de . Retrieved 6 August 2011 . Jump up ^ Kempe , Frederick ( 2011 ) . Berlin 1961 . Penguin Group ( USA ) . pp. 363 -- 367 . ISBN 0 - 399 - 15729 - 8 . Jump up ^ Hertle , Hans - Hermann ( 2008 ) . The Berlin Wall : Monument of the Cold War . Ch . Links Verlag , p. 72 . ISBN 3 - 86153 - 463 - 0 Jump up ^ https://www.thelocal.de/20141105/the-great-escape-across-the-berlin-wall Jump up ^ https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/europe/secret-tunnels-that-brought-freedom-from-berlins-wall-1804765.html Jump up ^ Taylor , Frederick . The Berlin Wall : A World Divided 1961 -- 1989 , London : Harper Perennial , 2006 . Jump up ^ Kempe , Frederick ( 2011 ) . Berlin 1961 . Penguin Group ( USA ) . p. 394 . ISBN 0 - 399 - 15729 - 8 . Jump up ^ MRS . THATCHER VISITS THE BERLIN WALL , The New York Times , 30 October 1982 ^ Jump up to : Fisher , Max ( 11 January 2016 ) . `` David Bowie at the Berlin Wall : the incredible story of a concert and its role in history '' . Vox . Retrieved 12 January 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Did Bowie bring down the Berlin Wall ? '' . The Week . 15 December 2008 . Retrieved 11 January 2016 . Jump up ^ `` GERMANY : Thank you David Bowie for helping bring down the Berlin Wall '' . Business Insider Australia . 11 January 2016 . Retrieved 11 January 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Good - bye , David Bowie '' . German Foreign Office . 11 January 2016 . Retrieved 11 January 2016 . ^ Jump up to : `` Did Springsteen 's 1988 Berlin gig rock the Wall ? '' . The Local -- Germany 's News in English . The Local -- Germany 's News in English . 9 July 2013 . Retrieved 26 September 2013 . Jump up ^ `` How Mr. Hasselhoff Tore Down This Wall '' . NPR . National Public Radio . 9 November 2014 . Retrieved 9 November 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Reagan 's ' tear down this wall ' speech turns 20 '' . USA Today . 12 June 2007 . Retrieved 19 February 2008 . Jump up ^ `` Remarks at the Brandenberg Gate '' . Ronald Reagan Presidential Foundation . Archived from the original on 22 June 2008 . Retrieved 9 February 2008 . Jump up ^ Meyer , Michael ( 13 September 2009 ) . `` The picnic that brought down the Berlin Wall '' . Los Angeles Times . Retrieved 14 June 2010 . ^ Jump up to : `` Sie wird noch in 50 Jahren stehen '' . dpa. 22 May 2009 . ^ Jump up to : unknown ( 2009 ) . `` 20 Jahre Mauerfall '' ( in German ) . Kulturprojekte Berlin GmbH . Retrieved 9 April 2009 . Jump up ^ Henslin , 07 Jump up ^ Schäfer , Hermann ( 2015 ) . Deutsche Geschichte in 100 Objekten . München , Berlin , Zürich : Piper . p. 570 . ISBN 978 - 3 - 492057028 . ^ Jump up to : Sarotte , Mary Elise ( 1 November 2009 ) `` How it went down : The little accident that toppled history '' The Washington Post . Retrieved 2 November 2009 . Jump up ^ Kirchner , Stephanie ( 19 April 2009 ) . `` Berlin Wall : Was the Fall Engineered by the GDR ? '' . TIME . Retrieved 6 May 2013 . Jump up ^ Walker , Marcus ( 21 October 2009 ) `` Did Brinkmannship Fell Berlin 's Wall ? Brinkmann Says It Did '' The Wall Street Journal . Jump up ^ `` The Guard Who Opened the Berlin Wall : ' I Gave my People the Order -- Raise the Barrier ' '' . Spiegel Online . 9 November 2014 . Retrieved 14 October 2014 . Jump up ^ Sarotte , Mary Elise ( 2014 ) . The Collapse : The Accidental Opening of the Berlin Wall . New York : Basic Books . pp. 146 -- 147 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 465 - 06494 - 6 . Jump up ^ McElroy , Damien ( 7 November 2009 ) . `` East Germans may have arrived in West Berlin hours before previously thought '' . The Daily Telegraph . Retrieved 7 November 2014 . ^ Jump up to : `` Berlin Wall '' . History.com . Retrieved 19 June 2013 . ^ Jump up to : Sarotte , Mary Elise ( 2014 ) . The Collapse : The Accidental Opening of the Berlin Wall . New York : Basic Books . pp. xx -- xxi . ISBN 978 - 0 - 465 - 06494 - 6 . Jump up ^ Sarotte , Mary Elise ( 2014 ) . The Collapse : The Accidental Opening of the Berlin Wall . New York : Basic Books . pp. 189 -- 190 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 465 - 06494 - 6 . ^ Jump up to : `` How Margaret Thatcher pleaded with Gorbachev not to let the Berlin Wall fall out of london '' . Hasan Suroor . Chennai , India : Hindu . 15 September 2009 . Retrieved 8 November 2009 . Jump up ^ Gledhill , Ruth ; de Bruxelles , Simon ( 11 September 2009 ) . `` Thatcher told Gorbachev Britain did not want German reunification '' . The Times . London . Retrieved 8 November 2009 . Jump up ^ Gledhill , Ruth ; de Bruxelles , Simon ( 10 September 2009 ) . `` United Germany might allow another Hitler , Mitterrand told Thatcher '' . The Times . London . Retrieved 9 November 2009 . Jump up ^ `` Crosby , Stills and Nash Sound a Positive Note at Berlin Wall '' . Los Angeles Times . 21 November 1989 . Retrieved 2 July 2014 . Jump up ^ Naxos ( 2006 ) . `` Ode To Freedom -- Beethoven : Symphony No. 9 ( NTSC ) '' . Naxos.com Classical Music Catalogue . Retrieved 26 November 2006 . This is the publisher 's catalogue entry for a DVD of Bernstein 's Christmas 1989 `` Ode to Freedom '' concert . Jump up ^ `` Did David Hasselhoff really help end the Cold War ? '' . BBC News . 6 February 2004 . Retrieved 2 July 2014 . Jump up ^ Kellerhof , Sven Felix ; Posener , Alan ( 2007 ) . `` Soll der 9 . November Nationalfeiertag werden ? '' . Die Welt Online . Archived from the original on 25 June 2009 . Retrieved 22 February 2009 . Jump up ^ Aberger , Jörg ( 7 September 2004 ) . `` Debatte : Thierse fordert neuen Nationalfeiertag '' . Der Spiegel . Retrieved 22 February 2009 . Jump up ^ Wiesel , Elie ( 17 November 1989 ) . `` Op - Ed in response to the fall of the wall '' . New York Times . Jump up ^ RSF.org Archived 8 November 2009 at the Wayback Machine . Jump up ^ `` Mr. Hu , tear down this firewall ! '' . The Globe and Mail . Toronto . 26 October 2009 . Retrieved 6 August 2011 . Jump up ^ MontrealGazette.com Jump up ^ `` German Missions in the United States -- Home '' . Archived from the original on 28 December 2010 . Retrieved 1 November 2014 . Jump up ^ unknown ( 2009 ) . `` Freedom Without Walls '' . Embassy of the Federal Republic of Germany , Washington , DC . Archived from the original on 28 December 2010 . Retrieved 9 April 2009 . Jump up ^ `` The Wall in the World 2009 -- 20th anniversary of the Fall of the Wall -- Goethe - Institut '' . Goethe.de . Retrieved 9 November 2009 . Jump up ^ `` The Berlin Wall in Twinity '' . Twinity. 2009 . Retrieved 9 November 2009 . Jump up ^ `` Palestinians break Israel 's wall -- Middle East '' . Al Jazeera English . 9 November 2009 . Retrieved 6 August 2011 . Jump up ^ Allied Museum ( 2009 ) . `` Wall Patrol -- The Western Powers and the Berlin Wall 1961 -- 1990 Special Exhibition '' . Allied Museum , Berlin , Germany . Archived from the original on 17 July 2011 . Retrieved 23 July 2010 . Jump up ^ Allied Museum ( 2009 ) . `` American Commemorative Stamps Presented to the Museum '' . Allied Museum , Berlin , Germany . Archived from the original on 17 July 2011 . Retrieved 23 July 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Flutgraben e.V. '' www.kunstfabrik.org . Jump up ^ `` Berlin Wall Memorial '' . Berlin Wall Foundation . Retrieved 23 January 2016 . Jump up ^ Reuters ( 8 September 2004 ) . `` One in 5 Germans wants Berlin Wall rebuilt '' . MSNBC . Archived from the original on 13 June 2006 . Retrieved 23 February 2006 . Jump up ^ ZDF `` Wochenjournal '' ( 5 November 2009 ) . `` Große Zustimmung zur Wiedervereinigung '' . ZDF . Archived from the original on 14 December 2009 . Retrieved 6 November 2006 . Jump up ^ Solovyov , Dmitry ( 5 November 2009 ) . `` Who built Berlin Wall ? Most Russians do n't know Reuters '' . Uk.reuters.com . Retrieved 6 August 2011 . Jump up ^ `` Where in the World Is the Berlin Wall ? '' . Newsweek. 11 November 2014 . Retrieved 1 November 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Germany marks 50th anniversary of Berlin Wall '' . London : UK Telegraph . 13 August 2011 . Retrieved 13 August 2011 . Jump up ^ `` Germany Marks Construction of the Berlin Wall '' . Associated Press . 13 August 2011 . Retrieved 13 August 2011 . Jump up ^ `` Reflecting on the Berlin Wall , 50 Years After Its Construction '' . History.com. 11 August 2011 . Archived from the original on 25 January 2013 . Retrieved 13 August 2011 . Jump up ^ `` 50 Years Berlin Wall 1961 -- 1989 ( video clips ) '' . German World . 13 August 2011 . Archived from the original on 12 November 2011 . Retrieved 13 August 2011 . Jump up ^ McElwee , Ross . `` Something to do with the Wall '' . RossMcElwee.com . Retrieved 2018 - 05 - 29 . Jump up ^ Gélin , Daniel ; Varela , Yolanda ; Arco , Nino Del ; Block , Karin ( 15 July 1965 ) , The Boy and the Ball and the Hole in the Wall , retrieved 12 May 2017 Jump up ^ `` The Day Before The Berlin Wall : Could We have Stopped It ? '' . Voicesunderberlin.com . Retrieved 26 March 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Cold War Reheated '' . Nytimes.com . Retrieved 26 March 2013 . Jump up ^ Administrator . `` View the author 's website '' . Retrieved 1 November 2014 . Jump up ^ Kollmeyer , Barbara ( 11 January 2016 ) . `` David Bowie death triggers tributes from Iggy Pop , Madonna -- even the Vatican and the German government '' . MarketWatch . Retrieved 23 January 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Klein Orkest biography '' . Sweetslyrics.com . Archived from the original on 24 September 2011 . Retrieved 6 August 2011 . Jump up ^ Crosby , Stills & Nash 1990 -- Chippin ' Away on YouTube Jump up ^ `` Liza Fox -- FREE ( Music Video ) '' . YouTube . Jump up ^ `` Die Mauer als Muse '' . The Wall fell on July 18th 1982 . Lars von Törne in Der Tagesspiegel . Retrieved 13 March 2007 . Jump up ^ `` ELSNER 's Border Injuries '' . artworks & video documentation . galerie son . Jump up ^ `` ELSNER '' . press archive . galerie son . Bibliography Böcker , Anita ( 1998 ) . Regulation of Migration : International Experiences . Het Spinhuis . ISBN 90 - 5589 - 095 - 2 . Buckley , William F. , Jr. ( 2004 ) . The Fall of the Berlin Wall . Hoboken , New Jersey : John Wiley and Sons . ISBN 0 - 471 - 26736 - 8 . Cate , Curtis ( 1978 ) . `` The Ides of August : The Berlin Wall Crisis -- 1961 '' . New York City : M. Evans . Childs , David ( 2001 ) The Fall of the GDR : Germany 's Road To Unity , Longman , Pearsoned.co.uk 2001 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 582 - 31569 - 3 , ISBN 0 - 582 - 31569 - 7 Childs , David , The GDR : Moscow 's German Ally , ( Second Edition 1988 , First Edition 1983 , George Allen & Unwin , London ) ISBN 0 - 04 - 354029 - 5 , ISBN 978 - 0 - 04 - 354029 - 9 . Childs , David , ( 2001 ) The Fall of the GDR , Longman . ISBN 0 - 582 - 31569 - 7 Amazon.co.uk Childs , David , ( 2000 ) The Two Red Flags : European Social Democracy & Soviet Communism Since 1945 , Routledge . Informaworld.com Childs , David , ( 1991 ) Germany in the Twentieth Century , ( From pre-1918 to the restoration of German unity ) , Batsford , Third edition . ISBN 0 - 7134 - 6795 - 9 Childs , David , ( 1987 ) East Germany to the 1990s Can It Resist Glasnost ? , The Economist Intelligence Unit . ISBN 0 - 85058 - 245 - 8 , ISBN 978 - 0 - 85058 - 245 - 1 . Worldcat.org Dale , Gareth ( 2005 ) . Popular Protest in East Germany , 1945 -- 1989 : Judgements on the Street . Routledge . ISBN 0 - 7146 - 5408 - 6 . Dowty , Alan ( 1989 ) . Closed Borders : The Contemporary Assault on Freedom of Movement . Yale University Press . ISBN 0 - 300 - 04498 - 4 . Gaddis , John Lewis ( 2005 ) . The Cold War : A New History . Penguin Press . ISBN 1 - 59420 - 062 - 9 . Harrison , Hope Millard ( 2003 ) . Driving the Soviets Up the Wall : Soviet - East German Relations , 1953 -- 1961 . Princeton University Press . ISBN 0 - 691 - 09678 - 3 . Catudal , Honoré M. ( 1980 ) . `` Kennedy '' . West Berlin : Berlin Verlag . Hertle , Hans - Hermann ( 2007 ) . `` The Berlin Wall '' . Bonn : Federal Centre for Political Education . Kennedy , John F. `` July 25 , 1961 speech '' . Archived from the original on 29 April 2009 . Retrieved 20 October 2009 . Loescher , Gil ( 2001 ) . The UNHCR and World Politics : A Perilous Path . Oxford University Press . ISBN 0 - 19 - 829716 - 5 . Maclean , Rory ( 1992 ) . `` Stalin 's Nose : Across the Face of Europe '' . London : HarperCollins . Miller , Roger Gene ( 2000 ) . To Save a City : The Berlin Airlift , 1948 -- 1949 . Texas A&M University Press . ISBN 0 - 89096 - 967 - 1 . Mynz , Rainer ( 1995 ) . `` Where Did They All Come From ? Typology and Geography of European Mass Migration In the Twentieth Century ; European Population Conference Congress European de Démographie '' . United Nations Population Division . Pearson , Raymond ( 1998 ) . The Rise and Fall of the Soviet Empire . Macmillan . ISBN 0 - 312 - 17407 - 1 . Schneider , Peter ( 2005 ) . `` The Wall Jumper '' . London : Penguin Classics . Schulte , Bennet ( 2011 ) . The Berlin Wall . Remains of a Lost Border . ( Die Berliner Mauer . Spuren einer verschwundenen Grenze ) . be. bra verlag , Berlin . ISBN 978 - 3 - 8148 - 0185 - 8 . Taylor , Frederick . The Berlin Wall : 13 August 1961 -- 9 November 1989 . Bloomsbury 2006 Thackeray , Frank W. ( 2004 ) . Events that changed Germany . Greenwood Publishing Group . ISBN 0 - 313 - 32814 - 5 . Friedrich , Thomas ( 1996 ) . Wo die Mauer War / Where was the Wall ? . Harry Hampel ( photos ) . Berlin : Nicolai . ISBN 3 - 87584 - 695 - 8 . Turner , Henry Ashby ( 1987 ) . The Two Germanies Since 1945 : East and West . Yale University Press . ISBN 0 - 300 - 03865 - 8 . Wettig , Gerhard ( 2008 ) . Stalin and the Cold War in Europe . Rowman & Littlefield . ISBN 0 - 7425 - 5542 - 9 . Luftbildatlas . Entlang der Berliner Mauer . Karten , Pläne und Fotos . Hans Wolfgang Hoffmann / Philipp Meuser ( eds . ) Berlin 2009 . ISBN 978 - 3 - 938666 - 84 - 5 Sarotte , Mary Elise , Collapse : The Accidental Opening of the Berlin Wall , New York : Basic Books , 2014 Sarotte , Mary Elise , 1989 : The Struggle to Create Post-Cold War Europe ( Second Edition ) Princeton : Princeton University Press , 2014 Crozier , Brian ( 1999 ) . The Rise and Fall of the Soviet Empire . Forum . pp. 170 -- 171 . ISBN 0 - 7615 - 2057 - 0 . Further reading Hockenos , Paul ( 2017 ) . Berlin calling : a story of anarchy , music , the Wall , and the birth of the new Berlin . New York : The New Press . ISBN 978 - 1 - 62097 - 195 - 6 . OCLC 959535547 . External links Wikiquote has quotations related to : Berlin Wall Wikimedia Commons has media related to Berlin Wall . Look up Berlin Wall in Wiktionary , the free dictionary . Official website `` Berlin Wall Memorial '' . Berlin Wall Foundation . `` Chronicle of the Berlin Wall '' . Deutschlandradio . `` The Berlin Wall : a Multimedia Story '' . Rundfunk Berlin - Brandenburg ( RRB ) . `` Berlin Wall collected news and commentary '' . The New York Times . Works about Berlin Wall in libraries ( WorldCat catalog ) `` Berlin Wall ( newsreel archives ) '' ( Adobe Flash video ) ) . Multimedia . British Pathe . Berlin Wall on OpenStreetMap ( zoomable and scrollable ) Other resources : Berlin Wall at Curlie Berlin Wall image group on Flickr Berlin Wall Online , historical chronicle Nail , Norbert . `` Meine Mauer -- Deutsche Bilder aus der Vergangenheit '' ( My Wall -- German Pictures from the past ) ( in German ) . University of Marburg . Berlin Wall Main articles Berlin Wall Inner German border Iron Curtain Wall of Shame East Berlin West Berlin German reunification Eastern Bloc emigration and defection Republikflucht Berlin Crisis of 1961 Memorials , museums and galleries White Crosses East Side Gallery Checkpoint Charlie Museum Topography of Terror Mauerpark Chapel of Reconciliation Crossings Berlin border crossings Bornholmer Straße Checkpoint Charlie Checkpoint Bravo Berlin Friedrichstraße station Glienicke Bridge Invalidenstraße Oberbaum Bridge Sonnenallee Tränenpalast , Friedrichstrasse station Died breaching the Wall List of deaths at the Berlin Wall Klaus Brueske Peter Fechter Winfried Freudenberg Christian - Peter Friese Chris Gueffroy Marienetta Jirkowsky Cengaver Katrancı Erna Kelm Czesław Kukuczka Günter Litfin Dorit Schmiel Olga Segler Ida Siekmann Heinz Sokolowski Hildegard Trabant Rudolf Urban Christel and Eckhard Wehage Others associated with the Wall Günter Schabowski Riccardo Ehrman Erich Honecker Conrad Schumann Walter Ulbricht David Hasselhoff The Wall in speeches Ich bin ein Berliner `` Tear down this wall ! '' In popular culture Atomic Blonde The Berlin Wall ( video game ) Bridge of Spies Good Bye , Lenin ! Funeral in Berlin Gotcha ! Judgment in Berlin ( novel ) Judgment in Berlin ( film ) `` Nikita '' Das Versprechen Rabbit à la Berlin ( 2009 documentary ) The Road to the Wall `` The Soldier '' Sonnenallee The Spy Who Came in from the Cold ( novel ) The Spy Who Came in from the Cold ( film ) Stop Train 349 The Tunnel ( NBC documentary ) The Tunnel ( 2001 film ) The Wall ( 1962 film ) `` West of the Wall '' Wings of Desire Other List of Berlin Wall segments Ghost station Steinstücken Grenzgänger ( Cross-border commuters ) Book : Berlin Wall Cold War USA USSR ANZUS NATO Non-Aligned Movement SEATO Warsaw Pact Cold War II 1940s Morgenthau Plan Hukbalahap Rebellion Jamaican conflict Dekemvriana Percentages agreement Yalta Conference Guerrilla war in the Baltic states Forest Brothers Operation Priboi Operation Jungle Occupation of the Baltic states Cursed soldiers Operation Unthinkable Operation Downfall Potsdam Conference Gouzenko Affair Division of Korea Operation Masterdom Operation Beleaguer Operation Blacklist Forty Iran crisis of 1946 Greek Civil War Baruch Plan Corfu Channel incident Turkish Straits crisis Restatement of Policy on Germany First Indochina War Truman Doctrine Asian Relations Conference May 1947 Crises Marshall Plan Comecon 1948 Czechoslovak coup d'état Tito -- Stalin Split Berlin Blockade Western betrayal Iron Curtain Eastern Bloc Western Bloc Chinese Civil War ( Second round ) Malayan Emergency Albanian Subversion 1950s Papua conflict Bamboo Curtain Korean War McCarthyism Algerian War Egyptian Revolution of 1952 1953 Iranian coup d'état Uprising of 1953 in East Germany Dirty War ( Mexico ) Bricker Amendment 1954 Guatemalan coup d'état Partition of Vietnam Vietnam War First Taiwan Strait Crisis Geneva Summit ( 1955 ) Bandung Conference Poznań 1956 protests Hungarian Revolution of 1956 Yemeni -- Adenese clan violence Suez Crisis `` We will bury you '' Ifni War Operation Gladio Arab Cold War Syrian Crisis of 1957 1958 Lebanon crisis Iraqi 14 July Revolution Sputnik crisis Second Taiwan Strait Crisis 1959 Tibetan uprising Cuban Revolution Kitchen Debate Sino - Soviet split 1960s Congo Crisis Simba rebellion 1960 U-2 incident Bay of Pigs Invasion 1960 Turkish coup d'état Soviet -- Albanian split Berlin Crisis of 1961 Berlin Wall Portuguese Colonial War Angolan War of Independence Guinea - Bissau War of Independence Mozambican War of Independence Cuban Missile Crisis El Porteñazo Sino - Indian War Communist insurgency in Sarawak Iraqi Ramadan Revolution Eritrean War of Independence Sand War North Yemen Civil War Aden Emergency 1963 Syrian coup d'état Vietnam War Shifta War Guatemalan Civil War Colombian conflict Nicaraguan Revolution 1964 Brazilian coup d'état Dominican Civil War South African Border War Transition to the New Order ( Indonesia ) Domino theory ASEAN Declaration Laotian Civil War 1966 Syrian coup d'état Argentine Revolution Korean DMZ Conflict Greek military junta of 1967 -- 74 Years of Lead ( Italy ) USS Pueblo incident Six - Day War War of Attrition Dhofar Rebellion Al - Wadiah War Nigerian Civil War Protests of 1968 French May Tlatelolco massacre Cultural Revolution Prague Spring 1968 Polish political crisis Communist insurgency in Malaysia Invasion of Czechoslovakia Iraqi Ba'athist Revolution 1969 Libyan coup d'état Goulash Communism Sino - 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Bush Pope John Paul II Opposition movements Beijing Students ' Autonomous Federation Charter 77 New Forum Civic Forum Democratic Party of Albania Democratic Russia Initiative for Peace and Human Rights Sąjūdis Peaceful Revolution People 's Movement of Ukraine Solidarity Popular Front of Latvia Popular Front of Estonia Public Against Violence Belarusian Popular Front National League for Democracy National Salvation Front Unification Church political activities Union of Democratic Forces Events by location Central and Eastern Europe Albania Bulgaria Czechoslovakia East Germany Hungary Poland Romania Soviet Union Yugoslavia Czechoslovakia Soviet Union Armenia Azerbaijan Belarus Chechnya Estonia Georgia Latvia Lithuania Kazakhstan Kyrgyzstan Moldova Russia Tajikstan Turkmenistan Ukraine Uzbekistan Elsewhere Afghanistan Angola Benin Burma Cambodia China Congo - Brazzaville Ethiopia Mongolia Mozambique Somalia South Yemen Individual events 1988 Polish strikes April 9 tragedy Black January Baltic Way 1987 -- 89 Tibetan unrest Tiananmen Square protests of 1989 Removal of Hungary 's border fence with Austria Polish Round Table Agreement Hungarian Round Table Talks Pan-European Picnic Monday Demonstrations Alexanderplatz demonstration Malta Summit German reunification January Events in Lithuania January Events in Latvia 1991 protests in Belgrade August Coup Dissolution of the Soviet Union Later events Colour revolution Decommunization Lustration Democratization Economic liberalization Post-Soviet conflicts Neo-Sovietism Neo-Stalinism Post-communism Yugoslav Wars Pink Tide Eastern Bloc Soviet Union Communism Formation Secret Molotov -- Ribbentrop Pact protocol Soviet invasion of Poland Soviet occupations Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina Baltic states Hungary Romania Yalta Conference Annexed as , or into , SSRs Eastern Finland Estonia Latvia Lithuania Memel East Prussia West Belarus Western Ukraine Moldavia Satellite states Hungarian People 's Republic Polish People 's Republic Czechoslovak Socialist Republic Socialist Republic of Romania German Democratic Republic People 's Republic of Albania ( to 1961 ) People 's Republic of Bulgaria Federal People 's Republic of Yugoslavia ( to 1948 ) Annexing SSRs Russian SFSR Ukrainian SSR Byelorussian SSR Organizations Cominform COMECON Warsaw Pact World Federation of Trade Unions ( WFTU ) World Federation of Democratic Youth ( WFDY ) Revolts and opposition Welles Declaration Goryani Movement Forest Brothers Ukrainian Insurgent Army Operation Jungle Baltic state continuity Baltic Legations ( 1940 -- 1991 ) Cursed soldiers Rebellion of Cazin 1950 1953 uprising in Plzeň 1953 East German uprising 1956 Georgian demonstrations 1956 Poznań protests 1956 Hungarian Revolution Novocherkassk massacre 1965 Yerevan demonstrations Prague Spring / Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia Brezhnev Doctrine 1968 Red Square demonstration 1968 student demonstrations in Belgrade 1968 protests in Kosovo 1970 Polish protests Croatian Spring 1972 unrest in Lithuania SSR June 1976 protests Solidarity / Soviet reaction / Martial law 1981 protests in Kosovo Reagan Doctrine Jeltoqsan Karabakh movement April 9 tragedy Romanian Revolution Black January Cold War events Marshall Plan Berlin Blockade Tito -- Stalin Split 1948 Czechoslovak coup d'état 1961 Berlin Wall crisis Conditions Emigration and defection ( list of defectors ) Sovietization of the Baltic states Information dissemination Politics Economies Telephone tapping Decline Revolutions of 1989 Fall of the Berlin Wall Romanian Revolution Fall of communism in Albania Singing Revolution Collapse of the Soviet Union Dissolution of Czechoslovakia January 1991 events in Lithuania January 1991 events in Latvia Post-Cold War topics Baltic Assembly Collective Security Treaty Organization Commonwealth of Independent States Craiova Group European Union European migrant crisis Eurasian Economic Union NATO Post-Soviet states Shanghai Cooperation Organisation Visegrád Group Lists of damaged , destroyed or looted heritage Human - caused Armenian cemetery in Julfa Destruction of early Islamic heritage sites in Saudi Arabia List of destroyed landmarks in Spain Buddhas of Bamiyan Destruction of cultural heritage by ISIL Kashi Vishwanath Temple Kesava Deo Temple Looting and burning of the Summer Palaces Shuri Castle Bolshevik Revolution Church of the Tithes St. Nicholas Military Cathedral Brotherhood Monastery St. Michael 's Golden - Domed Monastery Somnath temple Transfiguration Cathedral Sogwang and Singye Temple Hungarian Revolution Stalin Monument , Budapest Afghanistan Nalanda Ram Janmabhoomi Revolutions of 1989 Berlin Wall Dzerzynski Vijayanagara Euromaidan Vladimir Lenin monument , Kiev Decommunization in Ukraine Iraq War archaeological looting Firdos Square statue destruction Croatian War Kosovo War Albanian and Serbian Syrian Civil War ISIL World War II Art theft and looting Libraries Planned destruction of Warsaw Nazi plunder Natural 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake Art destruction List of destroyed libraries Lost artworks Vandalism of art Unite4Heritage WorldCat Identities BNF : cb119380937 ( data ) GND : 4094837 - 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when was star spangled banner put to music

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The Star - Spangled Banner - wikipedia The Star - Spangled Banner Jump to : navigation , search `` Star - Spangled Banner '' redirects here . For the flag that flew over Fort McHenry , see Star - Spangled Banner ( flag ) . For the present flag , see Flag of the United States . `` The Star - Spangled Banner '' The earliest surviving sheet music of `` The Star - Spangled Banner '' , from 1814 . National anthem of the United States Lyrics Francis Scott Key , 1814 Music John Stafford Smith , c. 1773 Adopted March 3 , 1931 ; 87 years ago ( 1931 - 03 - 03 ) Audio sample `` The Star - Spangled Banner '' instrumental file help `` The Star - Spangled Banner '' is the national anthem of the United States of America . The lyrics come from `` Defence of Fort M'Henry '' , a poem written on September 14 , 1814 , by the then 35 - year - old lawyer and amateur poet Francis Scott Key after witnessing the bombardment of Fort McHenry by British ships of the Royal Navy in Baltimore Harbor during the Battle of Baltimore in the War of 1812 . Key was inspired by the large American flag , with 15 stars and 15 stripes , known as the Star - Spangled Banner , flying triumphantly above the fort during the American victory . The poem was set to the tune of a popular British song written by John Stafford Smith for the Anacreontic Society , a men 's social club in London . `` To Anacreon in Heaven '' ( or `` The Anacreontic Song '' ) , with various lyrics , was already popular in the United States . Set to Key 's poem and renamed `` The Star - Spangled Banner '' , it soon became a well - known American patriotic song . With a range of 19 semitones , it is known for being very difficult to sing . Although the poem has four stanzas , only the first is commonly sung today . `` The Star - Spangled Banner '' was recognized for official use by the United States Navy in 1889 , and by U.S. President Woodrow Wilson in 1916 , and was made the national anthem by a congressional resolution on March 3 , 1931 ( 46 Stat. 1508 , codified at 36 U.S.C. § 301 ) , which was signed by President Herbert Hoover . Before 1931 , other songs served as the hymns of American officialdom . `` Hail , Columbia '' served this purpose at official functions for most of the 19th century . `` My Country , ' Tis of Thee '' , whose melody is identical to `` God Save the Queen '' , the British national anthem , also served as a de facto anthem . Following the War of 1812 and subsequent American wars , other songs emerged to compete for popularity at public events , among them `` America the Beautiful '' . Contents ( hide ) 1 Early history 1.1 Francis Scott Key 's lyrics 1.2 John Stafford Smith 's music 1.3 National anthem 2 Modern history 2.1 Performances 2.2 200th anniversary celebrations 2.3 Adaptations 3 Lyrics 3.1 Additional Civil War period lyrics 3.1. 1 Alternative lyrics 4 References in film , television , literature 5 Customs and federal law 6 Protests 6.1 1968 Olympics Black Power salute 6.2 2016 protests 6.3 NAACP call to remove the national anthem 7 Translations 8 Media 9 See also 10 References 11 Further reading 12 External links 12.1 Historical audio Early history ( edit ) Francis Scott Key 's lyrics ( edit ) Francis Scott Key 's original manuscript copy of his `` Defence of Fort M'Henry '' poem . It is now on display at the Maryland Historical Society . On September 3 , 1814 , following the Burning of Washington and the Raid on Alexandria , Francis Scott Key and John Stuart Skinner set sail from Baltimore aboard the ship HMS Minden , flying a flag of truce on a mission approved by President James Madison . Their objective was to secure an exchange of prisoners , one of whom was Dr. William Beanes , the elderly and popular town physician of Upper Marlboro and a friend of Key 's who had been captured in his home . Beanes was accused of aiding the arrest of British soldiers . Key and Skinner boarded the British flagship HMS Tonnant on September 7 and spoke with Major General Robert Ross and Vice Admiral Alexander Cochrane over dinner while the two officers discussed war plans . At first , Ross and Cochrane refused to release Beanes but relented after Key and Skinner showed them letters written by wounded British prisoners praising Beanes and other Americans for their kind treatment . Because Key and Skinner had heard details of the plans for the attack on Baltimore , they were held captive until after the battle , first aboard HMS Surprise and later back on HMS Minden . After the bombardment , certain British gunboats attempted to slip past the fort and effect a landing in a cove to the west of it , but they were turned away by fire from nearby Fort Covington , the city 's last line of defense . An artist 's rendering of the battle at Fort McHenry During the rainy night , Key had witnessed the bombardment and observed that the fort 's smaller `` storm flag '' continued to fly , but once the shell and Congreve rocket barrage had stopped , he would not know how the battle had turned out until dawn . On the morning of September 14 , the storm flag had been lowered and the larger flag had been raised . During the bombardment , HMS Terror and HMS Meteor provided some of the `` bombs bursting in air '' . The 15 - star , 15 - stripe `` Star - Spangled Banner '' that inspired the poem Key was inspired by the American victory and the sight of the large American flag flying triumphantly above the fort . This flag , with fifteen stars and fifteen stripes , had been made by Mary Young Pickersgill together with other workers in her home on Baltimore 's Pratt Street . The flag later came to be known as the Star - Spangled Banner and is today on display in the National Museum of American History , a treasure of the Smithsonian Institution . It was restored in 1914 by Amelia Fowler , and again in 1998 as part of an ongoing conservation program . Aboard the ship the next day , Key wrote a poem on the back of a letter he had kept in his pocket . At twilight on September 16 , he and Skinner were released in Baltimore . He completed the poem at the Indian Queen Hotel , where he was staying , and titled it `` Defence of Fort M'Henry '' . It was first published nationally in The Analectic Magazine . Much of the idea of the poem , including the flag imagery and some of the wording , is derived from an earlier song by Key , also set to the tune of `` The Anacreontic Song '' . The song , known as `` When the Warrior Returns '' , was written in honor of Stephen Decatur and Charles Stewart on their return from the First Barbary War . Absent elaboration by Francis Scott Key prior to his death in 1843 , some have speculated in modern times about the meaning of phrases or verses . According to British historian Robin Blackburn , the words `` the hireling and slave '' allude to the thousands of ex-slaves in the British ranks organised as the Corps of Colonial Marines , who had been liberated by the British and demanded to be placed in the battle line `` where they might expect to meet their former masters . '' Nevertheless , Professor Mark Clague , a professor of musicology at the University of Michigan , argues that the `` middle two verses of Key 's lyric vilify the British enemy in the War of 1812 '' and `` in no way glorifies or celebrates slavery . '' Clague writes that `` For Key ... the British mercenaries were scoundrels and the Colonial Marines were traitors who threatened to spark a national insurrection . '' This harshly anti-British nature of Verse 3 led to its omission in sheet music in World War I , when Britain and the U.S. were allies . Responding to the assertion of writer Jon Schwarz of The Intercept that the song is a `` celebration of slavery , '' Clague said that : `` The reference to slaves is about the use and in some sense the manipulation , of black Americans to fight for the British , with the promise of freedom . The American forces included African - Americans as well as whites . The term ' freemen , ' whose heroism is celebrated in the fourth stanza , would have encompassed both . '' Others suggest that `` Key may have intended the phrase as a reference to the British Navy 's practice of impressment ( kidnapping sailors and forcing them to fight in defense of the crown ) , or as a semi-metaphorical slap at the British invading force as a whole ( which included a large number of mercenaries ) . '' John Stafford Smith 's music ( edit ) Sheet music version Play ( help info ) The memorial to John Stafford Smith in Gloucester Cathedral , Gloucester , England Key gave the poem to his brother - in - law Judge Joseph H. Nicholson who saw that the words fit the popular melody `` The Anacreontic Song '' , by English composer John Stafford Smith . This was the official song of the Anacreontic Society , an 18th - century gentlemen 's club of amateur musicians in London . Nicholson took the poem to a printer in Baltimore , who anonymously made the first known broadside printing on September 17 ; of these , two known copies survive . On September 20 , both the Baltimore Patriot and The American printed the song , with the note `` Tune : Anacreon in Heaven '' . The song quickly became popular , with seventeen newspapers from Georgia to New Hampshire printing it . Soon after , Thomas Carr of the Carr Music Store in Baltimore published the words and music together under the title `` The Star Spangled Banner '' , although it was originally called `` Defence of Fort M'Henry '' . Thomas Carr 's arrangement introduced the raised fourth which became the standard deviation from `` The Anacreontic Song '' . The song 's popularity increased and its first public performance took place in October when Baltimore actor Ferdinand Durang sang it at Captain McCauley 's tavern . Washington Irving , then editor of the Analectic Magazine in Philadelphia , reprinted the song in November 1814 . By the early 20th century , there were various versions of the song in popular use . Seeking a singular , standard version , President Woodrow Wilson tasked the U.S. Bureau of Education with providing that official version . In response , the Bureau enlisted the help of five musicians to agree upon an arrangement . Those musicians were Walter Damrosch , Will Earhart , Arnold J. Gantvoort , Oscar Sonneck and John Philip Sousa . The standardized version that was voted upon by these five musicians premiered at Carnegie Hall on December 5 , 1917 , in a program that included Edward Elgar 's Carillon and Gabriel Pierné 's The Children 's Crusade . The concert was put on by the Oratorio Society of New York and conducted by Walter Damrosch . An official handwritten version of the final votes of these five men has been found and shows all five men 's votes tallied , measure by measure . National anthem ( edit ) Commemorative plaque in Washington , D.C. marking the site at 601 Pennsylvania Avenue where `` The Star - Spangled Banner '' was first publicly sung One of two surviving copies of the 1814 broadside printing of the `` Defence of Fort M'Henry '' , a poem that later became the lyrics of `` The Star - Spangled Banner '' , the national anthem of the United States . The song gained popularity throughout the 19th century and bands played it during public events , such as July 4th celebrations . A plaque displayed at Fort Meade , South Dakota , claims that the idea of making `` The Star Spangled Banner '' the national anthem began on their parade ground in 1892 . Colonel Caleb Carlton , Post Commander , established the tradition that the song be played `` at retreat and at the close of parades and concerts . '' Carlton explained the custom to Governor Sheldon of South Dakota who `` promised me that he would try to have the custom established among the state militia . '' Carlton wrote that after a similar discussion , Secretary of War , Daniel E. Lamont issued an order that it `` be played at every Army post every evening at retreat . '' In 1899 , the US Navy officially adopted `` The Star - Spangled Banner '' . In 1916 , President Woodrow Wilson ordered that `` The Star - Spangled Banner '' be played at military and other appropriate occasions . The playing of the song two years later during the seventh - inning stretch of Game One of the 1918 World Series , and thereafter during each game of the series is often cited as the first instance that the anthem was played at a baseball game , though evidence shows that the `` Star - Spangled Banner '' was performed as early as 1897 at opening day ceremonies in Philadelphia and then more regularly at the Polo Grounds in New York City beginning in 1898 . In any case , the tradition of performing the national anthem before every baseball game began in World War II . On April 10 , 1918 , John Charles Linthicum , U.S. Congressman from Maryland , introduced a bill to officially recognize `` The Star - Spangled Banner '' as the national anthem . The bill did not pass . On April 15 , 1929 , Linthicum introduced the bill again , his sixth time doing so . On November 3 , 1929 , Robert Ripley drew a panel in his syndicated cartoon , Ripley 's Believe it or Not ! , saying `` Believe It or Not , America has no national anthem '' . In 1930 , Veterans of Foreign Wars started a petition for the United States to officially recognize `` The Star - Spangled Banner '' as the national anthem . Five million people signed the petition . The petition was presented to the United States House Committee on the Judiciary on January 31 , 1930 . On the same day , Elsie Jorss - Reilley and Grace Evelyn Boudlin sang the song to the Committee to refute the perception that it was too high pitched for a typical person to sing . The Committee voted in favor of sending the bill to the House floor for a vote . The House of Representatives passed the bill later that year . The Senate passed the bill on March 3 , 1931 . President Herbert Hoover signed the bill on March 4 , 1931 , officially adopting `` The Star - Spangled Banner '' as the national anthem of the United States of America . As currently codified , the United States Code states that `` ( t ) he composition consisting of the words and music known as the Star - Spangled Banner is the national anthem . '' Modern history ( edit ) Main article : Performances and adaptations of The Star - Spangled Banner Performances ( edit ) This section may contain indiscriminate , excessive , or irrelevant examples . Please improve the article by adding more descriptive text and removing less pertinent examples . See Wikipedia 's guide to writing better articles for further suggestions . ( November 2012 ) Crowd performing the U.S. national anthem before a baseball game at Coors Field The song is notoriously difficult for nonprofessionals to sing because of its wide range -- a 12th . Humorist Richard Armour referred to the song 's difficulty in his book It All Started With Columbus . In an attempt to take Baltimore , the British attacked Fort McHenry , which protected the harbor . Bombs were soon bursting in air , rockets were glaring , and all in all it was a moment of great historical interest . During the bombardment , a young lawyer named Francis Off Key ( sic ) wrote `` The Star - Spangled Banner '' , and when , by the dawn 's early light , the British heard it sung , they fled in terror . -- Richard Armour Professional and amateur singers have been known to forget the words , which is one reason the song is sometimes pre-recorded and lip - synced . Other times the issue is avoided by having the performer ( s ) play the anthem instrumentally instead of singing it . The pre-recording of the anthem has become standard practice at some ballparks , such as Boston 's Fenway Park , according to the SABR publication The Fenway Project . `` The Star - Spangled Banner '' is traditionally played at the beginning of public sports events and orchestral concerts in the United States , as well as other public gatherings . The National Hockey League and Major League Soccer both require venues in both the U.S. and Canada to perform both the Canadian and American national anthems at games that involve teams from both countries ( with the `` away '' anthem being performed first ) . It is also usual for both American and Canadian anthems ( done in the same way as the NHL and MLS ) to be played at Major League Baseball and National Basketball Association games involving the Toronto Blue Jays and the Toronto Raptors ( respectively ) , the only Canadian teams in those two major U.S. sports leagues , and in All Star Games on the MLB , NBA , and NHL . The Buffalo Sabres of the NHL , which play in a city on the Canada -- US border and have a substantial Canadian fan base , play both anthems before all home games regardless of where the visiting team is based . Two especially unusual performances of the song took place in the immediate aftermath of the United States September 11 attacks . On September 12 , 2001 , the Queen broke with tradition and allowed the Band of the Coldstream Guards to perform the anthem at Buckingham Palace , London , at the ceremonial Changing of the Guard , as a gesture of support for Britain 's ally . The following day at a St. Paul 's Cathedral memorial service , the Queen joined in the singing of the anthem , an unprecedented occurrence . 200th anniversary celebrations ( edit ) The 200th anniversary of the `` Star - Spangled Banner '' occurred in 2014 with various special events occurring throughout the United States . A particularly significant celebration occurred during the week of September 10 -- 16 in and around Baltimore , Maryland . Highlights included playing of a new arrangement of the anthem arranged by John Williams and participation of President Obama on Defender 's Day , September 12 , 2014 , at Fort McHenry . In addition , the anthem bicentennial included a youth music celebration including the presentation of the National Anthem Bicentennial Youth Challenge winning composition written by Noah Altshuler . Adaptations ( edit ) See also : The Star Spangled Banner ( Whitney Houston recording ) O'er the ramparts we watch in a 1945 United States Army Air Forces poster The first popular music performance of the anthem heard by the mainstream U.S. was by Puerto Rican singer and guitarist José Feliciano . He created a nationwide uproar when he strummed a slow , blues - style rendition of the song at Tiger Stadium in Detroit before game five of the 1968 World Series , between Detroit and St. Louis . This rendition started contemporary `` Star - Spangled Banner '' controversies . The response from many in the Vietnam War - era U.S. was generally negative . Despite the controversy , Feliciano 's performance opened the door for the countless interpretations of the `` Star - Spangled Banner '' heard in the years since . One week after Feliciano 's performance , the anthem was in the news again when American athletes Tommie Smith and John Carlos lifted controversial raised fists at the 1968 Olympics while the `` Star - Spangled Banner '' played at a medal ceremony . Marvin Gaye gave a soul - influenced performance at the 1983 NBA All - Star Game and Whitney Houston gave a soulful rendition before Super Bowl XXV in 1991 , which was released as a single that charted at number 20 in 1991 and number 6 in 2001 ( along with José Feliciano , the only times the anthem has been on the Billboard Hot 100 ) . In 1993 , Kiss did an instrumental rock version as the closing track on their album , Alive III . Another famous instrumental interpretation is Jimi Hendrix 's version , which was a set - list staple from autumn 1968 until his death in September 1970 , including a famous rendition at the Woodstock music festival in 1969 . Incorporating sonic effects to emphasize the `` rockets ' red glare '' , and `` bombs bursting in air '' , it became a late - 1960s emblem . Roseanne Barr gave a controversial performance of the anthem at a San Diego Padres baseball game at Jack Murphy Stadium on July 25 , 1990 . The comedian belted out a screechy rendition of the song , and afterward , she attempted a gesture of ballplayers by spitting and grabbing her crotch as if adjusting a protective cup . The performance offended some , including the sitting U.S. President , George H.W. Bush . Sufjan Stevens has frequently performed the `` Star - Spangled Banner '' in live sets , replacing the optimism in the end of the first verse with a new coda that alludes to the divisive state of the nation today . David Lee Roth both referenced parts of the anthem and played part of a hard rock rendition of the anthem on his song , `` Yankee Rose '' on his 1986 solo album , Eat ' Em and Smile . Steven Tyler also caused some controversy in 2001 ( at the Indianapolis 500 , to which he later issued a public apology ) and again in 2012 ( at the AFC Championship Game ) with a cappella renditions of the song with changed lyrics . A version of Aerosmith 's Joe Perry and Brad Whitford playing part of the song can be heard at the end of their version of `` Train Kept A-Rollin ' '' on the Rockin ' the Joint album . The band Boston gave an instrumental rock rendition of the anthem on their Greatest Hits album . The band Crush 40 made a version of the song as opening track from the album Thrill of the Feel ( 2000 ) . In March 2005 , a government - sponsored program , the National Anthem Project , was launched after a Harris Interactive poll showed many adults knew neither the lyrics nor the history of the anthem . Lyrics ( edit ) O say can you see , by the dawn 's early light , What so proudly we hailed at the twilight 's last gleaming , Whose broad stripes and bright stars through the perilous fight , O'er the ramparts we watched , were so gallantly streaming ? And the rockets ' red glare , the bombs bursting in air , Gave proof through the night that our flag was still there ; O say does that star - spangled banner yet wave O'er the land of the free and the home of the brave ? On the shore dimly seen through the mists of the deep , Where the foe 's haughty host in dread silence reposes , What is that which the breeze , o'er the towering steep , As it fitfully blows , half conceals , half discloses ? Now it catches the gleam of the morning 's first beam , In full glory reflected now shines in the stream : ' Tis the star - spangled banner , O long may it wave O'er the land of the free and the home of the brave . And where is that band who so vauntingly swore That the havoc of war and the battle 's confusion , A home and a country , should leave us no more ? Their blood has washed out their foul footsteps ' pollution . No refuge could save the hireling and slave From the terror of flight , or the gloom of the grave : And the star - spangled banner in triumph doth wave , O'er the land of the free and the home of the brave . O thus be it ever , when freemen shall stand Between their loved homes and the war 's desolation . Blest with vict'ry and peace , may the Heav'n rescued land Praise the Power that hath made and preserved us a nation ! Then conquer we must , when our cause it is just , And this be our motto : ' In God is our trust . ' And the star - spangled banner in triumph shall wave O'er the land of the free and the home of the brave ! Cover of sheet music for `` The Star - Spangled Banner '' , transcribed for piano by Ch . Voss , Philadelphia : G. Andre & Co. , 1862 Additional Civil War period lyrics ( edit ) In indignation over the start of the American Civil War , Oliver Wendell Holmes , Sr. added a fifth stanza to the song in 1861 , which appeared in songbooks of the era . When our land is illumined with Liberty 's smile , If a foe from within strike a blow at her glory , Down , down with the traitor that dares to defile The flag of her stars and the page of her story ! By the millions unchained who our birthright have gained , We will keep her bright blazon forever unstained ! And the Star - Spangled Banner in triumph shall wave While the land of the free is the home of the brave . Alternative lyrics ( edit ) In a version hand - written by Francis Scott Key in 1840 , the third line reads `` Whose bright stars and broad stripes , through the clouds of the fight '' . References in film , television , Literature ( edit ) Several films have their titles taken from the song 's lyrics . These include two films titled Dawn 's Early Light ( 2000 and 2005 ) ; two made - for - TV features titled By Dawn 's Early Light ( 1990 and 2000 ) ; two films titled So Proudly We Hail ( 1943 and 1990 ) ; a feature ( 1977 ) and a short ( 2005 ) titled Twilight 's Last Gleaming ; and four films titled Home of the Brave ( 1949 , 1986 , 2004 , and 2006 ) . A 1936 short titled `` The Song of a Nation '' from Warner Brothers shows a version of the origin of the song . Customs and federal law ( edit ) Plaque detailing how the custom of standing during the Anthem came about in Tacoma , Washington , on October 18 , 1893 , in the Bostwick building When the National Anthem was first recognized by law in 1931 , there was no prescription as to behavior during its playing . On June 22 , 1942 , the law was revised indicating that those in uniform should salute during its playing , while others should simply stand at attention , men removing their hats . ( The same code also required that women should place their hands over their hearts when the flag is displayed during the playing of the Anthem , but not if the flag was not present . ) On December 23 , 1942 , the law was again revised instructing men and women to stand at attention and face in the direction of the music when it was played . That revision also directed men and women to place their hands over their hearts only if the flag was displayed . Those in uniform were required to salute . On July 7 , 1976 , the law was simplified . Men and women were instructed to stand with their hands over their hearts , men removing their hats , irrespective of whether or not the flag was displayed and those in uniform saluting . On August 12 , 1998 , the law was rewritten keeping the same instructions , but differentiating between `` those in uniform '' and `` members of the Armed Forces and veterans '' who were both instructed to salute during the playing whether or not the flag was displayed . Because of the changes in law over the years and confusion between instructions for the Pledge of Allegiance versus the National Anthem , throughout most of the 20th century many people simply stood at attention or with their hands folded in front of them during the playing of the Anthem , and when reciting the Pledge they would hold their hand ( or hat ) over their heart . After 9 / 11 , the custom of placing the hand over the heart during the playing of the Anthem became nearly universal . Since 1998 , federal law ( viz. , the United States Code 36 U.S.C. § 301 ) states that during a rendition of the national anthem , when the flag is displayed , all present including those in uniform should stand at attention ; Non-military service individuals should face the flag with the right hand over the heart ; Members of the Armed Forces and veterans who are present and not in uniform may render the military salute ; Military service persons not in uniform should remove their headdress with their right hand and hold the headdress at the left shoulder , the hand being over the heart ; and Members of the Armed Forces and veterans who are in uniform should give the military salute at the first note of the anthem and maintain that position until the last note . The law further provides that when the flag is not displayed , all present should face toward the music and act in the same manner they would if the flag were displayed . Military law requires all vehicles on the installation to stop when the song is played and all individuals outside to stand at attention and face the direction of the music and either salute , in uniform , or place the right hand over the heart , if out of uniform . The law was amended in 2008 , and since allows military veterans to salute out of uniform , as well . The text of 36 U.S.C. § 301 is suggestive and not regulatory in nature . Failure to follow the suggestions is not a violation of the law . This behavioral requirement for the national anthem is subject to the same First Amendment controversies that surround the Pledge of Allegiance . For example , Jehovah 's Witnesses do not sing the national anthem , though they are taught that standing is an `` ethical decision '' that individual believers must make based on their `` conscience . '' Protests ( edit ) Main article : U.S. national anthem protests 1968 Olympics Black Power salute ( edit ) Main article : 1968 Olympics Black Power salute The 1968 Olympics Black Power salute was a political demonstration conducted by African - American athletes Tommie Smith and John Carlos during their medal ceremony at the 1968 Summer Olympics in the Olympic Stadium in Mexico City . After having won gold and bronze medals respectively in the 200 - meter running event , they turned on the podium to face their flags , and to hear the American national anthem , `` The Star - Spangled Banner '' . Each athlete raised a black - gloved fist , and kept them raised until the anthem had finished . In addition , Smith , Carlos , and Australian silver medalist Peter Norman all wore human rights badges on their jackets . In his autobiography , Silent Gesture , Smith stated that the gesture was not a `` Black Power '' salute , but a `` human rights salute '' . The event is regarded as one of the most overtly political statements in the history of the modern Olympic Games . 2016 protests ( edit ) Main article : U.S. national anthem protests ( 2016 -- present ) Politically motivated protests of the national anthem began in the National Football League ( NFL ) after San Francisco 49ers quarterback ( QB ) Colin Kaepernick sat during the anthem , as opposed to the tradition of standing , in response to police brutality in America , before his team 's third preseason game of 2016 . Kaepernick also sat during the first two preseason games , but he went unnoticed . NAACP call to remove the National anthem ( edit ) In November 2017 , the California Chapter of the NAACP called on Congress to remove The Star - Spangled Banner as the national anthem . Alice Huffman , California NAACP president said : `` it 's racist ; it does n't represent our community , it 's anti-black . '' The third stanza of the anthem , which is rarely sung and few know , contains the words , `` No refuge could save the hireling and slave , From the terror of flight , or the gloom of the grave : '' , which some interpret as racist . The organization was still seeking a representative to sponsor the legislation in Congress at the time of their announcement . Translations ( edit ) As a result of immigration to the United States and the incorporation of non-English speaking people into the country , the lyrics of the song have been translated into other languages . In 1861 , it was translated into German . The Library of Congress also has record of a Spanish - language version from 1919 . It has since been translated into Hebrew and Yiddish by Jewish immigrants , Latin American Spanish ( with one version popularized during immigration reform protests in 2006 ) , French by Acadians of Louisiana , Samoan , and Irish . The third verse of the anthem has also been translated into Latin . With regard to the indigenous languages of North America , there are versions in Navajo and Cherokee . Media ( edit ) The Star - Spangled Banner ( 1915 ) A 1915 recording of the Star - Spangled Banner as sung by Margaret Woodrow Wilson , daughter of Woodrow Wilson The Star - Spangled Banner ( 1942 ) Fred Waring and His Pennsylvanians sing The Star - Spangled Banner in 1942 The Star - Spangled Banner ( 1953 ) A 1953 instrumental recording by the United States Marine Corps band The Star Spangled Banner ( circa 2000 ) An instrumental recording by the United States Navy Band . Problems playing these files ? See media help . Play media ( 1944 ) Play media ( 1940 ) See also ( edit ) In God We Trust Sign - on and sign - off Music portal United States portal References ( edit ) ^ Jump up to : `` '' Star - Spangled Banner '' Is Now Official Anthem `` . The Washington Post . March 5 , 1931 . p. 3 . Jump up ^ `` Defence of Fort M'Henry Library of Congress '' . Loc.gov . Retrieved 2017 - 04 - 18 . Jump up ^ `` My country ' tis of thee ( Song Collection ) '' . The Library of Congress . Retrieved 2009 - 01 - 20 . Jump up ^ Snyder , Lois Leo ( 1990 ) . Encyclopedia of Nationalism . Paragon House . p. 13 . ISBN 1 - 55778 - 167 - 2 . Jump up ^ British Rockets at the US National Park Service , Fort McHenry National Monument , and Historic Shrine . Retrieved February 2008 . Archived April 3 , 2014 , at the Wayback Machine . Jump up ^ `` John Wiley & Sons : 200 Years of Publishing - Birth of the New American Literature : 1807 - 1826 '' . Retrieved 2018 - 04 - 27 . Jump up ^ `` Defence of Fort M'Henry '' . The Analectic magazine . 4 : 433 -- 434 . November 1814 . Retrieved 2018 - 04 - 27 . Jump up ^ `` When the Warrior Returns - Key '' . Potw.org . Retrieved 2017 - 04 - 18 . Jump up ^ Blackburn , Robin ( 1988 ) . The Overthrdow of Colonial Slavery , 1776 -- 1848 . pp. 288 -- 290 . ^ Jump up to : Mark Clague ( 2016 - 08 - 31 ) . `` ' Star - Spangled Banner ' critics miss the point '' . CNN.com . Retrieved 2017 - 04 - 18 . Jump up ^ `` Colin Kaepernick Is Righter Than You Know : The National Anthem Is a Celebration of Slavery '' . Theintercept.com. 2016 - 08 - 28 . Retrieved 2017 - 04 - 18 . Jump up ^ `` Is the National Anthem Racist ? Beyond the Debate Over Colin Kaepernick '' . The New York Times . 3 September 2016 . Retrieved 2017 - 04 - 18 . Jump up ^ `` ' The Star - Spangled Banner ' and Slavery '' . Snopes.com . Retrieved 2017 - 04 - 18 . Jump up ^ Clague , Mark , and Jamie Vander Broek . `` Banner moments : the national anthem in American life '' . University of Michigan , 2014 . 4 . Jump up ^ `` Oratorio Society of New York - Star Spangled Banner '' . Oratoriosocietyofny.org . Retrieved 2017 - 04 - 18 . Jump up ^ `` Standardization Manuscript for `` The Star Spangled Banner '' Antiques Roadshow `` . PBS . Retrieved 2017 - 04 - 18 . Jump up ^ Plaque , Fort Meade , erected 1976 by the Fort Meade V.A. Hospital and the South Dakota State Historical Society ^ Jump up to : Cavanaugh , Ray ( July 4 , 2016 ) . `` The Star - Spangled Banner : an American anthem with a very British beginning '' . The Guardian . Retrieved September 27 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Cubs vs Red Sox 1918 World Series : A Tradition is Born '' . Baseballisms.com. 2011 - 05 - 21 . Retrieved 2017 - 04 - 18 . Jump up ^ `` Archived copy '' . Archived from the original on 2014 - 02 - 22 . Retrieved 2016 - 02 - 03 . ^ Jump up to : `` National Anthem Hearing Is Set For January 31 '' . The Baltimore Sun . January 23 , 1930 . p. 4 . Jump up ^ `` Company News - Ripley Entertainment Inc '' . Ripleysnewsroom.com . Retrieved 2017 - 04 - 18 . ^ Jump up to : `` 5,000,000 Sign for Anthem : Fifty - Mile Petition Supports `` The Star - Spangled Banner '' Bill `` . The New York Times . January 19 , 1930 . p. 31 . Jump up ^ `` 5,000,000 Plea For U.S. Anthem : Giant Petition to Be Given Judiciary Committee of Senate Today '' . The Washington Post . January 31 , 1930 . p. 2 . Jump up ^ `` Committee Hears Star - Spangled Banner Sung : Studies Bill to Make It the National Anthem '' . The New York Times . February 1 , 1930 . p. 1 . Jump up ^ `` ' Star - Spangled Banner ' Favored As Anthem in Report to House '' . The New York Times . February 5 , 1930 . p. 3 . ^ Jump up to : `` ' Star Spangled Banner ' Is Voted National Anthem by Congress '' . The New York Times . March 4 , 1931 . p. 1 . Jump up ^ 36 U.S.C. § 301 . Jump up ^ `` The Fenway Project -- Part One '' . Red Sox Connection . May 2004 . Archived from the original on 2016 - 01 - 01 . Jump up ^ Allen , Kevin ( 2003 - 03 - 23 ) . `` NHL Seeks to Stop Booing For a Song '' . USA Today . Retrieved 2008 - 10 - 29 . Jump up ^ `` Fanzone , A-Z Guide : National Anthems '' . Buffalo Sabres . Retrieved November 20 , 2014 . If you are interested in singing the National Anthems at a sporting event at First Niagara Center , you must submit a DVD or CD of your performance of both the Canadian & American National Anthems ... Jump up ^ Graves , David ( September 14 , 2001 ) `` Palace breaks with tradition in musical tribute '' . The Daily Telegraph . Retrieved August 24 , 2011 Jump up ^ Steyn , Mark ( September 17 , 2001 ) . `` The Queen 's Tears / And global resolve against terrorism '' . National Review . Archived from the original on 2013 - 06 - 15 . Retrieved 2013 - 04 - 10 . Jump up ^ Michael E. Ruane ( September 11 , 2014 ) . `` Francis Scott Key 's anthem keeps asking : Have we survived as a nation ? '' . Washington Post . Jump up ^ ( 1 ) Archived 2014 - 11 - 29 at the Wayback Machine . Jump up ^ Gilliland , John ( 1969 ) . `` Show 52 -- The Soul Reformation : Phase three , soul music at the summit . ( Part 8 ) '' ( audio ) . Pop Chronicles . University of North Texas Libraries . Track 5 . Jump up ^ Paul White , USA TODAY Sports ( October 14 , 2012 ) . `` Jose Feliciano 's once - controversial anthem kicks off NLCS '' . Usatoday.com . Retrieved November 9 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Jose Feliciano Personal account about the anthem performance Archived 2015 - 10 - 08 at the Wayback Machine . Jump up ^ Letofsky , Irv ( July 28 , 1990 ) . `` Roseanne Is Sorry -- but Not That Sorry '' . Los Angeles Times . Retrieved September 14 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` AOL Radio -- Listen to Free Online Radio -- Free Internet Radio Stations and Music Playlists '' . Spinner.com . Retrieved November 9 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Harris Interactive poll on `` The Star - Spangled Banner '' `` . Tnap.org . Archived from the original on 2011 - 01 - 12 . Retrieved 2010 - 06 - 14 . Jump up ^ Francis Scott Key , The Star Spangled Banner ( lyrics ) , 1814 , MENC : The National Association for Music Education National Anthem Project ( archived from the original Archived January 26 , 2013 , at the Wayback Machine . on 2013 - 01 - 26 ) . Jump up ^ Butterworth , Hezekiah ; Brown , Theron ( 1906 ) . `` The Story of the Hymns and Tunes '' . George H. Doran Co. : 335 . Jump up ^ The soldier 's companion : dedicated ... -- Google Books . Books.google.com. 1865 . Retrieved 2010 - 06 - 14 . Jump up ^ `` Library of Congress image '' . Retrieved 2010 - 06 - 14 . Jump up ^ Dawn 's Early Light ( 2000 ) on the Internet Movie Database . Retrieved September 14 , 2007 . Jump up ^ Dawn 's Early Light ( 2005 ) on the Internet Movie Database . Retrieved September 14 , 2007 . Jump up ^ Dawn 's Early Light TV ( 1990 ) on the Internet Movie Database . Retrieved September 14 , 2007 . Jump up ^ Dawn 's Early Light TV ( 2000 ) on the Internet Movie Database . Retrieved September 14 , 2007 . Jump up ^ So Proudly We Hail ( 1943 ) on the Internet Movie Database . Retrieved September 14 , 2007 . Jump up ^ So Proudly We Hail ( 1990 ) on the Internet Movie Database . Retrieved September 14 , 2007 . Jump up ^ Twilight 's Last Gleaming ( 1977 ) on the Internet Movie Database . Retrieved September 14 , 2007 . Jump up ^ Twilight 's Last Gleaming ( 2005 ) on the Internet Movie Database . Retrieved September 14 , 2007 . Jump up ^ Home of the Brave ( 1949 ) on the Internet Movie Database . Retrieved December 5 , 2007 . Jump up ^ Home of the Brave ( 1986 ) on the Internet Movie Database . Retrieved December 5 , 2007 . Jump up ^ Home of the Brave ( 2004 ) on the Internet Movie Database . Retrieved December 5 , 2007 . Jump up ^ Home of the Brave ( 2006 ) on the Internet Movie Database . Retrieved September 14 , 2007 . Jump up ^ ( 2 ) , Jump up ^ `` Public Laws , June 22 , 1942 '' . June 22 , 1942 . Jump up ^ `` 77th Congress , 2nd session '' . uscode.house.gov . Retrieved October 21 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Public law , July 7 , 1976 '' . uscode.house.gov . Retrieved October 21 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Duane Streufert . `` A website dedicated to the Flag of the United States of America -- United States Code '' . USFlag.org . Retrieved 2010 - 06 - 14 . Jump up ^ `` U.S. Code '' . Uscode.house.gov . Archived from the original on 2012 - 05 - 29 . Retrieved 2010 - 06 - 14 . Jump up ^ The Circle School v. Phillips , 270 F. Supp . 2d 616 , 622 ( E.D. Pa. 2003 ) . Jump up ^ `` Highlights of the Beliefs of Jehovah 's Witnesses '' . Towerwatch.com . Retrieved 2010 - 06 - 14 . Jump up ^ Botting , Gary Norman Arthur ( 1993 ) . Fundamental freedoms and Jehovah 's Witnesses . University of Calgary Press . p. 27 . ISBN 978 - 1 - 895176 - 06 - 3 . Retrieved 2009 - 12 - 13 . Jump up ^ Chryssides , George D. ( 2008 ) . Historical Dictionary of Jehovah 's Witnesses . Scarecrow Press . p. 34 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 8108 - 6074 - 2 . Retrieved 2014 - 01 - 24 . Jump up ^ Lewis , Richard ( 8 October 2006 ) . `` Caught in Time : Black Power salute , Mexico , 1968 '' . The Sunday Times . London . Retrieved 9 November 2008 . Jump up ^ Sandritter , Mark . `` A timeline of Colin Kaepernick 's national anthem protest and the NFL players who joined him '' . SB Nation . Retrieved 20 September 2016 . Jump up ^ `` National anthem lyrics prompt California NAACP to call for replacing song '' . Retrieved 2017 - 11 - 08 . Jump up ^ Das Star - Spangled Banner , US Library of Congress . Retrieved September 14 , 2007 . Jump up ^ La Bandera de las Estrellas , US Library of Congress . Retrieved May 31 , 2005 . Jump up ^ Hebrew Version Jump up ^ Abraham Asen , The Star Spangled Banner in pool , 1745 , Joe Fishstein Collection of Yiddish Poetry , McGill University Digital Collections Programme . Retrieved September 14 , 2007 . Jump up ^ Day to Day . `` A Spanish Version of ' The Star - Spangled Banner ' '' . NPR . Retrieved 2010 - 06 - 14 . Jump up ^ David Émile Marcantel , La Bannière Étoilée Archived 2013 - 05 - 17 at the Wayback Machine . on Musique Acadienne . Retrieved September 14 , 2007 . Jump up ^ Zimmer , Benjamin ( 2006 - 04 - 29 ) . `` The ' ' Samoa News ' ' reporting of a Samoan version '' . Itre.cis.upenn.edu . Retrieved 2010 - 06 - 14 . Jump up ^ `` ' ' An Bhratach Gheal - Réaltach ' ' -- Irish version '' . Daltai.com . Retrieved 2010 - 06 - 14 . Jump up ^ Christopher M. Brunelle , Third Verse in Latin , 1999 Jump up ^ `` Gallup Independent , 25 March 2005 '' . Gallupindependent.com. 2005 - 03 - 25 . Archived from the original on 3 February 2010 . Retrieved 2010 - 06 - 14 . Jump up ^ ( 3 ) Jump up ^ `` Schedule for the Presidential Inauguration 2007 , Navajo Nation Government '' . Navajo.org. 2007 - 01 - 09 . Retrieved 2010 - 06 - 14 . Jump up ^ `` Cherokee Phoenix , Accessed 2009 - 08 - 15 '' . Cherokeephoenix.org . Archived from the original on 2009 - 09 - 08 . Retrieved 2010 - 06 - 14 . Further reading ( edit ) Ferris , Marc . Star - Spangled Banner : The Unlikely Story of America 's National Anthem . Johns Hopkins University Press , 2014 . ISBN 9781421415185 OCLC 879370575 Leepson , Marc . What So Proudly We Hailed : Francis Scott Key , a Life . Palgrave Macmillan , 2014 . ISBN 9781137278289 OCLC 860395373 External links ( edit ) `` New book reveals the dark history behind the Star Spangled Banner , '' CBS This Morning , September 13 , 2014 . `` Star - Spangled History : 5 Facts About the Making of the National Anthem , '' Biography.com . `` ' Star - Spangled Banner ' writer had a complex record on race , '' Mary Carole McCauley , ' ' Baltimore Sun , July 26 , 2014 . `` The Man Behind The National Anthem Paid Little Attention To It . '' NPR 's `` Hear and Now , '' July 4 , 2017 . Wikimedia Commons has media related to The Star - Spangled Banner . Wikisource has original text related to this article : The Star - Spangled Banner Look up haughty or rampart in Wiktionary , the free dictionary . Star - Spangled Banner ( Memory ) : American Treasures of the Library of Congress `` How the National Anthem Has Unfurled ; ' The Star - Spangled Banner ' Has Changed a Lot in 200 Years . 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who discovered the titanic wreck site and when

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Wreck_of_the_RMS_Titanic&oldid=848924226

Wreck of the RMS Titanic - wikipedia Wreck of the RMS Titanic This is the latest accepted revision , reviewed on 5 July 2018 . Wreck of the RMS Titanic Bow of the RMS Titanic , photographed in 2004 Event Shipwreck of RMS Titanic Cause Struck an iceberg while on maiden voyage from Southampton to New York City Location 370 miles ( 600 km ) south - southeast of Newfoundland , North Atlantic Ocean Operator White Star Line ( now merged with Cunard Line ) The wreck of the RMS Titanic lies at a depth of about 12,500 feet ( 3.8 km ; 2.37 mi ) , about 370 miles ( 600 km ) south - southeast off the coast of Newfoundland . It lies in two main pieces about a third of a mile ( 600 m ) apart . The bow is still largely recognizable with many preserved interiors , despite its deterioration and the damage it sustained hitting the sea floor . In contrast , the stern is completely ruined . A debris field around the wreck contains hundreds of thousands of items spilled from the ship as she sank . The bodies of the passengers and crew would have also been distributed across the sea bed , but have been consumed by other organisms . Titanic sank in 1912 , when she collided with an iceberg during her maiden voyage . The wreck could not be located at the time and was not discovered until 1985 . Numerous expeditions tried using sonar to map the sea bed in the hope of spotting it , but were unsuccessful . The wreck was finally located by a joint French -- American expedition led by Jean - Louis Michel of IFREMER and Robert Ballard of the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution . The wreck has been the focus of intense interest since its discovery and has been visited by numerous expeditions , including salvage operations which have controversially recovered thousands of items which have been conserved and put on public display . Over the years after her sinking , many impractical , expensive and often physically impossible schemes have been put forward to raise Titanic from her resting place . They have included ideas such as filling the wreck with ping - pong balls , injecting it with 180,000 tons of Vaseline , or using half a million tons of liquid nitrogen to encase it inside a giant iceberg that would float back to the surface . However , the wreck is far too fragile to be raised and is now protected by a UNESCO convention . Contents ( hide ) 1 Salvaging Titanic 1.1 Salvage proposals in the 1960s and 1970s 1.2 Jack Grimm 's expeditions , 1980 -- 1983 2 Discovery 2.1 Subsequent expeditions 2.1. 1 1986 -- 1998 2.1. 2 2000 -- present 3 Description of the wreck 3.1 Bow section 3.2 Interiors 3.3 Stern section 3.4 Debris fields 4 Condition and deterioration of the wreck 5 Ownership 5.1 Litigation and controversy 5.2 Conservation issues 6 Exhibitions of Titanic artifacts 7 See also 8 Notes 9 Footnotes 10 References 11 Further reading 12 External links Salvaging Titanic Location of the wreck of Titanic in the North Atlantic . Almost immediately after Titanic sank on 15 April 1912 , proposals were advanced to salvage her from her resting place in the North Atlantic Ocean , despite her exact location and condition being unknown . The families of several wealthy victims of the disaster -- the Guggenheims , Astors , and Wideners -- formed a consortium and contracted the Merritt and Chapman Derrick and Wrecking Company to raise Titanic . The project was soon abandoned as impractical as the divers could not even reach a significant fraction of the necessary depth , where the pressure is over 6,000 pounds per square inch ( 410 bar ) . The lack of submarine technology at the time as well as the outbreak of World War I also put off such a project . The company considered dropping dynamite on the wreck to dislodge bodies which would float to the surface , but finally gave up after oceanographers suggested that the extreme pressure would have compressed the bodies into gelatinous lumps . ( In fact , this was incorrect . Whale falls , a phenomenon not discovered until 1987 -- coincidentally , by the same submersible used for the first manned expedition to Titanic the year before -- demonstrate that water - filled corpses , in this case cetaceans , can sink to the bottom essentially intact . The high pressure and cold temperature of the water would have prevented significant quantities of gas forming during decomposition , preventing the bodies of Titanic victims from rising back to the surface . ) In later years , numerous proposals were put forward to salvage Titanic . However , all fell afoul of practical and technological difficulties , a lack of funding and , in many cases , a lack of understanding of the physical conditions at the wreck site . Charles Smith , an architect from Denver , proposed in March 1914 to attach electromagnets to a submarine which would be irresistibly drawn to the wreck 's steel hull . Having found its exact position , more electromagnets would be sent down from a fleet of barges which would winch Titanic to the surface . An estimated cost of $1.5 million ( $35.5 million today ) and its impracticality meant that the idea was not put into practice . Another proposal involved raising Titanic by means of attaching balloons to her hull using electromagnets . Once enough balloons had been attached , the ship would float gently to the surface . Again , the idea got no further than the drawing board . Salvage proposals in the 1960s and 1970s Titanic surfacing on a poster publicizing the film Raise the Titanic . In the mid-1960s , a hosiery worker from Baldock named Douglas Woolley devised a plan to find Titanic using a bathyscaphe ( like Trieste , used to reach the bottom of the Mariana Trench in 1960 ) and raise the wreck by inflating nylon balloons that would be attached to her hull . The declared objective was to `` bring the wreck into Liverpool and convert it to a floating museum '' . The Titanic Salvage Company was established to manage the scheme and a group of businessmen from West Berlin set up an entity called Titanic - Tresor to support it financially . It fell apart when its proponents found they could not overcome the problem of how the balloons would be inflated in the first place . Calculations showed that it could take ten years to generate enough gas to overcome the water pressure . A variety of audacious but equally impractical schemes were put forward during the 1970s . One proposal called for 180,000 tons of molten wax ( or alternatively , Vaseline ) to be pumped into Titanic , lifting her to the surface . Another proposal involved filling Titanic with ping - pong balls , but overlooked the fact that the balls would be crushed by the pressure long before reaching the depth of the wreck . A similar idea involving the use of Benthos glass spheres , which could survive the pressure , was scuppered when the cost of the number of spheres required was put at over $238 million . An unemployed haulage contractor from Walsall named Arthur Hickey proposed to turn Titanic into an iceberg , freezing the water around the wreck to encase it in a buoyant jacket of ice . This , being lighter than liquid water , would float to the surface and could be towed to shore . The BOC Group calculated that this would require half a million tons of liquid nitrogen to be pumped down to the sea bed . In his 1976 thriller Raise the Titanic ! , author Clive Cussler 's hero Dirk Pitt repairs the holes in Titanic 's hull , pumps it full of compressed air and succeeds in making it `` leap out of the waves like a modern submarine blowing its ballast tanks '' , a scene depicted on the posters of the subsequent film of the book . Although this was an `` artistically stimulating '' highlight of the film , made using a 55 ft ( 17 m ) model of Titanic , it would not have been physically possible . At the time of the book 's writing , it was still believed that she sank in one piece . Robert Ballard of the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution had long been interested in finding Titanic . Despite early negotiations with possible backers being abandoned when it emerged that they wanted to turn the wreck into souvenir paperweights , more sympathetic backers joined Ballard to form a company named Seasonics International Ltd. as a vehicle for rediscovering and exploring Titanic . In October 1977 he made his first attempt to find the ship with the aid of the Alcoa Corporation 's deep sea salvage vessel Seaprobe . This was essentially a drillship with sonar equipment and cameras attached to the end of the drilling pipe . It could lift objects from the seabed using a remote - controlled mechanical claw . The expedition ended in failure when the drilling pipe broke , sending 3,000 feet ( 910 m ) of pipe and $600,000 worth of electronics plunging to the sea bed . In 1978 , The Walt Disney Company and National Geographic magazine considered mounting a joint expedition to find Titanic , using the aluminium submersible Aluminaut . Titanic would have been well within the submersible 's depth limits , but the plans were abandoned for financial reasons . The following year , the British billionaire financier and tycoon Sir James Goldsmith set up Seawise & Titanic Salvage Ltd. with the involvement of underwater diving and photographic experts . His aim was to use the publicity of finding Titanic to promote his newly established magazine , NOW ! . An expedition to the North Atlantic was scheduled for 1980 but was cancelled due to financial difficulties . A year later , NOW ! folded after 84 issues with Goldsmith incurring huge financial losses . Fred Koehler , an electronics repairman from Coral Gables , Florida , sold his electronics shop to finance the completion of a two - man deep - sea submersible called Seacopter . He planned to dive to Titanic , enter the hull and retrieve a fabulous collection of diamonds rumored to be contained in the purser 's safe . However , he was unable to obtain financial backing for his planned expedition . Another proposal involved using a semi-submersible platform mounted with cranes , resting on two watertight supertankers , that would winch the wreck off the seabed and carry it to shore . A proponent was quoted as saying , `` It 's like the Great Wall of China -- given enough time and money and people , you can do anything . '' Time , money and people were not forthcoming and the proposal got no further than any of its predecessors . Jack Grimm 's expeditions , 1980 -- 1983 On 17 July 1980 , an expedition sponsored by Texan oilman Jack Grimm set off from Port Everglades , Florida , in the research vessel H.J.W. Fay. Grimm had previously sponsored expeditions to find Noah 's Ark , the Loch Ness Monster , Bigfoot , and the giant hole in the North Pole predicted by the pseudoscientific Hollow Earth hypothesis . To raise funds for his Titanic expedition , he obtained sponsorship from friends with whom he played poker , sold media rights through the William Morris Agency , commissioned a book , and obtained the services of Orson Welles to narrate a documentary . He acquired scientific support from Columbia University by donating $330,000 to the Lamont -- Doherty Geological Observatory for the purchase of a wide - sweep sonar , in exchange for five years ' use of the equipment and the services of technicians to support it . Drs . William B. Ryan of Columbia University and Fred Spiess of Scripps Institution of Oceanography in California joined the expedition as consultants . They nearly stayed ashore when Grimm introduced them to a new consultant -- a monkey called Titan , which was trained to point at a spot on the map to supposedly indicate where Titanic was . The scientists issued an ultimatum : `` It 's either us or the monkey . '' Grimm preferred the monkey , but was prevailed upon to leave it behind and take the scientists instead . The results were inconclusive , as three weeks of surveying in almost continuous bad weather during July and August 1980 failed to find Titanic . The problem was exacerbated by technological limitations ; the Sea MARC sonar used by the expedition had a relatively low resolution and was a new and untested piece of equipment . It was nearly lost only 36 hours after it was first deployed when the tail was ripped off during a sharp turn , destroying the magnetometer , which would have been vital for detecting Titanic 's hull . Nonetheless it managed to survey an area of some 500 square nautical miles and identified 14 possible targets . Grimm mounted a second expedition in June 1981 aboard the research vessel Gyre , with Spiess and Ryan again joining the expedition . To increase their chances of finding the wreck , the team employed a much more capable sonar device , the Scripps Deep Tow . The weather was again very poor , but all 14 of the targets were successfully covered and found to be natural features . On the last day of the expedition , an object that looked like a propeller was found . Grimm announced on his return to Boston that Titanic had been found , but the scientists declined to endorse his identification . In July 1983 , Grimm went back a third time with Ryan aboard the research vessel Robert D. Conrad to have another look at the `` propeller '' . This time nothing was found and very bad weather brought an early end to the expedition . It later turned out that Sea MARC had actually passed over Titanic but had failed to detect it , while Deep Tow passed within 1.5 miles ( 2.4 km ) of the wreck . Discovery D. Michael Harris and Jack Grimm had failed to find Titanic but their expeditions did succeed in producing fairly detailed mapping of the area in which the ship had sunk . It was clear that the position given in Titanic 's distress signals was inaccurate , which was a major expedition difficulty because it increased the search area 's already - expansive size . Despite the failure of his 1977 expedition , Robert Ballard had not given up hope and devised new technologies and a new search strategy to tackle the problem . The new technology was a system called Argo / Jason . This consisted of a remotely controlled deep - sea vehicle called Argo , equipped with sonar and cameras and towed behind a ship , with a robot called Jason tethered to it that could roam the sea floor , take close - up images and gather specimens . The images from the system would be transmitted back to a control room on the towing vessel where they could be assessed immediately . Although it was designed for scientific purposes , it also had important military applications and the United States Navy agreed to sponsor the system 's development , on condition that it was to be used to carry out a number of programmes -- many still classified -- for the Navy . The Navy commissioned Ballard and his team to carry out a month - long expedition every year for four years , to keep Argo / Jason in good working condition . It agreed to Ballard 's proposal to use some of the time to search for Titanic once the Navy 's objectives had been met ; the search would provide an ideal opportunity to test Argo / Jason . In 1984 the Navy sent Ballard and Argo to map the wrecks of the sunken nuclear submarines USS Thresher and USS Scorpion , lost in the North Atlantic at depths of up to 9,800 feet ( 3,000 m ) . The expedition found the submarines and made an important discovery . As Thresher and Scorpion sank , debris spilled out from them across a wide area of the seabed and was sorted by the currents , so that light debris drifted furthest away from the site of the sinking . This `` debris field '' was far larger than the wrecks themselves . By following the comet - like trail of debris , the main pieces of wreckage could be found . A second expedition to map the wreck of Scorpion was mounted in 1985 . Only twelve days of search time would be left at the end of the expedition to look for Titanic . As Harris / Grimm 's unsuccessful efforts had taken more than forty days , Ballard decided that extra help would be needed . He approached the French national oceanographic agency , IFREMER , with which Woods Hole had previously collaborated . The agency had recently developed a high - resolution side - scan sonar called SAR and agreed to send a research vessel , Le Suroît , to survey the sea bed in the area where Titanic was believed to lie . The idea was for the French to use the sonar to find likely targets , and then for the Americans to use Argo to check out the targets and hopefully confirm whether they were in fact the wreck . The French team spent five weeks , from 5 July to 12 August 1985 , `` mowing the lawn '' -- sailing back and forth across the 150 - square - mile ( 390 km ) target area to scan the sea bed in a series of stripes . However , they found nothing , though it turned out that they had passed within a few hundred yards of Titanic in their first run . Ballard realized that looking for the wreck itself using sonar was unlikely to be successful and adopted a different tactic , drawing on the experience of the surveys of Thresher and Scorpion ; he would look for the debris field instead , using Argo 's cameras rather than sonar . Whereas sonar could not distinguish man - made debris on the sea bed from natural objects , cameras could . The debris field would also be a far bigger target , stretching a mile ( 1.6 km ) or longer , whereas Titanic itself was only 90 feet ( 27 m ) wide . The search required round - the - clock towing of Argo back and forth above the sea bed , with shifts of watchers aboard the research vessel Knorr looking at the camera pictures for any sign of debris . After a week of fruitless searching , at 12.48 am on Sunday 1 September 1985 pieces of debris began to appear on Knorr 's screens . One of them was identified as a boiler , identical to those shown in pictures from 1911 . The following day , the main part of the wreck was found and Argo sent back the first pictures of Titanic since her sinking 73 years before . The discovery made headlines around the world . Subsequent expeditions 1986 -- 1998 DSV Alvin , used in 1986 to mount the first manned expedition to the wreck of Titanic Following his discovery of the wreck site , Ballard returned to Titanic in July 1986 aboard the research vessel RV Atlantis II . Now the deep - diving submersible DSV Alvin could take people back to Titanic for the first time since her sinking , and the remotely operated vehicle ( ROV ) Jason Jr. would allow the explorers to investigate the interior of the wreck . Another system , ANGUS , was used to carry out photo surveys of the debris field . Jason Jr. descended the ruined Grand Staircase as far as B Deck , and photographed remarkably well preserved interiors , including some chandeliers still hanging from the ceilings . Between 25 July and 10 September 1987 , an expedition mounted by IFREMER and a consortium of American investors which included George Tulloch , G. Michael Harris , D. Michael Harris and Ralph White made 32 dives to Titanic using the submersible Nautile . Controversially , they salvaged and brought ashore more than 1,800 objects . A joint Russian - Canadian - American expedition took place in 1991 using the research vessel Akademik Mstislav Keldysh and its two MIR submersibles . Sponsored by Stephen Low and IMAX , CBS , National Geographic and others , the expedition carried out extensive scientific research with a crew of 130 scientists and engineers . The MIRs carried out 17 dives , spending over 140 hours at the bottom , shooting 40,000 feet ( 12,000 m ) of IMAX film . This was used to create the 1995 documentary film Titanica , which was later released in the US on DVD in a re-edited version narrated by Leonard Nimoy . IFREMER and RMS Titanic Inc. , the successors to the sponsors of the 1987 expedition , returned to the wreck with Nautile and the ROV Robin in June 1993 . Over the course of fifteen days , Nautile made fifteen dives lasting between eight and twelve hours . Another 800 artefacts were recovered during the expedition including a two - tonne piece of a reciprocating engine , a lifeboat davit and the steam whistle from the ship 's forward funnel . In 1993 , 1994 , 1996 , 1998 and 2000 , RMS Titanic Inc. carried out an intensive series of dives that led to the recovery of over 4,000 items in the first two expeditions alone . The 1996 expedition controversially attempted to raise a section of Titanic itself , a section of the outer hull that originally comprised part of the wall of two First Class cabins on C Deck , extending down to D Deck . It weighed 20 tons , measured 15 by 25 feet ( 4.6 m × 7.6 m ) and had four portholes in it , three of which still had glass in them . The section had come loose either during the sinking or as a result of the impact with the sea bed . Its recovery using diesel - filled floatation bags was turned into something of an entertainment event with two cruise ships accompanying the expedition to the wreck site . Passengers were offered the chance , at $5,000 per person , to watch the recovery on television screens in their cabins while enjoying luxury accommodation , Las Vegas - style shows and casino gambling aboard the ships . Various celebrities were recruited to enliven the proceedings , including Burt Reynolds , Debbie Reynolds and Buzz Aldrin , and `` Grand Receptions '' for VIPs were scheduled on - shore where the hull section would be displayed . However , the lift ended disastrously when rough weather caused the ropes supporting the bags to snap . At the moment the ropes broke , the hull section had been lifted to within only 200 feet ( 61 m ) of the surface . It hurtled 12,000 feet ( 3,700 m ) back down , embedding itself upright on the sea floor . Although the attempt was strongly criticised by marine archaeologists , scientists and historians as a money - making publicity stunt , a second , successful attempt to lift the fragment was carried out in 1998 . The so - called `` Big Piece '' was conserved in a laboratory in Santa Fe for two years before being put on display at the Luxor Las Vegas hotel and casino . In 1995 , Canadian director James Cameron chartered the Akademik Mstislav Keldysh and the MIRs to make 12 dives to Titanic . He used the resulting footage to considerable effect in his blockbuster 1997 film Titanic . The discovery of the wreck in 1985 and a National Geographic documentary of Ballard 's 1986 expedition had inspired Cameron to write a synopsis in 1987 of what eventually became the film Titanic : `` Do story with bookends of present day scene of wreck using submersibles intercut with memories of a survivor and re-created scenes of the night of the sinking . A crucible of human values under stress . '' Cameron 's expedition did not salvage anything from the ship . 2000 -- present The partly collapsed bathroom of Captain Edward Smith , with the bathtub now filled with rusticles The 2000 expedition by RMS Titanic Inc. carried out 28 dives during which over 800 artefacts were recovered , including the ship 's engine telegraphs , perfume vials and watertight door gears . In 2001 , an American couple -- David Leibowitz and Kimberly Miller -- caused controversy when they were married aboard a submersible that had set down on the bow of Titanic , in a deliberate echo of a famous scene from James Cameron 's 1997 film . The wedding was essentially a publicity stunt , sponsored by a British company called SubSea Explorer which had offered a free dive to Titanic that Leibowitz had won . He asked whether his fiancée could come too and was told that she could -- but only if she agreed to get married during the trip . The same company also brought along Philip Littlejohn , the grandson of one of Titanic 's surviving crew members , who became the first relative of a Titanic passenger or crew member to visit the wreck . Cameron himself also returned to Titanic in 2001 to carry out filming for Walt Disney Pictures ' Ghosts of the Abyss , filmed in 3D . In 2003 and 2004 , the US National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration carried out two expeditions to Titanic . The first , carried out between 22 June and 2 July 2003 , performed four dives in two days . Its key aims were to assess the current condition of the wreck site and carry out scientific observations to support ongoing research . The stern section , which had previously received relatively little attention from explorers , was specifically targeted for analysis . The microbial colonies aboard Titanic were also a key focus of investigation . The second expedition , from 27 May -- 12 June 2004 , saw the return of Robert Ballard to Titanic nearly 20 years after he discovered it . The expedition spent 11 days on the wreck , carrying out high - resolution mapping using video and stereoscopic still images . 2005 saw two expeditions to the Titanic . James Cameron returned for the third and last time to film Last Mysteries of the Titanic . Another expedition searched for previously unseen pieces of wreckage , and led to the documentary Titanic 's Final Moments : Missing Pieces . RMS Titanic Inc. mounted further expeditions to Titanic in 2004 and 2010 , when the first comprehensive map of the entire debris field was produced . Two autonomous underwater vehicles -- torpedo - shaped robots -- repeatedly ran backwards and forwards across the 3 by 5 miles ( 4.8 km × 8.0 km ) debris field , taking sonar scans and over 130,000 high - resolution images . This enabled a detailed photomosaic of the debris field to be created for the first time , giving scientists a much clearer view of the dynamics of the ship 's sinking . The expedition encountered difficulties : several hurricanes passed over the wreck site , and the Remora ROV was caught in a piece of wreckage . This same year saw the discovery of the new bacteria living in the rusticles on the Titanic , Halomonas titanicae . Tourist and scientific visits to Titanic are still continuing ; by April 2012 , 100 years since the disaster and nearly 25 since the discovery of the wreck , around 140 people had visited . On 14 April 2012 ( the 100th anniversary of the ship 's sinking ) , the wreck of the Titanic became eligible for protection under the 2001 UNESCO Convention on the Protection of Underwater Cultural Heritage . In the same month , Robert Ballard , the wreck 's discoverer , announced a plan to preserve the wreck of the Titanic by using deep - sea robots to paint the wreck with anti-fouling paint , to help keep the wreck in its current state for all time . The proposed plan that Ballard announced has been outlined in a documentary made to time with the Titanic 's 100th sinking anniversary called Save the Titanic With Bob Ballard where Ballard himself talks about how this proposed paint job on the wreck will work . Ballard says that he proposed to robotically clean and repaint the Titanic with a colour scheme mimicking rusticles because he saw `` original anti-fouling paint on the ship 's hull , which was still working even after 74 years on the seabed '' when he visited the Titanic in 1986 . Description of the wreck The location of the wreck is a considerable distance from the location transmitted by the ship 's wireless operators before she went down . The initial location was given as 41 ° 44 ′ N 50 ° 24 ′ W  /  41.733 ° N 50.400 ° W  / 41.733 ; - 50.400  ( RMS Titanic 's initial reported position ) , 20.8 miles ( 33.5 km ) from the wreck . A corrected location was later transmitted as 41 ° 46 ′ N 50 ° 14 ′ W  /  41.767 ° N 50.233 ° W  / 41.767 ; - 50.233  ( RMS Titanic 's corrected reported position ) , but this too was inaccurate , by 13.2 miles ( 21.2 km ) . Titanic is in two main pieces 370 miles ( 600 km ) south - east of Mistaken Point , Newfoundland . The bow is located at 41 ° 43 ′ 57 '' N 49 ° 56 ′ 49 '' W  /  41.73250 ° N 49.94694 ° W  / 41.73250 ; - 49.94694  ( Position of RMS Titanic 's bow section ) Coordinates : 41 ° 43 ′ 57 '' N 49 ° 56 ′ 49 '' W  /  41.73250 ° N 49.94694 ° W  / 41.73250 ; - 49.94694  ( Position of RMS Titanic 's bow section ) and the stern is about 1,970 feet ( 600 m ) to the south at 41 ° 43 ′ 35 '' N 49 ° 56 ′ 54 '' W  /  41.72639 ° N 49.94833 ° W  / 41.72639 ; - 49.94833  ( Position of RMS Titanic 's stern section ) . The boilers found by Argo , which mark the point at which the ship went down , are about 600 feet ( 180 m ) east of the stern at 41 ° 43 ′ 32 '' N 49 ° 56 ′ 49 '' W  /  41.72556 ° N 49.94694 ° W  / 41.72556 ; - 49.94694  ( Position of RMS Titanic boilers located by Argo ) . The two main parts of the wreck of Titanic present a striking contrast . Although fourteen survivors testified that the ship had broken apart as she sank , this testimony was discounted by the official inquiries , and it was supposed that the ship had sunk intact . It is now clear that the stresses on Titanic caused the ship to split apart between the second and third funnels at or just below the surface . Bow section The bow section , which measures about 470 feet ( 140 m ) long , is thought to have descended at an angle of about 45 ° . Its distance from the stern was caused by its planing forward horizontally by about 1 foot ( 0.30 m ) for every 6 feet ( 1.8 m ) of its descent . During the descent to the sea bed , the funnels were swept away , taking with them the rigging and large lengths of cables . These dragged along the boat deck , tearing away many of the davits and much of the other deck equipment . The foremast was also torn down , falling onto the port bridge area . The ship 's wheelhouse was swept away , possibly after being hit by the falling foremast . The bow hit the bottom at a speed of about 20 knots ( 23 mph ; 37 km / h ) , digging about 60 feet ( 18 m ) deep into the mud , up to the base of the anchors . The impact bent the hull in two places and caused it to buckle downwards by about 10 ° under the forward well deck cranes and by about 4 ° under the forward expansion joint . When the bow section hit the sea bed , the weakened decks at the rear , where the ship had broken apart , collapsed on top of each other . The forward hatch cover was also blown off and landed a couple of hundred feet in front of the bow , possibly due to the force of water being pushed out as the bow impacted the bottom . The area around the bridge is particularly badly damaged ; as Robert Ballard has put it , it looks `` as if it had been squashed by a giant 's fist '' . The roof of the officers ' quarters and the sides of the gymnasium appear pushed in , railings were bent outwards and vertical steel columns supporting the decks were bent into a C - shape . Charles R. Pellegrino has proposed that this was the result of a `` down - blast '' of water , caused by a slipstream that had followed the bow section as it fell towards the sea bed . According to Pellegrino 's hypothesis , when the bow came to an abrupt halt the inertia of the slipstream caused a rapidly moving column of water weighing thousands of tons to strike the top of the wreck , striking it near the bridge . This , argues Pellegrino , caused large parts of the bow 's interior to be demolished by surges of water and violent eddies kicked up by the wreck 's sudden halt . The damage caused by the collision with the iceberg is not visible at the bow as it is buried under mud . Interiors See also : First class facilities of the RMS Titanic Despite the exterior devastation caused by the bow 's descent and collision with the ocean floor , there are parts of the interior in reasonably good condition . The bow 's slow flooding and its relatively smooth descent to the sea floor mitigated interior damage . The stairwell of the First - Class Grand Staircase between the Boat Deck and E Deck is an empty chasm within the wreck , providing a convenient point of access for ROVs . Dense rusticles hanging from the steel decking combined with the deep layers of silt that have accumulated in the interior make navigating the wreck disorienting . Passenger staterooms have largely deteriorated because they were framed in perishable softwoods such as pine , leaving a warren of hanging electrical wire , light fixtures and debris interspersed with more durable items like brass bed frames , light fixtures , and marble - topped washstands . Woodwork with attachments like doorknobs , drawer - pulls or push - plates survive in better condition because of the small electric charge emitted by metal which repels fish and other harmful organisms . On the whole hardwoods like teak and mahogany , the material for most stateroom furnishings , are more resistant to decay . Lavatories and bathrooms within the passenger quarters survive because they were framed in steel . The only intact public rooms remaining in either the stern or bow sections are the First - Class Reception Room and Dining Saloon , both on D - Deck . Most of the Dining Saloon has collapsed because of its proximity to the break - up point midships , but the very forward part is accessible and the rectangular leaded glass windows , table bases , and ceiling lamps are noticeably preserved . The Reception Room with its leaded glass windows and mahogany paneling remains remarkably intact , although the ceiling is sagging and there is a deep layer of silt obstructing the floor . The Turkish Baths on F - Deck were found to be in excellent condition during their rediscovery in 2005 , preserving the blue - green tiles , carved teak woodwork , bronze lamps , and inlaid furniture . The Grand Staircase was very likely destroyed during the sinking , but the surrounding First - Class foyers and elevator entrances preserve many of the ormolu and crystal lamps , oak timbers , and oak - framed stanchions . In addition to the passenger areas , crew areas like the Firemen 's Mess , dormitories , parts of `` Scotland Road '' on E-Deck and the cargo holds on the Orlop Deck have also been explored . The Ghosts of the Abyss expedition in 2001 attempted to locate the famed Renault automobile belonging to William Carter , but the cargo was indistinguishable beneath the silt and rusticles . Stern section The stern section , which measures about 350 feet ( 110 m ) long , was catastrophically damaged during the descent and in landing on the sea bed . It had not fully filled with water when it sank and the increasing water pressure caused trapped air pockets to implode , tearing apart the hull . It was loud enough that multiple survivors reported hearing explosions about ten seconds after the stern had sunk beneath the waves . Data from a sonar map made during a 2010 expedition showed that the stern section rotated like a helicopter blade as it sank . The rudder appears to have swung over to an angle of about 30 -- 45 ° during the stern 's descent , causing the section to follow a tight spiral to the bottom . It probably struck rudder - first , burying most of the rudder in the mud up to a depth of 50 feet ( 15 m ) . The decks pancaked on top of each other and the hull plating splayed out to the sides of the shattered section . The pancaking is so severe that the combined height of the decks , which are piled up on top of the reciprocating engines , is now generally not more than about 12 to 15 feet ( 3.7 to 4.6 m ) high . No individual deck is more than about 1 foot ( 30 cm ) high . Large sections of the hull plating seem to have fallen off well before the wreck hit the bottom . One such section , thought to have been from the galleys , separated from the stern in one piece and landed nearby . The force of the water tore up the poop deck and folded it back on itself . The center propeller is totally buried , while the force of the impact caused the two wing propellers and shafts to be bent upwards by an angle of about 20 ° . A large V - shaped section of the ship just aft of midships , running from the keel upwards through Number 1 Boiler Room and upwards to cover the area under the third and fourth funnels , was believed to have disintegrated entirely when the ship broke up . This was one of the weakest parts of the ship as a result of the presence of two large open spaces -- the forward end of the engine room and the aft First Class passenger staircase . The rest of this part of the ship are scattered across the seabed at distances of 130 to 260 feet ( 40 to 79 m ) from the main part of the stern . During the 2010 expedition to map the wreck site , a major chunk of the deck house ( the base of the third funnel ) along with pieces of the third funnel was found . This showed that instead of simply disintegrating into a mass of debris , large sections of the ship broke off in chunks and that the ship broke in half between the second and third funnels , not the third and fourth funnels . Five of the boilers from Number 1 Boiler Room came loose during its disintegration and landed in the debris field around the stern . Experts believe that this tight cluster of the boilers marks the hypocenter of where the ship broke up 12,000 feet above . The rest of the boilers are still presumably located in the bow section . Debris fields As Titanic broke apart , many objects and pieces of hull were scattered across the sea bed . There are two debris fields in the vicinity of the wreck , each between 2,000 -- 2,600 ft ( 610 -- 790 m ) long , trailing in a south - westerly direction from the bow and stern . They cover an area of about 2 square miles ( 5.2 km ) . Most of the debris is concentrated near the stern section of Titanic . It consists of thousands of objects from the interior of the ship , ranging from tons of coal spilled from ruptured bunkers to suitcases , clothes , corked wine bottles ( many still intact despite the pressure ) , bathtubs , windows , washbasins , jugs , bowls , hand mirrors and numerous other personal effects . The debris field also includes numerous pieces of the ship itself , with the largest pieces of debris in the vicinity of the partially disintegrated stern section . Condition and deterioration of the wreck A rattail or grenadier fish , typical of the deep - sea fauna around Titanic Prior to the discovery of Titanic 's wreck , in addition to the common assumption that she had sunk in one piece , it had been widely believed that conditions at 12,000 feet ( 4 kilometres ) down would preserve the ship virtually intact . The water is bitterly cold at only about 1 -- 2 ° C ( 34 -- 36 ° F ) , there is no light and the high pressure was thought to be likely to lower oxygen and salinity levels to the point that organisms would not be able to gain a foothold on the wreck . Titanic would effectively be in a deep freeze . The reality has turned out to be very different , and the ship has increasingly deteriorated since she sank in April 1912 . Her gradual decay is due to a number of different processes -- physical , chemical and biological . She is situated on an undulating , gently sloping area of seabed in Titanic Canyon which is swept by the Western Boundary Current . Eddies from the current flow constantly across the wreck , scouring the sea bed and keeping sediment from building up over the hull . The current is strong and often changeable , gradually opening up holes in the ship 's hull . Salt corrosion eats away at the hull and it is also affected by galvanic corrosion . The most dramatic deterioration has been caused by biological factors . It used to be thought that the depths of the ocean were a lifeless desert , but research carried out since the mid-1980s has found that the ocean floor is teeming with life and may rival the tropical rainforests for biodiversity . During the 1991 IMAX expedition , scientists were surprised by the variety of organisms that they found in and around Titanic . A total of 28 species were observed , including sea anemones , crabs , shrimp , starfish , and rattail fish up to a yard ( 1 m ) long . Much larger creatures have been glimpsed by explorers . Some of Titanic 's fauna has never been seen anywhere else ; James Cameron 's 2001 expedition discovered a previously unknown type of sea cucumber , lavender with a glowing row of phosphorescent `` portholes '' along its side . A newly discovered species of rust - eating bacterium found on the ship has been named Halomonas titanicae , which has been found to cause rapid decay of the wreck . Henrietta Mann , who discovered the bacteria , has estimated that the Titanic will completely collapse possibly as soon as 2025 . The Canadian geophysicist Steve Blasco has commented that the wreck `` has become an oasis , a thriving ecosystem sitting in a vast desert '' . In mid 2016 , the facilities of the Institut Laue - Langevin used neutron imaging to demonstrate that a molecule called ectoine is used by Halomonas titanicae to regulate fluid balance and cell volume to survive at such pressures and salinities . Analysis by Henrietta Mann and Bhavleen Kaur , both of Dalhousie University in Halifax , Nova Scotia , in conjunction with other scientists and researchers of the University of Seville in Spain , has determined that the wreck of Titanic will not exist by 2037 and that preservation of Titanic is impossible . `` Unfortunately , because Titanic is 2.3 miles down , it is very difficult or impossible to preserve . It is film which will preserve it for history now , '' says Mann . `` It has already lasted for 100 years , but eventually there will be nothing left but a rust stain on the bottom of the Atlantic ... I think Titanic has maybe 15 or 20 years left . I do n't think it will have too much longer than that . '' Other scientists have estimated that Titanic will last no longer than 14 years , as of 2017 . The soft organic material aboard and dispersed onto the seabed around the hull would have been the first to disappear , rapidly devoured by fish and crustaceans . Wood - boring molluscs such as Teredo colonized the ship 's decks and interior in huge numbers , eating away the wooden decking and other wooden objects such as furniture , paneling , doors and staircase banisters . When their food ran out they died , leaving behind calcareous tubes . The question of the victims ' bodies is one that has often troubled explorers of the wreck site . When the debris field was surveyed in Robert Ballard 's 1986 expedition , pairs of shoes were observed lying next to each other on the sea bed . The flesh , bones , and clothes had long since been consumed but the tannin in the shoes ' leather had apparently resisted the bacteria , leaving the shoes as the only markers of where a body had once lain . Ballard has suggested that skeletons may remain deep within Titanic 's hull , such as in the engine rooms or third - class cabins . This has been disputed by scientists , who have estimated that the bodies would have completely disappeared by the early 1940s at the latest . In any event , the molluscs and scavengers did not consume everything organic . Some of the wooden objects on the ship and in the debris field have not been consumed , particularly those made of teak , a dense wood that seems to have resisted the borers . The First Class reception area off the ship 's Grand Staircase is still remarkably intact and furniture is still visible among the debris on the floor . Although most of the corridors have lost their walls , furniture is still in place in many cabins ; in one , a mattress is still on the bed , with an intact and undamaged dresser behind it . Robert Ballard has suggested that areas within the ship or buried under debris , where scavengers may not have been able to reach , may still contain human remains . According to Charles Pellegrino , who dived on Titanic in 2001 , a finger bone encircled by the partial remains of a wedding ring was found concreted to the bottom of a soup tureen that was retrieved from the debris field . It was returned to the sea bed on the next dive . Part of the Titanic wreck in 2003 with rusticles hanging from the hull The longest - lasting inhabitants of Titanic are likely to be bacteria and archaea which have colonized the metal hull of the ship . They have produced `` reddish - brown stalactites of rust ( hanging ) down as much as several feet , looking like long needle - like icicles '' , as Robert Ballard has put it . The formations , which Ballard dubbed `` rusticles '' , are extremely fragile and disintegrate in a cloud of particles if touched . The bacteria consume the iron in the hull , oxidizing it and leaving rust particles behind as a waste product . To protect themselves from the seawater , they secrete an acidic viscous slime that flows where gravity takes it , carrying ferric oxides and hydroxides . These form the rusticles . When scientists were able to retrieve a rusticle , it was discovered that it was far more complex than had been imagined , with complex systems of roots infiltrating the metal , interior channels , bundles of fibers , pores and other structures . Charles Pellegrino comments that they seem more akin to `` levels of tissue organization found in sponges or mosses and other members of the animal or plant kingdoms . '' The bacteria are estimated to be consuming Titanic 's hull at the rate of 400 pounds ( 180 kg ) per day , which is about 17 pounds ( 7.7 kg ) per hour or 4.4 ounces ( 120 grams ) per minute . Roy Collimore , a microbiologist , estimates that the bow alone now supports some 650 tons of rusticles and that they will have devoured fifty per cent of the hull within 200 years . Since Titanic 's wreck was discovered in 1985 , radical changes have been observed in the marine ecosystem around the ship . The 1996 expedition recorded 75 per cent more brittle stars and sea cucumbers than Ballard 's 1985 expedition , while crinoids and sea squirts had taken root all over the sea bed . Red krill had appeared and an unknown organism had built numerous nests across the seabed from black pebbles . The amount of rusticles on the ship had increased greatly . Curiously , the same thing had happened over about the same timescale to the wreck of the German battleship Bismarck , sunk at a depth of 4,791 metres ( 15,719 ft ) on the other side of the Atlantic . The mud around the ship was found to contain hundreds of different species of animals . The sudden explosion of life around Titanic may be a result of an increased amount of nutrients falling from the surface , possibly a result of human overfishing eliminating fish that would otherwise have consumed the nutrients . Many scientists , including Robert Ballard , are concerned that visits by tourists in submersibles and the recovery of artifacts are causing the wreck to decay faster . Underwater bacteria have been eating away at Titanic 's steel and transformed it into rust since the ship sank , but because of the extra damage caused by visitors , the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration estimates that `` the hull and structure of the ship may collapse to the ocean floor within the next 50 years . '' The promenade deck has deteriorated significantly in recent years , partly because of damage caused by submersibles landing on the ship . The mast has almost completely deteriorated and has been stripped of its bell and brass light . Other damage includes a gash on the bow section where block letters once spelled Titanic , part of the brass telemotor which once held the ship 's wooden wheel is now twisted and the crow 's nest has completely deteriorated . The Canadian director James Cameron is responsible for some of the more significant damage during his expedition to the ship in 1995 to acquire footage for his film Titanic two years later . One of the MIR submersibles used on the expedition collided with the hull , damaging both and leaving fragments of the submersible 's propeller shroud scattered around the superstructure . Captain Smith 's quarters were heavily damaged by the collapse of the external bulkhead , which exposed the cabin 's interior . Ownership Titanic 's discovery in 1985 sparked a debate over the ownership of the wreck and the valuable items inside and on the sea bed around it . Ballard and his crew did not bring up any artifacts from the wreck , considering such an act to be tantamount to grave robbing . Ballard has since argued strongly `` that it be left unmolested by treasure seekers '' . As Ballard has put it , the development of deep - sea submersibles has made `` the great pyramids of the deep ... accessible to man . He can either plunder them like the grave robbers of Egypt or protect them for the countless generations which will follow ours . '' However , within only two weeks of the discovery , a British insurance company claimed that it owned the wreck , and several more schemes to raise it were announced . A Belgian entrepreneur offered trips to Titanic for $25,000 a head . Spurred by Ballard 's appeals for the wreck to be left alone , North Carolina Congressman Walter B. Jones , Sr. introduced the RMS Titanic Maritime Memorial Act in the United States House of Representatives in 1986 . It called for strict scientific guidelines to be introduced to govern the exploration and salvage of Titanic and urged the United States Secretary of State to lobby Canada , the United Kingdom and France to pass similar legislation . It passed the House and Senate by an overwhelming majority and was signed into law by President Ronald Reagan on 21 October 1986 . However , the law has been ineffective as the wreck lies outside United States waters , and the Act was set aside by the United States District Court for the Eastern District of Virginia , Norfolk Division , in 1998 . Although negotiations among the four countries were carried out between 1997 and 2000 , the resulting `` Agreement Concerning the Shipwrecked Vessel R.M.S. Titanic '' has been ratified by only the US and the UK . Litigation and controversy Telly Savalas presenting the much - criticized Return to Titanic Live show on 28 October 1987 Only a few days after Ballard 's discovery of the wreck , Jack Grimm -- the author of the unsuccessful early 1980s attempts to find Titanic -- claimed ownership of it on the grounds that he had allegedly been the first to find it . He announced that he intended to begin salvaging the wreck . He said that he `` ( could n't ) see them just lie there and be absorbed by the ocean floor . What possible harm can ( salvage ) do to this mass of twisted steel ? '' Titanic Ventures Inc. , a Connecticut - based consortium , co-sponsored a survey and salvage operation in 1987 with the French oceanographic agency IFREMER . The expedition produced an outcry , not least because of the damage that it caused to the wreck . When the crow 's nest bell was pulled from the mast , the crow 's nest itself , where the lookouts first saw the iceberg , collapsed . A Titanic survivor , Eva Hart , was outspoken in her condemnation of what many saw as the looting of a mass grave : `` To bring up those things from a mass sea grave just to make a few thousand pounds shows a dreadful insensitivity and greed . The grave should be left alone . They 're simply going to do it as fortune hunters , vultures , pirates ! '' Public misgivings were increased when , on 28 October 1987 , a glitzy television program titled Return to the Titanic Live was broadcast from the Cité des Sciences et de l'Industrie in Paris with Telly Savalas hosting . In front of a live TV audience , a valise recovered from the sea bed was opened , revealing a number of personal items apparently belonging to Richard L. Beckwith of New York , who survived the sinking . A safe was also opened , revealing a few items of memorabilia and some soggy banknotes . The tone of the event has been described by one commentator as `` unsympathetic , lack ( ing ) dignity and finesse , and ( with ) all the superficial qualities of a ' media event ' . '' The TV critic of The New York Times , John Corry , called the event `` a combination of the sacred and profane and sometimes the downright silly . '' Paul Heyer comments that it was `` presented as a kind of deep sea striptease '' and that Savalas `` seemed haggard , missed several cues and at one point almost tripped over a chair '' . Controversy persisted after the broadcast when claims were made that the safe had been opened beforehand and that the show had effectively been a fraud . In the meantime , Marex - Titanic Inc. was formed in 1992 to launch an expedition to the Titanic . Marex - Titanic 's CEO was James Kollar . The company was a subsidiary of Marex International , an international marine salvage firm located in Memphis , Tennessee . In 1992 Marex made a bid to seize control of the artefacts and the wreck itself by suing Titanic Ventures , arguing that the latter had abandoned its claim by not returning to the wreck since the 1987 expedition . It claimed a superior right of salvage based on a `` pill bottle '' and hull fragment that were said to have been retrieved by Marex . Marex simultaneously sent a vessel , the Sea Mussel , to carry out its own salvage operation . However , the Marex artefacts were alleged to have been illegally retrieved by the 1991 Russian - American - Canadian expedition and Marex was issued with a temporary injunction preventing it from carrying out its plans . In October 1992 the injunction was made permanent and the salvage claims of Titanic Ventures were upheld . The decision was later reversed by an appeals court but Marex 's claims were not renewed . Even so , Titanic Ventures ' control of the artefacts recovered in 1987 remained in question until 1993 when a French administrator in the Office of Maritime Affairs of the Ministry of Equipment , Transportation , and Tourism awarded the company title to the artefacts . In May 1993 Titanic Ventures sold its interests in the salvage operations and artefacts to RMS Titanic Inc. , a subsidiary of Premier Exhibitions Inc. headed by George Tulloch and Arnie Geller . It had to go through a laborious legal process of having itself legally recognised as the sole and exclusive salvager of the wreck . Its claim was opposed for a while by the Liverpool and London Steamship Protection and Indemnity Association , Titanic 's former insurer , but was eventually settled . It was awarded ownership and salvaging rights by the United States District Court for the Eastern District of Virginia on 7 June 1994 in a ruling that declared the company to be the `` salvor in possession '' of the wreck . Litigation has continued over the artefacts in recent years . In a motion filed on 12 February 2004 , RMS Titanic Inc. requested that the United States district court enter an order awarding it `` title to all the artifacts ( including portions of the hull ) which are the subject of this action pursuant to the Law of Finds '' or , in the alternative , a salvage award in the amount of $225 million . RMS Titanic Inc. excluded from its motion any claim for an award of title to the objects recovered in 1987 , but it did request that the district court declare that , based on the French administrative action , `` the artifacts raised during the 1987 expedition are independently owned by RMST . '' Following a hearing , the district court entered an order dated 2 July 2004 , in which it refused to grant comity or recognise the 1993 decision of the French administrator , and rejected RMS Titanic Inc. 's claim that it should be awarded title to the items recovered since 1993 under the Maritime Law of Finds . RMS Titanic Inc. appealed to the United States Court of Appeals for the Fourth Circuit . In its decision of 31 January 2006 the court recognised `` explicitly the appropriateness of applying maritime salvage law to historic wrecks such as that of Titanic '' and denied the application of the Maritime Law of Finds . The court also ruled that the district court lacked jurisdiction over the `` 1987 artifacts '' , and therefore vacated that part of the court 's 2 July 2004 order . In other words , according to this decision , RMS Titanic Inc. has ownership title to the objects awarded in the French decision ( valued $16.5 million earlier ) and continues to be salvor - in - possession of the Titanic wreck . The Court of Appeals remanded the case to the District Court to determine the salvage award ( $225 million requested by RMS Titanic Inc . ) . On 24 March 2009 , it was revealed that the fate of 5,900 artefacts retrieved from the wreck would rest with a U.S. District Judge 's decision . The ruling was later issued in two decisions on 12 August 2010 and 15 August 2011 . As announced in 2009 , the judge ruled that RMS Titanic Inc. owned the artefacts and her decision dealt with the status of the wreck as well as establishing a monitoring system to check future activity upon the wreck site . On 12 August 2010 , Judge Rebecca Beach Smith granted RMS Titanic , Inc. fair market value for the artefacts but deferred ruling on their ownership and the conditions for their preservation , possible disposition and exhibition until a further decision could be reached . On 15 August 2011 , Judge Smith granted title to thousands of artefacts from the Titanic , that RMS Titanic Inc. did not already own under a French court decision concerning the first group of salvaged artefacts , to RMS Titanic Inc. subject to a detailed list of conditions concerning preservation and disposition of the items . The artefacts can be sold only to a company that would abide by the lengthy list of conditions and restrictions . RMS Titanic Inc. can profit from the artefacts through exhibiting them . RMS Titanic Inc. has also attempted to secure exclusive physical access to the wreck site . In 1996 , it obtained a court order finding that it had `` the exclusive right to take any and all types of photographic images of the Titanic wreck and wreck site . '' It obtained another order in 1998 against Deep Ocean Expeditions and Chris Haver , a British Virgin Islands corporation that aimed to run tourist trips to Titanic at a cost of $32,000 per person ( it now charges $60,000 ) . This was overturned in March 1999 by the United States Court of Appeals for the Fourth Circuit , which ruled that the law of salvage did not extend to obtaining exclusive rights to view , visit and photograph a wreck . The court pointed out that Titanic is `` located in a public place '' in international waters , rather than in a private or controllable location to which access could be restricted by the owner . Granting such a right would also create a perverse incentive ; since the aim of salvage is to carry out a salvage operation , leaving property in place so that it could be photographed would run counter to this objective . Conservation issues One of the pieces of coal retrieved from Titanic and controversially sold by RMS Titanic Inc . RMS Titanic Inc. has attracted considerable controversy for its approach to Titanic . Two rival camps have formed following the wreck 's discovery : the `` conservationists '' , championed by RMS Titanic Inc. 's George Tulloch ( who died in 2004 ) , and the `` protectionists '' , whose most prominent advocate is Robert Ballard . The first camp has argued that artefacts from around the wreck should be recovered and conserved , while the latter camp argues that the entire wreck site should have been left undisturbed as a mass grave . Both camps agree that the wreck itself should not be salvaged -- though RMS Titanic Inc. did not stick to its proclaimed `` hands - off '' policy when it managed to demolish Titanic 's crow 's nest in the course of retrieving the bell . Its predecessor Titanic Ventures agreed with IFREMER that it would not sell any of the artefacts but would put them on public display , for which it could charge an entry fee . Tulloch 's approach has undoubtedly resulted in outcomes that would not have been possible otherwise . In 1991 , he presented Edith Brown Haisman , a 96 - year - old survivor of the disaster , with her father 's pocket watch which had been retrieved from the sea bed . She had last seen it on 15 April 1912 when he waved goodbye to his wife and daughter as they left aboard lifeboat 14 . They never saw him again and he presumably went down with the ship . The watch was loaned to Haisman `` for life '' ; when she died four years later it was reclaimed by RMS Titanic Inc . On another occasion , a steamer trunk spotted in the debris field was found to contain three musical instruments , a deck of playing cards , a diary belonging to one Howard Irwin , and a bundle of letters from his girlfriend Pearl Shuttle . It was first thought that Irwin , a musician and professional gambler , had boarded the ship under a false identity . There was no record of him being among the passengers , even though a ticket had been purchased for him . It turned out that he had stayed ashore but his trunk had been brought aboard the ship by his friend Henry Sutehall , who was among the victims of the disaster . The fragile contents of the trunk were preserved due to the interior being starved of oxygen , which prevented bacteria from consuming the paper . Very few other shipwrecks have yielded readable paper . On the other hand , the heavily commercialised approach of RMS Titanic Inc. has caused repeated controversy and many have argued that salvaging Titanic is an inherently disrespectful act . The wreck site has been called a `` tomb and a reliquary '' , a `` gravestone for the 1,500 people who died '' and `` hallowed ground '' . Titanic historians John Eaton and Charles Haas argue that the salvagers are little more than `` plunderers and armchair salvage experts '' and others have characterised them as `` grave robbers '' . The Return to Titanic ... Live ! television show in 1987 was widely condemned as a `` circus '' , though the 1987 expedition 's scientific and financial leaders had no control over the show . In a particularly controversial episode , RMS Titanic Inc. sold some 80,000 lumps of coal retrieved from the debris field in order to fund the rumoured $17 million cost of lifting the `` Big Piece '' of the ship 's hull . It attempted to get around the no - sale agreement with IFREMER by charging the new owners a $25 `` fee '' to act as `` conservators '' , in order to claim that the coal lumps had not actually been sold . This attracted strong criticism from all sides . Nonetheless , in 1999 Tulloch was ousted by the company 's shareholders and was replaced by Arnie Geller , who promised a more aggressive approach to making a profit . The company declared that it had an `` absolute right '' to sell recovered gold , coins and currency . It was prevented from doing this by a court order in the United States and IFREMER withdrew its cooperation and its submersibles , threatening a lawsuit . Exhibitions of Titanic artifacts Pocket watch retrieved from an unknown victim of the disaster . It had stopped at 02 : 28 , a few minutes after its owner went into the water . Objects from Titanic have been exhibited for many years , though only a few were retrieved before the discovery of the wreck in 1985 . The Maritime Museum of the Atlantic in Halifax , Nova Scotia has a collection of wooden fragments and an intact deckchair plucked from the sea by the Canadian search vessels that recovered the victims ' bodies . Various other museums , including the National Maritime Museum in Greenwich and the SeaCity Museum in Southampton , have objects donated by survivors and relatives of victims , including some items that were retrieved from the bodies of victims . More donated Titanic artifacts are to be found in the Merseyside Maritime Museum in Liverpool and the Titanic Historical Society 's museum in Indian Orchard , Springfield , Massachusetts . The latter 's collection includes items such as the life jacket of Madeleine Astor , the wife of millionaire Titanic victim John Jacob Astor IV , a rivet which was removed from the hull before Titanic went to sea , an ice warning which never reached the bridge , a restaurant menu and a sample square of carpet from a First Class stateroom . RMS Titanic Inc. organizes large - scale exhibitions around the world of artifacts retrieved from the wreck site . After minor exhibitions were held in Paris and Scandinavia , the first major exhibition of recovered artifacts was held at the National Maritime Museum in 1994 -- 95 . It was hugely popular , drawing an average of 21,000 visitors a week during the year - long exhibition . Since then , RMS Titanic Inc. has established a large - scale permanent exhibition of Titanic artifacts at the Luxor hotel and casino in Las Vegas , Nevada . The 25,000 square feet ( 2,300 m ) exhibit is the home of the `` Big Piece '' of the hull retrieved in 1998 and features conserved items including luggage , Titanic 's whistles , floor tiles and an unopened bottle of champagne . The exhibit includes a full - scale replica of the ship 's Grand Staircase and part of the Promenade Deck , and even a mock - up of the iceberg . It also runs a traveling exhibition called Titanic : The Artifact Exhibition which has opened in various cities around the world and has been seen by over 20 million people . The exhibition typically runs for six to nine months featuring a combination of artifacts , reconstructions and displays of the ship , her passengers and crew and the disaster itself . In a similar fashion to the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum in Washington , D.C. , visitors are given a `` boarding pass '' in the name of an individual passenger at the start of the exhibition . They do not discover the fate of their assigned passenger until the end . See also Nautical portal United Kingdom portal International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea List of films about the RMS Titanic List of archaeological sites beyond national boundaries Notes Jump up ^ Made by Teledyne Benthos , they are used as flotation devices and for instrument housing in deep - sea environments . See `` Glass Spheres '' for more information . Footnotes Jump up ^ Eaton & Haas 1987 , p. 130 . Jump up ^ Willmott 2003 , p. 307 Jump up ^ Wade 1992 , p. 72 . Jump up ^ Little 2010 . Jump up ^ Estes 2006 , p. 298 . ^ Jump up to : Ballard 1987 , p. 207 . Jump up ^ Lord 1987 , p. 226 . Jump up ^ Lord 1987 , p. 227 . ^ Jump up to : Eaton & Haas 1987 , p. 132 . Jump up ^ Eaton & Haas 1994 , p. 302 . Jump up ^ Lord 1987 , pp. 230 -- 231 . ^ Jump up to : Lord 1987 , p. 231 . Jump up ^ Serway & Jewett 2006 , p. 494 . Jump up ^ New Scientist & 6 October 1977 . Jump up ^ Suid 1996 , p. 210 . Jump up ^ Hicks & Kropf 2002 , p. 194 . ^ Jump up to : Ballard 1987 , p. 38 . Jump up ^ Time , 11 May 1981 . Jump up ^ Eaton & Haas 1994 , p. 304 . ^ Jump up to : Eaton & Haas 1987 , p. 137 . Jump up ^ Lord 1987 , pp. 232 -- 233 . ^ Jump up to : Ballard 1987 , p. 47 . Jump up ^ Ballard 1987 , p. 50 . ^ Jump up to : Ballard 1987 , p. 51 . Jump up ^ Ballard 1987 , p. 49 . Jump up ^ Ballard 1987 , p. 53 . Jump up ^ Ballard 2008 , p. 100 . Jump up ^ Ballard & Hively 2002 , p. 235 . ^ Jump up to : Ballard 2008 , p. 97 . Jump up ^ Ballard & Hively 2002 , p. 225 . Jump up ^ Ballard & Hively 2002 , p. 239 . Jump up ^ Ballard 2008 , p. 98 . Jump up ^ Ballard 2008 , p. 101 . Jump up ^ Ballard 1987 , p. 66 . Jump up ^ Ballard & Hively 2002 , p. 250 . Jump up ^ Ballard 1987 , p. 82 . Jump up ^ Ballard 1987 , p. 88 . Jump up ^ Ballard 1987 , p. 98 . Jump up ^ Eaton & Haas 1994 , p. 309 . Jump up ^ Lynch 1992 , p. 207 . ^ Jump up to : Eaton & Haas 1994 , p. 310 . Jump up ^ Eaton & Haas 1994 , pp. 312 -- 313 . Jump up ^ Lynch 1992 , p. 209 . Jump up ^ Eaton & Haas 1994 , pp. 314 -- 6 . Jump up ^ Eaton & Haas 1994 , p. 324 . ^ Jump up to : Butler 1998 , p. 216 . Jump up ^ Spignesi 2012 , p. 254 . Jump up ^ Spignesi 2012 , p. 277 . Jump up ^ Butler 1998 , pp. 217 -- 218 . Jump up ^ Spignesi 2012 , p. 258 . Jump up ^ MacInnis & Cameron 2005 , p. 23 . Jump up ^ Parisi 1998 , p. 8 . Jump up ^ Timeline for 2000 . Jump up ^ `` Titanic couple take the plunge '' . BBC News . 28 July 2001 . Jump up ^ Spignesi 2012 , p. 239 . ^ Jump up to : Timeline for 2001 . Jump up ^ R.M.S. Titanic Expedition 2003 . Jump up ^ R.M.S. Titanic Expedition 2004 . Jump up ^ Timeline for 2004 . Jump up ^ Canfield & 8 March 2012 . Jump up ^ Symonds & April 2012 . Jump up ^ `` The wreck of the Titanic now protected by UNESCO '' . UNESCO . 5 April 2012 . Retrieved 31 May 2017 . Jump up ^ Sides , Hampton ( April 2012 ) . `` Unseen Titanic '' . National Geographic . 221 ( 4 ) : 95 . Jump up ^ Gibson 2012 , p. 240 . Jump up ^ Halpern & Weeks 2011 , pp. 126 -- 127 . Jump up ^ Halpern & Weeks 2011 , p. 126 . ^ Jump up to : Ballard 1987 , p. 204 . ^ Jump up to : Halpern & Weeks 2011 , p. 127 . ^ Jump up to : Lynch 1992 , p. 205 . Jump up ^ `` Unseen Titanic -- Interactive : The Crash Scene '' . National Geographic . 17 October 2002 . Retrieved 17 August 2012 . Jump up ^ Ballard 1987 , p. 206 . Jump up ^ Pellegrino 2012 , pp. 100 -- 101 . ^ Jump up to : Gannon & February 1995 . Jump up ^ ( Lynch & Marschall 2003 , p. 58 ) Jump up ^ ( Marschall 2001 , p. 3 ) Jump up ^ ( Parks Stephenson 2005 ) Jump up ^ ( Ballard 1988 , p. 47 ) Jump up ^ ( Lynch & Marschall 2005 , pp. 119 -- 120 ) Jump up ^ `` Full Titanic site mapped for first time '' . USA Today . Gannett Company . Associated Press . 8 March 2012 . Retrieved 6 April 2012 . Jump up ^ Pellegrino 2012 , p. 107 . ^ Jump up to : Pellegrino 2012 , p. 108 . ^ Jump up to : Halpern & Weeks 2011 , p. 128 . Jump up ^ Ballard 1987 , p. 202 . ^ Jump up to : Cohen & 8 March 2012 . Jump up ^ Ballard 1987 , p. 190 . Jump up ^ Rubin , Sydney ( 1987 ) . `` Treasures of the Titanic '' . Popular Mechanics . New York : Hearst Magazines . 164 ( 12 ) : 65 -- 69 . ISSN 0032 - 4558 . Retrieved 7 June 2011 . Jump up ^ Ballard 1987 , p. 150 . Jump up ^ Ballard 1987 , p. 203 . Jump up ^ Butler 1998 , p. 214 . ^ Jump up to : Mone & July 2004 . ^ Jump up to : Handwerk & 18 August 2010 . Jump up ^ Broad & 17 October 1995 . Jump up ^ Pellegrino 2012 , p. 83 . Jump up ^ Pellegrino 2012 , p. 274 . Jump up ^ BBC News & 6 December 2010 . Jump up ^ laboratoryequipment.com , September 6 , 2016 , Extremophile Bacteria ' Will Eat Away Wreck of the Titanic by 2030 . Jump up ^ Fox - Skelly , Jasmin . `` The wreck of the Titanic is being eaten and may soon vanish '' . Retrieved 2017 - 03 - 13 . Jump up ^ Ballard 1987 , p. 192 . Jump up ^ Spignesi 2012 , p. 242 . ^ Jump up to : Ballard 1987 , p. 208 . Jump up ^ Pellegrino 2012 , p. 84 . Jump up ^ Pellegrino 2012 , p. 102 . Jump up ^ Spignesi 2012 , p. 240 . Jump up ^ Pellegrino 2012 , p. 198 . Jump up ^ Pellegrino 2012 , p. 199 . Jump up ^ Ballard 1987 , p. 122 . Jump up ^ Pellegrino 2012 , p. 200 . Jump up ^ Pellegrino 2012 , pp. 53 -- 54 . Jump up ^ Crosbie & Mortimer 2006 , p. last page ( no page number specified ) . Jump up ^ Ballard & December 2004 . Jump up ^ Eaton & Haas 1999 , p. 205 . Jump up ^ Lynch 1992 , p. 13 . ^ Jump up to : Eaton & Haas 1987 , p. 148 . Jump up ^ For an overall discussion of the history of the salvage legal proceedings , see R.M.S. Titanic , Inc. v. Haver , 171 F. 3d 943 ( 4th Cir . Va . 1999 ) , and related opinions . Jump up ^ Scovazzi 2003 , p. 64 . Jump up ^ RMS Titanic International Agreement 29 February 2012 . Jump up ^ Ferguson 4 September 1985 . ^ Jump up to : Lynch 1992 , p. 208 . Jump up ^ Eaton & Haas 1999 , p. 195 . Jump up ^ Heyer 1995 , p. 5 . ^ Jump up to : Eaton & Haas 1994 , p. 313 . Jump up ^ Associated Press 30 September 1992 . Jump up ^ Taylor & 2 October 1992 . Jump up ^ `` RMS Titanic Maritime Memorial of Preservation Act of 2007 '' ( PDF ) . Retrieved 21 June 2010 . Jump up ^ Scovazzi 2003 , pp. 65 -- 66 . Jump up ^ `` Salvage Law Update Fall 2004 '' ( PDF ) . Retrieved 23 June 2010 . Jump up ^ `` United States Court of Appeals for the Fourth Circuit , R.M.S. Titanic , Incorporated vs. The Wrecked and Abandoned Vessel -- 31 January 2006 '' ( PDF ) . ( 127 KiB ) Jump up ^ White , Marcia ( 24 March 2009 ) . `` Battle continues on fate of relics from doomed ship Titanic '' . The Express - Times . Retrieved 15 March 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Federal judge to rule on fate of Titanic artifacts '' . USA Today . 24 March 2009 . Retrieved 15 March 2012 . Jump up ^ McGlone , Tim ( 14 August 2010 ) . `` Norfolk judge grants salvage award for Titanic artifacts '' . The Virginian - Pilot . Retrieved 15 March 2012 . ^ Jump up to : McGlone , Tim ( 16 August 2011 ) . `` Norfolk judge awards rights to Titanic artifacts '' . The Virginian - Pilot . Retrieved 15 March 2012 . Jump up ^ Scovazzi 2003 , p. 67 . Jump up ^ Spignesi 2012 , p. 260 . Jump up ^ Scovazzi 2003 , p. 68 . Jump up ^ Riding & 16 December 1992 . Jump up ^ Butler 1998 , p. 218 . Jump up ^ Jorgensen - Earp 2006 , p. 62 . Jump up ^ Pellegrino 2012 , p. 207 . Jump up ^ Pellegrino 2012 , p. 209 . Jump up ^ Pellegrino 2012 , p. 205 . Jump up ^ Jorgensen - Earp 2006 , p. 45 . Jump up ^ Jorgensen - Earp 2006 , p. 46 . ^ Jump up to : Jorgensen - Earp 2006 , p. 48 . Jump up ^ Lynch 1992 , pp. 178 -- 179 . Jump up ^ Ward 2012 , pp. 248 , 251 . Jump up ^ Kelly 27 October 2009 . Jump up ^ Portman 12 November 1994 . Jump up ^ Stearns 17 May 1995 . Jump up ^ Spignesi 2012 , p. 259 . Jump up ^ Ward 2012 , pp. 252 -- 253 . References Ballard , Robert D. ( 1987 ) . The Discovery of the Titanic . New York : Warner Books . ISBN 978 - 0 - 446 - 51385 - 2 . Ballard , Robert ( 1988 ) . Exploring the Titanic . New York : Scholastic . ISBN 0590419528 . Ballard , Robert D. ; Hively , Will ( 2002 ) . The Eternal Darkness : A Personal History of Deep - Sea Exploration . Princeton , NJ : Princeton University Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 691 - 09554 - 7 . Ballard , Robert D. ( 2008 ) . Archaeological Oceanography . Princeton , NJ : Princeton University Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 691 - 12940 - 2 . Butler , Daniel Allen ( 1998 ) . Unsinkable : The Full Story of RMS Titanic . Mechanicsburg , PA : Stackpole Books . ISBN 978 - 0 - 8117 - 1814 - 1 . Crosbie , Duncan ; Mortimer , Sheila ( 2006 ) . Titanic : The Ship of Dreams . New York , NY : Orchard Books . ISBN 978 - 0 - 439 - 89995 - 6 . Eaton , John P. ; Haas , Charles A. ( 1987 ) . Titanic : Destination Disaster : The Legends and the Reality . Wellingborough , UK : Patrick Stephens . ISBN 978 - 0 - 85059 - 868 - 1 . Eaton , John P. ; Haas , Charles A. ( 1999 ) . Titanic : A Journey Through Time . Sparkford , Somerset : Patrick Stephens . ISBN 978 - 1 - 85260 - 575 - 9 . Eaton , John P. ; Haas , Charles A. ( 1994 ) . Titanic : Triumph and Tragedy . Wellingborough , UK : Patrick Stephens . ISBN 978 - 1 - 85260 - 493 - 6 . Estes , James A. ( 2006 ) . Whales , Whaling , and Ocean Ecosystems . Los Angeles , CA : University of California Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 520 - 24884 - 7 . Gibson , Allen ( 2012 ) . The Unsinkable Titanic : The Triumph Behind A Disaster . Stroud , Glos. : The History Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 7524 - 5625 - 6 . Halpern , Samuel ; Weeks , Charles ( 2011 ) . `` Description of the Damage to the Ship '' . In Halpern , Samuel . Report into the Loss of the SS Titanic : A Centennial Reappraisal . Stroud , UK : The History Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 7524 - 6210 - 3 . Heyer , Paul ( 1995 ) . Titanic Legacy : Disaster as Myth and Event . Westport , CT : Praeger . ISBN 978 - 0 - 275 - 95352 - 2 . Hicks , Brian ; Kropf , Schuyler ( 2002 ) . Raising the Hunley : the remarkable history and recovery of the lost Confederate submarine . New York : Ballantine Books . ISBN 978 - 0 - 345 - 44771 - 5 . Jorgensen - Earp , Cheryl R. ( 2006 ) . `` Satisfaction of Metaphorical Expressions through Visual Display '' . In Prelli , Lawrence J. Rhetorics of display . Columbia , SC : University of South Carolina Press . ISBN 978 - 1 - 57003 - 619 - 4 . Lord , Walter ( 1987 ) . The Night Lives On . London : Penguin Books . ISBN 978 - 0 - 670 - 81452 - 7 . Lynch , Don ( 1992 ) . Titanic : An Illustrated History . New York : Hyperion . ISBN 978 - 1 - 56282 - 918 - 6 . Lynch , Don ; Marschall , Ken ( 2003 ) . Ghosts of the Abyss . New York : Madison Press Books . ISBN 0306812231 . MacInnis , Joseph B. ; Cameron , James ( 2005 ) . James Cameron 's Aliens of the Deep . Washington , D.C. : National Geographic Society . ISBN 978 - 0 - 7922 - 9343 - 9 . Parisi , Paula ( 1998 ) . Titanic and the Making of James Cameron . New York : Newmarket Press . ISBN 978 - 1 - 55704 - 364 - 1 . Pellegrino , Charles ( 2012 ) . Farewell , Titanic : Her Final Legacy . Hoboken , NJ : John Wiley & Sons . ISBN 978 - 0 - 470 - 87387 - 8 . Scovazzi , Tullio ( 2003 ) . `` The Application of `` Salvage Law and Other Rules of Admiralty '' `` . In Garabello , Roberta ; Scovazzi , Tullio . The protection of the underwater cultural heritage : before and after the 2001 UNESCO Convention . Leiden : Martinus Nijhoff Publishers . ISBN 978 - 90 - 411 - 2203 - 2 . Serway , Raymond A. ; Jewett , John W. ( 2006 ) . Principles of Physics : A Calculus - Based Text , Volume 1 . Belmont , CA : Cengage Learning . ISBN 978 - 0 - 534 - 49143 - 7 . Spignesi , Stephen ( 2012 ) . The Titanic For Dummies . Hoboken , NJ : John Wiley & Sons . ISBN 978 - 1 - 118 - 20651 - 5 . Suid , Lawrence H. ( 1996 ) . Sailing on the Silver Screen : Hollywood and the U.S. Navy . Annapolis , MD : Naval Institute Press . ISBN 9781557507877 . Wade , Wyn Craig ( 1992 ) . The Titanic : End of a Dream . London : Penguin Books . ISBN 978 - 0 - 14 - 016691 - 0 . Ward , Greg ( 2012 ) . The Rough Guide to the Titanic . London : Rough Guides Ltd . ISBN 978 - 1 - 4053 - 8699 - 9 . Journal and news articles Broad , William A. ( 17 October 1995 ) . `` The World 's Deep , Cold Sea Floors Harbor a Riotous Diversity of Life '' . The New York Times . Canfield , Clarke ( 8 March 2012 ) . `` Full Titanic site mapped for 1st time '' . The Associated Press . Retrieved 9 March 2012 . Cohen , Jennie ( 8 March 2012 ) . `` First Map of Entire Titanic Wreck Site Sheds New Light on Disaster '' . History.com . Retrieved 8 March 2012 . Ferguson , Jonathan ( 4 September 1985 ) . `` Texas oilman says he found Titanic first -- ' it 's my wreck ' '' . The Toronto Star . Gannon , Robert ( February 1995 ) . `` What Really Sank the Titanic '' . Popular Science : 54 . Kelly , Ray ( 27 October 2009 ) . `` Titanic salvage raises concerns '' . The Republican . Springfield , MA . Little , Crispin T.S. ( February 2010 ) . `` The Prolific Afterlife of Whales '' . Scientific American . 302 ( 2 ) : 78 -- 84 . Bibcode : 2010SciAm. 302b ... 78L . doi : 10.1038 / scientificamerican0210 - 78 . Retrieved 2 March 2010 . Mone , Gregory ( July 2004 ) . `` What 's Eating the Titanic ? '' . Popular Science : 42 . Portman , Jamie ( 12 November 1994 ) . `` U.K. Titanic exhibit an off - season draw '' . The Toronto Star . Riding , Alan ( 16 December 1992 ) . `` 1,800 Objects From the Titanic : Any Claims ? '' . The New York Times . Stearns , David Patrick ( 17 May 1995 ) . `` Relics display shows interest in Titanic has n't sunk '' . USA Today . Stephenson , Parks ( 20 September 2005 ) . Titanic Wreck Observations 2005 ( Report ) . Marine Forensic Panel . Taylor , Joe ( 2 October 1992 ) . `` Texas Oilman Seeking Titanic Artifacts Loses Case '' . The Associated Press . Information , Reed Business ( 6 October 1977 ) . `` Ariadne '' . New Scientist : 78 -- 84 . Retrieved 5 March 2012 . `` Press : Suddenly , Now ! Is Never '' . Time . 11 May 1981 . Retrieved 5 March 2012 . `` Memphian Seeks Titanic Salvage '' . The Associated Press . 30 September 1992 . `` New species of bacteria found in Titanic ' rusticles ' '' . BBC News . 6 December 2010 . Retrieved 8 March 2012 . Symonds , Matthew ( April 2012 ) . `` Titanic : The archaeology of an emigrant ship '' . Current Archaeology ( 265 ) : 14 . Online publications Ballard , Robert D. ( December 2004 ) . `` Why is Titanic Vanishing ? '' . National Geographic . Retrieved 29 January 2011 . Handwerk , Brian ( 18 August 2010 ) . `` Titanic Is Falling Apart '' . National Geographic . Retrieved 7 March 2012 . Marschall , Ken ( December 2001 ) . `` James Cameron 's Titanic Expedition 2001 : What We Saw On and Inside the Wreck '' . marconigraph.com . Retrieved 13 April 2017 . `` RMS Titanic International Agreement '' . National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration . 29 February 2012 . Retrieved 9 March 2012 . `` R.M.S. Titanic Expedition 2003 '' . NOAA. 8 June 2010 . Retrieved 9 March 2012 . `` R.M.S. Titanic Expedition 2004 '' . NOAA. 27 February 2012 . Retrieved 9 March 2012 . `` The Titanic Story : Timeline For 2000 '' . Titanic Heritage Trust . Retrieved 9 March 2012 . `` The Titanic Story : Timeline For 2001 '' . Titanic Heritage Trust . Retrieved 9 March 2012 . `` The Titanic Story : Timeline For 2004 '' . Titanic Heritage Trust . Retrieved 9 March 2012 . Further reading Ballard , Robert D. ( December 1985 ) . `` How We Found Titanic '' . National Geographic . Vol. 168 no . 6 . pp. 696 -- 719 . ISSN 0027 - 9358 . OCLC 643483454 . Ballard , Robert D. ( December 1986 ) . `` A Long Last Look at Titanic '' . National Geographic . Vol. 170 no . 6 . pp. 698 -- 727 . ISSN 0027 - 9358 . OCLC 643483454 . Ballard , Robert D. ( October 1987 ) . `` Epilogue for Titanic '' . National Geographic . Vol. 172 no . 4 . pp. 454 -- 463 . ISSN 0027 - 9358 . OCLC 643483454 . External links Map all coordinates using : OpenStreetMap Google Maps Download coordinates as : KML GPX Media related to Titanic wreck at Wikimedia Commons RMS Titanic First class facilities Second and Third class facilities Grand Staircase Musicians Sinking Alternative theories Changes in safety practices Legends and myths Lifeboats Lifeboat No. 1 British inquiry US inquiry Wreck of Titanic Maritime Memorial Act Deck officers Edward J. Smith ( Captain ) Henry Tingle Wilde ( Chief Officer ) William McMaster Murdoch ( First Officer ) Charles H. Lightoller ( Second Officer ) Herbert Pitman ( Third Officer ) Joseph G. Boxhall ( Fourth Officer ) Harold G. Lowe ( Fifth Officer ) James Paul Moody ( Sixth Officer ) Joseph Bell ( Machine Room Manager ) Crew members Frederick Barrett Harold Bride William Denton Cox Sid Daniels Alfred Frank Evans Frederick Fleet Luigi Gatti Robert Hichens Violet Jessop Charles Joughin Reginald Lee Evelyn Marsden William Mintram Jack Phillips George Symons Passengers Fatalities Allison family Thomas Andrews John Jacob Astor IV David John Bowen Archibald Butt Thomas Byles Roderick Chisholm Walter Donald Douglas Edith Corse Evans Annie Funk Jacques Futrelle Sidney Leslie Goodwin Benjamin Guggenheim John Harper Wallace Hartley Charles Melville Hays Edward Austin Kent Joseph Philippe Lemercier Laroche Francis Davis Millet Harry Markland Molson Michel Navratil Eino Viljami Panula W.T. Stead Ida Straus Isidor Straus John Borland Thayer Jr . Frank M. Warren , Sr . 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why was the eastern roman empire called the byzantine empire

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Byzantine_Empire&oldid=804622010

Byzantine Empire - wikipedia Byzantine Empire Jump to : navigation , search This article is about the medieval Roman empire . For other uses , see Byzantine ( disambiguation ) . Byzantine Empire Βασιλεία Ῥωμαίων Basileía Rhōmaíōn Imperium Romanum c. 330 -- 1453 Tremissis with the image of Justinian the Great ( r . 527 -- 565 ) ( see Byzantine insignia ) The Empire at its greatest extent in AD 555 under Justinian the Great ( its vassals in pink ) Capital Constantinople Languages Latin ( official until 610 ) Greek ( official after 610 ) Religion Christianity ( Eastern Orthodox ) ( tolerated after the Edict of Milan in 313 ; state religion after 380 ) Government Autocratic monarchy Notable emperors c. 330 -- 337 Constantine I 457 -- 474 Leo I 527 -- 565 Justinian I 610 -- 641 Heraclius 976 -- 1025 Basil II 1081 -- 1118 Alexius I 1259 -- 1282 Michael VIII 1449 -- 1453 Constantine XI Historical era Late Antiquity to Late Middle Ages Partition of the Roman Empire 285 Founding of Constantinople 330 Death of Theodosius I 395 Nominal end of the Western Roman Empire 476 Fourth Crusade - establishment of Latin Empire 1204 Reconquest of Constantinople by Palaiologos 1261 Fall of Constantinople 29 May 1453 Fall of Trebizond 15 August 1461 Fall of Principality of Theodoro December 1475 Population 565 AD est . 26,000,000 780 AD est . 7,000,000 1025 AD est . 12,000,000 Currency Solidus , Hyperpyron and Follis Preceded by Succeeded by Roman Empire Ottoman Empire a . ^ Βασιλεία Ῥωμαίων may be transliterated in Latin as Basileia Rhōmaiōn , meaning Roman Empire . b . ^ Between 1204 and 1261 there was an interregnum when the Empire was divided into the Empire of Nicaea , the Empire of Trebizond and the Despotate of Epirus , which were all contenders for rule of the Empire . The Empire of Nicaea is considered the legitimate continuation of the Byzantine Empire because they managed to re-take Constantinople . c . ^ See Population of the Byzantine Empire for more detailed figures taken provided by McEvedy and Jones , Atlas of World Population History , 1978 , as well as Angeliki E. Laiou , The Economic History of Byzantium , 2002 . The Byzantine Empire , also referred to as the Eastern Roman Empire , was the continuation of the Roman Empire in the East during Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages , when its capital city was Constantinople ( modern - day Istanbul , which had been founded as Byzantium ) . It survived the fragmentation and fall of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century AD and continued to exist for an additional thousand years until it fell to the Ottoman Turks in 1453 . During most of its existence , the empire was the most powerful economic , cultural , and military force in Europe . Both `` Byzantine Empire '' and `` Eastern Roman Empire '' are historiographical terms created after the end of the realm ; its citizens continued to refer to their empire as the Roman Empire ( Greek : Βασιλεία τῶν Ῥωμαίων , tr . Basileia tôn Rhōmaiōn ; Latin : Imperium Romanum ) , or Romania ( Ῥωμανία ) , and to themselves as `` Romans '' . Several signal events from the 4th to 6th centuries mark the period of transition during which the Roman Empire 's Greek East and Latin West divided . Constantine I ( r . 324 -- 337 ) reorganised the empire , made Constantinople the new capital , and legalised Christianity . Under Theodosius I ( r . 379 -- 395 ) , Christianity became the Empire 's official state religion and other religious practices were proscribed . Finally , under the reign of Heraclius ( r . 610 -- 641 ) , the Empire 's military and administration were restructured and adopted Greek for official use instead of Latin . Thus , although the Roman state continued and Roman state traditions were maintained , modern historians distinguish Byzantium from ancient Rome insofar as it was centred on Constantinople , oriented towards Greek rather than Latin culture , and characterised by Orthodox Christianity . The borders of the Empire evolved significantly over its existence , as it went through several cycles of decline and recovery . During the reign of Justinian I ( r . 527 -- 565 ) , the Empire reached its greatest extent after reconquering much of the historically Roman western Mediterranean coast , including North Africa , Italy , and Rome itself , which it held for two more centuries . During the reign of Maurice ( r . 582 -- 602 ) , the Empire 's eastern frontier was expanded and the north stabilised . However , his assassination caused the Byzantine -- Sasanian War of 602 -- 628 , which exhausted the Empire 's resources and contributed to major territorial losses during the Muslim conquests of the seventh century . In a matter of years the Empire lost its richest provinces , Egypt and Syria , to the Arabs . During the Macedonian dynasty ( 10th -- 11th centuries ) , the Empire again expanded and experienced the two - century long Macedonian Renaissance , which came to an end with the loss of much of Asia Minor to the Seljuk Turks after the Battle of Manzikert in 1071 . This battle opened the way for the Turks to settle in Anatolia . The Empire recovered again during the Komnenian restoration , such that by the 12th century Constantinople was the largest and wealthiest European city . However , it was delivered a mortal blow during the Fourth Crusade , when Constantinople was sacked in 1204 and the territories that the Empire formerly governed were divided into competing Byzantine Greek and Latin realms . Despite the eventual recovery of Constantinople in 1261 , the Byzantine Empire remained only one of several small rival states in the area for the final two centuries of its existence . Its remaining territories were progressively annexed by the Ottomans over the 15th century . The Fall of Constantinople to the Ottoman Empire in 1453 finally ended the Byzantine Empire . Contents ( hide ) 1 Nomenclature 2 History 2.1 Early history 2.2 Decentralization of power 2.3 Recentralisation 2.4 Loss of the Western Roman Empire 2.5 Justinian dynasty 2.6 Shrinking borders 2.6. 1 Early Heraclian dynasty 2.6. 2 Siege of Constantinople ( 674 -- 678 ) 2.6. 3 Late Heraclian dynasty 2.6. 4 Isaurian dynasty to the accession of Basil I 2.6. 5 Religious dispute over iconoclasm 2.7 Macedonian dynasty and resurgence ( 867 -- 1025 ) 2.7. 1 Wars against the Arabs 2.7. 2 Wars against the Bulgarian Empire 2.7. 3 Relations with the Kievan Rus ' 2.7. 4 Apex 2.7. 5 Split between Orthodox Christianity and Catholicism ( 1054 ) 2.8 Crisis and fragmentation 2.9 Komnenian dynasty and the crusaders 2.9. 1 Alexios I and the First Crusade 2.9. 2 John II , Manuel I and the Second Crusade 2.9. 3 12th - century Renaissance 2.10 Decline and disintegration 2.10. 1 Angelid dynasty 2.10. 2 Fourth Crusade 2.10. 3 Crusader sack of Constantinople ( 1204 ) 2.11 Fall 2.11. 1 Empire in exile 2.11. 2 Reconquest of Constantinople 2.11. 3 Rise of the Ottomans and fall of Constantinople 2.12 Political aftermath 3 Economy 4 Science , medicine and law 5 Religion 6 Art and literature 7 Music 8 Cuisine 9 Recreation 10 Government and bureaucracy 10.1 Diplomacy 10.2 Flags and insignia 11 Language 12 Legacy 13 See also 14 Annotations 15 Notes 16 References 16.1 Primary sources 16.2 Secondary sources 17 Further reading 18 External links 18.1 Byzantine studies , resources and bibliography Nomenclature See also : Names of the Greeks The first use of the term `` Byzantine '' to label the later years of the Roman Empire was in 1557 , when the German historian Hieronymus Wolf published his work Corpus Historiæ Byzantinæ , a collection of historical sources . The term comes from `` Byzantium '' , the name of the city of Constantinople before it became Constantine 's capital . This older name of the city would rarely be used from this point onward except in historical or poetic contexts . The publication in 1648 of the Byzantine du Louvre ( Corpus Scriptorum Historiae Byzantinae ) , and in 1680 of Du Cange 's Historia Byzantina further popularised the use of `` Byzantine '' among French authors , such as Montesquieu . However , it was not until the mid-19th century that the term came into general use in the Western world . The Byzantine Empire was known to its inhabitants as the `` Roman Empire '' , the `` Empire of the Romans '' ( Latin : Imperium Romanum , Imperium Romanorum ; Greek : Βασιλεία τῶν Ῥωμαίων Basileia tōn Rhōmaiōn , Ἀρχὴ τῶν Ῥωμαίων Archē tōn Rhōmaiōn ) , `` Romania '' ( Latin : Romania ; Greek : Ῥωμανία Rhōmania ) , the `` Roman Republic '' ( Latin : Res Publica Romana ; Greek : Πολιτεία τῶν Ῥωμαίων Politeia tōn Rhōmaiōn ) , and also as Rhōmais ( Greek : Ῥωμαΐς ) . The inhabitants called themselves Romaioi , and even as late as the 19th century Greeks typically referred to modern Greek as Romaika . Although the Byzantine Empire had a multi-ethnic character during most of its history and preserved Romano - Hellenistic traditions , it became identified by its western and northern contemporaries with its increasingly predominant Greek element . The occasional use of the term `` Empire of the Greeks '' ( Latin : Imperium Graecorum ) in the West to refer to the Eastern Roman Empire and of the Byzantine Emperor as Imperator Graecorum ( Emperor of the Greeks ) were also used to separate it from the prestige of the Roman Empire within the new kingdoms of the West . The authority of the Byzantine emperor as the legitimate Roman emperor was challenged by the coronation of Charlemagne as Imperator Augustus by Pope Leo III in the year 800 . Needing Charlemagne 's support in his struggle against his enemies in Rome , Leo used the lack of a male occupant of the throne of the Roman Empire at the time to claim that it was vacant and that he could therefore crown a new Emperor himself . No such distinction existed in the Islamic and Slavic worlds , where the Empire was more straightforwardly seen as the continuation of the Roman Empire . In the Islamic world , the Roman Empire was known primarily as Rûm . The name millet - i Rûm , or `` Roman nation , '' was used by the Ottomans through the 20th century to refer to the former subjects of the Byzantine Empire , that is , the Orthodox Christian community within Ottoman realms . History Main article : History of the Byzantine Empire Part of a series on the History of the Byzantine Empire Preceding Roman Empire Dominate Early period ( 330 -- 717 ) Constantinian and Valentinian dynasties Theodosian dynasty Leonid dynasty Justinian dynasty Heraclian dynasty Twenty Years ' Anarchy Middle period ( 717 -- 1204 ) Isaurian dynasty Amorian dynasty Macedonian dynasty Doukid dynasty Komnenian dynasty Angelid dynasty Late period ( 1204 -- 1453 ) Fourth Crusade and Latin states Byzantine successor states Nicaea Epirus / Thessalonica Trebizond Palaiologan dynasty Fall of Constantinople Timeline By topic Art Government Economy Army Navy Byzantine Empire portal Early History The Baptism of Constantine painted by Raphael 's pupils ( 1520 -- 1524 , fresco , Vatican City , Apostolic Palace ) ; Eusebius of Caesarea records that ( as was common among converts of early Christianity ) Constantine delayed receiving baptism until shortly before his death The Roman army succeeded in conquering many territories covering the entire Mediterranean region and coastal regions in southwestern Europe and north Africa . These territories were home to many different cultural groups , both urban populations and rural populations . Generally speaking , the eastern Mediterranean provinces were more urbanised than the western , having previously been united under the Macedonian Empire and Hellenised by the influence of Greek culture . The West also suffered more heavily from the instability of the 3rd century AD . This distinction between the established Hellenised East and the younger Latinised West persisted and became increasingly important in later centuries , leading to a gradual estrangement of the two worlds . Decentralization of power See also : Byzantium under the Constantinian and Valentinian dynasties To maintain control and improve administration , various schemes to divide the work of the Roman Emperor by sharing it between individuals were tried between 285 and 324 , from 337 to 350 , from 364 to 392 , and again between 395 and 480 . Although the administrative subdivisions varied , they generally involved a division of labour between East and West . Each division was a form of power - sharing ( or even job - sharing ) , for the ultimate imperium was not divisible and therefore the empire remained legally one state -- although the co-emperors often saw each other as rivals or enemies . In 293 , emperor Diocletian created a new administrative system ( the tetrarchy ) , to guarantee security in all endangered regions of his Empire . He associated himself with a co-emperor ( Augustus ) , and each co-emperor then adopted a young colleague given the title of Caesar , to share in their rule and eventually to succeed the senior partner . The tetrarchy collapsed , however , in 313 and a few years later Constantine I reunited the two administrative divisions of the Empire as sole Augustus . Recentralisation In 330 , Constantine moved the seat of the Empire to Constantinople , which he founded as a second Rome on the site of Byzantium , a city strategically located on the trade routes between Europe and Asia and between the Mediterranean and the Black Sea . Constantine introduced important changes into the Empire 's military , monetary , civil and religious institutions . As regards his economic policies in particular , he has been accused by certain scholars of `` reckless fiscality '' , but the gold solidus he introduced became a stable currency that transformed the economy and promoted development . Under Constantine , Christianity did not become the exclusive religion of the state , but enjoyed imperial preference , because the emperor supported it with generous privileges . Constantine established the principle that emperors could not settle questions of doctrine on their own , but should summon instead general ecclesiastical councils for that purpose . His convening of both the Synod of Arles and the First Council of Nicaea indicated his interest in the unity of the Church , and showcased his claim to be its head . The rise of Christianity was briefly interrupted on the accession of the emperor Julian in 361 , who made a determined effort to restore polytheism throughout the empire and was thus dubbed `` Julian the Apostate '' by the Church . However this was reversed when Julian was killed in battle in 363 . Restored section of the Theodosian Walls . Theodosius I ( 379 -- 395 ) was the last Emperor to rule both the Eastern and Western halves of the Empire . In 391 and 392 he issued a series of edicts essentially banning pagan religion . Pagan festivals and sacrifices were banned , as was access to all pagan temples and places of worship . The last Olympic Games are believed to have been held in 393 . In 395 , Theodosius I bequeathed the imperial office jointly to his sons : Arcadius in the East and Honorius in the West , once again dividing Imperial administration . In the 5th century the Eastern part of the empire was largely spared the difficulties faced by the West -- due in part to a more established urban culture and greater financial resources , which allowed it to placate invaders with tribute and pay foreign mercenaries . This success allowed Theodosius II to focus on the codification of Roman law and further fortification of the walls of Constantinople , which left the city impervious to most attacks until 1204 . Large portions of the Theodosian Walls are preserved to the present day . To fend off the Huns , Theodosius had to pay an enormous annual tribute to Attila . His successor , Marcian , refused to continue to pay the tribute , but Attila had already diverted his attention to the West . After Attila 's death in 453 , the Hunnic Empire collapsed , and many of the remaining Huns were often hired as mercenaries by Constantinople . Loss of the Western Roman Empire The Roman Empire during the reigns of Leo I ( east ) and Majorian ( west ) in 460 AD . Roman rule in the west would last less than two more decades , whereas the territory of the east would remain static until the reconquests of Justinian I . After the fall of Attila , the Eastern Empire enjoyed a period of peace , while the Western Empire deteriorated due to continuing migration and expansion by the Germanic nations ( its end is usually dated in 476 when the Germanic Roman general Odoacer deposed the usurper Western Emperor Romulus Augustulus ) . In 480 with the death of the Western Emperor Julius Nepos , Eastern Emperor Zeno became sole Emperor of the empire . Odoacer , now ruler of Italy , was nominally Zeno 's subordinate but acted with complete autonomy , eventually providing support to a rebellion against the Emperor . Zeno negotiated with the invading Ostrogoths , who had settled in Moesia , convincing the Gothic king Theodoric to depart for Italy as magister militum per Italiam ( `` commander in chief for Italy '' ) with the aim of deposing Odoacer . By urging Theodoric to conquer Italy , Zeno rid the Eastern Empire of an unruly subordinate ( Odoacer ) and moved another ( Theodoric ) further from the heart of the Empire . After Odoacer 's defeat in 493 , Theodoric ruled Italy de facto , although he was never recognised by the eastern emperors as `` king '' ( rex ) . In 491 , Anastasius I , an aged civil officer of Roman origin , became Emperor , but it was not until 497 that the forces of the new emperor effectively took the measure of Isaurian resistance . Anastasius revealed himself as an energetic reformer and an able administrator . He perfected Constantine I 's coinage system by definitively setting the weight of the copper follis , the coin used in most everyday transactions . He also reformed the tax system and permanently abolished the chrysargyron tax . The State Treasury contained the enormous sum of 320,000 lb ( 150,000 kg ) of gold when Anastasius died in 518 . Justinian dynasty See also : Byzantine Empire under the Justinian dynasty Justinian I depicted on one of the famous mosaics of the Basilica of San Vitale , Ravenna . Theodora , Justinian 's wife , depicted on the mosaics of the Basilica of San Vitale , Ravenna . The Justinian dynasty was founded by Justin I , who though illiterate , rose through the ranks of the military to become Emperor in 518 . He was succeeded by his nephew Justinian I in 527 , who may already have exerted effective control during Justin 's reign . One of the most important figures of late antiquity and possibly the last Roman emperor to speak Latin as a first language , Justinian 's rule constitutes a distinct epoch , marked by the ambitious but only partly realized renovatio imperii , or `` restoration of the Empire '' . His wife Theodora was particularly influential . In 529 , Justinian appointed a ten - man commission chaired by John the Cappadocian to revise Roman law and create a new codification of laws and jurists ' extracts , known as the `` Corpus Juris Civilis '' or the Justinian Code . In 534 , the Corpus was updated and , along with the enactments promulgated by Justinian after 534 , formed the system of law used for most of the rest of the Byzantine era . The Corpus forms the basis of civil law of many modern states . In 532 , attempting to secure his eastern frontier , Justinian signed a peace treaty with Khosrau I of Persia agreeing to pay a large annual tribute to the Sassanids . In the same year , he survived a revolt in Constantinople ( the Nika riots ) , which solidified his power but ended with the deaths of a reported 30,000 to 35,000 rioters on his orders . The western conquests began in 533 , as Justinian sent his general Belisarius to reclaim the former province of Africa from the Vandals who had been in control since 429 with their capital at Carthage . Their success came with surprising ease , but it was not until 548 that the major local tribes were subdued . In Ostrogothic Italy , the deaths of Theodoric , his nephew and heir Athalaric , and his daughter Amalasuntha had left her murderer , Theodahad ( r . 534 -- 536 ) , on the throne despite his weakened authority . In 535 , a small Byzantine expedition to Sicily met with easy success , but the Goths soon stiffened their resistance , and victory did not come until 540 , when Belisarius captured Ravenna , after successful sieges of Naples and Rome . In 535 -- 536 , Theodahad sent Pope Agapetus I to Constantinople to request the removal of Byzantine forces from Sicily , Dalmatia , and Italy . Although Agapetus failed in his mission to sign a peace with Justinian , he succeeded in having the Monophysite Patriarch Anthimus I of Constantinople denounced , despite empress Theodora 's support and protection . The Ostrogoths were soon reunited under the command of King Totila and captured Rome in 546 . Belisarius , who had been sent back to Italy in 544 , was eventually recalled to Constantinople in 549 . The arrival of the Armenian eunuch Narses in Italy ( late 551 ) with an army of 35,000 men marked another shift in Gothic fortunes . Totila was defeated at the Battle of Taginae and his successor , Teia , was defeated at the Battle of Mons Lactarius ( October 552 ) . Despite continuing resistance from a few Gothic garrisons and two subsequent invasions by the Franks and Alemanni , the war for the Italian peninsula was at an end . In 551 , Athanagild , a noble from Visigothic Hispania , sought Justinian 's help in a rebellion against the king , and the emperor dispatched a force under Liberius , a successful military commander . The empire held on to a small slice of the Iberian Peninsula coast until the reign of Heraclius . In the east , the Roman -- Persian Wars continued until 561 when the envoys of Justinian and Khosrau agreed on a 50 - year peace . By the mid-550s , Justinian had won victories in most theatres of operation , with the notable exception of the Balkans , which were subjected to repeated incursions from the Slavs and the Gepids . Tribes of Serbs and Croats were later resettled in the northwestern Balkans , during the reign of Heraclius . Justinian called Belisarius out of retirement and defeated the new Hunnish threat . The strengthening of the Danube fleet caused the Kutrigur Huns to withdraw and they agreed to a treaty that allowed safe passage back across the Danube . Although polytheism had been suppressed by the state since at least the time of Constantine in the 4th century , traditional Greco - Roman culture was still influential in the Eastern empire in the 6th century . Philosophers such as John Philoponus drew on neoplatonic ideas in addition to Christian thought and empiricism . Nevertheless , Hellenistic philosophy began to be gradually supplanted by or amalgamated into newer Christian philosophy . The closure of the Platonic Academy in 529 was a notable turning point . Hymns written by Romanos the Melodist marked the development of the Divine Liturgy , while the architects Isidore of Miletus and Anthemius of Tralles worked to complete the new Church of the Holy Wisdom , Hagia Sophia , which was designed to replace an older church destroyed during the Nika Revolt . Completed in 537 , the Hagia Sophia stands today as one of the major monuments of Byzantine architectural history . During the 6th and 7th centuries , the Empire was struck by a series of epidemics , which greatly devastated the population and contributed to a significant economic decline and a weakening of the Empire . The Eastern Roman Empire in 600 AD during the reign of Emperor Maurice . After Justinian died in 565 , his successor , Justin II refused to pay the large tribute to the Persians . Meanwhile , the Germanic Lombards invaded Italy ; by the end of the century only a third of Italy was in Byzantine hands . Justin 's successor , Tiberius II , choosing between his enemies , awarded subsidies to the Avars while taking military action against the Persians . Though Tiberius ' general , Maurice , led an effective campaign on the eastern frontier , subsidies failed to restrain the Avars . They captured the Balkan fortress of Sirmium in 582 , while the Slavs began to make inroads across the Danube . Maurice , who meanwhile succeeded Tiberius , intervened in a Persian civil war , placed the legitimate Khosrau II back on the throne and married his daughter to him . Maurice 's treaty with his new brother - in - law enlarged the territories of the Empire to the East and allowed the energetic Emperor to focus on the Balkans . By 602 , a series of successful Byzantine campaigns had pushed the Avars and Slavs back across the Danube . However , Maurice 's refusal to ransom several thousand captives taken by the Avars , and his order to the troops to winter in the Danube caused his popularity to plummet . A revolt broke out under an officer named Phocas , who marched the troops back to Constantinople ; Maurice and his family were murdered while trying to escape . Shrinking borders Early Heraclian dynasty For more details on this topic , see Byzantine Empire under the Heraclian dynasty . Siege of Constantinople in 626 by the combined Avar , Sassanid Persian , and Slavic forces depicted on the murals of the Moldovița Monastery , Romania The Byzantine Empire in 650 -- by this year it had lost all of its southern provinces except the Exarchate of Africa . After Maurice 's murder by Phocas , Khosrau used the pretext to reconquer the Roman province of Mesopotamia . Phocas , an unpopular ruler invariably described in Byzantine sources as a `` tyrant '' , was the target of a number of Senate - led plots . He was eventually deposed in 610 by Heraclius , who sailed to Constantinople from Carthage with an icon affixed to the prow of his ship . Following the accession of Heraclius , the Sassanid advance pushed deep into the Levant , occupying Damascus and Jerusalem and removing the True Cross to Ctesiphon . The counter-attack launched by Heraclius took on the character of a holy war , and an acheiropoietos image of Christ was carried as a military standard ( similarly , when Constantinople was saved from a combined Avar -- Sassanid -- Slavic siege in 626 , the victory was attributed to the icons of the Virgin that were led in procession by Patriarch Sergius about the walls of the city ) . In this very siege of Constantinople of the year 626 , amidst the climactic Byzantine -- Sasanian War of 602 -- 628 , the combined Avar , Sassanid , and Slavic forces unsuccessfully besieged the Byzantine capital between June and July . After this , the Sassanid army was forced to withdraw to Anatolia . The loss came just after news had reached them of yet another Byzantine victory , where Heraclius 's brother Theodore scored well against the Persian general Shahin . Following this , Heraclius led an invasion into Sassanid Mesopotamia once again . The main Sassanid force was destroyed at Nineveh in 627 , and in 629 Heraclius restored the True Cross to Jerusalem in a majestic ceremony , as he marched into the Sassanid capital of Ctesiphon , where anarchy and civil war reigned as a result of the enduring war . Eventually , the Persians were obliged to withdraw all armed forces and return Sassanid - ruled Egypt , the Levant and whatever imperial territories of Mesopotamia and Armenia were in Roman hands at the time of an earlier peace treaty in c. 595 . The war had exhausted both the Byzantines and Sassanids , however , and left them extremely vulnerable to the Muslim forces that emerged in the following years . The Byzantines suffered a crushing defeat by the Arabs at the Battle of Yarmouk in 636 , while Ctesiphon fell in 637 . Siege of Constantinople ( 674 -- 678 ) Greek fire was first used by the Byzantine Navy during the Byzantine -- Arab Wars ( from the Madrid Skylitzes , Biblioteca Nacional de España , Madrid ) . The Arabs , now firmly in control of Syria and the Levant , sent frequent raiding parties deep into Asia Minor , and in 674 -- 678 laid siege to Constantinople itself . The Arab fleet was finally repulsed through the use of Greek fire , and a thirty - years ' truce was signed between the Empire and the Umayyad Caliphate . However , the Anatolian raids continued unabated , and accelerated the demise of classical urban culture , with the inhabitants of many cities either refortifying much smaller areas within the old city walls , or relocating entirely to nearby fortresses . Constantinople itself dropped substantially in size , from 500,000 inhabitants to just 40,000 -- 70,000 , and , like other urban centres , it was partly ruralised . The city also lost the free grain shipments in 618 , after Egypt fell first to the Persians and then to the Arabs , and public wheat distribution ceased . The void left by the disappearance of the old semi-autonomous civic institutions was filled by the theme system , which entailed dividing Asia Minor into `` provinces '' occupied by distinct armies that assumed civil authority and answered directly to the imperial administration . This system may have had its roots in certain ad hoc measures taken by Heraclius , but over the course of the 7th century it developed into an entirely new system of imperial governance . The massive cultural and institutional restructuring of the Empire consequent on the loss of territory in the 7th century has been said to have caused a decisive break in east Mediterranean Romanness and that the Byzantine state is subsequently best understood as another successor state rather than a real continuation of the Roman Empire . Late Heraclian dynasty See also : Twenty Years ' Anarchy The withdrawal of large numbers of troops from the Balkans to combat the Persians and then the Arabs in the east opened the door for the gradual southward expansion of Slavic peoples into the peninsula , and , as in Asia Minor , many cities shrank to small fortified settlements . In the 670s , the Bulgars were pushed south of the Danube by the arrival of the Khazars . In 680 , Byzantine forces sent to disperse these new settlements were defeated . In 681 , Constantine IV signed a treaty with the Bulgar khan Asparukh , and the new Bulgarian state assumed sovereignty over a number of Slavic tribes that had previously , at least in name , recognised Byzantine rule . In 687 -- 688 , the final Heraclian emperor , Justinian II , led an expedition against the Slavs and Bulgarians , and made significant gains , although the fact that he had to fight his way from Thrace to Macedonia demonstrates the degree to which Byzantine power in the north Balkans had declined . Justinian II attempted to break the power of the urban aristocracy through severe taxation and the appointment of `` outsiders '' to administrative posts . He was driven from power in 695 , and took shelter first with the Khazars and then with the Bulgarians . In 705 , he returned to Constantinople with the armies of the Bulgarian khan Tervel , retook the throne , and instituted a reign of terror against his enemies . With his final overthrow in 711 , supported once more by the urban aristocracy , the Heraclian dynasty came to an end . Isaurian dynasty to the accession of Basil I For more details on this topic , see Byzantine Empire under the Isaurian dynasty . The Byzantine Empire at the accession of Leo III , c. 717 . Striped area indicates land raided by the Arabs . Leo III the Isaurian turned back the Muslim assault in 718 and addressed himself to the task of reorganising and consolidating the themes in Asia Minor . His successor , Constantine V , won noteworthy victories in northern Syria and thoroughly undermined Bulgarian strength . Taking advantage of the Empire 's weakness after the Revolt of Thomas the Slav in the early 820s , the Arabs re-emerged and captured Crete . They also successfully attacked Sicily , but in 863 general Petronas gained a decisive victory against Umar al - Aqta , the emir of Melitene ( Malatya ) . Under the leadership of emperor Krum , the Bulgarian threat also re-emerged , but in 815 -- 816 Krum 's son , Omurtag , signed a peace treaty with Leo V . Religious dispute over iconoclasm Main article : Byzantine iconoclasm The 8th and early 9th centuries were also dominated by controversy and religious division over Iconoclasm , which was the main political issue in the Empire for over a century . Icons ( here meaning all forms of religious imagery ) were banned by Leo and Constantine from around 730 , leading to revolts by iconodules ( supporters of icons ) throughout the empire . After the efforts of empress Irene , the Second Council of Nicaea met in 787 and affirmed that icons could be venerated but not worshiped . Irene is said to have endeavoured to negotiate a marriage between herself and Charlemagne , but , according to Theophanes the Confessor , the scheme was frustrated by Aetios , one of her favourites . In the early 9th century , Leo V reintroduced the policy of iconoclasm , but in 843 empress Theodora restored the veneration of icons with the help of Patriarch Methodios . Iconoclasm played a part in the further alienation of East from West , which worsened during the so - called Photian schism , when Pope Nicholas I challenged the elevation of Photios to the patriarchate . Macedonian dynasty and resurgence ( 867 -- 1025 ) See also : Byzantine Empire under the Macedonian dynasty The Byzantine Empire , c. 867 . The accession of Basil I to the throne in 867 marks the beginning of the Macedonian dynasty , which would rule for the next two and a half centuries . This dynasty included some of the most able emperors in Byzantium 's history , and the period is one of revival and resurgence . The Empire moved from defending against external enemies to reconquest of territories formerly lost . In addition to a reassertion of Byzantine military power and political authority , the period under the Macedonian dynasty is characterised by a cultural revival in spheres such as philosophy and the arts . There was a conscious effort to restore the brilliance of the period before the Slavic and subsequent Arab invasions , and the Macedonian era has been dubbed the `` Golden Age '' of Byzantium . Though the Empire was significantly smaller than during the reign of Justinian , it had regained significant strength , as the remaining territories were less geographically dispersed and more politically , economically , and culturally integrated . Wars against the Arabs Main article : Arab -- Byzantine wars The general Leo Phokas defeats the Hamdanid Emirate of Aleppo at Andrassos in 960 , from the Madrid Skylitzes . In the early years of Basil I 's reign , Arab raids on the coasts of Dalmatia were successfully repelled , and the region once again came under secure Byzantine control . This enabled Byzantine missionaries to penetrate to the interior and convert the Serbs and the principalities of modern - day Herzegovina and Montenegro to Orthodox Christianity . An attempt to retake Malta ended disastrously , however , when the local population sided with the Arabs and massacred the Byzantine garrison . By contrast , the Byzantine position in Southern Italy was gradually consolidated so that by 873 Bari was once again under Byzantine rule , and most of Southern Italy would remain in the Empire for the next 200 years . On the more important eastern front , the Empire rebuilt its defences and went on the offensive . The Paulicians were defeated and their capital of Tephrike ( Divrigi ) taken , while the offensive against the Abbasid Caliphate began with the recapture of Samosata . The military successes of the 10th century were coupled with a major cultural revival , the so - called Macedonian Renaissance . Miniature from the Paris Psalter , an example of Hellenistic - influenced art . Under Basil 's son and successor , Leo VI the Wise , the gains in the east against the now - weak Abbasid Caliphate continued . However , Sicily was lost to the Arabs in 902 , and in 904 Thessaloniki , the Empire 's second city , was sacked by an Arab fleet . The naval weakness of the Empire was rectified . Despite this revenge the Byzantines were still unable to strike a decisive blow against the Muslims , who inflicted a crushing defeat on the imperial forces when they attempted to regain Crete in 911 . The death of the Bulgarian tsar Simeon I in 927 severely weakened the Bulgarians , allowing the Byzantines to concentrate on the eastern front . Melitene was permanently recaptured in 934 , and in 943 the famous general John Kourkouas continued the offensive in Mesopotamia with some noteworthy victories , culminating in the reconquest of Edessa . Kourkouas was especially celebrated for returning to Constantinople the venerated Mandylion , a relic purportedly imprinted with a portrait of Christ . The soldier - emperors Nikephoros II Phokas ( reigned 963 -- 969 ) and John I Tzimiskes ( 969 -- 976 ) expanded the empire well into Syria , defeating the emirs of north - west Iraq . The great city of Aleppo was taken by Nikephoros in 962 and the Arabs were decisively expelled from Crete in 963 . The recapture of Crete put an end to Arab raids in the Aegean allowing mainland Greece to flourish once again . Cyprus was permanently retaken in 965 and the successes of Nikephoros culminated in 969 with the recapture of Antioch , which he incorporated as a province of the Empire . His successor John Tzimiskes recaptured Damascus , Beirut , Acre , Sidon , Caesarea , and Tiberias , putting Byzantine armies within striking distance of Jerusalem , although the Muslim power centres in Iraq and Egypt were left untouched . After much campaigning in the north , the last Arab threat to Byzantium , the rich province of Sicily , was targeted in 1025 by Basil II , who died before the expedition could be completed . Nevertheless , by that time the Empire stretched from the straits of Messina to the Euphrates and from the Danube to Syria . Wars against the Bulgarian Empire For more details on this topic , see Byzantine -- Bulgarian wars . Emperor Basil II ( r . 976 -- 1025 ) The traditional struggle with the See of Rome continued through the Macedonian period , spurred by the question of religious supremacy over the newly Christianised state of Bulgaria . Ending eighty years of peace between the two states , the powerful Bulgarian tsar Simeon I invaded in 894 but was pushed back by the Byzantines , who used their fleet to sail up the Black Sea to attack the Bulgarian rear , enlisting the support of the Hungarians . The Byzantines were defeated at the Battle of Boulgarophygon in 896 , however , and agreed to pay annual subsidies to the Bulgarians . Leo the Wise died in 912 , and hostilities soon resumed as Simeon marched to Constantinople at the head of a large army . Though the walls of the city were impregnable , the Byzantine administration was in disarray and Simeon was invited into the city , where he was granted the crown of basileus ( emperor ) of Bulgaria and had the young emperor Constantine VII marry one of his daughters . When a revolt in Constantinople halted his dynastic project , he again invaded Thrace and conquered Adrianople . The Empire now faced the problem of a powerful Christian state within a few days ' marching distance from Constantinople , as well as having to fight on two fronts . A great imperial expedition under Leo Phocas and Romanos I Lekapenos ended with another crushing Byzantine defeat at the Battle of Achelous in 917 , and the following year the Bulgarians were free to ravage northern Greece . Adrianople was plundered again in 923 , and a Bulgarian army laid siege to Constantinople in 924 . Simeon died suddenly in 927 , however , and Bulgarian power collapsed with him . Bulgaria and Byzantium entered a long period of peaceful relations , and the Empire was now free to concentrate on the eastern front against the Muslims . In 968 , Bulgaria was overrun by the Rus ' under Sviatoslav I of Kiev , but three years later , John I Tzimiskes defeated the Rus ' and re-incorporated Eastern Bulgaria into the Byzantine Empire . The extent of the Empire under Basil II Bulgarian resistance revived under the rule of the Cometopuli dynasty , but the new emperor Basil II ( r . 976 -- 1025 ) made the submission of the Bulgarians his primary goal . Basil 's first expedition against Bulgaria , however , resulted in a humiliating defeat at the Gates of Trajan . For the next few years , the emperor would be preoccupied with internal revolts in Anatolia , while the Bulgarians expanded their realm in the Balkans . The war dragged on for nearly twenty years . The Byzantine victories of Spercheios and Skopje decisively weakened the Bulgarian army , and in annual campaigns , Basil methodically reduced the Bulgarian strongholds . At the Battle of Kleidion in 1014 the Bulgarians were annihilated : their army was captured , and it is said that 99 out of every 100 men were blinded , with the hundredth man left with one eye so he could lead his compatriots home . When Tsar Samuil saw the broken remains of his once formidable army , he died of shock . By 1018 , the last Bulgarian strongholds had surrendered , and the country became part of the Empire . This victory restored the Danube frontier , which had not been held since the days of the emperor Heraclius . Relations with the Kievan Rus ' Rus ' under the walls of Constantinople ( 860 ) Between 850 and 1100 , the Empire developed a mixed relationship with the new state of the Kievan Rus ' , which had emerged to the north across the Black Sea . This relationship would have long - lasting repercussions in the history of the East Slavs , and the Empire quickly became the main trading and cultural partner for Kiev . The Rus ' launched their first attack against Constantinople in 860 , pillaging the suburbs of the city . In 941 , they appeared on the Asian shore of the Bosphorus , but this time they were crushed , an indication of the improvements in the Byzantine military position after 907 , when only diplomacy had been able to push back the invaders . Basil II could not ignore the emerging power of the Rus ' , and , following the example of his predecessors , he used religion as a means for the achievement of political purposes . Rus ' -- Byzantine relations became closer following the marriage of Anna Porphyrogeneta to Vladimir the Great in 988 , and the subsequent Christianisation of the Rus ' . Byzantine priests , architects , and artists were invited to work on numerous cathedrals and churches around Rus ' , expanding Byzantine cultural influence even further , while numerous Rus ' served in the Byzantine army as mercenaries , most notably as the famous Varangian Guard . Even after the Christianisation of the Rus ' , however , relations were not always friendly . The most serious conflict between the two powers was the war of 968 -- 971 in Bulgaria , but several Rus ' raiding expeditions against the Byzantine cities of the Black Sea coast and Constantinople itself are also recorded . Although most were repulsed , they were often followed by treaties that were generally favourable to the Rus ' , such as the one concluded at the end of the war of 1043 , during which the Rus ' gave an indication of their ambitions to compete with the Byzantines as an independent power . Apex Constantinople became the largest and wealthiest city in Europe between the 9th and 11th centuries Basil II is considered among the most capable Byzantine emperors and his reign as the apex of the empire in the Middle Ages . By 1025 , the date of Basil II 's death , the Byzantine Empire stretched from Armenia in the east to Calabria in Southern Italy in the west . Many successes had been achieved , ranging from the conquest of Bulgaria to the annexation of parts of Georgia and Armenia , and the reconquest of Crete , Cyprus , and the important city of Antioch . These were not temporary tactical gains but long - term reconquests . Leo VI achieved the complete codification of Byzantine law in Greek . This monumental work of 60 volumes became the foundation of all subsequent Byzantine law and is still studied today . Leo also reformed the administration of the Empire , redrawing the borders of the administrative subdivisions ( the Themata , or `` Themes '' ) and tidying up the system of ranks and privileges , as well as regulating the behaviour of the various trade guilds in Constantinople . Leo 's reform did much to reduce the previous fragmentation of the Empire , which henceforth had one center of power , Constantinople . However , the increasing military success of the Empire greatly enriched and empowered the provincial nobility with respect to the peasantry , who were essentially reduced to a state of serfdom . Under the Macedonian emperors , the city of Constantinople flourished , becoming the largest and wealthiest city in Europe , with a population of approximately 400,000 in the 9th and 10th centuries . During this period , the Byzantine Empire employed a strong civil service staffed by competent aristocrats that oversaw the collection of taxes , domestic administration , and foreign policy . The Macedonian emperors also increased the Empire 's wealth by fostering trade with Western Europe , particularly through the sale of silk and metalwork . Split between Orthodox Christianity and catholicism ( 1054 ) Further information : East -- West Schism Mural of Saints Cyril and Methodius , 19th century , Troyan Monastery , Bulgaria The Macedonian period also included events of momentous religious significance . The conversion of the Bulgarians , Serbs and Rus ' to Orthodox Christianity permanently changed the religious map of Europe and still resonates today . Cyril and Methodius , two Byzantine Greek brothers from Thessaloniki , contributed significantly to the Christianization of the Slavs and in the process devised the Glagolitic alphabet , ancestor to the Cyrillic script . In 1054 , relations between the Eastern and Western traditions within the Christian Church reached a terminal crisis , known as the East -- West Schism . Although there was a formal declaration of institutional separation , on July 16 , when three papal legates entered the Hagia Sophia during Divine Liturgy on a Saturday afternoon and placed a bull of excommunication on the altar , the so - called Great Schism was actually the culmination of centuries of gradual separation . Unfortunately the legates did not know that the Pope had died , an event that made the excommunication void and the excommunication only applied to the Patriarch who responded by excommunicating the legates . Crisis and fragmentation The Empire soon fell into a period of difficulties , caused to a large extent by the undermining of the theme system and the neglect of the military . Nikephoros II , John Tzimiskes , and Basil II changed the military divisions ( τάγματα , tagmata ) from a rapid response , primarily defensive , citizen army into a professional , campaigning army , increasingly manned by mercenaries . Mercenaries were expensive , however , and as the threat of invasion receded in the 10th century , so did the need for maintaining large garrisons and expensive fortifications . Basil II left a burgeoning treasury upon his death , but he neglected to plan for his succession . None of his immediate successors had any particular military or political talent and the administration of the Empire increasingly fell into the hands of the civil service . Efforts to revive the Byzantine economy only resulted in inflation and a debased gold coinage . The army was now seen as both an unnecessary expense and a political threat . Native troops were therefore cashiered and replaced by foreign mercenaries on specific contract . At the same time , the Empire was faced with new enemies . Provinces in southern Italy faced the Normans , who arrived in Italy at the beginning of the 11th century . During a period of strife between Constantinople and Rome culminating in the East - West Schism of 1054 , the Normans began to advance , slowly but steadily , into Byzantine Italy . Reggio , the capital of the tagma of Calabria , was captured in 1060 by Robert Guiscard , followed by Otranto in 1068 . Bari , the main Byzantine stronghold in Apulia , was besieged in August 1068 and fell in April 1071 . The Byzantines also lost their influence over the Dalmatian coastal cities to Peter Krešimir IV of Croatia ( r . 1058 -- 1074 / 1075 ) in 1069 . The seizure of Edessa ( 1031 ) by the Byzantines under George Maniakes and the counterattack by the Seljuk Turks The greatest disaster took place in Asia Minor , however , where the Seljuq Turks made their first explorations across the Byzantine frontier into Armenia in 1065 and 1067 . The emergency lent weight to the military aristocracy in Anatolia , who in 1068 secured the election of one of their own , Romanos Diogenes , as emperor . In the summer of 1071 , Romanos undertook a massive eastern campaign to draw the Seljuks into a general engagement with the Byzantine army . At the Battle of Manzikert , Romanos suffered a surprise defeat by Sultan Alp Arslan , and he was captured . Alp Arslan treated him with respect and imposed no harsh terms on the Byzantines . In Constantinople , however , a coup put in power Michael Doukas , who soon faced the opposition of Nikephoros Bryennios and Nikephoros Botaneiates . By 1081 , the Seljuks had expanded their rule over virtually the entire Anatolian plateau from Armenia in the east to Bithynia in the west , and they had founded their capital at Nicaea , just 90 kilometres ( 56 miles ) from Constantinople . Komnenian dynasty and the crusaders See also : Byzantine Empire under the Komnenos dynasty and Komnenian restoration Alexios I , founder of the Komnenos dynasty During the Komnenian , or Comnenian , period from about 1081 to about 1185 , the five emperors of the Komnenos dynasty ( Alexios I , John II , Manuel I , Alexios II , and Andronikos I ) presided over a sustained , though ultimately incomplete , restoration of the military , territorial , economic , and political position of the Byzantine Empire . Although the Seljuk Turks occupied the heartland of the Empire in Anatolia , most Byzantine military efforts during this period were directed against Western powers , particularly the Normans . The Empire under the Komnenoi played a key role in the history of the Crusades in the Holy Land , which Alexios I had helped bring about , while also exerting enormous cultural and political influence in Europe , the Near East , and the lands around the Mediterranean Sea under John and Manuel . Contact between Byzantium and the `` Latin '' West , including the Crusader states , increased significantly during the Komnenian period . Venetian and other Italian traders became resident in large numbers in Constantinople and the empire ( there were an estimated 60,000 Latins in Constantinople alone , out of a population of three to four hundred thousand ) , and their presence together with the numerous Latin mercenaries who were employed by Manuel helped to spread Byzantine technology , art , literature and culture throughout the Latin West , while also leading to a flow of Western ideas and customs into the Empire . In terms of prosperity and cultural life , the Komnenian period was one of the peaks in Byzantine history , and Constantinople remained the leading city of the Christian world in size , wealth , and culture . There was a renewed interest in classical Greek philosophy , as well as an increase in literary output in vernacular Greek . Byzantine art and literature held a pre-eminent place in Europe , and the cultural impact of Byzantine art on the west during this period was enormous and of long lasting significance . Alexios I and the first Crusade For more details on this topic , see Alexios I Komnenos . See also : First Crusade Province ( doukaton ) of the Byzantine Empire ca . 1045 . The Byzantine Empire and the Seljuk Sultanate of Rûm before the First Crusade After Manzikert , a partial recovery ( referred to as the Komnenian restoration ) was made possible by the Komnenian dynasty . The first Komnenian emperor was Isaac I ( 1057 -- 1059 ) , after which the Doukas dynasty held power ( 1059 -- 81 ) . The Komnenoi attained power again under Alexios I in 1081 . From the outset of his reign , Alexios faced a formidable attack by the Normans under Robert Guiscard and his son Bohemund of Taranto , who captured Dyrrhachium and Corfu , and laid siege to Larissa in Thessaly . Robert Guiscard 's death in 1085 temporarily eased the Norman problem . The following year , the Seljuq sultan died , and the sultanate was split by internal rivalries . By his own efforts , Alexios defeated the Pechenegs ; they were caught by surprise and annihilated at the Battle of Levounion on 28 April 1091 . Having achieved stability in the West , Alexios could turn his attention to the severe economic difficulties and the disintegration of the Empire 's traditional defences . However , he still did not have enough manpower to recover the lost territories in Asia Minor and to advance against the Seljuks . At the Council of Piacenza in 1095 , envoys from Alexios spoke to Pope Urban II about the suffering of the Christians of the East , and underscored that without help from the West they would continue to suffer under Muslim rule . Urban saw Alexios 's request as a dual opportunity to cement Western Europe and reunite the Eastern Orthodox Church with the Roman Catholic Church under his rule . On 27 November 1095 , Pope Urban II called together the Council of Clermont , and urged all those present to take up arms under the sign of the Cross and launch an armed pilgrimage to recover Jerusalem and the East from the Muslims . The response in Western Europe was overwhelming . The brief first coinage of the Thessaloniki mint , opened by Alexios in September 1081 , on his way to confront the invading Normans under Robert Guiscard Alexios had anticipated help in the form of mercenary forces from the West , but he was totally unprepared for the immense and undisciplined force that soon arrived in Byzantine territory . It was no comfort to Alexios to learn that four of the eight leaders of the main body of the Crusade were Normans , among them Bohemund . Since the crusade had to pass through Constantinople , however , the Emperor had some control over it . He required its leaders to swear to restore to the empire any towns or territories they might reconquer from the Turks on their way to the Holy Land . In return , he gave them guides and a military escort . Alexios was able to recover a number of important cities and islands , and in fact much of western Asia Minor . Nevertheless , the Catholic / Latin crusaders believed their oaths were invalidated when Alexios did not help them during the siege of Antioch ( he had in fact set out on the road to Antioch but had been persuaded to turn back by Stephen of Blois , who assured him that all was lost and that the expedition had already failed ) . Bohemund , who had set himself up as Prince of Antioch , briefly went to war with the Byzantines , but he agreed to become Alexios ' vassal under the Treaty of Devol in 1108 , which marked the end of the Norman threat during Alexios ' reign . John II , Manuel I and the second Crusade Main articles : John II Komnenos and Manuel I Komnenos Medieval manuscript depicting the Capture of Jerusalem during the First Crusade Alexios 's son John II Komnenos succeeded him in 1118 and ruled until 1143 . John was a pious and dedicated Emperor who was determined to undo the damage to the empire suffered at the Battle of Manzikert , half a century earlier . Famed for his piety and his remarkably mild and just reign , John was an exceptional example of a moral ruler at a time when cruelty was the norm . For this reason , he has been called the Byzantine Marcus Aurelius . During his twenty - five year reign , John made alliances with the Holy Roman Empire in the West and decisively defeated the Pechenegs at the Battle of Beroia . He thwarted Hungarian and Serbian threats during the 1120s , and in 1130 he allied himself with the German emperor Lothair III against the Norman king Roger II of Sicily . In the later part of his reign , John focused his activities on the East , personally leading numerous campaigns against the Turks in Asia Minor . His campaigns fundamentally altered the balance of power in the East , forcing the Turks onto the defensive , while restoring many towns , fortresses , and cities across the peninsula to the Byzantines . He defeated the Danishmend Emirate of Melitene and reconquered all of Cilicia , while forcing Raymond of Poitiers , Prince of Antioch , to recognise Byzantine suzerainty . In an effort to demonstrate the Emperor 's role as the leader of the Christian world , John marched into the Holy Land at the head of the combined forces of the Empire and the Crusader states ; yet despite his great vigour pressing the campaign , his hopes were disappointed by the treachery of his Crusader allies . In 1142 , John returned to press his claims to Antioch , but he died in the spring of 1143 following a hunting accident . Raymond was emboldened to invade Cilicia , but he was defeated and forced to go to Constantinople to beg mercy from the new Emperor . Byzantine Empire in orange , c. 1180 , at the end of the Komnenian period John 's chosen heir was his fourth son , Manuel I Komnenos , who campaigned aggressively against his neighbours both in the west and in the east . In Palestine , Manuel allied with the Crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem and sent a large fleet to participate in a combined invasion of Fatimid Egypt . Manuel reinforced his position as overlord of the Crusader states , with his hegemony over Antioch and Jerusalem secured by agreement with Raynald , Prince of Antioch , and Amalric , King of Jerusalem . In an effort to restore Byzantine control over the ports of southern Italy , he sent an expedition to Italy in 1155 , but disputes within the coalition led to the eventual failure of the campaign . Despite this military setback , Manuel 's armies successfully invaded the Southern parts of Kingdom of Hungary in 1167 , defeating the Hungarians at the Battle of Sirmium . By 1168 , nearly the whole of the eastern Adriatic coast lay in Manuel 's hands . Manuel made several alliances with the Pope and Western Christian kingdoms , and he successfully handled the passage of the Second Crusade through his empire . In the east , however , Manuel suffered a major defeat in 1176 at the Battle of Myriokephalon , against the Turks . Yet the losses were quickly recovered , and in the following year Manuel 's forces inflicted a defeat upon a force of `` picked Turks '' . The Byzantine commander John Vatatzes , who destroyed the Turkish invaders at the Battle of Hyelion and Leimocheir , not only brought troops from the capital but also was able to gather an army along the way , a sign that the Byzantine army remained strong and that the defensive program of western Asia Minor was still successful . 12th - century Renaissance For more details on this topic , see Byzantine civilisation in the 12th century . See also : Komnenian Byzantine army ' The Lamentation of Christ ' ( 1164 ) , a fresco from the church of Saint Panteleimon in Nerezi near Skopje ; it is considered a superb example of 12th - century Komnenian art John and Manuel pursued active military policies , and both deployed considerable resources on sieges and on city defences ; aggressive fortification policies were at the heart of their imperial military policies . Despite the defeat at Myriokephalon , the policies of Alexios , John and Manuel resulted in vast territorial gains , increased frontier stability in Asia Minor , and secured the stabilisation of the Empire 's European frontiers . From c. 1081 to c. 1180 , the Komnenian army assured the Empire 's security , enabling Byzantine civilisation to flourish . This allowed the Western provinces to achieve an economic revival that continued until the close of the century . It has been argued that Byzantium under the Komnenian rule was more prosperous than at any time since the Persian invasions of the 7th century . During the 12th century , population levels rose and extensive tracts of new agricultural land were brought into production . Archaeological evidence from both Europe and Asia Minor shows a considerable increase in the size of urban settlements , together with a notable upsurge in new towns . Trade was also flourishing ; the Venetians , the Genoese and others opened up the ports of the Aegean to commerce , shipping goods from the Crusader kingdoms of Outremer and Fatimid Egypt to the west and trading with the Empire via Constantinople . In artistic terms , there was a revival in mosaic , and regional schools of architecture began producing many distinctive styles that drew on a range of cultural influences . During the 12th century , the Byzantines provided their model of early humanism as a renaissance of interest in classical authors . In Eustathius of Thessalonica , Byzantine humanism found its most characteristic expression . In philosophy , there was resurgence of classical learning not seen since the 7th century , characterised by a significant increase in the publication of commentaries on classical works . In addition , the first transmission of classical Greek knowledge to the West occurred during the Komnenian period . Decline and disintegration Main article : Decline of the Byzantine Empire Angelid dynasty Main article : Byzantine Empire under the Angelos dynasty Byzantium in the late Angeloi period Manuel 's death on 24 September 1180 left his 11 - year - old son Alexios II Komnenos on the throne . Alexios was highly incompetent at the office , but it was his mother , Maria of Antioch , and her Frankish background that made his regency unpopular . Eventually , Andronikos I Komnenos , a grandson of Alexios I , launched a revolt against his younger relative and managed to overthrow him in a violent coup d'état . Utilizing his good looks and his immense popularity with the army , he marched on to Constantinople in August 1182 and incited a massacre of the Latins . After eliminating his potential rivals , he had himself crowned as co-emperor in September 1183 . He eliminated Alexios II , and took his 12 - year - old wife Agnes of France for himself . Andronikos began his reign well ; in particular , the measures he took to reform the government of the Empire have been praised by historians . According to George Ostrogorsky , Andronikos was determined to root out corruption : Under his rule , the sale of offices ceased ; selection was based on merit , rather than favouritism ; officials were paid an adequate salary so as to reduce the temptation of bribery . In the provinces , Andronikos 's reforms produced a speedy and marked improvement . The aristocrats were infuriated against him , and to make matters worse , Andronikos seems to have become increasingly unbalanced ; executions and violence became increasingly common , and his reign turned into a reign of terror . Andronikos seemed almost to seek the extermination of the aristocracy as a whole . The struggle against the aristocracy turned into wholesale slaughter , while the Emperor resorted to ever more ruthless measures to shore up his regime . Despite his military background , Andronikos failed to deal with Isaac Komnenos , Béla III of Hungary ( r . 1172 -- 1196 ) who reincorporated Croatian territories into Hungary , and Stephen Nemanja of Serbia ( r . 1166 -- 1196 ) who declared his independence from the Byzantine Empire . Yet , none of these troubles would compare to William II of Sicily 's ( r . 1166 -- 1189 ) invasion force of 300 ships and 80,000 men , arriving in 1185 . Andronikos mobilised a small fleet of 100 ships to defend the capital , but other than that he was indifferent to the populace . He was finally overthrown when Isaac Angelos , surviving an imperial assassination attempt , seized power with the aid of the people and had Andronikos killed . The reign of Isaac II , and more so that of his brother Alexios III , saw the collapse of what remained of the centralised machinery of Byzantine government and defence . Although the Normans were driven out of Greece , in 1186 the Vlachs and Bulgars began a rebellion that led to the formation of the Second Bulgarian Empire . The internal policy of the Angeloi was characterised by the squandering of the public treasure and fiscal maladministration . Imperial authority was severely weakened , and the growing power vacuum at the center of the Empire encouraged fragmentation . There is evidence that some Komnenian heirs had set up a semi-independent state in Trebizond before 1204 . According to Alexander Vasiliev , `` the dynasty of the Angeloi , Greek in its origin , ... accelerated the ruin of the Empire , already weakened without and disunited within . '' Fourth Crusade For more details on this topic , see Fourth Crusade . The Entry of the Crusaders into Constantinople , by Eugène Delacroix ( 1840 ) . In 1198 , Pope Innocent III broached the subject of a new crusade through legates and encyclical letters . The stated intent of the crusade was to conquer Egypt , now the centre of Muslim power in the Levant . The crusader army that arrived at Venice in the summer of 1202 was somewhat smaller than had been anticipated , and there were not sufficient funds to pay the Venetians , whose fleet was hired by the crusaders to take them to Egypt . Venetian policy under the ageing and blind but still ambitious Doge Enrico Dandolo was potentially at variance with that of the Pope and the crusaders , because Venice was closely related commercially with Egypt . The crusaders accepted the suggestion that in lieu of payment they assist the Venetians in the capture of the ( Christian ) port of Zara in Dalmatia ( vassal city of Venice , which had rebelled and placed itself under Hungary 's protection in 1186 ) . The city fell in November 1202 after a brief siege . Innocent tried to forbid this political attack on a Christian city , but was ignored . Reluctant to jeopardise his own agenda for the Crusade , he gave conditional absolution to the crusaders -- not , however , to the Venetians . After the death of Theobald III , Count of Champagne , the leadership of the Crusade passed to Boniface of Montferrat , a friend of the Hohenstaufen Philip of Swabia . Both Boniface and Philip had married into the Byzantine Imperial family . In fact , Philip 's brother - in - law , Alexios Angelos , son of the deposed and blinded Emperor Isaac II Angelos , had appeared in Europe seeking aid and had made contacts with the crusaders . Alexios offered to reunite the Byzantine church with Rome , pay the crusaders 200,000 silver marks , join the crusade and provide all the supplies they needed to get to Egypt . Innocent was aware of a plan to divert the Crusade to Constantinople and forbade any attack on the city , but the papal letter arrived after the fleets had left Zara . Crusader sack of Constantinople ( 1204 ) Further information : Siege of Constantinople ( 1203 ) and Siege of Constantinople ( 1204 ) The partition of the empire following the Fourth Crusade , c. 1204 . The crusaders arrived at Constantinople in the summer of 1203 and quickly attacked , started a major fire that damaged large parts of the city , and briefly seized control . Alexios III fled from the capital , and Alexios Angelos was elevated to the throne as Alexios IV along with his blind father Isaac . However , Alexios IV and Isaac II were unable to keep their promises and were deposed by Alexios V . The crusaders again took the city on 13 April 1204 , and Constantinople was subjected to pillage and massacre by the rank and file for three days . Many priceless icons , relics , and other objects later turned up in Western Europe , a large number in Venice . According to Choniates , a prostitute was even set up on the Patriarchal throne . When Innocent III heard of the conduct of his crusaders , he castigated them in no uncertain terms . But the situation was beyond his control , especially after his legate , on his own initiative , had absolved the crusaders from their vow to proceed to the Holy Land . When order had been restored , the crusaders and the Venetians proceeded to implement their agreement ; Baldwin of Flanders was elected Emperor of a new Latin Empire , and the Venetian Thomas Morosini was chosen as Patriarch . The lands divided up among the leaders included most of the former Byzantine possessions , though resistance would continue through the Byzantine remnants of the Nicaea , Trebizond , and Epirus . Although Venice was more interested in commerce than conquering territory , it took key areas of Constantinople , and the Doge took the title of `` Lord of a Quarter and Half a Quarter of the Roman Empire '' . Fall Empire in exile For more details on this topic , see Latinokratia . After the sack of Constantinople in 1204 by Latin crusaders , two Byzantine successor states were established : the Empire of Nicaea , and the Despotate of Epirus . A third , the Empire of Trebizond , was created by Alexios I of Trebizond a few weeks before the sack of Constantinople . Of the three successor states , Epirus and Nicaea stood the best chance of reclaiming Constantinople . The Nicaean Empire struggled to survive the next few decades , however , and by the mid-13th century it had lost much of southern Anatolia . The weakening of the Sultanate of Rûm following the Mongol invasion in 1242 -- 43 allowed many beyliks and ghazis to set up their own principalities in Anatolia , weakening the Byzantine hold on Asia Minor . In time , one of the Beys , Osman I , created an empire that would eventually conquer Constantinople . However , the Mongol invasion also gave Nicaea a temporary respite from Seljuk attacks , allowing it to concentrate on the Latin Empire to its north . Reconquest of Constantinople Main article : Byzantine Empire under the Palaiologos dynasty The Byzantine Empire c. 1263 . The Empire of Nicaea , founded by the Laskarid dynasty , managed to reclaim Constantinople from the Latins in 1261 and defeat Epirus . This led to a short - lived revival of Byzantine fortunes under Michael VIII Palaiologos , but the war - ravaged Empire was ill - equipped to deal with the enemies that now surrounded it . To maintain his campaigns against the Latins , Michael pulled troops from Asia Minor and levied crippling taxes on the peasantry , causing much resentment . Massive construction projects were completed in Constantinople to repair the damage of the Fourth Crusade , but none of these initiatives was of any comfort to the farmers in Asia Minor suffering raids from Muslim ghazis . Rather than holding on to his possessions in Asia Minor , Michael chose to expand the Empire , gaining only short - term success . To avoid another sacking of the capital by the Latins , he forced the Church to submit to Rome , again a temporary solution for which the peasantry hated Michael and Constantinople . The efforts of Andronikos II and later his grandson Andronikos III marked Byzantium 's last genuine attempts in restoring the glory of the Empire . However , the use of mercenaries by Andronikos II would often backfire , with the Catalan Company ravaging the countryside and increasing resentment towards Constantinople . Rise of the Ottomans and fall of Constantinople Main articles : Byzantine -- Ottoman Wars and Fall of Constantinople The siege of Constantinople in 1453 , depicted in a 15th - century French miniature . The situation became worse for Byzantium during the civil wars after Andronikos III died . A six - year - long civil war devastated the empire , allowing the Serbian ruler Stefan Dušan ( r . 1331 -- 1346 ) to overrun most of the Empire 's remaining territory and establish a Serbian Empire . In 1354 , an earthquake at Gallipoli devastated the fort , allowing the Ottomans ( who were hired as mercenaries during the civil war by John VI Kantakouzenos ) to establish themselves in Europe . By the time the Byzantine civil wars had ended , the Ottomans had defeated the Serbians and subjugated them as vassals . Following the Battle of Kosovo , much of the Balkans became dominated by the Ottomans . The Byzantine emperors appealed to the West for help , but the Pope would only consider sending aid in return for a reunion of the Eastern Orthodox Church with the See of Rome . Church unity was considered , and occasionally accomplished by imperial decree , but the Orthodox citizenry and clergy intensely resented the authority of Rome and the Latin Rite . Some Western troops arrived to bolster the Christian defence of Constantinople , but most Western rulers , distracted by their own affairs , did nothing as the Ottomans picked apart the remaining Byzantine territories . Constantinople by this stage was underpopulated and dilapidated . The population of the city had collapsed so severely that it was now little more than a cluster of villages separated by fields . On 2 April 1453 , Sultan Mehmed 's army of 80,000 men and large numbers of irregulars laid siege to the city . Despite a desperate last - ditch defence of the city by the massively outnumbered Christian forces ( c. 7,000 men , 2,000 of whom were foreign ) , Constantinople finally fell to the Ottomans after a two - month siege on 29 May 1453 . The last Byzantine emperor , Constantine XI Palaiologos , was last seen casting off his imperial regalia and throwing himself into hand - to - hand combat after the walls of the city were taken . Political aftermath The Eastern Mediterranean just before the fall of Constantinople By the time of the fall of Constantinople , the only remaining territory of the Byzantine Empire was the Despotate of the Morea ( Peloponnese ) , which was ruled by brothers of the last Emperor , Thomas Palaiologos and Demetrios Palaiologos . The Despotate continued on as an independent state by paying an annual tribute to the Ottomans . Incompetent rule , failure to pay the annual tribute and a revolt against the Ottomans finally led to Mehmed II 's invasion of Morea in May 1460 . Demetrios asked the Ottomans to invade and drive Thomas out . Thomas fled . The Ottomans moved through the Morea and conquered virtually the entire Despotate by the summer . Demetrios thought the Morea would be restored to him to rule , but it was incorporated into the Ottoman fold . A few holdouts remained for a time . The island of Monemvasia refused to surrender and it was first ruled for a short time by an Aragonese corsair . When the population drove him out they obtained the consent of Thomas to place themselves under the Pope 's protection before the end of 1460 . The Mani Peninsula , on the Morea 's south end , resisted under a loose coalition of the local clans and then that area came under Venice 's rule . The very last holdout was Salmeniko , in the Morea 's northwest . Graitzas Palaiologos was the military commander there , stationed at Salmeniko Castle . While the town eventually surrendered , Graitzas and his garrison and some town residents held out in the castle until July 1461 , when they escaped and reached Venetian territory . Flag of the late Empire under the Palaiologoi , sporting the tetragrammic cross symbol of the Palaiologos dynasty . The Empire of Trebizond , which had split away from the Byzantine Empire just weeks before Constantinople was taken by the Crusaders in 1204 , became the last remnant and last de facto successor state to the Byzantine Empire . Efforts by the Emperor David to recruit European powers for an anti-Ottoman crusade provoked war between the Ottomans and Trebizond in the summer of 1461 . After a month - long siege , David surrendered the city of Trebizond on 14 August 1461 . The Empire of Trebizond 's Crimean principality , the Principality of Theodoro ( part of the Perateia ) , lasted another 14 years , falling to the Ottomans in December 1475 . A nephew of the last Emperor , Constantine XI , Andreas Palaiologos claimed to have inherited the title of Byzantine Emperor . He lived in the Morea until its fall in 1460 , then escaped to Rome where he lived under the protection of the Papal States for the remainder of his life . Since the office of emperor had never been technically hereditary , Andreas ' claim would have been without merit under Byzantine law . However , the Empire had vanished , and Western states generally followed the Roman - church - sanctioned principles of hereditary sovereignty . Seeking a life in the west , Andreas styled himself Imperator Constantinopolitanus ( `` Emperor of Constantinople '' ) , and sold his succession rights to both Charles VIII of France and the Catholic Monarchs . Constantine XI died without producing an heir , and had Constantinople not fallen he might have been succeeded by the sons of his deceased elder brother , who were taken into the palace service of Mehmed II after the fall of Constantinople . The oldest boy , re-christened as Has Murad , became a personal favorite of Mehmed and served as Beylerbey ( Governor - General ) of the Balkans . The younger son , renamed Mesih Pasha , became Admiral of the Ottoman fleet and Sancak Beg ( Governor ) of the Province of Gallipoli . He eventually served twice as Grand Vizier under Mehmed 's son , Bayezid II . Mehmed II and his successors continued to consider themselves heirs to the Roman Empire until the demise of the Ottoman Empire in the early 20th century following World War 1 . They considered that they had simply shifted its religious basis as Constantine had done before , and they continued to refer to their conquered Eastern Roman inhabitants ( Orthodox Christians ) as Rûm . Meanwhile , the Danubian Principalities ( whose rulers also considered themselves the heirs of the Eastern Roman Emperors ) harboured Orthodox refugees , including some Byzantine nobles . At his death , the role of the emperor as a patron of Eastern Orthodoxy was claimed by Ivan III , Grand duke of Muscovy . He had married Andreas ' sister , Sophia Paleologue , whose grandson , Ivan IV , would become the first Tsar of Russia ( tsar , or czar , meaning caesar , is a term traditionally applied by Slavs to the Byzantine Emperors ) . Their successors supported the idea that Moscow was the proper heir to Rome and Constantinople . The idea of the Russian Empire as the successive Third Rome was kept alive until its demise with the Russian Revolution . Economy For more details on this topic , see Byzantine economy and Byzantine silk . Further information : Sino - Roman relations A bronze coin of Constantius II ( 337 -- 361 ) , found in Karghalik , Xinjiang , China Byzantine culture Aristocracy and bureaucracy Army Art Architecture Calendar Coinage Cuisine Dance Diplomacy Dress Economy Gardens Law Literature Medicine Music Navy People Science The Byzantine economy was among the most advanced in Europe and the Mediterranean for many centuries . Europe , in particular , could not match Byzantine economic strength until late in the Middle Ages . Constantinople operated as a prime hub in a trading network that at various times extended across nearly all of Eurasia and North Africa , in particular as the primary western terminus of the famous Silk Road . Until the first half of the 6th century and in sharp contrast with the decaying West , the Byzantine economy was flourishing and resilient . The Plague of Justinian and the Arab conquests would represent a substantial reversal of fortunes contributing to a period of stagnation and decline . Isaurian reforms and , in particular , Constantine V 's repopulation , public works and tax measures , marked the beginning of a revival that continued until 1204 , despite territorial contraction . From the 10th century until the end of the 12th , the Byzantine Empire projected an image of luxury and travellers were impressed by the wealth accumulated in the capital . The Fourth Crusade resulted in the disruption of Byzantine manufacturing and the commercial dominance of the Western Europeans in the eastern Mediterranean , events that amounted to an economic catastrophe for the Empire . The Palaiologoi tried to revive the economy , but the late Byzantine state would not gain full control of either the foreign or domestic economic forces . Gradually , it also lost its influence on the modalities of trade and the price mechanisms , and its control over the outflow of precious metals and , according to some scholars , even over the minting of coins . One of the economic foundations of Byzantium was trade , fostered by the maritime character of the Empire . Textiles must have been by far the most important item of export ; silks were certainly imported into Egypt , and appeared also in Bulgaria , and the West . The state strictly controlled both the internal and the international trade , and retained the monopoly of issuing coinage , maintaining a durable and flexible monetary system adaptable to trade needs . The government attempted to exercise formal control over interest rates , and set the parameters for the activity of the guilds and corporations , in which it had a special interest . The emperor and his officials intervened at times of crisis to ensure the provisioning of the capital , and to keep down the price of cereals . Finally , the government often collected part of the surplus through taxation , and put it back into circulation , through redistribution in the form of salaries to state officials , or in the form of investment in public works . Science , medicine and law See also : Byzantine science , Byzantine medicine , and Byzantine law Interior panorama of the Hagia Sophia , the patriarchal basilica in Constantinople designed 537 CE by Isidore of Miletus , the first compiler of Archimedes ' various works . The influence of Archimedes ' principles of solid geometry is evident . The frontispiece of the Vienna Dioscurides , which shows a set of seven famous physicians The writings of Classical antiquity were cultivated and extended in Byzantium . Therefore , Byzantine science was in every period closely connected with ancient philosophy , and metaphysics . In the field of engineering Isidore of Miletus , the Greek mathematician and architect of the Hagia Sophia , produced the first compilation of Archimedes ' works c. 530 , and it is through this manuscript tradition , kept alive by the school of mathematics and engineering founded c. 850 during the `` Byzantine Renaissance '' by Leo the Geometer , that such works are known today ( see Archimedes Palimpsest ) . Indeed , geometry and its applications ( architecture and engineering instruments of war ) remained a specialty of the Byzantines . In medicine the works of Byzantine doctors , such as the Vienna Dioscorides ( 6th century ) , and works of Paul of Aegina ( 7th century ) and Nicholas Myrepsos ( late 13th century ) , continued to be used as the authoritative texts by Europeans through the Renaissance , and several technological advancements , including the pendentive dome and Greek Fire , are attributed to the Byzantines . Although at various times the Byzantines made magnificent achievements in the application of the sciences , and are responsible for preserving much of ancient knowledge , some authors have argued that Byzantine scholars made few novel contributions to science in terms of developing new theories or extending the ideas of classical authors . In the final century of the Empire , refugee Byzantine scholars were principally responsible for carrying , in person and in writing , ancient Greek grammatical , literary studies , mathematical , and astronomical knowledge to early Renaissance Italy . During this period , astronomy and other mathematical sciences were taught in Trebizond ; medicine attracted the interest of almost all scholars . In the field of law , Justinian I 's reforms had a clear effect on the evolution of jurisprudence , with his Corpus Juris Civilis becoming the basis for revived Roman law in the West , while Leo III 's Ecloga influenced the formation of legal institutions in the Slavic world . In the 10th century , Leo VI the Wise achieved the complete codification of the whole of Byzantine law in Greek with the Basilika , which became the foundation of all subsequent Byzantine law with an influence extending through to modern Balkan legal codes . Religion Main articles : State church of the Roman Empire and Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople As a symbol and expression of the universal prestige of the Patriarchate of Constantinople , Justinian built the Church of the Holy Wisdom of God , Hagia Sophia , which was completed in the short period of four and a half years ( 532 -- 537 ) A mosaic from the Hagia Sophia of Constantinople ( modern Istanbul ) , depicting Mary and Jesus , flanked by John II Komnenos ( left ) and his wife Irene of Hungary ( right ) , 12th century The Byzantine Empire was a theocracy , said to be ruled by God working through the Emperor . Jennifer Fretland VanVoorst argues , `` The Byzantine Empire became a theocracy in the sense that Christian values and ideals were the foundation of the empire 's political ideals and heavily entwined with its political goals . '' Steven Runciman says in his book on The Byzantine Theocracy ( 2004 ) : The constitution of the Byzantine Empire was based on the conviction that it was the earthly copy of the Kingdom of Heaven . Just as God ruled in Heaven , so the Emperor , made in his image , should rule on earth and carry out his commandments ... It saw itself as a universal empire . Ideally , it should embrace all the peoples of the Earth who , ideally , should all be members of the one true Christian Church , its own Orthodox Church . Just as man was made in God 's image , so man 's kingdom on Earth was made in the image of the Kingdom of Heaven . '' The survival of the Empire in the East assured an active role of the Emperor in the affairs of the Church . The Byzantine state inherited from pagan times the administrative , and financial routine of administering religious affairs , and this routine was applied to the Christian Church . Following the pattern set by Eusebius of Caesarea , the Byzantines viewed the Emperor as a representative or messenger of Christ , responsible particularly for the propagation of Christianity among pagans , and for the `` externals '' of the religion , such as administration and finances . As Cyril Mango points out , the Byzantine political thinking can be summarised in the motto `` One God , one empire , one religion '' . The imperial role in the affairs of the Church never developed into a fixed , legally defined system . With the decline of Rome , and internal dissension in the other Eastern Patriarchates , the Church of Constantinople became , between the 6th and 11th centuries , the richest and most influential center of Christendom . Even when the Empire was reduced to only a shadow of its former self , the Church continued to exercise significant influence both inside and outside of the imperial frontiers . As George Ostrogorsky points out : The Patriarchate of Constantinople remained the center of the Orthodox world , with subordinate metropolitan sees and archbishoprics in the territory of Asia Minor and the Balkans , now lost to Byzantium , as well as in Caucasus , Russia and Lithuania . The Church remained the most stable element in the Byzantine Empire . The official state Christian doctrine was determined by the first seven ecumenical councils , and it was then the emperor 's duty to impose it to his subjects . An imperial decree of 388 , which was later incorporated into the Codex Justinianus , orders the population of the Empire `` to assume the name of Catholic Christians '' , and regards all those who will not abide by the law as `` mad and foolish persons '' ; as followers of `` heretical dogmas '' . Despite imperial decrees and the stringent stance of the state church itself , which came to be known as the Eastern Orthodox Church or Eastern Christianity , the latter never represented all Christians in Byzantium . Mango believes that , in the early stages of the Empire , the `` mad and foolish persons '' , those labelled `` heretics '' by the state church , were the majority of the population . Besides the pagans , who existed until the end of the 6th century , and the Jews , there were many followers -- sometimes even emperors -- of various Christian doctrines , such as Nestorianism , Monophysitism , Arianism , and Paulicianism , whose teachings were in some opposition to the main theological doctrine , as determined by the Ecumenical Councils . Another division among Christians occurred , when Leo III ordered the destruction of icons throughout the Empire . This led to a significant religious crisis , which ended in mid-9th century with the restoration of icons . During the same period , a new wave of pagans emerged in the Balkans , originating mainly from Slavic people . These were gradually Christianised , and by Byzantium 's late stages , Eastern Orthodoxy represented most Christians and , in general , most people in what remained of the Empire . Jews were a significant minority in the Byzantine state throughout its history , and , according to Roman law , they constituted a legally recognised religious group . In the early Byzantine period they were generally tolerated , but then periods of tensions and persecutions ensued . In any case , after the Arab conquests , the majority of Jews found themselves outside the Empire ; those left inside the Byzantine borders apparently lived in relative peace from the 10th century onwards . Georgian monasteries first appear in Constantinople and on Mount Olympos in northwestern Asia Minor in the second half of the ninth century , and from then on Georgians played an increasingly important role in the Empire . Art and literature Main articles : Byzantine art and Byzantine literature See also : Byzantine dress Miniatures of the 6th - century Rabula Gospel display the more abstract and symbolic nature of Byzantine art . Surviving Byzantine art is mostly religious and with exceptions at certain periods is highly conventionalised , following traditional models that translate carefully controlled church theology into artistic terms . Painting in fresco , illuminated manuscripts and on wood panel and , especially in earlier periods , mosaic were the main media , and figurative sculpture very rare except for small carved ivories . Manuscript painting preserved to the end some of the classical realist tradition that was missing in larger works . Byzantine art was highly prestigious and sought - after in Western Europe , where it maintained a continuous influence on medieval art until near the end of the period . This was especially so in Italy , where Byzantine styles persisted in modified form through the 12th century , and became formative influences on Italian Renaissance art . But few incoming influences affected Byzantine style . By means of the expansion of the Eastern Orthodox church , Byzantine forms and styles spread to all the Orthodox world and beyond . Influences from Byzantine architecture , particularly in religious buildings , can be found in diverse regions from Egypt and Arabia to Russia and Romania . In Byzantine literature , four different cultural elements are recognised : the Greek , the Christian , the Roman , and the Oriental . Byzantine literature is often classified in five groups : historians and annalists , encyclopaedists ( Patriarch Photios , Michael Psellus , and Michael Choniates are regarded as the greatest encyclopaedists of Byzantium ) and essayists , and writers of secular poetry . The only genuine heroic epic of the Byzantines is the Digenis Acritas . The remaining two groups include the new literary species : ecclesiastical and theological literature , and popular poetry . Of the approximately two to three thousand volumes of Byzantine literature that survive , only 330 consist of secular poetry , history , science and pseudo-science . While the most flourishing period of the secular literature of Byzantium runs from the 9th to the 12th century , its religious literature ( sermons , liturgical books and poetry , theology , devotional treatises , etc . ) developed much earlier with Romanos the Melodist being its most prominent representative . Music Main article : Byzantine music Late 4th century AD `` Mosaic of the Musicians '' with organ , aulos , and lyre from a Byzantine villa in Maryamin , Syria . The ecclesiastical forms of Byzantine music , composed to Greek texts as ceremonial , festival , or church music , are , today , the most well - known forms . Ecclesiastical chants were a fundamental part of this genre . Greek and foreign historians agree that the ecclesiastical tones and in general the whole system of Byzantine music is closely related to the ancient Greek system . It remains the oldest genre of extant music , of which the manner of performance and ( with increasing accuracy from the 5th century onwards ) the names of the composers , and sometimes the particulars of each musical work 's circumstances , are known . Earliest known depiction of a bowed lyra , from a Byzantine ivory casket ( 900 -- 1100 AD ) . ( Museo Nazionale , Florence ) The 9th century Persian geographer Ibn Khurradadhbih ( d . 911 ) ; in his lexicographical discussion of instruments cited the lyra ( lūrā ) as the typical instrument of the Byzantines along with the urghun ( organ ) , shilyani ( probably a type of harp or lyre ) and the salandj ( probably a bagpipe ) . The first of these , the early bowed stringed instrument known as the Byzantine lyra , would come to be called the lira da braccio , in Venice , where it is considered by many to have been the predecessor of the contemporary violin , which later flourished there . The bowed `` lyra '' is still played in former Byzantine regions , where it is known as the Politiki lyra ( lit . `` lyra of the City '' i.e. Constantinople ) in Greece , the Calabrian lira in Southern Italy , and the Lijerica in Dalmatia . The second instrument , the organ , originated in the Hellenistic world ( see Hydraulis ) and was used in the Hippodrome during races . A pipe organ with `` great leaden pipes '' was sent by the emperor Constantine V to Pepin the Short , King of the Franks in 757 . Pepin 's son Charlemagne requested a similar organ for his chapel in Aachen in 812 , beginning its establishment in Western church music . The final Byzantine instrument , the aulos was a double reeded woodwind like the modern oboe or Armenian duduk . Other forms include the plagiaulos ( πλαγίαυλος , from πλάγιος `` sideways '' ) , which resembled the flute , and the askaulos ( ἀσκός askos -- wine - skin ) , a bagpipe . These bagpipes , also known as Dankiyo ( from ancient Greek : angion ( Τὸ ἀγγεῖον ) `` the container '' ) , had been played even in Roman times . Dio Chrysostom wrote in the 1st century of a contemporary sovereign ( possibly Nero ) who could play a pipe ( tibia , Roman reedpipes similar to Greek aulos ) with his mouth as well as by tucking a bladder beneath his armpit . The bagpipes continued to be played throughout the empire 's former realms through to the present . ( See Balkan Gaida , Greek Tsampouna , Pontic Tulum , Cretan Askomandoura , Armenian Parkapzuk , and Romanian Cimpoi . ) Cuisine See also : Byzantine cuisine The Byzantine culture was , initially , the same as Late Greco - Roman , but over the following millennium of the empire 's existence it slowly changed into something more similar to modern Balkan and Anatolian culture . The cuisine still relied heavily on the Greco - Roman fish - sauce condiment garos , but it also contained foods still familiar today , such as the cured meat pastirma ( known as `` paston '' in Byzantine Greek ) , baklava ( known as koptoplakous κοπτοπλακοῦς ) , tiropita ( known as plakountas tetyromenous or tyritas plakountas ) , and the famed medieval sweet wines ( Commandaria and the eponymous Rumney wine ) . Retsina , wine flavored with pine resin , was also drunk , as it still is in Greece today , producing similar reactions from unfamiliar visitors ; `` To add to our calamity the Greek wine , on account of being mixed with pitch , resin , and plaster was to us undrinkable , '' complained Liutprand of Cremona , who was the ambassador sent to Constantinople in 968 by the German Holy Roman Emperor Otto I . The garos fish sauce condiment was also not much appreciated by the unaccustomed ; Liutprand of Cremona described being served food covered in an `` exceedingly bad fish liquor . '' The Byzantines also used a soy sauce like condiment , murri , a fermented barley sauce , which , like soy sauce , provided umami flavoring to their dishes . Recreation A game of τάβλι ( tabula ) played by Byzantine emperor Zeno in 480 and recorded by Agathias in c. 530 because of a very unlucky dice throw for Zeno ( red ) , as he threw 2 , 5 and 6 and was forced to leave eight pieces alone . Byzantines were avid players of tavli ( Byzantine Greek : τάβλη ) , a game known in English as backgammon , which is still popular in former Byzantine realms , and still known by the name tavli in Greece . Byzantine nobles were devoted to horsemanship , particularly tzykanion , now known as polo . The game came from Sassanid Persia in the early period and a Tzykanisterion ( stadium for playing the game ) was built by Theodosius II ( r . 408 -- 450 ) inside the Great Palace of Constantinople . Emperor Basil I ( r . 867 -- 886 ) excelled at it ; Emperor Alexander ( r . 912 -- 913 ) died from exhaustion while playing , Emperor Alexios I Komnenos ( r . 1081 -- 1118 ) was injured while playing with Tatikios , and John I of Trebizond ( r . 1235 -- 1238 ) died from a fatal injury during a game . Aside from Constantinople and Trebizond , other Byzantine cities also featured tzykanisteria , most notably Sparta , Ephesus , and Athens , an indication of a thriving urban aristocracy . The game was introduced to the West by crusaders , who developed a taste for it particularly during the pro-Western reign of emperor Manuel I Komnenos . Government and bureaucracy See also : Byzantine bureaucracy In the Byzantine state , the emperor was the sole and absolute ruler , and his power was regarded as having divine origin . The Senate had ceased to have real political and legislative authority but remained as an honorary council with titular members . By the end of the 8th century , a civil administration focused on the court was formed as part of a large - scale consolidation of power in the capital ( the rise to pre-eminence of the position of sakellarios is related to this change ) . The most important administrative reform , which probably started in the mid-7th century , was the creation of themes , where civil and military administration was exercised by one person , the strategos . The themes , c. 750 The themes , c. 950 Despite the occasionally derogatory use of the terms `` Byzantine '' and `` Byzantinism '' , the Byzantine bureaucracy had a distinct ability for reconstituting itself in accordance with the Empire 's situation . The elaborate system of titulature and precedence gave the court prestige and influence . Officials were arranged in strict order around the emperor , and depended upon the imperial will for their ranks . There were also actual administrative jobs , but authority could be vested in individuals rather than offices . In the 8th and 9th centuries , civil service constituted the clearest path to aristocratic status , but , starting in the 9th century , the civil aristocracy was rivalled by an aristocracy of nobility . According to some studies of Byzantine government , 11th - century politics were dominated by competition between the civil and the military aristocracy . During this period , Alexios I undertook important administrative reforms , including the creation of new courtly dignities and offices . Diplomacy For more details on this topic , see Byzantine diplomacy . The embassy of John the Grammarian in 829 , between the emperor Theophilos and the Abbasid caliph Al - Ma'mun After the fall of Rome , the key challenge to the Empire was to maintain a set of relations between itself and its neighbours . When these nations set about forging formal political institutions , they often modelled themselves on Constantinople . Byzantine diplomacy soon managed to draw its neighbours into a network of international and inter-state relations . This network revolved around treaty making , and included the welcoming of the new ruler into the family of kings , and the assimilation of Byzantine social attitudes , values and institutions . Whereas classical writers are fond of making ethical and legal distinctions between peace and war , Byzantines regarded diplomacy as a form of war by other means . For example , a Bulgarian threat could be countered by providing money to the Kievan Rus ' . Diplomacy in the era was understood to have an intelligence - gathering function on top of its pure political function . The Bureau of Barbarians in Constantinople handled matters of protocol and record keeping for any issues related to the `` barbarians '' , and thus had , perhaps , a basic intelligence function itself . John B. Bury believed that the office exercised supervision over all foreigners visiting Constantinople , and that they were under the supervision of the Logothetes tou dromou . While on the surface a protocol office -- its main duty was to ensure foreign envoys were properly cared for and received sufficient state funds for their maintenance , and it kept all the official translators -- it probably had a security function as well . Byzantines availed themselves of a number of diplomatic practices . For example , embassies to the capital would often stay on for years . A member of other royal houses would routinely be requested to stay on in Constantinople , not only as a potential hostage , but also as a useful pawn in case political conditions where he came from changed . Another key practice was to overwhelm visitors by sumptuous displays . According to Dimitri Obolensky , the preservation of the ancient civilisation in Europe was due to the skill and resourcefulness of Byzantine diplomacy , which remains one of Byzantium 's lasting contributions to the history of Europe . Flags and insignia Main article : Byzantine flags and insignia For most of its history , the Byzantine Empire did not know or use heraldry in the West European sense . Various emblems ( Greek : σημεία , sēmeia ; sing . σημείον , sēmeion ) were used in official occasions and for military purposes , such as banners or shields displaying various motifs such as the cross or the labarum . The use of the cross , and of images of Christ , the Virgin Mary and various saints is also attested on seals of officials , but these were personal rather than family emblems . Double - headed eagle Tetragrammic cross Language For more details on this topic , see Medieval Greek . Left : The Mudil Psalter , the oldest complete psalter in the Coptic language ( Coptic Museum , Egypt , Coptic Cairo ) . Right : The Joshua Roll , a 10th - century illuminated Greek manuscript probably made in Constantinople ( Vatican Library , Rome ) . Distribution of Greek dialects in Anatolia in the late Byzantine Empire through to 1923 . Demotic in yellow . Pontic in orange . Cappadocian in green . ( Green dots indicate Cappadocian Greek speaking villages in 1910 . ) Apart from the Imperial court , administration and military , the primary language used in the eastern Roman provinces even before the decline of the Western Empire was Greek , having been spoken in the region for centuries before Latin . Following Rome 's conquest of the east its ' Pax Romana ' , inclusionist political practices and development of public infrastructure , facilitated the further spreading and entrenchment of Greek language in the east . Indeed , early on in the life of the Roman Empire , Greek had become the common language of the Church , the language of scholarship and the arts , and , to a large degree , the lingua franca for trade between provinces and with other nations . Greek for a time became diglossic with the spoken language , known as Koine ( eventually evolving into Demotic Greek ) , used alongside an older written form until Koine won out as the spoken and written standard . The use of Latin as the language of administration persisted until formally abolished by Heraclius in the 7th century . Scholarly Latin would rapidly fall into disuse among the educated classes although the language would continue to be at least a ceremonial part of the Empire 's culture for some time . Additionally , Vulgar Latin remained a minority language in the Empire , mainly along the Dalmatian coast ( Dalmatian ) and among the Romanian peoples . Many other languages existed in the multi-ethnic Empire , and some of these were given limited official status in their provinces at various times . Notably , by the beginning of the Middle Ages , Syriac had become more widely used by the educated classes in the far eastern provinces . Similarly Coptic , Armenian , and Georgian became significant among the educated in their provinces , and later foreign contacts made Old Church Slavic , Middle Persian , and Arabic important in the Empire and its sphere of influence . Aside from these , since Constantinople was a prime trading center in the Mediterranean region and beyond , virtually every known language of the Middle Ages was spoken in the Empire at some time , even Chinese . As the Empire entered its final decline , the Empire 's citizens became more culturally homogeneous and the Greek language became integral to their identity and religion . Legacy See also : Third Rome and Greek scholars in the Renaissance King David in robes of a Byzantine emperor ; miniature from the Paris Psalter Byzantium has been often identified with absolutism , orthodox spirituality , orientalism and exoticism , while the terms `` Byzantine '' and `` Byzantinism '' have been used as bywords for decadence , complex bureaucracy , and repression . In the countries of Central and Southeast Europe that exited the Eastern Bloc in the late 1980s and early 1990s , the assessment of Byzantine civilisation and its legacy was strongly negative due to their connection with an alleged `` Eastern authoritarianism and autocracy . '' Both Eastern and Western European authors have often perceived Byzantium as a body of religious , political , and philosophical ideas contrary to those of the West . Even in 19th - century Greece , the focus was mainly on the classical past , while Byzantine tradition had been associated with negative connotations . This traditional approach towards Byzantium has been partially or wholly disputed and revised by modern studies , which focus on the positive aspects of Byzantine culture and legacy . Averil Cameron regards as undeniable the Byzantine contribution to the formation of the medieval Europe , and both Cameron and Obolensky recognise the major role of Byzantium in shaping Orthodoxy , which in turn occupies a central position in the history and societies of Greece , Romania , Bulgaria , Russia , Georgia , Serbia and other countries . The Byzantines also preserved and copied classical manuscripts , and they are thus regarded as transmitters of the classical knowledge , as important contributors to the modern European civilization , and as precursors of both the Renaissance humanism and the Slav Orthodox culture . As the only stable long - term state in Europe during the Middle Ages , Byzantium isolated Western Europe from newly emerging forces to the East . Constantly under attack , it distanced Western Europe from Persians , Arabs , Seljuk Turks , and for a time , the Ottomans . From a different perspective , since the 7th century , the evolution and constant reshaping of the Byzantine state were directly related to the respective progress of Islam . Following the conquest of Constantinople by the Ottoman Turks in 1453 , Sultan Mehmed II took the title `` Kaysar - i Rûm '' ( the Ottoman Turkish equivalent of Caesar of Rome ) , since he was determined to make the Ottoman Empire the heir of the Eastern Roman Empire . According to Cameron , regarding themselves as `` heirs '' of Byzantium , the Ottomans preserved important aspects of its tradition , which in turn facilitated an `` Orthodox revival '' during the post-communist period of the Eastern European states . See also Byzantine Empire portal Byzantine Army Byzantine philosophy Byzantine Rite Index of Byzantine Empire - related articles Legacy of the Roman Empire Family trees of the Byzantine imperial dynasties List of Byzantine emperors List of Byzantine inventions List of Byzantine revolts and civil wars List of Byzantine wars Annotations Jump up ^ `` Romania '' was a popular name of the empire used mainly unofficially , which meant `` land of the Romans '' . After 1081 , it occasionally appears in official Byzantine documents as well . In 1204 , the leaders of the Fourth Crusade gave the name Romania to the newly founded Latin Empire . The term does not refer to modern Romania . Notes Jump up ^ `` Byzantine Empire '' . Encyclopædia Britannica . Jump up ^ Kazhdan & Epstein 1985 , p. 1 . ^ Jump up to : Millar 2006 , pp. 2 , 15 ; James 2010 , p. 5 ; Freeman 1999 , pp. 431 , 435 -- 437 , 459 -- 462 ; Baynes & Moss 1948 , p. xx ; Ostrogorsky 1969 , p. 27 ; Kaldellis 2007 , pp. 2 -- 3 ; Kazhdan & Constable 1982 , p. 12 ; Norwich 1998 , p. 383 . Jump up ^ Ostrogorsky 1969 , pp. 105 -- 107 , 109 ; Norwich 1998 , p. 97 ; Haywood 2001 , pp. 2.17 , 3.06 , 3.15 . Jump up ^ Warfare , State And Society In The Byzantine World 560 -- 1204 . p. 47 . Jump up ^ Pounds , Norman John Greville . An Historical Geography of Europe , 1500 -- 1840 , p. 124 . CUP Archive , 1979 . ISBN 0 - 521 - 22379 - 2 . Jump up ^ `` The End of the Byzantine Empire , 1081 -- 1453 '' . Archived from the original on 24 September 2015 . Jump up ^ Fox , What , If Anything , Is a Byzantine ? ; Rosser 2011 , p. 1 Jump up ^ Rosser 2011 , p. 2 . Jump up ^ Fossier & Sondheimer 1997 , p. 104 . Jump up ^ Wolff 1948 , pp. 5 -- 7 , 33 -- 34 . Jump up ^ Cinnamus 1976 , p. 240 . Jump up ^ Ahrweiler & Laiou 1998 , p. 3 ; Mango 2002 , p. 13 . Jump up ^ Gabriel 2002 , p. 277 . Jump up ^ Ahrweiler & Laiou 1998 , p. vii ; Davies 1996 , p. 245 ; Gross 1999 , p. 45 ; Lapidge , Blair & Keynes 1998 , p. 79 ; Millar 2006 , pp. 2 , 15 ; Moravcsik 1970 , pp. 11 -- 12 ; Ostrogorsky 1969 , pp. 28 , 146 ; Browning 1983 , p. 113 . Jump up ^ Klein 2004 , p. 290 ( Note # 39 ) ; Annales Fuldenses , 389 : `` Mense lanuario c. epiphaniam Basilii , Graecorum imperatoris , legati cum muneribus et epistolis ad Hludowicum regem Radasbonam venerunt ... '' . Jump up ^ Fouracre & Gerberding 1996 , p. 345 : `` The Frankish court no longer regarded the Byzantine Empire as holding valid claims of universality ; instead it was now termed the ' Empire of the Greeks ' . '' Jump up ^ Garland 1999 , p. 87 . Jump up ^ Tarasov & Milner - Gulland 2004 , p. 121 ; El - Cheikh 2004 , p. 22 Jump up ^ Eusebius , IV , lxii . ^ Jump up to : Ostrogorsky 1959 , p. 21 ; Wells 1922 , Chapter 33 . Jump up ^ Bury 1923 , p. 1 ; Kuhoff 2002 , pp. 177 -- 178 . Jump up ^ Bury 1923 , p. 1 ; Esler 2004 , p. 1081 ; Gibbon 1906 , Volume III , Part IV , Chapter 18 , p. 168 ; Teall 1967 , pp. 13 , 19 -- 23 , 25 , 28 -- 30 , 35 -- 36 Jump up ^ Bury 1923 , p. 63 ; Drake 1995 , p. 5 ; Grant 1975 , pp. 4 , 12 . Jump up ^ Bowersock 1997 , p. 79 Jump up ^ Greatrex & Lieu 2002 , p. 1 Jump up ^ Friell & Williams 2005 , p. 105 Jump up ^ Perrottet 2004 , p. 190 Jump up ^ Cameron 2009 , pp. 54 , 111 , 153 . Jump up ^ Alemany 2000 , p. 207 ; Bayless 1976 , pp. 176 -- 177 ; Treadgold 1997 , pp. 184 , 193 . Jump up ^ Cameron 2009 , p. 52 . ^ Jump up to : Burns 1991 , pp. 65 , 76 -- 77 , 86 -- 87 Jump up ^ Lenski 1999 , pp. 428 -- 429 . Jump up ^ Grierson 1999 , p. 17 . Jump up ^ Postan , Miller & Postan 1987 , p. 140 . Jump up ^ Chapman 1971 , p. 210 Jump up ^ Meier 2003 , p. 290 . Jump up ^ Wickham 2009 , p. 90 Jump up ^ Haldon 1990 , p. 17 Jump up ^ Evans 2005 , p. 104 Jump up ^ Gregory 2010 , p. 150 . Jump up ^ Merryman & Perez - Perdomo 2007 , p. 7 Jump up ^ Gregory 2010 , p. 137 ; Meier 2003 , pp. 297 -- 300 . Jump up ^ Gregory 2010 , p. 145 . Jump up ^ Evans 2005 , p. xxv . ^ Jump up to : Bury 1923 , pp. 180 -- 216 ; Evans 2005 , pp. xxvi , 76 . Jump up ^ Sotinel 2005 , p. 278 ; Treadgold 1997 , p. 187 . Jump up ^ Bury 1923 , pp. 236 -- 258 ; Evans 2005 , p. xxvi . Jump up ^ Bury 1923 , pp. 259 -- 281 ; Evans 2005 , p. 93 . Jump up ^ Bury 1923 , pp. 286 -- 288 ; Evans 2005 , p. 11 . Jump up ^ Greatrex 2005 , p. 489 ; Greatrex & Lieu 2002 , p. 113 Jump up ^ Bury 1920 , `` Preface '' , pp. v -- vi Jump up ^ Evans 2005 , pp. 11 , 56 -- 62 ; Sarantis 2009 , passim . Jump up ^ Evans 2005 , p. 65 Jump up ^ Evans 2005 , p. 68 Jump up ^ Cameron 2009 , pp. 113 , 128 . Jump up ^ Bray 2004 , pp. 19 -- 47 ; Haldon 1990 , pp. 110 -- 111 ; Treadgold 1997 , pp. 196 -- 197 . ^ Jump up to : Louth 2005 , pp. 113 -- 115 ; Nystazopoulou - Pelekidou 1970 , passim ; Treadgold 1997 , pp. 231 -- 232 . Jump up ^ Fine 1983 , p. 33 Jump up ^ Foss 1975 , p. 722 . Jump up ^ Haldon 1990 , p. 41 ; Speck 1984 , p. 178 . Jump up ^ Haldon 1990 , pp. 42 -- 43 . Jump up ^ Grabar 1984 , p. 37 ; Cameron 1979 , p. 23 . Jump up ^ Cameron 1979 , pp. 5 -- 6 , 20 -- 22 . Jump up ^ Norwich 1998 , p. 93 Jump up ^ Haldon 1990 , p. 46 ; Baynes 1912 , passim ; Speck 1984 , p. 178 . Jump up ^ Foss 1975 , pp. 746 -- 747 . Jump up ^ Haldon 1990 , p. 50 . Jump up ^ Haldon 1990 , pp. 61 -- 62 . Jump up ^ Haldon 1990 , pp. 102 -- 114 ; Laiou & Morisson 2007 , p. 47 . Jump up ^ Laiou & Morisson 2007 , pp. 38 -- 42 , 47 ; Wickham 2009 , p. 260 . Jump up ^ Haldon 1990 , pp. 208 -- 215 ; Kaegi 2003 , pp. 236 , 283 . Jump up ^ Heather 2005 , p. 431 . 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Jump up ^ Cameron 2006 , pp. 42 . Jump up ^ Cameron 2006 , pp. 47 . ^ Jump up to : Browning 1992 , pp. 198 -- 208 . ^ Jump up to : Browning 1992 , p. 218 . Jump up ^ Magdalino 2002 , p. 124 . ^ Jump up to : `` Byzantine Empire '' . Encyclopædia Britannica . Jump up ^ Birkenmeier 2002 . ^ Jump up to : Harris 2014 ; Read 2000 , p. 124 ; Watson 1993 , p. 12 . Jump up ^ Komnene 1928 , Alexiad , 10.261 Jump up ^ Komnene 1928 , Alexiad , 11.291 Jump up ^ Komnene 1928 , Alexiad , 13.348 -- 13.358 ; Birkenmeier 2002 , p. 46 . Jump up ^ Norwich 1998 , p. 267 . Jump up ^ Ostrogorsky 1969 , p. 377 . Jump up ^ Birkenmeier 2002 , p. 90 . Jump up ^ Cinnamus 1976 , pp. 74 -- 75 . Jump up ^ Harris 2014 , p. 84 . Jump up ^ Brooke 1962 , p. 326 . Jump up ^ Magdalino 2002 , p. 74 . Jump up ^ Sedlar 1994 , p. 372 . Jump up ^ Magdalino 2002 , p. 67 . Jump up ^ Birkenmeier 2002 , p. 128 . Jump up ^ Birkenmeier 2002 , p. 196 . Jump up ^ Birkenmeier 2002 , pp. 185 -- 186 . Jump up ^ Birkenmeier 2002 , p. 1 . Jump up ^ Day 1977 , pp. 289 -- 290 ; Harvey 2003 . Jump up ^ Diehl 1948 . Jump up ^ Tatakes & Moutafakis 2003 , p. 110 . Jump up ^ Norwich 1998 , p. 291 . ^ Jump up to : Norwich 1998 , p. 292 . ^ Jump up to : Ostrogorsky 1969 , p. 397 . Jump up ^ Harris 2014 , p. 118 . Jump up ^ Norwich 1998 , p. 293 . Jump up ^ Norwich 1998 , pp. 294 -- 295 . Jump up ^ Angold 1997 ; Paparrigopoulos & Karolidis 1925 , p. 216 Jump up ^ Vasiliev 1928 -- 1935 , `` Foreign Policy of the Angeloi '' . Jump up ^ Norwich 1998 , p. 299 . ^ Jump up to : `` The Fourth Crusade and the Latin Empire of Constantinople '' . Encyclopædia Britannica . Jump up ^ Britannica Concise , Siege of Zara . Jump up ^ Geoffrey of Villehardouin 1963 , p. 46 . Jump up ^ Norwich 1998 , p. 301 . Jump up ^ Choniates 1912 , The Sack of Constantinople . Jump up ^ Norwich 1982 , pp. 127 -- 143 . Jump up ^ Kean 2006 ; Madden 2005 , p. 162 . Jump up ^ Köprülü 1992 , pp. 33 -- 41 . Jump up ^ Madden 2005 , p. 179 ; Reinert 2002 , p. 260 . 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Jump up ^ Alexander Jones , `` Book Review , Archimedes Manuscript '' American Mathematical Society , May 2005 . Jump up ^ Cohen 1994 , p. 395 ; Dickson , Mathematics Through the Middle Ages Archived 13 May 2008 at the Wayback Machine ... Jump up ^ Robins 1993 , p. 8 . Jump up ^ Tatakes & Moutafakis 2003 , p. 189 . Jump up ^ Troianos & Velissaropoulou - Karakosta 1997 , p. 340 Jump up ^ Jennifer Fretland VanVoorst ( 2012 ) . The Byzantine Empire . Capstone . p. 14 . Jump up ^ Runciman 2004 , pp. 1 -- 2 , 162 -- 163 . Jump up ^ Mango 2007 , p. 108 . Jump up ^ Meyendorff 1982 , p. 13 . Jump up ^ Meyendorff 1982 , p. 19 . Jump up ^ Meyendorff 1982 , p. 130 . Jump up ^ Justinian Code : Book 1 , Title 1 ; Blume 2008 , Headnote C. 1.1 ; Mango 2007 , p. 108 . Jump up ^ Mango 2007 , pp. 108 -- 109 . Jump up ^ Blume 2008 , Headnote C. 1.1 ; Mango 2007 , pp. 108 -- 109 , 115 -- 125 . Jump up ^ Mango 2007 , pp. 115 -- 125 . Jump up ^ Mango 2007 , pp. 111 -- 114 . Jump up ^ Whittow 1996 , p. 200 . Jump up ^ Rice 1968 ; Weitzmann 1982 . Jump up ^ Rice 1968 , Chapters 15 -- 17 ; Weitzmann 1982 , Chapters 2 -- 7 ; Evans 2004 , pp. 389 -- 555 . ^ Jump up to : Mango 2007 , pp. 275 -- 276 . Jump up ^ `` Byzantine Literature '' . Catholic Encyclopedia . Jump up ^ Ring , Trudy ( 1994 ) , International Dictionary of Historic Places : Middle East and Africa , 4 , Taylor & Francis , ISBN 1884964036 Jump up ^ The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia , 6th ed. 2007 -- `` Byzantine music '' Jump up ^ `` Ecumenical Patriarchate -- Byzantine Music '' . ec-patr.net . Jump up ^ Kartomi 1990 , p. 124 . Jump up ^ Encyclopædia Britannica ( 2009 ) , `` lira '' , Encyclopædia Britannica Jump up ^ Arkenberg , Rebecca ( October 2002 ) , Renaissance Violins , Metropolitan Museum of Art , retrieved 2006 - 09 - 22 Jump up ^ Journal of Sport History , Vol. 8 , No. 3 ( Winter , 1981 ) p. 44 . ^ Jump up to : Douglas Earl Bush , Richard Kassel editors , The Organ : An Encyclopedia Routledge. 2006 . p. 327 Jump up ^ Howard , Albert A. ( 1893 ) . `` The Αὐλός or Tibia '' . Harvard Studies in Classical Philology . Department of the Classics , Harvard University . 4 : 1 -- 60 . doi : 10.2307 / 310399 . Jump up ^ William Flood . `` The Story of the Bagpipe '' p. 15 Jump up ^ `` Discourses by Dio Chrysostom ( Or . 71.9 ) '' . The Seventy - first Discourse : On the Philosopher ( Volume V ) . Loeb Classical Library . p. 173 . Retrieved 25 June 2016 . Jump up ^ Ash 1995 , p. 224 : `` Having inherited pastirma from the Byzantines , the Turks took it with them when they conquered Hungary and Romania . '' Jump up ^ Davidson 2014 , `` Byzantine cookery '' , pp. 123 -- 124 : `` This is certainly true of Byzantine cuisine . Dried meat , a forerunner of the pastirma of modern Turkey , became a delicacy . '' Jump up ^ Dalby et al. 2013 , p. 81 : `` paston or tarichon ... Cured meats were either eaten raw or cooked in pasto - mageireia with bulgur and greens , mainly cabbage . '' Jump up ^ Ash 1995 , p. 223 ; Faas 2005 , p. 184 ; Vryonis 1971 , p. 482 . Jump up ^ Faas 2005 , pp. 184 -- 185 ; Vryonis 1971 , p. 482 ; Salaman 1986 , pp. 184 . ^ Jump up to : Halsall , Paul ( January 1996 ) . `` Medieval Sourcebook : Liutprand of Cremona : Report of his Mission to Constantinople '' . Internet History Sourcebooks Project . Fordham University . Retrieved 25 June 2016 . Jump up ^ Jayyusi & Marín 1994 , p. 729 . Jump up ^ Perry , Charles ( October 31 , 2001 ) . `` The Soy Sauce That Was n't '' . Los Angeles Times . Retrieved 25 June 2016 . ^ Jump up to : Austin 1934 , pp. 202 -- 205 . Jump up ^ Kazhdan 1991 . Jump up ^ Anna Komnene , The Alexiad , Book XIV , Chapter IV , translator Elizabeth Dawes Jump up ^ Laiou 2002 , p. 643 . Jump up ^ Mango 2007 , pp. 259 -- 260 . Jump up ^ Louth 2005 , p. 291 ; Neville 2004 , p. 7 . Jump up ^ Cameron 2009 , pp. 138 -- 142 ; Mango 2007 , p. 60 . Jump up ^ Cameron 2009 , pp. 157 -- 158 ; Neville 2004 , p. 34 . Jump up ^ Neville 2004 , p. 13 . ^ Jump up to : Neumann 2006 , pp. 869 -- 871 . Jump up ^ Chrysos 1992 , p. 35 . Jump up ^ Antonucci 1993 , pp. 11 -- 13 . Jump up ^ Antonucci 1993 , pp. 11 -- 13 ; Seeck 1876 , pp. 31 -- 33 Jump up ^ Bury & Philotheus 1911 , p. 93 . Jump up ^ Dennis 1985 , p. 125 . Jump up ^ Obolensky 1994 , p. 3 . Jump up ^ Kazhdan 1991 , pp. 472 , 999 . Jump up ^ Dawkins , R.M. 1916 . Modern Greek in Asia Minor . A study of dialect of Silly , Cappadocia and Pharasa . Cambridge : Cambridge University Press . Jump up ^ Millar 2006 , p. 279 . 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Wroth , Warwick ( 1908 ) . Catalogue of the Imperial Byzantine Coins in the British Museum . British Museum Dept. of Coins and Medals . ISBN 1 - 4021 - 8954 - 0 . Further reading Library resources about Byzantine Empire Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries Ahrweiler , Hélène ; Aymard , Maurice ( 2000 ) . Les Européens . Paris : Hermann . ISBN 2 - 7056 - 6409 - 2 . Angelov , Dimiter ( 2007 ) . Imperial Ideology and Political Thought in Byzantium ( 1204 -- 1330 ) . Cambridge , United Kingdom : Cambridge University Press . ISBN 0 - 521 - 85703 - 1 . Baboula , Evanthia , Byzantium , in Muhammad in History , Thought , and Culture : An Encyclopedia of the Prophet of God ( 2 vols . ) , Edited by C. Fitzpatrick and A. Walker , Santa Barbara , ABC - CLIO , 2014 . ISBN 1 - 61069 - 177 - 6 Evans , Helen C. & Wixom , William D ( 1997 ) . The glory of Byzantium : art and culture of the Middle Byzantine era , A.D. 843 -- 1261 . New York : The Metropolitan Museum of Art . ISBN 978 - 0 - 8109 - 6507 - 2 . Cameron , Averil ( 2014 ) . Byzantine Matters . Princeton NJ : Princeton University Press . ISBN 978 - 1 - 4008 - 5009 - 9 . Haldon , John ( 2001 ) . The Byzantine Wars : Battles and Campaigns of the Byzantine Era . Stroud , Gloucestershire : Tempus Publishing . ISBN 0 - 7524 - 1795 - 9 . Haldon , John ( 2002 ) . Byzantium : A History . Stroud , Gloucestershire : Tempus Publishing . ISBN 1 - 4051 - 3240 - X . Harris , Jonathan ( 2015 ) . The Lost World of Byzantium . New Haven CT and London : Yale University Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 300 - 17857 - 9 . Hussey , J.M. ( 1966 ) . The Cambridge Medieval History . Vol. IV : The Byzantine Empire . Cambridge : Cambridge University Press . Runciman , Steven ( 1966 ) . Byzantine Civilisation . London : Edward Arnold Limited . ISBN 1 - 56619 - 574 - 8 . Runciman , Steven ( 1990 ) ( 1929 ) . The Emperor Romanus Lecapenus and his Reign . Cambridge : Cambridge University Press . ISBN 0 - 521 - 06164 - 4 . Stathakopoulos , Dionysios ( 2014 ) . A Short History of the Byzantine Empire . London : I.B. Tauris . ISBN 978 - 1 - 78076 - 194 - 7 . Toynbee , Arnold Joseph ( 1972 ) . Constantine Porphyrogenitus and His World . Oxford : Oxford University Press . ISBN 0 - 19 - 215253 - X . External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to Byzantine Empire . Wikisource has original works on the topic : Byzantine Empire Look up Byzantine in Wiktionary , the free dictionary . Byzantine Empire on In Our Time at the BBC . De Imperatoribus Romanis . Scholarly biographies of many Byzantine emperors . 12 Byzantine Rulers by Lars Brownworth of The Stony Brook School ; audio lectures . NYTimes review . 18 centuries of Roman Empire by Howard Wiseman ( Maps of the Roman / Byzantine Empire throughout its lifetime ) . Byzantine & Christian Museum Byzantine Studies , resources and bibliography Fox , Clinton R. What , If Anything , Is a Byzantine ? ( Online Encyclopedia of Roman Emperors ) Byzantine studies homepage at Dumbarton Oaks . Includes links to numerous electronic texts . Byzantium : Byzantine studies on the Internet . Links to various online resources . Translations from Byzantine Sources : The Imperial Centuries , c. 700 -- 1204 . Online sourcebook . De Re Militari . Resources for medieval history , including numerous translated sources on the Byzantine wars . Medieval Sourcebook : Byzantium . Numerous primary sources on Byzantine history . Bibliography on Byzantine Material Culture and Daily Life . Hosted by the University of Vienna ; in English . Constantinople Home Page . Links to texts , images and videos on Byzantium . Byzantium in Crimea : Political History , Art and Culture . 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who is on keeping up with the kardashians

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Keeping_Up_with_the_Kardashians&oldid=821709604

Keeping up with the Kardashians - Wikipedia Keeping up with the Kardashians This is the latest accepted revision , reviewed on 22 January 2018 . Jump to : navigation , search Keeping Up with the Kardashians The title card of the show ( season 11 -- present ) Genre Reality television Starring Kris Jenner Caitlyn Jenner Kourtney Kardashian Kim Kardashian West Khloé Kardashian Rob Kardashian Kendall Jenner Kylie Jenner Country of origin United States Original language ( s ) English No. of seasons 14 No. of episodes 210 ( list of episodes ) Production Executive producer ( s ) Ryan Seacrest Jonathan Murray Gil Goldschein Jeff Jenkins Farnaz Farjam - Chazan Kris Jenner Kourtney Kardashian Kim Kardashian West Khloé Kardashian Location ( s ) Los Angeles , California Camera setup Multi-camera Running time 22 minutes ( seasons 1 -- 6 ) 42 minutes ( season 7 -- present ) Production company ( s ) Ryan Seacrest Productions Bunim / Murray Productions Release Original network E ! Picture format 480i ( 4 : 3 SDTV ) ( seasons 1 -- 2 ) 1080i ( 16 : 9 HDTV ) ( season 3 -- present ) Original release October 14 , 2007 ( 2007 - 10 - 14 ) -- present External links Official website Keeping Up with the Kardashians ( often abbreviated KUWTK ) is an American reality television series that airs on the E ! cable network . The show focuses on the personal and professional lives of the Kardashian -- Jenner blended family . Its premise originated with Ryan Seacrest , who also serves as an executive producer . The series debuted on October 14 , 2007 and has subsequently become one of the longest - running reality television series in the country . The fourteenth season premiered on October 1 , 2017 . The series focuses mainly on sisters Kourtney , Kim , and Khloé Kardashian and their half - sisters Kendall and Kylie Jenner . It also features their parents Kris and Caitlyn Jenner ( previously known as Bruce Jenner ) , and brother Rob Kardashian . The significant others of the Kardashian sisters have also appeared on the show , including Kourtney 's boyfriend Scott Disick and Khloé 's ex-husband Lamar Odom . Caitlyn 's son Brody made cameo appearances in the early seasons before joining the show to appear regularly , along with his brother Brandon , and Brandon 's wife , Leah . Kim 's friend Jonathan Cheban and Khloé 's friend Malika Haqq have also been part of the show . Keeping Up with the Kardashians has received very poor critical reviews since its premiere . It is often criticized for the high degree of emphasis on the `` famous for being famous '' concept , and for appearing to fabricate some aspects of its storylines . Several critics also noted the show 's lack of intelligence , and described the family as `` self - absorbed '' and `` desperate '' for fame . However , some critics recognized the reality series as a `` guilty pleasure '' and acknowledged the family 's success . Despite the negative reviews , Keeping Up with the Kardashians has attracted high viewership ratings , becoming one of the network 's most successful shows and winning several audience awards . The series ' success has led additionally to the creation of numerous spin - off series , including : Kourtney and Kim Take Miami , Kourtney and Kim Take New York , Khloé & Lamar , Kourtney and Khloé Take The Hamptons , Dash Dolls , Rob & Chyna , and Life of Kylie . The network has also broadcast several television specials featuring special events involving members of the family . Contents ( hide ) 1 Background 2 Production 2.1 Development 2.2 Cast 3 Related programming 4 Reception 4.1 Critical response 4.2 Viewership 5 Awards and nominations 6 Broadcast history 7 Home video releases and streaming 8 See also 9 References 10 Further reading 11 External links Background ( edit ) Robert Kardashian ( 1944 -- 2003 ) and Kristen Mary `` Kris '' Houghton ( born 1955 ) married in 1978 , and had four children together : daughters Kourtney ( born 1979 ) , Kim ( born 1980 ) , and Khloé ( born 1984 ) , and son Rob ( born 1987 ) . The couple divorced in 1991 . In 1994 , Robert rose to prominence when he defended O.J. Simpson for the murders of Nicole Brown Simpson and Ronald Goldman during the O.J. Simpson trial . In 1991 , Kris married retired Olympic decathlon champion Bruce Jenner ( born 1949 ; now known as Caitlyn Jenner after undergoing a gender transition in 2015 ) . Bruce and Kris had two daughters together , Kendall ( born 1995 ) and Kylie ( born 1997 ) . Robert died in 2003 , eight weeks after being diagnosed with esophageal cancer . The Kardashian sisters began appearing in the media spotlight more often . In 2004 , Kim became a personal stylist for recording artist Brandy Norwood . She eventually developed into a full - time stylist , and was a personal shopper and stylist for actress Lindsay Lohan . Khloé , Kim , and Kourtney ventured further into fashion , opening a high fashion boutique Dash in Calabasas , California . Throughout Kim 's early career , she was involved in some high - profile relationships including Brandy Norwood 's brother , singer Ray J , and later , singer Nick Lachey . In 2006 , Kourtney starred in her first reality television series , Filthy Rich : Cattle Drive . In February 2007 , a home sex video that Kim made with Ray J years earlier was leaked . Vivid Entertainment bought the rights for $1 million and released the film as Kim Kardashian : Superstar on February 21 . Kim sued Vivid for ownership of the tape , but dropped the suit in April 2007 settling with Vivid Entertainment for $5 million . It is often assumed that the release of the sex tape was a major contributor to the rising fame of Kim Kardashian and her family . Production ( edit ) Development ( edit ) `` ( Kris ) was interested in doing a television show and this was in the time that The Osbournes was popular . I had seen The Osbournes and thought to myself -- because I had formed a production company -- I thought we should find something in this vein . And at the time , we had heard that Kris was interested in doing something with the family , so it was me and one other guy at the company . ( ... ) We had no idea it would become the monster pop culture business that it is . '' -- Ryan Seacrest on developing the idea for the reality series . The idea of creating a reality series originated in 2006 when Kris Jenner showed an interest in appearing on a television show together with her family . Jenner commented : `` Everybody thinks that ( my children ) could create a bunch of drama in their lives , but it 's something that I felt I did n't even have to think about . It would be natural . '' Producer Ryan Seacrest , who had his own production company , decided to develop the idea , having the popular family - based show The Osbournes in mind . He hired a camera man to visit the Kardashian 's family home to film them having a Sunday barbeque : `` They were all together -- as crazy and as fun as loving as they are , '' Seacrest described the family after seeing the tape . He later initiated the series by sharing the tape with E ! , an American cable network which features mostly entertainment - related programming , and reality television series ; the show was eventually picked up . In August 2007 , it was announced that the Kardashian and Jenner families would star in a yet - to - be-titled reality show on E ! described as a `` new non-scripted family sitcom '' , being produced by Ryan Seacrest and Bunim / Murray Productions . The series ' announcement came one week after Paris Hilton and her friend Nicole Richie announced that their popular E ! series , The Simple Life , was ending . Ryan Seacrest , an executive producer The show , entitled Keeping Up With the Kardashians , premiered on October 14 , 2007 . The reality series centers around the members of the Kardashian - Jenner blended family , focusing on the sisters Kourtney , Kim and Khloé . Most episodes have very similar structure : the family `` show ( s ) off their privileged lifestyle and maybe get into one or two minor family squabbles before ultimately wrapping things up with a monologue that reinforces the importance of family , '' as noted by Caroline Siede of Quartz . Harriet Ryan and Adam Tschorn of the Los Angeles Times described the reality series as a : `` Hollywood version of The Brady Bunch -- the harmless high jinks of a loving blended family against a backdrop of wealth and famous connections '' . Kim Kardashian described the beginning of filming the show , `` When we first started ( the show ) , we came together as a family and said , ' If we 're going to do this reality show , we 're going to be 100 percent who we really are . ' '' . She further commented on the show 's authenticity by saying that the network `` has never once put anything out there that we have n't approved of or accepted '' . The series was renewed for a second season one month after its premiere due to high ratings . Seacrest described the show 's success : `` At the heart of the series -- despite the catfights and endless sarcasm -- is a family that truly loves and supports one another ( ... ) The familiar dynamics of this family make them one Hollywood bunch that is sure to entertain . '' The following year , Keeping Up with the Kardashians was picked up for a third season . In April 2012 , E ! signed a three - year deal with the Kardashian family that kept the series airing through seasons seven , eight and nine . Keeping up with the Kardashians was later renewed for a tenth season which premiered on March 15 , 2015 . In February 2015 , it was announced that the show had been renewed for four more years , along with an additional spin - off series , making it one of the longest - running reality television series in the country . In terms of the show 's future , Kim Kardashian has commented that the reality series could go for an indefinite number of seasons saying that she : `` hope ( s ) it goes on for as long as it can . '' Keeping Up With the Kardashians , including its spin - off series , has become the cable network 's flagship show and its most lucrative franchise . `` It has changed the face of E ! '' said Lisa Berger , the network 's executive producer . `` We were a place to report on celebrity ; we were n't a place to break and make celebrity , which is now the whole idea of the E ! brand . '' The show 's success contributed significantly towards building the `` Kardashian brand '' , or `` Kardashian Inc . '' as it is called by The Hollywood Reporter . `` These shows are a 30 - minute commercial , '' Khloé Kardashian admitted in 2011 , in response to a suggestion that the television series is used to promote their retail stores and endorsement deals . On August 3 , 2017 It was announced the show 's 10 year anniversary will premiere on September 24 , 2017 following the show 's season 14 premiere . On August 24 , 2017 It was announced the family had signed a $150 million deal with E ! . Cast ( edit ) The reality series revolves around the children of Kris Jenner , and originally focused mainly on the children from her first marriage to deceased attorney Robert Kardashian : Kourtney , Kim , Khloé , and Rob . Kris ' children Kendall and Kylie from her subsequent marriage to American athlete Bruce ( later Caitlyn ) Jenner have also been featured on the show since its beginning , along with Jenner 's son Brody from another marriage , although he appeared very few times during the early seasons , mostly being called by his step - brother Rob to babysit their half - sisters Kylie and Kendall . Kourtney 's boyfriend Scott Disick has also been appearing frequently on the show since the first season , as well as on the show 's spin - offs . Cast members also include numerous friends and other acquaintances of the family members , most notably Malika Haqq and Jonathan Cheban who joined Keeping Up with the Kardashians in the second and third seasons , respectively . Most of the Kardashian sisters ' significant others have appeared on the reality series . Kim 's relationship with football player Reggie Bush was featured on the show when they were dating ; after the breakup , Bush commented on appearing on the show saying that he never felt comfortable being followed by cameras , adding : `` I do it because it 's important to ( Kim ) . '' Rob 's relationship with singer Adrienne Bailon has also been documented on the show when they were dating from 2007 to 2009 ; although Bailon later admitted that the decision to appear on the show , and be associated with the family , hurt her career . Kim 's ex-husband Kris Humphries first appeared on the show during the premiere of the sixth season ; their relationship was chronicled throughout the season and ended with the couple 's wedding special `` Kim 's Fairytale Wedding : A Kardashian Event '' . They eventually went through a highly publicized divorce ; Kardashian 's former publicist later claimed that Humphries was allegedly set up to be portrayed on the show in a negative way and that the short - lived marriage was staged for the cameras as a ploy to generate money . Khloé married basketball player Lamar Odom during a fourth - season premiere aired in 2009 . He later had a major role as part of the supporting cast of the series , though he did not appear regularly during the following seasons as he was attempting to repair his marriage with Khloé . Kim 's current husband Kanye West made his first appearance on Keeping Up with the Kardashians in July 2012 during the seventh season when he started dating Kim . However , West was seldom seen in subsequent seasons . He explained the reasons for not appearing on the show later : `` You know , the amount of backlash I got from it is when I decided to not be on the show anymore . And it 's not that I have an issue with the show ; I just have an issue with the amount of backlash that I get . '' He also criticized the show for its cinematography and further complained about the way how the show is filmed . In the eighth season , Caitlyn Jenner 's sons Brandon and Brody Jenner , as well as Brandon 's wife Leah , joined the cast for regular appearances . Related programming ( edit ) Kourtney ( left ) and Khloé ( right ) featured on Kourtney and Khloé Take Miami , one of the numerous spin - off series of Keeping Up with the Kardashians . The success of the reality series resulted in the development of several spin - off shows and other related programming . In April 2009 , E ! announced the first spin - off of Keeping Up with the Kardashians entitled Kourtney and Khloé in Miami , which was later renamed Kourtney and Khloé Take Miami . The series followed the sisters who moved to Miami to open a new Dash boutique . Ted Harbert , president and CEO of Comcast Entertainment Group , considered the sisters capable of handling their own standalone series . `` It 's a very simple formula that we took from scripted TV and applied to a reality show . ( ... ) There are a lot of family sitcom elements to ' Kardashians , ' and we think that humor and warmth will carry over to Miami , '' Harbert added . The show premiered on August 16 , 2009 to very high ratings ; the first episode brought in 2.7 million total viewers and then became the most - watched show on the network since The Anna Nicole Show in 2002 . The spin - off was subsequently renewed for a second season which premiered on June 13 , 2010 , and later returned as Kourtney and Kim Take Miami for a third season on January 20 , 2013 . Additionally , a series of webisodes entitled Lord Disick : Lifestyles of a Lord were released following the show , which showcased Disick as he informed viewers how to live like a `` king '' . `` Khloé and Lamar are such a dynamic couple that we just knew we had to give them their own series . ( ... ) They are funny , dramatic , opinionated , and we intend to capture all this , along with the unvarnished reality of their lives together and apart , since each is constantly followed by their own celebrity spotlight . '' -- Lisa Berger , the executive vice president of the network . In October 2010 , the network announced another spin - off called Kourtney and Kim Take New York which followed the same format as its predecessor . The show debuted on January 23 , 2011 , and followed the sisters who opened a Dash location in New York City . The series returned for another season which premiered on November 27 the same year . In January 2011 , Khloé & Lamar , which featured Khloé and her husband Lamar Odom , became the third spin - off of Keeping Up with the Kardashians . The show premiered on April 10 , 2011 , and lasted two seasons . In March 2014 , E ! announced the fourth spin - off entitled Kourtney and Khloé Take The Hamptons . The series premiered on November 2 , 2014 , and followed Kourtney and Khloé who relocated to the Hamptons to work on opening a new Dash pop - up store . The fifth spin - off series called Dash Dolls premiered on September 20 , 2015 . The reality series chronicles the daily life of the employees of the Dash boutique in Los Angeles . In June 2016 , the network announced another show entitled Rob & Chyna which premiered on September 11 the same year , and follows the relationship of Rob Kardashian and Blac Chyna as they prepare to welcome their first child . The show was later renewed for a second season . In July 2017 , E ! confirmed the series was put on hold , and not on their current schedule . The network has also aired several television specials featuring important family events . A two - part television event called `` Kim 's Fairytale Wedding : A Kardashian Event '' , showcasing the wedding between Kim and Kris Humphries , was broadcast on October 9 and 10 , 2011 as part of the sixth season ; the special was highly successful with a combined 10.5 million viewers . A few days after Caitlyn Jenner ( then Bruce ) came out as a trans woman during a 20 / 20 interview with Diane Sawyer in May 2015 , E ! aired a two - part special on Keeping Up with the Kardashians entitled `` About Bruce '' , in which another side of the story was told featuring family members who were not involved in the previous interview on 20 / 20 . The first part of the special debuted on May 17 , 2015 , and attracted 2.92 million total viewers , a 40 % increase from the previous episode , while the second part aired the following day with similar viewership . I Am Cait , a separate documentary series , was announced immediately after the 20 / 20 interview . Jeff Olde , head of programming at E ! network , said that the series is `` not at all a Kardashian spin - off '' , and that `` we will not resort to spectacle , '' trying to emphasize its distinct format that is entirely different from most programming on the network , including Keeping Up with the Kardashians . The eight - part , one - hour docuseries debuted on July 26 , 2015 , on E ! , and focused on how Jenner was handling the aftermath of the transition ; it also attempted to deal with various LGBT - related issues . It was later cancelled after two seasons . In April 2017 , it was announced E ! had ordered an 8 - episode spin - off Life of Kylie revolving around Kylie Jenner which is set to premiere in summer 2017 . Reception ( edit ) Critical response ( edit ) `` The Kardashians are the last ladies standing in reality TV because they 've simply always believed they were celebrities -- endlessly amused with themselves , endlessly oblivious to one another . Their vanity is impervious to the outside world , which is how many of us often wish our own personal vanity worked . Their gargantuan egos , their petty jealousies , their catty feuds , the effort - vs. - eye - roll they put into reciting their lines , their commitment to frivolity at all costs -- these are seductive qualities in a reality - TV star , however repugnant they might be in real life . Whatever it is you watch reality TV for , the Kardashians just have a lot more of it . '' -- Rob Sheffield from Rolling Stone Keeping Up with the Kardashians has been the subject of constant panning by critics since its inception . Brian Lowry , reviewing the show for Variety , said that the network : `` widens its lens to encompass the whole irritating brood -- including Kim 's sisters Khloé and Kourtney , mom - manager Kris and stepdad Bruce Jenner , who now has the distinction of having two sets of useless rich kids featured in pointless reality shows . '' Ginia Bellafonte of The New York Times compared the show to reality series Gene Simmons Family Jewels and exclaimed that : `` the Kardashian show is not about an eccentric family living conventionally ; it is purely about some desperate women climbing to the margins of fame , and that feels a lot creepier . '' Laura Burrows of IGN criticized the family for being too self - seeking and using the given platform only to gain more notoriety for themselves . Following the conclusion of the second season of the series , Burrows wrote : `` Those of us who watch this show ( ... ) want to believe that these whores of attention have souls and would actually do something for their fellow man and not reap the benefits of their service , but two seasons ' worth of self - absorbed egocentrism speaks to the contrary . '' Roxana Hadadi , reviewing Keeping Up with the Kardashians for The Washington Post , was extremely negative towards the reality series due to its absurdity , and commented that the show : `` firmly captures all of Kim and Co. 's dumbest instances from the series ' debut -- from the simply self - absorbed to the downright despicable . '' Amaya Rivera , writing about the series for Popmatters , noted : `` Indeed , there is something disturbing about the Kardashians ' intense hunger for fame . But even worse -- it is downright boring to watch this family live out their tedious lives . '' John Kubicek , the senior writer of BuddyTV , reviewed the premiere of the third season of the show and discussed the reason for the family 's success by saying that : `` the Kardashians ' fame is a lot like Möbius strip or an M.C. Escher painting . '' Harriet Ryan and Adam Tschorn of the Los Angeles Times described Keeping Up with the Kardashians as a : `` Hollywood version of The Brady Bunch -- the harmless high jinks of a loving blended family against a backdrop of wealth and famous connections '' . Jessica Chasmar of The Washington Times said that series : `` illustrates our nation 's moral , spiritual and cultural decay . '' Chasmar emphasized its negative influence and noted : `` America of 50 years ago would regard Ms. Kardashian with a mixture of disdain and pity , embarrassed by the very idea of a young lady 's most private moments being broadcast for all the world to see . '' Goal Auzeen Saedi , reviewing Keeping Up with the Kardashians for Psychology Today , emphasized the show 's influence saying that : `` The Kardashians become more relatable the more famous they become . '' Saedi also questioned their decision to appear on the show and added : `` But if living life in the spotlight is so taxing and demands multiple justifications for the way your life is being lived and criticized , perhaps you can take the cameras out of your house . '' Vinnie Mancuso , writing for New York Observer , criticized the show and felt : `` roughly one iota of shadenfreudic pleasure from this endeavor , but for the most part this show is the 100 % drizzling poops . '' David Hinckley of the New York Daily News , reviewing the tenth season , said that `` even when you think something about the Kardashians could be interesting , it 's not , '' adding that the `` entertainment value ( of the show ) is like having spent 10 years in Rapid City , S.D. , watching the traffic lights change . '' Amy Amatangelo of The Hollywood Reporter said that `` in true Kardashian fashion , they managed to make everything about them , '' after Caitlyn Jenner came out as a trans woman to her family in the `` About Bruce '' special aired as part of the tenth season . Amatangelo felt that the conversations `` seemed a little too staged , too controlled '' , and noted that `` there was no attempt to educate the viewers about transgender issues . '' `` The title of the show is misleading -- Keeping Up with the Kardashians has me imagining the raven - haired siblings being tracked by a slobbering pack of hunting dogs . Sadly , the reality is much more mundane . The best we can hope for is a peek into the crazy chaos of life on the A-list . ( ... ) The Kardashians would be the first to admit that their notoriety has little to do with any discernible talent , beyond an alarming capability for self - promotion . '' -- Gareth Dimelow from Sabotage Times However , several critics were more positive towards the show . A number of publications welcomed the show as `` guilty pleasure '' , including The Huffington Post , The Atlantic , and The Week . Tim Stack , writing for Entertainment Weekly , described the reality series as : `` my favorite little slice of reality TV spongecake . '' Lauren Le Vine of Refinery29 appreciated the success of the family which `` achieved the American dream of making something out of nothing , '' using the given platform . Libby Hill of The A.V. Club also acknowledged the show 's success and said : `` Keeping Up With The Kardashians gives us real , joyous , ugly , unsavory , hilarious life , with all the polished sitcom trappings . And though the latter may have launched a multimedia empire , the former has made it last '' . Maura Kelly of The Guardian evaluated the aftermath of the failed wedding of Kim Kardashian and Kris Humphries , which was documented on Keeping Up with the Kardashians , and subsequently caused public outrage , including an online protest petition to cancel the show . `` Since Kim does n't exactly seem to be an exemplar of self - awareness , I suppose it 's possible that she really believed she and Humphries would live happily ever after , '' Kelly speculated whether or not the marriage was a publicity stunt . `` But more likely , she and E ! are laughing all the way to the bank -- 10.5 million viewers tuned into `` Kim 's Fairytale Wedding : A Kardashian Event '' , after all , '' Kelly summarized the controversy . Josh Duboff , writing for Vanity Fair , commented on the show 's long run and said that `` it is near impossible to argue that their continued relevance , 10 years later , is anything other than awe - inspiring and remarkable '' . Viewership ( edit ) `` At their core , the Kardashians are an incredibly bonded , loving , large family who live an incredibly large life . And if you actually look at the history of television , there 's a pretty large number of families with that blend resonating with viewers . This just happens to be the first reality show that does it . ( ... ) It 's just an incredibly fascinating drama that 's played out . But at its core , you know that they 're going to end up around that dinner table together . '' -- E ! President Suzanne Kolb discusses the popularity of the series in an interview with The Wrap . Keeping Up with the Kardashians has been a ratings success for E ! -- in its first month it became the highest - rated series aired on Sunday nights for adults 18 -- 34 and was seen by 1.3 million total viewers , according to Nielsen Media Research . Lisa Berger , executive vice president of original programming and series development for E ! , said : `` The buzz surrounding the series is huge , and viewers have clearly fallen for the Kardashians . ( ... ) Seacrest and Bunim - Murray 's unique ability to capture this family 's one - of - a-kind dynamics and hilarious antics has made the series a fantastic addition to our prime - time lineup . '' The second season continued the success and was viewed by 1.6 million viewers on average , which led to a third season renewal . The two - hour fourth - season premiere , which aired on November 8 , 2009 , and featured the wedding ceremony of Khloé and Lamar Odom , brought in then - record ratings with 3.2 million viewers . The subsequent season debuted with nearly 4.7 million total viewers , which ranked as the highest - rated season premiere of the show , as of August 2015 . It was also the second highest - rated episode of Keeping Up with the Kardashians , second only to the previous season 's record - breaking finale with 4.8 million viewers . The seventh - season premiere of the series , which aired on May 20 , 2012 in its earlier timeslot , continued to deliver high ratings attracting almost three million total viewers which exceeded the premiere of the previous season by 16 % . Kim Kardashian has explained the success of the show by saying that people tune in to watch the series because they can relate themselves to the members of the family ; in an interview with the V magazine she said : `` You can see that soap operas are n't on the air as much anymore . I think reality shows are taking over that genre , but I think the draw to our show is that we are relatable . '' The eighth season debuted to 3 million viewers , up 6 % from the previous season , while the subsequent ninth season 's premiere was down by 20 % . The ninth season averaged 3.3 million total viewers and almost 2.2 million in the 18 -- 49 years adult demographic , the most sought after by advertisers . It was the highest rated cable show in its timeslot . The series finished as the most - social ad - supported cable program and , as of March 2015 , Keeping Up with the Kardashians is the most - watched show on E ! network . The first episode of the tenth season averaged 2.5 million viewers , slightly less than the premiere of the ninth season . In 2016 , a New York Times study of the 50 TV shows with the most Facebook Likes found that Keeping Up with the Kardashians `` tends to most popular in areas with large Hispanic populations , particularly in the Southwest '' . Awards and nominations ( edit ) Keeping Up with the Kardashians has been nominated for , and won , several television awards . The reality series has received nominations for a Teen Choice Award in the Choice TV : Celebrity Reality Show category nine consecutive times between 2008 and 2016 , winning the award in 2010 , 2013 , 2014 and 2016 . The show also won a People 's Choice Award as Favorite TV Guilty Pleasure in 2011 . The Kardashian sisters have been nominated as part of the cast for five awards , winning four times ; Kim Kardashian has been nominated for three awards winning one in 2012 . In 2010 , Kris and Caitlyn Jenner received a Teen Choice Award nomination in a one - time Choice TV : Parental Unit category . Year Association Category Nominee ( s ) Result Ref . 2008 Teen Choice Awards Choice TV : Celebrity Reality Show Keeping Up with the Kardashians Nominated Choice TV Reality / Variety Star : Female Kim Kardashian Nominated 2009 Teen Choice Awards Choice TV : Reality Show Keeping Up with the Kardashians Nominated Choice TV Reality / Variety Star : Female Kim Kardashian Nominated Teen Choice Awards Choice TV : Reality Show Keeping Up with the Kardashians Won Choice TV Reality / Variety Star : Female The Kardashian sisters Won Choice TV : Parental Unit Kris Jenner and Caitlyn Jenner Nominated 2011 Teen Choice Awards Choice Summer TV Show Keeping Up with the Kardashians Nominated Choice TV Reality / Variety Star : Female The Kardashian sisters Won People 's Choice Awards Favorite TV Guilty Pleasure Keeping Up with the Kardashians Won 2012 Teen Choice Awards Choice TV : Reality Show Keeping Up with the Kardashians Nominated Choice TV Reality / Variety Star : Female The Kardashian sisters Won People 's Choice Awards Favorite TV Celebreality Star Kim Kardashian Won 2013 Teen Choice Awards Choice TV : Reality Show Keeping Up with the Kardashians Won Choice TV Reality / Variety Star : Female The Kardashian sisters Won 2014 Teen Choice Awards Choice TV : Reality Show Keeping Up with the Kardashians Won Choice TV Reality / Variety Star : Female The Kardashian sisters Nominated 2015 Teen Choice Awards Choice TV : Reality Show Keeping Up with the Kardashians Nominated 2016 Teen Choice Awards Choice TV : Reality Show Keeping Up with the Kardashians Won 2017 Teen Choice Awards Choice TV : Reality Show Keeping Up with the Kardashians Nominated Broadcast history ( edit ) Main article : List of Keeping Up with the Kardashians episodes The title card of the show that was used in seasons 1 -- 10 Keeping Up with the Kardashians premiered on October 14 , 2007 in the United States on the E ! cable network at 10 : 30 / 9 : 30 pm ET / PT . The half - hour reality series continued to air every Sunday night in the same time slot , and the eight - episode first season of the show concluded on December 2 . The subsequent season premiered the following year on March 9 in an earlier time slot at 10 : 00 / 9 : 00 pm with a repeated episode airing immediately afterwards . The season ended on May 26 , 2008 with an episode `` Junk in the Trunk '' , which featured the Kardashian siblings sharing the most memorable moments of the season . The third season commenced airing on March 8 , 2009 and concluded with two back - to - back episodes which aired on May 25 . The subsequent season premiered with a two - hour long episode entitled `` The Wedding '' on November 8 , and ended on February 21 , 2010 ; some of the episodes aired throughout the season were extended to a full hour . The fifth season of Keeping Up with the Kardashians began airing on August 22 , 2010 and concluded with another `` Junk in the Trunk '' episode on December 20 . The sixth season commenced on June 12 , 2011 and ended with a television special `` Kim 's Fairytale Wedding : A Kardashian Event '' which aired two extended episodes on October 9 and 10 . The show later returned on December 19 with the episode `` Kendall 's Sweet 16 '' . Starting with the seventh season , which premiered on May 20 , 2012 , the half - hour reality series was extended to a full hour in a new 9 : 00 / 8 : 00 pm time slot . The season concluded on October 28 . The eighth season of the series started airing on June 2 , 2013 ; it became the longest season with 21 episodes and ended on December 1 . The ninth and tenth seasons aired in 2014 and 2015 , respectively . The latter season included a television special entitled `` About Bruce '' which aired on May 17 and 18 , 2015 . The eleventh season premiered on November 15 , one month after the previous season finished . The twelfth season of the show debuted on May 1 , 2016 . The thirteenth season premiered on March 12 , 2017 . Home video releases and streaming ( edit ) In North America , the first three seasons of the reality series were distributed on DVD . The first season was released on October 7 , 2008 by Lions Gate Entertainment which obtained the home entertainment distribution rights for a variety of programming from Comcast Entertainment Group , including Keeping Up with the Kardashians . The second and third seasons of the series were released on November 10 , 2009 and August 17 , 2010 , respectively . In Australia , all seasons are released on DVD by Universal Sony Pictures . The latest addition , which includes the eleventh season of the show , was released on April 28 , 2016 . In the United Kingdom , the reality series is distributed by Universal Pictures UK . The DVD set of the seventh season , the latest addition , was released on June 24 , 2013 . The episodes of Keeping Up with the Kardashians are also available on numerous streaming video on demand services , such as Amazon Video , iTunes , Google Play , Microsoft Movies & TV , Hulu , and Vudu , as well as the E ! network 's own streaming service . See also ( edit ) Television in the United States portal History of the Armenian Americans in Los Angeles References ( edit ) Jump up ^ `` Watch Kim , Khloe & Family Throw `` Shade '' in Keeping Up With the Kardashians 10 Year Anniversary Special First Look ! `` . E ! Online . Retrieved August 2 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Challis , Carla ( December 22 , 2016 ) . `` Why are Kim Kardashian , Kylie Jenner and the rest of the family famous ? '' . BT Group . Retrieved January 7 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` The Kardashian - Jenner Family Trees : Know Your Reality TV Royalty '' . Rolling Stone . July 16 , 2015 . Retrieved January 7 , 2017 . 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Jump up ^ O'Toole , Caitlin ( November 9 , 2013 ) . `` Sure , She 's Beautiful , but Why Is Kim Kardashian Famous ? '' . Wetpaint . Retrieved January 3 , 2016 . ^ Jump up to : O'Sullivan , Erin ( December 28 , 2011 ) . `` Ryan Seacrest Talks Kardashians , The Wanted & The Future Of American Idol '' . Access Hollywood . Retrieved August 21 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Ehrlich , Dimitri ( August 28 , 2012 ) . `` Kris Jenner '' . Interview . Archived from the original on September 1 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Brodesser - Akner , Taffy ( May 8 , 2015 ) . `` Where Would the Kardashians Be Without Kris Jenner ? '' . The New York Times . Retrieved December 25 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Howarth , Alice ( January 20 , 2015 ) . `` Ryan Seacrest reveals how the Kardashian 's landed a reality show '' . Glamour . Retrieved August 23 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Faber , Judy ( August 8 , 2007 ) . `` Kim Kardashian Gets Reality Show '' . CBS News . 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For 3 More Seasons Of ' Keeping Up With The Kardashians ' , Other Reality Shows '' . Deadline Hollywood . Retrieved August 22 , 2015 . ^ Jump up to : Bibel , Sara ( February 17 , 2015 ) . `` ' Keeping Up With The Kardashians ' Season 10 to Premiere Sunday , March 15 on E ! '' . TV by the Numbers ( Press release ) . Retrieved August 22 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Miller , Michael ( February 27 , 2015 ) . `` Kardashians Ink $100 Million Mega-Deal with E ! '' . Time . Retrieved December 30 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Barrett - Ibarria , Sofia ( June 20 , 2014 ) . `` Ever Wonder What ' Keeping Up With The Kardashians ' Would Look Like In 20 Years ? '' . Bustle . Retrieved December 25 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Karlin , Lily ( June 20 , 2014 ) . `` Kim Kardashian Wants Reality TV Show To Last Forever '' . The Huffington Post . Retrieved December 25 , 2015 . ^ Jump up to : Newman , Judith ; Bruce , Leslie ( February 16 , 2011 ) . `` How the Kardashians Made $65 Million Last Year '' . The Hollywood Reporter . Archived from the original on February 20 , 2011 . Jump up ^ `` Watch Kim , Khloe & Family Throw Shade in Keeping Up With the Kardashians 10 Year Anniversary Special First Look ! on Kardashians '' . E ! Online . Retrieved 2017 - 08 - 11 . Jump up ^ `` Kardashians Re-sign with E ! Network for $150 MILLION '' . TMZ . Retrieved 2017 - 10 - 25 . ^ Jump up to : Fanning , Kevin ( September 18 , 2014 ) . `` Revisiting Season 1 of ' Keeping Up With the Kardashians ' : Part 1 '' . Vulture . Retrieved August 22 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Fanning , Kevin ( September 24 , 2014 ) . `` Revisiting Season 1 of ' Keeping Up With the Kardashians ' , Part 2 '' . Vulture . Retrieved August 22 , 2015 . ^ Jump up to : Saad , Nardine ( March 5 , 2013 ) . `` Brody Jenner joins ' Keeping Up With the Kardashians ' '' . Los Angeles Times . Retrieved August 22 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Ricketts , Whitney ( February 21 , 2012 ) . `` Who Is Malika Haqq ? Background Info on Khloé Kardashian 's BFF '' . Wetpaint . Retrieved August 22 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Bryant , Kenzie ( August 21 , 2013 ) . `` Kardashian Character Attacked After Instagramming His Watch '' . Racked . Retrieved August 22 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Hamm , Liza ( March 24 , 2010 ) . `` Reggie Bush on Relationship Hurdles with Kim Kardashian '' . People . Retrieved August 22 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Saad , Nardine ( August 1 , 2014 ) . `` Adrienne Bailon 's Rob Kardashian remarks have Kim 's , Khloé 's claws out '' . Los Angeles Times . Retrieved August 22 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Vena , Jocelyn ( October 31 , 2011 ) . `` Kim Kardashian And Kris Humphries : A Timeline '' . MTV News . Retrieved August 22 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Finn , Natalie ( February 22 , 2012 ) . `` Kim Kardashian `` Very Happy '' With Apology From Blogger Who Called Her Marriage `` Staged '' `` . E ! Online . Retrieved June 7 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Kris Humphries Claims He Has Proof He Was Set Up To Be The Bad Guy '' . The Huffington Post . May 11 , 2012 . Retrieved August 21 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Garcia , Jennifer ; Wihlborg , Ulrica ( September 27 , 2009 ) . `` Khloé Kardashian Is Married ! '' . People . Retrieved April 22 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Kanye West Tries ' Keeping Up With the Kardashians ' '' . The Wall Street Journal . July 10 , 2012 . Retrieved December 23 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Caramanica , Jon ( June 11 , 2013 ) . `` Kanye West Talks About His Career and Album ' Yeezus ' '' . The New York Times . Retrieved August 21 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Duboff , Josh ( November 26 , 2013 ) . `` Kanye West Does n't Like Appearing on Keeping Up With the Kardashians Because He Has Issues With the Cinematography '' . Vanity Fair . Archived from the original on April 1 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Crupi , Anthony ( April 19 , 2009 ) . `` E ! Adds Kardashians , Lamases to Roster as Ratings Rise '' . Adweek . Retrieved August 21 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Shea , Danny ( September 17 , 2009 ) . `` '' Kourtney & Khloé Take Miami '' Debuts To Record E ! Ratings `` . The Huffington Post . Archived from the original on October 1 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Stanhope , Kate ( March 1 , 2010 ) . `` ' Kourtney and Khloé Take Miami ' Renewed for Season 2 '' . TV Guide . Retrieved August 21 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Ng , Philiana ( November 15 , 2012 ) . `` E ! 's ' Kourtney and Kim Take Miami , ' Style 's ' Big Rich Atlanta ' Set Premieres '' . The Hollywood Reporter . Retrieved April 22 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` E ! 's First Royal Subject Is Crowned and Steps Into the Spotlight in E ! Online 's `` Lord Disick : Lifestyles of a Lord '' `` . The Futon Critic ( Press release ) . January 30 , 2013 . Retrieved May 5 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` E ! Shines the Spotlight on `` Khloé & Lamar '' ( Working Title ) in New Series About the Power Couple 's Life Together `` . The Futon Critic ( Press release ) . January 5 , 2011 . Retrieved October 1 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Oldenburg , Ann ( October 5 , 2011 ) . `` Kourtney and Kim Kardashian to ' Take New York ' '' . USA Today . Retrieved April 22 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Bricker , Tierney ( November 27 , 2011 ) . `` ' Kourtney & Kim Take New York ' Season Premiere : Could You Tell There Was Trouble ? '' . E ! Online . Retrieved April 22 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Hammel , Sara ( January 5 , 2011 ) . `` Khloé Kardashian & Lamar Odom Get New Reality Show '' . People . Retrieved April 22 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Seidman , Robert ( February 6 , 2012 ) . `` Viewers Will Fall In Love All Over Again When ' Khloé & Lamar ' Returns for a Second Season on Sunday , February 19 '' . TV by the Numbers ( Press release ) . Archived from the original on October 29 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Goldberg , Lesley ( March 26 , 2014 ) . `` E ! Upfront Slate : More Kardashians , ' Rich Kids , ' Lance Bass and ' Gucci ' Miniseries '' . The Hollywood Reporter . Retrieved March 26 , 2014 . Jump up ^ Syed , Anam ( August 24 , 2014 ) . `` When Does ' Kourtney & Khloé Take the Hamptons ' Premiere ? We 're Expecting A Lot from the Spinoff '' . Bustle . Retrieved March 26 , 2014 . Jump up ^ Directo , Denny ( September 5 , 2015 ) . `` The ' Dash Dolls ' Reveal What It 's Really Like to Have Kim , Khloe & Kourtney Kardashian as Bosses ! '' . Yahoo ! Celebrity . Archived from the original on May 12 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Wagmeister , Elizabeth ( June 1 , 2016 ) . `` Rob Kardashian and Blac Chyna Land Their Own E ! Reality Series '' . Variety . Retrieved June 2 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Petski , Denise ( December 14 , 2016 ) . `` ' Rob & Chyna ' Renewed For Season 2 By E ! '' . Deadline.com . Retrieved December 14 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Stanhope , Kate ( July 10 , 2017 ) . `` ' Rob & Chyna ' Series Future Unclear Amid Legal Drama '' . The Hollywood Reporter . Retrieved August 7 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` E ! Scores Most - Watched Event Ever With `` Kim 's Fairytale Wedding : A Kardashian Event '' Drawing 10.5 Million Total Viewers Across Two - Part Event `` . TV by the Numbers ( Press release ) . October 11 , 2011 . Archived from the original on September 27 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` E ! to Air Two - Part Bruce Jenner Special ' Keeping Up with the Kardashians : About Bruce ' '' . Variety . May 4 , 2015 . Retrieved July 25 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Nededog , Jethro ( May 19 , 2015 ) . `` E ! 's Bruce Jenner special gives ' Kardashians ' a 40 % ratings bump '' . Business Insider . Retrieved July 25 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Stelter , Brian ( June 3 , 2015 ) . `` Watch the ' I Am Cait ' trailer for E ! reality show '' . CNN . Retrieved August 21 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Fisher , Luchina ( June 3 , 2014 ) . `` ' I Am Cait ' Promo for Caitlyn Jenner Docu - Series Hits the Internet '' . ABC News . Retrieved June 3 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Kim , Eun Kyung ( June 3 , 2015 ) . `` Caitlyn Jenner in new E ! documentary declares : ' I 'm the new normal ' '' . Today . Retrieved June 3 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Wagmeister , Elizabeth ( August 16 , 2016 ) . `` Caitlyn Jenner 's ' I Am Cait ' Cancelled After 2 Seasons at E ! '' . Variety . Retrieved August 16 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Petski , Denise ( April 10 , 2017 ) . `` Kylie Jenner Spinoff Series Gets Green Light At E ! '' . Deadline.com . Retrieved April 10 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Sheffield , Rob ( September 10 , 2014 ) . `` The Kardashians : The Egos That Ate America '' . Rolling Stone . Retrieved August 21 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Lowry , Brian ( October 10 , 2007 ) . `` Review : ' Keeping Up With the Kardashians ' '' . Variety . Retrieved January 3 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Bellafonte , Ginia ( October 13 , 2007 ) . `` Keeping Up With the Kardashians The All - Too - Easy Route to Stardom '' . The New York Times . Retrieved April 22 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Burrows , Laura ( May 20 , 2008 ) . `` Keeping Up with the Kardashians : `` A New Perspective in New Orleans '' Review `` . IGN . Retrieved August 19 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Hadadi , Roxana ( October 8 , 2008 ) . `` Real Dumb : ' Keeping Up with the Kardashians ' '' . The Washington Post . Retrieved August 23 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Rivera , Amaya ( October 15 , 2008 ) . `` Keeping Up with the Kardashians : Season 1 '' . PopMatters . Archived from the original on March 4 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Kubicek , John ( March 6 , 2009 ) . `` ' Keeping Up with the Kardashians ' Season 3 Review : Jailing and Wailing '' . BuddyTV . Archived from the original on March 10 , 2009 . Jump up ^ Chasmar , Jessica ( January 3 , 2013 ) . `` Kardashian culture is killing America '' . The Washington Times . Retrieved January 3 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Auzeen Saedi , Goal ( August 14 , 2011 ) . `` Are the Kardashians Keeping Up Appearances ? '' . Psychology Today . Retrieved August 19 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Mancuso , Vinnie ( February 26 , 2015 ) . `` I Watched ' Keeping Up With the Kardashians ' for the First Time , a Review '' . New York Observer . Retrieved August 21 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Hinckley , David ( March 14 , 2015 ) . `` ' Keeping Up With the Kardashians ' review : Even with Bruce Jenner 's central role , Season 10 is a dud '' . Daily News . New York . Retrieved April 22 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Amatangelo , Amy ( May 18 , 2015 ) . `` ' Keeping Up with the Kardashians : About Bruce ' : TV Review '' . The Hollywood Reporter . Retrieved April 22 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Dimelow , Gareth ( June 27 , 2011 ) . `` Keeping Up With The Kardashians : TV 's Face Of Evil '' . The Wrap . Retrieved August 23 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` The 7 Best Guilty Pleasure TV Shows Of All Time '' . The Huffington Post . August 6 , 2014 . Retrieved August 24 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Turbin , Sarah ( August 22 , 2014 ) . `` What Keeping Up With the Kardashians can teach America about interracial marriage '' . The Week . Retrieved August 24 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Berlatsky , Noah ( February 17 , 2015 ) . `` With Culture , Guilt Can Sometimes Be a Good Thing '' . The Atlantic . Retrieved August 24 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Stack , Tim ( August 30 , 2010 ) . `` ' Keeping Up with the Kardashians ' recap : Three things I learned from last night 's episode '' . Entertainment Weekly . Retrieved August 21 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Le Vine , Lauren ( July 30 , 2015 ) . `` Some Of You Asked Us To Stop Writing About The Kardashians -- This Is Our Response '' . Refinery29 . Retrieved August 23 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Hill , Libby ( August 11 , 2015 ) . `` Keeping Up With the Kardashians embraced female archetypes and created an empire '' . The A.V. Club . Retrieved August 23 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Kelly , Maura ( November 23 , 2011 ) . `` How about not keeping up with the Kardashians ? '' . The Guardian . Archived from the original on March 5 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Duboff , Josh ( May 1 , 2016 ) . `` 12 Seasons Later , Keeping Up with the Kardashians Is Perhaps More Important to the Kardashian Machine than Ever '' . Vanity Fair . Retrieved May 6 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Molloy , Tim ( December 28 , 2011 ) . `` Kardashians ' Appeal Explained by E ! President : ' People Aspire to Be Them or to Befriend Them ' '' . The Wrap . Retrieved August 21 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Claustro , Lisa ( November 13 , 2007 ) . `` E ! Renews ' Keeping Up with the Kardashians ' '' . BuddyTV . Archived from the original on November 28 , 2007 . Jump up ^ Gallagher , Kona ( July 18 , 2008 ) . `` E ! still wants to keep up with the Kardashians '' . The Huffington Post . Archived from the original on August 21 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Piazza , Jo ( November 9 , 2009 ) . `` Kardashian wedding a huge ratings draw '' . CNN . Archived from the original on September 27 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Rice , Lynette ( August 23 , 2010 ) . `` ' Keeping Up with the Kardashians ' premiere attracts record audience '' . Entertainment Weekly . Retrieved August 21 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Hibberd , James ( October 11 , 2011 ) . `` Kardashian wedding ratings strong , but not record setting '' . Entertainment Weekly . Retrieved August 21 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Kondolojy , Amanda ( May 21 , 2012 ) . `` E ! 'S ' Keeping Up With The Kardashians ' Season Premiere Delivers Nearly 3 Million Total Viewers , Besting Previous Season Premiere By + 16 % '' . TV by the Numbers ( Press release ) . Retrieved August 22 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Vena , Jocelyn ( August 28 , 2012 ) . `` Kim Kardashian Explains Why Reality TV Is Just Like Rap Music '' . MTV News . Retrieved August 21 , 2015 . Jump up ^ O'Connell , Michael ( June 3 , 2013 ) . `` TV Ratings : ' The Kardashians ' Still Going Strong in Season 8 , ' The Wanted Life ' Fizzles '' . The Hollywood Reporter . Retrieved August 22 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Lawson , Richard ( January 23 , 2014 ) . `` The Kardashians Ca n't Keep Up '' . Vanity Fair . Retrieved August 22 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Bibel , Sara ( March 20 , 2015 ) . `` E ! 's ' Keeping Up With the Kardashians ' & ' The Royals ' Deliver Strong Live + 3 Ratings Growth '' . TV by the Numbers ( Press release ) . Retrieved August 22 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Maglio , Tony ( March 17 , 2015 ) . `` ' Keeping Up With the Kardashians ' Premiere Down From Last Season 's Debut '' . The Wrap . Retrieved August 22 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Katz , Josh ( 2016 - 12 - 27 ) . `` ' Duck Dynasty ' vs. ' Modern Family ' : 50 Maps of the U.S. Cultural Divide '' . The New York Times . Jump up ^ `` 2008 Teen Choice Awards winners and nominees '' . Los Angeles Times . June 17 , 2008 . Archived from the original on September 12 , 2008 . Jump up ^ `` Teen Choice Awards 2009 nominees '' . Los Angeles Times . June 15 , 2009 . Retrieved August 23 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Finn , Natalie ( August 8 , 2010 ) . `` Vampires Do n't Suck at Teen Choice Awards ( Neither Do Justin Bieber , Sandra Bullock or the Kardashians ) '' . E ! Online . Archived from the original on June 29 , 2011 . Jump up ^ Reiher , Andrea ( August 8 , 2011 ) . `` 2011 Teen Choice Awards winners list : Taylor Swift gets the surfboards '' . Screener . Retrieved August 23 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` People 's Choice Awards : Fan Favorites in Movies , Music & TV -- 2011 '' . People 's Choice Awards . Archived from the original on March 24 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Teen Choice Awards 2012 : Taylor Swift , Justin Bieber , ' The Hunger Games ' big winners '' . Screener . July 22 , 2012 . Retrieved August 23 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` People 's Choice Awards 2012 : Fan Favorites in Movies , Music & TV '' . People 's Choice Awards . Archived from the original on March 3 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Hayner , Chris ( August 11 , 2013 ) . `` Teen Choice Awards 2013 : Full winners list '' . Screener . Retrieved August 23 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Nordyke , Kimberly ( August 10 , 2014 ) . `` Teen Choice Awards : The Complete Winners List '' . The Hollywood Reporter . Retrieved August 23 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Teen Choice Awards 2015 Winners : Full List '' . Variety . August 16 , 2015 . Archived from the original on January 10 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Goodman , Jessica ( July 31 , 2016 ) . `` Teen Choice Awards 2016 : See the full list of winners '' . Entertainment Weekly . Retrieved August 1 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Teen Choice Awards 2017 : See the full list of winners '' . Entertainment Weekly . July 31 , 2017 . Retrieved August 1 , 2017 . ^ Jump up to : `` Shows A-Z -- Keeping Up with the Kardashians on E ! -- All related listings '' . The Futon Critic . Retrieved December 19 , 2016 . ^ Jump up to : `` Keeping Up with the Kardashians -- Episodes '' . TV Guide . Retrieved October 8 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Keeping Up With the Kardashians , Season 4 '' . iTunes . Retrieved October 8 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Shen , Maxine ( April 10 , 2012 ) . `` Stealing time '' . New York Post . Archived from the original on March 4 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Cohen , Jess ( February 26 , 2016 ) . `` The Keeping Up With the Kardashians Season 12 Promo Is All About Family : We 'll Do Anything for Each Other -- Watch Now ! '' . E ! Online . Retrieved March 29 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Duncan , Gabi ( January 6 , 2017 ) . `` Kim Kardashian Breaks Silence on Paris Robbery , Recalls Thinking `` They 're Going to Shoot Me in the Back '' `` . E ! Online . Retrieved April 24 , 2017 . ^ Jump up to : `` Shows A-Z -- Keeping Up with the Kardashians on E ! -- All related DVDs '' . The Futon Critic . Retrieved October 8 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Lionsgate Announces Home Entertainment Distribution Deal with Disney - ABC Domestic Television '' . The Futon Critic ( Press release ) . August 5 , 2008 . Retrieved October 8 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` The Kardashians -- Buy Movies , TV Shows , Music , DVDs , Blu - ray , CDs and Games Online '' . Sanity.com.au . Archived from the original on May 16 , 2016 . Retrieved May 15 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Keeping Up with the Kardashians -- Season 7 DVD ( 2012 ) '' . Amazon.co.uk . Archived from the original on November 24 , 2015 . Retrieved October 9 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Neuenschwander , Andy ( March 13 , 2013 ) . `` Download to Own : Keeping Up with the Kardashians '' . E ! Online . Archived from the original on March 30 , 2016 . Retrieved September 15 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Watch Keeping Up With the Kardashians Online '' . Hulu . Retrieved December 22 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` VUDU -- Keeping Up with the Kardashians -- All seasons '' . Vudu . Retrieved December 22 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` E ! Now -- Watch Full Episodes -- Keeping Up with the Kardashians '' . E !. Retrieved December 22 , 2015 . Further reading ( edit ) Halperin , Ian ( 2016 ) . Kardashian Dynasty : The Controversial Rise of America 's Royal Family . Gallery Books . ISBN 1 - 5011 - 2888 - 4 . Jenner , Kris ( 2012 ) . Kris Jenner ... and All Things Kardashian . Gallery Books / Karen Hunter Publishing . ISBN 1 - 4516 - 4697 - 6 . Kardashian , Kim ; Kardashian , Kourtney ; Kardashian , Khloé ( 2010 ) . Kardashian Konfidential . St. Martin 's Press . ISBN 0 - 312 - 62807 - 2 . Scheiner McClain , Amanda ( 2013 ) . Keeping Up the Kardashian Brand : Celebrity , Materialism , and Sexuality . Lexington Books . ISBN 0 - 7391 - 7715 - X . External links ( edit ) ( hide ) Find more aboutKardashiansat Wikipedia 's sister projects Quotations from Wikiquote Textbooks from Wikibooks Data from Wikidata Official website Keeping Up With the Kardashians on IMDb Keeping Up with the Kardashians at TV.com Keeping Up with the Kardashians at TV Guide Keeping Up with the Kardashians Episodes Spin - offs Kourtney and Kim Take Miami Kourtney and Kim Take New York Khloé & Lamar Kourtney and Khloé Take The Hamptons Bromance Dash Dolls I Am Cait Rob & Chyna Revenge Body with Khloé Kardashian Life of Kylie Related The Princes of Malibu Kris Sex with Brody Kocktails with Khloé The Spin Crowd Kingin ' with Tyga Hollywood Divas Category E ! original programming Former 1990s debuts The Dick Tracy Show ( 1990 ) TV 's Bloopers & Practical Jokes ( 1990 ) Talk Soup ( 1991 -- 2002 ) E ! Behind the Scenes ( 1991 ) Coming Attractions ( 1991 ) Melrose Place ( 1992 ) Howard Stern ( 1994 -- 2005 ) Models Inc. ( 1994 -- 95 ) Night Stand with Dick Dietrick ( 1995 -- 97 ) The Michael Essany Show ( 1997 -- 2004 ) Wild On ! ( 1997 -- 2003 ) Mysteries and Scandals ( 1998 -- 2001 ) Search Party ( 1999 ) 2000s debuts Revealed with Jules Asner ( 2001 -- 03 ) Daly / Nightly ( 2002 ) The Anna Nicole Show ( 2002 -- 03 ) Star Dates ( 2002 -- 03 ) Celebrities Uncensored ( 2003 -- 04 ) Totally Outrageous Behavior ( 2003 -- 05 ) It 's Good to Be ... ( 2003 ) Love Chain ( 2003 ) Dr. 90210 ( 2004 -- 08 ) The Soup ( 2004 -- 15 ) Love Is in the Heir ( 2004 -- 05 ) Life is Great with Brooke Burke ( 2004 ) Filthy Rich : Cattle Drive ( 2005 ) The Gastineau Girls ( 2005 -- 06 ) Fight for Fame ( 2005 ) E ! Hollywood Hold'em ( 2005 ) The Girls Next Door / Girls of the Playboy Mansion ( 2005 -- 10 ) Kill Reality ( 2005 ) Taradise ( 2005 -- 06 ) The Entertainer starring Wayne Newton ( 2005 ) Party @ The Palms ( 2005 ) My Crazy Life ( 2005 ) The Daily 10 ( 2006 -- 10 ) The Chelsea Handler Show ( 2006 ) House of Carters ( 2006 ) Love Ride ( 2006 ) # 1 Single ( 2006 ) The Simple Life ( 2006 -- 07 ) Boulevard of Broken Dreams ( 2007 ) Katie & Peter ( 2007 ) Saturday Night Live ( 2007 -- 09 ) Snoop Dogg 's Father Hood ( 2007 -- 09 ) Starveillance ( 2007 ) Sunset Tan ( 2007 -- 08 ) Paradise City ( 2007 ) Chelsea Lately ( 2007 -- 14 ) Denise Richards : It 's Complicated ( 2008 -- 09 ) Kimora : Life in the Fab Lane ( 2008 ) Living Lohan ( 2008 ) Match Mistress ( 2008 ) Party Monsters Cabo ( 2008 ) Pop Fiction ( 2008 ) Pam : Girl on the Loose ! ( 2008 ) Candy Girls ( 2009 ) Reality Hell ( 2009 ) Kendra ( 2011 ) Kourtney and Kim Take Miami ( 2009 -- 13 ) Leave It to Lamas ( 2009 ) Holly 's World ( 2009 -- 11 ) Wildest Naked TV Moments ( 2009 ) 2010s debuts A-List Listings ( 2012 ) After Lately ( 2011 -- 2013 ) Bridalplasty ( 2010 -- 11 ) Chasing the Saturdays ( 2013 ) Christina Milian Turned Up ( 2015 -- 16 ) The Dance Scene ( 2011 ) Dash Dolls ( 2015 ) Dirty Soap ( 2011 ) Eric & Jessie : Game On ( 2013 -- 14 ) Escape Club ( 2014 ) The Grace Helbig Show ( 2015 ) Hello Ross ( 2013 -- 14 ) I Am Cait ( 2015 -- 16 ) Ice Loves Coco ( 2011 -- 13 ) Khloé & Lamar ( 2011 -- 12 ) Kourtney and Khloé Take The Hamptons ( 2014 -- 15 ) Kourtney and Kim Take New York ( 2011 -- 12 ) Love You , Mean It with Whitney Cummings ( 2012 -- 13 ) Married to Jonas ( 2012 -- 13 ) Married to Rock ( 2010 ) Mrs. Eastwood & Company ( 2012 ) Opening Act ( 2012 ) Playing with Fire ( 2013 ) Pretty Wild ( 2010 ) Scouted ( 2011 -- 12 ) The Spin Crowd ( 2010 ) Stewarts & Hamiltons ( 2015 ) The Wanted Life ( 2013 ) What Would Ryan Lochte Do ? ( 2013 ) What 's Eating You ( 2010 ) Current The Arrangement ( 2017 -- ) Botched ( 2014 -- ) Botched by Nature ( 2016 -- ) The Comment Section ( 2015 -- ) Daily Pop ( 2017 -- ) E ! Investigates ( 2009 -- ) E ! News ( 1991 -- ) E ! True Hollywood Story ( 1996 -- ) EJNYC ( 2016 -- ) Famously Single ( 2016 -- ) Fashion Police ( 2010 -- ) Good Work ( 2015 -- ) Hollywood & Football ( 2016 -- ) Hollywood Cycle ( 2015 -- ) Hollywood Medium With Tyler Henry ( 2016 -- ) House of DVF ( 2014 -- ) Just Jillian ( 2016 -- ) Keeping Up with the Kardashians ( 2007 -- ) L.A. Clippers Dance Squad ( 2016 -- ) Life of Kylie ( 2017 -- ) Live from the Red Carpet ( 2005 -- ) Mariah 's World ( 2016 -- ) New Money ( 2015 -- ) Revenge Body with Khloé Kardashian ( 2017 ) Rich Kids of Beverly Hills ( 2014 -- ) Rob & Chyna ( 2016 -- ) The Royals ( 2015 -- ) So Cosmo ( 2017 ) Sex with Brody ( 2015 -- ) Total Bellas ( 2016 -- ) Total Divas ( 2013 -- ) WAGS ( 2015 -- ) WAGS Atlanta ( 2018 -- ) WAGS Miami ( 2016 -- ) We Have Issues ( 2015 -- ) Teen Choice Awards for Choice TV -- Reality Series TRL ( 2001 ) The Osbournes ( 2002 ) American Idol ( 2003 ) Punk 'd ( 2004 ) American Idol ( 2005 -- 07 ) The Hills ( 2008 -- 09 ) Keeping Up with the Kardashians ( 2010 ) Jersey Shore ( 2011 ) Punk 'd ( 2012 ) Keeping Up with the Kardashians ( 2013 -- 14 ) The Voice ( 2015 ) Keeping Up with the Kardashians ( 2016 ) VIAF : 181623256 LCCN : n2010042669 Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Keeping_Up_with_the_Kardashians&oldid=821709604 '' Categories : Kardashian family Keeping Up with the Kardashians 2007 American television series debuts 2000s American television series 2010s American television series American LGBT - related television shows E ! network shows English - language television programs Kim Kardashian Television series by Bunim / Murray Productions Television series by Ryan Seacrest Productions Television shows set in Los Angeles Hidden categories : Wikipedia pending changes protected pages Good articles Use mdy dates from June 2016 Use American English from June 2016 All Wikipedia articles written in American English Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Talk Contents About Wikipedia Български Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Eesti Español فارسی Français 한국어 Հայերեն Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano עברית Nederlands Norsk Papiamentu Polski Português Русский Simple English Српски / srpski Suomi Svenska Türkçe Tiếng Việt Edit links This page was last edited on 22 January 2018 , at 04 : 22 . 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when does a new school year start in america

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=First_day_of_school&oldid=845311391

First day of school - wikipedia First day of school Students on their first day of school . The first day of school is the first day of an academic year . Some schools start usually the day after labor day some and some can start late July to early August 13 Contents ( hide ) 1 The Americas 1.1 Costa Rica 1.2 United States 2 Asia 2.1 Philippines 2.2 Qatar 2.3 Singapore 3 Europe 3.1 Greece 3.2 Poland 3.3 Russia 3.4 United Kingdom 3.4. 1 England and Wales 3.4. 2 Scotland 4 References The americas ( edit ) Costa Rica ( edit ) The first day of school in Costa Rica is in early February . The Education Ministry changes the date every year to ensure 200 effective days are in the school calendar . United States ( edit ) This section needs additional citations for verification . Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . ( September 2017 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) In the United States , educational policy is determined primarily at the state level and at the level of individual school districts . Therefore , there is no one particular day on which all schools start . The first day of school for many school districts is on the Wednesday after Labor Day ( first Monday in September ) . On that day , public transportation services increase and start the rush hour earlier . In some other school districts , school begins in August and late July . For example , in San Diego Unified School District , San Diego , California , the first school student 's day of 2017 - 18 school year was set to August 28 . Asia ( edit ) Philippines ( edit ) The government school calendar in the Philippines usually begins in June every year . However , private schools have the exception to deviate from the calendar as regulated by Republic Act No. 7797 . Some colleges or universities may start the school year on August . The school year must consist of 200 but not more than 220 days . Qatar ( edit ) The first day of school in Qatar is on September 15 , with some of the Arab World countries . Singapore ( edit ) The school year for all Singapore primary and secondary schools will start from early January and end sometime in November . This takes into account 40 weeks of curriculum time for teaching and learning before the start of the national examinations , and six weeks of school vacation at end of year for teachers and students . Europe ( edit ) Greece ( edit ) The first day of school in Greece is September 11 , or the first Monday following if September 11 is a Saturday or Sunday . Poland ( edit ) According to a 2010 decree of Polish Minister of Public Education , the first day of school for regular compulsory education schools in Poland is on September 1 or the first following Monday if September 1 falls on Friday , Saturday or Sunday . The last day is the last Friday after 18th of June . Previously , according to a similar 2002 decree , the above exception was only for Saturday and Sunday , and the last day was the first Friday after June 18 . See also : Education in Poland Russia ( edit ) Schools in Russia ( and formerly Soviet Union ) historically begin on September 1 . This exact date for the country has been fixed by the Decree of the Council of the People 's Commissars in 1935 and was established officially by the Decree of the Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union No. 3018 - X in 1980 . In 1984 , September 1 was officially declared to be the Knowledge Day . If it falls on Sunday , most schools opt to hold on Sunday a traditional ceremonial line - up , which symbolically commences the school year , and begin actual lessons on Monday . Traditionally students bring flowers to the teachers . United kingdom ( edit ) England and Wales ( edit ) The first day of school for state schools in England and Wales varies by local authority and sometimes by school , but it is nearly always during the first week of September , or occasionally in the second week . Scotland ( edit ) The school term in Scotland begins in mid - to late - August , more than a week earlier than in the rest of the UK . The precise date varies by local authority and sometimes by school . References ( edit ) Jump up ^ `` Calendario Escolar 2012 '' ( PDF ) . Ministerio de Educación Pública . Retrieved 18 June 2012 . Jump up ^ https://www.sandiegounified.org/traditional-academic-calendar ( retrieved September 15 , 2017 ) Jump up ^ http://www.deped.gov.ph/orders/do-25-s-2017 Jump up ^ `` New policy sparks confusion over school start dates in Qatar - Doha News '' . 4 September 2013 . Retrieved 14 August 2016 . Jump up ^ `` School Terms and Holidays '' . Retrieved 14 August 2016 . Jump up ^ `` School Holidays in Athens '' . Angloinfo Athens . Angloinfo . Retrieved 2016 - 06 - 15 . Jump up ^ Dz. U. 2010 nr 186 poz. 1245 Rozporządzenie Ministra Edukacji Narodowej z dnia 5 października 2010 r . zmieniające rozporządzenie w sprawie organizacji roku szkolnego Jump up ^ Dz. U. 2002 nr 46 poz. 432 Rozporządzenie Ministra Edukacji Narodowej i Sportu z dnia 18 kwietnia 2002 r . w sprawie organizacji roku szkolnego Jump up ^ `` День знаний в России : история праздника '' . Retrieved 14 August 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Праздник 1 сентября - День знаний : история и традиции . Значение праздника 1 сентября `` День знаний '' . Женский сайт www.InMoment.ru `` . Retrieved 14 August 2016 . Jump up ^ `` When are the school Christmas holidays and term dates 2016 / 2017 ? '' . The Telegraph : Education . Retrieved 7 September 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Scottish School Term dates '' . Scottish Government website . Retrieved 7 September 2017 . Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=First_day_of_school&oldid=845311391 '' Categories : Education Hidden categories : Articles needing additional references from September 2017 All articles needing additional references Talk Contents About Wikipedia Français 한국어 Bahasa Indonesia 日本 語 Српски / srpski 粵語 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 10 June 2018 , at 23 : 20 . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply . By using this site , you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia ® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation , Inc. , a non-profit organization . About Wikipedia

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what was the purpose of the molasses act

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Molasses_Act&oldid=804844335

Molasses Act - wikipedia Molasses Act Jump to : navigation , search Molasses Act 1733 Parliament of Great Britain Long title An act for the better securing and encouraging the trade of his Majesty 's sugar colonies in America . Citation 6 Geo II . c. 13 Introduced by The Rt Hon . Sir Robert Walpole , KG , KB , MP Territorial extent British America and the British West Indies Dates Royal assent 17 May 1733 Commencement 24 June 1733 ( in part ) 25 December 1733 ( entire act ) Status : Repealed The Molasses Act of March 1733 was an Act of the Parliament of Great Britain ( citation 6 Geo II . c. 13 ) , which imposed a tax of six pence per gallon on imports of molasses from non-English colonies . Parliament created the act largely at the insistence of large plantation owners in the British West Indies . The Act was not passed for the purpose of raising revenue , but rather to regulate trade by making British products cheaper than those from the French West Indies . The Molasses Act greatly affected the significant colonial molasses trade . The Molasses Act of 1733 provided : ... there shall be raised , levied , collected and paid , unto and for the use of his Majesty ... , upon all rum or spirits of the produce or manufacture of any of the colonies or plantations in America , not in the possession or under the dominion of his Majesty ... , which at any time or times within or during the continuance of this act , shall be imported or brought into any of the colonies or plantations in America , which now are or hereafter may be in the possession or under the dominion of his Majesty ... , the sum of nine pence , money of Great Britain , ... for every gallon thereof , and after that rate for any greater or lesser quantity : and upon all molasses or syrups of such foreign produce or manufacture as aforesaid , which shall be imported or brought into any of the said colonies or plantations ... , the sum of six pence of like money for every gallon thereof ... ; and upon all sugars and paneles of such foreign growth , produce or manufacture as aforesaid , which shall be imported into any of the said colonies or plantations ... a duty after the rate of five shillings of like money , for every hundred weight Avoirdupois ... Historian Theodore Draper described British intent on the tax as it would affect the American colonies : Bladen ( Col. Main Bladen who was a longtime member of the British Board of Trade ) had conceived of the strategy of inflicting a prohibitive duty on imports from the French West Indies instead of simply disallowing them . When he was confronted with the argument that the proposed bill would result in the ruin of the North American colonies , he replied , `` that the duties proposed would not prove an absolute prohibition , but he owned that he meant them as something that should come very near it , for in the way the northern colonies are , they raise the French Islands at the expense of ours , and raise themselves also ( to ) o high , even to an independency . '' A large colonial molasses trade had grown between the New England and Middle colonies and the French , Dutch , and Spanish West Indian possessions . Molasses from the British West Indies , used in New England for making rum , was priced much higher than its competitors and they also had no need for the large quantities of lumber , fish , and other items offered by the colonies in exchange . The British West Indies in the first part of the 18th Century were the most important trading partner for Great Britain so Parliament was attentive to their requests . However , rather than acceding to the demands to prohibit the colonies from trading with the non-British islands , Parliament passed the prohibitively high tax on the colonies for the import of molasses from these islands . Historian John C. Miller noted that the tax : ... threatened New England with ruin , struck a blow at the economic foundations of the Middle colonies , and at the same time opened the way for the British West Indians -- whom the continental colonists regarded as their worst enemies -- to wax rich at the expense of their fellow subjects on the mainland . -- John C. Miller , Largely opposed by colonists , the tax was rarely paid , and smuggling to avoid it was prominent . If actually collected , the tax would have effectively closed that source to New England and destroyed much of the rum industry . Yet smuggling , bribery or intimidation of customs officials effectively nullified the law . Miller wrote : Against the Molasses Act , Americans had only their smugglers to depend upon -- but these redoubtable gentry proved more than a match for the British . After a brief effort to enforce the act in Massachusetts in the 1740s , the English government tacitly accepted defeat and foreign molasses was smuggled into the Northern colonies in an ever - increasing quantity . Thus the New England merchants survived -- but only by nullifying an act of Parliament . -- John C. Miller , The growing corruption of local officials and disrespect for British Law caused by this act and others like it such as the Stamp Act or Townshend Acts eventually led to the American Revolution in 1776 . This Act was replaced by the Sugar Act in 1764 . This Act halved the tax rate , but was accompanied by British intent to actually collect the tax this time . Notes ( edit ) Jump up ^ Draper pg. 100 . The quote provided by Draper came from Leo Francis Stock 's Proceedings and Debates of the British Parliaments respecting North America ( 1937 ) vol. 4 . pg. 182 ^ Jump up to : Miller 1943 , pp. 96 - 99 . Jump up ^ Miller 1943 , p. 95 . Jump up ^ Miller 1943 , p. 99 . Jump up ^ Customs Duties , etc . Act 1763 . Acts of the Parliament of Great Britain . 4 Geo . III c. 15 . London : Parliament of Great Britain . Wikisource. 5 April 1764 . `` ... for continuing , amending , and making perpetual , an act passed in the sixth year of the reign of his late majesty King George the Second , ( initituled , An act for the better securing and encouraging the trade of his Majesty 's sugar colonies in America ;) ... '' Bibliography ( edit ) Draper , Theodore ( 1996 ) . A Struggle for Power : The American Revolution . ISBN 0 - 8129 - 2575 - 0 . Middlekauff , Robert ( 2005 ) . The Glorious Cause : The American Revolution , 1763 -- 1789 . ISBN 0 - 19 - 516247 - 1 . Miller , John C. ( 1943 ) . Origins of the American Revolution . Boston : Little , Brown and company . Further reading ( edit ) The text of the act Southwick , Albert B. ( 1951 ) . `` The Molasses Act -- Source of Precedents '' . William and Mary Quarterly . 8 ( 3 ) : 389 -- 405 . JSTOR 1917421 . British law and the American Revolution Royal Proclamations , Acts of Parliament , and other legal issues relating to the American Revolution Before 1763 Navigation Acts Wool Act ( 1699 ) Hat Act ( 1732 ) Molasses Act ( 1733 ) Iron Act ( 1750 ) Grenville ministry ( 1763 -- 1765 ) Royal Proclamation of 1763 Sugar Act ( 1764 ) Currency Act ( 1764 ) Quartering Act ( 1765 ) Stamp Act ( 1765 ) Rockingham ministry ( 1765 -- 1766 ) Repeal Act ( March 1766 ) Declaratory Act ( March 1766 ) Revenue Act ( June 1766 ) Chatham and Grafton ministries ( 1766 -- 1770 ) Townshend Acts ( 1767 ) North ministry ( 1770 -- 1782 ) Repeal Act ( 1770 ) Tea Act ( 1773 ) Coercive Acts ( 1774 ) Conciliatory Resolution ( February 1775 ) Restraining Acts ( March & April 1775 ) Proclamation of Rebellion ( August 1775 ) Prohibitory Act ( December 1775 ) Taxation of Colonies Act ( 1778 ) Other legal issues Rights of Englishmen Writ of assistance Admiralty courts Parson 's Cause ( 1763 ) Taxation without representation United Kingdom legislation Pre-Parliamentary legislation List of English statutes Charter of Liberties Magna Carta Acts of Parliament by states preceding the Kingdom of Great Britain Parliament of England to 1483 1485 -- 1601 1603 -- 1641 Interregnum ( 1642 -- 1660 ) 1660 -- 1699 1700 -- 1706 Parliament of Scotland to 1706 Acts of Parliament of the Kingdom of Great Britain 1707 -- 1719 1720 -- 1739 1740 -- 1759 1760 -- 1779 1780 -- 1800 Acts of the Parliament of Ireland to 1700 1701 -- 1800 Acts of Parliament of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland and the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland 1801 -- 1819 1820 -- 1839 1840 -- 1859 1860 -- 1879 1880 -- 1899 1900 -- 1919 1920 -- 1939 1940 -- 1959 1960 -- 1979 1980 -- 1999 2000 to date Halsbury 's Statutes Legislation.gov.uk Short titles relating to the European Union 1972 to date Church of England measures List Church of England Assembly ( Powers ) Act 1919 Legislation of devolved institutions Acts of the Scottish Parliament List Acts and Measures of the National Assembly for Wales List Acts of the Northern Ireland Assembly Acts of the Parliament of Northern Ireland Orders - in - Council / Orders in Council Orders - in - Council for Northern Ireland ( 1972 - 2009 ) Orders in Council for Northern Ireland Secondary legislation United Kingdom Statutory Instruments various Scottish Statutory Instruments Acts of Sederunt Acts of Adjournal all others Sugar ( as food commodity ) List of sugars and sugar products Chemistry Fructose Galactose Glucose Lactose Maltose Sucrose Trehalose Xylose Monosaccharide Disaccharide Free sugar Reducing sugar Sources Sugar beet Sugarcane Agave nectar Birch Coconut Date Honeydew Maple Palm Products Syrups Candi sugar Cheong Maesil - cheong Mogwa - cheong Yuja - cheong Corn syrup Glucose syrup Golden syrup High - fructose corn syrup High - maltose corn syrup Honey Inverted sugar syrup Kuromitsu Maple syrup Molasses Pine honey Steen 's cane syrup Treacle Solid forms Brown Peen tong Chancaca Crystalline fructose Gelling Gula melaka Jaggery Misri Mizuame Molasses sugar Muscovado Nib Non-centrifugal cane sugar Panela Plantation Reserve Powdered Preserving Rock candy Sucanat Sugar candy Barley sugar Butterscotch Candy Hard Toffee Sugar glass Sugarloaf Wasanbon Other forms Caramel Cotton candy floss Maple sugar foods Rum Sugar alcohol Sugar confectionery Sugarcane juice Tuzemák Unrefined sweeteners Industry Production Boilery Plantation Casa grande Refinery Sugar bush Sugar cane mill Engenho Batey Zafra By region ( current ) Cuba Caribbean Philippines Sri Lanka U.S. Sugar Program By region ( historical ) Danish West Indies Fiji Hawaii History Amelioration Act 1798 Blackbirding Colonial molasses trade Demerara rebellion of 1823 Holing cane Molasses Act Reciprocity Treaty of 1875 Slavery in the British and French Caribbean Sugar Act Sugar Duties Act 1846 Sugar Intervention Taiwan Sugar Railways Triangular trade Culture Crop over Sugar house Sugaring Sugar nips Sugar packet Sucrology Sugar people Sugar tit Sugar sculpture Treacle mine Related Added sugar Australian Aboriginal sweet foods Bagasse Barley malt syrup Brown rice syrup Cane knife Flavored syrup Fruit syrup Date honey Grape Jallab Health effects Nectar Sugar addiction Sugars in wine Residual sugar Sugar substitute Sweetened beverage Sweetener Sweetness Vinasse Yacón syrup Production Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Molasses_Act&oldid=804844335 '' Categories : Great Britain Acts of Parliament 1733 1733 in the Thirteen Colonies Laws leading to the American Revolution History of sugar Talk About Wikipedia Deutsch Español Français 한국어 Polski Suomi 文言 Edit links This page was last edited on 11 October 2017 , at 13 : 49 . 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who are the three judges on american idol 2018

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American Idol - Wikipedia American Idol This is the latest accepted revision , reviewed on 10 April 2018 . Jump to : navigation , search For the current season , see American Idol ( season 16 ) . American Idol Also known as American Idol : The Search for a Superstar ( season 1 ) Genre Reality competition Created by Simon Fuller Directed by Andy Scheer ( 2002 ) Bruce Gowers ( 2003 -- 2006 , 2008 ) Ken Warwick ( 2007 , 2011 -- 2012 ) Bill DeRonde ( 2009 , 2014 -- 2015 ) Gregg Gelfand ( 2010 , 2013 ) Louis J. Horvitz ( 2014 ) Phil Heyes ( 2015 -- 2016 ) Presented by Ryan Seacrest Brian Dunkleman Judges Paula Abdul Simon Cowell Randy Jackson Kara DioGuardi Ellen DeGeneres Jennifer Lopez Steven Tyler Mariah Carey Nicki Minaj Keith Urban Harry Connick Jr . Katy Perry Luke Bryan Lionel Richie Theme music composer Julian Gingell Barry Stone Cathy Dennis Country of origin United States Original language ( s ) English No. of seasons 16 No. of episodes 565 ( list of episodes ) Production Executive producer ( s ) Simon Fuller ( 2002 -- ) Cecile Frot - Coutaz ( 2002 -- ) Simon Jones ( 2002 -- 03 ) Nigel Lythgoe ( 2002 - 08 , 2011 - 13 , 2016 finale ) Ken Warwick ( 2002 - 13 ) Brian Gadinsky ( 2002 ) Charles Boyd ( 2009 - 16 ) Trish Kinane ( 2013 -- ) Jesse Ignjatovic ( 2014 ) Evan Prager ( 2014 ) Per Blankens ( 2015 ) David Hill ( 2015 - 16 ) Megan Wolflick ( 2015 -- ) Jessica Castro ( 2016 ) Jenniffer Mullin ( 2018 -- ) Phil McIntyre ( 2018 -- ) Running time 22 - 104 minutes Production company ( s ) FremantleMedia North America 19 Entertainment Distributor FremantleMedia Enterprises Release Original network Fox ( 2002 -- 2016 ) ABC ( 2018 -- ) Picture format NTSC ( 480i ) ( 2002 -- 04 ) HDTV 720p ( 2005 -- ) Original release June 11 , 2002 ( 2002 - 06 - 11 ) -- present External links Website American Idol is an American singing competition television series created by Simon Fuller , produced by FremantleMedia North America and 19 Entertainment , and distributed by FremantleMedia North America . It initially aired on Fox from June 11 , 2002 to April 7 , 2016 for 15 seasons . On March 11 , 2018 , the 16th season made its debut on ABC . It started as an addition to the Idols format that was based on Pop Idol from British television , and became one of the most successful shows in the history of American television . The concept of the series involves discovering recording stars from unsigned singing talents , with the winner determined by American viewers using phones , Internet , and SMS text voting . The winners of the first fifteen seasons , as chosen by viewers , are Kelly Clarkson , Ruben Studdard , Fantasia , Carrie Underwood , Taylor Hicks , Jordin Sparks , David Cook , Kris Allen , Lee DeWyze , Scotty McCreery , Phillip Phillips , Candice Glover , Caleb Johnson , Nick Fradiani , and Trent Harmon . American Idol employs a panel of vocal judges who critique the contestants ' performances . The original judges , for seasons one through eight , were record producer and music manager Randy Jackson , singer and choreographer Paula Abdul , and music executive and manager Simon Cowell . The judging panel for seasons 13 , 14 , and 15 on Fox consisted of singers Keith Urban , Jennifer Lopez , and Harry Connick , Jr . Season 16 brought three entirely new judges : singers Lionel Richie , Katy Perry , and Luke Bryan . The first season was hosted by radio personality Ryan Seacrest and comedian Brian Dunkleman , but Seacrest remained as the sole master of ceremonies for the rest of the series . The success of American Idol has been described as `` unparalleled in broadcasting history '' . A rival TV executive said the series was `` the most impactful show in the history of television '' . It became a recognized springboard for launching the career of many artists as bona fide stars . According to Billboard magazine , in its first ten years , `` Idol has spawned 345 Billboard chart - toppers and a platoon of pop idols , including Kelly Clarkson , Carrie Underwood , Katharine McPhee , Chris Daughtry , Fantasia , Ruben Studdard , Jennifer Hudson , Clay Aiken , Adam Lambert , and Jordin Sparks while remaining a TV ratings juggernaut . '' For an unprecedented eight consecutive years , from the 2003 -- 04 television season through the 2010 -- 11 season , either its performance show or result show was ranked number one in U.S. television ratings . Contents ( hide ) 1 History 2 Judges and hosts 2.1 Judges 2.2 Hosts 3 Selection process 3.1 Contestant eligibility 3.2 Initial auditions 3.3 Hollywood week and Las Vegas round 3.4 Audience voting 3.5 Semi-finals 3.6 Finals 3.7 Season finale 3.8 Rewards for winner and finalists 4 Series overview and season synopses 4.1 Season 1 4.2 Season 2 4.3 Season 3 4.4 Season 4 4.5 Season 5 4.6 Season 6 4.7 Season 7 4.8 Season 8 4.9 Season 9 4.10 Season 10 4.11 Season 11 4.12 Season 12 4.13 Season 13 4.14 Season 14 4.15 Season 15 4.16 Season 16 : ABC revival 5 Idol Gives Back 6 Reception 6.1 U.S. television ratings 6.2 Critical reception 6.3 Geographical , ethnic , and gender bias 7 Controversy 8 Cultural impact 8.1 Television 8.2 Music 8.3 Film and theater 9 Revenue and commercial ventures 9.1 Advertising revenue 9.2 Media sponsorship 9.3 American Idol tour 9.4 Music releases 9.5 Tie - ins 10 Theme park attraction 11 Other broadcasts 12 Spin - offs 13 See also 14 References 15 External links History ( edit ) American Idol was based on the British show Pop Idol created by Simon Fuller , which was in turn inspired by the New Zealand television singing competition Popstars . Television producer Nigel Lythgoe saw a version in Australia and helped bring it over to Britain . Fuller was inspired by the idea from Popstars of employing a panel of judges to select singers in audition . He then added other elements , including telephone voting by the viewing public ( which at the time was already in use in shows , such as the Eurovision Song Contest ) , the drama of backstories , and real - life soap opera unfolding in real time . Pop Idol debuted in Britain in 2001 with Lythgoe as showrunner ‍ -- ‌the executive producer and production leader‍ -- ‌and Simon Cowell as one of the judges , and was successful with the viewing public . In 2001 , Fuller , Cowell , and TV producer Simon Jones attempted to sell the Pop Idol format to the United States , but the idea was initially met with poor responses from all the television networks including Fox . However , Rupert Murdoch , head of Fox 's parent company , was later persuaded to buy the series by his daughter , Elisabeth , who had seen the British show . Although Fox 's executives wanted to change the format , Murdoch insisted that it should remain the same as the British one . One change was nevertheless made due to the presence of multiple time zones in the United States that made it impractical for the country to vote in the same time period , an additional half - hour results show was therefore added the day following the performance show . The show was renamed American Idol : The Search for a Superstar and debuted in the summer of 2002 . Cowell was initially offered the job of showrunner , but turned down the offer ; Lythgoe then took over that position . Much to the surprise of Cowell and Fox , it became one of the biggest shows of the summer . With its successful launch in the summer , the show was then moved to January and expanded . The show grew into a phenomenon largely due to its personal engagement with the contestants by prompting the viewers to vote , and the presence of the acid - tongued Cowell as a judge . By 2004 , it had become the most - watched show on U.S. television , a position it then held for seven consecutive seasons . However , after a few years of sharp declining ratings starting in 2012 , with rating falls of over 20 % each season , the network announced that the fifteenth season would be its last , ending its run in April 2016 . In May 2017 , ABC acquired the rights to the series and announced that the program would return for the 2017 -- 18 television season . Judges and hosts ( edit ) Judges and host of the current season of American Idol Katy Perry Luke Bryan Lionel Richie Ryan Seacrest Judges ( edit ) The show had originally planned on having four judges following the Pop Idol format ; however , only three judges had been found by the time of the audition round in the first season , namely Randy Jackson , Paula Abdul and Simon Cowell . A fourth judge , radio DJ Stryker , was originally chosen but he dropped out citing `` image concerns '' . In the second season , New York radio personality Angie Martinez had been hired as a fourth judge but withdrew only after a few days of auditions due to not being comfortable with giving out criticism . The show decided to continue with the three judges format until season eight . All three original judges stayed on the judging panel for eight seasons . In season eight , Latin Grammy Award - nominated singer - songwriter and record producer Kara DioGuardi was added as a fourth judge . She stayed for two seasons and left the show before season ten . Paula Abdul left the show before season nine after failing to agree terms with the show producers . Emmy Award - winning talk show host Ellen DeGeneres replaced Paula Abdul for that season , but left after just one season . On January 11 , 2010 , Simon Cowell announced that he was leaving the show to pursue introducing the American version of his show The X Factor to the USA for 2011 . Jennifer Lopez and Steven Tyler joined the judging panel in season ten , but both left after two seasons . They were replaced by three new judges , Mariah Carey , Nicki Minaj and Keith Urban , who joined Randy Jackson in season 12 . However both Carey and Minaj left after one season , and Randy Jackson also announced that he would depart the show after twelve seasons as a judge but would return as a mentor . Urban was the only judge from season 12 to return in season 13 . He was joined by previous judge Jennifer Lopez and former mentor Harry Connick , Jr . Lopez , Urban and Connick , Jr. all returned as judges for the show 's fourteenth and fifteenth seasons . On May 16 , 2017 , it was announced that Katy Perry was the first to be chosen as a judge for the revival series . On September 24 , 2017 , country singer Luke Bryan was announced as the second judge to take the panel . On September 29 , 2017 , it was announced that Lionel Richie would be taking the third and final seat on the judges panel . Guest judges may occasionally be introduced . In season two , guest judges such as Lionel Richie and Robin Gibb were used , and in season three Donna Summer , Quentin Tarantino and some of the mentors also joined as judges to critique the performances in the final rounds . Guest judges were used in the audition rounds for seasons four , six , nine , and fourteen such as Gene Simmons and LL Cool J in season four , Jewel and Olivia Newton - John in season six , Shania Twain in season eight , Neil Patrick Harris , Avril Lavigne and Katy Perry in season nine , and season eight runner - up , Adam Lambert , in season fourteen . ( show ) Judges timeline Hosts ( edit ) The first season was co-hosted by Ryan Seacrest and Brian Dunkleman following the format of Pop Idol of using two presenters . Dunkleman quit thereafter , making Seacrest the sole emcee of the show starting with season two . Dunkleman did , however , return in the initial series finale . Seacrest also returned for Season 16 . Selection process ( edit ) In a series of steps , the show selected the eventual winner out of many tens of thousands of contestants . Contestant eligibility ( edit ) The eligible age - range for contestants was fifteen to twenty - eight years old . The initial age limit was sixteen to twenty - four in the first three seasons , but the upper limit was raised to twenty - eight in season four , and the lower limit was reduced to fifteen in season ten . The contestants had to be legal U.S. residents , could not have advanced to particular stages of the competition in previous seasons , and must not have held a current recording or talent representation contract by the semi-final stage ( in previous years by the audition stage ) . Season nine 's Denver audition , at Invesco Field at Mile High . Initial auditions ( edit ) Contestants went through at least three sets of cuts . The first was a brief audition with a few other contestants in front of selectors which may include one of the show 's producers . Although auditions can exceed 10,000 in each city , only a few hundred of these made it past the preliminary round of auditions . Successful contestants then sang in front of producers , where more may be cut . Only then can they proceed to audition in front of the judges , which is the only audition stage shown on television . Those selected by the judges are sent to Hollywood . Between 10 -- 60 people in each city may make it to Hollywood . Hollywood week and Las Vegas round ( edit ) Once in Hollywood , the contestants performed individually or in groups in a series of rounds . Until season ten , there were usually three rounds of eliminations in Hollywood . In the first round the contestants emerged in groups but performed individually . For the next round , the contestants put themselves in small groups and performed a song together . In the final round , the contestants performed solo with a song of their choice a cappella or accompanied by a band‍ -- ‌depending on the season . In seasons two and three , contestants were also asked to write original lyrics or melody in an additional round after the first round . In season seven , the group round was eliminated and contestants may , after a first solo performance and on judges approval , skip a second solo round and move directly to the final Hollywood round . In season twelve , the executive producers split up the females and males and chose the members to form the groups in the group round . In seasons ten and eleven , a further round was added in Las Vegas , where the contestants performed in groups based on a theme , followed by one final solo round to determine the semi-finalists . At the end of this stage of the competition , 24 to 36 contestants were selected to move on to the semi-final stage . In season twelve the Las Vegas round became a Sudden Death round , where the judges had to choose five guys and five girls each night ( four nights ) to make the top twenty . In season thirteen , the Las Vegas round was eliminated and a new round called `` Hollywood or Home '' was added , where if the judges were uncertain about some contestants , those contestants were required to perform soon after landing in Los Angeles , and those who failed to impress were sent back home before they reached Hollywood . In season fourteen , a Showcase round was added , where the contestants performed at a LA nightclub or auditorium for the judges and a live audience , and these performances determine who makes into the Top 24 . Audience voting ( edit ) From the semi-finals onward , the fate of the contestants was decided by public vote . During the contestant 's performance as well as the recap at the end , a toll - free telephone number for each contestant was displayed on the screen . For a two - hour period after the episode ends ( up to four hours for the finale ) in each US time zone , viewers may call or send a text message to their preferred contestant 's telephone number , and each call or text message was registered as a vote for that contestant . Viewers were allowed to vote as many times as they can within the two - hour voting window . However , the show reserves the right to discard votes by power dialers . One or more of the least popular contestants may be eliminated in successive weeks until a winner emerges . Over 110 million votes were cast in the first season , and by season ten the seasonal total had increased to nearly 750 million . Voting via text messaging was made available in the second season when AT&T Wireless joined as a sponsor of the show , and 7.5 million text messages were sent to American Idol that season . The number of text messages rapidly increased , reaching 178 million texts by season eight . Online voting was offered for the first time in season ten . The votes are counted and verified by Telescope Inc . Semifinals ( edit ) In the first three seasons , the semi-finalists were split into different groups to perform individually in their respective night . In season one , there were three groups of ten , with the top three contestants from each group making the finals . In seasons two and three , there were four groups of eight , and the top two of each selected . These seasons also featured a wildcard round , where contestants who failed to qualify were given another chance . In season one , only one wildcard contestant was chosen by the judges , giving a total of ten finalists . In seasons two and three , each of the three judges championed one contestant with the public advancing a fourth into the finals , making 12 finalists in all . From seasons four to seven and nine , the twenty - four semi-finalists were divided by gender in order to ensure an equal gender division in the top twelve . The men and women sang separately on consecutive nights , and the bottom two in each groups were eliminated each week until only six of each remained to form the top twelve . The wildcard round returned in season eight , wherein there were three groups of twelve , with three contestants moving forward -- the highest male , the highest female , and the next highest - placed singer -- for each night , and four wildcards were chosen by the judges to produce a final 13 . Starting season ten , the girls and boys perform on separate nights . In seasons ten and eleven , five of each gender were chosen , and three wildcards were chosen by the judges to form a final 13 . In season twelve , the top twenty semifinalists were split into gender groups , with five of each gender advancing to form the final 10 . In season thirteen , there were thirty semifinalists , but only twenty semifinalists ( ten for each gender ) were chosen by the judges to perform on the live shows , with five in each gender based on the vote and three wildcards chosen by the judges composing the final 13 . In season fourteen , the top 24 performed at The Fillmore Detroit , starting with the 12 males on one night and then the 12 females on the next night . The following week , the same order went for the top 16 , with four males eliminated , followed by four females based on the vote . Then , on the first night of finals , a similar sequence from the thirteenth season was used to determine the final 12 , with five of each gender based on the vote and two wildcards chosen by the judges . In season fifteen , the top 24 performed at Cathedral of Saint Vibiana in Los Angeles and were split into two groups of twelve and performed twice , one being a solo performance and one being a duet with a former Idol contestant . In each group , the judges chose 7 contestants to advance to the top 14 where the judges chose 4 to advance to the top 10 and remaining 6 contestants were chosen based on the vote . In season sixteen , the show repeated the process of season 15 , however instead of Idol alumnus as duet partners , superstar celebrity singers were used as the duet partners . Finals ( edit ) The finals were broadcast in prime time from CBS Television City in Los Angeles , in front of a live studio audience . The finals lasted eight weeks in season one . From seasons two to nine and fourteen , the finals lasted eleven weeks . Seasons ten and eleven lasted for twelve weeks , while season twelve lasted for ten weeks . In season season thirteen , the finals lasted thirteen weeks . The finals lasted seven weeks in season fifteen . Each finalist performs songs based on a weekly theme which may be a musical genre such as Motown , disco , or big band , songs by artists such as Michael Jackson , Elvis Presley or The Beatles , or more general themes such as Billboard number - one hits or songs from the contestant 's year of birth . Contestants usually worked with a celebrity mentor related to the theme . In season ten , Jimmy Iovine was brought in as a mentor for the season . Initially the contestants sang one song each week , but this was increased to two songs from top four or five onwards , then three songs for the top two or three . The most popular contestants were usually not revealed in the results show . Instead , typically the three contestants ( two in later rounds ) who received the lowest number of votes was called to the center of the stage . One of these three was usually sent to safety ; however the two remaining were not necessarily the bottom two . The contestant with the fewest votes was then revealed and eliminated from the competition . A montage of the eliminated contestant 's time on the show was played and they gave their final performance . However , in season six , during the series ' first ever Idol Gives Back episode , no contestant was eliminated , but on the following week , two were sent home . Moreover , starting in season eight , the judges may overturn viewers ' decision with a `` Judges ' Save '' if they unanimously agreed to . `` The save '' could only be used once , and only up through the top five . In the eighth , ninth , tenth , and fourteenth seasons , a double elimination then took place in the week following the activation of the save , but in the eleventh and thirteenth seasons , a regular single elimination took place . The save was not activated in the twelfth season and consequently , a non-elimination took place in the week after its expiration with the votes then carrying over into the following week . The `` Fan Save '' was introduced in the fourteenth season . During the finals , viewers were given a five - minute window to vote for the contestants in danger of elimination by using their Twitter account to decide which contestant will move on to the next show , starting with the Top 8 . Season finale ( edit ) The finale was the two - hour last episode of the season , culminating in revealing the winner . For seasons one , three through six , fourteen , and fifteen it was broadcast from the Dolby Theatre , which has an audience capacity of approximately 3,400 . The finale for season two took place at the Gibson Amphitheatre , which has an audience capacity of over 6,000 . In seasons seven through thirteen , the venue was at the Nokia Theater , which holds an audience of over 7,000 . Rewards for winner and finalists ( edit ) The winner received a record deal with a major label , which may be for up to six albums , and secures a management contract with American Idol - affiliated 19 Management ( which has the right of first refusal to sign all contestants ) , as well as various lucrative contracts . All winners prior to season nine reportedly earned at least $1 million in their first year as winner . All the runners - up of the first ten seasons , as well as some of other finalists , had also received record deals with major labels . However , starting in season 11 , the runner - up may only be guaranteed a single - only deal . BMG / Sony ( seasons 1 -- 9 ) and UMG ( season 10 -- 15 ) had the right of first refusal to sign contestants for three months after the season 's finale . Starting in the fourteenth season , the winner was signed with Big Machine Records . Prominent music mogul Clive Davis also produced some of the selected contestants ' albums , such as Kelly Clarkson , Clay Aiken , Fantasia Barrino and Diana DeGarmo . All top 10 ( 11 in seasons 10 and 12 ) finalists earn the privilege of going on a tour , where the participants may each earn a six - figure sum . Series overview and season synopses ( edit ) Main article : List of American Idol episodes Each season premiered with the audition round , taking place in different cities . The audition episodes typically feature a mix of potential finalists , interesting characters and woefully inadequate contestants . Each successful contestant received a golden ticket to proceed on to the next round in Hollywood . Based on their performances during the Hollywood round ( Las Vegas round for seasons 10 onward ) , 24 to 36 contestants were selected by the judges to participate in the semifinals . From the semifinals onward the contestants performed their songs live , with the judges making their critiques after each performance . The contestants were voted for by the viewing public , and the outcome of the public votes was then revealed in the results show typically on the following night . The results shows featured group performances by the contestants as well as guest performers . The Top - three results show also featured the homecoming events for the Top 3 finalists . The season reaches its climax in a two - hour results finale show , where the winner of the season was revealed . With the exception of seasons one and two , the contestants in the semifinals onward performed in front of a studio audience . They performed with a full band in the finals . From season four to season nine , and season thirteen onward , the American Idol band was led by Rickey Minor ; from season ten to season twelve , Ray Chew . Assistance may also have been given by vocal coaches and song arrangers , such as Michael Orland and Debra Byrd to contestants behind the scene . Starting with season seven , contestants may perform with a musical instrument from the Hollywood rounds onward . In the first nine seasons , performances were usually aired live on Tuesday nights , followed by the results shows on Wednesdays in the United States and Canada , but moved to Wednesdays and Thursdays in season ten . Season 1 ( edit ) Main article : American Idol ( season 1 ) Kelly Clarkson , season one winner The first season of American Idol debuted as a summer replacement show in June 2002 on the Fox network . It was co-hosted by Ryan Seacrest and Brian Dunkleman . In the audition rounds , 121 contestants were selected from around 10,000 who attended the auditions . These were cut to 30 for the semifinal , with ten going on to the finals . One semifinalist , Delano Cagnolatti , was disqualified for lying to evade the show 's age limit . One of the early favorites , Tamyra Gray , was eliminated at the top four , the first of several such shock eliminations that were to be repeated in later seasons . Christina Christian was hospitalized before the top six result show due to chest pains and palpitations , and she was eliminated while she was in the hospital . Jim Verraros was the first openly gay contestant on the show ; his sexual orientation was revealed in his online journal , however it was removed during the competition after a request from the show producers over concerns that it might be unfairly influencing votes . The final showdown was between Justin Guarini , one of the early favorites , and Kelly Clarkson . Clarkson was not initially thought of as a contender , but impressed the judges with some good performances in the final rounds , such as her performance of Aretha Franklin 's `` Natural Woman '' , and Betty Hutton 's `` Stuff Like That There '' , and eventually won the crown on September 4 , 2002 . In what was to become a tradition , Clarkson performed the coronation song during the finale , and released the song immediately after the season ended . The single , `` A Moment Like This '' , went on to break a 38 - year - old record held by The Beatles for the biggest leap to number one on the Billboard Hot 100 . Guarini did not release any song immediately after the show and remains the only runner - up not to do so . Both Clarkson and Guarini made a musical film , From Justin to Kelly , which was released in 2003 but was widely panned . Clarkson has since become the most successful Idol contestant internationally , with worldwide album sales of more than 23 million . Starting September 30 , 2006 , this season was repackaged as `` American Idol Rewind '' and syndicated directly to stations in the U.S. Season 2 ( edit ) Main article : American Idol ( season 2 ) Ruben Studdard , season two winner Following the success of season one , the second season was moved up to air in January 2003 . The number of episodes increased , as did the show 's budget and the charge for commercial spots . Dunkleman left the show , leaving Seacrest as the lone host . Kristin Adams was a correspondent for this season . Corey Clark was disqualified during the finals for having an undisclosed police record ; however , he later alleged that he and Paula Abdul had an affair while on the show and that this contributed to his expulsion . Clark also claimed that Abdul gave him preferential treatment on the show due to their affair . The allegations were dismissed by Fox after an independent investigation . Two semi-finalists were also disqualified that year -- Jaered Andrews for an arrest on an assault charge , and Frenchie Davis for having previously modelled for an adult website . Ruben Studdard emerged as the winner , beating Clay Aiken by a small margin . Out of a total of 24 million votes , Studdard finished just 134,000 votes ahead of Aiken . This slim margin of victory was controversial due to the large number of calls that failed to get through . In an interview prior to season five , executive producer Nigel Lythgoe indicated that Aiken had led the fan voting from the wildcard week onward until the finale . Both finalists found success after the show , but Aiken out - performed Studdard 's coronation song `` Flying Without Wings '' with his single release from the show `` This Is the Night '' , as well as in their subsequent album releases . The fourth - place finisher Josh Gracin also enjoyed some success as a country singer . Season 3 ( edit ) Main article : American Idol ( season 3 ) Fantasia Barrino , season three winner Season three premiered on January 19 , 2004 . One of the most talked - about contestants during the audition process was William Hung whose off - key rendition of Ricky Martin 's `` She Bangs '' received widespread attention . His exposure on Idol landed him a record deal and surprisingly he became the third best - selling singer from that season . Much media attention on the season had been focused on the three black singers , Fantasia Barrino , LaToya London , and Jennifer Hudson , dubbed the Three Divas . All three unexpectedly landed on the bottom three on the top seven result show , with Hudson controversially eliminated . Elton John , who was one of the mentors that season , called the results of the votes `` incredibly racist '' . The prolonged stays of John Stevens and Jasmine Trias in the finals , despite negative comments from the judges , had aroused resentment , so much so that John Stevens reportedly received a death threat , which he dismissed as a joke ' blown out of proportion ' . The performance of `` Summertime '' by Barrino , later known simply as `` Fantasia '' , at Top 8 was widely praised , and Simon Cowell considered it as his favorite Idol moment in the nine seasons he was on the show . Fantasia and Diana DeGarmo were the last two finalists , and Fantasia was crowned as the winner . Fantasia released as her coronation single `` I Believe '' , a song co-written by season one finalist Tamyra Gray , and DeGarmo released `` Dreams '' . Season 4 ( edit ) Main article : American Idol ( season 4 ) Carrie Underwood , season four winner Season four premiered on January 18 , 2005 ; this was the first season of the series to be aired in high definition , although the finale of season three was also aired in high definition . The number of those attending the auditions by now had increased to over 100,000 from the 10,000 of the first season . The age limit was raised to 28 in this season , and among those who benefited from this new rule were Constantine Maroulis and Bo Bice , the two rockers of the show . The top 12 finalists originally included Mario Vazquez , but he dropped out citing ' personal reasons ' and was replaced by Nikko Smith . Later , an employee of Freemantle Media , which produces the show , sued the company for wrongful termination , claiming that he was dismissed after complaining about lewd behavior by Vazquez toward him during the show . During the top 11 week , due to a mix - up with the contestants ' telephone number , voting was repeated on what was normally the result night , with the result reveal postponed until the following night . In May 2005 , Carrie Underwood was announced the winner , with Bice the runner - up . Both Underwood and Bice released the coronation song `` Inside Your Heaven '' , with Underwood 's version of the song making her the first country artist ever to debut at number - one on the Billboard Hot 100 chart . As of 2015 , Underwood has become the most successful Idol contestant in the U.S. , selling 16 million albums in the country , while selling a total of 65 million records worldwide . Season 5 ( edit ) Main article : American Idol ( season 5 ) Taylor Hicks , season five winner Season five began on January 17 , 2006 . It remains the highest - rated season in the show 's run so far . Two of the more prominent contestants during the Hollywood round were the Brittenum twins who were later disqualified for identity theft . Chris Daughtry 's performance of Fuel 's `` Hemorrhage ( In My Hands ) '' on the show was widely praised and led to an invitation to join the band as Fuel 's new lead singer , an invitation he declined . His performance of Live 's version of `` I Walk the Line '' was well received by the judges but later criticized in some quarters for not crediting the arrangement to Live . He was eliminated at the top four in a shocking result . On May 30 , 2006 , Taylor Hicks was named American Idol , with Katharine McPhee the runner - up . `` Do I Make You Proud '' was released as Hicks ' first single and McPhee 's was `` My Destiny '' . Despite being eliminated earlier in the season , Chris Daughtry ( as lead of the band Daughtry ) became the most successful recording artist from this season . Other contestants , such as Hicks , McPhee , Bucky Covington , Mandisa , Kellie Pickler , and Elliott Yamin have had varying levels of success . Season 6 ( edit ) Main article : American Idol ( season 6 ) Jordin Sparks , season six winner Season six began on Tuesday , January 16 , 2007 . The premiere drew a massive audience of 37.3 million viewers , peaking in the last half hour with more than 41 million viewers . Teenager Sanjaya Malakar was the season 's most talked - about contestant for his unusual hairdo , and for managing to survive elimination for many weeks due in part to the weblog Vote for the Worst and satellite radio personality Howard Stern , who both encouraged fans to vote for him . However , on April 18 , Sanjaya was voted off . This season saw the first Idol Gives Back telethon - inspired event , which raised more than $76 million in corporate and viewer donations . No contestant was eliminated that week , but two ( Phil Stacey and Chris Richardson ) were eliminated the next . Melinda Doolittle was eliminated in the final three . In the May 23 season finale , Jordin Sparks was declared the winner with the runner - up being Blake Lewis . Sparks has had some success as a recording artist post-Idol . This season also saw the launch of the American Idol Songwriter contest which allows fans to vote for the `` coronation song '' . Thousands of recordings of original songs were submitted by songwriters , and 20 entries selected for the public vote . The winning song , `` This Is My Now '' , was performed by both finalists during the finale and released by Sparks on May 24 , 2007 . Season 7 ( edit ) Main article : American Idol ( season 7 ) David Cook , season seven winner Season seven premiered on January 15 , 2008 , for a two - day , four - hour premiere . The media focused on the professional status of the season seven contestants , the so - called ' ringers ' , many of whom , including Kristy Lee Cook , Brooke White , Michael Johns , and in particular Carly Smithson , had prior recording contracts . Contestant David Hernandez also attracted some attention due to his past employment as a stripper . For the finals , American Idol debuted a new state - of - the - art set and stage on March 11 , 2008 , along with a new on - air look . David Cook 's performance of `` Billie Jean '' on top - ten night was lauded by the judges , but provoked controversy when they apparently mistook the Chris Cornell arrangement to be David Cook 's own even though the performance was introduced as Cornell 's version . Cornell himself said he was ' flattered ' and praised David Cook 's performance . David Cook was taken to the hospital after the top - nine performance show due to heart palpitations and high blood pressure . David Archuleta 's performance of John Lennon 's `` Imagine '' was considered by many as one of the best of the season . Jennifer Lopez , who was brought in as a judge in season ten , called it a beautiful song - moment that she will never forget . Jason Castro 's semi-final performance of `` Hallelujah '' also received considerable attention , and it propelled Jeff Buckley 's version of the song to the top of the Billboard digital song chart . This was the first season in which contestants ' recordings were released onto iTunes after their performances , and although sales information was not released so as not to prejudice the contest , leaked information indicated that contestants ' songs frequently reached the top of iTunes sales charts . Idol Gives Back returned on April 9 , 2008 , and raised $64 million for charity . The finalists were Cook and Archuleta . David Cook was announced the winner on May 21 , 2008 , the first rocker to win the show . Both Cook and Archuleta had some success as recording artists with both selling over a million albums in the U.S. The American Idol Songwriter contest was also held this season . From ten of the most popular submissions , each of the final two contestants chose a song to perform , although neither of their selections was used as the `` coronation song '' . The winning song , `` The Time of My Life '' , was recorded by David Cook and released on May 22 , 2008 . Season 8 ( edit ) Main article : American Idol ( season 8 ) Kris Allen , season eight winner Season eight premiered on January 13 , 2009 . Mike Darnell , the president of alternative programming for Fox , stated that the season would focus more on the contestants ' personal life . In the first major change to the judging panel , a fourth judge , Kara DioGuardi , was introduced . This was also the first season without executive producer Nigel Lythgoe who left to focus on the international versions of his show So You Think You Can Dance . The Hollywood round was moved to the Kodak Theatre for 2009 and was also extended to two weeks . Idol Gives Back was canceled for this season due to the global recession at the time . There were 13 finalists this season , but two were eliminated in the first result show of the finals . A new feature introduced was the `` Judges ' Save '' , and Matt Giraud was saved from elimination at the top seven by the judges when he received the fewest votes . The next week , Lil Rounds and Anoop Desai were eliminated . The two finalists were Kris Allen and Adam Lambert , both of whom had previously landed in the bottom three at the top five . Allen won the contest in the most controversial voting result since season two . It was claimed , and then later retracted , that 38 million of the 100 million votes cast on the night came from Allen 's home state of Arkansas alone , and that AT&T employees unfairly influenced the votes by giving lessons on power - texting at viewing parties in Arkansas . Both Allen and Lambert released the coronation song , `` No Boundaries '' which was co-written by DioGuardi . This is the first season in which the winner failed to achieve gold album status . Season 9 ( edit ) Main article : American Idol ( season 9 ) Lee DeWyze , season nine winner Season nine premiered on January 12 , 2010 . The upheaval at the judging panel continued . Ellen DeGeneres joined as a judge to replace Paula Abdul at the start of Hollywood Week . One of the most prominent auditioners this season was General Larry Platt whose performance of `` Pants on the Ground '' became a viral hit song . Crystal Bowersox , who has Type - I diabetes , fell ill due to diabetic ketoacidosis on the morning of the girls performance night for the top 20 week and was hospitalized . The schedule was rearranged so the boys performed first and she could perform the following night instead ; she later revealed that Ken Warwick , the show producer , wanted to disqualify her but she begged to be allowed to stay on the show . Michael Lynche was the lowest vote getter at top nine and was given the Judges ' Save . The next week Katie Stevens and Andrew Garcia were eliminated . That week , Adam Lambert was invited back to be a mentor , the first Idol alum to do so . Idol Gives Back returned this season on April 21 , 2010 , and raised $45 million . A special tribute to Simon Cowell was presented in the finale for his final season with the show . Many figures from the show 's past , including Paula Abdul , made an appearance . The final two contestants were Lee DeWyze and Bowersox . DeWyze was declared the winner during the May 26 finale . No new song was used as coronation song this year ; instead , the two finalists each released a cover song -- DeWyze chose U2 's `` Beautiful Day '' , and Bowersox chose Patty Griffin 's `` Up to the Mountain '' . This is the first season where neither finalist achieved significant album sales . Season 10 ( edit ) Main article : American Idol ( season 10 ) Scotty McCreery , season ten winner Season ten of the series premiered on January 19 , 2011 . Many changes were introduced this season , from the format to the personnel of the show . Jennifer Lopez and Steven Tyler joined Randy Jackson as judges following the departures of Simon Cowell ( who left to launch the U.S. version of The X Factor ) , Kara DioGuardi ( whose contract was not renewed ) and Ellen DeGeneres , while Nigel Lythgoe returned as executive producer . Jimmy Iovine , chairman of the Interscope Geffen A&M label group , the new partner of American Idol , acted as the in - house mentor in place of weekly guest mentors , although in later episodes special guest mentors such as Beyoncé , will.i.am and Lady Gaga were brought in . Season ten is the first to include online auditions where contestants could submit a 40 - second video audition via Myspace . Karen Rodriguez was one such auditioner and reached the final rounds . One of the more prominent contestants this year was Chris Medina , whose story of caring for his brain - damaged fiancée received widespread coverage . Medina was cut in the Top 40 round . Casey Abrams , who suffers from ulcerative colitis , was hospitalized twice and missed the Top 13 result show . The judges used their one save on Abrams on the Top 11 , and as a result this was the first season that 11 finalists went on tour instead of 10 . In the following week , Naima Adedapo and Thia Megia were both eliminated the following week . Pia Toscano , one of the presumed favorites to advance far in the season , was unexpectedly eliminated on April 7 , 2011 , finishing in ninth place . Her elimination drew criticisms from some former Idol contestants , as well as actor Tom Hanks . The two finalists in 2011 were Lauren Alaina and Scotty McCreery , both teenage country singers . McCreery won the competition on May 25 , being the youngest male winner and the fourth male in a row to win American Idol . McCreery released his first single , `` I Love You This Big '' , as his coronation song , and Alaina released `` Like My Mother Does '' . McCreery 's debut album , Clear as Day , became the first debut album by an Idol winner to reach No. 1 on the US Billboard 200 since Ruben Studdard 's Soulful in 2003 , and he became the youngest male artist to reach No. 1 on the Billboard 200 . Season 11 ( edit ) Main article : American Idol ( season 11 ) Phillip Phillips , season eleven winner Season 11 premiered on January 18 , 2012 . On February 23 , it was announced that one more finalist would join the Top 24 making it the Top 25 , and that was Jermaine Jones . However , on March 14 , Jones was disqualified in 12th place for concealing arrests and outstanding warrants . Jones denied the accusation that he concealed his arrests . Finalist Phillip Phillips suffered from kidney pain and was taken to the hospital before the Top 13 results show , and later received medical procedure to alleviate a blockage caused by kidney stones . He was reported to have eight surgeries during his Idol run , and had considered quitting the show due to the pain . He underwent surgery to remove the stones and reconstruct his kidney soon after the season had finished . Jessica Sanchez received the fewest number of votes during the Top 7 week , and the judges decided to use their `` save '' option on her , making her the first female recipient of the save . The following week , unlike previous seasons , Colton Dixon was the only contestant sent home . Sanchez later made the final two , the first season where a recipient of the save reached the finale . Phillips became the winner , beating Sanchez . Prior to the announcement of the winner , season five finalist Ace Young proposed marriage to season three runner - up Diana DeGarmo on stage -- which she accepted . Phillips released `` Home '' as his coronation song , while Sanchez released `` Change Nothing '' . Phillips ' `` Home '' has since become the best selling of all coronation songs . Season 12 ( edit ) Main article : American Idol ( season 12 ) Candice Glover , season twelve winner Season 12 premiered on January 16 , 2013 . Judges Jennifer Lopez and Steven Tyler left the show after two seasons . This season 's judging panel consisted of Randy Jackson , along with Mariah Carey , Keith Urban and Nicki Minaj . This was the first season since season nine to have four judges on the panel . The pre-season buzz and the early episodes of the show were dominated by the feud between the judges Minaj and Carey after a video of their dispute was leaked to TMZ . The top 10 contestants started with five males and five females , however , the males were eliminated consecutively in the first five weeks , with Lazaro Arbos the last male to be eliminated . For the first time in the show 's history , the top 5 contestants were all female . It was also the first time that the judges ' `` save '' was not used , the top four contestants were therefore given an extra week to perform again with their votes carried over with no elimination in the first week . 23 - year - old Candice Glover won the season with Kree Harrison taking the runner - up spot . Glover is the first female to win American Idol since Jordin Sparks . Glover released `` I Am Beautiful '' as a single while Harrison released `` All Cried Out '' immediately after the show . Glover sold poorly with her debut album , and this is also the first season that the runner - up was not signed by a music label . Towards the end of the season , Randy Jackson , the last remaining of the original judges , announced that he would no longer serve as a judge to pursue other business ventures . Both judges Mariah Carey and Nicki Minaj also decided to leave after one season to focus on their music careers . Season 13 ( edit ) Main article : American Idol ( season 13 ) The thirteenth season premiered on January 15 , 2014 . Randy Jackson and Keith Urban returned , though Jackson moved from the judging panel to the role of in - mentor . Mariah Carey and Nicki Minaj left the panel after one season . Former judge Jennifer Lopez and former mentor Harry Connick , Jr. joined Urban on the panel . Also , Nigel Lythgoe and Ken Warwick were replaced as executive producers by Per Blankens , Jesse Ignjatovic and Evan Pragger . Bill DeRonde replaced Warwick as a director of the audition episodes , while Louis J. Horvitz replaced Gregg Gelfand as a director of the show . This was the first season where the contestants were permitted to perform in the final rounds songs they wrote themselves . In the Top 8 , Sam Woolf received the fewest votes , but he was saved from elimination by the judges . The 500th episode of the series was the Top 3 performance night . Caleb Johnson was named the winner of the season , with Jena Irene as the runner - up . Johnson released `` As Long as You Love Me '' as his coronation single while Irene released `` We Are One '' . Season 14 ( edit ) Main article : American Idol ( season 14 ) Nick Fradiani , season fourteen winner The fourteenth season premiered on January 7 , 2015 . Jennifer Lopez , Keith Urban and Harry Connick , Jr. returned for their respective fourth , third and second seasons as judges . Eighth season runner - up Adam Lambert filled in for Urban during the New York City auditions . Randy Jackson did not return as the in - house mentor for this season . Changes this season include only airing one episode a week during the final ten . Coca - Cola ended their longtime sponsorship of the show and Ford Motor Company maintained a reduced role . The winner of the season also received a recording contract with Big Machine Records . Nick Fradiani won the season , defeating Clark Beckham . By winning , Fradiani became the first winner from the Northeast region . Fradiani released `` Beautiful Life '' as his coronation single while Beckham released `` Champion '' . Jax , the third place finalist , also released a single called `` Forcefield '' . Season 15 ( edit ) Main article : American Idol ( season 15 ) Fox announced on May 11 , 2015 that the fifteenth season would be the final season of American Idol ; as such , the season was expected to have an additional focus on the program 's alumni . Ryan Seacrest returned as host , with Harry Connick Jr. , Keith Urban , and Jennifer Lopez all returning as judges . The season was shortened by four weeks compared to previous years . During the finale episode , President Barack Obama praised the millions of young people that voted for contestants and pitched that they vote in the upcoming election . The farewell season concluded on April 7 , 2016 . Seacrest signed off by saying : `` And one more time -- this is so tough -- we say to you from Hollywood , goodnight America '' , and then he added , `` for now . '' Trent Harmon won the season against runner - up La'Porsha Renae . Harmon released `` Falling '' co-written by Keith Urban as his coronation song . Renae 's `` Battles '' , third - place finisher Dalton Rapattoni 's `` Strike A Match '' and fourth - place finisher MacKenzie Bourg 's `` Roses '' were also released as singles . Season 16 : ABC revival ( edit ) Main article : American Idol ( season 16 ) In early 2017 , Variety reported that Fremantle Media was in talks to revive the show for NBC or for its original network , Fox . A dispute between Fremantle and Core Media Group derailed these plans . Then , in May 2017 , it was announced that ABC was making a bid to revive the program . Later , ABC announced that it had acquired the rights to the series , and that American Idol would return for the 2017 -- 18 television season . On May 16 , Katy Perry was the first judge to be announced by ABC . On July 20 , 2017 , it was announced on Live with Kelly and Ryan , that Ryan Seacrest would be returning as the host for the revival season . On September 24 , 2017 , Luke Bryan was the second judge to be announced for the revival season . On September 29 , 2017 , Lionel Richie was the third and final judge to be announced . On November 6 , 2017 , it was announced that the revival season would premiere on March 11 , 2018 . Idol Gives Back ( edit ) Main article : Idol Gives Back Idol Gives Back was a special charity event started in season six featuring performances by celebrities and various fund - raising initiatives . This event was also held in seasons seven and nine and has raised nearly $185 million in total . Reception ( edit ) U.S. television ratings ( edit ) Seasonal rankings ( based on average total viewers per episode ) of American Idol . It holds the distinction of having the longest winning streak in the Nielsen annual television ratings ; it became the highest - rated of all television programs in the United States overall for an unprecedented seven consecutive years , or eight consecutive ( and total ) years when either its performance or result show was ranked number one overall . Each U.S. network television season starts in late September and ends in late May , which coincides with the completion of May sweeps . Network Season Premiered Ended TV season Timeslot ( ET ) Season viewers Season ranking Date Viewers ( in millions ) Date Viewers ( in millions ) Fox June 11 , 2002 9.85 Final Performances : September 3 , 2002 18.69 2002 Tuesday 9 : 00 pm ( performance ) 12.07 30 Season Finale : September 4 , 2002 23.02 Wednesday 9 : 30 pm ( results ) 11.75 25 January 21 , 2003 26.50 Final Performances : May 20 , 2003 25.67 2002 -- 03 Tuesday 8 : 00 pm ( performance ) 21.03 Season Finale : May 21 , 2003 38.06 Wednesday 8 : 30 pm ( results ) 19.63 7 January 19 , 2004 28.96 Final Performances : May 25 , 2004 25.13 2003 -- 04 Tuesday 8 : 00 pm ( performance ) 25.73 Season Finale : May 26 , 2004 28.84 Wednesday 8 : 30 pm ( results ) 24.31 January 18 , 2005 33.58 Final Performances : May 24 , 2005 28.05 2004 -- 05 Tuesday 8 : 00 pm ( performance ) 27.32 Season Finale : May 25 , 2005 30.27 Wednesday 8 : 00 pm ( results ) 26.07 5 January 17 , 2006 35.53 Final Performances : May 23 , 2006 31.78 2005 -- 06 Tuesday 8 : 00 pm ( performance ) 31.17 Season Finale : May 24 , 2006 36.38 Wednesday 8 : 00 pm ( results ) 30.16 6 January 16 , 2007 37.44 Final Performances : May 22 , 2007 25.33 2006 -- 07 Tuesday 8 : 00 pm ( performance ) 30.11 Season Finale : May 23 , 2007 30.76 Wednesday 8 : 00 pm ( results ) 30.58 7 January 15 , 2008 33.48 Final Performances : May 20 , 2008 27.06 2007 -- 08 Tuesday 8 : 00 pm ( performance ) 28.80 Season Finale : May 21 , 2008 31.66 Wednesday 8 : 00 pm ( results ) 27.81 8 January 13 , 2009 30.45 Final Performances : May 19 , 2009 23.82 2008 -- 09 Tuesday 8 : 00 pm ( performance ) 26.25 Season Finale : May 20 , 2009 28.84 Wednesday 8 : 00 pm ( results ) 26.77 9 January 12 , 2010 29.95 Final Performances : May 25 , 2010 20.07 2009 -- 10 Tuesday 8 : 00 pm ( performance ) 22.97 Season Finale : May 26 , 2010 24.22 Wednesday 8 : 00 pm ( results ) 21.95 10 January 19 , 2011 26.23 Final Performances : May 24 , 2011 ( Tues ) 20.57 2010 -- 11 Wednesday 8 : 00 pm ( performance ) 25.97 Season Finale : May 25 , 2011 ( Wed ) 29.29 Thursday 8 : 00 pm ( results ) 23.87 11 January 18 , 2012 21.93 Final Performances : May 22 , 2012 ( Tues ) 14.85 2011 -- 12 Wednesday 8 : 00 pm ( performance ) 19.81 Season Finale : May 23 , 2012 ( Wed ) 21.49 Thursday 8 : 00 pm ( results ) 18.33 12 January 16 , 2013 17.93 Final Performances : May 15 , 2013 12.11 2012 -- 13 Wednesday 8 : 00 pm ( performance ) 15.04 7 Season Finale : May 16 , 2013 14.31 Thursday 8 : 00 pm ( results ) 14.65 9 13 January 15 , 2014 15.19 Final Performances : May 20 , 2014 ( Tues ) 6.76 2013 -- 14 Wednesday 8 : 00 pm ( performance ) 11.94 17 Season Finale : May 21 , 2014 ( Wed ) 10.53 Thursday 8 : 00 pm ( results ) 11.43 22 14 January 7 , 2015 11.20 Final Performances : May 12 , 2015 ( Tues ) 5.55 2014 -- 15 Wednesday 8 : 00 pm 10.31 41 Season Finale : May 13 , 2015 ( Wed ) 8.03 Thursday 8 : 00 pm ( until March 12 ) 11.55 28 15 January 6 , 2016 10.96 Final Performances : April 6 , 2016 9.70 2015 -- 16 Wednesday 8 : 00 pm ( until February 24 ) 11.52 19 Season Finale : April 7 , 2016 13.30 Thursday 8 : 00 pm 11.13 23 ABC 16 March 11 , 2018 10.48 Final Performances : TBA N / A 2017 -- 18 Sunday 8 : 00 pm Season Finale : TBA N / A Monday 8 : 00 pm ( until April 23 ) American Idol premiered in June 2002 and became the surprise summer hit show of 2002 . The first show drew 9.9 million viewers , giving Fox the best viewing figure for the 8.30 pm spot in over a year . The audience steadily grew , and by finale night , the audience had averaged 23 million , with more than 40 million watching some part of that show . That episode was placed third amongst all age groups , but more importantly it led in the in 18 -- 49 demographic , the age group most valued by advertisers . The growth continued into the next season , starting with a season premiere of 26.5 million . The season attracted an average of 21.7 million viewers , and was placed second overall amongst the 18 -- 49 age group . The finale night when Ruben Studdard won over Clay Aiken was also the highest - rated ever American Idol episode at 38.1 million for the final hour . By season three , the show had become the top show in the 18 -- 49 demographic a position it has held for all subsequent years up to and including season ten , and its competition stages ranked first in the nationwide overall ratings . By season four , American Idol had become the most watched series amongst all viewers on American TV for the first time , with an average viewership of 26.8 million . The show reached its peak in season five with numbers averaging 30.6 million per episode , and season five remains the highest - rated season of the series . Season six premiered with the series ' highest - rated debut episode and a few of its succeeding episodes rank among the most watched episodes of American Idol . During this time , many television executives begun to regard the show as a programming force unlike any seen before , as its consistent dominance of up to two hours two or three nights a week exceeded the 30 - or 60 - minute reach of previous hits such as NBC 's The Cosby Show . The show was dubbed `` the Death Star '' , and competing networks often rearranged their schedules in order to minimize losses . However , season six also showed a steady decline in viewership over the course of the season . The season finale saw a drop in ratings of 16 % from the previous year . Season six was the first season wherein the average results show rated higher than the competition stages ( unlike in the previous seasons ) , and became the second - highest - rated of the series after the preceding season . The loss of viewers continued into season seven . The premiere was down 11 % among total viewers , and the results show in which Kristy Lee Cook was eliminated delivered its lowest - rated Wednesday show among the 18 -- 34 demo since the first season in 2002 . However , the ratings rebounded for the season seven finale with the excitement over the battle of the Davids , and improved over season six as the series ' third most watched finale . The strong finish of season seven also helped Fox become the most watched TV network in the country for the first time since its inception , a first ever in American television history for a non-Big Three major broadcast network . Overall ratings for the season were down 10 % from season six , which is in line with the fall in viewership across all networks due in part to the 2007 -- 2008 Writers Guild of America strike . The declining trend however continued into season eight , as total viewers numbers fell by 5 -- 10 % for early episodes compared to season seven , and by 9 % for the finale . In season nine , Idol 's six - year extended streak of perfection in the ratings was broken , when NBC 's coverage of the 2010 Winter Olympics on February 17 beat Idol in the same time slot with 30.1 million viewers over Idol 's 18.4 million . Nevertheless , American Idol overall finished its ninth season as the most watched TV series for the sixth year running , breaking the previous record of five consecutive seasons achieved by CBS ' All in the Family and NBC 's The Cosby Show . In season ten , the total viewer numbers for the first week of shows fell 12 -- 13 % , and by up to 23 % in the 18 -- 49 demo compared to season nine . Later episodes , however , retained viewers better , and the season ended on a high with a significant increase in viewership for the finale -- up 12 % for the adults 18 -- 49 demo and a 21 % increase in total viewers from the season nine finale . While the overall viewer number has increased this season , its viewer demographics have continued to age year on year -- the median age this season was 47.2 compared to a median age of 32.1 in its first season . The demographics also became `` whiter '' over time and less diverse . Nevertheless , in the 2010 -- 11 television season , Fox maintained its lead on over other networks with its seventh consecutive season of victory overall in the 18 -- 49 demographic ratings in the United States . Season eleven , however , suffered a steep drop in ratings , a drop attributed by some to the arrival of new shows such as The Voice and The X-Factor . The ratings for the first two episodes of season eleven fell 16 -- 21 % in overall viewer numbers and 24 -- 27 % in the 18 / 49 demo , while the season finale fell 27 % in total viewer number and 30 % in the 18 -- 49 demo . The average viewership for the season fell below 20 million viewers the first time since 2003 , a drop of 23 % in total viewers and 30 % in the 18 / 49 demo . For the first time in eight years , American Idol lost the leading position in both the total viewers number and the 18 / 49 demo , coming in second to NBC Sunday Night Football , although the strengths of Idol in its second year in the Wednesday - Thursday primetime slots helped Fox achieve the longest period of 18 -- 49 demographic victory in the Nielsen ratings , standing at 8 straight years from 2004 to 2012 . The loss of viewers continued into season 12 , which saw the show hitting a number of series low in the 18 -- 49 demo . The finale had 7.2 million fewer viewers than the previous season , and saw a drop of 44 % in the 18 -- 49 demo . The season viewers averaged at 13.3 million , a drop of 24 % from the previous season . The thirteenth season suffered a huge decline in the 18 -- 49 demographic , a drop of 28 % from the twelfth season , and American Idol lost its Top 10 position in the Nielsen ratings by the end of the 2013 -- 14 television season for the first time since its entry to the rankings in 2003 as a result , and never regained its Top 10 position by the series ' end in 2016 . The continuing decline influenced further changes for season 14 , including the loss of Coca - Cola as the show 's major sponsor , and a decision to only broadcast one , two - hour show per week during the top 12 rounds ( with results from the previous week integrated into the performance show , rather than having a separate results show ) . On May 11 , 2015 , prior to the fourteenth - season finale , Fox announced that the fifteenth season of American Idol would be its last . Despite these changes , the show 's ratings would decline more sharply . The fourteenth - season finale was the lowest - rated finale ever , with an average of only 8.03 million viewers watching the finale . The show 's ratings , however , rebounded in its final season , and ended its run in 2016 as Fox 's first ever program to conclude its run without dropping from the Nielsen Top 30 most watched television shows in each of its seasons . Critical reception ( edit ) Early reviews were mixed in their assessment . Ken Tucker of Entertainment Weekly considered that `` As TV , American Idol is crazily entertaining ; as music , it 's dust - mote inconsequential '' . Others , however , thought that `` the most striking aspect of the series was the genuine talent it revealed '' . It was also described as a `` sadistic musical bake - off '' , and `` a romp in humiliation '' . Other aspects of the show have attracted criticisms . The product placement in the show in particular was noted , and some critics were harsh about what they perceived as its blatant commercial calculations -- Karla Peterson of The San Diego Union - Tribune charged that American Idol is `` a conniving multimedia monster '' that has `` absorbed the sin of our debauched culture and spit them out in a lump of reconstituted evil '' . The decision to send the season one winner to sing the national anthem at the Lincoln Memorial on the first anniversary of the September 11 attacks in 2002 was also poorly received by many . Lisa de Moraes of The Washington Post noted sarcastically that `` The terrorists have won '' and , with a sideswipe at the show 's commercialism and voting process , that the decision as to who `` gets to turn this important site into just another cog in the ' Great American Idol Marketing Mandala ' is in the hands of the millions of girls who have made American Idol a hit . Them and a handful of phone - redialer geeks who have been clocking up to 10,000 calls each week for their contestant of choice ( but who , according to Fox , are in absolutely no way skewing the outcome ) . '' Some of the later writers about the show were more positive , Michael Slezak , again of Entertainment Weekly , thought that `` for all its bloated , synthetic , product - shilling , money - making trappings , Idol provides a once - a-year chance for the average American to combat the evils of today 's music business . '' Singer Sheryl Crow , who was later to act as a mentor on the show , however took the view that the show `` undermines art in every way and promotes commercialism '' . Pop music critic Ann Powers nevertheless suggested that Idol has `` reshaped the American songbook '' , `` led us toward a new way of viewing ourselves in relationship to mainstream popular culture '' , and connects `` the classic Hollywood dream to the multicentered popular culture of the future . '' Others focused on the personalities in the show ; Ramin Setoodeh of Newsweek accused judge Simon Cowell 's cruel critiques in the show of helping to establish in the wider world a culture of meanness , that `` Simon Cowell has dragged the rest of us in the mud with him . '' Some such as singer John Mayer disparaged the contestants , suggesting that those who appeared on Idol are not real artists with self - respect . Some in the entertainment industry were critical of the star - making aspect of the show . Usher , a mentor on the show , bemoaning the loss of the `` true art form of music '' , thought that shows like American Idol made it seem `` so easy that everyone can do it , and that it can happen overnight '' , and that `` television is a lie '' . Musician Michael Feinstein , while acknowledging that the show had uncovered promising performers , said that American Idol `` is n't really about music . It 's about all the bad aspects of the music business -- the arrogance of commerce , this sense of ' I know what will make this person a star ; artists themselves do n't know . ' '' That American Idol is seen to be a fast track to success for its contestants has been a cause of resentment for some in the industry . LeAnn Rimes , commenting on Carrie Underwood winning Best Female Artist in Country Music Awards over Faith Hill in 2006 , said that `` Carrie has not paid her dues long enough to fully deserve that award '' . It is a common theme that has been echoed by many others . Elton John , who had appeared as a mentor in the show but turned down an offer to be a judge on American Idol , commenting on talent shows in general , said that `` there have been some good acts but the only way to sustain a career is to pay your dues in small clubs '' . The success of the show 's alumni , however , has led to a more positive assessment of the show , and the show was described as having `` proven it has a valid way to pick talent and a proven way to sell records '' . While the industry is divided on the show success , its impact is felt particularly strongly in the country music format . According to a CMT exec , reflecting on the success of Idol alumni in the country genre , `` if you want to try and get famous fast by going to a cattle call audition on TV , Idol reasonably remains the first choice for anyone '' , and that country music and Idol `` go together well '' . American Idol was nominated for the Emmy 's Outstanding Reality Competition Program for nine years but never won . Director Bruce Gower won a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Directing For A Variety , Music Or Comedy Series in 2009 , and the show won a Creative Arts Emmys each in 2007 and 2008 , three in 2009 , and two in 2011 , as well as a Governor 's Award in 2007 for its Idol Gives Back edition . It won the People 's Choice Award , which honors the popular culture of the previous year as voted by the public , for favorite competition / reality show in 2005 , 2006 , 2007 , 2010 , 2011 and 2012 . It won the first Critics ' Choice Television Award in 2011 for Best Reality Competition . In 2013 , TV Guide ranked the series No. 48 on its list of the 60 Best Series of All Time . Geographical , ethnic , and gender bias ( edit ) Throughout the series , eleven of the fifteen Idol winners , including its first five , had come from the Southern United States . A large number of other finalists during the series ' run have also hailed from the American South , including Clay Aiken , Kellie Pickler , and Chris Daughtry , who are all from North Carolina . In 2012 , an analysis of the 131 contestants who have appeared in the finals of all seasons of the show up to that point found that 48 % have some connection to the Southern United States . The show itself was popular in the Southern United States , with households in the Southeastern United States 10 % more likely to watch American Idol during the eighth season in 2009 , and those in the East Central region , such as Kentucky , were 16 percent more likely to tune into the series . Data from Nielsen SoundScan , a music - sales tracking service , showed that of the 47 million CDs sold by Idol contestants through January 2010 , 85 percent were by contestants with ties to the American South . Theories given for the success of Southerners on Idol have been : more versatility with musical genres , as the Southern U.S. is home to several music genre scenes ; not having as many opportunities to break into the pop music business ; text - voting due to the South having the highest percentage of cell - phone only households ; and the strong heritage of music and singing , which is notable in the Bible Belt , where it is in church that many people get their start in public singing . Others also suggest that the Southern character of these contestants appeal to the South , as well as local pride . According to season five winner Taylor Hicks , who is from the state of Alabama , `` People in the South have a lot of pride ... So , they 're adamant about supporting the contestants who do well from their state or region . '' For five consecutive seasons , starting in season seven , the title was given to a white male who plays the guitar -- a trend that Idol pundits call the `` White guy with guitar '' or `` WGWG '' factor . Just hours before the season eleven finale , where Phillip Phillips was named the winner , Richard Rushfield , author of the book American Idol : The Untold Story , said , `` You have this alliance between young girls and grandmas and they see it , not necessarily as a contest to create a pop star competing on the contemporary radio , but as ... who 's the nicest guy in a popularity contest '' , he says , `` And that has led to this dynasty of four , and possibly now five , consecutive , affable , very nice , good - looking white boys . '' Controversy ( edit ) Main article : American Idol controversies The show had been criticized in earlier seasons over the onerous contract contestants had to sign that gave excessive control to 19 Entertainment over their future career , and handed a large part of their future earnings to the management . Individual contestants have generated controversy in this competition for their past actions , or for being ' ringers ' planted by the producers . A number of contestants had been disqualified for various reasons , such as for having an existing contract or undisclosed criminal records , although the show had been accused of double standard for disqualifying some but not others . Voting results have been a consistent source of controversy . The mechanism of voting had also aroused considerable criticisms , most notably in season two when Ruben Studdard beat Clay Aiken in a close vote , and in season eight , when the massive increase in text votes fueled the texting controversy . Concerns about power voting have been expressed from the very first season . Since 2004 , votes also have been affected to a limited degree by online communities such as DialIdol , and Vote for the Worst . Cultural impact ( edit ) Television ( edit ) The enormous success of the show and the revenue it generated was transformative for the Fox Broadcasting Company . American Idol and fellow competing shows Survivor and Who Wants to Be a Millionaire were altogether credited for expanding reality television programming in the United States in the 1990s and 2000s , and Idol became the most watched non-scripted primetime television series for almost a decade , from 2003 to 2012 , breaking records on U.S. television ( dominated by drama shows and sitcoms in the preceding decades ) . The show pushed Fox to become the number one U.S. TV network amongst adults 18 -- 49 , the key demographic coveted by advertisers , for an unprecedented eight consecutive years by 2012 . Its success also helped lift the ratings of other shows that were scheduled around it such as House and Bones , and Idol , for years , had become Fox 's strongest platform primetime television program for promoting eventual hit shows of the 2010s ( of the same network ) such as Glee and New Girl . The show , its creator Simon Fuller claimed , `` saved Fox '' . The show 's massive success in the mid-2000s to early 2010s spawned a number of imitating singing - competition shows , such as Rock Star , Nashville Star , The Voice , Rising Star , The Sing - Off , and The X Factor . The number of imitative singing shows on American television had reached 17 by its final year in 2016 . Its format also served as a blueprint for non-singing TV shows such as Dancing with the Stars and So You Think You Can Dance , most of which contribute to the current highly competitive reality TV landscape on American television . Music ( edit ) Main articles : American Idol alumni album sales and American Idol alumni single sales As one of the most successful shows on U.S. television history , American Idol had a strong impact not just on television , but also in the wider world of entertainment . It helped create a number of highly successful recording artists , such as Kelly Clarkson , Daughtry and Carrie Underwood , as well as others of varying notability . The alumni of the show had received between them 54 Grammy nominations and 13 Grammy awards by the end of the show in 2016 , with Carrie Underwood winning seven . Various American Idol alumni had success on various record charts around the world ; in the U.S. they had achieved 345 number ones on the Billboard charts in its first 10 years , and 458 by its last year of broadcast in 2016 , with 100 achieved by Kelly Clarkson alone . According to Fred Bronson , author of books on the Billboard charts , no other entity has ever created as many hit - making artists and best - selling albums and singles . In 2007 , American Idol alums accounted for 2.1 % of all music sales . Its alumni have a massive impact on radio ; in 2007 , American Idol had become `` a dominant force in radio '' according to the president of the research company Mediabase which monitors radio stations Rich Meyer . By 2010 , four winners each had more than a million radio spins , with Kelly Clarkson leading the field with over four million spins . At the end of the show 's run , Idol 's contestants have sold more than 60 million albums in the US , resulting in more than 80 Platinum records and 95 Gold records . Its participants have generated more than 450 Billboard No. 1 hits and sold more than 260 million digital downloads . Film and theater ( edit ) Main article : American Idol alumni in film , television and theater The impact of American Idol was also strongly felt in musical theatre , where many of Idol alumni have forged successful careers . The striking effect of former American Idol contestants on Broadway has been noted and commented on . The casting of a popular Idol contestant can lead to significantly increased ticket sales . Other alumni have gone on to work in television and films , the most notable being Jennifer Hudson who , on the recommendation of the Idol vocal coach Debra Byrd , won a role in Dreamgirls and subsequently received an Academy Award for her performance . Revenue and commercial ventures ( edit ) The American Idol Experience marquee sign The dominance of American Idol in the ratings had made it the most profitable show in U.S. TV for many years . The show was estimated to generate $900 million for the year 2004 through sales of TV ads , albums , merchandise and concert tickets . By season seven , the show was estimated to earn around $900 million from its ad revenue alone , not including ancillary sponsorship deals and other income . One estimate puts the total TV revenue for the first eight seasons of American at $6.4 billion . Sponsors that bought fully integrated packages can expect a variety of promotions of their products on the show , such as product placement , adverts and product promotion integrated into the show , and various promotional opportunities . Other off - air promotional partners pay for the rights to feature `` Idol '' branding on their packaging , products and marketing programs . American Idol also partnered with Disney in its theme park attraction The American Idol Experience . Advertising revenue ( edit ) American Idol became the most expensive series on broadcast networks for advertisers starting season four , and by the next season , it had broken the record in advertising rate for a regularly scheduled prime - time network series , selling over $700,000 for a 30 - seconds slot , and reaching up to $1.3 million for the finale . Its ad prices reached a peak in season seven at $737,000 . Estimated revenue more than doubled from $404 million in season three to $870 million in season six . While that declined from season eight onwards , it still earned significantly more than its nearest competitor , with advertising revenue topping $800 million annually the next few seasons . However , the sharp drop in ratings in season eleven also resulted in a sharp drop in advertising rate for season twelve , and the show lost its leading position as the costliest show for advertisers . By 2014 , ad revenue from had fallen to $427 million where a 30 - second spot went for less than $300,000 . For the relaunched Idol on ABC , it has been reported that a 30 - second spot may cost between $120,000 -- $160,000 . Media sponsorship ( edit ) Ford Motor Company and Coca - Cola were two of the first sponsors of American Idol in its first season . The sponsorship deal cost around $10 million in season one , rising to $35 million by season 7 , and between $50 to $60 million in season 10 . The third major sponsor AT&T Wireless joined in the second season but ended after season 12 , and Coca - Cola officially ended its sponsorship after season 13 amidst the declining ratings of Idol in the mid-2010s . iTunes sponsored the show since season seven . American Idol prominent display of its sponsors ' logo and products had been noted since the early seasons . By season six , Idol showed 4,349 product placements according to Nielsen Media Research . The branded entertainment integration proved beneficial to its advertisers -- promotion of AT&T text - messaging as a means to vote successfully introduced the technology into the wider culture , and Coca - Cola has seen its equity increased during the show . Coca - Cola -- Cups bearing logo of Coca - Cola , and occasionally its subsidiary Vitaminwater , are featured prominently on the judges table . Contestants are shown between songs held in the `` Coca - Cola Red Room '' , the show 's equivalent of the green room . ( The Coca - Cola logo however is obscured during rebroadcast in the UK which until 2011 banned product placement . ) Ford -- Contestants appear in the special Ford videos on the results shows , and winners Kelly Clarkson , Taylor Hicks , and Kris Allen have also appeared in commercials for Ford . The final two each won a free Ford Mustang in seasons four , five and six , Ford Escape Hybrid in season seven , Ford Fusion Hybrid in season eight , Ford Fiesta in season nine , and 2013 Ford Fusion in season eleven . In season ten Scotty McCreery chose a Ford F - 150 and Lauren Alaina chose Shelby Mustang . In the red room , there is a glass table with a Ford wheel as its base . AT&T -- AT&T Mobility is promoted as the service provider for text - voting . AT&T created an ad campaign that centered on an air - headed teenager going around telling people to vote . Apple iTunes -- Ryan Seacrest announces the availability of contestants ' performances exclusively via iTunes . Videos are regularly shown of contestants learning their songs by rehearsing with iPods . Previous sponsors include Old Navy and Clairol 's Herbal Essences . In seasons two and three , contestants sometimes donned Old Navy clothing for their performances with celebrity stylist Steven Cojocaru assisting with their wardrobe selection , and contestants received Clairol - guided hair makeovers . In the season seven finale , both David Cook and David Archuleta appeared in `` Risky Business '' - inspired commercials for Guitar Hero , a sponsor of the tour that year . Coca - Cola 's archrival PepsiCo declined to sponsor American Idol at the show 's start . What the Los Angeles Times later called `` missing one of the biggest marketing opportunities in a generation '' contributed to Pepsi losing market share , by 2010 falling to third place from second in the United States . PepsiCo sponsored the American version of Cowell 's The X Factor in hopes of not repeating its Idol mistake until its cancellation . Season 10 American Idol tour , Scotty McCreery performing with Thia Megia , Haley Reinhart and Pia Toscano American Idol tour ( edit ) The top ten ( eleven in the tenth season and five in the fourteenth season ) toured at the end of every season except for the final season . In the season twelve tour a semi-finalist who won a sing - off was also added to the tour . Kellogg 's Pop - Tarts was the sponsor for the first seven seasons , and Guitar Hero was added for the season seven tour . M&M 's Pretzel Chocolate Candies was a sponsor of the season nine tour . The season five tour was the most successful tour with gross of over $35 million . However no concert tour was organized after the last season , the only season not to have an associated tour . Music releases ( edit ) Main articles : American Idol compilation series and American Idol Hot 100 singles American Idol has traditionally released studio recordings of contestants ' performances as well as the winner 's coronation single for sale . For the first five seasons , the recordings were released as a compilation album at the end of the season . All five of these albums reached the top ten in Billboard 200 which made then American Idol the most successful soundtrack franchise of any motion picture or television program . Starting late in season five , individual performances were released during the season as digital downloads , initially from the American Idol official website only . In season seven the live performances and studio recordings were made available during the season from iTunes when it joined as a sponsor . In Season ten the weekly studio recordings were also released as compilation digital album straight after performance night . 19 Recordings , a recording label owned by 19 Entertainment , currently hold the rights to phonographic material recorded by all the contestants. 19 originally partnered with Bertelsmann Music Group ( BMG ) to promote and distribute the recordings through its labels RCA Records , Arista Records , J Records , Jive Records . In 2005 -- 2007 , BMG partnered with Sony Music Entertainment to form a joint venture known as Sony BMG Music Entertainment . From 2008 to 2010 , Sony Music handled the distribution following their acquisition of BMG . Sony Music was partnered with American Idol and distribute its music , and In 2010 , Sony was replaced by as the music label for American Idol by UMG 's Interscope - Geffen - A&M Records . Tie - ins ( edit ) American Idol video games American Idol -- PlayStation 2 , PC , Game Boy Advance , mobile phone Karaoke Revolution Presents American Idol -- PlayStation 2 Karaoke Revolution Presents American Idol Encore -- PlayStation 2 , PlayStation 3 , Wii , Xbox 360 Karaoke Revolution Presents American Idol Encore 2 -- PlayStation 3 , Wii , Xbox 360 Theme park attraction ( edit ) Main article : The American Idol Experience On February 14 , 2009 , The Walt Disney Company debuted `` The American Idol Experience '' at its Disney 's Hollywood Studios theme park at the Walt Disney World Resort in Florida . In this live production , co-produced by 19 Entertainment , park guests chose from a list of songs and auditioned privately for Disney cast members . Those selected then performed on a stage in a 1000 - seat theater replicating the Idol set . Three judges , whose mannerisms and style mimicked those of the real Idol judges , critiqued the performances . Audience members then voted for their favorite performer . There were several preliminary - round shows during the day that culminated in a `` finals '' show in the evening where one of the winners of the previous rounds that day was selected as the overall winner . The winner of the finals show received a `` Dream Ticket '' that granted them front - of - the - line privileges at any future American Idol audition . The attraction closed on August 30 , 2014 . American Idol Experience stage Other broadcasts ( edit ) American Idol is broadcast to over 100 nations outside of the United States . In most nations these are not live broadcasts and may be tape delayed by several days or weeks . In Canada , the first thirteen seasons of American Idol were aired live by CTV and / or CTV Two , in simulcast with Fox . CTV dropped Idol after its thirteenth season and in August 2014 , Yes TV announced that it had picked up Canadian rights to American Idol beginning in its 2015 season . In 2017 , it was announced the show would return to CTV Two for its sixteenth season . In Latin America , the show is broadcast and subtitled by Sony Entertainment Television . In southeast Asia , it is broadcast by STAR World every Thursday and Friday nine or ten hours after . In Philippines , it is aired every Thursday and Friday nine or ten hours after its United States telecast ; from 2004 to 2007 on ABC 5 ; 2008 -- 11 on QTV , then GMA News TV ; and since 2012 on ETC . On Philippine television history . In Australia , it aired a few hours after the U.S. telecast . It was aired on Network Ten from 2002 to 2008 and then again in 2013 . Between 2008 and 2012 it aired on Fox8 and from season 13 to 14 ( 2014 -- 15 ) it aired on digital channel , Eleven , a sister channel to Network Ten . Its final season ( 2016 ) aired on Fox8 hours after the original U.S. broadcast . The show enjoyed a lot of popularity in Australia throughout the 2000s before declining in the ratings . In the United Kingdom , episodes are aired one day after the U.S. broadcast on digital channel ITV2 . As of season 12 , the episodes air on 5 * . It is also aired in Ireland on TV3 two days after the telecast . In Brazil and Israel , the show airs two days after its original broadcast . In the instances where the airing is delayed , the shows may sometimes be combined into one episode to summarize the results . In Italy , the twelfth season was broadcast by La3 . Spin - offs ( edit ) American Juniors American Idol Rewind American Idol Extra The Next Great American Band From Justin to Kelly An American Idol Christmas Idol Camp Idol Wrap See also ( edit ) List of American Idol finalists List of awards and nominations for American Idol contestants References ( edit ) ^ Jump up to : Hibberd , James ( May 9 , 2017 ) . `` ABC officially revives American Idol , chides Fox for canceling '' . Entertainment Weekly . Retrieved May 9 , 2017 . ^ Jump up to : Official : J. Lo and Harry Connick Jr. join ' American Idol ' Entertainment Weekly , Retrieved September 3 , 2013 Jump up ^ Doris Baltruschat ( 2010 ) . Global Media Ecologies : Networked Production in Film and Television . Routledge . p. 106 . ISBN 978 - 0415874786 . ^ Jump up to : Carter , Bill ( February 20 , 2007 ) . `` For Fox 's Rivals , ' American Idol ' Remains a ' Schoolyard Bully ' '' . The New York Times . Archived from the original on April 16 , 2009 . Retrieved March 13 , 2008 . ^ Jump up to : `` Ten Years of ' American Idol ' Chart Dominance : Clarkson , Underwood , Daughtry , Fantasia , More '' . Billboard . June 11 , 2012 . Retrieved September 4 , 2012 . ^ Jump up to : `` Full 2010 -- 11 Ratings : CBS Tops Viewership , Fox Is No. 1 in Demo and Idol Remains Most - Watched '' . TV Guide . June 1 , 2011 . Retrieved February 11 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Stephen Armstrong ( January 11 , 2010 ) . `` Nice work for Nasty Nigel Lythgoe '' . The Guardian . UK . Retrieved February 24 , 2011 . 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Entertainment Weekly . Retrieved February 24 , 2011 . Jump up ^ Weisman , Jon ( August 4 , 2009 ) . `` Abdul ends her ' Idol ' era '' . Variety . Jump up ^ Collins , Scott ( July 30 , 2010 ) . `` Ellen DeGeneres is out as ' American Idol ' judge '' . Los Angeles Times . Archived from the original on August 1 , 2010 . Retrieved July 30 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Simon Cowell to leave American Idol '' . BBC News . January 12 , 2010 . Retrieved March 31 , 2010 . ^ Jump up to : Kaufman , Gil ( September 22 , 2010 ) . `` ' American Idol ' Adds Jennifer Lopez , Steven Tyler As Judges '' . Mtv . Retrieved February 24 , 2011 . Jump up ^ `` Steven Tyler 's ' Idol ' Departure Influenced Jennifer Lopez 's Own Exit '' . Rolling Stone . July 17 , 2012 . Retrieved July 25 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` ' American Idol ' announces judges : Keith Urban , Nicki Minaj confirmed '' . Entertainment Weekly . September 16 , 2012 . 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September 26 , 2017 . ^ Jump up to : `` Lionel Richie and Luke Bryan to join American Idol as judges '' . Entertainment Weekly . September 29 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Potts , Kim . `` ' American Idol : The Untold Story ' Book Author Richard Rushfield Talks Past ' Idol ' Scandals , Backstage Divas and Season 10 '' . TV Squad . Retrieved January 18 , 2010 . Jump up ^ Bacle , Ariana . `` Ryan Seacrest returns to American Idol for ABC reboot '' . Entertainment Weekly . Retrieved July 20 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` American Idol 10 Audition Rules '' ( PDF ) . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on July 7 , 2011 . Retrieved February 24 , 2011 . ^ Jump up to : `` Season 4 rules '' . Web.archive.org. April 22 , 2006 . Archived from the original on April 22 , 2006 . Retrieved August 6 , 2011 . Jump up ^ `` Secret Rituals of American Idol Auditions Exposed '' . Thedailybeast.com . January 19 , 2010 . Retrieved February 24 , 2011 . Jump up ^ `` American Idol FAQS '' . Americanidol.com . 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Jump up ^ `` Carrie Underwood Moves Past Kelly Clarkson In Top US Album Sales By An American Idol Artist '' . Top40.about.com . Retrieved February 24 , 2011 . Jump up ^ EXTRA ( November 20 , 2002 ) . `` ' American Idol ' '' . Jump up ^ `` After probe , Paula Abdul to remain on ' Idol ' '' . Today . Associated Press . August 24 , 2005 . ^ Jump up to : Moss , Corey ( February 4 , 2004 ) . `` ' American Idol ' Steps Up Screening Process For Contestants '' . Mtv . Retrieved February 24 , 2011 . ^ Jump up to : Deborah Starr Seibel ( May 17 , 2004 ) . `` American Idol Outrage : Your Vote Does n't Count '' . Jump up ^ Logan Martin ( January 17 , 2006 ) . `` '' It 's Going to be a Very Strong Season , I Think `` : An Interview with American Idol Producer Nigel Lythgoe '' . Archived from the original on July 13 , 2009 . Jump up ^ Gary Trust , Jillian Mapes , Kevin Rutherford ( February 28 , 2012 ) . `` Top 24 ' American Idols ' Of All - Time '' . Billboard . CS1 maint : Uses authors parameter ( link ) Jump up ^ `` Top 24 American Idols of All Time '' . Billboard . Archived from the original on November 12 , 2010 . Retrieved May 16 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Buzz over Jennifer Hudson 's ouster from ' American Idol 3 ' continues '' . Realitytvworld.com. April 26 , 2004 . Retrieved February 24 , 2011 . Jump up ^ `` Elton John Says ' American Idol ' Vote Is ' Racist ' '' . Archived from the original on April 29 , 2004 . Retrieved April 29 , 2004 . , Reuters via Yahoo.com , 2004 - 04 - 28 , Retrieved on March 2 , 2007 . Jump up ^ `` '' Simon Kept Me in My Place `` : An Interview with John Stevens '' . Foxesonidol.com. April 30 , 2004 . Archived from the original on December 27 , 2010 . Retrieved February 24 , 2011 . Jump up ^ `` Simon Cowell 's Favorite ' Idol ' Moment '' . Extratv.warnerbros.com . May 25 , 2010 . Retrieved February 24 , 2011 . Jump up ^ Moss , Corey ( March 14 , 2005 ) . `` Mario Vazquez Quits ' Idol ' -- ' It Was n't Right For Me ' Favored finalist drops out ' to focus on personal things . ' '' . Mtv . Retrieved February 24 , 2011 . Jump up ^ `` '' A.I. '' Contestant Accused of `` Masturbating '' in Suit `` . Tmz.com . December 3 , 2007 . Retrieved February 24 , 2011 . Jump up ^ `` Carrie Underwood 's ' Inside Your Heaven ' Debuts as Best Selling Song in the Nation and Breaks Chart History '' . PRNewswire . June 23 , 2005 . Jump up ^ Jim Asker ( January 21 , 2015 ) . `` Rewinding the Country Charts : 10 Years Ago , Carrie Underwood Motored to Her First No. 1 '' . Billboard . Prometheus Global Media . Retrieved January 24 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Rolling Stone ( March 10 , 2015 ) . `` Readers ' Poll : 10 Best Carrie Underwood Songs '' . Rolling Stone . Jump up ^ `` Disqualified Brittenum twins return for ' American Idol 7 ' auditions '' . Realitytvworld.com . August 17 , 2007 . Retrieved February 24 , 2011 . Jump up ^ `` Chris Daughtry gets job offer from Fuel '' . USA Today . May 12 , 2006 . Retrieved February 24 , 2011 . Jump up ^ Moss , Corey ( March 24 , 2006 ) . `` Did ' Idol ' Contender Daughtry Go Over The Line With ' Walk The Line ' Cover ? '' . Mtv . Retrieved February 24 , 2011 . ^ Jump up to : Bill Keveney ( January 14 , 2014 ) . `` TV Singing Shows Fail To Create Stars '' . USA Today . ^ Jump up to : `` ' Idol ' Death Star Returns -- Premiere ratings build on last year 's ginormous numbers '' . tv.zap2it.com . January 17 , 2007 . Retrieved January 17 , 2007 . Jump up ^ `` Sanjaya on ' Idol ' rocks a faux - hawk '' . Today.msnbc.msn.com . March 28 , 2007 . Retrieved February 24 , 2011 . Jump up ^ `` Buh - Bye - Ya , Sanjaya ! '' . Us Weekly . April 19 , 2007 . Archived from the original on May 25 , 2007 . Retrieved May 16 , 2013 . ^ Jump up to : `` ' American Idol 's `` Idol Gives Back '' charity special raises $45 million `` . Realitytvworld.com. April 26 , 2010 . Retrieved February 24 , 2011 . Jump up ^ Natalie Finn ( May 23 , 2007 ) . `` Jordin Sparks Idol Finale '' . E Online . ^ Jump up to : `` American Idol Controversy : The Ringers of Season 7 '' . Buddytv.com . January 30 , 2008 . Retrieved February 24 , 2011 . Jump up ^ `` Irish Idol : Smithson 's Secret Past '' . New.music.yahoo.com . February 14 , 2008 . Archived from the original on October 1 , 2011 . Retrieved February 24 , 2011 . Jump up ^ Kaufman , Gil ( March 5 , 2008 ) . `` ' American Idol ' Producer OKs David Hernandez 's Stripper Past ; Show Keeps Mum On Danny Noriega Video '' . Mtv . Retrieved February 24 , 2011 . Jump up ^ Halperin , Shirley ( March 28 , 2008 ) . `` Chris Cornell defends ' Idol ' contender David Cook '' . Hollywoodinsider.ew.com . Archived from the original on October 12 , 2010 . Retrieved February 24 , 2011 . Jump up ^ Kaufman , Gil ( April 2 , 2008 ) . `` ' American Idol ' Contestant David Cook Reportedly Rushed To Hospital After Show '' . Mtv . Retrieved February 24 , 2011 . Jump up ^ Mansfield , Brian ( January 7 , 2011 ) . `` Jennifer Lopez says new ' Idol ' judges are ' more collaborative ' '' . USA Today . Retrieved February 24 , 2011 . Jump up ^ `` Jeff Buckley 's ' Hallelujah ' Becomes America 's Number One Digital Song '' . PRNewswire . March 13 , 2008 . Retrieved November 6 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` David Cook -- `` Billie Jean '' -- # 1 Song on iTunes `` . Rickey.org . March 27 , 2008 . Retrieved February 24 , 2011 . Jump up ^ Hazlett , Courtney ( August 18 , 2010 ) . `` ' Idol 's ' emotional focus will highlight Abdul '' . MSNBC . Retrieved August 25 , 2010 . Jump up ^ Lythgoe Leaving ' American Idol ' Retrieved on May 8 , 2008 . Jump up ^ `` Report : Kris Allen 's home state cast 38 million ' American Idol ' votes '' . Realitytvworld.com . May 21 , 2009 . Retrieved February 24 , 2011 . Jump up ^ `` Conway reacts to Kris ' win '' . Fox16.com . Archived from the original on July 11 , 2011 . Retrieved February 24 , 2011 . ^ Jump up to : Wyatt , Edward ( May 27 , 2009 ) . `` '' Idol '' producers stand by outcome `` . The New York Times . Jump up ^ Barrie Gunter . I Want to Change My Life : Can Reality TV Competition Shows Trigger Lasting Career Success ? . pp. 34 -- 35 . ISBN 9781443864749 . Jump up ^ Singh , Anita ( January 15 , 2010 ) . `` Pants On The Ground video : American Idol 's General Larry Platt is overnight star '' . The Daily Telegraph . London . Retrieved February 24 , 2011 . ^ Jump up to : `` Crystal Bowersox : Her First Interview on Diabetes '' . Diabetesmine.com . Retrieved February 24 , 2011 . Jump up ^ Grady Smith ( October 21 , 2011 ) . `` Crystal Bowersox , Lee DeWyze both dropped by their record label : For ' Idol ' , what a difference a year makes '' . EW . Jump up ^ `` American Idol Accepting Online Auditions This Season '' . Popeater.com . September 15 , 2010 . Retrieved February 24 , 2011 . Jump up ^ Gil Kaufman ( January 27 , 2011 ) . `` Chris Medina 's ' American Idol ' Story Recalls Danny Gokey 's '' . MTV . Jump up ^ Us Weekly ( April 8 , 2011 ) . `` Jennifer Hudson , Tom Hanks Outraged Over Pia Toscano 's ' Idol ' Elimination Rolling Stone Culture '' . Rolling Stone . Retrieved August 6 , 2011 . Jump up ^ `` ' Idol 's ' Scotty McCreery Makes History at No. 1 on Billboard 200 '' . Billboard . May 13 , 2013 . Retrieved May 19 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Kevin O'Donnell ( March 16 , 2012 ) . `` Jermaine Jones : I Did n't Know I Broke American Idol 's Rules '' . People . Jump up ^ `` Bad Kidneys Wo n't Keep Me Off Show '' . TMZ . March 16 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Brian Mansfield ( May 24 , 2012 ) . `` Surgery wo n't affect Idols tour , Phillips says '' . USA Today . Idol Chatter . Retrieved May 25 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Marisa Laudadio ( July 1 , 2012 ) . `` Phillip Phillips Reveals Details of Year - Long Kidney Crisis '' . People.com . Retrieved July 3 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Paul Grein ( October 24 , 2012 ) . `` Chart Watch Extra : Phillip Phillips ' Idol Record '' . Chart Watch . Yahoo Music . Retrieved October 24 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Annie Barrett ( January 23 , 2013 ) . `` ' American Idol ' : Nicki Minaj - Mariah Carey brawl sparked by disagreement over ' country thing ' '' . Entertainment Weekly . Jump up ^ Lyndsey Parker ( January 13 , 2014 ) . `` 10 Ways ' American Idol ' is Trying to Win You Back '' . RollingStone . Jump up ^ `` Louis J. Horvitz To Direct ' American Idol ' This Season '' . Deadline . December 19 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Fred Bronson ( May 14 , 2014 ) . `` American Idol ' Celebrates 500th Episode : The Highs and Lows of 13 Seasons '' . Hollywood Reporter . Jump up ^ `` American Idol season finale recap : We Just Rocked You '' . Jake Perlman . Retrieved May 21 , 2014 . Jump up ^ Paul Grein ( August 20 , 2014 ) . `` Chart Watch : A New Low For ' American Idol ' '' . Yahoo ! Music . Jump up ^ Randy Jackson exiting ' American Idol ' Entertainment Weekly , Retrieved November 12 , 2014 Jump up ^ Matt Webb Mitovich . `` ' American Idol ' Season 14 -- One Night a Week Starting Top 10 -- TVLine '' . TVLine . Retrieved April 20 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Coca - Cola Ends Sponsorship Of ' American Idol ' '' . Jump up ^ Michele Amabile Angermiller and Shirley Halperin ( December 10 , 2015 ) . `` ' American Idol ' Final Season To Be Four Weeks Shorter Than Last '' . Billboard . CS1 maint : Uses authors parameter ( link ) Jump up ^ McKenzie , Joi - Marie ( April 9 , 2016 ) . `` Ryan Seacrest Explains Mysterious ' American Idol ' Sign - Off on Series Finale '' . ABC . Jump up ^ Esposito , Jennifer . `` Trent Harmon 's ' Falling ' Written By Keith Urban Will Heat Up Country Radio If He Wins American Idol '' . The Inquistr . Jump up ^ `` Dalton Rapattoni 's `` Strike A Match '' Now Leading Trent , La'Porsha Singles on iTunes Sales Chart `` . Headline Planet . April 7 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` MacKenzie Bourg 's `` Roses '' Reached Top 5 on iTunes Sales Chart ; Trent 's `` Falling '' Now # 4 `` . Headline Planet . July 7 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Holloway , Daniel . `` NBC in Talk to Revive `` American Idol '' `` . Variety . Retrieved February 9 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Pena , Jessica . `` American Idol : Revival Reportedly Not Moving Forward '' . TV Series Finale . Retrieved April 4 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Nemetz , Dave ( May 2 , 2017 ) . `` American Idol Reboot Eyed at ABC '' . TVLine . Jump up ^ O'Connell , Michael ( May 9 , 2017 ) . `` ' American Idol ' Officially Returning at ABC '' . Billboard . Jump up ^ Holloway , Daniel , ' American Idol ' : ABC Confirms Plan to Revive Talent Competition Series , Variety , May 9 , 2017 . Retrieved May 9 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Evans , Greg . `` Ryan Seacrest Returns To Host ABC 's ' American Idol ' ; Keeps ' Kelly & Ryan ' Gig '' . Deadline . Jump up ^ Staff , Variety . `` ' American Idol ' Premiere Date Revealed '' . Variety . Retrieved November 6 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` The Return Of ' American Idol ' : Money Never Dies '' . Forbes . January 17 , 2013 . Retrieved February 11 , 2013 . ^ Jump up to : Andreeva , Nellie ( January 20 , 2011 ) . `` Ratings rat race '' . Deadline.com . Retrieved February 24 , 2011 . ^ Jump up to : Seidman , Robert . `` TV Ratings Wednesday : Simon 's Final American Idol Down 18 % ; Lowest - Rated Idol Finale '' . Tvbythenumbers.com . Retrieved February 24 , 2011 . Jump up ^ American Idol does not have a ranking for the 2001 -- 2002 season because it aired in the summer of 2002 . If it had aired within the official 2001 -- 2002 U.S. television season , the Wednesday results show would have ranked number 25 and the Tuesday performance show would have ranked number 30 , assuming it would have had the same rating as it did in the summer . Jump up ^ `` Top 20 Most - Watched TV Programs in 2002 -- 03 '' . Blog.newsok.com . January 12 , 2010 . 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Retrieved April 20 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Ratings Wrapup : CBS and Fox Win , Again '' . Zap2it.com . May 25 , 2007 . Retrieved August 25 , 2010 . ^ Jump up to : `` Disney -- ABC Press '' . Archived from the original on March 23 , 2012 . Retrieved April 20 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Seidman , Robert . `` Nielsen Ratings : Weekly Top 20 , David vs. David Finale Scores Big for FOX '' . Tvbythenumbers.com . Retrieved February 24 , 2011 . Jump up ^ `` Nine of the top 20 shows in 2007 -- 2008 were reality ; Idol 's performance show takes # 1 '' . Realityblurred.com . May 28 , 2008 . Retrieved August 25 , 2010 . ^ Jump up to : `` Disney -- ABC Press '' . Archived from the original on April 13 , 2010 . Retrieved April 20 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Seidman , Robert ( May 27 , 2009 ) . `` Another American Idol Finale Shocker : Not the Lowest Rated ! '' . Tvbythenumbers.com . Retrieved February 24 , 2011 . Jump up ^ Gorman , Bill ( May 28 , 2009 ) . `` American Idol , Dancing With The Stars Top Average Viewership For 2008 - 9 Season '' . Tvbythenumbers.com . Archived from the original on June 1 , 2009 . Retrieved February 24 , 2011 . ^ Jump up to : `` Disney -- ABC Press '' . Archived from the original on June 19 , 2009 . Retrieved April 20 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` TV Ratings Top 25 : American Idol , Big Bang Theory , Two And A Half Men Top 18 -- 49 Ratings '' . Tvbythenumbers.com . Archived from the original on June 5 , 2010 . Retrieved August 25 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Final 2009 -- 10 Broadcast Primetime Show Average Viewership '' . Tvbythenumbers.com . June 16 , 2010 . Archived from the original on June 19 , 2010 . Retrieved August 25 , 2010 . ^ Jump up to : `` Final 2009 -- 10 Broadcast Primetime Show Average Viewership '' . TVbytheNumbers . Archived from the original on June 20 , 2011 . Retrieved April 20 , 2015 . ^ Jump up to : Seidman , Robert ( January 25 , 2011 ) . `` tvbythenumbers Jan 25 , 2011 '' . Tvbythenumbers.zap2it.com . Retrieved February 24 , 2011 . Jump up ^ Seidman , Robert ( June 1 , 2011 ) . `` TV Ratings Broadcast Top 25 : ' American Idol , ' ' Dancing With The Stars , ' ' Glee , ' ' Modern Family ' Top Season 's Final Week '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved June 2 , 2011 . Jump up ^ Andreeva , Nellie ( May 27 , 2011 ) . `` Full 2010 -- 11 Season Series Rankers '' . Deadline Hollywood . Archived from the original on June 4 , 2011 . Retrieved May 27 , 2011 . ^ Jump up to : `` 2010 -- 11 Season Broadcast Primetime Show Viewership Averages '' . TVbytheNumbers . Archived from the original on June 20 , 2011 . Retrieved April 20 , 2015 . ^ Jump up to : Seidman , Robert ( January 24 , 2012 ) . `` TV Ratings Broadcast Top 25 : Giants - 49ers , ' American Idol , ' ' Big Bang Theory ' Top Week 18 '' . TVbytheNumbers . Retrieved January 25 , 2012 . ^ Jump up to : Bibel , Sara ( May 30 , 2012 ) . `` TV Ratings Broadcast Top 25 : ' American Idol ' Tops Week 36 Viewing ; ' Modern Family ' is Number One Scripted Program '' . TVbytheNumbers . Retrieved May 31 , 2012 . ^ Jump up to : Andreeva , Nellie ( May 24 , 2012 ) . `` Full 2011 -- 2012 TV Season Series Rankings '' . Retrieved May 25 , 2012 . ^ Jump up to : `` Complete List Of 2011 - 12 Season TV Show Viewership : ' Sunday Night Football ' Tops , Followed By ' American Idol , ' ' NCIS ' & ' Dancing With The Stars ' - Ratings - TVbytheNumbers.Zap2it.com '' . TVbytheNumbers . Retrieved April 20 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Kondolojy , Amanda ( January 27 , 2013 ) . `` Wednesday Final Ratings : ' Criminal Minds ' Adjusted Up ; ' Suburgatory ' & ' The Neighbors ' Adjusted Down '' . TVbytheNumbers . Retrieved January 17 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Bibel , Sara ( May 21 , 2013 ) . `` TV Ratings Broadcast Top 25 : ' The Big Bang Theory ' Tops Week 34 Viewing Among Adults 18 -- 49 , ' NCIS ' on Top With Total Viewers '' . TVbytheNumbers . Retrieved May 21 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Bibel , Sara ( May 29 , 2013 ) . `` Complete 2012 -- 2013 TV Season Series Rankings '' . Zap2it . ^ Jump up to : `` Complete List Of 2012 - 13 Season TV Show Viewership : ' Sunday Night Football ' Tops , Followed By ' NCIS , ' ' The Big Bang Theory ' & ' NCIS : Los Angeles ' - Ratings - TVbytheNumbers.Zap2it.com '' . TVbytheNumbers . Retrieved April 20 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Kondolojy , Amanda ( January 16 , 2014 ) . `` Wednesday Final Ratings : ' American Idol ' Adjusted Up ; ' Law and Order : SVU ' , ' The Tomorrow People ' & ' Super Fun Night ' Adjusted Down '' . TVbytheNumbers . Retrieved January 16 , 2014 . Jump up ^ Kondolojy , Amanda ( May 22 , 2014 ) . `` Wednesday Final Ratings : ' Survivor ' , ' The Middle ' & ' Modern Family ' Adjusted Up ; ' Survivor ' Reunion Adjusted Down '' . TV by the Numbers . Jump up ^ `` Full 2013 -- 2014 TV Season Series Rankings '' . Deadline Hollywood . May 22 , 2014 . Retrieved May 23 , 2014 . ^ Jump up to : `` Primetime Ratings Total Audience 2013 -- 2014 '' . Jump up ^ `` Wednesday Final Ratings : No Adjustments Beyond Previously Released Increases for ' Empire ' & ' American Idol ' '' . TVbytheNumbers . Retrieved April 20 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Tuesday Final Ratings : ' The Flash ' , ' NCIS ' , & ' American Idol ' Adjusted Up ; ' iZombie ' Adjusted Down '' . TVbytheNumbers . Retrieved May 14 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Wednesday Final Ratings : ' Law & Order : SVU ' , ' Survivor , ' The Middle ' & ' American Idol ' Adjusted Up ; ' Supernatural ' , ' black - ish ' & ' Nashville ' Adjusted Down '' . TVbytheNumbers . Retrieved May 15 , 2015 . ^ Jump up to : Lisa de Moraes. `` 2014 -- 15 Full TV Season Ratings : Rankings For All Shows -- Deadline '' . Deadline . Archived from the original on May 22 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Porter , Rick ( January 7 , 2016 ) . `` Wednesday final ratings : ' American Idol ' and ' Modern Family ' adjust up '' . TV By The Numbers . Retrieved January 7 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Porter , Rick ( April 7 , 2016 ) . `` Wednesday final ratings : ' Empire ' and ' Modern Family ' adjust up , ' Nashville ' adjusts down '' . TV By The Numbers . Retrieved April 7 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Porter , Rick ( April 8 , 2016 ) . `` Thursday final ratings : ' Big Bang Theory ' adjusts up , ' Odd Couple ' and ' The 100 ' adjust down '' . TV By The Numbers . Retrieved April 8 , 2016 . ^ Jump up to : Lisa de Moraes . `` Full 2015 -- 16 TV Season Series Rankings : ' Blindspot ' , ' Life In Pieces ' & ' Quantico ' Lead Newcomers '' . Deadline . Jump up ^ `` SHOWATCH '' . The Futon Critic . Retrieved 23 January 2018 . Jump up ^ Porter , Rick ( 13 March 2018 ) . `` ' Bob 's Burgers ' and ' Ninja Warrior ' adjust up , ' Deception ' adjusts down : Sunday final ratings '' . TV by the Numbers . Tribune Media . Retrieved 13 March 2018 . Jump up ^ `` US Pop Idol proves ratings hit '' . BBC News . June 14 , 2002 . Retrieved February 24 , 2011 . ^ Jump up to : Bill Carter ; Stuart Elliott ( September 6 , 2002 ) . `` Success of ' American Idol ' To Spawn Many Copycats '' . The New York Times . Jump up ^ `` Ruben Studdard becomes second ' American Idol ' winner by razor - thin margin '' . Realitytvworld.com . May 22 , 2003 . Retrieved February 24 , 2011 . ^ Jump up to : `` American Idol 's sixth season finale averages over 30 million viewers '' . Realitytvworld.com . Retrieved February 24 , 2011 . ^ Jump up to : `` ' American Idol ' returns with big plans , deals '' . Today.msnbc.msn.com . Retrieved February 24 , 2011 . Jump up ^ Collins , Scott ( April 21 , 2008 ) . `` Ominous signs for American Idol '' . LA Times.com . Retrieved August 25 , 2010 . Jump up ^ Bouder , David ( May 23 , 2008 ) . `` Fox wins TV season on strong ' Idol ' finish '' . USA Today . Retrieved October 26 , 2011 . Jump up ^ Wyatt , Edward ( May 24 , 2008 ) . `` '' Idol '' tries to keep viewers guessing `` . The New York Times . Jump up ^ Krukowski , Andrew . `` May Sweeps Sees Record Low Ratings '' . Tvweek.com . Retrieved February 24 , 2011 . Jump up ^ Seidman , Robert ( January 15 , 2009 ) . `` Updated : Idol strong , retains almost 100 % of night one audience '' . Tvbythenumbers.com . Retrieved February 24 , 2011 . Jump up ^ de Moraes , Lisa ( February 19 , 2010 ) . `` NBC 's Winter Olympic coverage breaks ' American Idol 's ratings streak '' . The Washington Post . Retrieved March 16 , 2010 . Jump up ^ Herbert , Steven . `` Even in decline , ' Idol ' is TV 's No. 1 show '' . The Orange County Register . Retrieved August 25 , 2010 . Jump up ^ Gorman , Bill ( May 26 , 2011 ) . `` Updated TV Ratings Wednesday : ' American Idol ' Finale Up , Buries Competition ; ABC 's Finales Down vs. Last Year '' . Tvbythenumbers.zap2it.com . Retrieved August 6 , 2011 . Jump up ^ Carter , Bill ; Vega , Tanzina ( May 14 , 2011 ) . `` In Shift , Ads Try to Entice Over-55 Set '' . The New York Times . Retrieved August 6 , 2011 . Jump up ^ `` The Masked Scheduler on ' American Idol , ' part 3 : How research and scheduling shaped the show '' . TV by the Numbers . March 8 , 2018 . Jump up ^ Stelter , Brian ( May 22 , 2012 ) . `` ' Idol ' Grapples With Its Own Competition '' . The New York Times . Retrieved May 24 , 2012 . Jump up ^ James Hibberd ( March 24 , 2013 ) . `` ' American Idol ' drops again : How low will the ratings go ? '' . EW.com . Jump up ^ Rick Kissell ( May 17 , 2013 ) . `` ' American Idol ' Finale Down 44 % From Last Year '' . Variety . Jump up ^ Hollie McKay ( May 21 , 2013 ) . `` ' American Idol ' at a crossroads : Next season to bring fresh judges , many changes '' . Fox News . Jump up ^ `` Fox Faces Challenge to Make ' American Idol ' Sing '' . Variety . Retrieved January 7 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` In season 14 , ' American Idol ' hoping to bounce back '' . Boston Globe . Retrieved January 7 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Ken Tucker ( July 4 , 2002 ) . `` American Idol 2002 -- 2002 '' . Entertainment Weekly . Retrieved February 24 , 2011 . Jump up ^ Carina Chocano ( September 4 , 2002 ) . `` How to make an `` American Idol '' `` . Salon.com . Retrieved September 21 , 2011 . Jump up ^ Dan Jewel ( June 14 , 2002 ) . `` ' American Idol , ' so needlessly cruel '' . Medialife magazine . Archived from the original on November 3 , 2009 . Retrieved October 21 , 2011 . Jump up ^ Gallo , Phil ( August 19 , 2002 ) . `` American Idol : The Search for a Superstar '' . Variety . Retrieved February 24 , 2011 . Jump up ^ Convergence culture : where old and new media collide Buying into American Idol by Henry Jenkins Jump up ^ `` September 11 : ' American Idol ' Seizes the Day '' . The Washington Post . September 4 , 2002 . Retrieved February 24 , 2011 . Jump up ^ Michael Slezak ( May 14 , 2010 ) . `` Worshiping at the ' Idol ' Church '' . The New York Times . Jump up ^ `` Sheryl Crow Does n't get American Idol '' . Buddytv.com . March 14 , 2007 . Retrieved August 6 , 2011 . Jump up ^ Ann Powers ( May 23 , 2012 ) . `` The End Of ' Idol ' : There Are No More Songs Left To Be Sung '' . NPR . Retrieved May 25 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Ramin Setoodeh ( May 24 , 2010 ) . `` It 's a Cruel , Cruel World '' . Newsweek . Archived from the original on January 20 , 2011 . Retrieved February 24 , 2011 . Jump up ^ Hiatt , Brian ( April 1 , 2003 ) . `` False Idol '' . Ew.com . Retrieved April 3 , 2011 . Jump up ^ Angus Batey ( April 29 , 2010 ) . `` Usher : ' The fans want my soul ' '' . The Guardian . UK . Retrieved February 24 , 2011 . Jump up ^ Elysa Gardner ( August 15 , 2005 ) . `` What price ' Idol ' fame ? '' . USA Today . Retrieved September 21 , 2011 . Jump up ^ `` LeAnn Rimes Says Carrie Underwood ' Has Not Paid Her Dues ' To Deserve Country Music Award '' . Starpulse.com . November 14 , 2006 . Archived from the original on November 25 , 2011 . Retrieved February 24 , 2011 . Jump up ^ Evans , Martin ( October 19 , 2010 ) . `` Sir Elton John claims today 's music all sounds the same '' . The Daily Telegraph . London . Archived from the original on March 11 , 2011 . Retrieved February 24 , 2011 . Jump up ^ `` ' American Idol 's ' music cred growing '' . MSNBC . Associated Press . January 11 , 2007 . Retrieved February 24 , 2011 . Jump up ^ Phyllis Stark ( May 14 , 2015 ) . `` ' American Idol ' and Its Deep Impact On The Country Format '' . Billboard . Jump up ^ Sophie A. Schillaci , Michele Amabile Angermiller ( May 24 , 2012 ) . `` CMT Execs on Why ' American Idol ' Rules Country and How the Industry is ' Divided ' on Reality Show Success '' . Hollywood Reporter . Retrieved May 25 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Appelo , Tim ( May 26 , 2011 ) . `` Why ' American Idol ' Gets Snubbed by the Emmys ( Analysis ) '' . The Hollywood Reporter . Retrieved August 6 , 2011 . Jump up ^ `` People 's Choice Awards 2011 Nominees '' . PeoplesChoice.com . Archived from the original on July 15 , 2011 . Retrieved August 6 , 2011 . Jump up ^ `` Critics Choice TV Awards : ' American Idol , ' Jim Parsons , Tina Fey Win '' . Hollywood Reporter . June 20 , 2011 . Retrieved August 6 , 2011 . Jump up ^ `` TV Guide Magazine 's 60 Best Series of All Time '' . TV Guide . ^ Jump up to : Kevin Downey ( January 11 , 2010 ) . `` Year after year , ' Idol ' has a Southern accent '' . MSNBC . Retrieved April 15 , 2010 . Jump up ^ Rodney Ho ( April 23 , 2012 ) . `` Ryan Seacrest signs on to continue as ' Idol ' host ; most of the top 6 have Southern ties '' . blogs.ajc.com . Cox Newspapers . Archived from the original on April 26 , 2012 . Retrieved April 24 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Neely Tucker ( April 18 , 2006 ) . `` Who Put The Y'all In ' Idol ' ? '' . The Washington Post . Jump up ^ Harry J Enten ( May 25 , 2012 ) . `` American Idol : why do southerners always seem to win ? '' . Guardian . Jump up ^ `` Rise of the South on ' American Idol ' '' . MSNBC . Associated Press . May 26 , 2004 . Retrieved April 15 , 2010 . ^ Jump up to : `` '' American Idol '' Expert Says Jessica Sanchez Ca n't Win `` . ABC . ABC News . May 23 , 2012 . Retrieved May 23 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Slaves of Celebrity '' . Salon.com . September 18 , 2002 . Archived from the original on February 12 , 2010 . Retrieved February 24 , 2011 . Jump up ^ Kerensky , Lauren ( January 16 , 2007 ) . `` WWealth does n't trickle down to ' Idol ' talent '' . MSNBC . Retrieved February 24 , 2011 . Jump up ^ `` Simon Fuller : ' American Idol ' Svengali '' . Today.msnbc.msn.com . January 20 , 2004 . Retrieved February 24 , 2011 . Jump up ^ `` Idol 's Most Notorious '' . Comcast.net . Archived from the original on March 13 , 2009 . Retrieved February 24 , 2011 . Jump up ^ Font size Print E-mail Share 7 Comments By Amy Bonawitz ( March 6 , 2007 ) . `` Frenchie Davis : `` Idol '' Double Standard ? `` . Cbsnews.com . Retrieved February 24 , 2011 . Jump up ^ Susman , Gary ( August 19 , 2002 ) . `` Uncalled For '' . Ew.com . Retrieved April 3 , 2011 . Jump up ^ `` A tale of two Simons '' . Financial Times . October 15 , 2010 . Retrieved February 24 , 2011 . Jump up ^ La , Paul R. ( January 16 , 2007 ) . `` ' Idol ' fatigue ? Think again '' . CNN . Retrieved August 6 , 2011 . Jump up ^ Gorman , Bill ( May 23 , 2012 ) . `` FOX Sets New Broadcast Industry Record With 8th Consecutive Season Victory Among Adults 18 -- 49 -- Ratings '' . Tvbythenumbers.zap2it.com . Retrieved January 17 , 2015 . ^ Jump up to : Lieberman , David ( March 30 , 2005 ) . `` ' American Idol ' zooms from hit show to massive business '' . USA Today . Retrieved February 24 , 2011 . Jump up ^ Moss , Corey ( January 24 , 2007 ) . `` ' American Idol ' Imitators Find Success As Elusive As A Rave From Simon '' . Mtv . Retrieved August 6 , 2011 . Jump up ^ Lori Rackl ( January 17 , 2012 ) . `` Still on top , ' American Idol ' honchos rib their rivals '' . Chicago Sun - Times . Jump up ^ Emily Yahr ( March 31 , 2016 ) . `` You may scoff at ' American Idol ' now , but it changed pop culture forever '' . Washington Post . Jump up ^ `` Pop culture sings an ` American Idol ' tune : Hit TV show 's influence is embedded , lucrative '' . Startribune.com . March 8 , 2009 . Archived from the original on November 25 , 2011 . Retrieved August 6 , 2011 . Jump up ^ Zeitchik , Steven ( May 7 , 2006 ) . `` The money tree '' . Variety . Retrieved February 24 , 2011 . Jump up ^ Yahr , Emily ( April 2 , 2016 ) . `` You may scoff at ' American Idol ' now , but it changed pop culture forever '' . Washington Post . Jump up ^ Jaffer , Murtz ( April 7 , 2016 ) . `` ' American Idol ' pulls off surprises even as it crowns last - ever winner '' . the Star . Jump up ^ Schillaci , Sophie ( April 7 , 2016 ) . `` The Complete List of ' American Idol ' Winners : Where Are They Now ? '' . E Online . Jump up ^ Bronson , Fred ( March 7 , 2016 ) . `` Kelly Clarkson Makes History as First ' American Idol ' Contestant With 100 Billboard No. 1s '' . Billboard . Jump up ^ `` American Idol Chart Achievements '' . Americanidol.com . December 16 , 2009 . Archived from the original on February 21 , 2011 . Retrieved February 24 , 2011 . Jump up ^ Mansfield , Brian ( January 29 , 2010 ) . `` Nielsen report shows the ' American Idol ' impact on music sales '' . USA Today . Retrieved February 24 , 2011 . Jump up ^ `` American Idol Has Massive Impact on Radio Airplay '' . California : Prnewswire.com . Retrieved February 24 , 2011 . Jump up ^ `` Top 24 ' American Idols ' Of All - Time '' . Billboard . Retrieved April 20 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` American Idol to Receive 2016 Governors Award '' . Jump up ^ `` Can ' American Idol ' Stars Save Broadway '' . Popeater.com . Retrieved February 24 , 2011 . Jump up ^ Ben Brantley ( March 27 , 2005 ) . `` How Broadway Lost Its Voice to ' American Idol ' '' . The New York Times . Jump up ^ Ho , Rodney ( March 15 , 2007 ) . `` Talk with Idol vocal coach '' . Palm Beach Post . Retrieved February 24 , 2011 . Jump up ^ Wyatt , Edward ( May 10 , 2009 ) . `` Despite Lower Ratings , Cash Flow Rises for ' Idol '' . The New York Times . ^ Jump up to : Smith , Ethan ( January 12 , 2010 ) . `` Blunt but Popular Simon Cowell Will Bow Out of ' American Idol ' '' . The Wall Street Journal . Retrieved February 24 , 2011 . Jump up ^ `` Idol Riches '' . Portfolio.com . September 11 , 2008 . Retrieved February 24 , 2011 . ^ Jump up to : `` Brands Take The ' American Idol ' Stage '' . Billboard.biz . May 12 , 2009 . Retrieved February 24 , 2011 . ^ Jump up to : `` Idol 's big three sponsors paid $35 million each for their brand integration '' . Realityblurred . January 15 , 2008 . Retrieved February 24 , 2011 . Jump up ^ `` ' American Idol ' Charges Most for Ads '' . The New York Times . September 28 , 2004 . Jump up ^ `` ' Idol ' Spots Going For A Song ( Plus $700,000 ) '' . Adweek.com . September 12 , 2005 . Retrieved February 24 , 2011 . Jump up ^ `` Goodbye Bucky , Hello Big Bucks ! ' Idol ' Ad Sales $ oar '' . Abcnews.go.com. April 18 , 2006 . Retrieved February 24 , 2011 . Jump up ^ Hampp , Andrew ( December 29 , 2009 ) . `` Can ' Idol ' Survive Without Its X Factor , Simon Cowell ? '' . Adage.com . Retrieved February 24 , 2011 . Jump up ^ Pomerantz , Dorothy ( March 16 , 2011 ) . `` TV 's Biggest Moneymakers '' . Forbes . Archived from the original on March 28 , 2011 . Retrieved March 18 , 2011 . Jump up ^ Bill Carter ( April 6 , 2010 ) . `` An ' Idol ' Ratings Loss , but Not in Its Pocketbook '' . The New York Times . Jump up ^ Flint , Joe ( July 6 , 2010 ) . `` Even in decline , ' American Idol ' ca n't be bought for a song '' . LA Times . Retrieved February 24 , 2011 . Jump up ^ Brian Steinberg ( October 21 , 2012 ) . `` TV Ad Prices : ' Idol ' No Match for Football '' . Ad Age . Jump up ^ Michele Amabile Angermiller and Shirley Halperin ( December 10 , 2015 ) . `` American Idol ' Final Season To Be Four Weeks Shorter Than Last '' . Billboard . Jump up ^ O'Reilly , Lara ( March 7 , 2018 ) . `` CMO Today : Discovery - Scripps Deal Closes ; Brands Set For ' Idol ' Return ; Light Beer Marketing Face - Off '' . The Wall Street Journal . Jump up ^ Bill Carter ( May 23 , 2003 ) . `` Fox Mulls How to Exploit The Mojo of ' American Idol ' '' . The New York Times . Jump up ^ `` Coke builds ' Harmony ' with ' Idol ' '' . Variety . May 12 , 2011 . Retrieved May 23 , 2011 . Jump up ^ `` The Nielsen Company Measures the American Idol Phenom '' . Nielsen.com . Retrieved February 24 , 2011 . Jump up ^ Svensson , Peter ( June 27 , 2003 ) . `` Wireless Carriers Try To Hook Americans On Text Messaging '' . Crn.com . Retrieved February 24 , 2011 . Jump up ^ Lindstrom , Martin ( November 17 , 2008 ) . `` Why ' Idol ' Works For Coke - But Not For Ford '' . Adage.com . Retrieved February 24 , 2011 . Jump up ^ Dana Kasser ( February 10 , 2010 ) . `` Where Are The ' American Idol ' Coke Cups ? -- MTV.com -- February 10 , 2010 '' . MTV . Archived from the original on October 6 , 2010 . Retrieved August 25 , 2010 . Jump up ^ Torin Douglas ( February 28 , 2011 ) . `` Product placement ban on British TV lifted '' . BBC . UK . Archived from the original on May 20 , 2011 . Retrieved May 24 , 2011 . Jump up ^ `` Style expert Steven Cojocaru to give ' American Idol ' finalists an Old Navy makeover '' . Realitytvworld.com . Retrieved February 24 , 2011 . Jump up ^ James , Meg ( March 17 , 2011 ) . `` Pepsi hopes tapping a big gun will restore market share '' . Los Angeles Times . Retrieved March 16 , 2011 . Jump up ^ Michele Amabile Angermiller ( March 31 , 2016 ) . `` ' American Idol ' Pulls the Plug on Summer Tour '' . Billboard . Retrieved April 20 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Nielsen Business Media , Inc ( December 23 , 2006 ) . The Year in Music and Touring 2006 . Billboard . Retrieved February 24 , 2011 . Jump up ^ Michele Amabile Angermiller ( March 31 , 2016 ) . `` ' American Idol ' Pulls the Plug on Summer Tour '' . Billboard . Jump up ^ `` American Idol ' Season 5 Encores ' '' . California : Prnewswire.com . Retrieved February 24 , 2011 . Jump up ^ `` ' American Idol ' drops Sony , signs with Universal Music Group for distribution deal '' . Los Angeles Times . August 3 , 2010 . Retrieved February 24 , 2011 . ^ Jump up to : `` Disney 's Hollywood Studios tunes up for debut of American Idol Experience '' . Orlando Sentinel . January 27 , 2009 . Retrieved February 24 , 2011 . Jump up ^ `` Topic Galleries -- '' . Orlandosentinel.com . February 8 , 2008 . Archived from the original on October 15 , 2008 . Retrieved August 25 , 2010 . Jump up ^ Dewayne Bevil ( August 15 , 2014 ) . `` Closing time : Disney moves up end date for American Idol Experience '' . orlandosentinel.com . Tribune Newspapers . Retrieved February 13 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Disney World plans American Idol attraction '' . The Daily Telegraph . February 8 , 2008 . Jump up ^ `` Win Big with CTS TV this Fall ! '' . Marketing Magazine . August 13 , 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Say `` Yes '' to YES TV -- YES TV Set to Launch This Fall `` . CTSTV.com . Crossroads Christian Communications . Archived from the original on August 12 , 2014 . Retrieved August 13 , 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Iconic Music Series AMERICAN IDOL Lands on CTV Two , March 11 '' . Bell Media . 20 February 2018 . Retrieved 25 February 2018 . Jump up ^ Brzeski , Patrick . `` Australia 's Network Ten Confirms ' Australian Idol ' Not Returning '' . Jump up ^ `` American Idol : la 12 ° stagione su La3 '' . DTTI Digitale Terrestre . February 3 , 2014 . Retrieved October 24 , 2014 . External links ( edit ) Wikimedia Commons has media related to American Idol . 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who did the english take new york from what was it called before the english named it new york

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=New_Amsterdam&oldid=864864565

New Amsterdam - wikipedia New Amsterdam This article is about the settlement that became New York City . For other uses , see New Amsterdam ( disambiguation ) . The original city map of New Amsterdam , called the Castello Plan , from 1660 ( the bottom left corner is approximately south , while the top right corner is approximately north ) show New Netherland series Exploration Fortifications : Fort Amsterdam Fort Nassau ( North ) Fort Orange Fort Nassau ( South ) Fort Goede Hoop De Wal Fort Casimir Fort Altena Fort Wilhelmus Fort Beversreede Fort Nya Korsholm De Rondout Settlements : Noten Eylandt Nieuw Amsterdam Rensselaerswijck Nieuw Haarlem Beverwijck Wiltwijk Bergen Pavonia Vriessendael Achter Col Vlissingen Oude Dorpe Colen Donck Greenwich Heemstede Rustdorp Gravesende Breuckelen Nieuw Amersfoort Midwout Nieuw Utrecht Boswijk Swaanendael Nieuw Amstel Nieuw Dorp The Patroon System Charter of Freedoms and Exemptions Cornelius Jacobsen May ( 1620 -- 25 ) Willem Verhulst ( 1625 -- 26 ) Peter Minuit ( 1626 -- 32 ) Sebastiaen Jansen Krol ( 1632 -- 33 ) Wouter van Twiller ( 1633 -- 38 ) Willem Kieft ( 1638 -- 47 ) Peter Stuyvesant ( 1647 -- 64 ) People of New Netherland New Netherlander Twelve Men Eight Men Nine Men Flushing Remonstrance History of New York City Lenape and New Netherland , to 1664 New Amsterdam British and Revolution , 1665 -- 1783 Federal and early American , 1784 -- 1854 Tammany and Consolidation , 1855 -- 1897 ( Civil War , 1861 -- 1865 ) Early 20th century , 1898 -- 1945 Post -- World War II , 1946 -- 1977 Modern and post-9 / 11 , 1978 -- See also Timelines : NYC Bronx Brooklyn Queens Staten Island New Amsterdam ( Dutch : Nieuw Amsterdam , pronounced ( ˌniʋɑmstərˈdɑm ) or ( ˌniuˈʔɑms - ) ) was a 17th - century Dutch settlement established at the southern tip of Manhattan Island that served as the seat of the colonial government in New Netherland . The factorij became a settlement outside Fort Amsterdam . The fort was situated on the strategic southern tip of the island of Manhattan and was meant to defend the fur trade operations of the Dutch West India Company in the North River ( Hudson River ) . In 1624 , it became a provincial extension of the Dutch Republic and was designated as the capital of the province in 1625 . By 1655 , the population of New Netherland had grown to 2,000 people , with 1,500 living in New Amsterdam . Prior to 1664 , the population had exploded in nine years to almost 9,000 people in New Netherland , 2,500 of whom lived in New Amsterdam , 1,000 lived near Fort Orange , and the remainder in other towns and villages . New Amsterdam was renamed New York on September 8 , 1664 , in honor of the Duke of York ( later James II of England ) , in whose name the English had captured it . After the Second Anglo - Dutch War of 1665 -- 1667 , England and the United Provinces of the Netherlands agreed to the status quo in the Treaty of Breda . The English kept the island of Manhattan , the Dutch giving up their claim to the town and the rest of the colony , while the English formally abandoned Surinam in South America , and the island of Run in the East Indies to the Dutch , confirming their control of the valuable Spice Islands . Today much of what was once New Amsterdam is New York City . Contents 1 History 1.1 Early settlement ( 1609 -- 1625 ) 1.1. 1 Pilgrims ' attempt to settle in the Hudson River area 1.1. 2 Dutch return 1.2 Fort Amsterdam ( 1624 ) 1.3 1624 -- 1664 1.4 English capture 2 Cartography 2.1 Layout 3 Legacy 4 See also 5 Notes 6 Further reading 6.1 Primary sources 7 External links History ( edit ) See also : Dutch colonization of the Americas and History of New York City Early settlement ( 1609 -- 1625 ) ( edit ) Main article : New Netherland This section needs additional citations for verification . Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . ( January 2013 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) The Rigging House at 120 William Street , the last remaining Dutch building of New Amsterdam . Built in the 17th century , it became a Methodist church in the 1760s and became a secular building again before its destruction in the mid-19th century . In 1524 , nearly a century before the arrival of the Dutch , the site that later became New Amsterdam was named New Angoulême by the Italian explorer Giovanni da Verrazzano , to commemorate his patron King Francis I of France , former Count of Angoulême . The first recorded exploration by the Dutch of the area around what is now called New York Bay was in 1609 with the voyage of the ship Halve Maen ( English : `` Half Moon '' ) , captained by Henry Hudson in the service of the Dutch Republic , as the emissary of Maurice of Nassau , Prince of Orange , Holland 's stadholder . Hudson named the river the Mauritius River . He was covertly attempting to find the Northwest Passage for the Dutch East India Company . Instead , he brought back news about the possibility of exploitation of beaver by the Dutch who sent commercial , private missions to the area the following years . At the time , beaver pelts were highly prized in Europe , because the fur could be felted to make waterproof hats . A by - product of the trade in beaver pelts was castoreum -- the secretion of the animals ' anal glands -- which was used for its medicinal properties and for perfumes . The expeditions by Adriaen Block and Hendrick Christiaensen in 1611 , 1612 , 1613 and 1614 , resulted in the surveying and charting of the region from the 38th parallel to the 45th parallel . On their 1614 map , which gave them a four - year trade monopoly under a patent of the States General , they named the newly discovered and mapped territory New Netherland for the first time . It also showed the first year - round trading presence in New Netherland , Fort Nassau , which would be replaced in 1624 by Fort Orange , which eventually grew into the town of Beverwyck , now Albany . Dominican trader Juan Rodriguez ( rendered in Dutch as Jan Rodrigues ) , born in Santo Domingo of Portuguese and African descent , arrived on Manhattan Island during the winter of 1613 -- 1614 , trapping for pelts and trading with the local population as a representative of the Dutch . He was the first recorded non-Native American inhabitant of what would eventually become New York City . The territory of New Netherland was originally a private , profit - making commercial enterprise focused on cementing alliances and conducting trade with the diverse Indian tribes . Surveying and exploration of the region was conducted as a prelude to an anticipated official settlement by the Dutch Republic , which occurred in 1624 . Pilgrims ' attempt to settle in the Hudson River area ( edit ) 1882 depiction of the ship Mayflower sailing from England to America in 1620 , in Plymouth Harbor In 1620 the Pilgrims attempted to sail to the Hudson River from England . However , the Mayflower reached Cape Cod ( now part of Massachusetts ) on November 9 , 1620 , after a voyage of 64 days . For a variety of reasons , primarily a shortage of supplies , the Mayflower could not proceed to the Hudson River , and the colonists decided to settle near Cape Cod , establishing the Plymouth Colony . Dutch return ( edit ) Main article : Governors Island The mouth of the Hudson River was selected as the ideal place for initial settlement as it had easy access to the ocean while also securing an ice - free lifeline to the beaver trading post near present - day Albany . Here , Indian hunters supplied them with pelts in exchange for European - made trade goods and wampum , which was soon being made by the Dutch on Long Island . In 1621 , the Dutch West India Company was founded . Between 1621 and 1623 , orders were given to the private , commercial traders to vacate the territory , thus opening up the territory to Dutch settlers and company traders . It also allowed the laws and ordinances of the states of Holland to apply . Previously , during the private , commercial period , only the law of the ship had applied . In May 1624 , the first settlers in New Netherland arrived on Noten Eylandt ( Nut or Nutten Island , now Governors Island ) aboard the ship New Netherland under the command of Cornelius Jacobsen May , who disembarked on the island with thirty families in order to take legal possession of the New Netherland territory . The families were then dispersed to Fort Wilhelmus on Verhulsten Island ( Burlington Island ) in the South River ( now the Delaware River ) , to Kievitshoek ( now Old Saybrook , Connecticut ) at the mouth of the Verse River ( now the Connecticut River ) and further north at Fort Nassau on the Mauritius or North River ( now the Hudson River ) , near what is now Albany . A fort and sawmill were soon erected at Nut Island . The latter was constructed by Franchoys Fezard and was taken apart for iron in 1648 . Fort Amsterdam ( 1624 ) ( edit ) A map of the Hudson River Valley c. 1635 ( north is to the right ) The threat of attack from other European colonial powers prompted the directors of the Dutch West India Company to formulate a plan to protect the entrance to the Hudson River . In 1624 , 30 families were sponsord by Dutch West India Company moving from Nut Island to Manhattan Island , where a citadel to contain Fort Amsterdam was being laid out by Cryn Frederickz van Lobbrecht at the direction of Willem Verhulst . By the end of 1625 , the site had been staked out directly south of Bowling Green on the site of the present U.S. Custom House . The Mohawk - Mahican War in the Hudson Valley led the company to relocate even more settlers to the vicinity of the new Fort Amsterdam . In the end , colonizing was a prohibitively expensive undertaking , only partly subsidized by the fur trade . This led to a scaling back of the original plans . By 1628 , a smaller fort was constructed with walls containing a mixture of clay and sand . The fort also served as the center of trading activity . It contained a barracks , the church , a house for the West India Company director and a warehouse for the storage of company goods . Troops from the fort used the triangle between the Heerestraat and what came to be known as Whitehall Street for marching drills . 1624 -- 1664 ( edit ) The First Slave Auction at New Amsterdam in 1655 , by Howard Pyle New Amsterdam in 1664 ( looking approximately due north ) Verhulst , with his council , was responsible for the selection of Manhattan as a permanent place of settlement and for situating Fort Amsterdam . He was replaced as the company director - general of New Amsterdam by Peter Minuit in 1626 . To legally safeguard the settlers ' investments , possessions and farms on Manhattan island , Minuit negotiated the `` purchase '' of Manhattan from a Manahatta band of Lenape for 60 guilders ' worth of trade goods . According to the writer Nathaniel Benchley , Minuit conducted the transaction with the Lenape chief Seyseys , who was only too happy to accept valuable merchandise in exchange for an island that was actually mostly controlled by the Weckquaesgeeks . The deed itself has not survived , so the specific details are unknown . A textual reference to the deed became the foundation for the legend that Minuit had purchased Manhattan from the Native Americans for twenty - four dollars ' worth of trinkets and beads , the guilder rate at the time being about two and a half to a Spanish dollar . The price of 60 Dutch guilders in 1626 amounts to around $1,100 in 2012 dollars . Further complicating the calculation is that the value of goods in the area would have been different than the value of those same goods in the developed market of the Netherlands . The Dutch exploited the hydropower of existing creeks by constructing mills at Turtle Bay ( between present - day East 45th - 48th Streets ) and Montagne 's Kill , later called Harlem Mill Creek ( East 108th Street ) . In 1639 a sawmill was located in the northern forest at what was later the corner of East 74th Street and Second Avenue , at which African laborers cut lumber . The New Amsterdam settlement had a population of approximately 270 people , including infants . In 1642 the new director - general Willem Kieft decided to build a stone church within the fort . The work was carried out by recent English immigrants , the brothers John and Richard Ogden . The church was finished in 1645 and stood until destroyed in the Slave Insurrection of 1741 . A pen - and - ink view of New Amsterdam , drawn on - the - spot and discovered in the map collection of the Austrian National Library in Vienna in 1991 , provides a unique view of New Amsterdam as it appeared from Capske ( small Cape ) Rock in 1648 . Capske Rock was situated in the water close to Manhattan between Manhattan and Noten Eylant , and signified the start of the East River roadstead . New Amsterdam received municipal rights on February 2 , 1653 , thus becoming a city . Albany , then named Beverwyck , received its city rights in 1652 . Nieuw Haarlem , now known as Harlem , was formally recognized in 1658 . The first Jews known to have lived in New Amsterdam arrived in 1654 . First to arrive were Solomon Pietersen and Jacob Barsimson , who sailed during the summer of 1654 directly from Holland , with passports that gave them permission to trade in the colony . Then in early September , 23 Jewish refugees arrived from the formerly Dutch city of Recife , which had been conquered by the Portuguese in January 1654 . The director of New Amsterdam , Peter Stuyvesant , sought to turn them away but was ultimately overruled by the directors of the Dutch West India Company in Amsterdam . Asser Levy , an Ashkenazi Jew who was one of the 23 refugees , eventually prospered and in 1661 became the first Jew to own a house in New Amsterdam , which also made him the first Jew known to have owned a house anywhere in North America . In 1661 the Communipaw ferry was founded and began a long history of trans - Hudson ferry and ultimately rail and road transportation . On September 15 , 1655 , New Amsterdam was attacked by 2,000 Indians as part of the Peach Tree War . They destroyed 28 farms , killed 100 settlers , and took 150 prisoners . English Capture ( edit ) On August 27 , 1664 , while England and the Dutch Republic were at peace , four English frigates sailed into New Amsterdam 's harbor and demanded New Netherland 's surrender , whereupon New Netherland was provisionally ceded by Stuyvesant . On September 6 , Stuyvesant sent lawyer Johannes de Decker and five other delegates to sign the official Articles of Capitulation . This was swiftly followed by the Second Anglo - Dutch War , between England and the Dutch Republic . In June 1665 , New Amsterdam was reincorporated under English law as New York City , named after the Duke of York ( later King James II ) . He was the brother of the English King Charles II , who had been granted the lands . In 1664 , Jan van Bonnel built a saw mill on East 74th Street and the East River , where a 13,710 - meter long stream that began in the north of today 's Central Park , which became known as the Saw Kill or Saw Kill Creek , emptied into the river . Later owners of the property George Elphinstone and Abraham Shotwell replaced the saw mill with a leather mill in 1677 . The Saw Kill was later redirected into a culvert , arched over , and its trickling little stream was called Arch Brook . In 1667 the Treaty of Breda ended the conflict . The Dutch did not press their claims on New Netherland . In return , they were granted the tiny Island of Run in North Maluku , rich in nutmegs , and a guarantee for their de facto possession of Suriname , captured by them that year . In July 1673 , during the Third Anglo - Dutch War , the Dutch briefly and quickly occupied New York City and renamed it New Orange . Anthony Colve was installed as the first governor . Previously there had only been West India Company directors . After the signing of the Treaty of Westminster in November 1674 , the city was relinquished to the English and the name reverted to `` New York '' . Suriname became an official Dutch possession in return . Cartography ( edit ) Redraft of the Castello Plan , drawn in 1916 The beginnings of New Amsterdam , unlike most other colonies in the New World , were thoroughly documented in city maps . During the time of New Netherland 's colonization , the Dutch were the pre-eminent cartographers in Europe . The delegated authority of the Dutch West India Company over New Netherland required maintaining sovereignty on behalf of the States General , generating cash flow through commercial enterprise for its shareholders , and funding the province 's growth . Thus its directors regularly required that censuses be taken . These tools to measure and monitor the province 's progress were accompanied by accurate maps and plans . These surveys , as well as grassroots activities to seek redress of grievances , account for the existence of some of the most important of the early documents . There is a particularly detailed city map called the Castello Plan produced in 1660 . Virtually every structure in New Amsterdam at the time is believed to be represented , and by a fortunate coincidence it can be determined who resided in every house from the Nicasius de Sille List of 1660 , which enumerates all the citizens of New Amsterdam and their addresses . The city map known as the Duke 's Plan probably derived from the same 1660 census as the Castello Plan . The Duke 's Plan includes the earliest suburban development on Manhattan ( the two outlined areas along the top of the plan ) . The work was created for James ( 1633 -- 1701 ) , the duke of York and Albany , after whom New York City and New York State 's capital Albany were named , just after the seizure of New Amsterdam by the British . After that provisional relinquishment of New Netherland , Stuyvesant reported to his superiors that he `` had endeavored to promote the increase of population , agriculture and commerce ... the flourishing condition which might have been more flourishing if the now afflicted inhabitants had been protected by a suitable garrison ... and had been helped with the long sought for settlement of the boundary , or in default thereof had they been seconded with the oft besought reinforcement of men and ships against the continual troubles , threats , encroachments and invasions of the British neighbors and government of Hartford Colony , our too powerful enemies . '' The existence of these city maps has proven to be very useful in the archaeology of New York City . For instance , the Castello map aided the excavation of the Stadthuys ( City Hall ) of New Amsterdam in determining the exact location of the building . Layout ( edit ) Depiction of the wall of New Amsterdam on a tile in the Wall Street subway station The maps enable a precise reconstruction of the town . Fort Amsterdam was located at the most southern tip of the island of Manhattan , which today is surrounded by Bowling Green . The Battery is a reference to its batteries , or cannons . Broadway was the main street that led out of town north towards Harlem . The town was surrounded to the north by a wall leading from the eastern to the western shore . The course of this city wall is today Wall Street . A canal led from the harbor inland and was filled in 1676 , which today is Broad Street . The layout of the streets was winding , as in a European city . Only starting from Wall Street going toward uptown did the typical grid become enforced long after the town ceased to be Dutch . Most of the Financial District overlaps New Amsterdam and has retained the original street layout . Legacy ( edit ) The Wyckoff Farm in Flatbush , Brooklyn . Some of its construction still dates from the Dutch period of what is currently New York City . 13 - 15 South William Street , constructed in the Dutch Colonial Revival architecture evoking New Amsterdam The 1625 date of the founding of New Amsterdam is now commemorated in the official Seal of New York City . ( Formerly , the year on the seal was 1664 , the year of the provisional Articles of Transfer , assuring New Netherlanders that they `` shall keep and enjoy the liberty of their consciences in religion '' , negotiated with the English by Peter Stuyvesant and his council . ) Sometimes considered a dysfunctional trading post by the English who later acquired it from the Dutch , Russell Shorto , author of The Island at the Center of the World , suggests that the city left its cultural marks on later New York and , by extension , the United States as a whole . Major recent historical research has been based on a set of documents that have survived from that period , untranslated . They are the administrative records of the colony , unreadable by most scholars . Since the 1970s , a professor named Charles Gehring has made it his life 's work to translate this first - hand history of the Colony of New Netherland . The scholarly conclusion has largely been that the settlement of New Amsterdam is much more like current New York than previously thought . Cultural diversity and a mind - set that resembles the American Dream were already present in the first few years of this colony . Writers like Russell Shorto argue that the large influence of New Amsterdam on the American psyche has largely been overlooked in the classic telling of American beginnings , because of animosity between the English victors and the conquered Dutch . The original 17th - century architecture of New Amsterdam has completely vanished ( affected by the fires of 1776 and 1835 ) , leaving only archaeological remnants . The original street plan of New Amsterdam has stayed largely intact , as have some houses outside Manhattan . The presentation of the legacy of the unique culture of 17th - century New Amsterdam remains a concern of preservationists and educators . The National Park Service celebrated in 2009 the 400th anniversary of Henry Hudson 's 1609 voyage on behalf of the Dutch with the New Amsterdam Trail . The Dutch - American historian and journalist Hendrik Willem van Loon wrote in 1933 a work of alternative history entitled `` If the Dutch Had Kept Nieuw Amsterdam '' ( in If , Or History Rewritten , edited by J.C. Squire , 1931 , Simon & Schuster ) . A similar theme , at greater length , was taken up by writer Elizabeth Bear , who published the `` New Amsterdam '' series of detective stories that take place in a world where the city remained Dutch until the Napoleonic Wars and retained its name also afterwards . One of New York Broadway theatres is the New Amsterdam Theatre . The name New Amsterdam is also written on the architrave situated on top of the row of columns in front of the Manhattan Municipal Building , commemorating the name of the Dutch colony . Although no architectural monuments or buildings have survived , the legacy lived on in the form Dutch Colonial Revival architecture . A number of structures in New York City were constructed in the 19th and 20th centuries in this style , such as Wallabout Market in Brooklyn , South William Street in Manhattan , West End Collegiate Church at West 77th Street , and others . See also ( edit ) Jacobus van de Water Notes ( edit ) Jump up ^ `` The Colony of New Netherland '' , 2009 , by Jaap Jacobs , page 32 . Jump up ^ Park , Kingston Ubarn Cultural . `` Dutch Colonization '' . www.nps.gov . Jump up ^ Rankin , Rebecca B. , Cleveland Rodgers ( 1948 ) . New York : the World 's Capital City , Its Development and Contributions to Progress . Harper . CS1 maint : Multiple names : authors list ( link ) Jump up ^ Nieuwe Wereldt ofte Beschrijvinghe van West - Indien , uit veelerhande Schriften ende Aen - teekeningen van verscheyden Natien ( Leiden , Bonaventure & Abraham Elseviers , 1625 ) p. 83 : `` / in den jare 1609 sonden de bewindt - hebbers van de gheoctroyeerde Oost - Indischische compagnie het jacht de halve mane / daer voor schipper ende koopman op roer Hendrick Hudson ( ... ) '' ( `` in the year 1609 the administrators of the East Indies Company sent the half moon captained by the merchant Hudson ( ... ) '' ) Jump up ^ Bancroft , George ( 24 October 1886 ) . `` History of the United States of America : From the Discovery of the Continent '' . D. Appleton -- via Google Books . Jump up ^ Juan Rodriguez monograph . Ccny.cuny.edu . Retrieved on 2013 - 07 - 23 . Jump up ^ Honoring Juan Rodriguez , a Settler of New York -- NYTimes.com . Cityroom.blogs.nytimes.com . Retrieved on 2013 - 07 - 23 . Jump up ^ Stratton , Eugene A. ( 1986 ) . Plymouth Colony : Its History & People , 1620 -- 1691 . Salt Lake City : Ancestry Incorporated . ISBN 0 - 916489 - 13 - 2 . ( page 20 ) . Jump up ^ Mixit Productions . `` The New Amsterdam Trail - A Virtual Tour '' . nyharborparks.org . Retrieved June 26 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` '' The New Amsterdam Trail `` , National Parks of New York Harbor Conservancy '' ( PDF ) . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on 2011 - 12 - 04 . Jump up ^ Benchley , Nathaniel . `` The $24 Swindle : The Indians who sold Manhattan were bilked , all right , but they did n't mind -- the land was n't theirs anyway . '' American Heritage , Vol. 11 , no . 1 ( Dec. 1959 ) . Jump up ^ According to a calculation by the International Institute of Social History , Amsterdam at International Institute of Social History , Amsterdam , Netherlands Jump up ^ Michael T. Martin ; Marilyn Yaquinto ( 2007 ) . Redress for Historical Injustices in the United States : On Reparations for Slavery , Jim Crow , and Their Legacies . Duke University Press . ISBN 0822389819 . Retrieved April 14 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Howard Dodson , Christopher Moore , Roberta Yancy , Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture ( 2000 ) . The Black New Yorkers : the Schomburg illustrated chronology . John Wiley . ISBN 9780471297147 . Retrieved April 14 , 2013 . CS1 maint : Multiple names : authors list ( link ) Jump up ^ `` A Brief Outline of the History of New Netherland '' . Coin and Currency Collections in the Department of Special Collections University of Notre Dame Libraries . Retrieved 12 July 2018 . Jump up ^ `` New York around 1650 '' . Austrian National Library . Archived from the original on 2014 - 01 - 07 . Retrieved Jan 7 , 2014 . ^ Jump up to : de Koning ; Joep M.J. ( July -- August 2000 ) . `` From Van der Donck to Visscher '' ( PDF ) . Mercator 's World . Retrieved Feb 19 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Hertzberg , Arthur ( 1997 ) . The Jews in America . New York : Columbia University Press . p. 9 . Jump up ^ Hertzberg , Arthur ( 1997 ) . The Jews in America . New York : Columbia University Press . pp. 7 -- 8 . Jump up ^ Hertzberg , Arthur ( 1997 ) . The Jews in America . New York : Columbia University Press . pp. 10 -- 11 . Jump up ^ Hertzberg , Arthur ( 1997 ) . The Jews in America . New York : Columbia University Press . p. 17 . Jump up ^ Railroad Ferries of the Hudson : And Stories of a Deckhand , by , Raymond J. Baxter , Arthur G. Adams , pg. 46 , 1999 , Fordham University Press , 978 - 0823219544 Jump up ^ Henry L. Schoolcraft , `` The Capture of New Amsterdam , '' English Historical Review ( 1907 ) 22 # 88 674 -- 693 in JSTOR ^ Jump up to : `` The saw - kill and the making of dutch colonial Manhattan : Sawkill Lumber Co '' . Sawkil.com . Retrieved April 14 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Arthur Bunyan Caldwell ( 1882 ) . The History of Harlem : An Historical Narrative Delivered at Harlem Music Hall , April 24th , 1882 : a Lecture . Small Talk Publishing Company . Retrieved April 14 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Anthony Lofaso ( 2010 ) . Origins and History of the Village of Yorkville in the City of New York . ISBN 9781450019408 . Retrieved April 14 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` When New York was officially named New Orange '' . 7 March 2011 . Jump up ^ Robert Augustyn , `` Maps in the making of Manhattan '' Magazine Antiques , September 1995 . URL accessed on December 15 , 2005 . Jump up ^ Several reproductions of the Castello plan can be found on - line : New Netherland Project , New York Public Library , Wikimedia Commons . Colored versions from 1916 can be found here : New York University and here : New York Historical Society . A `` Digital redraft of the Castello Plan of New Amsterdam in New Netherland in 1660 '' is an interactive map that can be found on ekamper.net . This map allows you to click in various places to learn more about the ownership and use of the land and buildings . All URLs accessed on February 17 , 2010 . A Google Earth File of the Castello Plan is posted on bbs.keyhole.com . Jump up ^ An image of the Duke 's map can be found on - line at the British Library site : THE BRITISH LIBRARY URL accessed on December 15 , 2005 . Jump up ^ A slideshow of the famous Stadt Huys dig , a landmark archaeological excavation of one of the central blocks of New Amsterdam , can be found on beatl.barnard.columbia.edu Archived 2012 - 11 - 04 at the Wayback Machine ... accessed on February 2 , 2011 Jump up ^ A 17th - century picture of the Stadthuys can be found on cr.nps.gov . accessed on February 2 , 2011 . Jump up ^ Russell Shorto ( 2004 ) . The Island at the Center of the World : The Epic Story of Dutch Manhattan and the Forgotten Colony that Shaped America ( First ed . ) . New York City : Vintage Books ( a Division of Random House ) . ISBN 1 - 4000 - 7867 - 9 . Jump up ^ NY Public Library Picture Collection . `` Map of Great Fire 1776 '' . Retrieved February 2 , 2011 . Jump up ^ CUNY . `` Map of Damages -- 1835 '' . Archived from the original on June 13 , 2010 . Retrieved February 2 , 2011 . Jump up ^ `` The New Amsterdam Trail '' . National Park Service , New York Harbor Parks . 2009 . Jump up ^ `` The Henry Hudson 400 Foundation '' . Further reading ( edit ) Burrows , Edwin G. and Mike Wallace . Gotham : A History of New York City to 1898 ( 2000 ) excerpt and text search Goodfriend , Joyce D. ; et al. , eds. ( 2008 ) . Going Dutch : The Dutch Presence in America , 1609 -- 2009 . Jacobs , Jaap . The Colony of New Netherland : A Dutch Settlement in Seventeenth - Century America ( 2009 ) excerpt and text search Kammen , Michael . Colonial New York : A History New York : Oxford University Press , 1975 . McFarlane , Jim . Penelope : A Novel of New Amsterdam , Greer , SC : Twisted Cedar Press , 2012 . 371 pages . ISBN 9780985112202 Schmidt , Benjamin , Innocence Abroad : The Dutch Imagination and the New World , 1570 -- 1670 , Cambridge : University Press , 2001 . ISBN 978 - 0521804080 Scheltema , Gajus and Westerhuijs , Heleen , eds . Exploring Historic Dutch New York ( Museum of the City of New York / Dover Publications , 2011 ) . ISBN 978 - 0 - 486 - 48637 - 6 Schoolcraft , Henry L. ( 1907 ) . `` The Capture of New Amsterdam '' . English Historical Review . 22 ( 88 ) : 674 -- 693 . doi : 10.1093 / ehr / xxii. lxxxviii. 674 . JSTOR 550138 . Shorto , Russell , The Island at the Center of the World : The Epic Story of Dutch Manhattan and the Forgotten Colony that Shaped America , Doubleday , 2004 . ISBN 978 - 0385503495 Swerling , Beverley , City of Dreams : A Novel of Nieuw Amsterdam and Early Manhattan , Simon & Schuster , 2002 . ISBN 978 - 0684871738 Primary sources ( edit ) Jackson , Kenneth T. and David S. Dunbar , eds . Empire City : New York Through the Centuries ( 2005 ) , 1015 pages of excerpts excerpt External links ( edit ) Wikimedia Commons has media related to New Amsterdam . Dutch West Indies 1630 -- 1975 on YouTube The New Amsterdam Trail , a downloadable audio walking tour of Lower Manhattan Nieuw Amsterdam to New York , an audio history from the National Parks of New York Harbor Conservancy New Amsterdam from the New Netherland Project `` Conditions as Created by their Lords Burgomasters of Amsterdam '' is a publication , from 1656 , about goals to populate New Amsterdam Dutch Empire Colonies and trading posts of the Dutch East India Company ( 1602 -- 1798 ) Governorate General Batavia Governorates Ambon Banda Islands Cape Colony Celebes Ceylon Coromandel Formosa Malacca Moluccas Northeast coast of Java Directorates Bengal Persia Suratte Commandments Bantam Malabar West coast of Sumatra Residencies Bantam Banjarmasin Batavia Cheribon Palembang Preanger Pontianak Opperhoofd settlements Myanmar Canton Dejima Mauritius Siam Timor Tonkin Colonies and trading posts of the Dutch West India Company ( 1621 -- 1792 ) Colonies in the Americas Berbice Brazil Cayenne Curaçao and Dependencies Demerara Essequibo New Netherland Pomeroon Sint Eustatius and Dependencies Surinam Tobago Virgin Islands Trading posts in Africa Arguin Gold Coast Loango - Angola Senegambia Slave Coast Governed by the Society of Berbice Governed by the Society of Suriname Settlements of the Noordsche Compagnie ( 1614 -- 1642 ) Settlements Jan Mayen Smeerenburg Colonies of the Kingdom of the Netherlands ( 1815 -- 1962 ) Until 1825 Bengal Coromandel Malacca Suratte Until 1853 Dejima Until 1872 Gold Coast Until 1945 Dutch East Indies Until 1954 Curaçao and Dependencies Surinam Until 1962 New Guinea Became constituent countries of the Kingdom of the Netherlands ; Suriname gained full independence in 1975 , Curaçao and Dependencies was renamed to the Netherlands Antilles , which was eventually dissolved in 2010 . Kingdom of the Netherlands ( 1954 -- present ) Constituent countries Aruba Curaçao Netherlands Sint Maarten Public bodies of the Netherlands Bonaire Saba Sint Eustatius Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=New_Amsterdam&oldid=864864565 '' Categories : New Netherland Populated places established in the 1620s History of New York City Historic Jewish communities in the United States 1664 disestablishments in the Thirteen Colonies Pre-statehood history of New York ( state ) Dutch - American culture in New York ( state ) 1625 establishments in the Dutch Empire 1664 disestablishments in the Dutch Empire Populated places established by the Dutch West India Company Hidden categories : CS1 maint : Multiple names : authors list CS1 : Julian -- Gregorian uncertainty Webarchive template wayback links Articles containing Dutch - language text Articles needing additional references from January 2013 All articles needing additional references Articles contradicting other articles Talk Contents About Wikipedia Wikimedia Commons Alemannisch Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Eesti Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Հայերեն Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית Basa Jawa ქართული Latina Македонски Bahasa Melayu Nederlands 日本 語 Norsk Português Română Русский Simple English Suomi Svenska Türkçe Українська 中文 27 more Edit links This page was last edited on 20 October 2018 , at 00 : 48 ( UTC ) . 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the function of the semicircular canals​ is

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Semicircular_canals&oldid=819278435

Semicircular canals - wikipedia Semicircular canals Jump to : navigation , search Semicircular canal The internal ear , with `` semicircular ducts '' at left Inner ear illustration showing semicircular canal , hair cells , ampulla , cupula , vestibular nerve , & fluid Details Artery stylomastoid artery , labyrinthine artery Identifiers Latin canalis semicircularis MeSH A09. 246.63 TA A15. 3.03. 015 FMA 60186 75362 , 60186 Anatomical terminology ( edit on Wikidata ) This article is one of a series documenting the anatomy of the Human ear Outer ear ( show ) Pinna Tragus Middle ear ( show ) Tympanic membrane Ossicles Malleus Incus Stapes Inner ear ( hide ) Vestibules Utricle Saccule Cochlea Semicircular canals The semicircular canals or semicircular ducts are three semicircular , interconnected tubes located in the innermost part of each ear , the inner ear . The three canals are the horizontal , superior and posterior semicircular canals . Contents ( hide ) 1 Structure 1.1 Horizontal semicircular canal 1.2 Superior semicircular canal 1.3 Posterior semicircular canal 1.4 Development 2 Function 3 History 4 See also 5 References 6 Additional images 7 External links Structure ( edit ) The semicircular canals are a component of the bony labyrinth . At one end of each of the semicircular canals is a dilated sac called an osseous ampulla which is more than twice the diameter of the canal . Each ampulla contains an ampulla crest , the crista ampullaris which consists of a thick gelatinous cap called a cupula and many hair cells . The superior and posterior semicircular canals are oriented vertically at right angles to each other . The lateral semicircular canal is about a 30 - degree angle from the horizontal plane . The orientations of the canals cause a different canal to be stimulated by movement of the head in different planes . The horizontal canal detects angular acceleration of the head when the head is turned and the superior and posterior canals detect vertical head movements when the head is moved up or down . When the head changes position , the endolymph in the canals lags behind due to inertia and this acts on the cupula which bends the cilia of the hair cells . The stimulation of the hair cells sends the message to the brain that acceleration is taking place . The ampullae open into the vestibule by five orifices , one of the apertures being common to two of the canals . Among species of mammals , the size of the semicircular canals is correlated with their type of locomotion . Specifically , species that are agile and have fast , jerky locomotion have larger canals relative to their body size than those that move more cautiously . Horizontal semicircular canal ( edit ) The lateral or horizontal canal ( external semicircular canal ) is the shortest of the three canals . Movement of fluid within this canal corresponds to rotation of the head around a vertical axis ( i.e. the neck ) , or in other words rotation in the transverse plane . This occurs , for example , when you turn your head to the left and right hand sides before crossing a road It measures from 12 to 15 mm. , and its arch is directed horizontally backward and laterally ; thus each semicircular canal stands at right angles to the other two . Its ampullated end corresponds to the upper and lateral angle of the vestibule , just above the oval window , where it opens close to the ampullated end of the superior canal ; its opposite end opens at the upper and back part of the vestibule . The lateral canal of one ear is very nearly in the same plane as that of the other ; while the superior canal of one ear is nearly parallel to the posterior canal of the other . Superior semicircular canal ( edit ) The superior or anterior semicircular canal is a part of the vestibular system and detects rotations of the head in around the lateral axis , or in other words rotation in the sagittal plane . This occurs , for example , when nodding your head . It is 15 to 20 mm in length , is vertical in direction , and is placed transversely to the long axis of the petrous part of the temporal bone , on the anterior surface of which its arch forms a round projection . It describes about two - thirds of a circle . Its lateral extremity is ampullated , and opens into the upper part of the vestibule ; the opposite end joins with the upper part of the posterior canal to form the crus commune , which opens into the upper and medial part of the vestibule . Posterior semicircular canal ( edit ) The posterior semicircular canal is a part of the vestibular system that detects rotation of the head around the left - right ( frontal ) axis , or in other words rotation in the coronal plane . This occurs , for example , when you move your head to touch your shoulders , or when doing a cartwheel . It is directed superiorly , as per its nomenclature , and posteriorly , nearly parallel to the posterior surface of the petrous bone . The vestibular aqueduct is immediately medial to it . The posterior canal is part of the bony labyrinth and is used by the vestibular system to detect rotations of the head in the coronal plane . It is the longest of the three canals , measuring from 18 to 22 mm . Its lower or ampullated end opens into the lower and back part of the vestibule , its upper into the crus commune . Development ( edit ) Findings from a 2009 study demonstrated a critical late role for BMP 2b in the morphogenesis of semicircular canals in the zebrafish inner ear . It is suspected that the role of bmp2 in semicircular canal duct outgrowth is likely to be conserved between different vertebrate species . Function ( edit ) Cochlea and vestibular system See also : Balance ( ability ) and Equilibrioception Each canal is filled with a fluid called endolymph and contains motion sensors within the fluids . At the base of each canal , the bony region of the canal is enlarged which opens into the utricle and has a dilated sac at one end called the osseous ampullae . Within the ampulla is a mound of hair cells and supporting cells called crista ampullaris . These hair cells have many cytoplasmic projections on the apical surface called stereocilia which are embedded in a gelatinous structure called the cupula . As the head rotates the duct moves but the endolymph lags behind owing to inertia . This deflects the cupula and bends the stereocilia within . The bending of these stereocilia alters an electric signal that is transmitted to the brain . Within approximately 10 seconds of achieving constant motion , the endolymph catches up with the movement of the duct and the cupula is no longer affected , stopping the sensation of acceleration . The specific gravity of the cupula is comparable to that of the surrounding endolymph . Consequently , the cupula is not displaced by gravity , unlike the otolithic membranes of the utricle and saccule . As with macular hair cells , hair cells of the crista ampullaris will depolarise when the stereocilia deflect towards the kinocilium . Deflection in the opposite direction results in hyperpolarisation and inhibition . In the horizontal canal , ampullopetal flow is necessary for hair - cell stimulation , whereas ampullofugal flow is necessary in the anterior and posterior canals . This adjustment period is in part the cause of an illusion known as `` the leans '' often experienced by pilots . As a pilot enters a turn , hair cells in the semicircular canals are stimulated , telling the brain that the aircraft , and the pilot , are no longer moving in a straight line but rather making a banked turn . If the pilot were to sustain a constant rate turn , the endolymph would eventually catch up with the ducts and cease to deflect the cupula . The pilot would no longer feel as if the aircraft was in a turn . As the pilot exits the turn , the semicircular canals are stimulated to make the pilot think that they are now turning in the opposite direction rather than flying straight and level . In response to this , the pilot will often lean in the direction of the original turn in an attempt to compensate for this illusion . A more serious form of this is called a graveyard spiral . Rather than the pilot leaning in the direction of the original turn , they may actually reenter the turn . As the endolymph stabilizes , the semicircular canals stop registering the gradual turn and the aircraft slowly loses altitude until impacting with the ground . The semicircular ducts provide sensory input for experiences of rotary movements . They are oriented along the pitch , roll , and yaw axes . History ( edit ) Jean Pierre Flourens , by destroying the horizontal semicircular canal of pigeons , noted that they continue to fly in a circle , showing the purpose of the semicircular canals . See also ( edit ) This article uses anatomical terminology ; for an overview , see Anatomical terminology . Ear Inner ear References ( edit ) This article incorporates text in the public domain from the 20th edition of Gray 's Anatomy ( 1918 ) ^ Jump up to : Saladin , Kenneth S. ( 2012 ) . Anatomy and Physiology : The Unity of Form and Function . New York : McGraw Hill . pp. 607 -- 8 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 07 - 337825 - 1 . Jump up ^ Spoor , Fred ; Garland , Theodore ; Krovitz , Gail ; Ryan , Timothy M. ; Silcox , Mary T. ; Walker , Alan ( 2007 ) . `` The primate semicircular canal system and locomotion '' . Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences . 104 ( 26 ) : 10808 -- 12 . Bibcode : 2007PNAS ... 10410808S . doi : 10.1073 / pnas. 0704250104 . JSTOR 25436020 . PMC 1892787 . PMID 17576932 . Jump up ^ Hammond , Katherine L. ; Loynes , Helen E. ; Mowbray , Catriona ; Runke , Greg ; Hammerschmidt , Matthias ; Mullins , Mary C. ; Hildreth , Victoria ; Chaudhry , Bill ; Whitfield , Tanya T. ( 2009 ) . Hendricks , Michael , ed . `` A Late Role for bmp2b in the Morphogenesis of Semicircular Canal Ducts in the Zebrafish Inner Ear '' . PLoS ONE . 4 ( 2 ) : e4368 . Bibcode : 2009PLoSO ... 4.4368 H . doi : 10.1371 / journal. pone. 0004368 . PMC 2629815 . PMID 19190757 . Jump up ^ Katz , Jack ; Chasin , Marshall ; English , Kristina ; Hood , Linda J. ; Tillery , Kim L. ( 2015 ) . Handbook of Clinical Audiology ( 7 ed . ) . Philadelphia , PA : Wolters Kluwer . pp. 383 -- 385 . ISBN 978 - 1 - 4511 - 9163 - 9 . Jump up ^ Antunano , Melchor J. `` FAA : Medical Facts for Pilots '' ( PDF ) . Federal Aviation Administration . Retrieved 8 Dec 2011 . Jump up ^ Pearce , J.M.S. ( 17 March 2009 ) . `` Marie - Jean - Pierre Flourens ( 1794 -- 1867 ) and Cortical Localization '' . European Neurology . 61 ( 5 ) : 311 -- 314 . doi : 10.1159 / 000206858 . Additional images ( edit ) Coronal section of right temporal bone . The cochlea and vestibule , viewed from above . Transverse section through head of fetal sheep , in the region of the labyrinth . X 30 . Position of the right bony labyrinth of the ear in the skull , viewed from above . External links ( edit ) Wikimedia Commons has media related to Semicircular canals . http://www.bio.psu.edu/people/faculty/strauss/anatomy/nerv/innerear2.htm https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK10863/ http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/175622/human-ear/65037/Vestibular-system?anchor=ref531828 ( hide ) Anatomy of hearing and balance Outer ear Auricle helix antihelix tragus antitragus intertragic notch earlobe Ear canal Auricular muscles Eardrum umbo pars flaccida Middle ear Tympanic cavity Medial structures oval window round window secondary tympanic membrane prominence of facial canal promontory of tympanic cavity Posterior structures mastoid cells aditus to mastoid antrum pyramidal eminence Ossicles Malleus superior ligament lateral ligament anterior ligament Incus superior ligament posterior ligament Stapes annular ligament Muscles stapedius tensor tympani Auditory tube / Eustachian tube Torus tubarius Inner ear / ( membranous labyrinth , bony labyrinth ) Auditory system / Cochlear labyrinth General cochlea Vestibular duct Helicotrema Tympanic duct Modiolus Cochlear cupula Perilymphatic space Perilymph Cochlear aqueduct Cochlear duct / scala media Reissner 's / vestibular membrane Basilar membrane Reticular membrane Endolymph Stria vascularis Spiral ligament Organ of Corti stereocilia tip links Tectorial membrane Sulcus spiralis externus internus Spiral limbus Cells Claudius cell Boettcher cell Vestibular system / Vestibular labyrinth Vestibule Utricle macula Saccule macula Kinocilium Otolith Vestibular aqueduct endolymphatic duct endolymphatic sac Ductus reuniens Semicircular canals Superior semicircular canal Posterior semicircular canal Horizontal semicircular canal Ampullary cupula Ampullae crista ampullaris Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Semicircular_canals&oldid=819278435 '' Categories : Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the 20th edition of Gray 's Anatomy ( 1918 ) Ear Sensory organs Vestibular system Human head and neck Hidden categories : Medicine infobox template using GraySubject or GrayPage Talk Contents About Wikipedia Català Čeština Davvisámegiella Deutsch Español Français 한국어 Bahasa Indonesia Italiano Қазақша Кыргызча Lietuvių 日本 語 Polski Português Русский کوردی Српски / srpski Suomi Svenska 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 8 January 2018 , at 13 : 36 . 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why did jamie kill her mom in halloween 4

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Jamie_Lloyd&oldid=804476497

Jamie Lloyd - wikipedia Jamie Lloyd Jump to : navigation , search For the British theatre director , see Jamie Lloyd ( director ) . This film - related article describes a work or element of fiction in a primarily in - universe style . Please help rewrite it to explain the fiction more clearly and provide non-fictional perspective . ( December 2010 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) Jamie Lloyd Halloween character Danielle Harris as Jamie Lloyd First appearance Halloween 4 : The Return of Michael Myers Created by Alan B. McElroy Portrayed by Danielle Harris ( Halloween 4 & 5 ) J.C. Brandy ( Halloween 6 ) Information Family Laurie Strode ( deceased mother ) John Tate ( twin brother ; originally in Kevin Williamson 's screenplay ) Children Stephen Lloyd ( son ; orphaned ) Relatives Judith Myers ( deceased maternal aunt ) Michael Myers ( maternal uncle ) Jamie Lloyd is a fictional character in the Halloween franchise and the main protagonist of Halloween 4 and 5 and also appears in a less prominent role in Halloween : The Curse of Michael Myers . The character was created Alan B. McElroy and portrayed by actress Danielle Harris in the fourth and fifth movies , while J.C. Brandy portrays her in the sixth . The character was created after Jamie Lee Curtis was unable to return as Laurie Strode for the fourth film due to working on another film project . She instead asked that the writers include her character 's death from an automobile accident in the plot . The fourth film introduced Laurie 's daughter , Jamie Lloyd . As the daughter of Laurie , she is also the niece of infamous serial killer Michael Myers and his first victim , Judith Myers . Contents ( hide ) 1 Appearances 1.1 Halloween 4 : The Return of Michael Myers 1.2 Halloween 5 : The Revenge of Michael Myers 1.3 Halloween : The Curse of Michael Myers 1.4 Continuity 2 Casting 3 Other notes 4 References 5 External links Appearances ( edit ) Halloween 4 : the return of Michael Myers ( edit ) Main article : Halloween 4 : The Return of Michael Myers Jamie suffers from nightmares about her feared uncle , Michael Myers ( George P. Wilbur ) . She is also tormented by schoolmates because she is related to Haddonfield 's notorious `` boogeyman '' . On October 30 , 1988 , Michael is being transferred out of Ridgemont Federal Sanitarium back to Smith 's Grove . While in the transfer ambulance , he recovers from his ten - year coma upon learning the existence of his niece . Accordingly , he kills the two medical attendants and the two drivers . While making his way back to his hometown , he also kills a mechanic and a waitress . In Haddonfield , while on the trail for Jamie , Michael kills the Carruthers ' Golden Retriever Sundae , a worker at the power plant which causes a blackout of the entire town , the entire police force , the deputy , the police chief 's daughter Kelly , Rachel 's boyfriend Brady , and 4 men from a vigilante mob . Escaping from town , Jamie cowers in a pick - up truck as Rachel hits Michael head on , throwing him off the road and knocking him out . Despite Rachel 's orders , Jamie goes over to him and holds his hand . The police tell Jamie to drop to the ground and shoot Michael many times , causing him to fall into an abandoned mine shaft , which then collapses on top of him . Later , back in her foster home , Jamie is possessed by Michael 's spirit and stabs her foster mother , though not fatally . When screams are heard from upstairs , Dr. Loomis walks over to the staircase seeing Jamie poised at the top holding a pair of bloody scissors . Sheriff Ben Meeker ( Beau Starr ) restrains Loomis from shooting her . Jamie is now apparently consumed by Michael 's rage . Halloween 5 : the revenge of Michael Myers ( edit ) Main article : Halloween 5 : The Revenge of Michael Myers One year later , a severely traumatized Jamie is housed in the Haddonfield Children 's Clinic . She has now been rendered mute and suffers from nightmares and seizures . Early in the film , a brick , bearing a note reading , `` The evil child must die , '' is thrown through her window . When Michael ( Donald L. Shanks ) awakens from a year - long coma , she develops a telepathic bond with him . Sensing when he is near someone , Jamie goes into convulsions when he kills . Michael kills Rachel , four of Rachel 's friends , two dimwitted cops , and the Carruthers ' new dog , a Doberman Pinscher named Max , while in pursuit of Jamie . Towards the end , Loomis takes Jamie to the old Myers house and successfully lures Michael into the house . Despite the doctor 's pleas with Michael to fight his rage and seek redemption through a positive relationship with Jamie , Myers tracks down his niece in Judith Myers 's deserted bedroom . This leads to a chase scene throughout Michael 's childhood home . Jamie attempts to reach Michael by addressing him as `` Uncle . '' He pauses and , at Jamie 's request , removes his mask . Upon seeing his face , she says `` You 're just like me . '' However , when she tries to wipe away a tear from his face , he recoils , puts his mask back on , and attacks her in a rage . Using Jamie as bait , Loomis catches Michael in a net , shoots him with tranquilizer darts , and beats him into unconsciousness with a wooden beam . Michael is manacled and locked up in the local jail , awaiting transport to a maximum - security facility , where , Meeker says , he will remain `` until the day he dies , '' to which Jamie responds , `` He 'll never die . '' After Jamie is escorted out to be taken home , the mysterious `` Man in Black '' , glimpsed briefly earlier in the film , arrives at the police station and begins firing a machine gun . Jamie goes back inside to find that eight police officers have been gunned down ( including Meeker ) and that her uncle has escaped , prompting her to begin sobbing in terror . Halloween : the Curse of Michael Myers ( edit ) Main article : Halloween : The Curse of Michael Myers Six years later , now 15 - year - old Jamie , having a cameo appearance in the beginning of the film , gives birth to a boy on the night of October 30 , 1995 . The Man in Black had apparently kidnapped her immediately after the shoot - out and has kept her and Michael ( George P. Wilbur ) in captivity for the past six years . Dr. Loomis and Tommy Doyle ( Paul Rudd ) , whom Laurie Strode was babysitting on Halloween 1978 , attempt to rescue Jamie after hearing her plea for help on a local radio station . Before being killed by Michael , Jamie hides her baby , who is found by Tommy . The Man in Black in the end is revealed to be Loomis ' former medical colleague Dr. Terence Wynn ( Mitchell Ryan ) . He and most of his staff are revealed to be a Druid cult headquartered in the subterranean levels of the Smith 's Grove Sanitarium , the place where Michael was committed after killing his sister Judith . They are responsible for Michael 's actions , placing an ancient curse on him to kill his family to ward off sickness and death . By the end of the movie , it is implied that Dr. Wynn has been trying and failing to breed the ultimate evil using Michael 's DNA and female patients of the sanitarium in in - vitro fertilisation experiments ; finally reaching a success with Jamie 's baby after she had been tested on . In the theatrical version , Jamie dies relatively early in the film when Michael impales her on a corn thresher and turning it on , disemboweling her . In the producer 's cut , she survives most of the film only to be shot in the head by a gun fitted with a silencer by Wynn . Continuity ( edit ) When screenwriter Kevin Williamson first outlined Halloween H20 , he created the storyline in which Laurie Strode has faked her own death and taken on a new identity as a specific way of retconning the character 's death in Halloween 4 . In Williamson 's original treatment , there are scenes in which a Hillcrest student does a report on Michael Myers ' killing spree , mentioning the death of Jamie , complete with flashbacks to 4 - 6 mentioned in the text . `` Keri '' / Laurie responds to hearing the student 's report on the death of her daughter by going into a restroom and throwing up . In a controversial decision , director Steve Miner retconned the series with Halloween H20 : 20 Years Later ( 1998 ) . This installment retained Laurie 's faked death from Williamson 's treatment , revealing that she did so in order to avoid detection by her relentless brother . Under a new identity , Laurie has fled to Summer Glen , California , along with her only son , John Tate ( Josh Hartnett ) . However , to focus more on the Laurie Strode character , the events of parts 4 , 5 , and 6 are written out of the continuity , thus erasing the Jamie Lloyd character from the canon . The official Halloween : 30 Years of Terror comic book , taking place in the new continuity , has an adult Tommy Doyle illustrating comic books . Various elements from the fourth through sixth movies can be seen on his books , one of which is Jamie . The upcoming comic Halloween : The Mark of Thorn will feature Jamie , as well as Tommy Doyle , Rachel Carruthers and the Man in Black . Casting ( edit ) Jamie Lloyd was Danielle Harris ' first feature film role , for which she appears at horror conventions and on Halloween series - related websites . Actress Melissa Joan Hart also auditioned for the role . Harris sought to reprise the role for the sixth installment , now titled Halloween : The Curse of Michael Myers , but the producers and Dimension Films reportedly refused to pay her the $5,000 she requested , and she was n't fond of the script . The role was instead given to actress J.C. Brandy , who was a Halloween fan herself . Harris made her eventual return to the series as Annie Brackett in Rob Zombie 's Halloween remake , as well as its subsequent sequel . Other notes ( edit ) In the films , the uncertainty of Jamie 's age stems from a discrepancy between Halloween 4 and 5 . In the former film , set in late October 1988 , Jamie 's foster sister , Rachel Carruthers ( Ellie Cornell ) wonders why Jamie continues staying up so late . She asks , `` You are going for a record here ? The Seven - Year - Old Insomniacs ' Hall of Fame ? '' , suggesting that she is born in 1981 . The latter film is set one year later in late October 1989 . Rachel and Jamie 's adolescent friend Tina Williams ( Wendy Kaplan ) exclaims to Dr. Sam Loomis ( Donald Pleasence ) that `` Jamie 's a nine - year - old girl ! '' In the novelization of the fourth film , Halloween IV ( 1988 ; revised edition , 2003 ) by Nicholas Grabowsky , Jamie is six years old , which implicitly dates her birth to 1982 . According to H4 , Laurie legally died 11 months earlier in November 1987 and Richard and Darlene Carruthers are Jamie 's foster parents . In H5 , it is apparent that Jamie had been adopted assuming the name `` Jamie Carruthers '' . References ( edit ) Jump up ^ Williamson , Kevin . `` Halloween 7 treatment '' Jump up ^ Dan Farrands interview External links ( edit ) Jamie Lloyd on IMDb ( hide ) Halloween Films Halloween ( 1978 ) Halloween II ( 1981 ) Halloween III : Season of the Witch Halloween 4 : The Return of Michael Myers Halloween 5 : The Revenge of Michael Myers Halloween : The Curse of Michael Myers Halloween H20 : 20 Years Later Halloween : Resurrection Halloween ( 2007 ) Halloween II ( 2009 ) Characters Michael Myers Laurie Strode Samuel Loomis Jamie Lloyd Annie Brackett Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jamie_Lloyd&oldid=804476497 '' Categories : Halloween ( film series ) characters Fictional adoptees Fictional telepaths Fictional mute characters Fictional characters from Illinois Child characters in film Fictional characters introduced in 1988 Teenage characters in film Fictional victims of child abuse Fictional sole survivors Hidden categories : Articles that need to differentiate between fact and fiction from December 2010 All articles that need to differentiate between fact and fiction Film articles that need to differentiate between fact and fiction Pages using deprecated image syntax Talk Contents About Wikipedia Français Italiano Norsk Português Suomi Edit links This page was last edited on 9 October 2017 , at 07 : 34 . 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8655741853358662357

why were the statues of easter island built

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Moai&oldid=846064090

Moai - wikipedia Moai This article is about the monolithic statues of Easter Island . For other uses , see Moai ( disambiguation ) . Moai facing inland at Ahu Tongariki , restored by Chilean archaeologist Claudio Cristino in the 1990s Moai / ˈmoʊ. aɪ / ( listen ) , or mo'ai , are monolithic human figures carved by the Rapa Nui people on Easter Island in eastern Polynesia between the years 1250 and 1500 . Nearly half are still at Rano Raraku , the main moai quarry , but hundreds were transported from there and set on stone platforms called ahu around the island 's perimeter . Almost all moai have overly large heads three - eighths the size of the whole statue . The moai are chiefly the living faces ( aringa ora ) of deified ancestors ( aringa ora ata tepuna ) . The statues still gazed inland across their clan lands when Europeans first visited the island in 1722 , but all of them had fallen by the latter part of the 19th century . The production and transportation of the more than 900 statues are considered remarkable creative and physical feats . The tallest moai erected , called Paro , was almost 10 metres ( 33 ft ) high and weighed 82 tonnes ( 90.4 tons ) . The heaviest moai erected was a shorter but squatter moai at Ahu Tongariki , weighing 86 tonnes . One unfinished sculpture , if completed , would have been approximately 21 m ( 69 ft ) tall , with a weight of about 270 tonnes . The moai were toppled in the late 18th and early 19th centuries , possibly as a result of European contact and / or internecine tribal wars . Contents ( hide ) 1 Description 1.1 Characteristics 1.1. 1 Eyes 1.2 Symbolism 1.2. 1 Pukao topknots and headdresses 1.2. 2 Markings ( post stone working ) 2 History 2.1 Craftsmen 2.2 Transportation 2.3 Birdman cult 2.4 Moai Kavakava 2.5 1722 -- 1868 Toppling of the Moai 2.6 Removal 3 Preservation and restoration 4 Unicode character 5 See also 6 Notes 7 References 8 External links Description ( edit ) Moai set in the hillside at Rano Raraku The moai are monolithic statues , their minimalist style related to forms found throughout Polynesia . Moai are carved in relatively flat planes , the faces bearing proud but enigmatic expressions . The human figures would be outlined in the rock wall first , then chipped away until only the image was left . The over-large heads ( a three - to - five ratio between the head and the trunk , a sculptural trait that demonstrates the Polynesian belief in the sanctity of the chiefly head ) have heavy brows and elongated noses with a distinctive fish - hook - shaped curl of the nostrils . The lips protrude in a thin pout . Like the nose , the ears are elongated and oblong in form . The jaw lines stand out against the truncated neck . The torsos are heavy , and , sometimes , the clavicles are subtly outlined in stone . The arms are carved in bas relief and rest against the body in various positions , hands and long slender fingers resting along the crests of the hips , meeting at the hami ( loincloth ) , with the thumbs sometimes pointing towards the navel . Generally , the anatomical features of the backs are not detailed , but sometimes bear a ring and girdle motif on the buttocks and lower back . Except for one kneeling moai , the statues do not have clearly visible legs . Moais quarry at Rano Raraku All fifteen standing moai at Ahu Tongariki . Though moai are whole - body statues , they are erroneously referred to as `` Easter Island heads '' in some popular literature . This is partly because of the disproportionate size of most moai heads , and partly because many of the iconic images for the island showing upright moai are the statues on the slopes of Rano Raraku , many of which are buried to their shoulders . Some of the `` heads '' at Rano Raraku have been excavated and their bodies seen , and observed to have markings that had been protected from erosion by their burial . The average height of the moai is about 4 m ( 13 ft ) , with the average width at the base around 1.6 m ( 5.2 ft ) . These massive creations usually weigh in at around 12.5 tonnes ( 13.8 tons ) each . All but 53 of the more than 900 moai known to date were carved from tuff ( a compressed volcanic ash ) from Rano Raraku , where 394 moai in varying states of completion are still visible today . There are also 13 moai carved from basalt , 22 from trachyte and 17 from fragile red scoria . At the end of carving , the builders would rub the statue with pumice . Characteristics ( edit ) Re-erected tuff moai at Ahu Tahai with restored pukao and replica eyes Easter Island statues are known for their large , broad noses and strong chins , along with rectangle - shaped ears and deep eye slits . Their bodies are normally squatting , with their arms resting in different positions and are without legs . The majority of the ahu are found along the coast and face inland towards the community . There are some inland ahu such as Ahu Akivi . These moai face the community but given the small size of the island , also appear to face the coast . Eyes ( edit ) In 1979 , Sergio Rapu Haoa and a team of archaeologists discovered that the hemispherical or deep elliptical eye sockets were designed to hold coral eyes with either black obsidian or red scoria pupils . The discovery was made by collecting and reassembling broken fragments of white coral that were found at the various sites . Subsequently , previously uncategorized finds in the Easter Island museum were re-examined and recategorized as eye fragments . It is thought that the moai with carved eye sockets were probably allocated to the ahu and ceremonial sites , suggesting that a selective Rapa Nui hierarchy was attributed to the moai design until its demise with the advent of the Birdman religion , Tangata Manu . Symbolism ( edit ) Many archaeologists suggest that `` ( the ) statues were thus symbols of authority and power , both religious and political . But they were not only symbols . To the people who erected and used them , they were actual repositories of sacred spirit . Carved stone and wooden objects in ancient Polynesian religions , when properly fashioned and ritually prepared , were believed to be charged by a magical spiritual essence called mana . '' Archaeologists believe that the statues were a representation of the ancient Polynesians ' ancestors . The moai statues face away from the ocean and towards the villages as if to watch over the people . The exception is the seven Ahu Akivi which face out to sea to help travelers find the island . There is a legend that says there were seven men who waited for their king to arrive . Pukao topknots and headdresses ( edit ) Main article : Pukao The more recent moai had pukao on their heads , which represent the topknot of the chieftains . According to local tradition , the mana was preserved in the hair . The pukao were carved out of red scoria , a very light rock from a quarry at Puna Pau . Red itself is considered a sacred color in Polynesia . The added pukao suggest a further status to the moai . Hoa Hakananai'a in the British Museum Markings ( post stone working ) ( edit ) When first carved , the surface of the moai was polished smooth by rubbing with pumice . Unfortunately , the easily worked tuff from which most moai were carved is also easily eroded , and , today , the best place to see the surface detail is on the few moai carved from basalt or in photographs and other archaeological records of moai surfaces protected by burials . Those moai that are less eroded typically have designs carved on their backs and posteriors . The Routledge expedition of 1914 established a cultural link between these designs and the island 's traditional tattooing , which had been repressed by missionaries a half - century earlier . Until modern DNA analysis of the islanders and their ancestors , this was key scientific evidence that the moai had been carved by the Rapa Nui and not by a separate group from South America . At least some of the moai were painted ; Hoa Hakananai'a was decorated with maroon and white paint until 1868 , when it was removed from the island . It is now housed in the British Museum , London . History ( edit ) Map of Easter Island using moai to show locations of various ahu The statues were carved by the Polynesian colonizers of the island , mostly between circa 1250 A.D. and 1500 A.D. In addition to representing deceased ancestors , the moai , once they were erected on ahu , may also have been regarded as the embodiment of powerful living or former chiefs and important lineage status symbols . Each moai presented a status : `` The larger the statue placed upon an ahu , the more mana the chief who commissioned it had . '' The competition for grandest statue was ever prevalent in the culture of the Easter Islanders . The proof stems from the varying sizes of moai . Completed statues were moved to ahu mostly on the coast , then erected , sometimes with red stone cylinders ( pukao ) on their heads . Moai must have been extremely expensive to craft and transport ; not only would the actual carving of each statue require effort and resources , but the finished product was then hauled to its final location and erected . The quarries in Rano Raraku appear to have been abandoned abruptly , with a litter of stone tools and many completed moai outside the quarry awaiting transport and almost as many incomplete statues still in situ as were installed on ahu . In the nineteenth century , this led to conjecture that the island was the remnant of a sunken continent and that most completed moai were under the sea . That idea has long been debunked , and now it is understood that : Some statues were rock carvings and never intended to be completed . Some were incomplete because , when inclusions were encountered , the carvers would abandon a partial statue and start a new one ( tuff is a soft rock with occasional lumps of much harder rock included in it ) . Some completed statues at Rano Raraku were placed there permanently and not parked temporarily awaiting removal . Some were indeed incomplete when the statue - building era came to an end . Craftsmen ( edit ) It is not known exactly which group in the communities were responsible for carving statues . Oral traditions suggest that the moai were either carved by a distinguished class of professional carvers who were comparable in status to high - ranking members of other Polynesian craft guilds , or , alternatively , by members of each clan . The oral histories show that the Rano Raraku quarry was subdivided into different territories for each clan . Transportation ( edit ) Ahu Akivi , the furthest inland of all the ahus This section may require cleanup to meet Wikipedia 's quality standards . The specific problem is : the section is not chronological with its exploration of different theories and the ongoing debate . Please help improve this section if you can . ( June 2014 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) Since the island was largely treeless by the time the Europeans first visited , the movement of the statues was a mystery for a long time ; pollen analysis has now established that the island was almost totally forested until 1200 A.D. The tree pollen disappeared from the record by 1650 . It is not known exactly how the moai were moved across the island . Earlier researchers assumed that the process almost certainly required human energy , ropes , and possibly wooden sledges ( sleds ) and / or rollers , as well as leveled tracks across the island ( the Easter Island roads ) . Another theory suggests that the moai were placed on top of logs and were rolled to their destinations . If that theory is correct it would take 50 - 150 people to move the moai . The most recent study demonstrates from the evidence in the archaeological record that the statues were harnessed with ropes from two sides and made to `` walk '' by tilting them from side to side while pulling forward . They would also use a chant , whilst ' walking ' the moai . Coordination and cohesion was essential , so they developed a chant in which the rhythm helped them pull at the precise moment necessary . Oral histories recount how various people used divine power to command the statues to walk . The earliest accounts say a king named Tuu Ku Ihu moved them with the help of the god Makemake , while later stories tell of a woman who lived alone on the mountain ordering them about at her will . Scholars currently support the theory that the main method was that the moai were `` walked '' upright ( some assume by a rocking process ) , as laying it prone on a sledge ( the method used by the Easter Islanders to move stone in the 1860s ) would have required an estimated 1500 people to move the largest moai that had been successfully erected . In 1998 , Jo Anne Van Tilburg suggested fewer than half that number could do it by placing the sledge on lubricated rollers . In 1999 , she supervised an experiment to move a nine - tonne moai . They attempted to load a replica on a sledge built in the shape of an A frame that was placed on rollers . A total of 60 people pulled on several ropes in two attempts to tow the moai . The first attempt failed when the rollers jammed up . The second attempt succeeded when they embedded tracks in the ground . This was on flat ground and used eucalyptus wood rather than the native palm trees that would have lived on the island . Sign indicating the protected status of the moai In 1986 , Pavel Pavel , Thor Heyerdahl and the Kon Tiki Museum experimented with a five - tonne moai and a nine - tonne moai . With a rope around the head of the statue and another around the base , using eight workers for the smaller statue and 16 for the larger , they `` walked '' the moai forward by swiveling and rocking it from side to side ; however , the experiment was ended early due to damage to the statue bases from chipping . Despite the early end to the experiment , Thor Heyerdahl estimated that this method for a 20 - tonne statue over Easter Island terrain would allow 320 feet ( 100 m ) per day . Other scholars concluded that it was probably not the way the moai were moved due to the reported damage to the base caused by the `` shuffling '' motion . Around the same time , archaeologist Charles Love experimented with a 10 - tonne replica . His first experiment found rocking the statue to walk it was too unstable over more than a few hundred yards . He then found that placing the statue upright on two sled runners atop log rollers , 25 men were able to move the statue 150 feet ( 46 m ) in two minutes . In 2003 , further research indicated this method could explain supposedly regularly spaced post holes ( his research on this claim has not yet been published ) where the statues were moved over rough ground . He suggested the holes contained upright posts on either side of the path so that as the statue passed between them , they were used as cantilevers for poles to help push the statue up a slope without the requirement of extra people pulling on the ropes and similarly to slow it on the downward slope . The poles could also act as a brake when needed . Based on detailed studies of the statues found along prehistoric roads , archaeologists Terry Hunt and Carl Lipo have shown that the pattern of breakage , form and position of statues is consistent with an `` upright '' hypothesis for transportation . Hunt and Lipo argue that when the statues were carved at a quarry , the sculptors left their bases wide and curved along the front edge . They showed that statues along the road have a center of mass that causes the statue to lean forward . As the statue tilts forward , it rocks sideways along its curved front edge and takes a `` step . '' Large flakes are seen broken off of the sides of the bases . They argue that once the stature was `` walked '' down the road and installed in the landscape , the wide and curved base was carved down . All of this evidence points to an upright transportation practice . Recent experimental recreations have proven that it is fully possible that the moai were literally walked from their quarries to their final positions by ingenious use of ropes . Teams of workers would have worked to rock the moai back and forth , creating the walking motion and holding the moai upright . If correct , it can be inferred that the fallen road moai were the result of the teams of balancers being unable to keep the statue upright , and it was presumably not possible to lift the statues again once knocked over . However , the debate continues . Birdman cult ( edit ) Main article : Tangata manu Originally , Easter Islanders had a paramount chief or single leader . Through the years the power levels veered from sole chiefs to a warrior class , known as `` matatoa '' . The therianthropic figure of a half bird and half man was the symbol of the matatoa ; the distinct character connected the sacred site of Orongo . The new cult prompted battles of tribes over worship of ancestry . Creating the moai was one way the islanders would honor their ancestors ; during the height of the birdman cult there is evidence which suggests that the construction of moai stopped . `` One of the most fascinating sights at Orongo are the hundreds of petroglyphs carved with birdman and Makemake images . Carved into solid basalt , they have resisted ages of harsh weather . It has been suggested that the images represent birdman competition winners . Over 480 birdman petroglyphs have been found on the island , mostly around Orongo . '' Orongo , the site of the cult 's festivities , was a dangerous landscape which consisted of a `` narrow ridge between a 1,000 foot drop into the ocean on one side and a deep crater on the other '' . Considered the sacred spot of Orongo , Mata Ngarau was the location where birdman priests prayed and chanted for a successful egg hunt . `` The purpose of the birdman contest was to obtain the first egg of the season from the offshore islet Motu Nui . Contestants descended the sheer cliffs of Orongo and swam to Motu Nui where they awaited the coming of the birds . Having procured an egg , the contestant swam back and presented it to his sponsor , who then was declared birdman for that year , an important status position . '' Moai kavakava ( edit ) Main article : Moai kavakava These figures are much smaller than the better - known stone moai . They are made of wood and have a small , slender aspect , giving them a sad appearance . These figures are believed to have been made after the civilization on Rapa Nui began to collapse , which is why they seem to have a more emaciated appearance to them . 1722 -- 1868 toppling of the moai ( edit ) Toppled moai At some point after the 1722 Roggeveen visit , all of the moai that had been erected on ahus were toppled , with the last standing statues reported in 1838 by Abel Aubert Dupetit Thouars , and no upright statues by 1868 , apart from the partially buried ones on the outer slopes of Rano Raraku . Oral histories include one account of a clan pushing down a single moai in the night but others refer to the `` earth shaking '' and other indications that at least some of them fell down through earthquakes . Some of the moai toppled forward such that their faces were hidden and often fell in such a way that their necks broke ; others fell off of the back of their platforms . Today , about 50 moai have been re-erected on their ahus or at museums elsewhere . The Rapa Nui people were then devastated by the slave trade that began at the island in 1862 . Within only a time span of one year the individuals that remained on the island were sick , injured , and lacking leadership . The survivors of the slave raids had new company from landing missionaries . The society was vulnerable and the converting process of Christianity did not take long . Native Easter Islanders lost their identity as first their style of clothing and soon their tattoos and body paint were banned by the new Christian proscriptions . The history of their ancestors was destroyed : artwork , buildings , sacred objects ; leaving little record of the islanders ' former lives . They were then subjected to forceful removal from their native lands and made to reside on a much smaller portion of the island while the rest was used for farming . `` Eventually all pure Rapa Nui blood died out . Annexation with Chile brought new influences , and today there are only a few individuals left with ties to the original population . '' Removal ( edit ) Main article : Relocation of moai objects Eleven or more moai have been removed from the island and transported to locations around the world , including six out of the thirteen moai that were carved from basalt . Ahu Tahai Preservation and restoration ( edit ) It is forbidden for visitors to climb on the moai . From 1955 through 1978 , an American archaeologist , William Mulloy , undertook extensive investigation of the production , transportation and erection of Easter Island 's monumental statuary . Mulloy 's Rapa Nui projects include the investigation of the Akivi - Vaiteka Complex and the physical restoration of Ahu Akivi ( 1960 ) ; the investigation and restoration of Ahu Ko Te Riku and Ahu Vai Uri and the Tahai Ceremonial Complex ( 1970 ) ; the investigation and restoration of two ahu at Hanga Kio'e ( 1972 ) ; the investigation and restoration of the ceremonial village at Orongo ( 1974 ) and numerous other archaeological surveys throughout the island . The Rapa Nui National Park and the moai are included in the 1972 UN convention concerning the protection of the world 's cultural and natural heritage and consequently on the 1994 list of UNESCO World Heritage sites . The moai have been mapped by a number of groups over the years including efforts by Father Sebastian Englert and Chilean researchers . The EISP ( Easter Island Statue Project ) conducted research and documentation on many of the moai on Rapa Nui and the artifacts held in museums overseas . The purpose of the project is to understand the figures ' original use , context , and meaning , with the results being provided to the Rapa Nui families and the island 's public agencies that are responsible for conservation and preservation of the moai . Other studies include work by Britton Shepardson and Terry L. Hunt and Carl P. Lipo . In 2008 , a Finnish tourist chipped a piece off the ear of one moai . The tourist was fined $17,000 in damages and was banned from the island for three years . Tukuturi at Rano Raraku is the only kneeling moai and one of the few made of red scoria . Early European drawing of moai , in the lower half of a 1770 Spanish map of Easter Island Unicode character ( edit ) In 2010 , Moai was included as an emoji in Unicode version 6.0 under the code point U + 1F5FF and is represented as such : 🗿 In operating systems that did not come with fonts that natively support all codepoints of Unicode 6.0 or greater , the Symbola font by George Douros is available , ' free for any use ' as per Douros . The official unicode name for the emoji is spelled `` Moyai '' . This is the name of a statue near Shibuya Station in Tokyo , which is inspired by Moai from the Easter Island but looks distinct . This has caused inconsistent drawings to be adopted for this emoji by various companies with proprietary emoji images . See also ( edit ) Marae -- The Polynesian ceremonial sites from which the moai and ahu traditions evolved . Rapa Nui people Tiki , carvings of the legendary first man among the Māori and other Western Polynesian cultures Anito , ancestor spirits and deities of the Filipino people , often carved into wooden or stone figures Taotao Mona , ancestor spirits of the Chamorro people in Micronesia Chemamull , large funerary statues of the Mapuche People of South America which resemble the moai Dol hareubang , large ancient stone statues in Jeju Island , South Korea which resemble the moai Ancestor worship List of megalithic sites Notes ( edit ) ^ Jump up to : Steven R Fischer . The island at the end of the world . Reaktion Books 2005 ISBN 1 - 86189 - 282 - 9 Jump up ^ The island at the end of the world . Reaktion Books 2005 ISBN 1 - 86189 - 282 - 9 Jump up ^ Van Tilburg , Jo Anne . `` Easter Island Statue Project '' . Eisp.org . Retrieved 2014 - 03 - 10 . ^ Jump up to : Hunt , Terry ; Lipo , Carl ( 2012 ) . The Statues That Walked : Unraveling the Mystery of Easter Island . Free Press . ISBN 1 - 4391 - 5031 - 1 . Jump up ^ `` Easter Island Statue Project '' . 2009 - 05 - 11 . Retrieved 2010 - 10 - 16 . ^ Jump up to : Carl P. Lipo , Terry L. Hunt , Sergio Rapu Hao ; Hunt ; Haoa ( 2013 ) . `` The ' Walking ' Megalithic Statues ( Moai ) of Easter Island '' . J. Archaeol . Sci. 40 ( 6 ) : 2859 . doi : 10.1016 / j. jas. 2012.09. 029 . CS1 maint : Multiple names : authors list ( link ) Jump up ^ UNESCO World Heritage Centre ( 2009 - 05 - 29 ) . `` Rapa Nui National Park '' . Whc.unesco.org . Retrieved 2014 - 03 - 10 . Jump up ^ Young , Emma ( 2006 - 07 - 26 ) . `` Easter Island : A monumental collapse ? , pp. 30 -- 34 '' . Newscientist.com . Retrieved 2014 - 03 - 10 . Jump up ^ Van Tilburg , Jo Anne ( 2009 - 05 - 05 ) . `` Moai Paro digital reconstruction '' . Easter Island Statue Project ( eisp.org ) . Retrieved 2017 - 06 - 12 . Jump up ^ Collapse : How Societies Choose to Fail or Succeed by Jared Diamond Jump up ^ . N.p. . Web . 29 Oct 2013 . < http://library.thinkquest.org/06aug/02100/easterislandmoai.htm > . Jump up ^ Van Tilburg , Jo Anne ( 1994 ) . Easter Island : Archaeology , Ecology and Culture . Washington , DC : Smithsonian Institution Press . p. 24 . Jump up ^ `` NOVA Online Secrets of Easter Island Stone Giants '' . Pbs.org . Retrieved 2013 - 06 - 09 . Jump up ^ Ford , Nick ( 15 December 2013 ) . `` Views on the origin and purpose of the Easter Island statues '' . Archived from the original on 30 June 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Mystery of the Easter Island Statues . '' Red Ice Creations . N.p. , 27 Oct. 2011 . Web . 30 Oct. 2013 . ^ Jump up to : `` The Rise & Fall of Easter Island 's Culture . '' Sentinels in Stone . N.p. , n.d. Web . 29 Oct. 2013 . Jump up ^ Katherine Routledge ( 1919 ) The Mystery of Easter Island ISBN 0 - 932813 - 48 - 8 page 220 Jump up ^ Katherine Routledge ( 1919 ) The Mystery of Easter Island ISBN 0 - 932813 - 48 - 8 page 181 Jump up ^ Katherine Routledge ( 1919 ) The Mystery of Easter Island ISBN 0 - 932813 - 48 - 8 page 186 Jump up ^ The human figures would be outlined in the rock wall first , then chipped away until only the image was left. ( 6 ) ^ Jump up to : Bloch , Hannah ( July 2012 ) . `` Easter Island : The riddle of the moving statues '' . National Geographic . National Geographic Society . 222 ( 1 ) : 30 -- 49 . Retrieved 3 June 2013 . Jump up ^ Unsolved Mysteries : The Secret of Easter Island a test of walking the statues Jump up ^ Bernstein , Josh . `` Digging For the Truth : Giants of Easter Island '' . Archived from the original on 31 October 2013 . Retrieved 29 October 2013 . ^ Jump up to : History channel `` Mega Movers : Ancient Mystery Moves '' Jump up ^ Easter Island -- the mystery solved / Thor Heyerdahl 1989 Jump up ^ Flenley , John ( 2003 ) . The Enigmas of Easter Island : Island on the Edge . Oxford University Press . ISBN 0 - 19 - 280340 - 9 . Jump up ^ http://longnow.org/seminars/02013/jan/17/statues-walked-what-really-happened-easter-island/ Jump up ^ Mystery of Easter Island ( TV Documentary ) . NOVA and National Geographic Television . Retrieved 2012 - 11 - 10 . Jump up ^ `` Easter Island Statues Could Have ' Walked ' Into Position '' . Wired . Jump up ^ Ghose , Tia ( June 7 , 2013 ) . `` Easter Island 's ' Walking ' Stone Heads Stir Debate '' . LiveScience . ^ Jump up to : `` Mysterious Places : Explore Sacred Sites and Ancient Civilizations . '' Mysterious Places : Explore Sacred Sites and Ancient Civilizations . N.p. , n.d. Web . 29 Oct. 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Easter Island - Moai Statues and Rock Art of Rapa Nui . '' The Birdman Motif of Easter Island . N.p. , n.d. Web . 29 Oct. 2013 . Jump up ^ F. Forment ; D. Huyge ; H. Valladas . `` AMS 14C age determinations of Rapanui ( Easter Island ) wood sculpture : moai kavakava ET 48.63 from Brussels '' . Retrieved 29 October 2013 . Jump up ^ J. Linton Palmer ( 1870 ) . A visit to Easter Island , or Rapa Nui , in 1868 . Journal of the Royal Geographic Society . 40 . pp. 167 -- 181 . doi : 10.2307 / 1798641 . ^ Jump up to : Edmundo Edwards ; Raul Marchetti ; Leopoldo Dominichetti ; Oscar Gonzales - Ferran ( 1996 ) . `` When the Earth Trembled , the Statues Fell '' . Rapa Nui Journal . 10 ( 1 ) . pp. 1 -- 15 . Jump up ^ Terry L. Hunt & Carl P. Lipo ( 2011 ) . The Statues That Walked : Unraveling the Mystery of Easter Island . Free Press . Jump up ^ Cristino , F. , C. , P. Vargas C. , and R. Izaurieta S. , ( 1981 ) . Atlas Arqueológico de Isla de Pascua . Santiago : Facultad de Arquitectura y Urbanismo , Instituto de Estudios , Universidad de Chile . CS1 maint : Multiple names : authors list ( link ) Jump up ^ Riquelme , S. , F. , R.I. San Juan , I.R. Kussner , L.G. Nualart , and P.V. Casanova ( 1991 ) . Teoria de las Proporciones . Generación de la Forma y procesos de Realización en la Escultura Megalítica de Isla de Pascua Sistema de Medidas en el Diseño Pascuense . CS1 maint : Multiple names : authors list ( link ) Jump up ^ Britton Shepardson ( 2010 ) . `` Moai Database - Rapa Nui '' . Jump up ^ Carl Lipo & Terry Hunt ( 2011 ) . `` Rapa Nui Database '' . Jump up ^ `` Easter Island fines ear chipper '' . BBC News . 2008 - 04 - 09 . Retrieved 2008 - 09 - 21 . Jump up ^ `` Tourist chips earlobe off ancient statue on Easter Island '' . Globe and Mail . 9 April 2008 . Archived from the original on 13 April 2008 . Retrieved 21 September 2008 . Jump up ^ http://emojipedia.org/moyai/ References ( edit ) Heyerdahl , Thor . Skjølsvold , Arne . Pavel Pavel . The `` Walking '' Moai of Easter Island . Retrieved 8 August 2005 . McCall , Grant ( 1995 ) . `` Rapanui ( Easter Island ) '' . Pacific Islands Year Book 17th Edition . Fiji Times . Retrieved 8 August 2005 . Matthews , Rupert ( 1988 ) . Ancient Mysteries . Wayland Publishing . ISBN 0 - 531 - 18246 - 0 . Pelta , Kathy ( 2001 ) . Rediscovering Easter Island . Lerner Publishing Group . ISBN 978 - 0 - 8225 - 4890 - 4 . Routledge , Katherine ( 1919 ) The Mystery of Easter Island ISBN 0 - 932813 - 48 - 8 . Van Tilburg , Jo Anne ( 2001 ) . `` Easter Island '' . In P.N. Peregine and M. Ember ( eds . ) , Encyclopedia of Prehistory , Volume 3 : East Asia and Oceania . Kluwer Academic / Plenum Publishers . ISBN 0 - 306 - 46257 - 5 Van Tilburg , Jo Anne ( 2006 ) . Remote Possibilities : Hoa Hakananai'a and HMS Topaze on Rapa Nui . British Museum Research Papers . External links ( edit ) Wikimedia Commons has media related to Moai . Moai statues at Easter Island Travel Moai database at Terevaka Archaeological Outreach Easter Island society and culture at Curlie ( based on DMOZ ) hide Easter Island Culture Language History Music Mythology Rongorongo glyphs Tangata manu Stone work Ahu Tongariki Ahu Vinapu Moai Orongo Pukao Geography and geology Anakena Easter Fracture Zone Easter hotspot Easter Plate Moai Seamount Pukao Seamount Category : Easter Island Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Moai&oldid=846064090 '' Categories : Easter Island Rapa Nui mythology Megalithic monuments Outdoor sculptures Tiki culture Archaeological sites in Chile Archaeological sites in Easter Island Rock art of Oceania Monoliths Colossal statues 2nd - millennium establishments in Easter Island Hidden categories : CS1 maint : Multiple names : authors list All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from January 2018 Articles with permanently dead external links Articles with hAudio microformats Articles including recorded pronunciations ( English ) All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from July 2015 Articles with unsourced statements from June 2016 Articles needing cleanup from June 2014 All pages needing cleanup Cleanup tagged articles with a reason field from June 2014 Wikipedia pages needing cleanup from June 2014 All articles lacking reliable references Articles lacking reliable references from June 2017 Articles with unsourced statements from February 2015 Articles lacking reliable references from July 2017 Articles with Curlie links Use dmy dates from November 2010 Talk Contents About Wikipedia Afrikaans Asturianu Azərbaycanca বাংলা Беларуская Bikol Central Bislama Български Català Čeština Dansk Davvisámegiella Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Hawaiʻi Հայերեն Hrvatski Ido Bahasa Indonesia Interlingua Italiano עברית Basa Jawa ქართული Latviešu Lietuvių Magyar Македонски मराठी مازِرونی Bahasa Melayu Mirandés Nederlands 日本 語 Norsk Norsk nynorsk Occitan Polski Português Română Русский Scots Sicilianu Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska தமிழ் ไทย Türkçe Українська اردو Tiếng Việt Winaray 中文 58 more Edit links This page was last edited on 16 June 2018 , at 01 : 45 . 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identify four problem affecting the mining industry in nigeria

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Mining_industry_of_Nigeria&oldid=840183282

Mining industry of Nigeria - wikipedia Mining industry of Nigeria Jump to : navigation , search The mining of minerals in Nigeria accounts for only 0.3 % of its GDP , due to the influence of its vast oil resources . The domestic mining industry is underdeveloped , leading to Nigeria having to import minerals that it could produce domestically , such as salt or iron ore . Rights to ownership of mineral resources is held by the Federal government of Nigeria , which grants titles to organizations to explore , mine , and sell mineral resources . Organized mining began in 1903 when the Mineral Survey of the Northern Protectorates was created by the British colonial government . A year later , the Mineral Survey of the Southern Protectorates was founded . By the 1940s , Nigeria was a major producer of tin , columbite , and coal . The discovery of oil in 1956 hurt the mineral extraction industries , as government and industry both began to focus on this new resource . The Nigerian Civil War in the late 1960s led many expatriate mining experts to leave the country . Mining regulation is handled by the Ministry of Solid Minerals Development , which oversees the management of all mineral resources . Mining law is codified in the Federal Minerals and Mining Act of 1999 . Historically , Nigeria 's mining industry was monopolized by state - owned public corporations . This led to a decline in productivity in almost all mineral industries . The Obasanjo administration began a process of selling off government - owned corporations to private investors in 1999 . Contents ( hide ) 1 Coal , Lignite and Coke 2 Gold 3 Columbite Wolframite and Tantalite 4 Bitumen 5 Iron Ore 6 Uranium 7 Ecological effects 8 References 9 External links Coal , lignite and coke ( edit ) Main article : Nigerian Coal Corporation Mining is the extraction ( removal ) of minerals and metals from the earth . The Nigerian Coal Corporation ( NCC ) is a parastatal corporation that was formed in 1950 and held a monopoly on the mining , processing , and sales of coal , lignite , and coke products until 1999 . Coal was first discovered in Enugu in 1909 , and the Ogbete Mine had opened and begun regularly extracting coal by 1916 . By 1920 , coal production had reached 180,122 long tons ( 183,012 t ) . Nigeria 's peak coal production was in the late 1950s , and by 1960 production was at 565,681 long tons ( 574,758 t ) . The Nigerian Civil War caused many mines to be abandoned . After the war ended in the early 1970s , coal production was never able to recover . Attempts to mechanize the industry in the 1970s and 1980s were ultimately unsuccessful , and actually hindered production due to problems with implementation and maintenance . The Nigerian government is currently trying to privatize the Nigerian Coal Corporation and sell off its assets . While the domestic market for coal has been negatively affected by the move to diesel and gas - powered engines by organizations that were previously major coal consumers , the low - sulfur coal mined in Nigeria is desirable by international customers in Italy and the United Kingdom , who have imported Nigerian coal . Recent financial problems have caused a near shutdown of the NCC 's coal mining operations , and the corporation has responded by attempting to sell off some of its assets while it waits for the government to complete privatization activities . In April 2008 , Minister of Mines and Steel Sarafa Tunji Ishola announced that Nigeria was considering coal as an alternative power source as it attempts to reform its power sector , and encouraged Chinese investors to invest in the coal industry . The Nigerian Mining Cadastre Office manages all the Nigerian mining licenses and mining rights . They are a subsiary of the Ministry of Mines and Steel Development of the Federal Republic of Nigeria . Gold ( edit ) Illegal miners in Itagun , Osun State , gathering their gold finds in pan Gold deposits are found in Northern Nigeria , most prominently near Maru , Anka , Malele , Tsohon Birnin Gwari - Kwaga , Gurmana , Bin Yauri , Okolom - Dogondaji , and Iperindo in Osun state it is not very dominant in the country . Gold production began in 1913 and peaked in the 1930s . During the Second World War , production declined . Mines were abandoned by colonial companies , and production never recovered . The Nigerian Mining Corporation ( NMC ) was formed in the early 1980s to explore for gold . Lack of funds , and the lure of easier profits from oil production led to its failure . There is no large scale gold mining operation in Nigeria today , though there is small - scale mining carried out by artists . The family of Aleye from Anka is one of the leading gold families in the region . Columbite wolframite and tantalite ( edit ) Columbite and Tantalite are ores used to produce the elements niobium and tantalum . Columbite and tantalite are collectively known as coltan in Africa . Tantalum is a valuable rare element used in electronics manufacturing . In Nigeria , pegmatite deposits of coltan are frequently also the source of several precious and semi-precious stones such as beryl , aquamarine , and tourmaline . These pegmatites are found in Nassarawa State near the Jos Plateau , as well as in several areas in southeast Nigeria . There is small - scale mining of these minerals . Wolframite ( tungsten ) can be found in the North states . Bitumen ( edit ) Bitumen was first discovered in 1900 , with focused exploration beginning in 1905 . Bitumen deposits are found in Lagos State , Ogun State , Ondo State , and Edo State . Conoco has performed a technical and economic evaluation of these deposits , and believes there to be over thirteen billion barrels of oil in these tar sands and bitumen seepages . Iron ore ( edit ) Nigeria has several deposits of iron ore , but the purest deposits are in and around Itakpe in Kogi State . The National Iron Ore Mining Company was founded in 1979 and given the mission to explore , exploit , process , and supply iron ore concentrate to the Ajaokuta Steel Company ( ASCL ) in Ajaokuta and Delta Steel Company ( DCL ) in Aladja . Additional demand has come from several steel rolling mills . The company and its mining operations are based in Kogi State . Export of excess iron ore beyond what is required for domestic needs is currently being explored . Additionally , the Nigerian government has invested in foreign iron ore operations in Guinea. 3 Uranium ( edit ) The Nigeria Uranium Mining Company ( NUMCO ) was a parastatal organization that controlled the exploration and mining of uranium in Nigeria and was a public / private partnership with Total Compagnie Minière of France , which owned 40 % of the company . In 1989 , Total pulled out of the partnership , and in 1993 the government reassigned NUMCO 's responsibilities to the Nigerian Geological Survey . The NUMCO corporation was dissolved in 1996 , and the government is in the process of liquidating its remaining assets . Recently , several important uranium deposits were discovered in Cross River State , Adamawa State , Taraba State , Plateau State , Bauchi State , and Kano State by the British Geological Survey . Ecological effects ( edit ) Environmental officials with the government of Plateau State believe that 1,100 tin and columbite mines , abandoned after the mining boom of the 1960s , now pose serious health risks to as many as 2 million people living in the area . Radioactive mine tailings were reported to be a danger to local people living around mining fields in Jos , Barikin - Ladi , Bukur , Bassa and Riyom districts . References ( edit ) ^ Jump up to : `` Investment and Mining Opportunities '' ( PDF ) . Ministry of Solid Minerals Development . Retrieved 2008 - 04 - 12 . ^ Jump up to : Godwin Chukwudum Nwaobi . `` The Nigerian Coal Corporation : An Evaluation of Production Performance ( 1960 - 1987 ) '' ( PDF ) . Quantitative Economic Research Bureau . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on 2011 - 05 - 28 . Retrieved 2008 - 04 - 12 . Jump up ^ `` Scope and Status of Privatization Activities in the Solid Mineral Sector of the Nigerian Economy '' ( PDF ) . Nigerian Bureau of Public Enterprises . 2007 - 01 - 12 . Retrieved 2008 - 04 - 12 . Jump up ^ `` Nigerian Coal Corporation Broke , Sells Assets '' . Vanguard Newspaper . Retrieved 2008 - 04 - 12 . Jump up ^ `` Electricity - Country to Try Coal '' . Daily Trust . Retrieved 2008 - 05 - 02 . Jump up ^ `` Nigeria - Metallic Minerals '' . Online Nigeria . Retrieved 2008 - 04 - 12 . ^ Jump up to : `` National Iron Ore Mining Company ( NIOMCO ) '' ( PDF ) . Nigerian Bureau of Public Enterprise . Retrieved 2008 - 04 - 12 . Jump up ^ `` Nigerian Uranium Co Limited '' ( PDF ) . Nigerian Bureau of Public Enterprises . Retrieved 2008 - 04 - 12 . Jump up ^ `` New Uranium Mining Projects - Africa '' . WISE Uranium Project . Retrieved 2008 - 04 - 12 . Jump up ^ Two million Nigerians at risk from radioactive waste , 5 July 2008 , Agence France - Presse . External links ( edit ) Ministry of Power and Steel Development Nigeria articles History Kingdoms Empires Aro Benin Fulani Kanem - Bornu Nri Oyo Timeline Northern Nigeria Southern Nigeria Civil War Geography Adamawa Plateau Cities Ecoregions Environmental issues Islands Jos Plateau Mountains National parks Niger Delta Rivers Niger Benue Wildlife Politics Administrative divisions Cabinet Constitution Elections Federal Executive Council Foreign relations Human rights Law enforcement LGBT history Military National Assembly House of Representatives Senate Political parties PDP APC President Vice-President Supreme Court Economy Agriculture Central Bank Economic history Energy Mining Naira ( currency ) Petroleum Stock Exchange Telecommunications Tourism Transport Society Capital punishment Corruption Demographics Diaspora Education Ethnic groups MASSOB MOSOP Oodua Peoples Congress Health Languages Organized crime Poverty Rankings Refugees Water supply and sanitation Islamist insurgency Communal conflicts in Nigeria , Herder -- farmer conflicts in Nigeria Niger Delta conflict 2016 Biafra conflict Culture Anthem Cinema Nollywood Colonial era Golden Age Video film era New Wave Coat of arms Cuisine Demonyms Flag List of Nigerians Literature Media Newspapers Radio TV Music Public holidays Religion Smoking Sport Video gaming Outline Index Portal Mining in Africa Sovereign states Algeria Angola Benin Botswana Burkina Faso Burundi Cameroon Cape Verde ( Cabo Verde ) Central African Republic Chad Comoros Democratic Republic of the Congo Republic of the Congo Djibouti Egypt Equatorial Guinea Eritrea Ethiopia Gabon The Gambia Ghana Guinea Guinea - Bissau Ivory Coast ( Côte d'Ivoire ) Kenya Lesotho Liberia Libya Madagascar Malawi Mali Mauritania Mauritius Morocco Mozambique Namibia Niger Nigeria Rwanda São Tomé and Príncipe Senegal Seychelles Sierra Leone Somalia South Africa South Sudan Sudan Swaziland Tanzania Togo Tunisia Uganda Zambia Zimbabwe States with limited recognition Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic Somaliland Dependencies and other territories Canary Islands / Ceuta / Melilla ( Spain ) Madeira ( Portugal ) Mayotte / Réunion ( France ) Saint Helena / Ascension Island / Tristan da Cunha ( United Kingdom ) Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mining_industry_of_Nigeria&oldid=840183282 '' Categories : Mining in Nigeria Mining industry by country Hidden categories : All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from March 2017 Articles with permanently dead external links Articles with dead external links from October 2010 Talk Contents About Wikipedia Languages Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 8 May 2018 , at 07 : 28 . 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what was the purpose of the reichstag fire

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Reichstag_fire&oldid=856526612

Reichstag fire - wikipedia Reichstag fire arson attack in Berlin on 27 February 1933 Reichstag fire Reichstagsbrand Firefighters struggle to extinguish the fire . Date 27 February 1933 Location Reichstag building , Berlin , Germany Participants Marinus van der Lubbe Outcome Van der Lubbe executed Civil liberties suspended Nazi control of government entrenched The Reichstag fire ( German : Reichstagsbrand , listen ( help info ) ) was an arson attack on the Reichstag building ( home of the German parliament ) in Berlin on 27 February 1933 , one month after Adolf Hitler was sworn in as Chancellor of Germany . The National Socialist party stated that Marinus van der Lubbe , a Dutch council communist , was found near the building and attributed the fire to communist agitators in general -- though in 1933 , a German court decided that van der Lubbe had acted alone , as he claimed . After the fire , the Reichstag Fire Decree was passed . The Nazi Party used the fire as evidence that communists were plotting against the German government , and the event is considered pivotal in the establishment of Nazi Germany . The term Reichstag fire has come to refer to false flag actions perpetrated or facilitated by an authority to promote their own interests through popular approval of retribution or retraction of civil rights . The fire started in the Reichstag building , the assembly location of the German Parliament . A Berlin fire station received an alarm call that the building was on fire shortly after 21 : 00 . By the time the police and firefighters arrived , the main Chamber of Deputies was engulfed in flames . The police conducted a thorough search inside the building and found van der Lubbe . He was arrested , as were four communist leaders soon after . Hitler urged President Paul von Hindenburg to pass an emergency decree to suspend civil liberties and pursue a `` ruthless confrontation '' with the Communist Party of Germany . After passing the decree , the government instituted mass arrests of communists , including all of the Communist Party parliamentary delegates . With their bitter rival communists gone and their seats empty , the Nazi Party went from being a plurality party to the majority , thus enabling Hitler to consolidate his power . In February 1933 , three men were arrested who were to play pivotal roles during the Leipzig Trial , known also as the `` Reichstag Fire Trial '' : Bulgarians Georgi Dimitrov , Vasil Tanev and Blagoy Popov . The Bulgarians were known to the Prussian police as senior Comintern operatives , but the police had no idea how senior they were : Dimitrov was head of all Comintern operations in Western Europe . The responsibility for the Reichstag fire remains an ongoing topic of debate and research . Historians disagree as to whether van der Lubbe acted alone , as he said , to protest the condition of the German working class . The Nazis accused the Comintern of the act . Some historians endorse the theory , initially proposed by the Communist Party , that the arson was planned and ordered by the Nazis as a false flag operation . The building remained in its fire - damaged state until it was partially repaired from 1961 to 1964 , then completely restored from 1995 to 1999 . Contents 1 Prelude 2 Fire 3 Political consequences 4 Reichstag fire trial 4.1 Execution of Van der Lubbe 5 Dispute about Van der Lubbe 's role in the Reichstag fire 5.1 Göring 's commentary 5.2 `` Counter-trial '' organised by the German Communist Party 6 As archetype 7 References 8 External links Prelude ( edit ) Hitler was sworn in as Chancellor and head of the coalition government on 30 January 1933 . As Chancellor , Hitler asked German President Paul von Hindenburg to dissolve the Reichstag and call for a new parliamentary election . The date set for the elections was 5 March 1933 . Hitler 's aim was first to acquire a National Socialist majority , to secure his position and to remove the communist opposition . If prompted or desired , the President could remove the Chancellor . Hitler hoped to abolish democracy in a more or less legal fashion , by passing the Enabling Act . The Enabling Act was a special law that gave the Chancellor the power to pass laws by decree , without the involvement of the Reichstag . These special powers would remain in effect for four years , after which time they were eligible to be renewed . Under the Weimar Constitution , the President could rule by decree in times of emergency using Article 48 . The unprecedented element of the Enabling Act was that the Chancellor possessed the powers . An Enabling Act was only supposed to be passed in times of extreme emergency and had only been used once , in 1923 -- 24 when the government used an Enabling Act to end hyperinflation ( see hyperinflation in the Weimar Republic ) . To pass an Enabling Act , a party required a vote by a two - thirds majority in the Reichstag . In January 1933 , the Nazis had only 32 % of the seats . During the election campaign , the Nazis alleged that Germany was on the verge of a Communist revolution and that the only way to stop the Communists was to pass the Enabling Act . The message of the campaign was simple : increase the number of Nazi seats so that the Enabling Act could be passed . To decrease the number of opposition members of parliament who could vote against the Enabling Act , Hitler planned to ban the Kommunistische Partei Deutschlands ( the Communist Party of Germany or KPD ) , which at the time held 17 % of the seats , after the elections and before the new Reichstag convened . Fire ( edit ) Shortly after 21 : 00 on 27 February 1933 , the Berlin Fire Department received a message that the Reichstag was on fire . Despite the best efforts of the firefighters , most of the building was gutted by the blaze . By 23 : 30 , the fire was put out . The firefighters and police inspected the ruins and found twenty bundles of flammable material ( firelighters ) unburned lying about . At the time the fire was reported , Adolf Hitler was having dinner with Joseph Goebbels at Goebbels ' apartment in Berlin . When Goebbels received an urgent phone call informing him of the fire , he regarded it as a `` tall tale '' at first and hung up . Only after the second call did he report the news to Hitler . Both left Goebbels ' apartment and arrived by car at the Reichstag , just as the fire was being put out . They were met at the site by Hermann Göring who told Hitler , `` This is Communist outrage ! One of the Communist culprits has been arrested . '' Hitler called the fire a `` sign from God '' and claimed it was a Fanal ( signal ) meant to mark the beginning of a Communist Putsch ( revolt ) . The next day , the Preussische Pressedienst ( Prussian Press Service ) reported that `` this act of incendiarism is the most monstrous act of terrorism carried out by Bolshevism in Germany '' . The Vossische Zeitung newspaper warned its readers that `` the government is of the opinion that the situation is such that a danger to the state and nation existed and still exists '' . Political Consequences ( edit ) The day after the fire , Hitler asked for , and received , from President Hindenburg , the Reichstag Fire Decree , signed into law by Hindenburg using Article 48 of the Weimar Constitution . The Reichstag Fire Decree suspended most civil liberties in Germany , including habeas corpus , freedom of expression , freedom of the press , the right of free association and public assembly , the secrecy of the post and telephone . These rights were not reinstated during Nazi reign . The decree was used by the Nazis to ban publications not considered `` friendly '' to the Nazi cause . Despite the fact that Marinus van der Lubbe claimed to have acted alone in the Reichstag fire , Hitler , after having obtained his emergency powers , announced that it was the start of a Communist plot to take over Germany . Nazi newspapers blared this `` news '' . This sent the Germans into a panic and isolated the Communists further among the civilians ; additionally , thousands of Communists were imprisoned in the days following the fire ( including leaders of the Communist Party of Germany ) on the charge that the Party was preparing to stage a putsch . Speaking to Rudolph Diels about Communists during the Reichstag fire , Hitler said `` These sub-humans do not understand how the people stand at our side . In their mouse - holes , out of which they now want to come , of course they hear nothing of the cheering of the masses . '' With Communist electoral participation also suppressed ( the Communists previously polled 17 % of the vote ) , the Nazis were able to increase their share of the vote in the 5 March 1933 , Reichstag elections from 33 % to 44 % . This gave the Nazis and their allies , the German National People 's Party ( who won 8 % of the vote ) , a majority of 52 % in the Reichstag . While the Nazis emerged with a majority , they fell short of their goal , which was to win 50 % -- 55 % of the vote that year . The Nazis thought that this would make it difficult to achieve their next goal , which was to pass the Enabling Act , a measure that required a two - thirds majority . However , there were important factors weighing in the Nazis ' favor . These were : the continued suppression of the Communist Party and the Nazis ' ability to capitalize on national security concerns . Moreover , some deputies of the Social Democratic Party ( the only party that would vote against the Enabling Act ) were prevented from taking their seats in the Reichstag , due to arrests and intimidation by the Nazi SA . As a result , the Social Democratic Party would be under - represented in the final vote tally . The Enabling Act , which gave Hitler the right to rule by decree , passed easily on 23 March 1933 . It garnered the support of the right - wing German National People 's Party , the Centre Party , and several fragmented middle - class parties . This measure went into force on 27 March and , in effect , made Hitler dictator of Germany . The Kroll Opera House , sitting across the Königsplatz from the burned - out Reichstag building , functioned as the Reichstag 's venue for the remaining twelve years of the Third Reich 's existence . Dimitrov on an East German stamp Reichstag fire trial ( edit ) `` Leipzig Trial '' redirects here . For the post-World War I trials , see Leipzig War Crimes Trials . In July 1933 , Marinus van der Lubbe , Ernst Torgler , Georgi Dimitrov , Blagoi Popov , and Vasil Tanev were indicted on charges of setting the Reichstag on fire . From 21 September to 23 December 1933 , the Leipzig Trial took place and was presided over by judges from the German Supreme Court , the Reichsgericht . This was Germany 's highest court . The presiding judge was Judge Dr. Wilhelm Bürger of the Fourth Criminal Court of the Fourth Penal Chamber of the Supreme Court . The accused were charged with arson and with attempting to overthrow the government . The window through which Marinus van der Lubbe supposedly entered the building The Leipzig Trial was widely publicized and was broadcast on the radio . It was expected that the court would find the Communists guilty on all counts and approve the repression and terror exercised by the Nazis against all opposition forces in the country . At the end of the trial , however , only Van der Lubbe was convicted , while his fellow defendants were found not guilty . In 1934 , Van der Lubbe was beheaded in a German prison yard . In 1967 , a court in West Berlin overturned the 1933 verdict , and posthumously changed Van der Lubbe 's sentence to 8 years in prison . In 1980 , another court overturned the verdict , but was overruled . In 1981 , a West German court posthumously overturned Van der Lubbe 's 1933 conviction and found him not guilty by reason of insanity . This ruling was subsequently overturned . However , in January 2008 , he was pardoned under a 1998 law for the crime on the grounds that anyone convicted under Nazi Germany is officially not guilty . The law allows pardons for people convicted of crimes under the Nazis , based on the idea that the laws of Nazi Germany `` went against the basic ideas of justice '' . The trial began at 8 : 45 on the morning of 21 September , with Van der Lubbe testifying . Van der Lubbe 's testimony was very hard to follow as he spoke of losing his sight in one eye and wandering around Europe as a drifter and that he had been a member of the Dutch Communist Party , which he quit in 1931 , but still considered himself a communist . Georgi Dimitrov began his testimony on the third day of the trial . He gave up his right to a court - appointed lawyer and defended himself successfully . When warned by Judge Bürger to behave himself in court , Dimitrov stated : `` Herr President , if you were a man as innocent as myself and you had passed seven months in prison , five of them in chains night and day , you would understand it if one perhaps becomes a little strained . '' During the course of his defence , Dimitrov claimed that the organizers of the fire were senior members of the Nazi Party and frequently verbally clashed with Göring at the trial . The highpoint of the trial occurred on 4 November 1933 , when Göring took the stand and was cross-examined by Dimitrov . The following exchange took place : Dimitrov : Herr Prime Minister Göring stated on February 28 that , when arrested , the `` Dutch Communist Van der Lubbe had on his person his passport and a membership card of the Communist Party '' . From whom was this information taken ? Göring : The police search all common criminals , and report the result to me . Dimitrov : The three officials who arrested and examined Van der Lubbe all agreed that no membership card of the Communist Party was found on him . I should like to know where the report that such a card had been found came from . Göring : I was told by an official . Things which were reported to me on the night of the fire ... could not be tested or proven . The report was made to me by a responsible official , and was accepted as a fact , and as it could not be tested immediately it was announced as a fact . When I issued the first report to the press on the morning after the fire the interrogation of Van der Lubbe had not been concluded . In any case I do not see that anyone has any right to complain because it seems proved in this trial that Van der Lubbe had no such card on him . Dimitrov : I would like to ask the Minister of the Interior what steps he took to make sure that Van der Lubbe 's route to Hennigsdorf , his stay and his meetings with other people there were investigated by the police to assist them in tracking down Van der Lubbe 's accomplices ? Göring : As I am not an official myself , but a responsible Minister it was not important that I should trouble myself with such petty , minor matters . It was my task to expose the Party , and the mentality , which was responsible for the crime . Dimitrov : Is the Reichsminister aware of the fact that those that possess this alleged criminal mentality today control the destiny of a sixth part of the world -- the Soviet Union ? Göring : I do n't care what happens in Russia ! I know that the Russians pay with bills , and I should prefer to know that their bills are paid ! I care about the Communist Party here in Germany and about Communist crooks who come here to set the Reichstag on fire ! Dimitrov : This criminal mentality rules the Soviet Union , the greatest and best country in the world . Is Herr Prime Minister aware of that ? Göring : I shall tell you what the German people already know . They know that you are behaving in a disgraceful manner ! They know that you are a Communist crook who came to Germany to set the Reichstag on fire ! In my eyes you are nothing , but a scoundrel , a crook who belongs on the gallows ! `` . In his verdict , Judge Bürger was careful to underline his belief that there had in fact been a Communist conspiracy to burn down the Reichstag , but declared , with the exception of Van der Lubbe , there was insufficient evidence to connect the accused to the fire or the alleged conspiracy . Only Van der Lubbe was found guilty and sentenced to death . The rest were acquitted and were expelled to the Soviet Union , where they received a heroic welcome . The one exception was Torgler , who was taken into `` protective custody '' by the police until 1935 . After being released , he assumed a pseudonym and moved away from Berlin . Hitler was furious with the outcome of this trial . He decreed that henceforth treason -- among many other offenses -- would only be tried by a newly established People 's Court ( Volksgerichtshof ) . The People 's Court later became associated with the number of death sentences it handed down , including those following the 1944 attempt to assassinate Hitler , which were presided over by then Judge - President Roland Freisler . Execution of Van der Lubbe ( edit ) At his trial , Van der Lubbe was found guilty and sentenced to death . He was beheaded by guillotine ( the customary form of execution in Saxony at the time ; it was by axe in the rest of Germany ) on 10 January 1934 , three days before his 25th birthday . The Nazis alleged that Van der Lubbe was part of the Communist conspiracy to burn down the Reichstag and seize power , while the Communists alleged that Van der Lubbe was part of the Nazi conspiracy to blame the crime on them . Van der Lubbe , for his part , maintained that he acted alone to protest the condition of the German working class . Dispute about Van der Lubbe 's role in the Reichstag fire ( edit ) Memorial at the Südfriedhof in Leipzig According to Ian Kershaw , in Hitler 1889 -- 1936 : Hubris , written in 1998 , the consensus of nearly all historians at the time of writing was that Van der Lubbe did set the Reichstag on fire , and that it was generally believed that he acted alone and that the Reichstag fire was merely a stroke of good luck for the Nazis . Although Van der Lubbe was certainly an arsonist and clearly played a role , there has been considerable popular and scientific debate over whether he acted alone ; the case is still discussed . It is alleged that the idea Van der Lubbe was a `` half - wit '' or `` mentally disturbed '' was propaganda spread by the Dutch Communist Party , to distance themselves from an insurrectionist anti-fascist , who was once a member of the party and took action where they failed to do so . John Gunther , who covered the trial , described him as `` an obvious victim of manic - depressive psychosis '' , and said that the Nazis would not have chosen `` an agent so inept and witless '' . Citing a letter allegedly written by Karl Ernst before his death during the Night of Long Knives , he believed that Nazis who heard Van der Lubbe boast of planning to attack the Reichstag started a second simultaneous fire they blamed on him . Hans Mommsen concluded that the Nazi leadership was in a state of panic on the night of the Reichstag fire and they seemed to regard the fire as confirmation that a Communist revolution was as imminent as they said it was . British reporter Sefton Delmer witnessed the events of that night and his account of the fire provides a number of details . Delmer reports Hitler arriving at the Reichstag and appearing uncertain how it began and concerned that a Communist coup was about to be launched . Delmer viewed Van der Lubbe as being solely responsible but that the Nazis sought to make it appear to be a `` Communist gang '' who set the fire , whereas the Communists sought to make it appear that Van der Lubbe was working for the Nazis , each side constructing a plot - theory in which the other was the villain . In private , Hitler said of the chairman of the Communist Party , Ernst Torgler : `` I 'm convinced he was responsible for the burning of the Reichstag , but I ca n't prove it '' . In 1960 , Fritz Tobias ( de ) , a West German SPD public servant and part - time historian , published a series of articles in Der Spiegel , later turned into a book , in which he argued that Vаn der Lubbe acted alone . Tobias was widely attacked for his articles , which showed that Van der Lubbe was a pyromaniac , with a long history of burning down buildings or attempting to burn down buildings . Tobias established that Van der Lubbe attempted to burn down several buildings in the days prior to 27 February . In March 1973 , the Swiss historian Walter Hofer organized a conference intended to rebut the claims made by Tobias . At the conference , Hofer claimed to have found evidence that some of the detectives who investigated the fire had been Nazis . Mommsen commented on Hofer 's claims by stating , `` Professor Hofer 's rather helpless statement that the accomplices of Van der Lubbe ' could only have been Nazis ' is tacit admission that the committee did not actually obtain any positive evidence in regard to the alleged accomplices ' identity . '' Mommsen also had a counter-study supporting Hofer , which was suppressed for political reasons , an act that he admits was a serious breach of ethics . In 1946 , Hans Gisevius a member of anti-Hitler resistance within the German government and former member of the Gestapo , Abwehr , and foreign ministry , indicated his supposition that the Nazis were the arsonists . Gisevius posits that Karl Ernst by order of possibly Goebbels , collected a commando of SA men headed by Hans Georg `` Heini '' Gewehr , who set the fire . Among them was a criminal named Rall , who later made a ( suppressed ) confession before he was murdered by the Gestapo . Almost all participants were murdered in the Night of the Long Knives ; Gewehr survived this purge but was later reported , inaccurately , to have died in the war . Gewehr actually lived until 1976 and was involved in much of the post-war controversy about the origins of the fire . New work by Bahar and Kugel , as of 2001 , has revived the theory that the Nazis were behind the fire . It uses Gestapo archives held in Moscow and available to researchers only since 1990 . They argue that the fire was almost certainly started by the Nazis , based on the wealth of circumstantial evidence provided by the archival material . They say that a commando group of at least three and at most ten SA men , led by Hans Georg Gewehr , set the fire using self - lighting incendiaries , and that Van der Lubbe was brought to the scene later . Der Spiegel published a 10 - page response to the book , arguing that the thesis that Van der Lubbe acted alone remains the most likely explanation . Benjamin Carter Hett ( de ) 's 2014 study rejects the possibility of a single perpetrator , van der Lubbe , as he had neither time nor appropriate resources for a successful arson attack . Göring 's commentary ( edit ) Göring ( first row , far left ) at the Nuremberg trials In The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich , William L. Shirer wrote that at Nuremberg , General Franz Halder stated in an affidavit , that Hermann Göring boasted about setting the fire : On the occasion of a lunch on the Führer 's birthday in 1943 , the people around the Führer turned the conversation to the Reichstag building and its artistic value . I heard with my own ears how Göring broke into the conversation and shouted : ' The only one who really knows about the Reichstag building is I , for I set fire to it . ' And saying this he slapped his thigh . Under cross-examination at the Nuremberg trial in 1945 / 6 , Göring was read Halder 's affidavit and denied he had any involvement in the fire , characterizing Halder 's statement as `` utter nonsense '' . Göring stated : I had no reason or motive for setting fire to the Reichstag . From the artistic point of view I did not at all regret that the assembly chamber was burned ; I hoped to build a better one . But I did regret very much that I was forced to find a new meeting place for the Reichstag and , not being able to find one , I had to give up my Kroll Opera House ... for that purpose . The opera seemed to me much more important than the Reichstag . `` Counter-trial '' organised by the German Communist Party ( edit ) Willi Münzenberg During the summer of 1933 , a mock counter-trial was organised in London by a group of lawyers , democrats and other anti-Nazis under the aegis of German Communist émigrés . The chairman of the mock trial was Labour barrister ( and Stalin apologist ) DN Pritt KC and the chief organiser was the KPD propaganda chief Willi Münzenberg . The other `` judges '' were Meester Piet Vermeylen of Belgium , George Branting of Sweden , Maître Vincent de Moro - Giafferi and Maître Gaston Bergery of France , Betsy Bakker - Nort of the Netherlands , Vald Hvidt of Denmark and Arthur Garfield Hays of the United States . The mock trial began on 21 September 1933 . It lasted one week and ended with the conclusion that the defendants were innocent and the true initiators of the fire were to be found amid the leading Nazi Party elite . The counter-trial received much media attention and Sir Stafford Cripps delivered the opening speech . Göring was found guilty at the mock counter-trial . The mock trial served as a workshop , during which all possible scenarios were tested and all speeches of the defendants were prepared . Most of the `` judges '' , such as Hays and Moro - Giafferi , complained that the atmosphere at the `` Counter-trial '' was more like a show trial , with Münzenberg constantly applying pressure behind the scenes on the `` judges '' , to deliver the `` right '' verdict without any regard for the truth . One of the `` witnesses '' , a supposed SA man , appeared in court wearing a mask and claimed that it was the SA that really set the fire ; in fact , the `` SA man '' was Albert Norden , the editor of the German Communist newspaper Rote Fahne . Another masked witness whom Hays described as `` not very reliable '' , claimed that Van der Lubbe was a drug - addicted homosexual , who was the lover of Ernst Röhm and a Nazi dupe . When the lawyer for Ernst Torgler , asked the mock trial organisers to turn over the `` evidence '' exonerating his client , Münzenberg refused the request because he lacked any `` evidence '' to exonerate or convict anyone of the crime . The counter-trial was an enormously successful publicity stunt for the German Communists . Münzenberg followed this triumph with another by writing under his name , the best - selling The Brown Book of the Reichstag Fire and Hitler Terror , an exposé of what Münzenberg alleged to be the Nazi conspiracy to burn down the Reichstag and blame the act on the Communists . ( As with all of Münzenberg 's books , the real author was one of his aides ; in this case , a Czechoslovak Communist named Otto Katz . ) The success of The Brown Book was followed by another best - seller published in 1934 , again ghost - written by Katz , The Second Brown Book of the Reichstag Fire and the Hitler Terror . The Brown Book was divided into three parts . The first part , which traced the rise of the Nazis ( or `` German Fascists '' as Katz called them , in conformity with Comintern practice , which forbade the use of the term Nazi ) , portrayed the KPD as the only genuine anti-fascist force in Germany and featured a bitter attack on the SPD . Formed from dissidents within the SPD , the KPD led the communist uprisings in the early Weimar period -- which the SPD crushed . The Brown Book labelled the SPD `` Social Fascists '' and accused the leadership of the SPD of secretly working with the Nazis . The second section deals with the Reichstag fire , which is described as a Nazi plot to frame the Communists , who are represented as the most dedicated opponents of Nazism . The third section deals with the supposed puppet masters behind the Nazis . As archetype ( edit ) An editor has expressed concern that this section may have a number of irrelevant citations . Please help improve this article by verifying these references and challenge any that are not reliable or do not support the article . ( February 2017 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) The term `` Reichstag fire '' is used by some writers to denote a calamitous event staged by a political movement , orchestrated in a manner that casts blame on their opponents , thus causing the opponents to be viewed with suspicion by the general public . This is sometimes known as a false flag attack when the event itself is caused by proponents of a political movement to falsely accuse their opponents . In modern histories the destruction of the palace of Diocletian at Nicomedia has been described as a `` fourth - century Reichstag fire '' used to justify an extensive persecution of Christians . According to Lactantius , `` That ( Galerius ) might urge ( Diocletian ) to excess of cruelty in persecution , he employed private emissaries to set the palace on fire ; and some part of it having been burnt , the blame was laid on the Christians as public enemies ; and the very appellation of Christian grew odious on account of that fire . '' Tacitus ' account of the burning of Rome involved similar allegations . References ( edit ) Notes ^ Jump up to : Tobias , Fritz ( 1964 ) . The Reichstag Fire . Putnam . Jump up ^ Holborn , Haljo ( 1973 ) Republic to Reich : the Making of the Nazi Revolution Jump up ^ `` The Reichstag Fire '' . Holocaust Encyclopedia . United States Holocaust Memorial Museum . Retrieved 12 August 2013 . Jump up ^ DW Staff ( 27 February 2008 ) . `` 75 Years Ago , Reichstag Fire Sped Hitler 's Power Grab '' . Deutsche Welle . Retrieved 12 August 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Who started the Reichstag Fire ? '' . OUPblog . December 14 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Paterson , Tony ( April 15 , 2001 ) . `` Historians find ' proof ' that Nazis burnt Reichstag '' . The Sunday Telegraph . Jump up ^ Shirer , William ( 2011 ) . The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich . Simon and Schuster . p. 192 . There is enough evidence to establish beyond a reasonable doubt that it was the Nazis who planned the arson and carried it out for their own political ends . Jump up ^ Botwinick , Rita ( 2004 ) . A History of The Holocaust : From Ideology to Annihilation . New Jersey : Peason . pp. 90 -- 92 . Jump up ^ Schirer , William L. ( 1991 ) . The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich . London : Mandarin . pp. 191 -- 192 . ISBN 0 - 7493 - 0697 - 1 . Jump up ^ Snyder ( 1976 ) , pp. 286 -- 287 . ^ Jump up to : Koonz ( 2003 ) , p. 33 . Jump up ^ Gellately , Robert ( 2001 ) . Backing Hitler : Consent and Coercion in Nazi Germany . Oxford University Press . p. 18 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 19 - 160452 - 2 . ^ Jump up to : Koonz ( 2003 ) , p. 36 . Jump up ^ Snyder ( 1976 ) , p. 288 . Jump up ^ Connolly , Kate ( 12 January 2008 ) . `` 75 years on , executed Reichstag arsonist finally wins pardon '' . The Guardian . London . Retrieved 1 May 2008 . Jump up ^ Snyder ( 1976 ) , pp. 288 -- 289 . Jump up ^ Snyder ( 1976 ) , p. 289 . Jump up ^ Kershaw ( 1998 ) , pp. 456 -- 458 , 731 -- 732 . Jump up ^ `` Dutch Council Communism and Van der Lubbe '' . Jump up ^ Gunther , John ( 1940 ) . Inside Europe . New York : Harper & Brothers . pp. 48 -- 49 . Jump up ^ Mommsen ( 1972 ) , p. 144 . Jump up ^ `` Sefton Delmer 's account of the Reichstag fire '' . Archived from the original on 5 December 2006 . Jump up ^ Hitler , Adolf ( 2008 ) . Hitler 's Table Talk , 1941 -- 1944 . His Private Conversations . New York : Enigma Books . p. 121 . Jump up ^ Gordon , David ( 19 December 2008 ) . `` Nazi Economics '' . LewRockwell.com . Jump up ^ Snyder ( 1976 ) , pp. 287 -- 288 . ^ Jump up to : Gisevius HB ( 1947 ) . To the Bitter End . Translated by Richard & Clara Winston . Boston : Houghton Mifflin Company . pp. 62 -- 79 . Jump up ^ Hett , Benjamin Carter ( 2014 ) . Burning the Reichstag : An Investigation into the Third Reich 's Enduring Mystery ( 1st ed . ) . New York : Oxford University Press . ISBN 978 - 0199322329 . Jump up ^ Bahar & Kugel ( 2001 ) Jump up ^ Paterson , Tony ( 19 July 2001 ) . `` Historians find ' proof ' that Nazis burnt Reichstag '' . Daily Telegraph . Archived from the original on 13 August 2006 . Jump up ^ Hett ( 2014 ) , pp. 318 -- 320 ; Hett ( 27 February 2014 ) . `` Spies and the burning Reichstag '' . OUPBlog . Oxford University Press . Jump up ^ Shirer , William ( 1959 ) . The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich . New York : Touchstone . p. 193 . Jump up ^ `` Nuremberg Trial Proceedings '' . March 18 , 1946 . Volume 9 . Jump up ^ Costello , John ( 1988 ) . Mask of Treachery . London : William Collins & Sons . p. 296 . Jump up ^ Drake , H.A. Constantine and the bishops : the politics of intolerance . p. 164 . Jump up ^ `` Notes on the ' Great Persecution ' '' . Archived from the original on 18 October 2002 . Jump up ^ Lactantius ( c. 300 ) . `` 14 '' . On the Deaths of the Persecutors . Jump up ^ Robinson , John A.T. `` Re-dating the New Testament '' . Bibliography Bahar , Alexander & Kugel , Wilfried ( 2001 ) . Der Reichstagbrand ( in German ) ( q ed . ) . Hett , Benjamin Carter ( 2014 ) . Burning the Reichstag : An Investigation into the Third Reich 's Enduring Mystery . Oxford : Oxford University Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 19 - 932232 - 9 . Kershaw , Ian ( 1998 ) . Hitler , 1889 -- 1936 : Hubris . London : Allen Lane . Koonz , Claudia ( 2003 ) . The Nazi Conscience . p. 33 . ISBN 0 - 674 - 01172 - 4 . Mommsen , Hans ( 1972 ) . `` The Reichstag Fire and Its Political Consequences '' . In Holborn , Hajo . Republic to Reich The Making of the Nazi Revolution . New York : Pantheon Books . pp. 129 -- 222 . ( originally published as `` Der Reichstagsbrand und seine politischen Folgen '' , Vierteljahrshefte für Zeitgeschichte , vol. 12 , pp. 351 -- 413 , 1964 . Snyder , Louis ( 1976 ) . Encyclopedia of the Third Reich . New York : McGraw - Hill . Tobias , Fritz ( 1964 ) . The Reichstag Fire . New York : Putnam . External links ( edit ) Review of Bahar and Kugel book Van der Lubbe exonerated by German courts German court overturns Lubbe decision Documentary about Reichstag fire and Marinus van der Lubbe Newsreel footage from UK about the fire The Conspiracists at London Review of Books Review of Hett book The Brown Book of the Hitler Terror and the Burning of the Reichstag A HathiTrust full text of the US edition held by the University of Michigan : Alfred A Knopf Inc , NY , 1933 . GND : 4049177 - 8 Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Reichstag_fire&oldid=856526612 '' Categories : 1930s in Berlin Reichstag building Fires in Germany 1933 crimes in Germany 1933 fires Arson in Germany Conspiracy theories in Germany False flag operations Fires at legislative buildings February 1933 events Attacks on buildings and structures in Germany Hidden categories : Articles needing more detailed references Articles with short description Use dmy dates from February 2015 Articles containing German - language text Articles with hAudio microformats Interlanguage link template link number Wikipedia references cleanup from February 2017 All articles needing references cleanup CS1 German - language sources ( de ) Germany articles missing geocoordinate data All articles needing coordinates Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Talk Contents About Wikipedia Alemannisch Беларуская Български Bosanski Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Español Esperanto فارسی Français Frysk Galego 한국어 Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית Magyar मराठी Nederlands 日本 語 Norsk Polski Português Română Русский Scots Shqip Simple English Slovenčina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Татарча / tatarça ไทย Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt 吴语 粵語 中文 36 more Edit links This page was last edited on 25 August 2018 , at 21 : 19 ( UTC ) . 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Wonder Woman - Wikipedia Wonder Woman This article is about the character known as `` Princess Diana of Themyscira '' and `` Diana Prince '' . For other characters given this name , as well as other uses , see Wonder Woman ( disambiguation ) . superhero appearing in DC Comics publications and related media Wonder Woman Wonder Woman in Justice # 5 ( June 2006 ) Art by Doug Braithwaite and Alex Ross Publication information Publisher DC Comics First appearance All Star Comics # 8 ( released October 1941 ) Created by William Moulton Marston ( writer ) Harry G. Peter ( artist ) In - story information Alter ego Princess Diana of Themyscira ( Amazon identity ) Diana Prince ( Civilian identity ) Species Amazonian - Olympian ( Demigoddess , 2011 -- present ) Place of origin Themyscira ( Earth ) Team affiliations Justice League D.M.A. Justice League Dark Partnerships Steve Trevor Batman ( Bruce Wayne ) Superman / Kal - El / Clark Kent Wonder Girl Notable aliases Diana Prince Abilities See list ( show ) Superhuman strength , speed , reflexes , durability , and longevity Accelerated healing Master hand - to - hand combatant Immortality Flight Uses Lasso of Truth , indestructible bracelets , projectile tiara , sword , shield , and invisible jet Wonder Woman is a fictional superhero appearing in American comic books published by DC Comics . The character is a founding member of the Justice League , and an ambassador of the Amazon people . The character first appeared in All Star Comics # 8 in October 1941 with her first feature in Sensation Comics # 1 , January 1942 . The Wonder Woman title has been published by DC Comics almost continuously except for a brief hiatus in 1986 . In her homeland , the island nation of Themyscira , her official title is Princess Diana of Themyscira , Daughter of Hippolyta . When blending into the society outside of her homeland , she adopts her civilian identity Diana Prince . Wonder Woman was created by the American psychologist and writer William Moulton Marston ( pen name : Charles Moulton ) , and artist Harry G. Peter . Marston 's wife , Elizabeth , and their life partner , Olive Byrne , are credited as being his inspiration for the character 's appearance . Marston 's comics featured his ideas on DISC theory , and the character drew a great deal of inspiration from early feminists , and especially from birth control pioneer Margaret Sanger ; in particular , her piece `` Woman and the New Race '' . Wonder Woman 's origin story relates that she was sculpted from clay by her mother Queen Hippolyta and was given a life to live as an Amazon , along with superhuman powers as gifts by the Greek gods . In recent years , DC changed her background with the revelation that she is the daughter of Zeus and Hippolyta , jointly raised by her mother and her aunts Antiope and Menalippe . The character has changed in depiction over the decades , including briefly losing her powers entirely in the 1970s ; by the 1980s , artist George Perez gave her a muscular look and emphasized her Amazonian heritage . She possesses an arsenal of advanced technology , including the Lasso of Truth , a pair of indestructible bracelets , a tiara which serves as a projectile , and , in older stories , a range of devices based on Amazon technology . Wonder Woman 's character was created during World War II ; the character in the story was initially depicted fighting Axis military forces as well as an assortment of colorful supervillains , although over time her stories came to place greater emphasis on characters , deities , and monsters from Greek mythology . Many stories depicted Wonder Woman rescuing herself from bondage , which defeated the `` damsels in distress '' trope that was common in comics during the 1940s . In the decades since her debut , Wonder Woman has gained a cast of enemies bent on eliminating the Amazon , including classic villains such as Ares , Cheetah , Doctor Poison , Circe , Doctor Psycho , and Giganta , along with more recent adversaries such as Veronica Cale and the First Born . Wonder Woman has also regularly appeared in comic books featuring the superhero teams Justice Society ( from 1941 ) and Justice League ( from 1960 ) . The character is a well - known figure in popular culture that has been adapted to various media . June 3 is Wonder Woman Day . Wonder Woman is part of the DC Comics trinity of flagship characters alongside Batman and Superman . Contents 1 Publication history 1.1 Creation 1.2 Golden Age 1.3 Silver Age 1.4 Bronze Age 1.5 Modern Age 2 Characterization 2.1 Diana Prince 2.1. 1 Personality 2.2 Others 3 Abilities 3.1 Powers and training 3.1. 1 Pre-Crisis 3.1. 2 Post-Crisis 3.1. 3 The New 52 3.1. 4 Rebirth 3.1. 5 DC Universe 3.2 Technology 3.2. 1 Personal armor 3.2. 2 Invisible plane 3.2. 3 Bracelets of Submission 3.2. 4 Lasso of Truth 3.2. 5 Other items 4 Fictography 4.1 20th century 4.1. 1 Origin 4.1. 2 Golden Age 4.1. 3 Silver Age 4.1. 4 Bronze Age 4.1. 5 Modern Age 4.2 21st century 4.2. 1 The New 52 4.2. 2 Earth 2 4.2. 3 DC Rebirth 5 Cultural impact 5.1 In other media 5.1. 1 Television 5.1. 2 Film 5.1. 3 Literature 5.2 Critical reception and legacy 5.2. 1 Feminist icon 5.2. 2 Pacifist icon 5.2. 3 LGBT icon 5.2. 4 Sex icon 6 See also 7 References 8 Further reading 9 External links Publication history ( edit ) Main article : Publication history of Wonder Woman Modern historians divide 20th century history of American superhero comics into `` four ages '' , akin to the `` Ages of Man '' . Creation ( edit ) In an October 25 , 1940 , interview with the Family Circle magazine , William Moulton Marston discussed the unfulfilled potential of the comic book medium . This article caught the attention of comics publisher Max Gaines , who hired Marston as an educational consultant for National Periodicals and All - American Publications , two of the companies that would merge to form DC Comics . At that time , Marston wanted to create his own new superhero ; Marston 's wife and fellow psychologist Elizabeth suggested to him that it should be a woman : William Moulton Marston , a psychologist already famous for inventing the polygraph , struck upon an idea for a new kind of superhero , one who would triumph not with fists or firepower , but with love . `` Fine , '' said Elizabeth . `` But make her a woman . '' Marston introduced the idea to Gaines . Given the go - ahead , Marston developed Wonder Woman , whom he believed to be a model of that era 's unconventional , liberated woman . Marston also drew inspiration from the bracelets worn by Olive Byrne , who lived with the couple in a polyamorous relationship . Wonder Woman debuted in All Star Comics # 8 ( cover date Dec / Jan 1941 / 1942 , released in October 1941 ) , scripted by Marston . Marston was the creator of a systolic - blood - pressure - measuring apparatus , which was crucial to the development of the polygraph ( lie detector ) . Marston 's experience with polygraphs convinced him that women were more honest than men in certain situations and could work more efficiently . Marston designed Wonder Woman to be an allegory for the ideal love leader ; the kind of women who he believed should run society . `` Wonder Woman is psychological propaganda for the new type of woman who should , I believe , rule the world '' , Marston wrote . In a 1943 issue of The American Scholar , Marston wrote : Not even girls want to be girls so long as our feminine archetype lacks force , strength , and power . Not wanting to be girls , they do n't want to be tender , submissive , peace - loving as good women are . Women 's strong qualities have become despised because of their weakness . The obvious remedy is to create a feminine character with all the strength of Superman plus all the allure of a good and beautiful woman . Marston , was an outspoken feminist , swinger , S&M practitioner , and firm believer in the superiority of women . He described bondage and submission as a `` respectable and noble practice '' . Marston wrote in a weakness for Wonder Woman , which was attached to a fictional stipulation that he dubbed `` Aphrodite 's Law '' , that made the chaining of her `` Bracelets of Submission '' together by a man take away her Amazonian super strength . Wonder Woman often ended up in chains before inevitably breaking free . This not only represented Marston 's affinity for bondage , but women 's subjugation , which he roundly rejected . However , not everything about his creation was explicitly explained in any one source , which caused confusion among writers and fans for many years . Golden Age ( edit ) Main article : Golden Age of Comic Books Initially , Wonder Woman was an Amazon champion who wins the right to return Steve Trevor -- a United States intelligence officer whose plane had crashed on the Amazons ' isolated island homeland -- to `` Man 's World '' and to fight crime and the evil of the Nazis . During this period , Wonder Woman joined the Justice Society of America as the team 's secretary . Silver Age ( edit ) Main article : Silver Age of Comic Books During the Silver Age , under writer Robert Kanigher , Wonder Woman 's origin was revamped , along with other characters ' . The new origin story increased the character 's Hellenic and mythological roots : receiving the blessing of each deity in her crib , Diana is destined to become as `` beautiful as Aphrodite , wise as Athena , strong as Hercules , and swift as Hermes . '' At the end of the 1960s , under the guidance of Mike Sekowsky , Wonder Woman surrendered her powers in order to remain in Man 's World rather than accompany her fellow Amazons to another dimension . Wonder Woman begins using the alias Diana Prince and opens a mod boutique . She acquires a Chinese mentor named I Ching , who teaches Diana martial arts and weapons skills . Using her fighting skill instead of her powers , Diana engaged in adventures that encompassed a variety of genres , from espionage to mythology . This phase of her story was directly influenced by the British spy thriller The Avengers and Diana Rigg 's portrayal of Emma Peel . Bronze Age ( edit ) Main article : Bronze Age of Comic Books In the early 1970s the character returned to her superhero roots in the Justice League of America and to the World War II era in her own title . This however , was ultimately due to the popularity of the TV series at the time also having Wonder Woman set in WW2 era , and was shifted back to the 1970s era once the TV show did the same . With a new decade arriving , DC president Jenette Kahn ordered a revamp in Wonder Woman 's appearance . Artist Milton Glaser , who also designed the `` bullet '' logo adopted by DC in 1977 , created a stylized `` WW '' emblem that evoked and replaced the eagle in her bodice , and debuted in 1982 . The emblem in turn was incorporated by studio letterer Todd Klein onto the monthly title 's logo , which lasted for a year and a half before being replaced by a version from Glaser 's studio . With sales of the title continuing to decline in 1985 ( despite an unpublished revamp that was solicited ) , the series was canceled and ended in issue # 329 ( February 1986 ) written by Gerry Conway , depicting Steve Trevor 's marriage to Wonder Woman . The Crisis on Infinite Earths crossover of 1986 was designed and written with the purpose of streamlining most of DC 's characters into one more - focused continuity and reinventing them for a new era , thus Wonder Woman and Steve Trevor were declared to come from the Earth - Two dimension , and along with all of their exploits , were erased from history , so that a new Wonder Woman character , story and timeline could take priority . Modern Age ( edit ) Main article : Modern Age of Comic Books Following the 1985 Crisis on Infinite Earths series , George Pérez , Len Wein , and Greg Potter rewrote the character 's origin story , depicting Wonder Woman as an emissary and ambassador from Themyscira to Patriarch 's World , charged with the mission of bringing peace to the outside world . Pérez incorporated a variety of deities and concepts from Greek mythology in Wonder Woman 's stories and origin . His rendition of the character acted as the foundation for the modern Wonder Woman stories , as he expanded upon the widely accepted origin of Diana being birthed out of clay . The relaunch was a critical and commercial success . In August 2010 ( issue # 600 ) , J. Michael Straczynski took over the series ' writing duties and introduced Wonder Woman to an alternate timeline created by the Gods in which Paradise Island had been destroyed and the Amazons scattered around the world . In this timeline , Diana is an orphan raised in New York . The entire world has forgotten Wonder Woman 's existence and the main story of this run was of Diana trying to restore reality even though she does not properly remember it herself . A trio of Death Goddesses called The Morrigan acted as the main enemy of Wonder Woman . In this run , Wonder Woman wears a new costume designed by Jim Lee . Straczynski determined the plot and continued writing duties until Wonder Woman # 605 ; writer Phil Hester then continued his run , which ultimately concluded in Wonder Woman # 614 . Wonder Woman with Batman and Superman on the cover of Wonder Woman Annual vol. 5 , # 1 ( July 2017 ) . Art by Nicola Scott and Romulo Fajardo , Jr . In the 21st century , the three have appeared together in multiple titles as part of DC 's trinity of its most popular and important superheroes . In 2011 's The New 52 , DC Comics relaunched its entire line of publications to attract a new generation of readers , and thus released volume 4 of the Wonder Woman comic book title . Brian Azzarello and Cliff Chiang were assigned writing and art duties respectively and revamped the character 's history considerably . In this new continuity , Wonder Woman wears a costume similar to her original Marston costume , utilizes a sword and shield , and has a completely new origin . No longer a clay figure brought to life by the magic of the gods , she is , instead , a demi - goddess and the natural - born daughter of Hippolyta and Zeus . Azzarello and Chiang 's revamp of the character was critically acclaimed , but highly divisive among long time fans of the character . In 2016 , DC Comics once again relaunched all of its publications as part of the `` DC Rebirth '' continuity reboot , and new fifth volume of Wonder Woman was released bi-monthly with writer Greg Rucka . This fifth volume of Wonder Woman is part of the `` DC Universe '' , the current continuity established after Rebirth . Initially , the new series does not use a regular storyline that exists between each issue ; instead two separate storylines share the book , with an installment of one story published every other issue , and those of the other storyline published in between those . This practice began with the storyline `` The Lies '' for the odd numbered issues , and `` Year One '' for the even numbered issues . The new storyline as presented in these issues effectively retcons the events from the previous New 52 series . `` The Lies '' storyline reveals that a number of events from the previous Wonder Woman series in which Diana was made the Queen of the Amazons and the God of War , was in fact all an illusion created by a mysterious villain , and she had never once been back to Themyscira ever since she left , nor is she capable of returning there . The `` Year One '' story is presented as an all - new origin story for Diana , which reveals how she received her powers from the Olympian Gods , which was intended to bring her back to her classical DC roots . Wonder Woman appears in DC Rebirth with a revised look , which includes a red cape and light armor fittings . Along with her lasso and bracelets , she now regularly utilizes her sword and shield . Wonder Woman : Rebirth artist Liam Sharp described the new armor as a utilitarian piece which allows her to move more freely . Starting from Issue 26 , the series returned to a regular storyline between each issue . In 2018 , DC Comics announced that Ms. Marvel creator G. Willow Wilson will be the new writer on the Wonder Woman ongoing series . Wilson will begin her run on Wonder Woman in November , with the first story arc titled , `` The Just War . '' Characterization ( edit ) Diana Prince ( edit ) Main article : Diana Prince Queen Hippolyta uses the soil of Themyscira to create her daughter Diana . Art by Adam Hughes , `` The Origin of Wonder Woman '' in 52 no . 12 , Sept. 2006 The `` Diana Prince '' identity has been part of Wonder Woman 's history since her comics debut in 1941 . In the early Golden Age stories , Wonder Woman served as a military secretary during World War II , using Prince as her cover . Later occupations Wonder Woman performed as Prince included translator at the United Nations , Air Force captain and ambassador , and in the ' 70s TV series , Lynda Carter 's Wonder Woman used Prince to serve as an agent of the Inter-Agency Defense Command . In the DC Extended Universe , Prince works as curator for the Department of Antiquities at the extremely prestigious Louvre Museum and is held in very high esteem by the curator of the Gotham City Museum of Antiquities . Her tremendously long life - span , accumulation of immense amount of knowledge , and exceptional perceptiveness , makes Diana Prince the wisest and most emotionally intelligent member of the Justice League . During Marston 's run , Diana Prince was the name of an army nurse whom Wonder Woman met . The nurse wanted to meet with her fiancé , who was transferred to South America , but was unable to arrange for money to do so . As Wonder Woman needed a secret identity to look after Steve ( who was admitted to the same army hospital in which Diana Prince worked ) , and because both of them looked alike , Wonder Woman gave the nurse money to go to her fiancé in exchange for the nurse 's credentials and took Diana Prince as her alias . She started to work as an army nurse and later as an Air Force secretary . The identity of Diana Prince was especially prominent in a series published in the early 1970s , in which she fought crime only under the Prince alias and without her mystic powers . To support herself , she ran a mod clothing boutique . The Diana Prince alias also played an important role after the events of Infinite Crisis . Wonder Woman was broadcast worldwide killing a villain named Maxwell Lord , as he was mind controlling Superman into killing Batman . When Wonder Woman caught him in her lasso , demanding to know how to stop Superman , Maxwell revealed that the only way to stop him was to kill Lord , so as a last resort Diana snapped his neck . To recover from the trauma of killing another person , the Amazon went into a self - imposed exile for one year . On her return to public life , Diana realized that her life as a full - time celebrity superhero and ambassador had kept her removed from humanity . Because of this she assumed the persona of Diana Prince and became an agent at the Department of Metahuman Affairs . During a later battle with the witch Circe , a spell was placed on Diana leaving her powerless when not in the guise of Wonder Woman . The New 52 universe does not have a `` Diana Prince '' identity as stated in an interview by series writer Brian Azzarello . However , when she and Superman began dating , for her civilian identity she used the Diana Prince alias whenever she was around Clark Kent ; such as when she introduced herself to Lois Lane at Lois 's housewarming party under that name . The DC Rebirth universe have n't featured the Diana Prince identity as much in favor of Wonder Woman just going by Diana of Themyscira in her down time . Personality ( edit ) `` At last , in a world torn by the hatred and wars of men , appears a woman to whom the problems and feats of men are mere child 's play . A woman whose identity is known to none , but whose sensational feats are outstanding in a fast - moving world . With a hundred times the agility and strength of our best male athletes and strongest wrestlers , she appears as though from nowhere to avenge an injustice or right a wrong ! As lovely as Aphrodite - as wise as Athena - with the speed of Mercury and the strength of Hercules - She is known only as Wonder Woman ! '' Narrator -- All Star Comics # 8 ( Introducing Wonder Woman ) - Written by William Moulton Marston Princess Diana commands respect both as Wonder Woman and Diana Prince ; her epithetical title -- The Amazon Princess -- illustrates the dichotomy of her character . She is a powerful , strong - willed character who does not back down from a fight or a challenge . Yet , she is a diplomat who strongly `` favors the pen '' , and a lover of peace who would never seek to fight or escalate a conflict . She 's simultaneously both the most fierce and most nurturing member of the Justice League ; and her political connections as a United Nations Honorary Ambassador and the ambassador of a warrior nation makes her an invaluable addition to the team . With her powerful abilities , centuries of training and experienced at handling threats that range from petty crime to threats that are of a magical or supernatural nature , Diana is capable of competing with nearly any hero or villain . Many writers have depicted Diana in different personalities and tone ; between both of her diametric extremes ; that of a worldly warrior , a highly compassionate and calm ambassador , and sometimes also as a naive and innocent person , depending on the writer . What has remained constant , and is a mainstay of the character , is her nurturing humanity : her overwhelming belief in love , empathy , compassion , and having a strong conscience . This trait had been the reason for her induction into the Star Sapphires . Writer Gail Simone was applauded for her portrayal of Wonder Woman during her run on the series , with comic book reviewer Dan Phillips of IGN noting that `` she 's molded Diana into a very relatable and sympathetic character . '' Actress Gal Gadot described Wonder Woman as `` an idealist . Experienced , super-confident . Open and sincere even in the midst of a gruesome , bloody conflict . Having many strengths and powers , but at the end of the day she 's a woman with a lot of emotional intelligence '' . In the Golden Age , Wonder Woman adhered to an Amazon code of helping any in need , even misogynistic people , and never accepting a reward for saving someone ; while conversely , the modern version of the character has been shown to perform lethal and fatal actions when left with no other alternative , exemplified in the killing of Maxwell Lord in order to save Superman 's life . The New 52 version of the character has been portrayed to be a younger , more headstrong , loving , fierce and willful person . Brian Azzarello stated in a video interview with DC Comics that they 're building a very `` confident '' , `` impulsive '' and `` good - hearted '' character in her . He referred to her trait of feeling compassion as both her strength and weakness . A distinctive trait of her characterization is a group of signature mythological exclamations , beginning with `` Great Aphrodite ! '' , followed by `` Great Hera ! '' , `` Merciful Minerva ! '' , and `` Suffering Sappho ! ' , some of which were contributed by Elizabeth Holloway Marston . Others ( edit ) Main article : Alternative versions of Wonder Woman Diana , after her death , was granted divinity as the Goddess of Truth by her gods for such faithful devotion . During her brief time as a god of Olympus , Diana was replaced in the role of Wonder Woman by her mother , Queen Hippolyta . Unlike Diana receiving the title of Wonder Woman in honor , Hippolyta 's role as Wonder Woman was meant to be a punishment for her betrayal in Artemis ' death as well as for unintentionally killing her own daughter . However , Hippolyta eventually grew to enjoy the freedom and adventure the title came with . Whereas Diana used the Lasso of Truth as her primary weapon , Hippolyta favored a broad sword . John Byrne , the writer that introduced the concept of Hippolyta as the first Wonder Woman , has explained his intentions in a post in his message board : I thought George 's one `` mistake '' in rebooting Wonder Woman was making her only 25 years old when she left Paradise Island . I preferred the idea of a Diana who was thousands of years old ( as , if I recall correctly , she was in the TV series ) . From that angle , I would have liked to have seen Diana having been Wonder Woman in WW2 , and be returning to our world in the reboot . Not having that option , I took the next best course , and had Hippolyta fill that role . As Wonder Woman , Queen Hippolyta immediately got involved in a time travel mission back to the 1940s with Jay Garrick . After this mission , she elected to join the Justice Society of America and remained in that era for eight years , where her teammates nicknamed her `` Polly '' . During that time she had a relationship with Ted Grant . Hippolyta also made visits into the past to see her godchild Lyta , daughter of Hippolyta 's protege Helena , the Golden Age Fury . These visits happened yearly from young Lyta 's perspective and also accounted for Hippolyta 's participation in the JSA / JLA team ups . When she returned from the past , Hippolyta took Diana 's place in the JLA as well . Artemis of Bana - Mighdall briefly served as Wonder Woman during Hippolyta 's trials for a new Wonder Woman . Orana , a character similar to Artemis , defeated Diana in a new contest and became Wonder Woman in pre-Crisis on Infinite Earths continuity . Orana was killed during her first mission . Others who have donned the Wonder Woman persona include Nubia , Cassandra Sandsmark , and Donna Troy . Abilities ( edit ) Powers and training ( edit ) Wonder Woman without special powers fighting crime as Diana Prince . Cover of Wonder Woman # 189 ( July 1970 ) . Art by Mike Sekowsky . Diana is depicted as a masterful athlete , acrobat , fighter and strategist , trained and experienced in many ancient and modern forms of armed and unarmed combat , including exclusive Amazonian martial arts . In some versions , her mother trained her , as Wonder Girl , for a future career as Wonder Woman . From the beginning , she is portrayed as highly skilled in using her Amazon bracelets to stop bullets and in wielding her golden lasso . Batman once called her the `` best melee fighter in the world '' . The modern version of the character is known to use lethal force when she deems it necessary . In the New 52 continuity , her superior combat skills are the result of her Amazon training , as well as receiving further training from Ares , the God of War , himself , since as early as her childhood . The Golden Age Wonder Woman also had knowledge in psychology , as did her Amazon sisters . Pre-Crisis ( edit ) The Golden Age Wonder Woman had strength that was comparable to the Golden Age Superman . Wonder Woman was capable of bench pressing 15,000 pounds even before she had received her bracelets , and later hoisted a 50,000 pound boulder above her head to inspire Amazons facing the test . Even when her super strength was temporarily nullified , she still had enough mortal strength of an Amazon to break down a prison door to save Steve Trevor . In one of her earliest appearances , she is shown running easily at 60 mph ( 97 km / h ) , and later jumps from a building and lands on the balls of her feet . She was able to heal faster than a normal human being due to her birthright consumption of water from Paradise Island 's Fountain of Eternal Youth . Her strength would be removed in accordance with `` Aphrodite 's Law '' if she allowed her bracelets to be bound or chained by a male . She also had an array of mental and psychic abilities , as corresponding to Marston 's interest in parapsychology and metaphysics . Such an array included ESP , astral projection , telepathy ( with or without the Mental Radio ) , mental control over the electricity in her body , the Amazonian ability to turn brain energy into muscle power , etc . Wonder Woman first became immune to electric shocks after having her spirit stripped from her atoms by Dr. Psycho 's Electro Atomizer ; it was also discovered that she was unable to send a mental radio message without her body . Wonder Woman ( vol. 1 ) # 105 revealed that Diana was formed from clay by the Queen of the Amazons , given life and power by four of the Greek and Roman gods ( otherwise known as the Olympian deities ) as gifts , corresponding to her renowned epithet : `` Beautiful as Aphrodite , wise as Athena , swifter than Hermes , and stronger than Hercules '' , making her the strongest of the Amazons . Wonder Woman 's Amazon training gave her limited telepathy , profound scientific knowledge , and the ability to speak every language -- even caveman and Martian languages . Between 1966 and 1967 , new powers were added , such as super breath . In the Silver and Bronze Ages of comics , Wonder Woman was able to further increase her strength . In times of great need , removing her bracelets would temporarily augment her power tenfold , but cause her to go berserk in the process . These powers received changes after the events of Crisis on Infinite Earths . Post-Crisis ( edit ) In the Post-Crisis universe , Wonder Woman receives her super powers as a blessing from Olympian deities just like the Silver Age version before , but with changes to some of her powers : Demeter , the goddess of agriculture and fertility , blessed Diana with strength drawn from the Earth spirit Gaea , making her one of the physically strongest heroes in the DC Universe and the strongest female hero in the DC Universe . This strength has allowed her to easily overwhelm Superman and Supergirl . She has also held her own against Darkseid . Her strength has no measurable limits and she can break the Chronus Scepter , which is universal in its destructive power . However , now Diana is the daughter of Zeus , king of the Greek Gods , so it is unclear as to how much of her power and strength is a direct result of her divine heritage . Her connection to the earth allows her to heal at an accelerated rate so long as she is in contact with the planet . However , as mentioned earlier , now that she is a demigoddess , it has been suggested that she heals extremely quickly also due to her divine heritage . In rare cases where she has been gravely injured , Diana showed the ability to physically merge with the earth , causing whatever injuries or poisons to be expelled from her body ; such an act is considered sacred , and can only be used in extreme cases . Pallas Athena , the goddess of wisdom and war , granted Diana great wisdom , intelligence , and military prowess . Athena 's gift has enabled Diana to master over a dozen languages ( including those of alien origin ) , multiple complex crafts , sciences and philosophies , as well as leadership , military strategy , and armed and unarmed combat . More recently , Athena bound her own eyesight to Diana 's , granting her increased empathy . Artemis , goddess of the hunt , animals , and the Moon , graced Diana with the Eyes of the Hunter and unity with beasts , meaning Diana can communicate with all animals , including dinosaurs . The Eyes of the Hunter ability gives Diana a full range of enhanced senses , including telescopic vision and super hearing . Hestia , goddess of hearth and home , granted Diana sisterhood with fire . This power has been shown to control the `` Fires of Truth '' , which Diana wields through her lasso , making anyone bound by it unable to lie . This ability also grants her resistance to both normal and supernatural fire . Hermes , the messenger god of speed , granted Diana superhuman speed and the ability to fly . She is capable of flying at speeds approaching half the speed of light . She can react quickly enough to deflect bullets , lasers , and other projectiles with her virtually impenetrable bracelets . After the 2011 relaunch of the character , Wonder Woman does not naturally possess the power of flight . She gains it once she is hit by a feather thrown by Hermes . Aphrodite , goddess of love , bestowed Diana with stunning beauty , as well as a kind heart . While not completely invulnerable , she is highly resistant to great amounts of concussive force and extreme temperatures and matches Superman in this regard . She is completely immune to his heat vision , virtually any damage , or even the core of the sun . However , edged weapons or projectiles applied with sufficient force are able to pierce her skin . Due to her divine origins , Diana can resist many forms of magical manipulation . She is able to astrally project herself into various lands of myth . Her physical body reacts to whatever happens to her on the mythical astral plane , leaving her body cut , bruised , or sometimes strengthened once her mind and body are reunited . She can apparently leave the planet through meditation and did this once to rescue Artemis while she was in Hell . The new 52 ( edit ) After the 2011 relaunch , Diana gained new powers . These new abilities , which included superhuman speed , durability , longevity , accelerated healing , and even flight came in addition to her previous attributed Olympian strength . She is now considered to be stronger than Hercules . In addition to her weaponry , Diana 's indestructible bracelets can now create an thunderous explosion when she clashes them together . These new abilities are attributed to being the daughter of Hippolyta and Zeus . Her powers are now considered nearly unmeasurable if she goes without her Bracelets of Submission , which keep her powers in check . She uses these powers in battle against the goddess Artemis and quickly renders her unconscious with ease with a series of carefully positioned counterattacks . While using her godly strength , her outfit and accoutrements lit up and her eyes glowed like her father 's . After becoming the God of War in the pages of Wonder Woman , Diana inherits Ares 's divine abilities . Diana has not exhibited her full powers as War , but is seen in Superman / Wonder Woman # 5 to slip easily into telepathic rapport with a soldier , explaining `` I am War . I know all soldiers , and they know me . '' Rebirth ( edit ) Following the Rebirth retcon , the `` Year One '' storyline explains that while put in a cell after coming to Man 's World , Diana was visited by the Greek gods in animal form . Each gave her powers that would reveal themselves when she needed them to . She first displays strength when she accidentally rips the bars off her cell door when visited by Steve Trevor , Etta Candy , and Barbara Ann Minerva . Later on a trip to the mall , she discovers super speed , great durability , and the power of flight while fighting off a terrorist attack . DC Universe ( edit ) DC Comics ended the Rebirth branding in December 2017 , opting to include everything under a larger `` DC Universe '' banner and naming . The continuity established by Rebirth continues across DC 's comic book titles , including volume five of Wonder Woman . Technology ( edit ) Diana rescues Steve Trevor from the sea and frantically creates the purple ray in order to heal him . Prior to the comic book storyline Crisis on Infinite Earths , Diana invented the Purple Ray in order to heal Steve Trevor from injuries he sustained when his plane was shot down and he was left adrift in the sea for days . Diana is an incredible scientist and physician in addition to athleticism . She has an arsenal of powerful god - forged gear at her disposal , but her signature equipment are her indestructible bracelets and the Lasso of Truth . Personal armor ( edit ) Wonder Woman 's outfit has varied over time , although almost all of her outfit incarnations have retained some form of breastplate , tiara , bracelets , and her signature five - pointed star symbols . When Wonder Woman was first introduced , she wore a heavily patriotic skirt and red top which incorporated an American eagle and elements of the United States flag , reflecting the comic 's origins during World War II . Later artists introduced what would become Wonder Woman 's classic ensemble , adding an armored plate to her top whose design recalls a letter W and revealing blue short shorts , whose precise length varied from artist to artist . Other artists have experimented with different looks for Wonder Woman over the years , including an all - white mod jumpsuit , a biker outfit , a variation of her mainstream depiction featuring leather pants and a jacket , and a number of armoured battlesuits . Contemporary artists have attempted to emphasise Wonder Woman 's traditional outfit as a red armored top with a blue gladiator skirt . Golden Age Wonder Woman 's outfit design was originally rooted in American symbolism and iconography , which included her signature star symbols , a golden eagle on her chest , crimson red bustier , white belt , and a dark blue star spangled skirt / culotte . She also had a pair of red glowing magnetic earrings which allowed her to receive messages from Queen Desira of the planet Venus . Pre-Crisis At the time of her debut , Wonder Woman sported a red top with a golden eagle emblem , a white belt , blue star - spangled culottes , and red and golden go - go boots . She originally wore a skirt ; however according to Elizabeth Martson , `` It was too hard to draw and would have been over her head most of the time . '' This outfit was entirely based on the American flag , because Wonder Woman was purely an American icon as she debuted during World War II . Later in 1942 , Wonder Woman 's outfit received a slight change -- the culottes were converted entirely into skin - tight shorts and she wore sandals . While earlier most of her back was exposed , during the imposition of the Comics Code Authority in the mid-1950s , Wonder Woman 's outfit was rectified to make her back substantially covered , in order to comply with the Authority 's rule of minimum exposure . During Mike Sekowsky 's run in the late 1960s , Diana surrendered her powers and started using her own skill to fight crime . She wore a series of jumpsuits as her attire , most popular of these was a white one . After Sekowsky 's run ended in the early 1970s , Diana 's roots were reverted to her old mythological ones and she wore a more modernized version of her original outfit , a predecessor to her `` bathing suit '' outfit . Later , in 1976 , her glowing white belt was turned into a yellow one . For Series 3 , artist Terry Dodson redrew her outfit as a strapless swimsuit . Post-Crisis After Crisis on Infinite Earths , George Pérez rebooted the character in 1987 . She wore an outfit similar to her 1970s one , but now with a larger glowing golden belt . This outfit continued until William Messner - Loebs ' run , which had Diana pass on the role of Wonder Woman to Artemis . No longer Wonder Woman , Diana sported a new black biker - girl outfit designed by artist Mike Deodato Jr . After John Byrne took over writing and art duties , he redesigned the Wonder Woman outfit ( Diana was reinstated as Wonder Woman at the end of Loebs ' run ) and joined the emblem and belt together . Her outfit did not receive any prominent change until after the 2005 -- 2006 Infinite Crisis storyline . Similar to her chest - plate , her glowing belt was also shaped into a `` W '' . This outfit continued until issue # 600 -- J. Michael Straczynski 's run of Wonder Woman 's altered timeline changed her outfit drastically . Her outfit was redesigned by Jim Lee and included a redesigned emblem , a golden and red top , black pants , and a later discontinued blue - black jacket . It was later retconned by Gail Simone that Wonder Woman 's outfit design had Amazonian roots . During a flashback in Vol. 3 , Hippolyta is shown issuing orders to have a garment created for Diana , taking inspiration from the skies on the night Diana was born ; a red hunter 's moon and a field of stars against deep blue , and the eagle breastplate being a symbol of Athena 's avian representations . The New 52 Another major outfit change for Wonder Woman came about as part of DC Comics ' 2011 relaunch of its entire line of publications , The New 52 . The character 's original one - piece outfit was restored , although the color combination of red and blue was changed to dark red and blue - black . Her chest - plate , belt and tiara were also changed from gold to a platinum or sterling silver color . Along with her sword , she now also utilizes a shield . She wears many accessories such as arm and neck jewelery styled as the `` WW '' motif . Her outfit is no longer made of fabric , as it now resembles a type of light , flexible body armor . Her boots are now a very dark blue rather than red . The design previously included black trousers , but they were removed and the one - piece look was restored during the time of publication . After the events of the 2015 storyline `` Convergence '' , Diana gets a new armored suit with the classic armor and tiara returning . Wonder Woman 's revised look on the cover of Wonder Woman vol. 5 , # 16 ( April 2017 ) . Art by Bilquis Evely and Romulo Fajardo , Jr . DC Universe Following the 2016 `` DC Rebirth '' continuity relaunch , Wonder Woman 's outfit was redesigned to resemble the one worn in the film Batman v Superman : Dawn of Justice . This outfit is a red bustier with a gold eagle , a blue leather skirt with gold edges with two stars , and knee - high red boots with gold knee guards and accents . Her tiara once again is gold with a red star . She occasionally wears a red cape with a gold clasp and edges . She continues to wear this updated outfit in DC Universe , the continuity established after Rebirth . Wonder Woman ( 2017 film ) Main article : Wonder Woman ( 2017 film ) Her tiara 's signature star symbol is now an eight pointed starburst . According to designer Lindy Hemming and director Patty Jenkins , every design decision made for Themyscira came down to the same question : `` How would I want to live that 's badass ? '' `` To me , they should n't be dressed in armor like men . It should be different . It should be authentic and real ( ... ) and appealing to women . '' When asked about the decision to give the Amazons heeled sandals , Jenkins explained that they also have flats for fighting , adding `` It 's total wish - fulfillment ( ... ) I , as a woman , want Wonder Woman to be sexy , hot as hell , fight badass , and look great at the same time ( ... ) the same way men want Superman to have ridiculously huge pecs and an impractically big body . That makes them feel like the hero they want to be . And my hero , in my head , has really long legs . '' This corresponds to the original intent by William Moulton Marston , who wanted his character to be alluringly feminine . Invisible plane ( edit ) Main article : Invisible plane The Pre-Crisis version of the invisible plane was a necessity because before Crisis on Infinite Earths rewrote Wonder Woman 's history -- along with the histories of many other heroes -- Wonder Woman could not fly . She grew increasingly powerful during and after the Silver Age of Comic Books , acquiring the power to ride wind currents and imitate flight over short distances . This had limitations , however ; for example , if there was no wind and the air was completely still she would be trapped on the ground or if dropped from a distance that she would helplessly fall out of control to the ground . Though this meant that she would rely on the invisible plane less frequently , she always had need of it . The Invisible Plane was a creation of Diana 's during her younger years on Paradise Island . She created it to be an improvement on her mother 's planes which would be shot down in Man 's World . The result of her innovation was an invisible plane that could fly at terrific speeds silently and not be detected by hostile forces . Initially , it was portrayed as being transparent . The Invisible Plane appeared in the very first comic stories , including All - Star Comics # 8 , where it is shown as being able to fly at over 2,000 mph ( 3,200 km / h ) and to send out rainbow rays that penetrate the mist around Paradise Island , as well as landing stealthily and having a built - in radio . Wonder Woman is seen storing the plane at an abandoned farm near Washington , D.C. , in the barn ; she goes there as Lt. Prince and changes clothes in some of the earliest tales . Though never explicitly stated , the Plane is presumably stored there when not in use for the rest of the Pre-Crisis era . In a story published shortly after , it flies at 40 miles ( 64 km ) a second . Shortly thereafter , Wonder Woman is shown being able to summon it with her tiara , have it hover by the War Department , and extend from it a rope ladder with which she could board it . She uses the plane to fly into outer space , and frequently transports Etta Candy and the Holliday Girls , Steve Trevor , and others . During the 1950s , the plane becomes a jet , and is often shown swooping over Lt. Prince 's office ; she strips out of her uniform at super speed and bounds to the plane . Though the Plane was depicted as semi-transparent for the reader 's convenience , in - story dialogue indicated that it actually was completely invisible , or at least able to become so as the need arose . Wonder Woman continued to use the plane for super speed , outer space , and multi-dimensional transport up until the unpowered era of Diana Prince . When Wonder Woman resumed superpowered , costumed operations in 1973 , she continued to use the jet as before , but did glide on air currents for short distances . At one point , Aphrodite granted the plane the power to fly faster than the speed of light for any interstellar voyages her champion might undertake . Thanks to tinkering by gremlins , the Plane even developed intelligence and the power to talk . The plane proved a good friend , eager to help his `` mistress '' and her loved ones in any way possible . It got along especially well with Steve Trevor . Bracelets of Submission ( edit ) Main article : Wonder Woman 's bracelets `` My strength is gone ... it is Aphrodite 's Law ! When an Amazon permits a man to chain her Bracelets of Submission together , she becomes weak as other women in a man - ruled world ! '' -- Wonder Woman Diana 's bulletproof bracelets were formed from the remnants of Athena 's legendary shield , the Aegis , to be awarded to her champion . The shield was made from the indestructible hide of the great she - goat , Amalthea , who suckled Zeus as an infant . These forearm guards have thus far proven indestructible and able to absorb the impact of incoming attacks , allowing Wonder Woman to deflect automatic weapon fire and energy blasts . Diana can slam the bracelets together to create a wave of concussive force capable of making strong beings like Superman 's ears bleed . Recently , she gained the ability to channel Zeus 's lightning through her bracelets as well . Zeus explained to her that this power had been contained within the bracelets since their creation , because they were once part of the Aegis , and that he had only recently unlocked it for her use . After the 2011 relaunch of the character , it was revealed that Diana was the daughter of Zeus and Hippolyta and that the bracelets are able to keep the powers she had inherited from Zeus in check . In addition , Hephaestus has modified the bracelets to allow Wonder Woman the sorcerous ability to manifest a sword of grayish metal from each bracelet . Each sword , marked with a red star , takes shape from a flash of lightning , and when Wonder Woman is done with them , the swords disappear , supposedly , back into her bracelets . As such , she has produced other weapons from the bracelets in this way such as a bow that fires explosive arrows , spears and energy bolts among others . The inspiration to give Diana bracelets came from the pair of bracelets worn by Olive Byrne , creator William Moulton Marston 's research assistant and lover . `` Wonder Woman and her sister Amazons have to wear heavy bracelets to remind them of what happens to a girl when she lets a man conquer her , '' quoted Marston in a 1942 interview . `` The Amazons once surrendered to the charm of some handsom Greeks and what a mess they got themselves into . The Greeks put them in chains of the Hitler type , beat them , and made them work like horses in the fields . Aphrodite , goddess of love , finally freed these unhappy girls . But she laid down the rule ( '' Aphrodite 's Law `` ) that they must never surrender to a man for any reason . I know of no better advice to give modern women than this rule that Aphrodite gave the Amazon girls . '' Lasso of Truth ( edit ) Main article : Lasso of Truth The Lasso of Truth , or Lasso of Hestia , was forged by Hephaestus from the golden girdle of Gaea . The original form of the Lasso in the Golden Age was called the Magic Lasso of Aphrodite . It compels all beings who come into contact with it to tell the absolute truth and is virtually indestructible ; in Identity Crisis , Green Arrow mistakenly describes it as `` the only lie detector designed by Zeus . '' The only times it has been broken were when Wonder Woman herself refused to accept the truth revealed by the lasso , such as when she confronted Rama Khan of Jarhanpur , and by Bizarro in Matt Wagner 's non-canonical Batman / Superman / Wonder Woman : Trinity . During the Golden Age , the original form of the Lasso had the power to force anyone caught to obey any command given them , even overriding the mind control of others ; this was effective enough to defeat strong - willed beings like Captain Marvel . Diana wields the Lasso with great precision and accuracy and can use it as a whip or noose . Other items ( edit ) Diana occasionally uses additional weaponry in formal battle , such as ceremonial golden armour with golden wings , pteruges , chestplate , and golden helmet in the shape of an eagle 's head . She possesses a magical sword forged by Hephaestus that is sharp enough to cut the electrons off an atom . As early as the 1950s , Wonder Woman 's tiara has also been used as a razor - edged throwing weapon , returning to her like a boomerang . The tiara allows Wonder Woman to be invulnerable from telepathic attacks , as well as allowing her to telepathically contact people such as the Amazons back on Themyscira using the power of the red star ruby in its center . The Golden , Silver , and Bronze Age portrayals of Wonder Woman showed her using a silent and invisible plane that could be controlled by mental command and fly at speeds up to 3,000 mph ( 4,800 km / h ) . Its appearance has varied over time ; originally it had a propeller , while later it was drawn as a jet aircraft resembling a stealth aircraft . During the golden age Wonder Woman possessed a Purple Ray capable of healing even a fatal gunshot wound to the brain . She also possessed a Mental Radio that could let her receive messages from those in need . As a temporary inductee into the Star Sapphires , Wonder Woman gained access to the violet power ring of love . This ring allowed her to alter her costume at will , create solid - light energy constructs , and reveal a person 's true love to them . She was able to combine the energy with her lasso to enhance its ability . Fictography ( edit ) 20th century ( edit ) Origin ( edit ) In her debut in All Star Comics # 8 , Diana was a member of a tribe of women called the Amazons , native to Paradise Island -- a secluded island set in the middle of a vast ocean . Captain Steve Trevor 's plane crashes on the island and he is found alive but unconscious by Diana and fellow Amazon , and friend , Mala . Diana has him nursed back to health and falls in love with him . A competition is held amongst all the Amazons by Diana 's mother , the Queen of the Amazons Hippolyta , in order to determine who is the most worthy of all the women ; Hippolyta charges the winner with the responsibility of delivering Captain Steve Trevor back to Man 's World and to fight for justice . Hippolyta forbids Diana from entering the competition , but she takes part nonetheless , wearing a mask to conceal her identity . She wins the competition and reveals herself , surprising Hippolyta , who ultimately accepts , and must give in to , Diana 's wish to go to Man 's World . She then is awarded a special uniform made by her mother for her new role as Wonder Woman and safely returns Steve Trevor to his home country . Golden Age ( edit ) Main article : Golden Age of Comic Books Coming to America for the first time , Wonder Woman comes upon a wailing army nurse . Inquiring about her state , she finds that the nurse wanted to leave for South America with her fiancé but was unable due to shortage of money . As both of them looked identical and Wonder Woman needed a job and a valid identity to look after Steve ( who was admitted in the same army hospital ) , she gives her the money she had earned earlier to help her go to her fiancé in exchange for her credentials . The nurse reveals her name as Diana Prince , and thus , Wonder Woman 's secret identity was created , and she began working as a nurse in the army . Wonder Woman then took part in a variety of adventures , mostly side by side with Trevor . Her most common foes during this period would be Nazi forces led by a German baroness named Paula von Gunther , occasionally evil deities / demigods such as Mars and the Duke of Deception , and then colorful villains like Hypnota , Doctor Psycho , and the Cheetah . Silver Age ( edit ) Main article : Silver Age of Comic Books In the Silver Age , Wonder Woman 's history received several changes . Her earlier origin , which had significant ties to World War II , was changed and her powers were shown to be the product of the gods ' blessings , corresponding to her epithet , `` beautiful as Aphrodite , wise as Athena , stronger than Hercules , and swifter than Hermes '' . The concepts of Wonder Girl and Wonder Tot were also introduced during this period . Wonder Woman ( vol. 1 ) # 179 ( Nov. 1968 ) showed Wonder Woman giving up her powers and returning her costume and title to her mother , in order to continue staying in Man 's World . The reason behind this was that all the Amazons were shifting to another dimension , but Diana was unable to accompany them as she needed to stay behind to help Steve , who had been wrongly convicted . Thus , she no longer held the title of Wonder Woman and after meeting and training under a blind martial arts mentor I - Ching , Diana resumed crime fighting as the powerless Diana Prince . She ran a mod - boutique as a business and dressed in a series of jumpsuits while fighting crime . During this period , Samuel R. Delany took over scripting duties with issue # 202 . Delany was initially supposed to write a six - issue story arc , which would culminate in a battle over an abortion clinic , but Delany was removed reportedly due to criticism from Gloria Steinem , who , not knowing the content of the issues Delany was writing , was upset that Wonder Woman had lost her powers and was no longer wearing her traditional costume . Bronze Age ( edit ) Main article : Bronze Age of Comic Books In Wonder Woman Vol 1 # 204 , Diana 's powers and costume were returned to her and she is once again reinstated as Wonder Woman . I - Ching is killed by a crazy sniper in the same issue . Later , Diana meets her sister Nubia , who is Hippolyta 's daughter fashioned out of dark clay ( hence Nubia 's dark complexion ) . Nubia claimed to be the `` Wonder Woman of The Floating Island '' , and she challenges Diana to a duel which ends in a draw . Returning to her home , Nubia would have further adventures involving Diana . The last issue of Volume 1 showed Diana and Steve Trevor announce their love for each other and their subsequent marriage . Modern Age ( edit ) Main article : Modern Age of Comic Books Cover of Wonder Woman vol. 2 , # 1 ( Feb. 1987 ) , showing the character 's look after the Crisis on Infinite Earths continuity reboot . Art by George Pérez . Crisis on Infinite Earths The events of Crisis on Infinite Earths greatly changed and altered the history of the DC Universe . Wonder Woman 's history and origin were considerably revamped by the event . Wonder Woman was now an emissary and ambassador from Themyscira ( the new name for Paradise Island ) to Patriarch 's World , charged with the mission of bringing peace to the outside world . Various deities and concepts from Greek mythology were blended and incorporated into Wonder Woman 's stories and origin . Diana was formed out of clay of the shores of Themyscira by Hippolyta , who wished for a child ; the clay figure was then brought to life by the Greek deities . The Gods then blessed and granted her unique powers and abilities -- beauty from Aphrodite , strength from Demeter , wisdom from Athena , speed and flight from Hermes , Eyes of the Hunter and unity with beasts from Artemis and sisterhood with fire and the ability to discern the truth from Hestia . Due to the reboot , Diana 's operating methods were made distinctive from Superman and Batman 's with her willingness to use deadly force when she judges it necessary . In addition , her previous history and her marriage to Steve Trevor were erased . Trevor was introduced as a man much older than Diana who would later on marry Etta Candy . Instead , Perez created Julia and Vanessa Kapatelis , a Greek - American scholar and her teenage daughter whom Diana would live with when she was in Man 's world and would be major supporting characters in the series for years . War of the Gods Main article : War of the Gods ( comics ) Starting in Wonder Woman Vol 2 # 51 , The Amazons , who had revealed their presence to the world in Wonder Woman Vol 2 # 50 , are blamed for a series of murders and for the theft of various artifacts . The Amazons are then taken into custody , Queen Hippolyta is nowhere to be found and Steve Trevor is forced by General Yedziniak to attack Themyscira . These events lead to the `` War of the Gods '' occurring . The culprit of the murders , thefts and the framing of the Amazons is revealed to be the witch Circe , who `` kills '' Diana by reverting her form back into the clay she was born from . Later , Wonder Woman is brought back to life and together with Donna Troy , battles Circe and ultimately defeats her . Circe would later return by unknown means . When Hippolyta and the other Amazons were trapped in a demonic dimension , she started receiving visions about the death of Wonder Woman . Fearing her daughter 's death , Hippolyta created a false claim that Diana was not worthy of continuing her role as Wonder Woman , and arranged for a contest to determine who would be the new Wonder Woman , thus protecting Diana from her supposed fate . The participants of the final round were Diana and Artemis , and with the help of some mystic manipulation by Hippolyta , Artemis won the contest . Thus , Diana was forced to hand over her title and costume to Artemis , who became the new Wonder Woman and Diana started fighting crime in an alternate costume . Artemis later died in battle with the White Magician -- thus , Hippolyta 's vision of a dying Wonder Woman did come true , albeit not of Diana as Wonder Woman . Diana once again became Wonder Woman , a request made by Artemis in her last seconds . Artemis would later return as Requiem . Prior to Artemis ' death , Hippolyta would admit to her daughter about her own part in Artemis ' death , which strained their relationship as Diana was unable to forgive her mother for sending another Amazon to her death knowingly for the sake of saving her own daughter . The demon Neron engaged Diana in battle and managed to kill her . The Olympian Gods granted Diana divinity and the role of the Goddess of Truth who started to reside in Olympus ; her mother Hippolyta then assumed the role of Wonder Woman and wore her own different incarnation of the costume . In Wonder Woman Vol 2 # 136 , Diana was banished from Olympus due to interfering in earthly matters ( as Diana was unable to simply watch over people 's misery on earth ) . She immediately returned to her duties as Wonder Woman , but ran into conflicts with her mother over her true place and role as Hippolyta seemed accustomed to her life in America . Their fight remained unsolved , as Hippolyta died during an intergalactic war . Themyscira was destroyed during the war , but was restored and reformed as a collection of floating islands . Circe later resurrected Hippolyta in Wonder Woman Vol 3 # 8 . The OMAC Project Main articles : Infinite Crisis and The OMAC Project One of the events that led to Infinite Crisis was of Wonder Woman killing the villain Maxwell Lord in Wonder Woman ( vol. 2 ) # 219 . Maxwell Lord was mind - controlling Superman , who as a result was near to killing Batman . Wonder Woman tried to stop Superman , Lord ( who was unable to mind control her ) made Superman see her as his enemy Doomsday trying to kill Lois Lane . Superman then attacked Wonder Woman , and a vicious battle ensued . Buying herself time by slicing Superman 's throat with her tiara , Wonder Woman caught Lord in her Lasso of Truth and demanded to know how to stop his control over Superman . As the lasso forced the wearer to speak only the truth , Lord told her that the only way to stop him was to kill him . Left with no choice , Wonder Woman snapped Lord 's neck and ended his control over Superman . Unknown to her , the entire scene was broadcast live around every channel in the world by Brother Eye . The viewers were not aware of the entire situation , and saw only Wonder Woman murdering a Justice League associate . Wonder Woman 's actions put her at odds with Batman and Superman , as they saw Wonder Woman as a cold - blooded killer , despite the fact that she saved their lives . One Year Later Main articles : One Year Later and Who is Wonder Woman ? At the end of Infinite Crisis , Wonder Woman temporarily retires from her costumed identity . Diana , once again using the alias Diana Prince , joins the Department of Metahuman Affairs . Donna Troy becomes the new Wonder Woman and is captured by Diana 's enemies . Diana then goes on a mission to rescue her sister , battling Circe and Hercules . Diana defeats the villains , freeing Donna and takes up the role of Wonder Woman again . Circe places a spell on Diana , which renders Diana into a normal , powerless human being when in the role of Diana Prince ; her powers come to her only when she is in the role of Wonder Woman . The Circle Main article : The Circle ( DC Comics ) The storyline `` The Circle '' was focused on the revelation of a failed assassination attempt on Diana when she was a baby , by four rogue Amazons . These Amazons -- Myrto , Charis , Philomela and Alkyone , collectively referred to as The Circle -- were Hippolyta 's personal guards and were extremely loyal and devoted to her . However , when Hippolyta decided to raise a daughter , The Circle was horrified and considered the baby ill - fate , one who would ruin their entire race . Thus , after Diana was sculpted out of clay and brought to life , The Circle decided to assassinate the baby . Their attempt was foiled however , and the four Amazons were imprisoned . After years , the Circle escaped their prisons with the help of Captain Nazi , and decided to accomplish their previously failed mission and kill Diana . Diana defeated Myrto , Charis , Philomela and then approached Alkyone , who runs off and succumbs to her death by falling into the ocean . The other three Amazons return to their prisons . Issue # 600 introduced Wonder Woman to an alternate time - line created by the Gods in which Themyscira had been destroyed and the Amazons scattered around the world . In this timeline , Diana is an orphan raised in New York who is learning to cope with her powers . The entire world has forgotten Wonder Woman 's existence and the main story of this run was of Diana trying to restore reality even though she does not properly remember it herself . Diana has no memories of her prior adventures as Wonder Woman , recollecting her memories in bits and pieces and receiving different abilities and resources ( such as the power of flight and her lasso ) during the progression of her adventure . A trio of Death Goddesses called The Morrigan acted as Wonder Woman 's main enemies . Diana ultimately defeats the evil goddesses and returns everything back to normal . 21st century ( edit ) The new 52 ( edit ) Main article : The New 52 This article 's plot summary may be too long or excessively detailed . Please help improve it by removing unnecessary details and making it more concise . ( October 2018 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) In September 2011 , DC Comics relaunched its entire publication line , dubbing the event the New 52 . Among the major changes to the character , Wonder Woman now appears wearing a new costume similar to her older one , and has a completely new origin . In this new timeline , Wonder Woman is no longer a clay figure brought to life by the magic of the gods . Rather , she is the demigoddess daughter of Queen Hippolyta and Zeus : King of the Greek Gods . Her original origin is revealed as a cover story to explain Diana 's birth as a means to protect her from Hera 's wrath . Currently , Diana has taken on the role and title as the new `` God of War '' . The Greek messenger god , Hermes , entrusts Wonder Woman with the protection of Zola , a young woman , who is pregnant with Zeus 's child , from Hera , seething with jealousy and determined to kill the child . With the appearance of a bizarre , new , chalk - white enemy , the goddess Strife ( a reimagined version of Eris , the goddess of discord who had battled Wonder Woman in post-Crisis continuity ) , Wonder Woman discovers she , herself , is the natural - born daughter of Hippolyta and Zeus , who , after a violent clash , became lovers . Hippolyta revealed Diana 's earlier origin story to be a lie , spread amongst the Amazons to protect Diana from the wrath of Hera , who is known for hunting and killing several illegitimate offspring of Zeus . The first of these half - mortal siblings to reveal himself to Wonder Woman was her older half - brother , Lennox Sandsmark , who could transform himself into living , marble - like stone and , before his death , was revealed to be the father of Wonder Girl ( Cassie Sandsmark ) . His killer , the First Born , the eldest progeny of Zeus , would become Wonder Woman 's first major super-villain of the New 52 . The story then focuses on Wonder Woman 's quest to rescue Zola from Hades , who had abducted her and taken her to Hell at the end of the sixth issue of the series . The male children of the Amazons are introduced and Diana learns about the birth of her `` brothers '' -- the Amazons used to infrequently invade ships coming near their island and force themselves on the sailors , before killing them . After nine months , the birth of the resulting female children was highly celebrated and they were inducted into the ranks of the Amazons while the male children were rejected . In order to save the male children from being drowned to death by the Amazons , Hephaestus traded weapons to the Amazons in exchange for them . After saving Zola from Hades , Wonder Woman tries to protect her further from Apollo , as it is prophesied that one of Zeus ' children will be his downfall whom Apollo considers to be Zola 's child . Wonder Woman receives the power of flight by one of Hermes ' feathers piercing her thigh and Zola 's baby is stolen by Hermes at the end and given to Demeter . The issue 's last page shows a dark and mysterious man rising from the snow , taking a helmet and disappearing . This man is later revealed to be Zeus ' first son , known only as First Born , who seeks to rule over Olympus and the rest of the world , and take Diana as his bride . A stand - alone # 0 issue was released in September which explored Diana 's childhood and her tutelage under Ares , the God of War , now known most often as simply ' War ' . The issue was narrated in the style of a typical Silver Age comic book and saw Diana in her childhood years . The main plot of the issue was Diana training under War as he thought of her being an extraordinary girl with immense potential . The issue ultimately concluded with Diana learning and experiencing the importance of mercy , which she first learned when War showed it to her during their sparring . This later translated into her refusal to kill the Minotaur -- a task given to her by War ; however , this show of mercy makes her a failure in War 's eyes , which was actually his fault since he inadvertently `` taught '' her mercy and affection as his protege . Later in the series , Wonder Woman is forced to kill War during a conflict with her evil half - brother , Zeus ' son First Born , and herself becomes the God of War . After the Amazons are restored , she rules over them both as a warrior queen and God of War , as the ongoing conflict with First Born escalates . At the end of Azzarello 's run , as part of a final conflict , Wonder Woman kills First Born , while Zeke is revealed to have been Zeus ' plan for resurrection , with Zola revealed to have been a mortal shell for the goddess Athena , who gave birth to Zeus just as he once did to her . Wonder Woman pleads with Athena not to allow the Zola personality , whom she has grown to love as a friend , die with Athena 's awakening . Athena leaves the site in animal form , leaving a stunned and confused Zola behind with Wonder Woman . Wonder Woman appears as one of the lead characters in the Justice League title written by Geoff Johns and drawn by Jim Lee that was launched in 2011 as part of the New 52 . In August 2012 , she and Superman shared a kiss in Justice League Vol 2 # 12 , which has since developed into a romantic relationship . DC launched a Superman / Wonder Woman series that debuted in late 2013 , which focuses both the threats they face together , and on their romance as a `` Power Couple '' . After the events of Convergence , Wonder Woman would don a new costume . She would also face Donna Troy , who is now reimagined as a villanous doppellganger created by a vengeful Amazon elder , not only to physically defeat Wonder Woman but also to outmaneuver her in Themyscirian politics . Earth 2 ( edit ) The New 52 version of Earth 2 was introduced in Earth 2 # 1 ( 2012 ) . In that issue , the Earth 2 Wonder Woman is introduced via flashback . She , along with Superman and Batman , are depicted dying in battle with forces from Apokolips five years in the past . This Wonder Woman worshiped the deities of Roman mythology as opposed to the Greek ; the Roman gods perish as a result of the conflict . An earlier version of the Earth - 2 Wonder Woman , prior to the Apokoliptian invasion , is seen in the comic book Batman / Superman , where she is seen riding a pegasus . In Earth 2 # 8 ( 2013 ) , Wonder Woman 's adult daughter , Fury , is introduced . She is loyal to the Apokoliptian Steppenwolf . DC Rebirth ( edit ) Main article : DC Rebirth This article needs to be updated . Please update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information . ( November 2017 ) In 2016 , DC Comics started DC Rebirth , a relaunch of its entire line of comic books . Following the events of the Darkseid War , Wonder Woman is told by the dying Myrina Black that on the night of Diana 's birth , Hippolyta gave birth to a twin child . This child was revealed to be male , known as Jason , and is said to be incredibly powerful . Wonder Woman makes it her mission to find him . At the same time , she finds the truth behind her origin and history is now cluttered , as she remembers two versions : the pre-Flashpoint one , and the New 52 rendition . She can not locate Themiscyra or her fellow Amazons and the Lasso of Truth does not work for her anymore . The `` Year One '' storyline retells Diana 's origin growing up on Themyscira . She lives an idyllic life and harbors interest for the outside world , and the first connection to it comes in the form of Steve Trevor , who crashes on the island and is the sole survivor . A contest is held to determine which Amazon is the best candidate to take Steve home , with Diana volunteering despite knowing the cost to leave the island is to never return . Diana wins the contest and departs with Steve . Once arriving in America , Diana is taken into custody by the government to discern her origins . She meets Etta Candy and Barbara Ann Minerva along the way . While incarcerated Diana is visited by the gods in animal form and bestow upon her powers of strength , speed , agility , durability , and flight . She discovers Ares , the god of war , is working to destroy humanity . Accepting her new role in Man 's World , Diana , with the help of the gods in animal form , subdues Ares with the lasso . Now called Wonder Woman , Diana becomes one of the world 's greatest heroes . The `` Lies '' story arc runs parallel and explores Diana 's search . No longer able to get into Mount Olympus , Diana tracks down Barbara Ann Minerva , the Cheetah , to get help . Cheetah agrees to help in exchange for Diana aiding her in killing the god Urzkartaga and end Minerva 's curse . The pair battle their way through Urzkartaga 's minions , the Bouda , and defeat Andres Cadulo , a worshiper of Urzkartaga that planned to sacrifice Steve Trevor to the plant god . Once reverted to her human form , Minerva agreed to help Wonder Woman find her way back to Paradise Island . During this time Wonder Woman reconnects with Steve . Minerva eventually realizes Paradise Island is an embodiment of emotion instead of a physical place , so Wonder Woman and Steve head out to find the island . They succeed and Wonder Woman is greeted by her mother and sisters , though Steve senses something is wrong . Wonder Woman comes to realize nothing is as she remembers and , upon using the Lasso of Truth , discovers everything she thought she knew was a lie : she never really returned to Themyscira after departing with Steve years earlier . The revelation shatters Diana 's mind and she is left nearly insane . Veronica Cale , a businesswoman who has been desiring to find Themyscira and the leader of Godwatch , sends a military group called Poison after her , but Diana 's state has left her vulnerable and oblivious to the danger she and Steve are in . Steve wards them off long enough for them to be rescued , and reluctantly places Diana in a mental hospital so she can get help . While there she comes to grasp the reality she thought she knew was false , eventually coming out of her stupor and able to rejoin the others in tracking down Veronica Cale , who is trying to find Themyscira . Cultural impact ( edit ) Main article : Cultural impact of Wonder Woman In other media ( edit ) Main article : Wonder Woman in other media Since her comic book debut in December 1941 , Wonder Woman has appeared in a number of adaptations . These formats include television shows , video games , and films . Television ( edit ) Wonder Woman has made multiple appearances in television , including Wonder Woman , and most notably Hanna - Barbera 's long - running animated series Super Friends as well as the 1970s live - action show Wonder Woman . Film ( edit ) Gal Gadot at the San Diego Comic - Con panel for Wonder Woman 1984 in 2018 The character has been featured in direct - to - DVD animated films and CGI theatrical releases , such as The Lego Movie ( 2014 ) . Within the live - action DC Extended Universe films , Wonder Woman debuted in Batman v Superman : Dawn of Justice ( 2016 ) and was featured as the main character in Wonder Woman ( 2017 ) . In November 2017 , she appeared in the DCEU release Justice League . The 2017 film , Professor Marston & the Wonder Women , tells the story of the polyamorous relationship between William Moulton Marston , his wife and fellow psychologist Elizabeth Holloway Marston , and their lover Olive Byrne ; the invention of the lie detector , and how they inspired the creation of the Wonder Woman comic . Literature ( edit ) Main article : Wonder Woman in literature Critical reception and legacy ( edit ) As a compassionate warrior with god - like strength , Wonder Woman preferred peace and love to war and violence , a contradiction that has long made her a symbol of female empowerment , and the center of controversy . The early Wonder Woman stories featured an abundant amount of bondage portrayals , which had critics worried . Although created to be a positive role - model and a strong female character for girls and boys , Wonder Woman has had to deal with the misogyny that was commonplace in comic book industry for decades . For example , Wonder Woman was a founding member of the Justice Society of America . This roster included the original Flash and Green Lantern . Wonder Woman was an experienced leader and easily the most powerful of them all ; yet was rendered a secretary . This would also be accompanied with her losing her powers or getting captured on most Justice League adventures . During the ' 50s and ' 60s , comic writers regularly made Wonder Woman love sick over Steve Trevor , a Major in the United States Army . Stories frequently featured Wonder Woman hoping or imagining what it would be like to marry Steve Trevor . Wonder Woman was named the 20th greatest comic book character by Empire magazine . She was ranked sixth in Comics Buyer 's Guide 's `` 100 Sexiest Women in Comics '' list . In May 2011 , Wonder Woman placed fifth on IGN 's Top 100 Comic Book Heroes of All Time . Not all reaction to Wonder Woman has been positive . In the controversial Seduction of the Innocent , psychiatrist Fredric Wertham claimed Wonder Woman 's strength and independence made her a lesbian in a condemning way . Feminist icon ( edit ) Feminist icon Gloria Steinem , founder of Ms. magazine , was responsible for the return of Wonder Woman 's original abilities . Offended that the most famous female superhero had been depowered into a boyfriend - obsessed damsel in distress , Steinem placed Wonder Woman ( in costume ) on the cover of the first issue of Ms. ( 1972 ) -- Warner Communications , DC Comics ' owner , was an investor -- which also contained an appreciative essay about the character . Wonder Woman 's powers and traditional costume were restored in issue # 204 ( January -- February 1973 ) . In 1972 , just months after the groundbreaking US Supreme Court decision Roe v. Wade , science fiction author Samuel R. Delany had planned a story for Ms. that culminated in a plainsclothes Wonder Woman protecting an abortion clinic . However , Steinem disapproved of Wonder Woman being out of costume , and the controversial story line never happened . The original significance of Wonder Woman had the intentions of influencing many women of all ages , displaying the physical and mental strengths , values , and ethical attributes that not only men acquire . `` Wonder Woman symbolizes many of the values of the women 's culture that feminists are now trying to introduce into the mainstream : strength and self - reliance for women ; sisterhood and mutual support among women ; peacefulness and esteem for human life ; a diminishment both of ' masculine ' aggression and of the belief that violence is the only way of solving conflicts , '' Steinem wrote at the time . Carolyn Cocca has stated that Wonder Woman possesses a `` duality of character '' due to the character possessing both feminine and masculine qualities in her physical abilities and attitude , which Cocca felt made her more appealing to a wide audience . Wonder Woman 's first female editor , Karen Berger , claimed that , `` Wonder Woman ( is ) a great role model to young women , but also contains many elements that appeal to males as well . Wonder Woman crosses the gender line . '' . Berger worked with George Pérez on the new issues of Wonder Woman starting in 1987 , and the new Diana `` works with friends and allies to teach lessons of peace and equality . '' . The origin of Wonder Woman and the psychological reasoning behind why William Morton Marston created her in the way he did illustrated Marston 's educational , ethical , and moral values . `` William Marston intended her to be a feminist character , showing young boys the illimitable possibilities of a woman who could be considered just as strong as the famed Superman . '' Gladys L. Knight explains the impact and influences that superheroes have on us in society ranging from the 1870s until the present day . Marc DiPaolo introduces us to Wonder Woman 's creator and history and he demonstrates how she is a `` WWII veteran , a feminist icon , and a sex symbol '' all throughout her `` career '' . Wonder Woman stars in multiple films and is most commonly known for her red , white and blue one piece , and her tall , sexy assertiveness . What many people do n't know is that she is a big part of history in the comic and superhero world because of how her character influences real life people of all ages , sexes , ethnicities , and races . `` Marston created the comic book character Wonder Woman to be both strong and sexy , as a means of encouraging woman to emulate her unapologetic assertiveness . '' Continuing her legacy as an influential feminist icon , in 2015 Wonder Woman became the first superhero to officiate a same - sex wedding in a comic series . On October 21 , 2016 , the United Nations controversially named Wonder Woman a UN Honorary Ambassador for the Empowerment of Women and Girls in a ceremony attended by Under - Secretary - General for Communications and Public Information Cristina Gallach and by actors Lynda Carter and Gal Gadot . The character was dropped from the role two months later after a petition against the appointment stated Wonder Woman was `` not culturally ... sensitive '' and it was `` alarming that the United Nations would consider using a character with an overtly sexualized image '' . Pacifist icon ( edit ) Gloria Steinem , editor for Ms. Magazine and a big supporter of Wonder Woman , stated `` ... ( Marston ) had invented Wonder Woman as a heroine for little girls , and also as a conscious alternative to the violence of comic books for boys . '' Badower described a near - international incident ( involving an unnamed Russian general rolling dozens of tanks and munitions through a shady mountain pass ) as an outstanding example for standing up to bullies . `` She ends up deflecting a bullet back and disarming the general , '' he says , adding that `` she does n't actually do anything violent in the story . I just think that Wonder Woman is smarter than that . '' Nick Pumphrey stated that Wonder Woman stands as a non-violent beacon of hope and inspiration for women and men . Grant Morrison stated `` I sat down and I thought , ' I do n't want to do this warrior woman thing . ' I can understand why they 're doing it , I get all that , but that 's not what ( Wonder Woman creator ) William Marston wanted , that 's not what he wanted at all ! His original concept for Wonder Woman was an answer to comics that he thought were filled with images of blood - curdling masculinity , and you see the latest shots of Gal Gadot in the costume , and it 's all sword and shield and her snarling at the camera . Marston 's Diana was a doctor , a healer , a scientist . '' Paquette detailed the changes he made to Wonder Woman 's costume , stating that he removed the iconic American flag theme and instead incorporated a Greek influence : `` The animal associated to Aphrodite is a dove so instead of an eagle on ( Wonder Woman 's ) breastplate , it will be more of a dove . It 's not the American eagle , it 's the Aphrodite dove . Stuff that creates ( the letter ) W is by accident , so it 's not like she already has a letter of the alphabet on her ( costume ) . In the end I 've created a structure so it feels inevitable for Wonder Woman to look the way she does . '' Lgbt icon ( edit ) William Marston 's earliest works were notorious for containing subversive `` bondage and sapphic - undertones '' subtext . Fredric Wertham 's Seduction of the Innocent referred to her as the `` lesbian counterpart to Batman '' ( whom he also identified as a homosexual ) . After Marston 's death in 1947 , DC Comics downplayed her sexuality ; the sexual imagery disappeared from the `` Wonder Woman '' comic , along with Wonder Woman 's super powers . During the Comics Code Authority - decades since , Wonder Woman 's subversiveness had been gradually stripped away ; subsequent comic book writers and artists did n't do much more than hint at Wonder Woman 's erotic legacy . Similar to whitewashing , Wonder Woman 's queerness was rendered `` invisible '' in adaptations . Wonder Woman is suggested as being queer or bisexual , as she and another Amazon , Io , had reciprocal feelings for each other . Grant Morrison 's 2016 comic Wonder Woman : Earth One , which exists parallel to the current DC comics Rebirth canon , Diana is depicted being kissed on her right cheek by a blonde woman who has put her left arm around Diana . In 2016 , `` Issue # 48 '' of Sensation Comics , featured Wonder Woman officiating a same - sex wedding , drawn by Australian illustrator Jason Badower . `` My country is all women . To us , it 's not ' gay ' marriage . It 's just marriage '' , she states to Superman . Inspired by the 2015 June Supreme Court ruling that established marriage equality in all 50 United States , Badower says DC Comics was `` fantastic '' about his idea for the issue . In an interview with The Sydney Morning Herald , he said his editor `` Was like ' great , I love it ! Let 's do it . ' It was almost anticlimactic . '' `` Diana 's mother , the queen , at the very least authorized or in some cases officiated these weddings , '' Badower says . `` It just seems more like a royal duty Diana would take on , that she would do for people that would appreciate it . '' Wonder Woman actress Gal Gadot reacted positively to Diana 's rebooted orientation , and agreed her sexuality was impacted by growing up in the women - only Themyscira . Gadot stated that Wonder Woman feels she need not be `` labelled sexually '' , and is `` just herself '' . `` She 's a woman who loves people for who they are . She can be bisexual . She loves people for their hearts . '' Coming from a society that was only populated by women , `` ' lesbian ' in ( the world 's ) eyes may have been ' straight ' for them . '' `` Her culture is completely free from the shackles of heteronormativity in the first place so she would n't even have any ' concept ' of gender roles in sex . '' Wonder Woman 's advocacy for gay rights was taken a step further in September 2016 , when comic book writer Greg Rucka announced that she is canonically bisexual , according to her rebooted Rebirth origin . Rucka stated , `` ... nobody at DC Comics has ever said , ( Wonder Woman ) got ta be straight . Nobody . Ever . They 've never blinked at this . '' Rucka stated that in his opinion , she `` has to be '' queer and has `` obviously '' had same - sex relationships on an island surrounded by beautiful women . This follows the way Wonder Woman was written in the alternate continuity or non-canon Earth One by Grant Morrison , and fellow Wonder Woman writer Gail Simone staunchly supported Rucka 's statement . Surprised at the amount of backlash from her fanbase , Rucka responded to `` haters '' that consensual sex with women is just as important to Wonder Woman as the Truth is to Superman . Sex icon ( edit ) Grant Morrison and Yanick Paquette had teamed up to work on Wonder Woman : Earth One . Paquette confirmed that he and Morrison would be bringing back the bondage theme that was popular in Wonder Woman comics during the 1940s . However , he stated that Morrison was looking for a way to not only modernize it , but to use the bondage theme as a form of female empowerment . Paquette acknowledged that Wonder Woman has become more than just a beloved character , she is a symbol for feminism . `` By bringing in sex and , yes , bondage , it reasserts ( William Moulton Marston 's core ) idea that it is okay for women to have a healthy sexual appetite . '' Paquette elaborated more on this by pointing out the blatant double standards in comics when it comes to sex : `` Could Wonder Woman really ever have a healthy and active sex life without it becoming political fodder for Fox News ? And what of women and girls who want to be like her ? Do we truly think they would n't be labeled sluts ? I have my doubts . '' See also ( edit ) Wikiquote has quotations related to : Wonder Woman United States portal Comics portal Feminism portal Gender studies portal LGBT portal Speculative fiction portal Superhero fiction portal Alternative versions of Wonder Woman for Elseworlds and other characters to bear the title . Amazons ( DC Comics ) Counterstereotype Darna Diana Prince Bisexual women List of female action heroes List of feminist comic books List of Wonder Woman characters List of Wonder Woman enemies Orana ( comics ) Portrayal of women in American comics Woman warrior Wonder Woman in literature References ( edit ) ^ Jump up to : All Star Comics # 8 was cover - dated Dec. / Jan. 1941 / 1942 , but released in October 1941 . ( See Library of Congress . Archived September 7 , 2017 , at the Wayback Machine . ) ^ Jump up to : Garner , Dwight ( October 23 , 2014 ) . `` Books -- Her Past Unchained ' The Secret History of Wonder Woman , ' by Jill Lepore '' . The New York Times . Archived from the original on October 24 , 2014 . Retrieved October 23 , 2014 . ^ Jump up to : Hendrix , Grady ( December 11 , 2007 ) . `` Out for Justice '' . The New York Sun . 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Retrieved December 14 , 2016 . ^ Jump up to : Professor Marston and the Wonder Women Jump up ^ Beedle , Tim ( December 25 , 2013 ) . `` Ten Moments that Mattered : Wonder Woman Becomes War DC '' . Dccomics.com . Archived from the original on November 8 , 2016 . Retrieved December 14 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Rogers , Vaneta ( August 28 , 2013 ) . `` WONDER WOMAN Kills ... Who ? Is the New GOD of What ? AZZARELLO Explains ( Spoilers ) '' . Newsarama.com . Archived from the original on November 8 , 2016 . Retrieved December 14 , 2016 . Jump up ^ http://superdames.org/image/143332720966 Jump up ^ https://78.media.tumblr.com/f602627a65096985c1f0ef8fcb9766c9/tumblr_inline_o8cqw88EpY1rrbhi0_500.png Jump up ^ Crawford , Philip . `` The Legacy of Wonder Woman '' . School Library Journal . Archived from the original on May 2 , 2007 . Retrieved March 1 , 2007 . Jump up ^ `` Archived copy '' . Archived from the original on September 11 , 2017 . Retrieved May 30 , 2018 . CS1 maint : Archived copy as title ( link ) Jump up ^ `` Archived copy '' . Archived from the original on August 1 , 2018 . Retrieved May 30 , 2018 . CS1 maint : Archived copy as title ( link ) Jump up ^ `` Archived copy '' . Archived from the original on June 12 , 2018 . Retrieved May 30 , 2018 . CS1 maint : Archived copy as title ( link ) Jump up ^ Lyons , Charles . `` Suffering Sappho ! A Look at the Creator & Creation of Wonder Woman '' . Comic Book Resources . Archived from the original on January 19 , 2013 . Retrieved August 23 , 2006 . In October 1940 , the popular women 's magazine `` Family Circle '' published an interview with Marston entitled `` Do n't Laugh at the Comics , '' in which the psychologist discussed the unfulfilled potential of the medium . Jump up ^ Lyons , Charles . `` Suffering Sappho ! A Look at the Creator & Creation of Wonder Woman '' . Comic Book Resources . Archived from the original on January 19 , 2013 . Retrieved August 23 , 2006 . Maxwell Charles Gaines , then publisher of All - American Comics , saw the interview and offered Marston a job as an educational consultant to All - American and sister company DC Comics . Jump up ^ Lamb , Marguerite ( Fall 2001 ) . `` Who Was Wonder Woman ? '' . Bostonia . Archived from the original on December 8 , 2007 . Jump up ^ Daniels , Les ( April 6 , 2004 ) . Wonder Woman : The Complete History . Chronicle Books . pp. 28 -- 30 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 8118 - 4233 - 4 . Jump up ^ Library of Congress . `` All - Star Comics # 8 '' . dcindexes.com . Mike 's Amazing World . Archived from the original on September 7 , 2017 . Retrieved May 19 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Bunn , Geoffrey C. ( 1997 ) . `` The lie detector , Wonder Woman , and liberty : The life and work of William Moulton Marston '' . History of the Human Sciences . London : Routledge. 10 ( 1 ) : 91 -- 119 . doi : 10.1177 / 095269519701000105 . Jump up ^ Tartakovsky , Margarita . `` A Psychologist and A Superhero '' . Psych Central . Archived from the original on May 19 , 2012 . Retrieved November 16 , 2017 . ^ Jump up to : `` Archived copy '' . Archived from the original on July 25 , 2018 . Retrieved July 25 , 2018 . CS1 maint : Archived copy as title ( link ) Jump up ^ WatchMojo.com ( November 28 , 2015 ) . `` Top 10 Wonder Woman Facts '' . YouTube . Archived from the original on January 26 , 2017 . Retrieved December 14 , 2016 . Marston even wrote in a weakness for Wonder Woman that made chaining her bracelets together take away her super strength . Jump up ^ Sargent , J.F. ; Clark , Jesse ( September 22 , 2011 ) . `` The 6 Most Ridiculous Superhero Weaknesses '' . Cracked.com . Archived from the original on December 4 , 2016 . Retrieved December 14 , 2016 . all of Wonder Woman 's amazing powers were rendered completely useless if her hands were bound by a man Jump up ^ `` Wonder Woman 's Bracelets ( Object ) '' . Comicvine.gamespot.com . Archived from the original on November 9 , 2016 . Retrieved December 14 , 2016 . In the golden age if Diana 's bracelets ( or those of any Amazon ) were bound by a man it made her lose all her powers . Jump up ^ All Star Comics # 8 ( October 1941 ) Jump up ^ Hanley , Tim . `` Wonder Woman : Secretary Of The Justice Society Of America '' . Straitened Circumstances . Archived from the original on June 7 , 2013 . Retrieved June 25 , 2012 . Jump up ^ All Star Comics # 12 ( August / September 1942 ) Jump up ^ Wonder Woman ( vol. 1 ) # 98 ( May 1958 ) ^ Jump up to : Wonder Woman ( vol. 1 ) # 105 ( April 1959 ) Jump up ^ Wonder Woman # 179 ( 1968 ) ^ Jump up to : Reed , Bill . `` 365 Reasons to Love Comics '' . Comic Book Resources . Archived from the original on March 12 , 2007 . Retrieved March 5 , 2007 . Jump up ^ `` We were all in love with Diana Rigg and that show she was on . '' Mike Sekowsky , quoted in Les Daniels , Wonder Woman : The Complete History ( Chronicle , 2004 ) , p. 129 . Jump up ^ Wonder Woman Vol 1 # 204 Jump up ^ Keith Dallas , Jason Sacks , Jim Beard , Dave Dykema , Paul Brian McCoy ( 2013 ) . American Comic Book Chronicles : The 1980s . TwoMorrows Publishing . pp. 47 -- 8 . ISBN 1605490466 . CS1 maint : Multiple names : authors list ( link ) Jump up ^ Klein , Todd ( January 18 , 2008 ) . `` Logo Study : WONDER WOMAN part 3 '' . Klein Letters . Archived from the original on August 14 , 2016 . Retrieved April 21 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Mangels , Andy ( January 1 , 1989 ) . `` Triple Threat The George Pérez Interview '' . Amazing Heroes . Fantagraphics Books ( 156 ) : 30 . Wonder Woman 's sales are some of the best the Amazing Amazon has ever experienced , and the book is a critical and popular success with its weaving of Greek mythology into a feminist and humanistic atmosphere . ^ Jump up to : `` Who destroyed Paradise Island ? '' . DC Comics. April 15 , 2010 . Archived from the original on May 24 , 2012 . Retrieved May 23 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Rogers , Vaneta ( June 29 , 2010 ) . `` JMS Talks Wonder Woman 's New Look and New Direction '' . Newsarama . Archived from the original on May 24 , 2012 . Retrieved May 23 , 2012 . Jump up ^ George , Richard ( July 7 , 2010 ) . `` Wonder Woman 's New Era '' . IGN . Archived from the original on May 24 , 2012 . Retrieved May 23 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Gustines , George Gene ( June 29 , 2010 ) . `` Makeover for Wonder Woman at 69 '' . The New York Times . Archived from the original on May 24 , 2012 . Retrieved May 23 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Ching , Albert ( November 10 , 2010 ) . `` JMS Leaving Superman and Wonder Woman for Earth One Sequel '' . Newsarama.com . Archived from the original on May 24 , 2012 . Retrieved May 23 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Esposito , Joey . `` The Best of DC Comics in 2011 '' . IGN . Archived from the original on September 17 , 2012 . Retrieved December 14 , 2011 . Jump up ^ Renaud , Jeffrey . `` Azzarello Lowers the Boom ( Tube ) on Wonder Woman '' . Comic Book Resources . Archived from the original on August 24 , 2012 . Retrieved August 22 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Garcia , Joe . `` The Best & Worst of DC Comics ' New 52 , One Year Later '' . Front Towards Gamer . Archived from the original on September 10 , 2012 . Retrieved September 5 , 2012 . Despite being one part of the Justice League 's `` Holy Trinity '' , Wonder Woman never seems to get the recognition that she deserves . While she might not be invincible , her strength is second only to Superman and she 's arguably a better fighter . Her solo outings , however , were rarely very interesting . The New 52 put an end to that injustice , with Brian Azzarello and Cliff Chiang spearheading one of the best books DC is putting out . Azzarello currently has Wonder Woman tearing through the ranks of Greek mythology , and Chiang 's art manages to be intense despite his use of softer lines . If you 're not reading Wonder Woman , go rectify that . 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Movie Pilot . Archived from the original on August 10 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Jimenez , Phil et al . The Essential Wonder Woman Encyclopedia . Published by Random House Digital , Inc. 2010 , pp. 271 , 116 , 244 & 165 . Jump up ^ Wonder Woman ( vol. 2 ) # 56 , 75 , 77 , 97 ( July 1991 -- May 1995 ) ; Wonder Woman Special # 1 ( May 1992 ) ; Artemis : Requiem # 1 ( June 1996 ) ^ Jump up to : Steinem , Gloria ; Chesler , Phyllis ; Feitler , Bea ( 1972 ) . `` Origins preface '' . Wonder Woman . Holt , Rinehart and Winston . ISBN 0 - 03 - 005376 - 5 . Jump up ^ `` Wonder Woman 's Movie Powers and Abilities Explained '' . Archived from the original on June 19 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Johnston , Rich ( October 6 , 2017 ) . `` The End of DC Rebirth Announced at New York Comic - Con '' . bleedingcool . Archived from the original on March 12 , 2018 . Retrieved March 11 , 2018 . 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When the Amazons returned her memories ( and her powers ) , they left out her memories of her experiences as just plain `` Diana Prince . '' ^ Jump up to : Jones , Jr. , Robert . `` Wonder of Wonders '' . Comic Book Resources . Archived from the original on January 16 , 2010 . Retrieved December 31 , 2009 . ^ Jump up to : Strickland , Carol . `` The Illustrated Nubia Index '' . Carol A. Strickland . Archived from the original on January 6 , 2009 . Retrieved January 26 , 2009 . Jump up ^ Gerry Conway ( w ) , Don Heck ( a ) . `` Of Gods And Men '' Wonder Woman 329 ( February 1986 ) , DC Comics Jump up ^ Mozzocco , J. Caleb . `` The Many Loves of Wonder Woman : A Brief History Of The Amazing Amazon 's Love Life '' . ComicsAlliance . Archived from the original on August 30 , 2012 . Retrieved August 28 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Colluccio , Ali . `` Top 5 : Wonder Woman Reboots '' . iFanboy . Archived from the original on April 12 , 2012 . Retrieved April 10 , 2012 . After she was `` erased '' from existence in the final pages of Crisis on Infinite Earths , George Perez , Len Wein and Greg Potter brought the Amazon Princess back to the DC Universe . While the basics of the story remained the same , Wonder Woman ; s powers were adjusted to include Beauty from Aphrodite , Strength from Demeter , Wisdom from Athena , Speed and Flight from Hermes , Eyes of the Hunter from Artemis , and Truth from Hestia . This run established Paradise Island as the mythical Amazon capital , Themyscira . Perez 's Diana is not only strong and smart , but graceful and kind -- the iconic Wonder Woman . Jump up ^ Mozzocco , J. Caleb . `` The Many Loves of Wonder Woman : A Brief History Of The Amazing Amazon 's Love Life '' . ComicsAlliance . Archived from the original on August 30 , 2012 . Retrieved August 28 , 2012 . When the next volume of Wonder Woman would start , Trevor was sidelined as Diana 's love interest . He still appeared in the series , but as an older man , one who would ultimately marry the post-Crisis version of Wondy 's Golden Age sidekick , Etta Candy . Jump up ^ George Pérez ( w ) , George Pérez , Cynthia Martin ( p ) , Cynthia Martin ( i ) . `` War of the Gods , Chapter One : Hellfire 's Web '' War of the Gods 1 ( September 1991 ) , DC Comics Jump up ^ George Pérez ( w ) , George Pérez , Cynthia Martin ( p ) , Cynthia Martin ( i ) . `` The Holy Wars '' War of the Gods 2 ( October 1991 ) , DC Comics Jump up ^ George Pérez ( w ) , George Pérez , Cynthia Martin ( p ) , Cynthia Martin ( i ) . `` Casualties of War '' War of the Gods 3 ( November 1991 ) , DC Comics Jump up ^ George Pérez ( w ) , George Pérez ( p ) . `` In the Beginning ... There Was the End '' War of the Gods 4 ( December 1991 ) , DC Comics Jump up ^ `` Superhero Makeovers : Wonder Woman , part two '' . The Screamsheet . Archived from the original on January 7 , 2012 . Retrieved February 10 , 2011 . Hippolyta received a vision where Wonder Woman died . Jump up ^ `` Superhero Makeovers : Wonder Woman , part two '' . The Screamsheet . Archived from the original on January 7 , 2012 . Retrieved February 10 , 2011 . Desperate to save her daughter , she claimed that Diana had failed in her role as an ambassador to Man 's World and called for a do - over on the contest that had determined Diana fit to carry the Wonder Woman mantle in the first place . Jump up ^ `` Superhero Makeovers : Wonder Woman , part two '' . The Screamsheet . Archived from the original on January 7 , 2012 . Retrieved February 10 , 2011 . Due to Hippolyta secretly meddling so her daughter would lose the contest , Diana lost to one of the Bana named Artemis , who became the new Wonder Woman . Jump up ^ `` Superhero Makeovers : Wonder Woman , part two '' . The Screamsheet . Archived from the original on January 7 , 2012 . Retrieved February 10 , 2011 . Meanwhile , Diana herself wore the costume equivalent of black lingerie and a jacket and continued to fight crime . Jump up ^ `` Superhero Makeovers : Wonder Woman , part two '' . The Screamsheet . Archived from the original on January 7 , 2012 . Retrieved February 10 , 2011 . Artemis was killed off , resulting in the death of Wonder Woman that Hippolyta had foreseen , and Diana returned as Wonder Woman . ^ Jump up to : `` Wonder Woman & Hippolyta -- As All Great Heroes Do ... '' Cosmic Teams . Archived from the original on December 27 , 2012 . Retrieved November 19 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Jodi Picoult ( w ) , Terry Dodson ( p ) , Rachel Dodson ( i ) . `` Love and Murder , Part 3 '' Wonder Woman v3 , 8 ( June 2007 ) , DC Comics ^ Jump up to : Goldstein , Hilary . `` Infinite Crisis Guide '' . IGN . Archived from the original on April 29 , 2014 . Retrieved March 23 , 2005 . Jump up ^ Goldstein , Hilary . `` Defending Wonder Woman -- Why the Amazonian princess should be spared punishment from DC 's heroes '' . IGN . Archived from the original on October 23 , 2012 . Retrieved August 1 , 2005 . Jump up ^ Allan Heinberg ( w ) , Terry Dodson ( p ) , Rachel Dodson ( i ) . `` Who is Wonder Woman ? : Part One '' Wonder Woman v3 , 1 ( August 2006 ) , DC Comics Jump up ^ Allan Heinberg ( w ) , Terry Dodson ( p ) , Rachel Dodson ( i ) . `` Who is Wonder Woman ? : Part Two '' Wonder Woman v3 , 2 ( September 2006 ) , DC Comics Jump up ^ Allan Heinberg ( w ) , Terry Dodson ( p ) , Rachel Dodson ( i ) . `` Who is Wonder Woman ? : Part Three '' Wonder Woman v3 , 3 ( October 2006 ) , DC Comics Jump up ^ Allan Heinberg ( w ) , Terry Dodson ( p ) , Rachel Dodson ( i ) . `` Who is Wonder Woman ? : Part Four '' Wonder Woman v3 , 4 ( February 2007 ) , DC Comics Jump up ^ Allan Heinberg ( w ) , Terry Dodson ( p ) , Rachel Dodson ( i ) . `` Who is Wonder Woman ? : Part Five '' Wonder Woman Annual v3 , 1 ( November 2007 ) , DC Comics Jump up ^ Gail Simone ( w ) , Terry Dodson ( p ) , Rachel Dodson ( i ) . `` The Circle Part One of Four : What You Do Not Know Yet '' Wonder Woman v3 , 14 ( January 2008 ) , DC Comics Jump up ^ Gail Simone ( w ) , Terry Dodson ( p ) , Rachel Dodson ( i ) . `` The Circle Part Two of Four : Dead Heat '' Wonder Woman v3 , 15 ( February 2008 ) , DC Comics Jump up ^ Gail Simone ( w ) , Terry Dodson ( p ) , Rachel Dodson ( i ) . `` The Circle Part Three of Four : The Wellspring of all Vengeance '' Wonder Woman v3 , 16 ( March 2008 ) , DC Comics ^ Jump up to : Gail Simone ( w ) , Terry Dodson ( p ) , Rachel Dodson ( i ) . `` The Circle Conclusion : A Time Of Reckoning '' Wonder Woman v3 , 17 ( April 2008 ) , DC Comics Jump up ^ Raou . `` Wonder Woman : The Circle '' . 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Jump up ^ Azzarello , Brian ( w ) , Chiang , Cliff ( p ) , Chiang , Cliff ( i ) . `` The Visitation '' Wonder Woman v4 , 1 ( November 2011 ) Jump up ^ Azzarello , Brian ( w ) , Chiang , Cliff ( a ) . `` Home '' Wonder Woman v4 , 2 ( December 2011 ) Jump up ^ Azzarello , Brian ( w ) , Chiang , Cliff ( p ) , Chiang , Cliff ( i ) . `` Blood '' Wonder Woman v4 , 4 ( February 2012 ) Jump up ^ Azzarello , Brian ( w ) , Akins , Tony ( p ) , Akins , Tony ( i ) . `` Lourdes '' Wonder Woman v4 , 5 ( March 2012 ) Jump up ^ Azzarello , Brian ( w ) , Akins , Tony ( p ) , Akins , Tony ; Green , Dan ( i ) . `` Thrones '' Wonder Woman v4 , 6 ( April 2012 ) Jump up ^ Teen Titans # 19 ( 2013 ) ^ Jump up to : Azzarello , Brian ( w ) , Chiang , Cliff ( p ) , Chiang , Cliff ( i ) . `` Il Gangster dell'amore '' Wonder Woman v4 , 7 ( May 2012 ) Jump up ^ Azzarello , Brian ( w ) , Chiang , Cliff ( p ) , Chiang , Cliff ( i ) . `` Casting Shadows '' Wonder Woman v4 , 8 ( June 2012 ) Jump up ^ Azzarello , Brian ( w ) , Chiang , Cliff ( p ) , Chiang , Cliff ( i ) . `` The Dearly Beloved '' Wonder Woman v4 , 9 ( July 2012 ) Jump up ^ Azzarello , Brian ( w ) , Chiang , Cliff ( p ) , Chiang , Cliff ( i ) . `` Vows '' Wonder Woman v4 , 10 ( August 2012 ) Jump up ^ Lima , Sara . `` Is Changing Wonder Woman and the History of the Amazons A Good Idea ? '' . ComicVine . Archived from the original on March 28 , 2012 . Retrieved March 27 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Hunsaker , Andy . `` Wonder Woman # 7 : Amazon Sex Pirate Spartans '' . CraveOnline . Archived from the original on April 3 , 2012 . Retrieved March 26 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Azzarello , Brian ( w ) , Chiang , Cliff ( p ) , Chiang , Cliff ( i ) . `` Son Rise '' Wonder Woman v4 , 11 ( September 2012 ) Jump up ^ Azzarello , Brian ( w ) , Chiang , Cliff ( p ) , Chiang , Cliff ( i ) . `` Birth Right '' Wonder Woman v4 , 12 ( October 2012 ) Jump up ^ Rogers , Vaneta . `` BRIAN AZZARELLO on Ending WONDER WOMAN # 12 With a ' BOOM ' '' . Newsarama . Archived from the original on August 20 , 2012 . Retrieved August 17 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Johnston , Rich . `` The End of Wonder Woman # 12 That You Really Might Not Have Expected '' . Bleeding Cool . Archived from the original on August 17 , 2012 . Retrieved August 15 , 2012 . ^ Jump up to : Sava , Oliver . `` Wonder Woman # 0 goes back to the Silver Age '' . The A.V. Club . Archived from the original on September 23 , 2012 . Retrieved September 21 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Hanley , Tim . `` Wonder Woman # 0 Review OR Kind of Cute on the Surface , But Troubling Below '' . Straitened Circumstances . Archived from the original on August 14 , 2014 . Retrieved September 20 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Wonder Woman # 35 ( 2014 ) Jump up ^ Johns , Geoff ( w ) , Lee , Jim ( p ) , Williams , Scott ( i ) . `` Justice League Part Three '' Justice League v2 , 3 ( January 2012 ) Jump up ^ `` Superman and Wonder Woman kiss with powerful consequences '' . USA Today . August 27 , 2012 . Archived from the original on September 21 , 2012 . Retrieved September 21 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Superman - Wonder Woman Romance rocks DC Comics '' . MSNBC.com . Archived from the original on August 24 , 2012 . Retrieved September 21 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Superman - and - Wonder Woman become the world 's newest power couple '' . DCcomics.com . Archived from the original on September 3 , 2012 . Retrieved September 21 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Charles Soule And Tony Daniel Discuss Superman and Wonder Woman Comic '' . Newsarama . Archived from the original on June 23 , 2013 . Retrieved August 7 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Soule and Daniel Join Forces for Superman - Wonder Woman '' . Comic Book Resources . Archived from the original on October 17 , 2013 . Retrieved August 7 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Who 's Who on EARTH 2 '' . Newsarama.com . Archived from the original on November 19 , 2012 . Retrieved January 9 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Look 's Like Earth 2 's Wonder Woman Left a Certain Something Behind ... ( SPOILERS ) '' . BleedingCool.com . Archived from the original on January 12 , 2013 . Retrieved January 9 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Justice League # 50 ( 2016 ) Jump up ^ Wonder Woman : Rebirth # 1 ( 2016 ) Jump up ^ Wonder Woman # 1 ( 2016 ) Jump up ^ Holub , Christian ( June 5 , 2017 ) . `` Wonder Woman creator biopic gets mysterious first teaser '' . Entertainment Weekly . Archived from the original on June 18 , 2017 . Retrieved June 20 , 2017 . Jump up ^ http://superdames.org/image/121510631426 Jump up ^ `` The 50 Greatest Comic Book Characters -- Wonder Woman '' . Empire . Archived from the original on October 3 , 2015 . Retrieved November 16 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Frankenhoff , Brent ( 2011 ) . Comics Buyer 's Guide Presents : 100 Sexiest Women in Comics . Krause Publications . p. 14 . ISBN 1 - 4402 - 2988 - 0 . Jump up ^ `` Wonder Woman -- # 5 Top Comic Book Heroes '' . IGN . Archived from the original on December 22 , 2011 . Retrieved January 19 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Wertham , Fredric ( 1954 ) , Seduction of the Innocent , Rinehart & Company , Inc. , pp. 192 , 234 -- 235 ^ Jump up to : McAvennie , Michael ; Dolan , Hannah , eds. ( 2010 ) . `` 1970s '' . DC Comics Year By Year A Visual Chronicle . Dorling Kindersley . p. 154 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 7566 - 6742 - 9 . After nearly five years of Diana Prince 's non-powered super-heroics , writer - editor Robert Kanigher and artist Don Heck restored Wonder Woman 's ... well , wonder . Jump up ^ Matsuuchi , Ann ( 2012 ) . `` Wonder Woman Wears Pants : Wonder Woman , Feminism and the 1972 ' Women 's Lib ' Issue '' ( PDF ) . Colloquy : text theory critique . archived at Monash University ( 24 ) . Jump up ^ `` Wonder Woman at 75 : How the superhero icon inspired a generation of feminists '' . SBS Movies . Archived from the original on April 13 , 2017 . Retrieved April 12 , 2017 . ^ Jump up to : Cocca , Carolyn ( 2014 ) . `` Negotiating the Third Wave of Feminism in `` Wonder Woman '' `` . PS : Political Science and Politics . 47 ( 1 ) : 98 -- 103 . JSTOR 43284491 . Jump up ^ Perez , Wein ( 1988 ) . Wonder Woman Vol 2 . pp. Issue 17 . Jump up ^ Knight , Gladys ( 2010 ) . Female Action Heroes : A Guide to Women in Comics , Video Games , Film , and Television . Santa Barbara United States : Greenwood , ProQuest Ebrary . p. 1 . Jump up ^ DiPaola , Marc ( 2011 ) . Wonder Woman as A World War II Veteran , Feminist Icon , and Sex Symbol . Jefferson , North Carolina , and London : McFarland & Company , Inc. , Publishers . p. 70 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 7864 - 4718 - 3 . Jump up ^ `` Wonder Woman Equality Archive '' . Equality Archive . May 9 , 2016 . Archived from the original on March 8 , 2017 . Retrieved March 7 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Groetzinger , Kate . `` Suffering Sappho : Wonder Woman Endorses Marriage Equality '' . The Atlantic . Archived from the original on March 8 , 2017 . Retrieved March 7 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Cave , Rob ( October 10 , 2016 ) . `` UNITED NATIONS TO NAME WONDER WOMAN HONORARY AMBASSADOR '' . Comic Book Resources . Archived from the original on October 22 , 2016 . Retrieved October 21 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Alexander , Erik ( October 21 , 2016 ) . `` Wonder Woman named UN ambassador in controversial move '' . CNN.com . CNN . Archived from the original on October 22 , 2016 . Retrieved October 21 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Wonder Woman dropped from UN role for being too sexy '' . RTE . December 13 , 2016 . Archived from the original on December 14 , 2016 . Retrieved December 13 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Gloria Steinem , `` Wonder Woman '' , in Gilbert H. Muller , ed. , The McGraw - Hill Reader : Issues Across the Disciplines ( McGraw - Hill Education , 2005 ) , 455 -- 462 , p. 458 . ^ Jump up to : Melissa Leon ( August 19 , 2015 ) . `` See Wonder Woman Officiate a Gay Wedding and Avert a Crisis in Crimea '' . The Daily Beast . Archived from the original on November 12 , 2016 . Retrieved December 14 , 2016 . Jump up ^ https://78.media.tumblr.com/75a5dd9895ad9b4079505986e70a8016/tumblr_inline_o8crbxpDPp1rrbhi0_500.png Jump up ^ https://78.media.tumblr.com/474a1ed212515b04dfa20412f2ed071a/tumblr_inline_o8crap7Wq91rrbhi0_500.png Jump up ^ Romano , Aja ( August 9 , 2015 ) . `` The pacifist past and war - torn future of Wonder Woman '' . Kernelmag.dailydot.com . Archived from the original on November 25 , 2016 . Retrieved December 14 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` The Legacy of Original Intentions : The Non Violence of Wonder Woman by Nick Pumphrey '' . Feminismandreligion.com . March 27 , 2012 . Archived from the original on December 6 , 2016 . Retrieved December 14 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` The True Nature of Pacificism -- Wonder Woman -- Comic Vine '' . Comicvine.gamespot.com . Archived from the original on January 26 , 2017 . Retrieved December 14 , 2016 . Jump up ^ https://78.media.tumblr.com/148ba4797f35b11117b00d04c8cca03a/tumblr_o8azf66wUv1rz1rzuo7_1280.png Jump up ^ https://78.media.tumblr.com/80057a099cfa99260b362fdee6ec59d7/tumblr_inline_o8cqu1mvtc1rrbhi0_500.png ^ Jump up to : https://fanbros.com/wonder-woman-sex-and-comic-book-double-standards/ Jump up ^ McMillan , Grame ( November 10 , 2016 ) . `` Cape Watch : Wonder Woman Would Like a Girlfriend , Please '' . WIRED . Archived from the original on December 21 , 2016 . Retrieved December 14 , 2016 . the comic book Wonder Woman was confirmed to be queer last month Jump up ^ Spastic Man ( 2008 ) . `` Lesbian interpretation ? -- Wonder Woman '' . Comic Vine . Archived from the original on December 6 , 2016 . Retrieved December 14 , 2016 . It may be that Wonder Woman may also be bisexual , as she and another Amazon , Io , had reciprocal feelings for each other . Jump up ^ `` e2zvaxuicmjwogxcwo9t Image '' ( PNG ) . I-kinga-img.com . Archived from the original on January 26 , 2017 . Retrieved December 14 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Browning , Bil ( August 20 , 2015 ) . `` Wonder Woman Performs Same - Sex Wedding in New Comic '' . Advocate.com . Archived from the original on January 26 , 2017 . Retrieved December 14 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Archived copy '' . Archived from the original on February 3 , 2018 . Retrieved July 25 , 2018 . CS1 maint : Archived copy as title ( link ) Jump up ^ `` DC Comics Writer Outs Wonder Woman '' . Newser.com . Archived from the original on October 13 , 2016 . Retrieved October 14 , 2016 . ^ Jump up to : `` Archived copy '' . Archived from the original on October 3 , 2016 . Retrieved October 3 , 2016 . CS1 maint : Archived copy as title ( link ) Jump up ^ `` Wonder Woman has sex with women . Get over it '' . Revelist . September 28 , 2016 . Archived from the original on November 13 , 2016 . Retrieved December 14 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Archived copy '' . Archived from the original on February 28 , 2018 . Retrieved July 25 , 2018 . CS1 maint : Archived copy as title ( link ) Jump up ^ Lyn , Nicole ( September 30 , 2016 ) . `` Wonder Woman is bisexual -- ' obviously ' says DC Comics '' . New York Daily News . Archived from the original on January 26 , 2017 . Retrieved December 14 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Comic Book Hero Wonder Woman is Bisexual '' . October 1 , 2016 . Archived from the original on October 5 , 2016 . Retrieved October 1 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Exclusive Interview : Greg Rucka on Queer Narrative and WONDER WOMAN '' . September 28 , 2016 . Archived from the original on October 3 , 2016 . Retrieved October 3 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Yehl , Joshua ( April 6 , 2016 ) . `` Grant Morrison on Wonder Woman : Earth One 's Birth , Race , and Sexuality Changes '' . IGN . Archived from the original on December 6 , 2016 . Retrieved December 14 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Beth Elderkin ( October 4 , 2016 ) . `` Gail Simone , Longtime ' Wonder Woman ' Writer , Says Cut Out Queer Fear '' . Inverse . Archived from the original on January 12 , 2017 . Retrieved December 14 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Wonder Woman Writer Says Haters Need to ' Get Over It ' About Diana 's New Canon Bisexuality '' . Io9.gizmodo.com . Archived from the original on December 16 , 2016 . Retrieved December 14 , 2016 . Further reading ( edit ) Jacob M. Held ( ed . ) , Wonder Woman and Philosophy : The Amazonian Mystique , Wiley - Blackwell , 2017 . External links ( edit ) Wonder Woman Official website at DC Comics.com Origin story of Wonder Woman at DC Comics.com AmazonArchives.com Wonder of Wonders Glen , Joshua ( April 4 , 2004 ) . `` Wonder - working Power '' . The Boston Globe . Jett , Brett . `` Who Is Wonder Woman ? '' , '' ( 2009 ) : 1 -- 71 . Jett , Brett . `` Who Is Wonder Woman ? -- Bonus PDF '' , '' ( 2009 ) : 1 -- 17 . Malcolm , Andrew H. ( February 18 , 1992 ) . `` She 's Behind the Match For That Man of Steel '' . The New York Times . Marston , William Moulton . Emotions of Abnormal People . London : Kegan Paul , Trench , Trübner & Co , Ltd. 1928 . ISBN 1406701165 Rosenberg , Robin S. `` Wonder Woman As Émigré -- Why would Wonder Woman leave her idyllic existence on Paradise Island ? '' , ( Article ) ( 2010 ) . Rosenberg , Robin S. `` Wonder Woman : Compassionate Warrior for Peace '' , ( Article ) ( 2013 ) : 1 -- 35 . Valcour , Francinne . `` Manipulating The Messenger : Wonder Woman As An American Female Icon '' , ( Dissertation ) ( 2006 ) : 1 -- 372 . Wonder Woman William Moulton Marston Elizabeth Holloway Marston H.G. 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what is the difference between a word and a morpheme

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Morpheme&oldid=836794862

Morpheme - wikipedia Morpheme Jump to : navigation , search This article includes a list of references , but its sources remain unclear because it has insufficient inline citations . Please help to improve this article by introducing more precise citations . ( July 2013 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) Examples `` Unbreakable '' comprises three morphemes : un - ( a bound morpheme signifying `` not '' ) , - break - ( the root , a free morpheme ) , and - able ( a free morpheme signifying `` can be done '' ) . Allomorphs of the plural morpheme for regular nouns : / s / ( e.g. in cats / kæts / ) , / ɪz , əz / ( e.g. in dishes / dɪʃɪz / ) , and / z / ( e.g. in dogs / dɒɡz / ) . A morpheme is the smallest grammatical unit in a language . In other words , it is the smallest meaningful unit of a language . The linguistics field of study dedicated to morphemes is called morphology . A morpheme is not identical to a word , and the principal difference between the two is that a morpheme may or may not stand alone , whereas a word , by definition , is freestanding . When a morpheme stands by itself , it is considered as a root because it has a meaning of its own ( e.g. the morpheme cat ) and when it depends on another morpheme to express an idea , it is an affix because it has a grammatical function ( e.g. the -- s in cats to indicate that it is plural ) . Every word comprises one or more morphemes . Contents ( hide ) 1 Classification of morphemes 1.1 Free and bound morphemes 1.1. 1 Classification of bound morphemes 1.1. 1.1 Derivational morphemes 1.1. 1.2 Inflectional morphemes 1.2 Allomorphs 1.3 Zero morphemes / null morphemes 1.4 Content vs. function 2 Other features of morphemes 3 Morphological analysis 4 Changing definitions of morpheme 5 See also 5.1 Linguistics 5.2 Lexicology 6 References 7 External links Classification of morphemes ( edit ) Free and bound morphemes ( edit ) Main article : Bound and unbound morphemes Every morpheme can be classified as either free or bound . These categories are mutually exclusive , and as such , a given morpheme will belong to exactly one of them . Free morphemes can function independently as words ( e.g. town , dog ) and can appear within lexemes ( e.g. town hall , doghouse ) . Bound morphemes appear only as parts of words , always in conjunction with a root and sometimes with other bound morphemes . For example , un - appears only accompanied by other morphemes to form a word . Most bound morphemes in English are affixes , particularly prefixes and suffixes . Examples of suffixes are - tion , - ation , - ible , - ing , etc . Bound morphemes that are not affixed are called cranberry morphemes . Classification of bound morphemes ( edit ) Bound morphemes can be further classified as derivational or inflectional . Derivational morphemes ( edit ) Derivational morphemes , when combined with a root , change either the semantic meaning or part of speech of the affected word . For example , in the word happiness , the addition of the bound morpheme - ness to the root happy changes the word from an adjective ( happy ) to a noun ( happiness ) . In the word unkind , un - functions as a derivational morpheme , for it inverts the meaning of the word formed by the root kind . Generally , the affixes used with a root word are bound morphemes . Inflectional morphemes ( edit ) Inflectional morphemes modify a verb 's tense , aspect , mood , person , or number , or a noun 's , pronoun 's or adjective 's number , gender or case , without affecting the word 's meaning or class ( part of speech ) . Examples of applying inflectional morphemes to words are adding - s to the root dog to form dogs and adding - ed to wait to form waited . An inflectional morpheme changes the form of a word . In English , there are eight inflections . Allomorphs ( edit ) Allomorphs are variants of a morpheme that differ in pronunciation but are semantically identical . For example , in English , the plural marker - ( e ) s of regular nouns can be pronounced / - z / , / - s / , or / - ɪz , - əz / , depending on the final sound of the noun 's Grammatical number singular form . For example , plural ending s ( as in bats ) , z ( as in bugs ) , iz ( as in buses ) . Zero morphemes / null morphemes ( edit ) Generally , these types of morphemes have no visible changes . For instance , the singular form of sheep is `` sheep '' and its plural is also `` sheep '' . The intended meaning is thus derived from the co-occurring determiner ( e.g. in this case `` some - '' or `` a - '' ) . Content vs. function ( edit ) Content morphemes express a concrete meaning or content , while function morphemes have more of a grammatical role . For example , the morphemes fast and sad can be considered content morphemes . On the other hand , the suffix -- ed belongs to the function morphemes given that it has the grammatical function of indicating past tense . Although these categories seem very clear and intuitive , the idea behind it can be harder to grasp given that they overlap with each other . Examples of an ambiguous situation are the preposition over and the determiner your , which seem to have a concrete meaning , but are considered function morphemes because their role is to connect ideas grammatically . A general rule to follow to determine the category of a morpheme is : Content morphemes include free morphemes that are nouns , adverbs , adjectives , and verbs . It also includes bound morphemes that are bound roots and derivational affixes . Function morphemes can be free morphemes that are prepositions , pronouns , determiners , and conjunctions . Additionally , they can be bound morphemes that are inflectional affixes . Other features of morphemes ( edit ) Roots are composed of only one morpheme , while stems can be composed of more than one morpheme . Any additional affixes are considered morphemes . An example of this is the word quirkiness . The root is quirk , but the stem is quirky which has two morphemes . Moreover , there exist pairs of affixes that have the same phonological form but have a different meaning . For example , the suffix -- er can be derivative ( e.g. sell ⇒ seller ) or inflectional ( e.g. small ⇒ smaller ) . These types of morphemes are called homophonous . Some words might seem to be composed of multiple morphemes , but in fact , they are not . This is why one has to consider form and meaning when identifying morphemes . For example , the word relate might seem to be composed of two morphemes , re - ( prefix ) and the word late , but this is not correct . These morphemes have no relationship with the definitions relevant to the word like `` feel sympathy '' , `` narrate '' , or `` being connected by blood or marriage '' . Furthermore , the length of the words does not determine if it has multiple morphemes or not . To demonstrate , the word Madagascar is long and it might seem to have morphemes like mad , gas , and car , but it does not . Conversely , small words can have multiple morphemes ( e.g. dogs ) . Morphological analysis ( edit ) This section needs additional citations for verification . Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . ( October 2017 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) In natural language processing for Korean , Japanese , Chinese and other languages , morphological analysis is the process of segmenting a sentence into a row of morphemes . Morphological analysis is closely related to part - of - speech tagging , but word segmentation is required for these languages because word boundaries are not indicated by blank spaces . The purpose of the morphological analysis is to determine the minimal units of meaning in a language or morphemes by using comparisons of similar forms -- for example , comparing forms such as `` She is walking '' and `` They are walking '' rather than comparing either of these with something completely different like `` You are reading '' . Thus , we can effectively break down the forms in parts and distinguish the different morphemes . Similarly , the meaning and the form are equally important for the identification of morphemes . For instance , agent and comparative morphemes illustrate this point . An agent morpheme is an affix like - er that transforms a verb into a noun ( e.g. teach → teacher ) . On the other hand , -- er can also be a comparative morpheme that changes an adjective into another degree of the same adjective ( e.g. small → smaller ) . In this case , the form is the same , but the meaning of both morphemes is different . Also , the opposite can occur in which the meaning is the same but the form is different . Changing definitions of morpheme ( edit ) This section does not cite any sources . Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . ( September 2011 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) In generative grammar , the definition of a morpheme depends heavily on whether syntactic trees have morphemes as leaves or features as leaves . Direct surface - to - syntax mapping in lexical functional grammar ( LFG ) -- leaves are words Direct syntax - to - semantics mapping Leaves in syntactic trees spell out morphemes : distributed morphology -- leaves are morphemes Branches in syntactic trees spell out morphemes : radical minimalism and nanosyntax -- leaves are `` nano - '' ( small ) morpho - syntactic features Given the definition of a morpheme as `` the smallest meaningful unit '' , nanosyntax aims to account for idioms where it is often an entire syntactic tree which contributes `` the smallest meaningful unit . '' An example idiom is `` Do n't let the cat out of the bag '' where the idiom is composed of `` let the cat out of the bag '' and that might be considered a semantic morpheme , which is composed of many syntactic morphemes . Other cases where the `` smallest meaningful unit '' is larger than a word include some collocations such as `` in view of '' and `` business intelligence '' where the words together have a specific meaning . The definition of morphemes also plays a significant role in the interfaces of generative grammar in the following theoretical constructs ; Event semantics : the idea that each productive morpheme must have a compositional semantic meaning ( a denotation ) , and if the meaning is there , there must be a morpheme ( null or overt ) . Spell - out : the interface where syntactic / semantic structures are `` spelled - out '' using words or morphemes with phonological content . This can also be thought of as lexical insertion into the syntactic . See also ( edit ) Linguistics ( edit ) Alternation ( linguistics ) Hybrid word Morphological parsing Theoretical linguistics Word stem Phoneme Bound morpheme Lexicology ( edit ) Floating tone Greek morphemes Morphophonology References ( edit ) Jump up ^ Kemmer , Suzanne . `` Words in English : Structure '' . Retrieved 10 April 2014 . Jump up ^ Morphology Classification Of Morphemes Referenced 19 March 2014 Jump up ^ https://faculty.unlv.edu/nagelhout/ENG411Bs12C/mod1concept2.html Jump up ^ `` Morphology II '' . Retrieved 10 April 2014 . ^ Jump up to : Department of Linguistics ( 2011 ) . Language files : Materials for an introduction to language and linguistics ( 11th ed . ) . Ohio State University Press . Spencer , Andrew ( 1992 ) . Morphological Theory . Oxford : Blackwell . External links ( edit ) Look up morpheme in Wiktionary , the free dictionary . Glossary of reading terms Comprehensive and searchable morpheme reference Linguistics 001 -- Lecture 7 -- Morphology by Prof. Mark Lieberman Pronunciation of the word morpheme ( hide ) Lexicography Types of reference works Dictionary Glossary Lexicon Phrase book Thesaurus Types of dictionaries Advanced learner 's Anagram Bilingual Biographical Conceptual Defining Electronic Encyclopedic Etymological Explanatory Historical Idiom Language for specific purposes dictionary Machine - readable Medical Monolingual learner 's Multi-field Picture Reverse Rhyming Rime Single - field Specialized Spelling Sub-field Visual Other List of lexicographers List of online dictionaries Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Morpheme&oldid=836794862 '' Categories : Units of linguistic morphology Hidden categories : Articles lacking in - text citations from July 2013 All articles lacking in - text citations Articles needing additional references from October 2017 All articles needing additional references All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from September 2011 Articles needing additional references from September 2011 Talk Contents About Wikipedia Afrikaans Alemannisch Asturianu Беларуская Беларуская ( тарашкевіца ) ‎ Български Brezhoneg Català Чӑвашла Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch ދިވެހިބަސް Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Frysk Gaeilge Galego 한국어 Հայերեն हिन्दी Hornjoserbsce Hrvatski Ido Bahasa Indonesia Interlingua Íslenska Italiano עברית ქართული Қазақша Kiswahili Kurdî Latviešu Lietuvių Limburgs Magyar Македонски Nederlands 日本 語 Norsk Norsk nynorsk Novial ਪੰਜਾਬੀ Plattdüütsch Polski Português Română Runa Simi Русский Scots Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Словѣньскъ / ⰔⰎⰑⰂⰡⰐⰠⰔⰍⰟ کوردی Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog Türkçe Українська Vèneto Tiếng Việt Walon 中文 65 more Edit links This page was last edited on 16 April 2018 , at 21 : 55 . 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has the university of kentucky ever won a national championship in football

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Kentucky_Wildcats_football&oldid=815914800

Kentucky Wildcats football - wikipedia Kentucky Wildcats football Jump to : navigation , search Kentucky Wildcats football 2017 Kentucky Wildcats football team First season 1892 Athletic director Mitch Barnhart Head coach Mark Stoops 5th season , 24 -- 31 (. 436 ) Stadium Kroger Field ( Capacity : 62,000 ) Field surface Field Turf Location Lexington , Kentucky Conference Southeastern Conference Division Eastern All - time record 597 -- 607 -- 44 (. 496 ) Bowl record 8 -- 8 (. 500 ) Claimed nat'l titles 1 ( 1950 ) Conference titles Rivalries Louisville Cardinals Indiana Hoosiers Tennessee Volunteers Consensus All - Americans 10 Colors Blue and White Fight song On , On , U of K , Kentucky Fight Mascot Wildcat , Scratch The Wildcats play their home games at Kroger Field in Lexington , Kentucky and are currently led by head coach Mark Stoops . Website ukathletics.com The Kentucky Wildcats football program represents the University of Kentucky in the sport of American football . The Wildcats compete in the Football Bowl Subdivision ( FBS ) of the National Collegiate Athletic Association ( NCAA ) and the Eastern Division of the Southeastern Conference ( SEC ) . Contents ( hide ) 1 History 1.1 Early history ( 1881 -- 1945 ) 1.2 Paul `` Bear '' Bryant era ( 1946 -- 1953 ) 1.3 Blanton Collier era ( 1954 -- 1961 ) 1.4 Charlie Bradshaw era ( 1962 -- 1968 ) 1.5 John Ray era ( 1969 -- 1972 ) 1.6 Fran Curci era ( 1973 -- 1981 ) 1.7 Jerry Claiborne era ( 1982 -- 1989 ) 1.8 Bill Curry era ( 1990 -- 1996 ) 1.9 Hal Mumme era ( 1997 -- 2000 ) 1.10 Guy Morriss era ( 2001 -- 2002 ) 1.11 Rich Brooks era ( 2003 -- 2009 ) 1.12 Joker Phillips era ( 2010 -- 2012 ) 1.13 Mark Stoops era ( 2013 -- present ) 2 Bowl games 3 Current coaching staff 4 Rivals 4.1 Louisville 4.2 Tennessee 4.3 Indiana 4.4 Vanderbilt 4.5 Mississippi State 4.6 All - time record vs. current SEC schools 5 Championships 5.1 National championships 5.2 Conference championships 6 All - Americans 7 First Team All - SEC 8 Current players in the National Football League 9 Hall of famers 9.1 Pro 9.2 College 10 Individual award winners 10.1 Outland Trophy 10.2 Wuerffel Trophy 10.3 University of Kentucky 100th Anniversary Team 10.4 Retired numbers 11 Future opponents and schedules 11.1 Conference and non-conference opponents 11.1. 1 SEC West opponents 11.1. 2 Non-conference opponents 11.2 Schedules 11.2. 1 2018 schedule 12 References 13 External links History ( edit ) For year - by - year results , see List of Kentucky Wildcats football seasons . Early history ( 1881 -- 1945 ) ( edit ) A.M. Miller , Kentucky 's first head football coach Until about 1913 , the modern University of Kentucky was referred to as `` Kentucky State College '' and nearby Transylvania University was known as `` Kentucky University '' . In 1880 , Kentucky University and Centre College played the first intercollegiate football game in Kentucky . Kentucky State first fielded a football team in 1881 , playing three games against rival Kentucky University . The team was revived in 1891 . Both the inaugural 1881 squad and the revived 1891 squad have unknown coaches according to university records in winning two games and losing three . The 1891 team 's colors were blue and light yellow , decided before the Centre -- Kentucky game on December 19 . A student asked `` What color blue ? '' and varsity letterman Richard C. Stoll pulled off his necktie , and held it up . This is still held as the origin of Kentucky 's shade of blue . The next year light yellow was dropped and changed to white . The 1892 team was coached by A.M. Miller , and went 2 -- 4 -- 1 . The greatest UK team of this era was the 1898 squad , known simply to Kentuckians as `` The Immortals . '' To this day , the Immortals remain the only undefeated , untied , and unscored upon team in UK football history . The Immortals were coached by W.R. Bass and ended the year a perfect 7 -- 0 -- 0 , despite an average weight of 147 pounds per player . Victories came easily for this squad , as the Immortals raced by Kentucky University ( 18 - 0 ) , Georgetown ( 28 -- 0 ) , Company H of the 8th Massachusetts ( 59 -- 0 ) , Louisville Athletic Club ( 16 -- 0 ) , Centre ( 6 -- 0 ) , 160th Indiana ( 17 -- 0 ) and Newcastle Athletic Club ( 36 -- 0 ) . Head coach Jack Wright led the team to a 7 -- 1 record in 1903 , losing only to rival and southern champion Kentucky University . Fred Schacht posted a 15 -- 4 -- 1 record in two seasons but died unexpectedly after his second season . J. White Guyn also had success leading the Wildcats , posting a 17 -- 7 -- 1 record in his three years . Edwin Sweetland went 16 -- 3 in three seasons ( 1909 -- 1910 and 1912 ) but resigned due to poor health . Sweetland also served as Kentucky 's first athletics director . The 1909 team upset the Illinois Fighting Illini . Upon their welcome home , Philip Carbusier said that they had `` fought like wildcats , '' a nickname that stuck . Doc Rodes . John J. Tigert coached Kentucky for two seasons ( 1915 -- 1916 ) with each season having one loss . 1915 captain Charles C. Schrader was All - Southern . The 1916 team fought the Southern Intercollegiate Athletic Association ( SIAA ) co-champion Tennessee Volunteers to a scoreless tie . The year 's only a loss , 45 to 0 to the Irby Curry - led Vanderbilt Commodores , was the dedication of Stoll Field . Quarterbacks Curry and Kentucky 's Doc Rodes were both selected All - Southern at year 's end . Vanderbilt coach Dan McGugin stated `` If you would give me Doc Rodes , I would say he was a greater player than Curry . '' Coach Harry Gamage had a 32 -- 25 -- 5 record during his seven seasons from 1927 to 1933 . A.D. Kirwan , who would go on to be the president of the university , coached the Wildcats from 1938 to 1944 and posted a 24 -- 28 -- 4 record in those six seasons . Longtime athletics director Bernie Shively also served as Kentucky 's head football coach for the 1945 season . Paul `` Bear '' Bryant era ( 1946 -- 1953 ) ( edit ) Coach Paul `` Bear '' Bryant was Kentucky 's head football coach for eight seasons . Bear Bryant came to Kentucky from Maryland . Under Bryant 's tutelage , the Wildcats won the 1947 Great Lakes Bowl , lost the 1950 Orange Bowl , won the 1951 Sugar Bowl and the 1952 Cotton Bowl Classic . In final AP polls , the Wildcats were ranked No. 11 in 1949 , No. 7 in 1950 , No. 15 in 1951 , No. 20 in 1952 and No. 16 in 1953 . The final 1950 poll was taken prior to the bowl games ; Kentucky then defeated undefeated and No. 1 ranked Oklahoma in the Sugar Bowl and finished with the number 1 ranking in 3 major polls , ending the Sooners 31 - game winning streak . Bryant won SEC Coach of the Year honors in 1950 and then left after eight seasons to accept the head football coach position at Texas A&M . Assistant coaches at Kentucky under Bryant who went on to become head coaches include Paul Dietzel , Frank Moseley , Jim Owens and Phil Cutchin . Notable players who played for Bryant at Kentucky include Howard Schnellenberger , Jim Mackenzie , Jerry Claiborne , Steve Meilinger , George Blanda , Vito Parilli , and Bob Gain . Blanton Collier era ( 1954 -- 1961 ) ( edit ) Cleveland Browns assistant Blanton Collier was hired to replace Bryant as head football coach at Kentucky in late 1953 . After completing his first season at Kentucky , Collier was named SEC Coach of the Year after posting a 7 -- 2 record . Collier 's assistants during his tenure at Kentucky included the likes of Bill Arnsparger , Chuck Knox , Howard Schnellenberger , and Don Shula . Despite having a winning record , 41 -- 36 -- 3 in eight seasons , Collier was fired . Collier struggled to recruit for much of his tenure , about which frustrated fans wrote letters of complaint to the university . Collier is the last Kentucky head football coach to leave the Wildcats with a winning record . Charlie Bradshaw era ( 1962 -- 1968 ) ( edit ) Charlie Bradshaw , an Alabama assistant under Bear Bryant , was hired to replace the fired Collier . Despite all the hype about being a Bear Bryant assistant , Bradshaw 's tenure turned out to be a disappointment , as he was unable to have much success with the Wildcats . He had a 25 -- 41 -- 5 record in seven seasons . Bradshaw is the last Kentucky coach to defeat Tennessee twice in Knoxville , and the last Kentucky coach to defeat Auburn twice . He was also the last to defeat a No. 1 ranked team in the country until Rich Brooks in 2007 . Bradshaw , a harsh , brutal coach , was the head coach of the infamous Thin Thirty Kentucky team . Kentucky had 88 players when Bradshaw arrived , but by season 's end , only 30 players were on the team . The story of that team is told in the 2007 book The Thin Thirty by Shannon Ragland . Bradshaw also recruited Nate Northington , the first African American to play in an SEC athletic contest ( 1967 ) . John Ray era ( 1969 -- 1972 ) ( edit ) Notre Dame assistant John Ray took over as head football coach in late 1969 . Ray 's teams consistently had solid defenses , but struggled to produce on the offensive end . Ray 's teams failed to win more than three games in a single season , going a dismal 10 -- 33 overall in Ray 's four seasons . Ray 's contract was not renewed after the 1972 season . Fran Curci era ( 1973 -- 1981 ) ( edit ) A football signed by Kentucky head coach Fran Curci and gifted to President Gerald Ford . Kentucky hired Fran Curci away from Miami after Ray was let go . The 1976 Wildcats tallied their first winning season in 13 years and won the Peach Bowl , finishing No. 18 in the final AP poll . For all intents and purposes , however , Curci 's tenure ended soon afterward , when the NCAA slapped the Wildcats with two years ' probation for numerous recruiting and amateurism violations . They were banned from postseason play and live television in 1977 . The most damaging sanction in the long term , however , was being limited to only 25 scholarships in 1977 and 1978 . The 1977 Kentucky team went 10 -- 1 , went undefeated in SEC play , won a share of the SEC title and finished the season ranked No. 6 in the AP poll . Due to the sanctions , however , the Wildcats were not able to go to a bowl . Kentucky finished at No. 6 and Penn State at No. 5 despite the fact that Kentucky defeated Penn State at Penn State during the regular season . Curci was unable to put together another winning team as a result of the reduced scholarships , and was fired after the 1981 season . Jerry Claiborne era ( 1982 -- 1989 ) ( edit ) Coach Claiborne Coach Jerry Claiborne returned to his alma mater from Maryland . He led the Wildcats to the 1983 Hall of Fame Bowl and the 1984 Hall of Fame Bowl , defeating a Wisconsin team ranked No. 20 in the polls to finish the season with a 9 -- 3 record and a No. 19 ranking in the final AP and UPI polls . Claiborne also won SEC Coach of the Year honors in 1983 . The E.J. Nutter Training Facility was built in 1987 . Coach Claiborne and Kentucky experienced an era of constant change at the quarterback position following the 1987 season through his departure that included Ransdell , Wright , and High School All - American and two way starter ( Quarterback / Safety ) Ricky Lewis , prior to landing Mr. Kentucky Football Awardee Pookie Jones of Calloway County . Claiborne retired following the 1989 season and was inducted into the College Football Hall of Fame as a coach in 1999 . He is the last coach to defeat Florida and was the last coach to defeat Tennessee until Joker Phillips in 2011 . His final record at Kentucky is 41 -- 46 -- 3 . Bill Curry era ( 1990 -- 1996 ) ( edit ) Bill Curry surprised the college football world by leaving Alabama for Kentucky in late 1989 . Despite the high hopes that the Kentucky football program would rise under his leadership , Curry 's Wildcats teams never achieved much success . The Wildcats ' best season under Curry was 1993 , going on to play Clemson in the 1993 New Years Eve Peach Bowl . It would be his only winning season in seven years . On the other side of the spectrum , his 1994 team went 1 - 10 , the worst record in modern program history . Curry was asked to resign after seven seasons and just a . 33 winning percentage . Curry 's record at Kentucky was 26 -- 52 . Hal Mumme era ( 1997 -- 2000 ) ( edit ) Coach Hal Mumme came to Kentucky from Valdosta State and brought an exciting , high - scoring , pass - oriented offense known as the `` Air Raid '' . He led the Wildcats to the 1998 Outback Bowl and the 1999 Music City Bowl . Mumme achieved a 20 -- 26 record in his four seasons . Mumme coached star quarterback Tim Couch , the top overall pick in the 1999 NFL Draft . Mumme was popular among the Kentucky fans , but the program was hit with severe sanctions for NCAA violations involving cash payments from an assistant coach to prospective recruits . Although Mumme himself was not implicated in any violation , he resigned after the 2000 season . Assistant coaches under Mumme at Kentucky included Mike Leach and Sonny Dykes . Guy Morriss era ( 2001 -- 2002 ) ( edit ) Guy Morriss was promoted from offensive line coach to head coach of the Wildcats after Mumme 's resignation . Under coach Morriss , the Wildcats went 2 -- 9 in 2001 but improved to a 7 -- 5 record in 2002 . However , the Wildcats were not eligible for postseason play in 2002 due to NCAA sanctions from Mumme 's tenure . The most significant event of that season came in a loss to LSU ( See : Bluegrass Miracle ) . Morriss accepted an offer to become the head football coach at Baylor after the 2002 season . Rich Brooks era ( 2003 -- 2009 ) ( edit ) The team 's next head coach was former Oregon head coach Rich Brooks , who was hired in December 2002 . He led the team out of the probationary years to an 8 -- 5 regular season record in 2006 , including a memorable upset over the defending SEC champion Georgia , snapping a nine - game losing streak to the Bulldogs . Brooks also led the football team to its first bowl game since 1999 and its first bowl game victory since 1984 , as Kentucky defeated the Clemson University Tigers 28 -- 20 in the Music City Bowl . In 2007 , the Wildcats were ranked 8th in the nation before a loss to South Carolina on October 4 . After the loss to South Carolina , Kentucky bounced back on October 13 to defeat No. 1 LSU in a historic triple overtime game . Brooks took Kentucky to four consecutive bowl games , winning the first three . The 2007 Kentucky Wildcats football defeated the Florida State Seminoles 35 -- 28 in the 2007 Music City Bowl in Nashville , Tennessee , on December 31 , 2007 . Quarterback Andre ' Woodson was named the Music City Bowl MVP for the second year in a row . In 2008 the Wildcats opted to go to the Liberty Bowl instead of the Music City Bowl and defeated Conference USA champion East Carolina 25 -- 19 . In 2009 , Brooks and Kentucky returned to the Music City Bowl , losing in a rematch to Clemson 21 -- 13 . Brooks retired after seven seasons with a 39 -- 47 overall record . Joker Phillips era ( 2010 -- 2012 ) ( edit ) Former Wildcat wide receiver and longtime assistant coach Joker Phillips was formally named head coach January 6 , 2010 after Brooks ' retirement ; he had been Brooks ' designated successor since 2008 . Kentucky started off strong under Phillips with a win on the road against archrival Louisville . The 2010 squad snapped a long - standing losing streak to South Carolina Coach Steve Spurrier by defeating the Gamecocks at Kroger Field . However , they dropped games to both Ole Miss and Mississippi State , lost to a Florida team on a down year and once again failed to beat its other archrival Tennessee , having lost 26 in a row to the Vols , the longest losing streak by one team to another in college football . The Wildcats capped the season with a 27 -- 10 loss to Pittsburgh in the BBVA Compass Bowl . On November 26 , 2011 , Kentucky snapped the longest active FBS losing streak to any one team by defeating the Tennessee Vols 10 -- 7 at Kroger Field . On November 4 , 2012 , the day after a 40 - 0 home shutout by Vanderbilt resulting with a 1 -- 9 record , UK athletics director Mitch Barnhart released a public letter to Big Blue Nation announcing that Phillips would not return for the 2013 season , but that he would finish out the 2012 season as head coach . With Joker 's 5 - year contract only being 3 years complete at the end of the season , the university has to pay $2.55 Million over the final 2 years of the contract . Mark Stoops era ( 2013 -- present ) ( edit ) Florida State defensive coordinator Mark Stoops , brother of legendary former Oklahoma head coach Bob Stoops , was hired as Kentucky 's head football coach in late 2012 . One of Stoops ' first moves was hiring offensive coordinator Neal Brown , who brought back the `` Air Raid '' offense . After nine months as the head coach of the Wildcats , Stoops and his staff signed the highest ranked recruiting class in program history . Stoops 's first season at Kentucky was a struggle , as the Wildcats duplicated the 2 -- 10 record from 2012 . Kentucky 's wins in 2013 were over a winless Miami ( OH ) and FCS opponent Alabama State . In Stoops 's second season , the Wildcats broke a 17 - game SEC losing streak when they beat Vanderbilt the fourth game into the season . The Wildcats finished the 2014 season with a 5 -- 7 record . After the season , offensive coordinator Neal Brown left to take the head coaching job at Troy . In 2015 , Stoops 's third season , the Wildcats duplicated their 5 -- 7 record from 2014 . They lost to Florida , Auburn , Mississippi State , Tennessee , Georgia , Vanderbilt , and Louisville , and they defeated Louisiana - Lafayette , South Carolina , Missouri , Eastern Kentucky and Charlotte . On December 18 , 2015 , offensive coordinator Shannon Dawson , who was hired to replace Neal Brown , announced he would not return to the program for the 2016 season as the offensive coordinator , a result of the team 's struggles over the previous few years . In his place Kentucky hired Cincinnati offensive coordinator Eddie Gran as the assistant head coach of offense at Kentucky . Cincinnati quarterbacks coach Darin Hinshaw has also joined the UK staff as quarterbacks coach and co-offensive coordinator . Kentucky began the 2016 season with a loss to Southern Miss by a score of 44 -- 35 , after blowing a 25 - point lead . Ironically , Shannon Dawson , who was fired by Kentucky as offensive coordinator just months earlier , had been hired to serve as Southern Miss ' offensive coordinator . Kentucky would finish 7 -- 6 ( 4 -- 4 SEC ) on the season , which included snapping a five - game losing streak to archrival Louisville by a score of 41 -- 38 , with a berth in the TaxSlayer Bowl , their first bowl berth since 2010 , a game they lost to Georgia Tech by a score of 33 -- 18 . In the 2017 - 2018 season , the Wildcats opened the season with a victory over Southern Mississippi in Hattiesburg 24 - 17 . The next week , the Wildcats defeated the Eastern Kentucky Colonels in their home opener at the newly renamed Kroger Field in Lexington . Following a road victory over the South Carolina Gamecocks , they failed to defeat the Florida Gators , who they have not defeated since 1986 . This extended the longest losing streak in SEC history to 31 years . Responding to the criticized loss to Florida , the Wildcats defeated Eastern Michigan and Missouri at Kroger Field , improving their record to 5 - 1 . Following their bye week , the Kentucky Wildcats fell to ranked Mississippi State team in Starkville , Mississippi by a score of 45 - 7 . However , the Wildcats improved to 6 - 2 by defeating the Tennessee Volunteers by a score of 29 - 26 at Kroger Field in Lexington , KY . The victory over Tennessee was Kentucky 's second victory since 1984 over the Volunteers , and secured Kentucky in postseason eligiblity . This was followed by a loss to Ole Miss at home 37 - 34 on November 4th and a dominating road win over unranked Vanderbilt on November 11th , 44 - 21 . The Wildcats face the 9 - 1 Georgia Bulldogs in Athens , GA on November 18th . Bowl games ( edit ) Main article : List of Kentucky Wildcats bowl games UK has played in 16 bowl games , compiling a record of 8 -- 8 . Note that in the table below , the year references the season , and not the actual date the game was played . Season Bowl Game Winner Loser Record 1947 Great Lakes Bowl UK 24 Villanova 14 8 -- 3 1949 Orange Bowl Santa Clara 21 UK 13 9 -- 3 1950 Sugar Bowl UK 13 Oklahoma 7 11 -- 1 1951 Cotton Bowl Classic UK 20 TCU 7 8 -- 4 1976 Peach Bowl UK 21 North Carolina 0 9 -- 3 Hall of Fame Classic West Virginia 20 UK 16 6 -- 5 -- 1 1984 Hall of Fame Classic UK 20 Wisconsin 19 9 -- 3 1993 Peach Bowl Clemson 14 UK 13 6 -- 6 1998 Outback Bowl Penn State 26 UK 14 7 -- 5 1999 Music City Bowl Syracuse 20 UK 13 6 -- 6 2006 Music City Bowl UK 28 Clemson 20 8 -- 5 2007 Music City Bowl UK 35 Florida State 28 8 -- 5 2008 Liberty Bowl UK 25 East Carolina 19 7 -- 6 2009 Music City Bowl Clemson 21 UK 13 7 -- 6 BBVA Compass Bowl Pittsburgh 27 UK 10 6 -- 7 2016 TaxSlayer Bowl Georgia Tech 33 UK 18 7 -- 6 2017 Music City Bowl Northwestern Totals 17 8 -- 8 Current coaching staff ( edit ) See also : List of Kentucky Wildcats football head coaches Name Position Mark Stoops Head Coach Eddie Gran Offensive Coordinator / Associate Head Coach , RB Coach Matt House Defensive Coordinator / Linebackers Coach Vince Marrow Tight Ends Coach / Recruiting Coordinator Steve Clinkscale Secondary Coach Lamar Thomas Wide Receivers Coach Darin Hinshaw Co-Offensive Coordinator , Quarterbacks Coach John Schlarman Offensive Line Coach Derrick LeBlanc Defensive Line Coach Dean Hood LB Coach / Special Teams Coordinator Rivals ( edit ) Louisville ( edit ) Main article : Governor 's Cup ( Kentucky ) First played in 1912 , Louisville - Kentucky football series was revived in 1994 after the success of the basketball series that restarted in 1983 . They played the first four games of the renewed series at Commonwealth Stadium ( now Kroger Field ) until Papa John 's Cardinal Stadium ( PJCS ) was completed in 1997 , at which time they began rotating the series between Louisville , Kentucky and Lexington , Kentucky . Kentucky leads the series at 15 -- 14 but trails the modern series 14 - 9 . Kentucky played Louisville in the Cardinals ' first 4 seasons and twice in the 1920s , holding the Cardinals scoreless in all contests . Kentucky then left the SIAA in 1922 to become a charter member of the Southeastern Conference and limited its play of in - state schools . It would be 70 years before these two in - state rivals faced each other again . In 2013 , it was announced that the game would be moved to the final game of the season following Louisville 's 2014 move to the ACC . This scheduling change fits with other end - of - year SEC vs. ACC rivalry games , such as Georgia vs. Georgia Tech , Florida vs. Florida State and South Carolina vs. Clemson . Kentucky upset the # 11 Louisville Cardinals 41 - 38 on November 26 , 2016 . The Wildcats were 27 point underdogs going into the game . Tennessee ( edit ) Main article : Kentucky -- Tennessee rivalry Tennessee and Kentucky have played each other 108 times over 114 years with Tennessee winning 75 games to 24 wins by Kentucky (. 736 ) . Tennessee has won the most games in Lexington , Kentucky with 35 wins to 14 by Kentucky (. 702 ) . Tennessee also has more wins than Kentucky in Knoxville , Tennessee with 45 wins to 10 (. 787 ) . Tennessee has the most wins in the series at Stoll Field with 19 wins to 11 Kentucky wins (. 621 ) . The Series is tied at 3 a piece at Baldwin Park . Tennessee leads the series at Neyland Stadium with 35 wins to 7 Kentucky wins (. 792 ) . Tennessee leads the series at Kroger Field with 17 wins to 3 Kentucky wins (. 850 ) . Like many college football rivalries , the Tennessee - Kentucky game had its own trophy for many years : a wooden beer barrel painted half blue and half orange . The trophy was awarded to the winner of the game every year from 1925 to 1997 . The Barrel was introduced in 1925 by a group of former Kentucky students who wanted to create a material sign of supremacy for the rivalry . It was rolled onto the field that year with the words `` Ice Water '' painted on it to avoid any outcries over a beer keg symbolizing a college rivalry . The barrel exchange was retired in 1998 after two Kentucky football players died in an alcohol - related crash . Indiana ( edit ) Main article : The Bourbon Barrel More known for its basketball rivalry , the Indiana - Kentucky series was played annually from 1987 until 2005 in what was known as the `` Battle for the Bourbon Barrel '' game . The series rotated between Bloomington , Indiana and Lexington , Kentucky and the two teams played for a trophy called the `` Bourbon Barrel '' from 1987 until both schools mutually agreed to retire the trophy in 1999 following the alcohol - related death of two Kentucky football players . Indiana leads the series ( 18 -- 17 -- 1 ) . The two have n't played since 2005 . Vanderbilt ( edit ) Main article : Kentucky -- Vanderbilt football rivalry Having started in 1896 , the Kentucky - Vanderbilt football series has been played annually since 1953 . The two are divisional opponents in the SEC East . The series , which rotates between Nashville , Tennessee and Lexington , Kentucky , stands at 43 -- 42 -- 4 with Kentucky leading the series . The average score being Vanderbilt 17 - Kentucky 15.6 . Mississippi State ( edit ) Main article : Kentucky -- Mississippi State football rivalry The Mississippi State - Kentucky series became a rivalry when the SEC assigned cross-divisional opponents . The Bulldogs ( of the SEC West ) and Wildcats ( of the SEC East ) were assigned to each other . They play every year which rotates between Lexington , Kentucky and Starkville , Mississippi . Mississippi State has won 8 of their last 10 vs. Kentucky . Mississippi State leads the series 23 -- 22 . All - time record vs. current SEC schools ( edit ) Opponent Won Lost Tied Percentage Streak First Last Alabama 37 . 063 Lost 6 1917 2016 Arkansas 0 . 571 Lost 1 1998 2012 Auburn 6 26 . 197 Lost 2 1934 2015 Florida 17 51 0 . 254 Lost 31 1917 2017 Georgia 12 56 . 188 Lost 6 1939 2016 LSU 16 40 . 289 Lost 2 1949 2014 Mississippi State 22 23 0 . 500 Won 1 1914 2016 Missouri 5 0 . 625 Won 3 1965 2017 Mississippi 14 27 . 345 Won 1 1944 2011 South Carolina 11 17 . 397 Won 4 1937 2017 Tennessee 25 79 9 . 261 Won 1 1893 2017 Texas A&M 0 . 500 Lost 1 1952 1953 Vanderbilt 43 42 . 506 Won 1 1896 2016 Totals 176 404 20 . 310 Championships ( edit ) National championships ( edit ) Prior to the advent of the BCS in 1998 , national champions were primarily chosen by a combination of national ranking systems and nation media poll rankings . During the last 142 years , there have been more than 30 selectors of national champions using polls , historical research and mathematical rating systems . Beginning in 1936 , The Associated Press began the best - known and most widely circulated poll of sportswriters and broadcasters . Before 1936 , national champions were determined by historical research and retroactive ratings and polls . It is important to remember that from 1936 to 1964 , the Associated Press chose a `` national champion '' prior to bowl games . The NCAA has never officially recognized a national champion from among the bowl coalition institutions , but in 2004 the NCAA commissioned Jeff Sagarin to use his computer model to retroactively determine the highest ranked teams for the years prior to the BCS . His champion for the 1950 season is Kentucky . The polls for the 1950 national champion , taken before the bowl games were played , list either Oklahoma ( AP , Berryman , Helms , Litkenhous , UPI , Williamson ) , Princeton ( Boand , Poling ) , or Tennessee ( Billingsley , DeVold , Dunkel , Missouri , Don Faurot Football Research , National Championship Foundation , Sagarin ( ELO - Chess ) ) . Tennessee was the winner of the Cotton Bowl and the only team to beat Kentucky during the 1950 season . Oklahoma was named National Champion by AP and UPI Coaches ' Poll , both which awarded their titles before the bowl games . Kentucky would go on to beat Oklahoma in the Sugar Bowl . However , they are still not recognized as national champions for that year . Conference championships ( edit ) Season Conference Coach Overall Record Conference Record 1950 SEC Paul `` Bear '' Bryant 11 -- 1 5 -- 1 1976 SEC Fran Curci 9 -- 3 5 -- 1 Conference Titles : 2 Denotes co-champions ‡ Mississippi State forfeited their 1976 win over Kentucky , giving Kentucky an official 5 -- 1 conference record and a share of the SEC title with Georgia . Kentucky also finished the 1977 season with a 10 -- 1 ( 6 -- 0 SEC ) record , but were not eligible for a share of the SEC championship or for postseason play due to NCAA probation . All - Americans ( edit ) Player Position Year Unanimous Consensus Selectors Clyde Johnson 1942 No No AP Bob Gain 1949 No No All - Players , NY Sun , NEA Bob Gain 1950 Yes Yes AP , UPI , INS , Camp , NEA , CP , FWAA - Look , AAB , FD , NYNews Babe Parilli QB 1950 Yes Yes AP , INS , Camp , Colliers , NY News , Sporting News , AA Babe Parilli QB 1951 Yes Yes UP , INS , Camp , NEA , CP , AAB , NY News , All - Player Doug Moseley 1951 No No AP , FWAA - Look Steve Meilinger DE 1952 No No AP , NEA , All - Player Steve Meilinger DE 1953 No No NEA , Colliers , AAB Ray Correll DG 1953 No No FWAA - Look , Chicago Tribun Howard Schnellenberger DE 1955 No Yes AP Lou Michaels OT 1956 No Yes UPI , NA , Camp , Colliers , NY News Lou Michaels OT 1957 No Yes AP , NEA , Camp , FWAA - Look , Coaches , NY News , Sporting News Irv Goode 1961 No No Time Herschel Turner 1963 No No Time Sam Ball 1965 No Yes UPI , NEA , Camp , FWAA - Look , Coaches , Time , Sporting New Rodger Bird HB 1965 No No Time , NBC Rick Norton QB 1965 No No Time , NBC Elmore Stephens TE No No Time Rick Nuzum No No NEA Warrant Bryant 1976 No No Camp , Coaches Art Still DE 1977 No Yes AP , UPI , NEA , Coaches , FWAA , Camp , Sporting News , Football News Mike Pfeifer 1989 No No Football News , Mizlou Tim Couch QB 1998 No No Camp , FWAA , AAF James Whalen TE 1999 No Yes AP , Camp , FWAA , AAFF , CNN / SI , CBS SportsLine Derek Abney KR 2002 Yes Yes AP , FWAA , Camp , Sporting News , ESPN , CBS SportsLine , CNN / SI , College Football News Glenn Pakulak 2002 No No CBS SportsLine Randall Cobb WR No No AP First Team All - SEC ( edit ) Year Player Position Duece Howerton Running Back 1993 Marty Moore Linebacker 1994 Melvin Johnson Free Safety 1995 Moe Williams Half Back 1997 John Schlarman Offensive Guard 1998 Kris Comstock Offensive Guard 1998 Tim Couch Quarterback 1998 Craig Yeast Wide Receiver 1999 Andy Smith Punter 1999 Jeff Snedegar Linebacker 1999 James Whalen Tight End 2000 Derek Smith Tight End 2000 Omar Smith Offensive Tackle 2001 Derek Abney Kick Returner 2001 Dennis Johnson Defensive End 2001 Glenn Pakulak Punter 2002 Derek Abney Kick Returner 2002 Antonio Hall Offensive Tackle 2002 Glenn Pakulak Punter 2002 Artose Pinner Running Back 2003 Derek Abney Kick Returner 2003 Antonio Hall Offensive Tackle 2005 Rafael Little All - Purpose 2006 Keenan Burton All - Purpose 2006 Jacob Tamme Tight End 2006 Wesley Woodyard Linebacker 2007 Jacob Tamme Tight End 2007 Wesley Woodyard Linebacker 2008 Micah Johnson Linebacker 2008 Trevard Lindley Defensive Back 2008 Tim Masthay Punter 2009 Randall Cobb All - Purpose Randall Cobb All - Purpose Danny Trevathan Linebacker 2011 Danny Trevathan Linebacker 2014 Alvin Dupree Defensive End 2014 Landon Foster Punter 2016 Jon Toth Center 2017 Benny Snell Jr . Running Back Current players in the national football league ( edit ) See also : List of Kentucky Wildcats players in the NFL Draft The following is a list of Kentucky players in the NFL . Pos . Name Height Weight Hometown Draft Year Round Overall Current NFL Team WR Randall Cobb 5'11 '' 190 lbs . Alcoa , TN 2011 64th Green Bay LB Bud Dupree 6'4 '' 270 lbs . Irwinton , GA 2015 22nd Pittsburgh LB Josh Forrest 6'4 '' 240 lbs . Paducah , KY 2016 6 190th Seattle DB Winston Guy 6'1 '' 218 lbs . Lexington , KY 2012 6 181st Free Agent WR Steve Johnson 6'3 '' 210 lbs . San Francisco , CA 2008 7 229th Los Angeles Chargers DT Corey Peters 6'3 '' 295 lbs . Louisville , KY 83rd Arizona DE Za'Darius Smith 6'6 '' 265 lbs . Greenville , AL 2015 122nd Baltimore LB Danny Trevathan 6'1 '' 235 lbs . Leesburg , FL 2012 6 188th Chicago OG Larry Warford 6'3 '' 332 lbs . Richmond , KY 2013 65th New Orleans LB Avery Williamson 6'1 '' 238 lbs . Milan , TN 2014 5 151st Tennessee LB Wesley Woodyard 6'1 '' 230 lbs . LaGrange , GA 2008 UD -- Tennessee Hall of famers ( edit ) Pro ( edit ) Inductee Position ( s ) Class Team ( s ) , Years George Blanda Quarterback Placekicker 1981 Chicago Bears , 1949 , 1950 -- 58 Baltimore Colts , 1950 Houston Oilers , 1960 -- 66 Oakland Raiders , 1967 -- 75 Dermontti Dawson Center 2012 Pittsburgh Steelers , 1988 -- 2000 College ( edit ) Inductee Position ( s ) Class Years Art Still Defensive End 2015 1974 -- 1977 Paul `` Bear '' Bryant Head Coach 1986 1946 -- 53 Jerry Claiborne Head Coach 1999 1982 -- 89 Bob Gain Guard Tackle 1980 1947 -- 1950 Steve Meilinger Defensive Line 2013 1951 -- 53 Lou Michaels Tackle 1992 1955 -- 57 Babe Parilli Quarterback 1982 1949 -- 51 Individual award winners ( edit ) Outland Trophy ( edit ) Bob Gain -- 1950 Wuerffel Trophy ( edit ) Courtney Love -- 2017 University of Kentucky 100th Anniversary Team ( edit ) Chosen in 1990 by Kentucky Newspapers Lexington Herald - Leader Offense OE -- Tom Hutchinson OE -- Steve Meilinger OL -- Sam Ball OL -- Warren Bryant OL -- Irv Goode OL -- Ray Correl OL -- Doug Mosely QB -- Babe Parilli RB -- Sonny Collins RB -- Rodger Bird RB -- Shipwreck Kelly PK -- Joe Worley Defense DE -- Art Still DT -- Bob Gain MG -- Dave Roller DT -- Lou Michaels DE -- Jeff Van Note LB -- Joe Federspiel LB -- Jay Rhodemyer DB -- Paul Calhoun DB -- Jerry Claiborne DB -- Darryl Bishop DB -- Mike Siganos KR -- Dicky Lyons Sr . The Courier - Journal ( Louisville ) Offense OE -- Tom Hutchinson OE -- Steve Mellinger OT -- Sam Ball OT -- Warren Bryant OG -- Gene Donaldson OG -- Dermontti Dawson OC -- Jay Rhodemyer QB -- Babe Parilli RB -- Sonny Collins RB -- Bob Davis RB -- Mark Higgs PK -- Joe Worley Defense DL -- Art Still DL -- Bob Gain DL -- Dave Correl DL -- Lou Michaels DL -- Jeff Van Note LB -- Joe Federspiel LB -- Jim Kovach LB -- Frank LeMaster DB -- Paul Calhoun RB -- Rodger Bird DB -- Mike Siganos P -- Ralph Kercheval Retired numbers ( edit ) No. 21 : Calvin Bird No. 22 : Mark Higgs Future opponents and Schedules ( edit ) Conference and non-conference opponents ( edit ) SEC West opponents ( edit ) Kentucky plays Mississippi State as a permanent non-division opponent annually and rotates around the West division among the other six schools . Year Alabama Auburn Arkansas LSU Mississippi State Mississippi Texas A&M 2017 AWAY HOME 2018 HOME AWAY 2019 HOME AWAY 2020 AWAY HOME 2021 HOME AWAY 2022 HOME AWAY 2023 HOME AWAY 2024 AWAY HOME 2025 AWAY HOME Non-conference opponents ( edit ) Announced schedules as of September 3 , 2017 2018 2019 2020 9 / 01 -- Central Michigan 8 / 31 -- Toledo 9 / 05 -- Eastern Michigan 9 / 15 -- Murray State 9 / 07 -- at Eastern Michigan 11 / 17 -- Middle Tennessee 11 / 23 -- UT Martin 11 / 24 -- at Louisville 11 / 30 -- Louisville 11 / 28 -- at Louisville Schedules ( edit ) 2018 Schedule ( edit ) Date Time Opponent Rank Site TV Result Attendance September 1 Central Michigan * Kroger Field Lexington , KY September 8 at Florida Ben Hill Griffin Stadium Gainesville , FL September 15 Murray State * Kroger Field Lexington , KY September 22 Mississippi State Kroger Field Lexington , KY September 29 South Carolina Kroger Field Lexington , KY October 6 at Texas A&M Kyle Field College Station , TX October 20 Vanderbilt Kroger Field Lexington , KY October 27 at Missouri Faurot Field Columbia , MO November 3 Georgia Kroger Field Lexington , KY November 10 at Tennessee Neyland Stadium Knoxville , TN November 17 Middle Tennessee * Kroger Field Lexington , KY November 24 at Louisville * Papa John 's Cardinal Stadium Louisville , KY ( Governor 's Cup ) * Non-conference game . Homecoming . Rankings from Coaches ' Poll released prior to game . All times are in Eastern Time . References ( edit ) Jump up ^ `` NCAA Football Award Winners '' ( PDF ) . National Collegiate Athletic Association . 2014 . pp. 13 -- 18 . Retrieved December 19 , 2014 . Jump up ^ University of Kentucky Athletics Brand Identity Guidelines . February 5 , 2016 . Retrieved February 25 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Kentucky Wildcats Official Athletic Site -- Football '' . Ukathletics.com . Archived from the original on October 7 , 2012 . Retrieved May 21 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Kentucky Football Media Guide , p. 177 Jump up ^ `` Archived copy '' . Archived from the original on August 24 , 2015 . Retrieved 2015 - 09 - 17 . ^ Jump up to : `` Kentucky Wildcats Official Athletic Site -- Football '' . ukathletics.com . Archived from the original on October 7 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Michael Leo Donovan , Yankees to Fighting Irish : What 's Behind Your Favorite Team 's Name ( Taylor Trade Publications , 2004 ) , p107 Jump up ^ `` Kentucky Players who served in the Military '' . ^ Jump up to : `` Bear Bryant '' . College Football at Sports-Reference.com . Archived from the original on July 6 , 2014 . Jump up ^ `` 100 years of Bear Bryant ; 100 facts you may not know '' . AL.com . Retrieved May 21 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Coaching Tree : Bear Bryant '' . Archived from the original on February 2 , 2014 . Retrieved February 19 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Rickerd , Brian ( October 14 , 2013 ) . `` University of Kentucky football great Meilinger has only one regret about Hall of Fame -- Frankfort & Franklin County , Kentucky '' . State-journal.com . Retrieved May 21 , 2015 . ^ Jump up to : Hank Rippetoe . `` Kentucky Football : The Blanton Collier Years ( Part Two ) 1954 - 1961 '' . A Sea of Blue . Jump up ^ `` Muscles of Iron '' . Musclesofiron.com . Archived from the original on February 18 , 2014 . Retrieved May 21 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Lexington , KY local and state news by the Lexington Herald - Leader - Kentucky.com '' . Kentucky.com . Retrieved May 21 , 2015 . Jump up ^ ( 1 ) Archived December 3 , 2013 , at the Wayback Machine . ^ Jump up to : Hank Rippetoe . `` Kentucky Football Tales from the Dark Side : Charlie Bradshaw Part Three '' . Aseaofblue.com . Retrieved May 21 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Charlie Bradshaw '' . Fanbase.com . Archived from the original on January 18 , 2016 . Retrieved May 21 , 2015 . ^ Jump up to : `` THE THIN THIRTY '' . cappaa.com . Jump up ^ Hank Rippetoe . `` Kentucky Football History : Tales from the Dark Side -- The Charlie Bradshaw Years Part Two '' . Aseaofblue.com . Retrieved May 21 , 2015 . Jump up ^ University of Kentucky Libraries . `` Notable Kentucky African Americans -- Northington , Nathaniel `` Nate '' `` . Nkaa.uky.edu . Retrieved May 21 , 2015 . 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Retrieved May 21 , 2015 . ^ Jump up to : `` Kentucky Wildcats -- All Time Record 581 - 593 - 44 ( 0.495 ) '' . Archived from the original on February 6 , 2015 . Retrieved February 19 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` E.J. Nutter Training Facility '' . University of Kentucky . Archived from the original on January 7 , 2010 . Retrieved March 8 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` This Coach Did It Right '' . Archived from the original on February 3 , 2014 . Retrieved February 19 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` The Sports Illustrated Vault - SI.com '' . SI.com . Jump up ^ `` Bill Curry Hired By Kentucky '' . philly - archives . Jump up ^ outsidethesidelines . `` More on Bill Curry ... '' Roll ' Bama Roll . Jump up ^ `` Bill Curry '' . College Football at Sports-Reference.com . Archived from the original on February 1 , 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Curry Goes Out a Loser Against Tennessee '' . latimes . Jump up ^ `` Hal Mumme Named Head Coach of Kentucky Football '' . ukathletics.com . Jump up ^ `` Hal Mumme '' . College Football at Sports-Reference.com . Archived from the original on February 1 , 2014 . ^ Jump up to : `` Mumme resigns as Kentucky football coach '' . USA Today . Jump up ^ `` Tim Couch Flashback : `` Dangerous As A Broken Fruit Jar '' -- Saturday Down South `` . Saturday Down South . Jump up ^ `` Kentucky gets three years probation '' . Archived from the original on April 19 , 2010 . Retrieved February 19 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Smart Football '' . smartfootball.blogspot.com . Jump up ^ `` Kentucky Elevates Ex-eagle Morriss '' . philly - archives . Jump up ^ `` 2001 - Kentucky Wildcats Football Statistics and Results - Totalfootballstats.com '' . totalfootballstats.com . Jump up ^ `` Kentucky Wildcats 2002 Football Schedule '' . nationalchamps.net . Jump up ^ ( 3 ) Archived February 12 , 2002 , at the Wayback Machine . Jump up ^ `` Henderson 's ' Bluegrass Miracle ' Stuns UK , 33 -- 30 '' . LSUsports.net . Jump up ^ `` Baylor University -- Media Communications -- News '' . Baylor University -- Media Communications . Jump up ^ `` Brooks hired to coach Kentucky '' . TuscaloosaNews.com . Jump up ^ `` Kentucky Wildcats 2006 Football Schedule '' . nationalchamps.net . Jump up ^ `` Georgia Bulldogs ' last five matchups vs. Kentucky Wildcats '' . ESPN.com . Jump up ^ `` The Tennessean - Dickson '' . The Tennessean . Jump up ^ `` Kentucky Wildcats vs South Carolina Gamecocks -- Preview '' . ESPN.com . Jump up ^ `` LSU Tigers vs Kentucky Wildcats -- Recap '' . ESPN.com . ^ Jump up to : `` Brooks Retires at Kentucky '' . ukathletics.com . Jump up ^ `` Kentucky Wildcats vs Florida State Seminoles -- Recap '' . ESPN.com . Jump up ^ ( 4 ) Archived February 19 , 2016 , at the Wayback Machine . Jump up ^ `` Kentucky Wildcats vs East Carolina Pirates -- Recap '' . ESPN.com . Jump up ^ `` Music City Bowl : Clemson Beats Kentucky , 21 -- 13 '' . The Huffington Post . Jump up ^ `` Phillips introduced as UK football coach '' . wkyt.com . ^ Jump up to : `` 2010 Kentucky Wildcats Football Schedule '' . FBSchedules.com . Jump up ^ `` Pittsburgh Panthers vs Kentucky Wildcats -- Recap '' . ESPN.com . Jump up ^ ( 5 ) Jump up ^ `` Joker Phillips Fired : Kentucky Fires Football Coach '' . The Huffington Post . Jump up ^ + Scott Anderson . `` Firing Joker Phillips Was n't Cheap '' . Nation of Blue . Jump up ^ `` Mark Stoops on brother Bob Stoops : ' Bob truly represents what is good about college football ' '' . June 7 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Mark Stoops , Florida State Seminoles defensive coordinator , hired as head coach of Kentucky Wildcats '' . ESPN.com . Jump up ^ `` Neal Brown Named Offensive Coordinator , Quarterbacks Coach '' . ukathletics.com . Jump up ^ SethBurchett . `` UK football : Mark Stoops -- Altering perceptions and expectations '' . A Sea of Blue . ^ Jump up to : `` 2013 Kentucky Wildcats Football Schedule '' . FBSchedules.com . Jump up ^ `` Alabama State vs. Kentucky - Game Recap - November 2 , 2013 - ESPN '' . ESPN.com . Jump up ^ `` Kentucky tops Vanderbilt 17 -- 7 , ends SEC drought '' . Yahoo Sports . September 27 , 2014 . Jump up ^ A ( December 1 , 2014 ) . `` Stoops : Wildcats progressed despite 5 -- 7 finish '' . Usatoday.com . Retrieved May 21 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Jason Marcum . `` Troy hires Kentucky 's Neal Brown as head coach '' . SBNation.com . Vox Media . Jump up ^ `` Florida vs. Kentucky - Game Recap - September 19 , 2015 - ESPN '' . ESPN.com . Jump up ^ `` Auburn vs. Kentucky - Game Recap - October 15 , 2015 - ESPN '' . ESPN.com . Jump up ^ `` Kentucky vs. Mississippi State - Game Recap - October 24 , 2015 - ESPN '' . ESPN.com . Jump up ^ `` Tennessee vs. Kentucky - Game Recap - October 31 , 2015 - ESPN '' . ESPN.com . Jump up ^ `` Kentucky vs. Georgia - Game Recap - November 7 , 2015 - ESPN '' . ESPN.com . Jump up ^ `` Kentucky vs. Vanderbilt - Game Recap - November 14 , 2015 - ESPN '' . ESPN.com . Jump up ^ `` Louisville vs. Kentucky - Game Recap - November 28 , 2015 - ESPN '' . ESPN.com . Jump up ^ `` Louisiana vs. Kentucky - Game Recap - September 5 , 2015 - ESPN '' . ESPN.com . Jump up ^ `` Kentucky vs. South Carolina - Game Recap - September 12 , 2015 - ESPN '' . ESPN.com . Jump up ^ `` Missouri vs. Kentucky - Game Recap - September 26 , 2015 - ESPN '' . ESPN.com . Jump up ^ `` Eastern Kentucky vs. Kentucky - Game Recap - October 3 , 2015 - ESPN '' . ESPN.com . Jump up ^ `` Charlotte vs. Kentucky - Game Recap - November 21 , 2015 - ESPN '' . ESPN.com . Jump up ^ Hale , Jon ( December 18 , 2015 ) . `` Shannon Dawson out as Kentucky OC '' . The Courier - Journal . Louisville . Retrieved December 18 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Smith , Jennifer ( December 18 , 2015 ) . `` Kentucky 's Shannon Dawson wo n't return next season '' . Lexington Herald - Leader . Retrieved December 18 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Hale , Jon ( December 19 , 2014 ) . `` Gran , Hinshaw join Kentucky football staff '' . The Courier - Journal . Louisville . Retrieved April 10 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Smith , Jennifer ( December 29 , 2015 ) . `` UK football hires Cincinnati 's Eddie Gran to be assistant head coach of the offense '' . Lexington Herald - Leader . Retrieved December 29 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Southern Mississippi vs. Kentucky - Game Recap - September 3 , 2016 '' . ESPN . 2016 - 09 - 04 . Retrieved 2017 - 04 - 03 . Jump up ^ `` Shannon Dawson to be Southern Miss offensive coordinator '' . Usatoday.com. 2016 - 02 - 11 . Retrieved 2017 - 04 - 03 . Jump up ^ `` Kentucky vs. Louisville - Game Recap - November 26 , 2016 '' . ESPN . 2016 - 11 - 26 . Retrieved 2017 - 04 - 03 . Jump up ^ `` Georgia Tech survives Kentucky comeback bid in chippy TaxSlayer Bowl - College Football Nation Blog '' . ESPN . 2016 - 12 - 31 . Retrieved 2017 - 04 - 03 . Jump up ^ `` Oh , Four Oh Four '' . idsnews.com . Archived from the original on January 12 , 2014 . ^ Jump up to : `` mcubed.net : NCAAF Football : Series records : Kentucky vs. Vanderbilt '' . mcubed.net . Jump up ^ `` Past Division I-A Football National Champions '' . 2008 - 03 - 25 . Archived from the original on 2008 - 03 - 25 . Retrieved 2017 - 04 - 03 . Jump up ^ `` SEC Future Football Schedule Rotation Announced '' . fbschedules.com . Retrieved June 14 , 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Kentucky Wildcats Football Schedules and Future Schedules '' . fbschedules.com . Retrieved February 22 , 2012 . External links ( edit ) Official website Kentucky Wildcats football Venues Stoll Field / McLean Stadium ( 1916 -- 1972 ) Kroger Field ( 1973 -- present ) E.J. 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what is the meaning of eid in arabic

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Eid_al-Adha&oldid=804664068

Eid al - Adha - wikipedia Eid al - Adha Jump to : navigation , search This article needs additional citations for verification . Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . ( October 2015 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) عيد الأضحى Eid al - Adha `` Feast of the Sacrifice '' Blessings for Eid al - Adha Observed by Muslims and Druze Type Muslim holidays Significance Commemoration of Ibrahim ( Abraham ) 's willingness to sacrifice his son in obedience of a command from God Marks the end of the annual Hajj to Mecca Observances Eid prayers Dhabihah , sacrifice of a sheep , cow , goat , buffalo or camel Donating one - third or more of the sacrifice meat to friends and neighbors Donating one - third or more of the sacrifice meat to the poor and needy Gatherings of family and friends Meals , especially lunches and late breakfasts ( brunches ) Wearing best clean clothes Gift - giving Giving money / gifts to kids and homeless as a token of love Helping the poor by giving foods , money , meat and clothes in the name of zakath Begins 10 Dhu al - Hijjah Ends 10 Dhu al - Hijjah Date 10 Dhu al - Hijjah 2017 date 1 September , 2 September ( Umm al - Qura ) 2018 date 21 August 2019 date 11 August Related to Hajj Eid al - Fitr Part of a series on Islamic culture Architecture Azerbaijani Indo - Islamic Moorish Moroccan Mughal Ottoman Pakistani Tatar Persian Somali Sudano - Sahelian Art Calligraphy Miniature Oriental rug Persian carpet Turkish carpet Dress Abaya Agal Boubou Burqa Chador Jellabiya Niqāb Salwar kameez Songkok ( Peci ) Taqiya Keffiyeh ( Kufiya ) Thawb Jilbab Hijab Holidays Ashura Arba'een al - Ghadeer Chaand Raat al - Fitr al - Adha Imamat Day New Year Isra and Mi'raj al - Qadr Mawlid Ramadan Mid-Sha'ban Literature Arabic Azerbaijani Bengali Indonesian Javanese Kashmiri Kurdish Malay Pashto Persian Punjabi Sindhi Somali South Asian Turkish Urdu Music Dastgah Ghazal Madih nabawi Maqam Mugam Nasheed Qawwali Theatre Bangsawan Jem Karagöz and Hacivat Sama Ta'zieh Islam portal Eid al - Adha ( Arabic : عيد الأضحى ‎ , translit . ʿīd al - aḍḥā , lit . ' Feast of the Sacrifice ' ‎ , ( ʕiːd ælˈʔɑdʕħæː ) ) , also called the `` Sacrifice Feast '' , is the second of two Muslim holidays celebrated worldwide each year , and considered the holier of the two . It honors the willingness of Ibrahim ( Abraham ) to sacrifice his son , as an act of obedience to God 's command . Before Abraham sacrificed his son , God provided a male goat to sacrifice instead . In commemoration of this , an animal is sacrificed and divided into three parts : one third of the share is given to the poor and needy ; another third is given to relatives , friends and neighbors ; and the remaining third is retained by the family . In the Islamic lunar calendar , Eid al - Adha falls on the 10th day of Dhu al - Hijjah . In the international ( Gregorian ) calendar , the dates vary from year to year drifting approximately 11 days earlier each year . Eid al - Adha is the latter of the two Eid holidays , the former being Eid al - Fitr . The word `` Eid '' appears once in Al - Ma'ida , the fifth sura of the Quran , with the meaning `` solemn festival '' . Like Eid al - Fitr , Eid al - Adha begins with a prayer of two rakats followed by a sermon ( khutbah ) . Eid al - Adha celebrations start after the descent of the Hujjaj , the pilgrims performing the Hajj , from Mount Arafat , a hill east of Mecca . Eid sacrifice may take place until sunset on the 13th day of Dhu al - Hijjah . The days of Eid have been singled out in the Hadith as `` days of remembrance '' and considered the holiest days in the Islamic Calendar . The takbir ( days ) of Tashriq are from the Maghrib prayer of the 29th of Dhul - Qadah up to the Maghrib prayer of the 13th of Dhu al - Hijjah ( thirteen days and nights ) . Contents ( hide ) 1 Other names 2 Origin 3 Eid prayers 3.1 Who must attend 3.2 When is it performed 3.3 The Sunnah of preparation 3.4 Rites of the Eid prayers 3.5 The l - hamdu ( praise with lip ) and other rites 4 Traditions and practices 5 Eid al - Adha in the Gregorian calendar 6 See also 7 Notes 8 References 9 External links Other names ( edit ) Eid al - Adha celebrations start at the same time as the annual Hajj in Mecca . The Arabic term `` sacrifice feast '' , ʿīd al - aḍḥā / ʿīd ul - aḍḥā is borrowed into Indo - Aryan languages such as Urdu , Hindi , Assamese , Bengali , Gujarati , and Austronesian languages such as Malay and Indonesian ( the last often spelling it as Aidil Adha or Idul Adha ) . Another Arabic word for `` sacrifice '' is Qurbani ( Arabic : قربان ‎ ‎ . ) The Semitic root Q-R-B ( Hebrew : ק - ר - ב ‎ ) means `` to be close to someone / something '' ; other words from the root include qarov , `` close '' , and qerovim , `` relatives . '' The senses of root meaning `` to offer '' suggest that the act of offering brings one closer to the receiver of the offering ( here , God ) . The same stem is found in Hebrew and for example in the Akkadian language noun aqribtu `` act of offering . '' Eid al - Kabir , an Arabic term meaning `` the Greater Eid '' ( the `` Lesser Eid '' being Eid al - Fitr ) , is used in Yemen , Syria , and North Africa ( Morocco , Algeria , Tunisia , Libya , and Egypt ) . The term was borrowed directly into French as Aïd el - Kebir . Translations of `` Big Eid '' or `` Greater Eid '' are used in Pashto ( لوی اختر Loy Axtar ) , Kashmiri ( Baed Eid ) , Urdu and Hindi ( Baṛī Īd ) , Bengali ( বড় ঈদ Boro Id ) , Tamil ( Peru Nāl , `` Great Day '' ) and Malayalam ( Bali Perunnal , `` Great Day of Sacrifice '' ) . Albanian , however , uses Bajram ( i ) i vogël or `` the Lesser Eid '' ( as opposed to Bajram i Madh , the `` Greater Eid '' , for Eid al - Fitr ) as an alternative reference to Eid al - Adha . The festival is also called `` Bakr - Eid '' in Urdu and Hindi language ( بقر عید ‎ , baqr ` īd ) , stemming from the Arabic word al - Baqara meaning `` The Cow '' , although some have attributed it to the Urdu and Hindi word bakrī , meaning `` goat '' , because of the tradition of sacrificing a goat in South Asia on this festival . This term is also borrowed into other Indian languages , such as Tamil Bakr ` Īd Peru Nāl . In Uzbekistan it is called Qurbon Hayiti ( Kurban Eid ) . In Bangladesh this Eid is called ঈদুল আজহা ( idul azha ) & কুরবানির ঈদ ( kurbanir id ) in Bengali . Literary meaning of Kurbanir Id is the festival of Sacrifice . Idul Azha is loan word from Arabic . বকরিদ ( bokrid ) is sometimes called in Old Dhaka which means the festival of Goat . This word is come from Hindustani . It is called ꠛꠇꠞꠣ ꠁꠖ ( boxra id ) in Sylheti , which means the festival of goat too . Some names refer to the fact that the holiday occurs after the culmination of the annual Hajj . Such names are used in Malaysian and Indonesian ( Hari Raya Haji `` Hajj celebration day '' , Lebaran Haji , Lebaran Kaji . When this was not yet an official feast in the Philippines , this was how it was called in Mindanao and other predominantly Muslim areas . When it became a legal holiday in 2009 , it became officially known as Eid al - Adha . Some also reference it with local language names like Kapistahan ng Pagsasakripisyo in Tagalog . In Tamil it is called ( Hajji Peru Nāl ) . It is also known as Id ul Baqarah in Egypt , Saudi Arabia and in the Middle East , as Eid è Qurbon in Iran , Kurban Bayramı ( `` the Holiday of Sacrifice '' ) in Turkey , Baqarah Eid in Pakistan , Bangladesh and Trinidad , Eid el - Kebir in Morocco , Tfaska Tamoqqart in the Berber language of Jerba , Iduladha or Qurban in Singapore , Malaysia , Indonesia and the Philippines , Qurbani Eid in Bangladesh , Bakri Idh ( `` Goat Eid '' ) in parts of Pakistan and India and Tabaski or Tobaski in Senegal and West Africa ( most probably borrowed from the Serer language -- an ancient Serer religious festival ) , Babbar Sallah in Hausa language and ciida gawraca in Somali . Eid al - Adha has had other names outside the Muslim world . The name is often simply translated into the local language , such as English Feast of the Sacrifice , German Opferfest , Dutch Offerfeest , Romanian Sărbătoarea Sacrificiului , and Hungarian Áldozati ünnep . In Spanish it is known as Fiesta del Cordero or Fiesta del Borrego ( both meaning `` festival of the lamb '' ) . Origin ( edit ) Abraham , about to sacrifice his son According to Islamic tradition , the valley of Mecca ( in present - day Saudi Arabia ) was a dry , rocky , and uninhabited place . God instructed Abraham to bring Hagar ( Hājar ) , his Arabian ( Adnan ) wife , and Ishmael to Arabia from the land of Canaan . As Abraham was preparing for his return journey back to Canaan , Hagar asked him , `` Did God order you to leave us here ? Or are you leaving us here to die ? '' Abraham did not even look back . He just nodded , afraid that he would be too sad and that he would disobey God . Hagar said , `` Then God will not waste us ; you can go '' . Though Abraham had left a large quantity of food and water with Hagar and Ishmael , the supplies quickly ran out , and within a few days the two began to feel the pangs of hunger and dehydration . Hagar ran up and down between two hills , Safa and Marwa , seven times , in her desperate quest for water . Exhausted , she finally collapsed beside her baby Ishmael and prayed to God for deliverance . Miraculously , a spring of water gushed forth from the earth at the feet of baby Ishmael . Other accounts have the angel Jibra'il , striking the earth and causing the spring to flow in abundance . With this secure water supply , known as the Zamzam Well , they were not only able to provide for their own needs , but were also able to trade water with passing nomads for food and supplies . Years later , Abraham was instructed by God to return from Canaan to build a place of worship adjacent to Hagar 's well ( the Zamzam Well ) . Abraham and Ishmael constructed a stone and mortar structure -- known as the Kaaba -- which was to be the gathering place for all who wished to strengthen their faith in God . As the years passed , Ishmael was blessed with nubuwwah ( prophethood ) and gave the nomads of the desert his message of submission to God . After many centuries , Mecca became a thriving desert city and a major center for trade , thanks to its reliable water source , the Zamzam Well . One of the main trials of Abraham 's life was to face the command of God to sacrifice his dearest possession , his son . The son is not named in the Quran , but Muslims believe it to be Ishmael , though it is mentioned as Isaac in the Bible . Upon hearing this command , Abraham prepared to submit to will of God . During this preparation , Shaitan ( the Devil ) tempted Abraham and his family by trying to dissuade them from carrying out God 's commandment , and Abraham drove Satan away by throwing pebbles at him . In commemoration of their rejection of Satan , stones are thrown at symbolic pillars during the Stoning of the Devil during Hajj rites . When Abraham attempted to cut his throat , he was astonished to see that his son was unharmed and instead , he found a ram which was slaughtered . Abraham had passed the test by his willingness to carry out God 's command . This story is known as the Akedah in Judaism ( Binding of Isaac ) and originates in the Tora , the first book of Moses ( Genesis , Ch. 22 ) . The Quran refers to the Akedah as follows : 100 `` O my Lord ! Grant me a righteous ( son ) ! '' 101 So We gave him the good news of a boy ready to suffer and forbear . 102 Then , when ( the son ) reached ( the age of ) ( serious ) work with him , he said : `` O my son ! I see in vision that I offer thee in sacrifice : Now see what is thy view ! '' ( The son ) said : `` O my father ! Do as thou art commanded : thou will find me , if Allah so wills one practising Patience and Constancy ! '' 103 So when they had both submitted their wills ( to Allah ) , and he had laid him prostrate on his forehead ( for sacrifice ) , 104 We called out to him `` O Abraham ! 105 `` Thou hast already fulfilled the vision ! '' -- thus indeed do We reward those who do right . 106 For this was obviously a trial -- 107 And We ransomed him with a momentous sacrifice : 108 And We left ( this blessing ) for him among generations ( to come ) in later times : 109 `` Peace and salutation to Abraham ! '' 110 Thus indeed do We reward those who do right . 111 For he was one of our believing Servants . 112 And We gave him the good news of Isaac -- a prophet -- one of the Righteous . -- Quran , sura 37 ( As - Saaffat ) , ayat 100 -- 112 Abraham had shown that his love for God superseded all others : that he would lay down his own life or the lives of those dearest to him in submission to God 's command . Muslims commemorate this ultimate act of sacrifice every year during Eid al - Adha . While Abraham was prepared to make an ultimate sacrifice , God ultimately prevents the sacrifice , additionally signifying that one should never sacrifice a human life , especially not in the name of God . Eid prayers ( edit ) Main article : Eid prayers Eid prayer in Badshahi Mosque Devotees offer the Eid al - Adha prayers at the mosque . Who must attend ( edit ) According to some fiqh ( traditional Islamic law ) ( although there is some disagreement ) . Men should go to mosque -- or an Eidgah ( a field where eid prayer held ) -- to perform eid prayer ; Salat al - Eid is Wajib according to Hanafi . Sunnah al - Mu'kkadah according to Maliki and Shafi'i jurisprudence . Women are also highly encouraged to attend , although it is not compulsory . Menstruating women do not participate in the formal prayer , but should be present to witness the goodness and the gathering of the Muslims . Residents , which excludes travellers . Those in good health . Shiite version : Eid prayers are Mustahab ( recommended ) according to Ayatollah Ali al - Sistani . However , they are wajib ( obligatory ) only in the time when the Mahdi and Jesus return . When is it performed ( edit ) The Eid al - Adha prayer is performed any time after the sun completely rises up to just before the entering of Zuhr time , on the 10th of Dhu al - Hijjah . In the event of a force majeure ( e.g. natural disaster ) , the prayer may be delayed to the 11th of Dhu al - Hijjah and then to the 12th of Dhu al - Hijjah . The sunnah of preparation ( edit ) In keeping with the sunnah of Muhammad , Muslims are encouraged to prepare themselves for the occasion of Eid . Below is a list of things Muslims are recommended to do in preparation for the Eid al - Adha festival : Make wudu ( ablution ) and offer Salat al - Fajr ( the pre-sunrise prayer ) . Prepare for personal cleanliness -- take care of details of clothing , etc . Dress up , putting on new or best clothes available . Rites of the Eid prayers ( edit ) The scholars differed concerning the ruling on Eid prayers . There are three scholarly points of view : That Eid prayer is Fard Kifaya ( communal obligation ) . This is the view of Abu Hanifa . That it is Sunna Mu'akkada ( recommended ) . This is the view of Malik ibn Anas and Al - Shafi'i . That it is Wajib on all Muslim men ( a duty for each Muslim and is obligatory for men ) ; those who do not do it without an excuse are considered sinners . This is the view of Ahmad ibn Hanbal , and was also narrated from Abu Hanifa . Eid prayers must be offered in congregation . Participation of women in the prayer congregation varies from community to community . It consists of two rakats ( units ) with seven takbirs in the first Raka'ah and five Takbirs in the second Raka'ah . For Sunni Muslims , Salat al - Eid differs from the five daily canonical prayers in that no adhan ( call to prayer ) or iqama ( call ) is pronounced for the two Eid prayers . The salat ( prayer ) is then followed by the khutbah , or sermon , by the Imam . At the conclusion of the prayers and sermon , Muslims embrace and exchange greetings with one other ( Eid Mubarak ) , give gifts and visit one another . Many Muslims also take this opportunity to invite their non-Muslim friends , neighbours , co-workers and classmates to their Eid festivities to better acquaint them about Islam and Muslim culture . The l - hamdu ( praise with lip ) and other rites ( edit ) The l - hamdu is recited from the dawn of the ninth of Dhu al - Hijjah to the thirteenth , and consists of : Allāhu akbar , Allāhu akbar الله أكبر الله أكبر lā ilāha illā - Allāh لا إله إلا الله Wallāhu akbar , Allāhu akbar والله أكبر الله أكبر walillāhi l - ḥamdu ولله الحمد Allah is the greatest , Allah is the greatest , There is no god but Allah Allah is greatest , Allah is greatest and to Allah goes all praise . Multiple variations of this recitation exist across the Muslim world . Traditions and practices ( edit ) See also : Eid cuisine and Eidi ( gift ) Cookies of Eid Men , women , and children are expected to dress in their finest clothing to perform Eid prayer in a large congregation in an open waqf ( `` stopping '' ) field called Eidgah or mosque . Affluent Muslims who can afford it sacrifice their best halal domestic animals ( usually a cow , but can also be a camel , goat , sheep , or ram depending on the region ) as a symbol of Abraham 's willingness to sacrifice his only son . The sacrificed animals , called aḍḥiya ( Arabic : أضحية ‎ ‎ ) , known also by the Perso - Arabic term qurbāni , have to meet certain age and quality standards or else the animal is considered an unacceptable sacrifice . In Pakistan alone nearly ten million animals are slaughtered on Eid days costing over US $2.0 billion . The meat from the sacrificed animal is preferred to be divided into three parts . The family retains one third of the share ; another third is given to relatives , friends , and neighbors ; and the remaining third is given to the poor and needy . Though the division is purely optional wherein either all the meat may be kept with oneself or may be given away to poor or needy , the preferred method as per sunnah of Muhammad is dividing it in three parts . The regular charitable practices of the Muslim community are demonstrated during Eid al - Adha by concerted efforts to see that no impoverished person is left without an opportunity to partake in the sacrificial meal during these days . Hajj is also performed in Saudi Arabia before Eid ul Adha and millions of Muslims perform Hajj . On the event of Hajj lots of Muslims slaughter animals and divide a major part of the meat for poor people . During Eid al - Adha , distributing meat amongst the people , chanting the takbir out loud before the Eid prayers on the first day and after prayers throughout the four days of Eid , are considered essential parts of this important Islamic festival . In some countries , families that do not own livestock can make a contribution to a charity that will provide meat to those who are in need . Eid al - Adha in the Gregorian calendar ( edit ) See also : Islamic calendar While Eid al - Adha is always on the same day of the Islamic calendar , the date on the Gregorian calendar varies from year to year since the Islamic calendar is a lunar calendar and the Gregorian calendar is a solar calendar . The lunar calendar is approximately eleven days shorter than the solar calendar . Each year , Eid al - Adha ( like other Islamic holidays ) falls on one of about two to four different Gregorian dates in different parts of the world , because the boundary of crescent visibility is different from the International Date Line . The following list shows the official dates of Eid al - Adha for Saudi Arabia as announced by the Supreme Judicial Council . Future dates are estimated according to the Umm al - Qura calendar of Saudi Arabia . However , it should be noted that the Umm al - Qura is just a guide for planning purposes and not the absolute determinant or fixer of dates . Confirmations of actual dates by moon sighting are applied on the 29th day of the lunar month prior to Dhu al - Hijjah to announce the specific dates for both Hajj rituals and the subsequent Eid festival . The three days after the listed date are also part of the festival . The time before the listed date the pilgrims visit the Mount Arafat and descend from it after sunrise of the listed day . In many countries , the start of any lunar Hijri month varies based on the observation of new moon by local religious authorities , so the exact day of celebration varies by locality . Islamic year Gregorian date 1436 24 September 2015 1437 12 September 2016 1438 1 September 2017 1439 23 August 2018 ( calculated ) 1440 12 August 2019 ( calculated ) See also ( edit ) Islam portal Holidays portal Binding of Isaac Phrixus Korban Notes ( edit ) ^ a The son is not named in the Quran , but most modern Muslims adhere to the view that it was Ismail ( Ishmael ) . Sayings attributed to Muhammad and Islamic commentaries differ on whether Abraham 's older son Ishmael , or his younger son , Ishaq , was asked to be sacrificed in the vision . A chain of narration from Yunnus b . Abd al - Ala attributed to Abdallah b . Abbas : `` The Prophet in a conversation in which he said , ' Then we ransomed him with a tremendous victim . ' And he also said , ' He is Isaac . ' '' The Sunni commentary Tafsir Ibn Kathir : `` Ibn Jarir narrated that Ibn ' Abbas said , ' The one who was ransomed was Ismail , peace be upon him . The Jews claimed that it was Ishaq . ' '' References ( edit ) Jump up ^ Kadi , Samar ( 25 September 2015 ) . `` Eid al - Adha celebrated differently by Druze , Alawites '' . The Arab Weekly . London . Retrieved 1 August 2016 . Jump up ^ `` When is Eid al - Adha '' . Retrieved 31 August 2017 . ^ Jump up to : `` The Umm al - Qura Calendar of Saudi Arabia '' . Retrieved 7 March 2017 . Jump up ^ Quran 5 : 114 . `` Said Jesus the son of Mary : `` O Allah our Lord ! Send us from heaven a table set ( with viands ) , that there may be for us -- for the first and the last of us -- a solemn festival and a sign from thee ; and provide for our sustenance , for thou art the best Sustainer ( of our needs ) . '' '' Jump up ^ `` Eid Al Adha ( Sacrifice Feast of Muslims ) - Prayer Times NYC '' . Prayer Times NYC . 2017 - 08 - 08 . Retrieved 2017 - 08 - 07 . Jump up ^ Noakes , Greg ( April -- May 1992 ) . `` Issues in Islam , All About Eid '' . Washington Report on Middle East Affairs . Retrieved 2011 - 12 - 28 . ^ Jump up to : Bianchi , Robert R. ( 11 August 2004 ) . Guests of God : Pilgrimage and Politics in the Islamic World . Oxford University Press . p. 398 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 19 - 029107 - 5 . ^ Jump up to : Sheikh Ramzy ( 2012 ) . The Complete Guide to Islamic Prayer ( Salāh ) . AuthorHouse . p. 310 . ISBN 978 - 1 - 4772 - 1530 - 2 . ^ Jump up to : Jain Chanchreek ; K.L. Chanchreek ; M.K. Jain ( 1 January 2007 ) . Encyclopaedia of Great Festivals . Shree Publishers & Distributors . p. 78 . ISBN 978 - 81 - 8329 - 191 - 0 . Jump up ^ Kazim , Ebrahim ( 2010 ) . Scientific Commentary of Suratul Faateḥah . Pharos Media & Publishing . p. 246 . ISBN 978 - 81 - 7221 - 037 - 3 . Jump up ^ Diouf , Niokhobaye , `` Chronique du royaume du Sine '' , suivie de notes sur les traditions orales et les sources écrites concernant le royaume du Sine par Charles Becker et Victor Martin ( 1972 ) , . ( 1972 ) . Bulletin de l'IFAN , tome 34 , série B , no 4 , 1972 , p. 706 - 7 ( p. 4 - 5 ) , p. 713 - 14 ( p. 9 - 10 ) Jump up ^ `` Cosaani Sénégambie '' ( `` L'Histoire de la Sénégambie '' ) : 1ere Partie relatée par Macoura Mboub du Sénégal . 2eme Partie relatée par Jebal Samba de la Gambie ( in ) programme de Radio Gambie : `` Chosaani Senegambia '' . Présentée par : Alhaji Mansour Njie . Directeur de programme : Alhaji Alieu Ebrima Cham Joof . Enregistré a la fin des années 1970 , au début des années 1980 au studio de Radio Gambie , Bakau , en Gambie ( 2eme partie ) et au Sénégal ( 1ere partie ) ( in ) onegambia.com ( in ) The Seereer Resource Centre ( SRC ) ( `` le Centre de Resource Seereer '' ) : URL : http://www.seereer.com . Traduit et transcrit par The Seereer Resource Centre : Juillet 2014 ( 1 ) p. 30 ( retrieved : September 25 , 2015 ) Jump up ^ Brisebarre , Anne - Marie ; Kuczynski , Liliane , `` La Tabaski au Sénégal : une fête musulmane en milieu urbain '' , KARTHALA Editions ( 2009 ) , pp 86 - 7 , ISBN 9782811102449 ( 2 ) ( retrieved : September 25 , 2015 ) Jump up ^ Becker , Charles ; Martin , Victor ; Ndène , Aloyse , `` Traditions villageoises du Siin '' , ( Révision et édition par Charles Becker ) ( 2014 ) , p 41 Jump up ^ ( in Spanish ) La Fiesta del Cordero en Marruecos , Ferdaous Emorotene , 25 November 2009 Jump up ^ Elias , Jamal J. ( 1999 ) . Islam . Routledge . p. 75 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 415 - 21165 - 9 . Retrieved 24 October 2012 . Jump up ^ Muslim Information Service of Australia . `` Eid al -- Adha Festival of Sacrifice '' . Missionislam.com . Retrieved 2011 - 12 - 28 . Jump up ^ Quran 37 : 100 -- 112 Abdullah Yusuf Ali translation Jump up ^ `` Question & Answer Search ( Eid ) '' . The Official Website of His Eminence Al - Sayyid Ali Al - Husseini Al - Sistani . Retrieved 12 September 2016 . Jump up ^ Asmal , Fatima ( 6 July 2016 ) . `` South African women push for more inclusive Eid prayers '' . Al Jazeera . Retrieved 12 September 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Sunnah during Eid ul Adha according to Authentic Hadith '' . Scribd.com. 2010 - 11 - 13 . Retrieved 2011 - 12 - 28 . Jump up ^ حجم الحروف -- Islamic Laws : Rules of Namaz '' Adhan and Iqamah , retrieved 2014 - 08 - 10 Jump up ^ `` The Significance of Eid '' . Isna.net . Archived from the original on 2013 - 01 - 26 . Retrieved 2011 - 12 - 28 . Jump up ^ `` Eid Takbeers -- Takbir of Id '' . Islamawareness.net . Retrieved 2011 - 12 - 28 . Jump up ^ `` Bakra Eid : The cost of sacrifice '' . Asian Correspondent. 2010 - 11 - 16 . Retrieved 2011 - 12 - 28 . Jump up ^ `` Eid al - Adha 2016 date is expected to be on September 11 '' . www.aljazeera.com . Retrieved 2016 - 08 - 14 . Jump up ^ al - Tabari ; Translated by William M. Brinner ( 10 June 2015 ) . History of al - Tabari Vol. 2 , The : Prophets and Patriarchs . Albany , New York : State University of New York Press . p. 83 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 7914 - 9751 - 7 . Jump up ^ Tafsir ibn Kathir External links ( edit ) Wikimedia Commons has media related to Eid ul - adha . Muttaqi , Shahid ' Ali . `` The Sacrifice of `` Eid al - Adha '' `` . Animals in Islam . 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who is quality of human being is necessary to lead a happy life

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Quality_of_life&oldid=799861066

Quality of life - wikipedia Quality of life Jump to : navigation , search For other uses , see Quality of life ( disambiguation ) . Quality of life ( QOL ) is the general well - being of individuals and societies , outlining negative and positive features of life . It observes life satisfaction , including everything from physical health , family , education , employment , wealth , religious beliefs , finance and the environment . QOL has a wide range of contexts , including the fields of international development , healthcare , politics and employment . It is important not to mix up the concept of QOL with a more recent growing area of health related QOL ( HRQOL ) . An assessment of HRQOL is effectively an evaluation of QOL and its relationship with health . Quality of life should not be confused with the concept of standard of living , which is based primarily on income . Contents ( hide ) 1 Overview 2 Quantitative measurement 2.1 Human Development Index 2.2 World Happiness Report 2.3 Other measures 2.4 Livability 2.4. 1 Crimes 2.4. 2 Popsicle Index 3 In healthcare 4 In international development 5 See also 5.1 Indices 5.2 Journals 6 References 7 Further reading 8 External links Overview ( edit ) Standard indicators of the quality of life include not only wealth and employment but also the built environment , physical and mental health , education , recreation and leisure time , and social belonging. According to the World Health Organization ( WHO ) , quality of life is defined as `` the individual 's perception of their position in life in the context of the culture and value systems in which they live and in relation to their goals . '' In comparison to WHO 's definitions , the Wang - Baker Faces scale defines quality of life as `` life quality ( in this case , physical pain ) at a precise moment in time . '' According to ecological economist Robert Costanza : While Quality of Life ( QOL ) has long been an explicit or implicit policy goal , adequate definition and measurement have been elusive . Diverse `` objective '' and `` subjective '' indicators across a range of disciplines and scales , and recent work on subjective well - being ( SWB ) surveys and the psychology of happiness have spurred renewed interest . One approach , called engaged theory , outlined in the journal of Applied Research in the Quality of Life , posits four domains in assessing quality of life : ecology , economics , politics and culture . In the domain of culture , for example , it includes the following subdomains of quality of life : Identity and engagement Creativity and recreation Memory and projection Belief and ideas Gender and generations Enquiry and learning Wellbeing and health Also frequently related are concepts such as freedom , human rights , and happiness . However , since happiness is subjective and difficult to measure , other measures are generally given priority . It has also been shown that happiness , as much as it can be measured , does not necessarily increase correspondingly with the comfort that results from increasing income . As a result , standard of living should not be taken to be a measure of happiness . Also sometimes considered related is the concept of human security , though the latter may be considered at a more basic level and for all people . Quantitative measurement ( edit ) Unlike per capita GDP or standard of living , both of which can be measured in financial terms , it is harder to make objective or long - term measurements of the quality of life experienced by nations or other groups of people . Researchers have begun in recent times to distinguish two aspects of personal well - being : Emotional well - being , in which respondents are asked about the quality of their everyday emotional experiences -- the frequency and intensity of their experiences of , for example , joy , stress , sadness , anger , and affection -- and life evaluation , in which respondents are asked to think about their life in general and evaluate it against a scale . Such and other systems and scales of measurement have been in use for some time . Research has attempted to examine the relationship between quality of life and productivity . There are many different methods of measuring quality of life in terms of health care , wealth and materialistic goods . However , it is much more difficult to measure meaningful expression of one 's desires . One way to do so is to evaluate the scope of how individuals have fulfilled their own ideals . Quality of life can simply mean happiness , the subjective state of mind . By using that mentality , citizens of a developing country appreciate more since they are content with the basic necessities of health care , education and child protection . Human development Index ( edit ) Main article : Human Development Index Perhaps the most commonly used international measure of development is the Human Development Index ( HDI ) , which combines measures of life expectancy , education , and standard of living , in an attempt to quantify the options available to individuals within a given society . The HDI is used by the United Nations Development Programme in their Human Development Report . World happiness Report ( edit ) Main article : World Happiness Report The World Happiness Report is a landmark survey on the state of global happiness . It ranks 156 countries by their happiness levels , reflecting growing global interest in using happiness and substantial well - being as an indicator of the quality of human development . Its growing purpose has allowed governments , communities and organizations to use appropriate data to record happiness in order to enable policies to provide better lives . The reports review the state of happiness in the world today and show how the science of happiness explains personal and national variations in happiness . Also developed by the United Nations and published recently along with the HDI , this report combines both objective and subjective measures to rank countries by happiness , which is deemed as the ultimate outcome of a high quality of life . It uses surveys from Gallup , real GDP per capita , healthy life expectancy , having someone to count on , perceived freedom to make life choices , freedom from corruption , and generosity to derive the final score . Happiness is already recognised as an important concept in global public policy . The World Happiness Report indicates that some regions have in recent years have been experiencing progressive inequality of happiness . Without life , there is no happiness to be realised . Other measures ( edit ) The Physical Quality of Life Index ( PQLI ) is a measure developed by sociologist Morris David Morris in the 1970s , based on basic literacy , infant mortality , and life expectancy . Although not as complex as other measures , and now essentially replaced by the Human Development Index , the PQLI is notable for Morris 's attempt to show a `` less fatalistic pessimistic picture '' by focusing on three areas where global quality of life was generally improving at the time , and ignoring gross national product and other possible indicators that were not improving . The Happy Planet Index , introduced in 2006 , is unique among quality of life measures in that , in addition to standard determinants of well - being , it uses each country 's ecological footprint as an indicator . As a result , European and North American nations do not dominate this measure . The 2012 list is instead topped by Costa Rica , Vietnam and Colombia . Gallup researchers trying to find the world 's happiest countries found Denmark to be at the top of the list . uSwitch publishes an annual quality of life index for European countries . France has topped the list for the last three years . A 2010 study by two Princeton University professors looked at 1,000 randomly selected U.S. residents over an extended period . It concludes that their life evaluations -- that is , their considered evaluations of their life against a stated scale of one to ten -- rise steadily with income . On the other hand , their reported quality of emotional daily experiences ( their reported experiences of joy , affection , stress , sadness , or anger ) levels off after a certain income level ( approximately $75,000 per year ) ; income above $75,000 does not lead to more experiences of happiness nor to further relief of unhappiness or stress . Below this income level , respondents reported decreasing happiness and increasing sadness and stress , implying the pain of life 's misfortunes , including disease , divorce , and being alone , is exacerbated by poverty . Gross national happiness and other subjective measures of happiness are being used by the governments of Bhutan and the United Kingdom . The World Happiness report , issued by Columbia University is a meta - analysis of happiness globally and provides an overview of countries and grassroots activists using GNH . The OECD issued a guide for the use of subjective well - being metrics in 2013 . In the U.S. , cities and communities are using a GNH metric at a grassroots level . The Social Progress Index measures the extent to which countries provide for the social and environmental needs of their citizens . Fifty - two indicators in the areas of basic human needs , foundations of wellbeing , and opportunity show the relative performance of nations . The index uses outcome measures when there is sufficient data available or the closest possible proxies . Day - Reconstruction Method was another way of measuring happiness , in which researchers asked their subjects to recall various things they did on the previous day and describe their mood during each activity . Being simple and approachable , this method required memory and the experiments have confirmed that the answers that people give are similar to those who repeatedly recalled each subject . The method eventually declined as it called for more effort and thoughtful responses , which often included interpretations and outcomes that do not occur to people who are asked to record every action in their daily lives . Livability ( edit ) The term quality of life is also used by politicians and economists to measure the livability of a given city or nation . Two widely known measures of livability are the Economist Intelligence Unit 's Where - to - be-born Index and Mercer 's Quality of Living Reports . These two measures calculate the livability of countries and cities around the world , respectively , through a combination of subjective life - satisfaction surveys and objective determinants of quality of life such as divorce rates , safety , and infrastructure . Such measures relate more broadly to the population of a city , state , or country , not to individual quality of life . Livability has a long history and tradition in urban design , and neighborhoods design standards such as LEED - ND are often used in an attempt to influence livability . Crimes ( edit ) Some crimes against property ( e.g. , graffiti and vandalism ) and some `` victimless crimes '' have been referred to as `` quality - of - life crimes . '' American sociologist James Q. Wilson encapsulated this argument as the Broken Window Theory , which asserts that relatively minor problems left unattended ( such as litter , graffiti , or public urination by homeless individuals ) send a subliminal message that disorder in general is being tolerated , and as a result , more serious crimes will end up being committed ( the analogy being that a broken window left broken shows an image of general dilapidation ) . Wilson 's theories have been used to justify the implementation of zero tolerance policies by many prominent American mayors , most notably Oscar Goodman in Las Vegas , Richard Riordan in Los Angeles , Rudolph Giuliani in New York City and Gavin Newsom in San Francisco . Such policies refuse to tolerate even minor crimes ; proponents argue that this will improve the quality of life of local residents . However , critics of zero tolerance policies believe that such policies neglect investigation on a case - by - case basis and may lead to unreasonably harsh penalties for crimes . Popsicle Index ( edit ) The Popsicle Index is a quality of life measurement coined by Catherine Austin Fitts as the percentage of people - in a community who believe that a child in their community can safely leave their home , walk to the nearest possible location to buy a popsicle , and walk back home . In healthcare ( edit ) Main article : Quality of life ( healthcare ) Within the field of healthcare , quality of life is often regarded in terms of how a certain ailment affects a patient on an individual level . This may be a debilitating weakness that is not life - threatening ; life - threatening illness that is not terminal ; terminal illness ; the predictable , natural decline in the health of an elder ; an unforeseen mental / physical decline of a loved one ; or chronic , end - stage disease processes . Researchers at the University of Toronto 's Quality of Life Research Unit define quality of life as `` The degree to which a person enjoys the important possibilities of his or her life '' ( UofT ) . Their Quality of Life Model is based on the categories `` being '' , `` belonging '' , and `` becoming '' ; respectively who one is , how one is not connected to one 's environment , and whether one achieves one 's personal goals , hopes , and aspirations . Experience sampling studies show substantial between - person variability in within - person associations between somatic symptoms and quality of life. Hecht and Shiel measure quality of life as `` the patient 's ability to enjoy normal life activities '' since life quality is strongly related to wellbeing without suffering from sickness and treatment . In international development ( edit ) Quality of life is an important concept in the field of international development , since it allows development to be analyzed on a measure broader than standard of living . Within development theory , however , there are varying ideas concerning what constitutes desirable change for a particular society , and the different ways that quality of life is defined by institutions therefore shapes how these organizations work for its improvement as a whole . Organisations such as the World Bank , for example , declare a goal of `` working for a world free of poverty '' , with poverty defined as a lack of basic human needs , such as food , water , shelter , freedom , access to education , healthcare , or employment . In other words , poverty is defined as a low quality of life . Using this definition , the World Bank works towards improving quality of life through the stated goal of lowering poverty and helping people afford a better quality of life . Other organizations , however , may also work towards improved global quality of life using a slightly different definition and substantially different methods . Many NGOs do not focus at all on reducing poverty on a national or international scale , but rather attempt to improve quality of life for individuals or communities . One example would be sponsorship programs that provide material aid for specific individuals . Although many organizations of this type may still talk about fighting poverty , the methods are significantly different . The neutrality of this section is disputed . Relevant discussion may be found on the talk page . Please do not remove this message until conditions to do so are met . ( November 2012 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) Improving quality of life involves action not only by NGOs , but also by governments . Global health has the potential to achieve greater political presence if governments were to incorporate aspects of human security into foreign policy . Stressing individuals ' basic rights to health , food , shelter , and freedom addresses prominent inter-sectoral problems negatively impacting today 's society and may lead to greater action and resources . Integration of global health concerns into foreign policy may be hampered by approaches that are shaped by the overarching roles of defense and diplomacy . See also ( edit ) Circles of Sustainability Happiness Eudaimonia Flourishing Subjective well - being Simple living Human security Well - being Canadian Index of Wellbeing Positive psychology Indices ( edit ) Biomedical sciences Bhutan GNH Index Broad measures of economic progress Disability - adjusted life year Economics Green national product Gender - related Development Index Genuine Progress Indicator Gross National Happiness Gross National Well - being Happiness economics Happy Planet Index Human Development Index Progress ( history ) Progressive utilization theory Legatum Prosperity Index Leisure satisfaction Law of Social Cycle Money - rich , time - poor OECD Better Life Index Post-materialism Psychometrics Right to health Subjective life satisfaction Where - to - be-born Index Wikiprogress World Happiness Report World Values Survey Journals ( edit ) Social Indicators Research Journal of Business Ethics References ( edit ) Jump up ^ Barcaccia , Barbara ( 4 September 2013 ) . `` Quality Of Life : Everyone Wants It , But What Is It ? '' . Forbes / Education . Retrieved 10 May 2016 . Jump up ^ Bottomley , Andrew ( 2002 ) . `` The Cancer Patient and Quality of Life '' . The Oncologist. 7 ( 2 ) : 120 -- 125 . ISSN 1083 - 7159 . PMID 11961195 . doi : 10.1634 / theoncologist. 7 - 2 - 120 . Retrieved 7 May 2015 . ^ Jump up to : Gregory , Derek ; Johnston , Ron ; Pratt , Geraldine ; Watts , Michael ; et al. , eds . ( June 2009 ) . `` Quality of Life '' . Dictionary of Human Geography ( 5th ed . ) . Oxford : Wiley - Blackwell . ISBN 978 - 1 - 4051 - 3287 - 9 . Jump up ^ Martha Nussbaum and Amartya Sen , ed. ( 1993 ) . The Quality of Life , Oxford : Clarendon Press . Description and chapter - preview links . Jump up ^ McNally , James W. ( 2009 ) . Encyclopedia of the Life Course and Human Development ( vol. 3 ed . ) . USA : Macmillan Reference . p. 317 . access - date = requires url = ( help ) Jump up ^ Costanza , R. ; et al. ( 2008 ) . `` An Integrative Approach to Quality of Life Measurement , Research , and Policy '' . S.A.P.I. EN. S. 1 ( 1 ) . Jump up ^ Magee , Liam ; James , Paul ; Scerri , Andy ( 2012 ) . `` Measuring Social Sustainability : A Community - Centred Approach '' . Applied Research in the Quality of Life . 7 ( 3 ) : 239 -- 61 . doi : 10.1007 / s11482 - 012 - 9166 - x . Jump up ^ Layard , Richard ( 6 April 2006 ) . Happiness : Lessons from a New Science . London : Penguin . ISBN 978 - 0 - 14 - 101690 - 0 . Jump up ^ Kahneman , D. ; Deaton , A. ( 2010 ) . `` High income improves evaluation of life but not emotional well - being '' . Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences . 107 ( 38 ) : 16489 -- 16493 . PMC 2944762 . PMID 20823223 . doi : 10.1073 / pnas. 1011492107 . Jump up ^ Federal Reserve Bank of Kansas City , The Increasing Importance of Quality of Life , October 2008 Archived 19 October 2012 at the Wayback Machine . Jump up ^ Singer , Peter ( 2011 ) . `` THE BIG QUESTION : Quality of Life : WHAT DOES IT MEAN ? HOW SHOULD WE MEASURE IT ? '' . World Policy Journal . Retrieved 17 May 2016 . Jump up ^ `` World Happiness Report '' . Overview . Helliwell , J. , Layard , R. , & Sachs , J. ( 2016 ) . World Happiness Report 2016 , Update ( Vol . I ) . New York : Sustainable Development Solutions Network . 2016 . Retrieved 12 May 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Health and Happiness '' . The Lancet . 387 : 1251 . 26 March 2016 . doi : 10.1016 / S0140 - 6736 ( 16 ) 30062 - 9 . Retrieved 13 May 2016 . Jump up ^ Morris , Morris David ( January 1980 ) . `` The Physical Quality of Life Index ( PQLI ) '' . Development Digest . 1 : 95 -- 109 . Jump up ^ `` The Happy Planet Index 2.0 '' . New Economics Foundation . 2012 . Retrieved 2 September 2012 . Jump up ^ Levy , Francesca ( 14 July 2010 ) . `` Table : The World 's Happiest Countries '' . Forbes . Archived from the original on 3 March 2016 . Jump up ^ King , Mark ( 29 September 2011 ) . `` Table : UK has ' worst quality of life in Europe ' '' . The Guardian . Jump up ^ `` Higher income improves life rating but not emotional well - being '' . PhysOrg.com. 7 September 2010 . Retrieved 20 September 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Measures of National Well - Being '' . Jump up ^ John Helliwell , Richard Layard and Jeffrey Sachs ( eds . ) . `` World Happiness Report '' ( PDF ) . Columbia University . CS1 maint : Uses editors parameter ( link ) Jump up ^ `` OECD Guidelines on Measuring Subjective Well - being '' ( PDF ) . Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development . 2013 . ISBN 978 - 92 - 64 - 19165 - 5 . doi : 10.1787 / 9789264191655 - en . Jump up ^ `` Archived copy '' . Archived from the original on 2 December 2013 . Retrieved 20 November 2013 . Jump up ^ Derek , Boc ( February 2010 ) . The Politics of Happiness : What Government Can Learn from the New Research on Well - Being . United States : Princeton University Press . p. 32 . ISBN 9781400832194 . Jump up ^ Boeing ; et al. ( 2014 ) . `` LEED - ND and Livability Revisited '' . Berkeley Planning Journal . 27 : 31 -- 55 . Retrieved 4 March 2015 . Jump up ^ Fitts , Catherine Austin . `` Understanding the Popsicle Index '' . SolariF . Retrieved 10 June 2009 . Jump up ^ `` To lick crime , pass the Popsicle test '' . The Virginian - Pilot . 9 July 2005 . Retrieved 10 June 2009 . Jump up ^ Darling , John ( January 2006 ) . `` Money in a Popsicle - Friendly World '' . Sentient Times . Retrieved 10 June 2009 . Jump up ^ `` Quality of Life : How Good is Life for You ? '' . University of Toronto Quality of Life Research Unit . Retrieved 14 October 2009 . Jump up ^ About QLC : Quality of Life Care Jump up ^ van der Krieke ; et al. ( 2016 ) . `` Temporal Dynamics of Health and Well - Being : A Crowdsourcing Approach to Momentary Assessments and Automated Generation of Personalized Feedback ( 2016 ) '' . Psychosomatic Medicine : 1 . PMID 27551988 . doi : 10.1097 / PSY. 0000000000000378 . CS1 maint : Explicit use of et al. ( link ) Jump up ^ McNally , James W. ( 2009 ) . Encyclopedia of the Life Course and Human Development ( vol. 3 ed . ) . USA : Macmillan Reference . p. 317 . access - date = requires url = ( help ) Jump up ^ `` The World Bank '' ( PDF ) . The World Bank . 2009 . Retrieved 2 November 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Poverty - Overview '' . The World Bank . 2009 . Retrieved 20 October 2009 . Jump up ^ Spiegel and Huish . Canadian Foreign Aid for Global Health : Human Security Opportunity Lost . Further reading ( edit ) Eric Ezechieli , `` Beyond Sustainable Development : Education for Gross National Happiness in Bhutan '' External links ( edit ) Learning materials related to What Matters at Wikiversity Ethical Markets Quality of Life Indicators The First European Quality of Life Survey 2003 Quality of Life in a Changing Europe , A research project on the quality of lives and work of European citizens Ensuring quality of life in Europe 's cities and towns , European Environment Agency AQoL Instruments , Quality of Life Assessment Instruments - Centre for Health Economics , Monash University Australia The Quality - of - Life - Recorder ( Shareware / Freeware ) - An electronic questionnaire platform for MS Windows and Java with preconfigured adoptions of numerous important Quality - of - Life instruments ( including SF - 36 , EORTC QLQ - C30 ) in multiple languages Applied Research in Quality of Life , the official journal of the International Society for Quality - of - Life Studies Child Indicators Research , the official journal of the International Society for Child Indicators Quality of Life Research , an international journal of quality of life aspects of treatment , care , and rehabilitation - official journal of the International Society of Quality of Life Research After 2015 : ' 3D Human Wellbeing ' , policy briefing on the value of refocusing development on 3D human wellbeing for pro-poor policy change , from the Institute of Development Studies , UK . Mercer Quality of Living survey Basic Guide to the World : Quality of Life Throughout the World Family database , OECD ( hide ) Lists of countries by quality of life rankings General World Happiness Report Happy Planet Index Human Development Index by country inequality - adjusted Legatum Prosperity Index Good Country Index Satisfaction with Life Index Where - to - be-born Index Economic Net take - home pay Job security Long - term unemployment rate Home ownership rate Smartphone ownership rate Environment Environmental Performance Index Environmental Vulnerability Index Natural disaster risk Health Cancer rate Health care quality Health expenditure covered by government Hospital beds Risk of death from non-communicable disease Teenage pregnancy rate Social / Political Government transparency Global Slavery Index Global Terrorism Index Global Competitiveness Index Social Progress Index Time devoted to leisure and personal care Women 's average years in school List of international rankings List of top international rankings by country Lists by country Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Quality_of_life&oldid=799861066 '' Categories : Quality of life Simple living Positive mental attitude Happiness Philosophy of life Sociological terminology Hidden categories : Pages using citations with accessdate and no URL Webarchive template wayback links CS1 maint : Uses editors parameter CS1 maint : Explicit use of et al . Use dmy dates from July 2017 NPOV disputes from November 2012 All NPOV disputes Talk Contents About Wikipedia Беларуская Български Català Dansk Deutsch Eesti Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Galego 한국어 हिन्दी Hrvatski Íslenska Italiano עברית Қазақша Lietuvių Nederlands 日本 語 Norsk Português Русский Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Türkçe Українська اردو Tiếng Việt 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 10 September 2017 , at 07 : 38 . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply . By using this site , you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia ® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation , Inc. , a non-profit organization . About Wikipedia

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what was the role of the elizabethan privy council

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Elizabethan_government&oldid=865230524

Elizabethan government - wikipedia Elizabethan government This article includes a list of references , but its sources remain unclear because it has insufficient inline citations . Please help to improve this article by introducing more precise citations . ( March 2010 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) See also : Ministers to Elizabeth I England under Elizabeth I 's reign , the Elizabethan Era , was ruled by the very structured and complicated Elizabethan government . It was divided into the national bodies ( the monarch , Privy Council , and Parliament ) , the regional bodies ( the Council of the North and Council of the Marches ) , the county , community bodies and the court system . Elizabeth I had a very tough time gaining power , this was because her dad , Henry VIII , wanted a male heir so the family name would continue . When Henry finally got his male heir , Edward VI , he became the new successor . However when Henry died Edward was only 9 years old , and so he had advisers who ran the country for him . But at the age of 15 Edward dies , Mary I becomes the first female Queen , and takes the name of ' bloody Mary ' . She took this name because of all the protestants she executed for being of a different religion . When Mary dies , Elizabeth becomes Queen however that was n't the end of the hardship . Contents 1 Structure 1.1 National bodies 1.1. 1 Monarch 1.1. 2 Privy Council 1.1. 3 Parliament 1.2 Local Governments 1.3 Courts 2 Domestic policy 3 Foreign Policy 4 Impact 5 Sources Structure ( edit ) National bodies ( edit ) Monarch ( edit ) Elizabeth at her coronation The monarch of England during the Elizabethan Era was Queen Elizabeth I and her family . The government was very much a personal monarchy with ministers . The monarch 's personality determined the style , intensity , and efficiency . Back then , the monarch was a ruler , unlike the modern monarchs who are more like figureheads . The monarch was the ultimate decider and was able to determine issues of national religion , when Parliament would sit and what it would discuss , when and if the country would go to war , matters of education , welfare of the citizens , what food they could eat , and what clothes they could wear . She also had various counselors and officials to aid her rule. The queen could choose who would help her govern . The Divine Right of Kings gave the monarch the image of a Demigod . This strengthened authority made going against the monarch considered a sin . Not obeying the queen was considered treason and was punishable by death . The queen had the power to send one to prison and order executions . All laws required her consent to be passed . Generally , she could not pass laws herself -- she had to draw up a Bill and put it forward to Parliament . However , she could make Royal Proclamations without Parliament 's consent . Even with this much power , the monarch was not above the law , and she could be brought to court . Elizabeth is considered by many to be one of England 's best monarchs . She was wise and just , chose good advisers and was n't dominated by them , dealt with the stubbornly resistant Parliaments without being tyrannous , and was skilled at compromising in both religious and political matters . She ruled for 45 years and was the sixth and last of the Tudor dynasty . Sir William Cecil Sir William Cecil ( named Lord Burghley in 1571 ) was her chief adviser and supervised the whole administration . He was also Secretary of State from 1558 to 1572 and Lord Treasurer from 1572 to his death in 1598 . Sir Francis Walsingham was famous for uncovering many Catholic plots against Elizabeth ; he filled in as Secretary of State from 1572 to his death in 1590 . Sir Robert Cecil , second son of Sir William Cecil , was Secretary of State in 1596 and master of Court of Wards after a clash with Robert Devereux , Earl of Essex . He then became dominant in the government . Sir Nicholas Bacon , Sir Francis Bacon , Sir Francis Knollys , and Sir Walter Mildmay were important bureaucrats of Elizabeth . Along with these , she had many favourites . Robert Dudley , Earl of Leicester was Elizabeth 's most important favourite during the first thirty years of her reign . He was most influential at court and one of the chief privy councillors . In 1585 - 1587 , he commanded the English army in the Netherlands , and was appointed Governor - General of the Netherlands in 1586 by the Dutch ( against Elizabeth 's wishes ) ; he gave up his post in December 1587 , and was appointed general of the armies to repel the Spanish invasion in 1588 , but died shortly after . Sir Christopher Hatton , another favourite , became captain of her bodyguard in 1572 , her spokesman in the House of Commons , and was made Lord Chancellor in 1587 despite little legal training , he was also an eminent privy councillor . Sir Walter Raleigh was such a favourite that he was showered with gifts , including the right to take possession of land in the New World , where he organised the exploration of what would be Virginia . Privy Council ( edit ) The Privy Council was Elizabeth 's group of advisers . Its main purpose was to give numerous different opinions and the monarch decided on the issue at hand . ( However , the advice was often ignored ; the Council still carried out her wishes . ) Routine administration was usually left to the Council . It was involved in matters of religion , military , the queen 's security , economics , and the welfare of the citizens . It dealt with both matters of national and individual interest , issued proclamations in the queen 's name , and supervised law and enforcement . The Council could make decisions , but the monarch could veto anything without question . Who was in it depended on who the queen wanted there . However , certain powerful noblemen were necessary in the Council so that their and their realms ' interests were represented so that a rebellion would be avoided . Believing that more members ( and therefore more different opinions ) would cause more problems , Elizabeth dropped the previous member count of 50 to 19 and eventually 11 by 1597 . The Counselors employed assistants who did most of the work . At first , they met only 3 times a week ; by the end of Elizabeth 's reign , they met almost every day . The Secretary of State led the Council . Sir William Cecil effectively led it ; he was wise , cautious , cooperative with Elizabeth , trusted above all others , Elizabeth 's personal secretary , and chief adviser until his death , and therefore very influential ; due to his great administrative ability , he had the reputation of one of the greatest English statesmen -- historians have even debated whether the success of Elizabeth 's rule was more due to Sir William Cecil or Elizabeth . His son was also a member of Queen Elizabeth 's Privy council . Parliament ( edit ) The group of representatives , called Parliament , was divided into the House of Lords ( or the Upper House ) , which consisted of nobility and higher clergy such as bishops and archbishops , and the House of Commons ( or the Lower House ) , which consisted of common people . Unlike the modern British Parliament , it had much less power , no Prime Minister or cabinet , and no political parties . The main function of Parliament was dealing with financial matters ( taxation and granting the queen money ) . Generally , the monarch paid for daily administration with ordinary revenues ( customs , feudal dues , and sales of land ) while Parliament covered extraordinary expenditures ( such as war ) with taxation . However , taxation did n't supply enough for military expenditures ; therefore , more land was sold along with probably illegal scheming . Parliament was also used for passing laws . 438 laws were passed under Elizabeth 's reign . They were either public , in which case they applied to all , or private , in which case they only applied to certain people . Only another Parliament could undo one . They required approval by both houses thrice and the queen . However , the queen could make Royal Proclamations without Parliament 's consent . Another purpose of Parliament was to advise . Nonetheless , Elizabeth was almost never interested in Parliament 's advice . Elections occurred only for the House of Commons . Who was in Parliament depended mainly on who was supported by the important local people . Only those that were male and received a certain annual income could vote . The monarch decided when Parliament was to be called . In total , Elizabeth only called Parliament thirteen times , 11 of which were to ask for money . Local governments ( edit ) Local governments were important in Tudor England . Royal representatives ( Justices of the Peace , Sheriffs , and Lords Lieutenant ) were appointed in every county ; they ensured that the queen 's commands and laws were obeyed . Regional governments helped oversee parts of England that the Privy Council could not supervise . The Council of the North , which resided in York , oversaw Northern England , while the Council of the Marches , which resided in Ludlow , oversaw Wales and some border counties . Manors were run by nobility and gentry . Land was power at the time ; those with land received payments from the tenants on their land and from their workers . Thus they had significant wealth and influence . They also had responsibilities , for they were meant to aid the monarch by governing their land . Local grievances were taken to the lord of the manor ; on the other hand , tenants were loyal to him -- if called upon , they were obliged to go to war . The lord 's views tended to greatly influence those of his largely uneducated tenants . Each city and town had its own government , headed by a mayor as well . Courts ( edit ) The courts made up the judicial system of Elizabethan England . The most important courts were the Great Sessions Courts or the Assizes , which were held twice a year in each county , and the Quarter Sessions Courts , which were held four times in a year . These two dealt with most crimes . The Assizes was famous for its power to inflict harsh punishments . Unimportant crimes were handled by the Petty Sessions Courts , Manor Courts , and town courts . Civil cases were dealt with by various courts , depending on the person 's monetary status ; the wealthy were tried by the Star Chamber , one of the highest profile courts which consisted of mostly Privy Counselors . The Court of Chancery also judged criminal cases , the Exchequer of Pleas dealt with financial suits , the Court of Requests with the poor ( `` the court of the poor man 's causes , '' as it was known ) , Church Courts with religious and moral cases , and other specific courts with other specific matters . Committers of high treason and other serious crimes received the death sentence ( often handled by the queen ) . Often a violent death sentence in the case of high treason involving being hanged , taken down before dead , dragged face downward through the streets , and then hacked into four pieces or quartered only to have the remains displayed in a public place to discourage others from committing treason . Those of lesser crimes were sent to prison or the stocks . Uses of the pillory , ducking stool , the Brank , The Drunkards Cloak , Burning , the Wheel and other forms of punishment and torture were also common during this time . Domestic policy ( edit ) This section needs expansion . You can help by adding to it . ( May 2013 ) A strict aristocracy helped Elizabeth maintain the dominance of her reign . She also has thousands of guards enforcing the city and the castle in case of any riots . If riots were to happen , there would be fireballs made of rock strewn and shot at the rioters . Foreign policy ( edit ) Elizabethan government concerning foreign policy is often accused of being affected by factionalism . This appears true in the later secion of her reign , post-Armada , when factions led by the Earl of Essex , and the Cecils , argued over which way the war against Spain should proceed . Essex , keen for glory and prestige , favored an expensive land based military strategy , whilst the Cecil faction advocated a cheaper moderate naval strategy . Due to the conflicting factions no policy was explicitly followed and each side frequently tried to undermine the others , resulting in a confused foreign policy . Faction pre-Armada is harder to analyze . The traditional view put forward by Read and Neale , suggests that William Cecil ( later Lord Burghley ) was continually in faction against Robert Dudley , over issues such as marriage and most importantly intervention in the Netherlands . Revisionist historian Adams defines faction as `` one group of people employed in direct opposition to another . '' It is on this premise that historians such as John Guy argue there was no true faction in the Council at this stage , disagreements were primarily over individual opinions , and judgements over how to proceed ; all councilors , after the removal of conservative Norfolk , were agreed that Elizabeth should look to further and protect the Protestant cause . Leicester and Walsingham saw intervention in the Netherlands as the best way to achieve this , whilst Cecil was more moderate . Impact ( edit ) The Elizabethan Era is famous for its playwrights ( William Shakespeare , Christopher Marlowe , and Ben Jonson ) that thrived during this period ; Francis Drake , the first Englishman to circumnavigate the world ; and Sir Walter Raleigh 's exploration of the New World . The stability and structure of the government helped to allow the arts to flourish and prompted other achievements in exploration . Sources ( edit ) ( Sharnette , Heather . `` PRIVY COUNCIL . '' Elizabeth I : Privy Council . Elezabithi , 6 May 2007 . Web . 19 Oct. 2014 . < http://elizabethi.org/contents/power/privycouncil.html > . ) ( Sharnette , Heather . `` POWER AND GOVERNMENT . '' Elizabeth I : Power and Government . Elezabithi , 6 May 2007 . Web . 19 Oct. 2014 . http://www.elizabethi.org/contents/power/ ) ( Sharnette , Heather . `` MONARCH . '' Elizabeth I : Monarch . Elezabithi , 6 May 2007 . Web . 19 Oct. 2014 . http://elizabethi.org/contents/power/monarch.html ) ( Sharnette , Heather . `` PARLIAMENT . '' Elizabeth I : Parliament . Elezabithi , 6 May 2007 . Web . 19 Oct. 2014 . http://elizabethi.org/contents/power/parliament.html ) `` Elizabethan England - A background overview . '' Everything2. 6 May 2007 Sommerville , J.P. `` Elizabeth I . '' Department of History . 6 May 2007 Sommerville , J.P. `` Elizabethan government . '' Department of History . 6 May 2007 Sommerville , J.P. `` Elizabeth I , Parliament , church and economy . 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where did many of the names for the constellations come from

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Constellation - wikipedia Constellation Jump to : navigation , search This article is about the star grouping . For other uses , see Constellation ( disambiguation ) . Top : Baroque drawing of the constellation Orion from Johannes Hevelius ' Celestial catalogue Bottom : Contemporary map of Orion from the IAU and photography of the night sky A constellation is a group of stars that are considered to form imaginary outlines or meaningful patterns on the celestial sphere , typically representing animals , mythological people or gods , mythological creatures , or manufactured devices . The 88 modern constellations are defined regions of the sky together covering the entire celestial sphere . Origins for the earliest constellations likely goes back to prehistory , whose now unknown creators collectively used them to relate important stories of either their beliefs , experiences , creation or mythology . As such , different cultures and countries often adopted their own set of constellations outlines , some that persisted into the early 20th Century . Adoption of numerous constellations have significantly changed throughout the centuries . Many have varied in size or shape , while some became popular then dropped into obscurity . Others were traditionally used only by various cultures or single nations . The Western - traditional constellations are the forty - eight Greek classical patterns , as stated in both Aratus ' work Phenomena or Ptolemy 's Almagest -- though their existence probably predates these constellation names by several centuries . Newer constellations in the far southern sky were added much later during the 15th to mid-18th century , when European explorers began travelling to the southern hemisphere . Twelve important constellations are assigned to the zodiac , where the Sun , Moon , and planets all follow the ecliptic . The origins of the zodiac probably date back into prehistory , whose astrological divisions became prominent c. 400 BC within Babylonian or Chaldean astronomy . In 1928 , the International Astronomical Union ( IAU ) ratified and recognized 88 modern constellations , with contiguous boundaries defined by right ascension and declination . Therefore , any given point in a celestial coordinate system lies in one of the modern constellations . Some astronomical naming systems give the constellation where a given celestial object is found along with a designation in order to convey an approximate idea of its location in the sky . e.g. The Flamsteed designation for bright stars consists of a number and the genitive form of the constellation name . Another type of smaller popular patterns or groupings of stars are called asterisms , and differ from the modern or former constellations by being areas with identifiable shapes or features that can be used by novice observers learning to navigate the night sky . Such asterisms often refer to several stars within a constellation or may share boundaries with several constellations . Examples of asterisms include : The Pleiades and The Hyades within the constellation of Taurus , the False Cross crossing the southern constellations of both Carina and Vela , or Venus ' Mirror in the constellation of Orion . Contents ( hide ) 1 Terminology 2 History of the early constellations 2.1 Constellations in the Ancient Near East 2.2 Constellations in Classical antiquity 2.3 Constellations in Ancient China 3 Early modern astronomy 3.1 Origin of the southern constellations 3.2 88 modern constellations 4 Dark cloud constellations 5 See also 6 References 7 Further reading 7.1 Mythology , lore , history , and archaeoastronomy 7.2 Atlases and celestial maps 7.3 Catalogs 8 External links Terminology ( edit ) The word `` constellation '' seems to come from the Late Latin term cōnstellātiō , which can be translated as `` set of stars '' , and came into use in English during the 14th century . The Ancient Greek word for constellation was ἄστρον . A more modern astronomical sense of the term `` constellation '' is simply as a recognisable pattern of stars whose appearance is associated with mythological characters or creatures , or earthbound animals , or objects . It may also specifically denote the officially recognised 88 named constellations used today . Colloquial usage does not draw any sharp distinction between `` constellations '' or the many smaller `` asterisms '' ( pattern of stars ) , yet the modern accepted astronomical constellations employ such a distinction . E.g. , the Pleiades and the Hyades are both asterisms , and each lie within the boundaries of the constellation of Taurus . Another example is the popular northern asterism known as the Big Dipper ( US ) or the Plough ( UK ) , composed of the seven brightest stars within the area of the IAU - defined constellation of Ursa Major . The southern False Cross asterism includes portions of the constellations Carina and Vela . The term circumpolar constellation is used for any constellation that , from a particular latitude on Earth , never sets below the horizon . From the North Pole or South Pole , all constellations south or north of the celestial equator are circumpolar constellations . Depending on the definition , equatorial constellations may include those that lie entirely between declinations 45 ° north and 45 ° south , or those that pass through the declination range of the ecliptic or zodiac ranging between 231⁄2 ° north , the celestial equator , and 231⁄2 ° south . Although stars in constellations appear near each other in the sky , they usually lie at a variety of distances away from the observer . Since stars also travel along their own orbits through the Milky Way , the constellation outlines change slowly over time . After tens to hundreds of thousands of years , their familiar outlines gradually become unrecognisable . Astronomers can predict the past or future constellation outlines by measuring their individual stars ' common proper motions or cpm by accurate astrometry and their radial velocities by astronomical spectroscopy . History of the early constellations ( edit ) The earliest direct antecedent evidence for the constellations comes from inscribed stones and clay writing tablets dug up in Mesopotamia ( within modern Iraq ) dating back to 3000 BC . It seems that the bulk of the Mesopotamian constellations were created within a relatively short interval from around 1300 to 1000 BC . These groupings appeared later in many of the classical Greek constellations . Constellations in the ancient near East ( edit ) See also : Old Babylonian astronomy Babylonian tablet recording Halley 's Comet in 164 BC . The Babylonians were the first to recognize that astronomical phenomena are periodic and apply mathematics to their predictions . The oldest Babylonian star catalogues of stars and constellations date back to the beginning in the Middle Bronze Age , most notably the Three Stars Each texts and the MUL. APIN , an expanded and revised version based on more accurate observation from around 1000 BC . However , the numerous Sumerian names in these catalogues suggest that they built on older , but otherwise unattested , Sumerian traditions of the Early Bronze Age . The classical Zodiac is a product of a revision of the Old Babylonian system in later Neo-Babylonian astronomy 6th century BC . Knowledge of the Neo-Babylonian zodiac is also reflected in the Hebrew Bible . E.W. Bullinger interpreted the creatures appearing in the books of Ezekiel ( and thence in Revelation ) as the middle signs of the four quarters of the Zodiac , with the Lion as Leo , the Bull as Taurus , the Man representing Aquarius and the Eagle standing in for Scorpio . The biblical Book of Job also makes reference to a number of constellations , including עיש ‎ ' Ayish `` bier '' , כסיל ‎ chesil `` fool '' and כימה ‎ chimah `` heap '' ( Job 9 : 9 , 38 : 31 - 32 ) , rendered as `` Arcturus , Orion and Pleiades '' by the KJV , but ' Ayish `` the bier '' actually corresponding to Ursa Major . The term Mazzaroth מַזָּרוֹת ‎ , a hapax legomenon in Job 38 : 32 , may be the Hebrew word for the zodiacal constellations . The Greeks adopted the Babylonian system in the 4th century BC . A total of twenty Ptolemaic constellations are directly continued from the Ancient Near East . Another ten have the same stars but different names . Constellations in classical Antiquity ( edit ) See also : Egyptian astronomy and Ancient Greek astronomy Ancient Egyptian star chart and decanal clock on the ceiling from the tomb of Senenmut There is only limited information on indigenous Greek constellations , with some fragmentary evidence being found in the Works and Days of Greek poet Hesiod , who mentioned the `` heavenly bodies '' . Greek astronomy essentially adopted the older Babylonian system in the Hellenistic era , first introduced to Greece by Eudoxus of Cnidus in the 4th century BC . The original work of Eudoxus is lost , but it survives as a versification by Aratus , dating to the 3rd century BC . The most complete existing works dealing with the mythical origins of the constellations are by the Hellenistic writer termed pseudo-Eratosthenes and an early Roman writer styled pseudo-Hyginus . The basis of western astronomy as taught during Late Antiquity and until the Early Modern period is the Almagest by Ptolemy , written in the 2nd century . In the Ptolemaic Kingdom , native Egyptian tradition of anthropomorphic figures representing the planets , stars and various constellations . Some of these were combined with Greek and Babylonian astronomical systems culminating in the Zodiac of Dendera , but it remains unclear when this occurred , but most were placed during the Roman period between 2nd to 4th centuries AD . The oldest known depiction of the zodiac showing all the now familiar constellations , along with some original Egyptian Constellations , Decans and Planets . Ptolemy 's Almagest remained the standard definition of constellations in the medieval period both in Europe and in Islamic astronomy . Constellations in ancient China ( edit ) Further information : Chinese constellations and Chinese astronomy Chinese star map with a cylindrical projection ( Su Song ) In ancient China astronomy has had a long tradition in accurately observing celestial phenomena . Nonspecific Star names later categorized in the twenty - eight mansions have been found on oracle bones unearthed at Anyang , dating back to the middle Shang Dynasty . These Chinese constellations are one of the most important and also the most ancient structures in the Chinese sky , attested from the 5th century BC . Parallels to the earliest Babylonian ( Sumerian ) star catalogues suggest that the ancient Chinese system did not arise independently . Classical Chinese astronomy is recorded in the Han period and appears in the form of three schools , which are attributed to astronomers of the Warring States period . The constellations of the three schools were conflated into a single system by Chen Zhuo , an astronomer of the 3rd century ( Three Kingdoms period ) . Chen Zhuo 's work has been lost , but information on his system of constellations survives in Tang period records , notably by Qutan Xida . The oldest extant Chinese star chart dates to that period and was preserved as part of the Dunhuang Manuscripts . Native Chinese astronomy flourished during the Song dynasty , and during the Yuan Dynasty became increasingly influenced by medieval Islamic astronomy ( see Treatise on Astrology of the Kaiyuan Era ) . As maps were prepared during this period on more scientific lines they were considered as more reliable . A well known map prepared during the Song Period is the Suzhou Astronomical Chart prepared with carvings of most stars on the planisphere of the Chinese Sky on a stone plate ; it is done accurately based on observations and has the supernova of the year of 1054 in Taurus carved on it . Influenced by European astronomy during the late Ming Dynasty , more stars were depicted on the charts but retaining the traditional constellations ; new stars observed were incorporated as supplementary stars in old constellations in the southern sky which did not depict any of the traditional stars recorded by ancient Chinese astronomers . Further improvements were made during the later part of the Ming Dynasty by Xu Guangqi and Johann Adam Schall von Bell , the German Jesuit and was recorded in Chongzhen Lishu ( Calendrical Treatise of Chongzhen Period , 1628 ) . Traditional Chinese star maps incorporated 23 new constellations with 125 stars of the southern hemisphere of the sky based on the knowledge of western star charts ; with this improvement the Chinese Sky was integrated with the World astronomy . Early modern astronomy ( edit ) Historically , the constellations can be simply divided into two regions ; namely the northern and southern sky , whose origins are distinctly different . The northern skies have constellations that have mostly survived since Antiquity , whose common names are based on Classical Greek legends or those whose true origins have now been lost . Evidence of these constellations have survived in the form of star charts , whose oldest representation appears on the statue known as the Farnese Atlas , which has been suggested to be based on the star catalogue of the Greek astronomer , Hipparchus . Southern hemisphere constellations are more modern inventions , which were created as new constellations , or become substitutes for some ancient constellation . e.g. Argo Navis . Some southern constellations were to become obsolete or had extended names that became foreshortened to more usable forms e.g. Musca Australis became simply Musca . However , all the early constellations were never universally adopted , whose popular usage was based on the culture or individual nations . Defining each constellation and their assigned stars also significantly differed in size and shape , whose arbitrary boundaries often lead to confusion to where celestial objects were to be placed . Before the constellation boundaries were defined by the International Astronomical Union ( IAU ) in 1930 , they appeared as simply encircled areas of sky . Today they now follow officially accepted designated lines of Right Ascension and Declination based on those defined by Benjamin Gould in Epoch 1875.0 in his star catalogue known as Uranometria Argentina . Since the invention of the optical telescope , astronomers have found the need to catalogue and position celestial bodies , whose knowledge could be used for navigational or astronomical purposes , and this required improved definitions of the constellations and their boundaries . Such changes also assigned stars within each constellation , as first accomplished in 1603 by Johann Bayer in the star atlas `` Uranometria '' using the twenty - four letters of the Greek alphabet . Subsequent star atlases defined under celestial cartography lead to the development towards today 's accepted modern constellations . Origin of the southern constellations ( edit ) See also : Category : Constellations listed by Petrus Plancius , Uranometria , Harmonia Macrocosmica , Category : Constellations listed by Johannes Hevelius , Category : Constellations listed by Lacaille , and Former constellations Sketch of the southern celestial sky by Portuguese astronomer João Faras ( May 1 , 1500 ) . A celestial map from the golden age of Netherlandish cartography , by the Dutch cartographer Frederik de Wit . Much of the sky near the South Celestial Pole below the declination of about -- 65 ° was observed by people living in the Southern Hemisphere but was only partially catalogued by the ancient Babylonians , Egyptian , Greeks , Chinese , and Persian astronomers of the north . Knowledge that northern and southern star patterns differed go back into Antiquity , being mostly gained from later Classical writers about Phoenician sailors : like the African circumnavigation expedition commissioned by Egyptian Pharaoh Necho II in c. 600 BC or those of Hanno the Navigator in c. 500 BC . However , much of the history of these origins were lost with the Destruction of the Library of Alexandria . A true history of southern constellation names remains neither definitive nor straight forward . Various countries had adopted or ascribed different names or had used different stars to define them . Most these early forms of constellations remained as merely curiosities for their nobility or sponsors , but only became important to 14th to 16th Century seafarers who began journeying across the southern oceans using the stars for celestial navigation purposes . Examples of such Italian explorers who recorded the new southern constellations included : Andrea Corsali , Antonio Pigafetta , Amerigo Vespucci . Many of the 88 IAU - recognized constellations in this region were to be adopted from in the late 16th century by Petrus Plancius and were mainly based on the observations of the Dutch navigators Pieter Dirkszoon Keyser and Frederick de Houtman who had added fifteen by the end of the sixteenth century . Another ten were added by Petrus Plancius including : Apus , Chamaeleon , Columba , Dorado , Grus , Hydrus , Indus , Musca , Pavo , Phoenix , Triangulum Australe , Tucana , and Volans . However , most of these early constellations only formally appeared a century after their creation , when they were later depicted by German Johann Bayer in his star atlas Uranometria of 1603 . Seventeen more were created in 1763 by the French astronomer Nicolas Louis de Lacaille appearing in his star catalogue , published in 1756 . Some other modern proposals were unsuccessful . For example , the large classical constellation of Argo Navis was broken up into three separate parts ( Carina , Puppis , and Vela ) by Lacaille , for the convenience of stellar cartographers . Others included constellations by the French astronomers Pierre Lemonnier and Joseph Lalande , whose additions were once popular , but have since been dropped . For the northern constellations , an example is Quadrans , eponymous of the Quadrantid meteors , now divided between Boötes and Draco . 88 modern constellations ( edit ) Main articles : 88 modern constellations and International Astronomical Union The current list of 88 constellations recognized by the International Astronomical Union since 1922 is based on the 48 listed by Ptolemy in his Almagest in the 2nd century , with early modern modifications and additions ( most importantly introducing constellations covering the parts of the southern sky unknown to Ptolemy ) by Petrus Plancius ( 1592 , 1597 / 98 and 1613 ) , Johannes Hevelius ( 1690 ) and Nicolas Louis de Lacaille ( 1763 ) , who named fourteen constellations and renamed a fifteenth one . De Lacaille studied the stars of the southern hemisphere from 1750 until 1754 from Cape of Good Hope , when he was said to have observed more than 10,000 stars using a 0.5 inches ( 13 mm ) refracting telescope . In 1922 , Henry Norris Russell aided the IAU ( International Astronomical Union ) in dividing the celestial sphere into 88 official constellations ; Prior to this , Ptolemy 's list of 48 constellations with many additions made by European astronomers had prevailed . However , these divisions did not have clear borders between them . It was only in 1930 that Eugene Delporte , the Belgian astronomer created an authoritative map demarcating the areas of sky under different constellations . Where possible , these modern constellations usually share the names of their Graeco - Roman predecessors , such as Orion , Leo or Scorpius . The aim of this system is area - mapping , i.e. the division of the celestial sphere into contiguous fields . Out of the 88 modern constellations , 36 lie predominantly in the northern sky , and the other 52 predominantly in the southern . Equirectangular plot of declination vs right ascension of stars brighter than apparent magnitude 5 on the Hipparcos Catalogue , coded by spectral type and apparent magnitude , relative to the modern constellations and the ecliptic . In 1930 , the boundaries between the 88 constellations were devised by Eugène Delporte along vertical and horizontal lines of right ascension and declination . However , the data he used originated back to epoch B1875. 0 , which was when Benjamin A. Gould first made his proposal to designate boundaries for the celestial sphere , a suggestion upon which Delporte would base his work . The consequence of this early date is that because of the precession of the equinoxes , the borders on a modern star map , such as epoch J2000 , are already somewhat skewed and no longer perfectly vertical or horizontal . This effect will increase over the years and centuries to come . Equirectangular plot of declination vs right ascension of the 88 modern constellations , colour - coded by family and year established . Dark cloud constellations ( edit ) Further information : Great Rift ( astronomy ) The Great Rift , a series of dark patches in the Milky Way , is more visible and striking in the southern hemisphere than in the northern . It vividly stands out when conditions are otherwise so dark that the Milky Way 's central region casts shadows on the ground . Some cultures have discerned shapes in these patches and have given names to these `` dark cloud constellations '' . Members of the Inca civilization identified various dark areas or dark nebulae in the Milky Way as animals , and associated their appearance with the seasonal rains . Australian Aboriginal astronomy also describes dark cloud constellations , the most famous being the `` emu in the sky '' whose head is formed by the Coalsack , a dark nebula , instead of the stars . The Emu in the sky -- a constellation defined by dark clouds rather than by stars . The head of the emu is the Coalsack with the Southern Cross directly above . Scorpius is to the left . See also ( edit ) Star portal Astronomy portal Space portal Book : Guide to the Constellations 88 modern constellations ( by area and language ) Constellations listed by Ptolemy Constellations listed by Petrus Plancius Constellations listed by Johannes Hevelius Constellations listed by Lacaille List of constellations by area List of constellations in different languages Lists of stars by constellation Constellation family History of the constellations Former constellations Chinese constellations Celestial cartography ( also known as stellar cartography , uranography ) Star chart ( also known as star map , celestial chart ) Star atlas References ( edit ) ^ Jump up to : `` Definition of constellation in English : constellation '' . Oxford Dictionaries . Retrieved 2 August 2016 . Jump up ^ Eugène Delporte ; International Astronomical Union ( 1930 ) . Délimitation scientifique des constellations . At the University press . Jump up ^ Britton , John P. ( 2010 ) , `` Studies in Babylonian lunar theory : part III . The introduction of the uniform zodiac '' , Archive for History of Exact Sciences , 64 ( 6 ) : 617 -- 663 , doi : 10.1007 / S00407 - 010 - 0064 - Z , JSTOR 41134332 , ( T ) he zodiac was introduced between − 408 and − 397 and probably within a very few years of − 400 . Jump up ^ `` constellation '' . Merriam - webster . Retrieved 2 August 2016 . Jump up ^ Harbord , John Bradley ; Goodwin , H.B. ( 1897 ) . Glossary of navigation : a vade mecum for practical navigators ( 3rd ed . ) . Portsmouth : Griffin . p. 142 . ^ Jump up to : Norton , Arthur P. ( 1959 ) . Norton 's Star Atlas . p. 1 . Jump up ^ Steele , Joel Dorman ( 1884 ) . `` The story of the stars : New descriptive astronomy '' . Science series . American Book Company : 220 . Jump up ^ `` Do Constellations Ever Break Apart or Change ? '' . NASA . Retrieved November 27 , 2014 . Jump up ^ Theo Koupelis ; Karl F. Kuhn ( 2007 ) . In Quest of the Universe . Jones & Bartlett Publishers . p. 369 . ISBN 0 - 7637 - 4387 - 9 . Jump up ^ Kovalevsky , Jean ; Seidelmann , P. Kenneth ( 2004 ) . Fundamentals of Astrometry . Cambridge University Press . ISBN 0 - 521 - 64216 - 7 . Jump up ^ Soffel , M ; Klioner , S. A ; Petit , G ; Wolf , P ; Kopeikin , S. M ; Bretagnon , P ; Brumberg , V. A ; Capitaine , N ; Damour , T ; Fukushima , T ; Guinot , B ; Huang , T. - Y ; Lindegren , L ; Ma , C ; Nordtvedt , K ; Ries , J. C ; Seidelmann , P. K ; Vokrouhlický , D ; Will , C. M ; Xu , C ( 2003 ) . `` The IAU 2000 Resolutions for Astrometry , Celestial Mechanics , and Metrology in the Relativistic Framework : Explanatory Supplement '' . The Astronomical Journal . 126 ( 6 ) : 2687 . arXiv : astro - ph / 0303376 . Bibcode : 2003AJ ... 126.2687 S . doi : 10.1086 / 378162 . Jump up ^ `` Resolution C1 on the Definition of a Spectroscopic `` Barycentric Radial - Velocity Measure '' . Special Issue : Preliminary Program of the XXVth GA in Sydney , July 13 - 26 , 2003 Information Bulletin n ° 91 '' ( PDF ) . IAU Secretariat . July 2002 . p. 50 . Retrieved 2017 - 09 - 28 . Jump up ^ Rogers , J. H ( 1998 ) . `` Origins of the ancient constellations : I . The Mesopotamian traditions '' . Journal of the British Astronomical Association . 108 : 9 . Bibcode : 1998JBAA ... 108 ... 9R . ^ Jump up to : Schaefer , Bradley E. ( 2006 ) . `` The Origin of the Greek Constellations '' . Scientific American . 295 ( 5 ) : 96 -- 101 . Bibcode : 2006SciAm. 295e ... 96S . doi : 10.1038 / scientificamerican1106 - 96 . PMID 17076089 . Jump up ^ `` History of the Constellations and Star Names -- D. 4 : Sumerian constellations and star names ? '' . Gary D. Thompson . 21 April 2015 . Retrieved 30 August 2015 . Jump up ^ E. William Bullinger ( 7 June 2015 ) . The Witness of the Stars . eKitap Projesi . ISBN 978 - 963 - 527 - 403 - 1 . Jump up ^ Dennis James Kennedy ( 1 June 1989 ) . The Real Meaning of the Zodiac . Coral Ridge Ministries Media , Incorporated . ISBN 978 - 1 - 929626 - 14 - 4 . ^ Jump up to : Richard H. Allen ( 28 February 2013 ) . Star Names : Their Lore and Meaning . Courier Corporation . ISBN 978 - 0 - 486 - 13766 - 7 . Jump up ^ Gesenius , Hebrew Lexicon Jump up ^ `` Stars and Constellations in Homer and Hesiod '' . The Annual of the British School at Athens. 1951 . Jump up ^ Marshall Clagett ( 1989 ) . Ancient Egyptian Science : Calendars , clocks , and astronomy . American Philosophical Society . ISBN 978 - 0 - 87169 - 214 - 6 . Jump up ^ Rogers , John H. ( 1998 ) . `` Origins of the ancient constellations : I . The Mesopotamian traditions '' . Journal of the British Astronomical Association . 108 : 9 -- 28 . Bibcode : 1998JBAA ... 108 ... 9R . Jump up ^ Denderah ( 1825 ) . Zodiac of Dendera , epitome . ( Exhib. , Leic . square ) . Jump up ^ Needham , Volume 3 , p. 171 ^ Jump up to : Xiaochun Sun ; Jacob Kistemaker ( 1997 ) . The Chinese Sky During the Han : Constellating Stars and Society . BRILL . ISBN 90 - 04 - 10737 - 1 . ^ Jump up to : Selin , Helaine Elise ( 12 March 2008 ) . Encyclopaedia of the History of Science , Technology , and Medicine in Non-Western Cultures . Springer Science & Business Media . p. 2022 . ISBN 978 - 1 - 4020 - 4559 - 2 . Jump up ^ Sun , Xiaochun ( 1997 ) . Helaine Selin , ed . Encyclopaedia of the History of Science , Technology , and Medicine in Non-Western Cultures . Kluwer Academic Publishers . p. 910 . ISBN 0 - 7923 - 4066 - 3 . Jump up ^ Schaefer , Bradley E. ( May 2005 ) . `` The epoch of the constellations on the Farnese Atlas and their origin in Hipparchus 's lost catalogue '' . Journal for the History of Astronomy . 36 / 2 ( 123 ) : 167 -- 196 . Bibcode : 2005JHA ... 36 ... 167S . Jump up ^ Norton , Arthur P. ( 1919 ) . Norton 's Star Atlas . p. 1 . Jump up ^ `` Astronomical Epoch '' . Archived from the original on 2011 - 07 - 24 . Retrieved 2010 - 07 - 16 . Jump up ^ Swerdlow , N.M. ( August 1986 ) . `` A Star Catalogue Used by Johannes Bayer '' . Journal of the History of Astronomy . 17 ( 5 ) : 189 -- 197 . Bibcode : 1986JHA ... 17 ... 189S . Jump up ^ Sawyer Hogg , Helen ( 1951 ) . `` Out of Old Books ( Pieter Dircksz Keijser , Delineator of the Southern Constellations ) '' . Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society of Canada . 45 : 215 . Bibcode : 1951JRASC ... 45 ... 215S . Jump up ^ Knobel , E.B. ( 1917 ) . On Frederick de Houtman 's Catalogue of Southern Stars , and the Origin of the Southern Constellations . ( Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society , Vol. 77 , pp. 414 -- 32 ) Jump up ^ Dekker , Elly ( 1987 ) . Early Explorations of the Southern Celestial Sky . ( Annals of Science 44 , pp. 439 -- 70 ) Jump up ^ Dekker , Elly ( 1987 ) . On the Dispersal of Knowledge of the Southern Celestial Sky . ( Der Globusfreund , 35 - 37 , pp. 211 -- 30 ) Jump up ^ Verbunt , Frank ; van Gent , Robert H. ( 2011 ) . Early Star Catalogues of the Southern Sky : De Houtman , Kepler ( Second and Third Classes ) , and Halley . ( Astronomy & Astrophysics 530 ) Jump up ^ Ian Ridpath . `` Bayer 's southern star chart '' . Jump up ^ Ian Ridpath . `` Lacaille 's southern planisphere '' . ^ Jump up to : `` The Constellations '' . IAU -- International Astronomical Union . Retrieved 29 August 2015 . Jump up ^ Ian Ridpath . `` Constellation names , abbreviations and sizes '' . Retrieved 30 August 2015 . Jump up ^ Ian Ridpath . `` Star Tales -- The Almagest '' . Retrieved 30 August 2015 . ^ Jump up to : `` Abbé Nicolas Louis de Lacaille ( 1713 - 1762 ) '' . Department of Astronomy . University of Wisconsin - Madison . Retrieved 1 August 2016 . Jump up ^ `` The original names and abbreviations for constellations from 1922 '' . Retrieved 2010 - 01 - 31 . Jump up ^ Marc Lachièze - Rey ; Jean - Pierre Luminet ; Bibliothèque Nationale de France . Paris ( 16 July 2001 ) . Celestial Treasury : From the Music of the Spheres to the Conquest of Space . Cambridge University Press . p. 80 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 521 - 80040 - 2 . Jump up ^ `` Constellation boundaries '' . Retrieved 2011 - 05 - 24 . Jump up ^ A.C. Davenhall & S.K. Leggett , `` A Catalogue of Constellation Boundary Data '' , ( Centre de Donneés astronomiques de Strasbourg , February 1990 ) . Jump up ^ Rao , Joe . `` A Great Week to See the Milky Way '' . Space . Retrieved 5 January 2016 . Jump up ^ The Incan View of the Night Sky Jump up ^ Bordeleau , André G. ( 22 October 2013 ) . Flags of the Night Sky : When Astronomy Meets National Pride . Springer Science & Business Media . pp. 124 -- . ISBN 978 - 1 - 4614 - 0929 - 8 . Further reading ( edit ) This article 's further reading may not follow Wikipedia 's content policies or guidelines . Please improve this article by removing less relevant or redundant publications with the same point of view ; or by incorporating the relevant publications into the body of the article through appropriate citations . ( August 2016 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) Mythology , Lore , History , and Archaeoastronomy ( edit ) Allen , Richard Hinckley. ( 1899 ) Star - Names And Their Meanings , G.E. Stechert , New York , New York , U.S.A. , hardcover ; reprint 1963 as Star Names : Their Lore and Meaning , Dover Publications , Inc. , Mineola , New York , U.S.A. , ISBN 978 - 0 - 486 - 21079 - 7 softcover . Olcott , William Tyler . ( 1911 ) ; Star Lore of All Ages , G.P. Putnam 's Sons , New York , New York , U.S.A. , hardcover ; reprint 2004 as Star Lore : Myths , Legends , and Facts , Dover Publications , Inc. , Mineola , New York , U.S.A. , ISBN 978 - 0 - 486 - 43581 - 7 softcover . Kelley , David H. and Milone , Eugene F. ( 2004 ) Exploring Ancient Skies : An Encyclopedic Survey of Archaeoastronomy , Springer , ISBN 978 - 0 - 387 - 95310 - 6 hardcover . Ridpath , Ian . ( 1989 ) Star Tales , Lutterworth Press , ISBN 0 - 7188 - 2695 - 7 hardcover . Staal , Julius D.W. ( 1988 ) The New Patterns in the Sky : Myths and Legends of the Stars , McDonald & Woodward Publishing Co. , ISBN 0 - 939923 - 10 - 6 hardcover , ISBN 0 - 939923 - 04 - 1 softcover . Rogers , John H. ( 1998 ) . `` Origins of the Ancient Constellations : I . The Mesopotamian Traditions '' . Journal of the British Astronomical Association . 108 : 9 -- 28 . Bibcode : 1998JBAA ... 108 ... 9R . Rogers , John H. ( 1998 ) . `` Origins of the Ancient Constellations : II . The Mediterranean Traditions '' . Journal of the British Astronomical Association . 108 : 79 -- 89 . Bibcode : 1998JBAA ... 108 ... 79R . Atlases and celestial maps ( edit ) Ottoman period celestial map , signs of the Zodiac and lunar mansions . General & Nonspecialized -- Entire Celestial Heavens : Becvar , Antonin . Atlas Coeli . Published as Atlas of the Heavens , Sky Publishing Corporation , Cambridge , Massachusetts , U.S.A. ; with coordinate grid transparency overlay . Norton , Arthur Philip . ( 1910 ) Norton 's Star Atlas , 20th Edition 2003 as Norton 's Star Atlas and Reference Handbook , edited by Ridpath , Ian , Pi Press , ISBN 978 - 0 - 13 - 145164 - 3 , hardcover . National Geographic Society . ( 1957 , 1970 , 2001 , 2007 ) The Heavens ( 1970 ) , Cartographic Division of the National Geographic Society ( NGS ) , Washington , D.C. , U.S.A. , two sided large map chart depicting the constellations of the heavens ; as special supplement to the August 1970 issue of National Geographic . Forerunner map as A Map of The Heavens , as special supplement to the December 1957 issue . Current version 2001 ( Tirion ) , with 2007 reprint . Sinnott , Roger W. and Perryman , Michael A.C. ( 1997 ) Millennium Star Atlas , Epoch 2000.0 , Sky Publishing Corporation , Cambridge , Massachusetts , U.S.A. , and European Space Agency ( ESA ) , ESTEC , Noordwijk , The Netherlands . Subtitle : `` An All - Sky Atlas Comprising One Million Stars to Visual Magnitude Eleven from the Hipparcos and Tycho Catalogues and Ten Thousand Nonstellar Objects '' . 3 volumes , hardcover , in hardcover slipcase , set ISBN 0 - 933346 - 84 - 0 . Vol. 1 , 0 -- 8 Hours ( Right Ascension ) , ISBN 0 - 933346 - 81 - 6 hardcover ; Vol. 2 , 8 -- 16 Hours , ISBN 0 - 933346 - 82 - 4 hardcover ; Vol. 3 , 16 -- 24 Hours , ISBN 0 - 933346 - 83 - 2 hardcover . Softcover version available . Supplemental separate purchasable coordinate grid transparent overlays . Tirion , Wil ; et al. ( 1987 ) Uranometria 2000.0 , Willmann - Bell , Inc. , Richmond , Virginia , U.S.A. , 3 volumes , hardcover . Vol. 1 ( 1987 ) : `` The Northern Hemisphere to − 6 ° '' , by Wil Tirion , Barry Rappaport , and George Lovi , ISBN 0 - 943396 - 14 - X hardcover , printed boards ( blue ) . Vol. 2 ( 1988 ) : `` The Southern Hemisphere to + 6 ° '' , by Wil Tirion , Barry Rappaport and George Lovi , ISBN 0 - 943396 - 15 - 8 hardcover , printed boards ( red ) . Vol. 3 ( 1993 ) as a separate added work : The Deep Sky Field Guide to Uranometria 2000.0 , by Murray Cragin , James Lucyk , and Barry Rappaport , ISBN 0 - 943396 - 38 - 7 hardcover , printed boards ( gray ) . 2nd Edition 2001 ( black or dark background ) as collective set of 3 volumes -- Vol. 1 : Uranometria 2000.0 Deep Sky Atlas , by Wil Tirion , Barry Rappaport , and Will Remaklus , ISBN 978 - 0 - 943396 - 71 - 2 hardcover , printed boards ( blue edging ) ; Vol. 2 : Uranometria 2000.0 Deep Sky Atlas , by Wil Tirion , Barry Rappaport , and Will Remaklus , ISBN 978 - 0 - 943396 - 72 - 9 hardcover , printed boards ( green edging ) ; Vol. 3 : Uranometria 2000.0 Deep Sky Field Guide by Murray Cragin and Emil Bonanno , ISBN 978 - 0 - 943396 - 73 - 6 , hardcover , printed boards ( teal green ) . Tirion , Wil and Sinnott , Roger W. ( 1998 ) Sky Atlas 2000.0 , various editions . 2nd Deluxe Edition , Cambridge University Press , Cambridge , England ( UK ) . Northern Celestial Hemisphere & North Circumpolar Region : Becvar , Antonin. ( 1962 ) Atlas Borealis 1950.0 , Czechoslovak Academy of Sciences ( Ceskoslovenske Akademie Ved ) , Praha , Czechoslovakia , 1st Edition , elephant folio hardcover , with small transparency overlay coordinate grid square and separate paper magnitude legend ruler . 2nd Edition 1972 and 1978 reprint , Czechoslovak Academy of Sciences ( Ceskoslovenske Akademie Ved ) , Prague , Czechoslovakia , and Sky Publishing Corporation , Cambridge , Massachusetts , U.S.A. , ISBN 0 - 933346 - 01 - 8 oversize folio softcover spiral bound , with transparency overlay coordinate grid ruler . Equatorial , Ecliptic , & Zodiacal Celestial Sky : Becvar , Antonin. ( 1958 ) Atlas Eclipticalis 1950.0 , Czechoslovak Academy of Sciences ( Ceskoslovenske Akademie Ved ) , Praha , Czechoslovakia , 1st Edition , elephant folio hardcover , with small transparency overlay coordinate grid square and separate paper magnitude legend ruler . 2nd Edition 1974 , Czechoslovak Academy of Sciences ( Ceskoslovenske Akademie Ved ) , Prague , Czechoslovakia , and Sky Publishing Corporation , Cambridge , Massachusetts , U.S.A. , oversize folio softcover spiral bound , with transparency overlay coordinate grid ruler . Southern Celestial Hemisphere & South Circumpolar Region : Becvar , Antonin . Atlas Australis 1950.0 , Czechoslovak Academy of Sciences ( Ceskoslovenske Akademie Ved ) , Praha , Czechoslovakia , 1st Edition , elephant folio hardcover , with small transparency overlay coordinate grid square and separate paper magnitude legend ruler . 2nd Edition , Czechoslovak Academy of Sciences ( Ceskoslovenske Akademie Ved ) , Prague , Czechoslovakia , and Sky Publishing Corporation , Cambridge , Massachusetts , U.S.A. , oversize folio softcover spiral bound , with transparency overlay coordinate grid ruler . Catalogs ( edit ) Becvar , Antonin. ( 1959 ) Atlas Coeli II Katalog 1950.0 , Praha , 1960 Prague . Published 1964 as Atlas of the Heavens - II Catalogue 1950.0 , Sky Publishing Corporation , Cambridge , Massachusetts , U.S.A. Hirshfeld , Alan and Sinnott , Roger W. ( 1982 ) Sky Catalogue 2000.0 , Cambridge University Press and Sky Publishing Corporation , 1st Edition , 2 volumes . LCCN 81017975 both vols. , and LCCN 83240310 vol. 1 . `` Volume 1 : Stars to Magnitude 8.0 '' , ISBN 0 - 521 - 24710 - 1 ( Cambridge ) and 0 - 933346 - 35 - 2 ( Sky ) hardcover , ISBN 0 - 933346 - 34 - 4 ( Sky ) softcover . Vol. 2 ( 1985 ) - `` Volume 2 : Double Stars , Variable Stars , and Nonstellar Objects '' , ISBN 0 - 521 - 25818 - 9 ( Cambridge ) hardcover , ISBN 0 - 521 - 27721 - 3 ( Cambridge ) softcover . 2nd Edition ( 1991 ) with additional third author Frangois Ochsenbein , 2 volumes , LCCN 91026764 . Vol. 1 : ISBN 0 - 521 - 41743 - 0 ( Cambridge ) hardcover ( black binding ) ; ISBN 0 - 521 - 42736 - 3 ( Cambridge ) softcover ( red lettering with Hans Vehrenberg astrophoto ) . Vol. 2 ( 1999 ) : ISBN 0 - 521 - 27721 - 3 ( Cambridge ) softcover and 0 - 933346 - 38 - 7 ( Sky ) softcover - reprint of 1985 edition ( blue lettering with Hans Vehrenberg astrophoto ) . Yale University Observatory . ( 1908 , et al . ) Catalogue of Bright Stars , New Haven , Connecticut , U.S.A. Referred to commonly as `` Bright Star Catalogue '' . Various editions with various authors historically , the longest term revising author as ( Ellen ) Dorrit Hoffleit . 1st Edition 1908 . 2nd Edition 1940 by Frank Schlesinger and Louise F. Jenkins . 3rd Edition ( 1964 ) , 4th Edition , 5th Edition ( 1991 ) , and 6th Edition ( pending posthumous ) by Hoffleit . External links ( edit ) Find more aboutConstellationsat Wikipedia 's sister projects Definitions from Wiktionary Media from Wikimedia Commons Texts from Wikisource Learning resources from Wikiversity IAU : The Constellations , including high quality maps . Atlascoelestis , di Felice Stoppa . Star Tales origins and mythology of the constellations ( Ian Ridpath ) Celestia free 3D realtime space - simulation ( OpenGL ) Stellarium realtime sky rendering program ( OpenGL ) Strasbourg Astronomical Data Center Files on official IAU constellation boundaries Interactive Sky Charts ( Java applets allowing navigation through the entire sky with variable star detail , optional constellation lines ) Studies of Occidental Constellations and Star Names to the Classical Period : An Annotated Bibliography Table of Constellations Online Text : Hyginus , Astronomica translated by Mary Grant Greco - Roman constellation myths Neave Planetarium Adobe Flash interactive web browser planetarium and stardome with realistic movement of stars and the planets . Audio - Cain / Gay ( 2009 ) Astronomy Cast Constellations The Greek Star - Map short essay by Gavin White The 88 modern constellations Andromeda Antlia Apus Aquarius Aquila Ara Aries Auriga Boötes Caelum Camelopardalis Cancer Canes Venatici Canis Major Canis Minor Capricornus Carina Cassiopeia Centaurus Cepheus Cetus Chamaeleon Circinus Columba Coma Berenices Corona Australis Corona Borealis Corvus Crater Crux Cygnus Delphinus Dorado Draco Equuleus Eridanus Fornax Gemini Grus Hercules Horologium Hydra Hydrus Indus Lacerta Leo Leo Minor Lepus Libra Lupus Lynx Lyra Mensa Microscopium Monoceros Musca Norma Octans Ophiuchus Orion Pavo Pegasus Perseus Phoenix Pictor Pisces Piscis Austrinus Puppis Pyxis Reticulum Sagitta Sagittarius Scorpius Sculptor Scutum Serpens Sextans Taurus Telescopium Triangulum Triangulum Australe Tucana Ursa Major Ursa Minor Vela Virgo Volans Vulpecula Lists of constellations Constellation history The 48 constellations listed by Ptolemy after 150 AD Andromeda Aquarius Aquila Ara Argo Navis Aries Auriga Boötes Cancer Canis Major Canis Minor Capricornus Cassiopeia Centaurus Cepheus Cetus Corona Australis Corona Borealis Corvus Crater Cygnus Delphinus Draco Equuleus Eridanus Gemini Hercules Hydra Leo Lepus Libra Lupus Lyra Ophiuchus Orion Pegasus Perseus Pisces Piscis Austrinus Sagitta Sagittarius Scorpius Serpens Taurus Triangulum Ursa Major Ursa Minor Virgo The 41 additional constellations added in the 16th and 17th centuries Vespucci or Corsalius early 16c : Crux Triangulum Australe Vopel 1536 : Coma Berenices Keyser & de Houtman 1596 : Apus Chamaeleon Dorado Grus Hydrus Indus Musca Pavo Phoenix Tucana Volans Plancius 1613 : Camelopardalis Columba Monoceros Habrecht 1621 : Reticulum Hevelius 1683 : Canes Venatici Lacerta Leo Minor Lynx Scutum Sextans Vulpecula de Lacaille 1763 : Antlia Caelum Carina Circinus Fornax Horologium Mensa Microscopium Norma Octans Pictor Puppis Pyxis Sculptor Telescopium Vela Obsolete constellations ( including Ptolemy 's Argo Navis ) Anser Antinous Apes Argo Navis Asterion Cancer Minor Cerberus Chara Custos Messium Felis Frederici Honores / Gloria Frederici Gallus Globus Aerostaticus Jordanus Lilium Lochium Funis Machina Electrica Malus Mons Maenalus Musca Borealis Noctua Officina Typographica Polophylax Psalterium Georgianum / Harpa Georgii Quadrans Muralis Ramus Pomifer Robur Carolinum Sceptrum Brandenburgicum Sceptrum et Manus Iustitiae Solarium Rangifer / Tarandus Taurus Poniatovii Telescopium Herschelii Testudo Tigris Triangulum Minus Turdus Solitarius Vespa Vultur cadens Vultur volans obsolete constellation names Apis Phoenicopterus Serpentarius Xiphias The Zodiac Astrological signs Aries Taurus Gemini Cancer Leo Virgo Libra Scorpio Sagittarius Capricorn Aquarius Pisces Western astrology House Triplicity Mode Cardinal Fixed Mutable Binary Positive ( astrology ) Negative ( astrology ) Related Ophiuchus Astronomy Axial precession Constellations of the Ecliptic Ecliptic coordinate system Planets in astrology Zodiacal light Constellations of the Polynesian culture ʻA Ake Ake ʻAkepa Akiapolaʻau ʻAkikiki ʻAkohekohe ʻAlauahio ʻAmakihi ʻAnianiau ʻApapane ' Elepaio Ewa ʻEwa Hānaiakamalama Heiheionakeiki Hikianalia Hōkūleʻa Hokulei Hōkūpa'a Hunakai Iwa Iwakeli'i Keali'iokonaikalewa Ke Kā o Makali'i Koaʻe Keʻa Koaʻeʻula ʻLo Manaiakalani Manu Moli Nahiku Nāmāhoe Noio Omaʻo Ou ʻOʻu Pakalakala Palila Poʻouli Puaiʻohi Pueo ʻUaʻu ʻUlili Constellations listed by Ptolemy after 150 AD Andromeda Aquarius Aquila Ara Argo Navis Aries Auriga Boötes Cancer Canis Major Canis Minor Capricornus Cassiopeia Centaurus Cepheus Cetus Corona Australis Corona Borealis Corvus Crater Cygnus Delphinus Draco Equuleus Eridanus Gemini Hercules Hydra Leo Lepus Libra Lupus Lyra Ophiuchus Orion Pegasus Perseus Pisces Piscis Austrinus Sagitta Sagittarius Scorpius Serpens Taurus Triangulum Ursa Major Ursa Minor Virgo Constellations created and listed by Dutch celestial cartographers ( c. 1592 -- 1614 ) Dutch - introduced constellations IAU - recognized Apus Camelopardalis Chamaeleon Columba Dorado Grus Hydrus Indus Monoceros Musca / Apis Phoenix Triangulum Australe Tucana Volans Obsolete Apes / Musca Borealis Cancer Minor Gallus Jordanus Tigris People Pieter Dirkszoon Keyser Frederick de Houtman Petrus Plancius Jodocus Hondius General First systematic mapping of the far southern sky in history of celestial cartography ( c. 1595 -- 1599 ) Dutch celestial cartography in the Age of Exploration Constellations listed by Petrus Plancius Astronomy in the Dutch Republic Cartography in the Dutch Republic Golden Age of Dutch cartography Golden Age of Netherlandish cartography Dutch Republic in the Age of Discovery First Dutch Expedition to Indonesia ( 1595 -- 1597 ) Harmonia Macrocosmica ( 1660 star atlas by Andreas Cellarius ) Related Uranometria ( 1603 star atlas by Johann Bayer ) Constellations listed by Ptolemy Constellations listed by Johannes Hevelius Constellations listed by Nicolas Louis de Lacaille IAU 's 88 modern constellations Former constellations ( obsolete constellations ) History of the constellations Southern constellation Northern constellation Equatorial constellation Constellations introduced by Johannes Hevelius after 1687 IAU - recognized constellations Canes Venatici Lacerta Leo Minor Lynx Scutum Sextans Vulpecula Obsolete constellations ( non-IAU constellations ) Cerberus Mons Maenalus Triangulum Minus Constellations introduced by Nicolas - Louis de Lacaille after 1756 Antlia Caelum Circinus Fornax Horologium Mensa Microscopium Norma Octans Pictor Pyxis Reticulum Sculptor Telescopium BNE : XX526570 BNF : cb119369174 ( data ) GND : 4057357 - 6 LCCN : sh85031313 NDL : 00570477 Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Constellation&oldid=843088128 '' Categories : Constellations Astronomy Celestial cartography History of astronomy Hidden categories : Articles containing Latin - language text Articles containing Hebrew - language text All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from July 2017 Wikipedia spam cleanup from August 2016 Wikipedia further reading cleanup Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Talk Contents About Wikipedia Wikisource Afrikaans Alemannisch Armãneashti Asturianu Avañe'ẽ Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه বাংলা Bân - 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who are the sirens in brother where art thou

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=O_Brother,_Where_Art_Thou%3F&oldid=812132823

O Brother , Where Art Thou ? - Wikipedia O Brother , Where Art Thou ? Jump to : navigation , search For the film soundtrack , see O Brother , Where Art Thou ? ( soundtrack ) . For the unrelated Simpsons episodes , see Oh Brother , Where Art Thou ? and O Brother , Where Bart Thou ? O Brother , Where Art Thou ? Theatrical release poster Directed by Joel Coen Produced by Ethan Coen Written by Ethan Coen Joel Coen Based on The Odyssey by Homer Starring George Clooney John Turturro Tim Blake Nelson Charles Durning Michael Badalucco John Goodman Holly Hunter Music by T Bone Burnett Cinematography Roger Deakins Edited by Roderick Jaynes Tricia Cooke Production company Working Title Films Distributed by Buena Vista Pictures Distribution Release date October 19 , 2000 ( 2000 - 10 - 19 ) Running time 107 minutes Country United Kingdom United States France Language English Budget $26 million Box office $72 million O Brother , Where Art Thou ? is a 2000 crime comedy film written , produced , and directed by Joel and Ethan Coen , and starring George Clooney , John Turturro , and Tim Blake Nelson , with John Goodman , Holly Hunter , and Charles Durning in supporting roles . Set in 1937 rural Mississippi during the Great Depression , the film 's story is a modern satire loosely based on Homer 's epic poem , Odyssey . The title of the film is a reference to the 1941 film Sullivan 's Travels , in which the protagonist ( a director ) wants to film O Brother , Where Art Thou ? , a fictional book about the Great Depression . Much of the music used in the film is period folk music , including that of Virginia bluegrass singer Ralph Stanley . The movie was one of the first to extensively use digital color correction , to give the film an autumnal , sepia - tinted look . The film received positive reviews , and the soundtrack , O Brother , Where Art Thou ? , using American folk music , won a Grammy Award for Album of the Year in 2001 . The original band soon became popular after the film release and the country and folk musicians who were dubbed into the film , such as John Hartford , Alison Krauss , Emmylou Harris , Gillian Welch , Chris Sharp , and others , joined together to perform the music from the film in a Down from the Mountain concert tour which was filmed for TV and DVD . Contents ( hide ) 1 Plot 2 Cast 3 Production 4 Music 5 Release 5.1 Critical reception 5.2 Accolades 6 Soggy Bottom Boys 7 References 8 External links Plot ( edit ) Three convicts , Ulysses Everett McGill , Pete Hogwallop , and Delmar O'Donnell , escape from a chain gang and set out to retrieve a supposed treasure Everett buried before the area is flooded to make a lake . The three get a lift from a blind man driving a handcar on a railway . He tells them , among other prophecies , that they will find a fortune but not the one they seek . The trio make their way to the house of Wash , Pete 's cousin . They sleep in the barn , but Wash reports them to Sheriff Cooley , who , along with his men , torches the barn . Wash 's son helps them escape . They pick up Tommy Johnson , a young black man , who claims he sold his soul to the devil in exchange for the ability to play guitar . In need of money , the four stop at a radio station where they record a song as The Soggy Bottom Boys . That night , the trio part ways with Tommy after their car is discovered by the police . Unbeknownst to them , the recording becomes a major hit . Near a river , the group hears singing . They see three women washing clothes and singing . The women drug them with corn whiskey and they lose consciousness . Upon waking , Delmar finds Pete 's clothes lying next to him , empty except for a toad . Delmar is convinced the women were Sirens and transformed Pete into the toad . Later , one - eyed Bible salesman Big Dan Teague invites them for a picnic lunch , then mugs them and kills the toad . Everett and Delmar arrive in Everett 's home town . Everett confronts his wife Penny , who changed her last name and told his daughters he was dead . He gets into a fight with Vernon T. Waldrip , her new `` suitor . '' They later see Pete working on a chain gang . Later that night , they sneak into Pete 's holding cell and free him . As it turns out , the women had dragged Pete away and turned him in to the authorities . Under torture , Pete gave away the treasure 's location to the police . Everett then confesses that there is no treasure . He made it up to convince the guys he was chained with to escape with him in order to stop his wife from getting married . Pete is enraged at Everett , because he had two weeks left on his original sentence , and must serve fifty more years for the escape . The trio stumble upon a rally of the Ku Klux Klan , who are planning to hang Tommy . The trio disguise themselves as Klansmen and attempt to rescue Tommy . However , Big Dan , a Klan member , reveals their identities . Chaos ensues , and the Grand Wizard reveals himself as Homer Stokes , a candidate in the upcoming gubernatorial election . The trio rush Tommy away and cut the supports of a large burning cross , leaving it to fall on Big Dan . Everett convinces Pete , Delmar and Tommy to help him win his wife back . They sneak into a Stokes campaign gala dinner she is attending , disguised as musicians . The group begins a performance of their radio hit . The crowd recognizes the song and goes wild . Homer recognizes them as the group who humiliated his mob . When he demands the group be arrested and reveals his white supremacist views , the crowd runs him out of town on a rail . Pappy O'Daniel , the incumbent candidate , seizes the opportunity , endorses the Soggy Bottom Boys and grants them full pardons . Penny agrees to marry Everett with the condition that he find her original ring . The next morning , the group sets out to retrieve the ring , which is at a cabin in the valley which Everett had earlier claimed was the location of his treasure . The police , having learned of the place from Pete , arrest the group . Dismissing their claims of having received pardons , Sheriff Cooley orders them hanged . Just as Everett prays to God , the valley is flooded and they are saved . Tommy finds the ring in a desk that floats by , and they return to town . However , when Everett presents the ring to Penny , it turns out it was not her ring , she does n't want that one , and she ca n't remember where she put the real ring . Cast ( edit ) George Clooney as Ulysses Everett McGill , a man who is imprisoned for practicing law without a license . He claims to have escaped from prison so he can find a stash of money he had hidden , though in reality it is so he can get back to his family before his wife remarries . He corresponds to Odysseus ( Ulysses ) in the Odyssey . John Turturro , as Pete Hogwallop , a fellow criminal who reveals little about his past . He believes in being true to one 's kin , even when his cousin Washington B. Hogwallop betrays him . He dreams of moving out west and opening a fine restaurant , where he will be the maître d ' . He agreed to go along with the breakout , though he only had two weeks left on his sentence . Tim Blake Nelson as Delmar O'Donnell , a small - time crook imprisoned for robbing a Piggly Wiggly in Yazoo City ; he initially claims innocence but later admits he is guilty . Delmar says he will spend his share of Everett 's nonexistent money buying back his family farm , believing , `` You ai n't no kind of man if you ai n't got land . '' Chris Thomas King as Tommy Johnson , a skilled blues musician . He is the accompanying guitarist in the Soggy Bottom Boys . He claims he sold his soul to the devil in exchange for his skill on the guitar . He shares his name and story with Tommy Johnson , a blues musician with a mysterious past , who is said to have sold his soul to the devil at the Crossroads ( a story more often attributed to Robert Johnson ) . Frank Collison as Washington B. `` Wash '' Hogwallop , Pete 's paternal cousin . He removes the escapees ' chains but later betrays the men to the police . John Goodman as Daniel `` Big Dan '' Teague , a one - eyed man who masquerades as a Bible salesman and mugs Everett and Delmar . He later reveals the identity of the trio when they are disguised at a Ku Klux Klan rally , but they kill him by cutting loose a burning cross , which falls on him and the Klansmen . He corresponds to the cyclops Polyphemus in the Odyssey . Holly Hunter as Penny , Everett 's ex-wife , who is fed up with Everett 's wheeling and dealing . She divorces him while he is in prison , telling their children he was hit by a Louisville & Nashville train . She is engaged to Vernon T. Waldrip until Everett wins her back . She corresponds to Penelope in the Odyssey . ( Penelope is an icon of the faithful wife , as she rejected her many suitors , stalling for time while awaiting Odysseus ' return . ) Charles Durning as Menelaus `` Pappy '' O'Daniel , the incumbent Governor of Mississippi . He is frequently seen berating his son and his campaign managers , who are depicted as simpletons . The character is based on Texas governor W. Lee `` Pappy '' O'Daniel . ( Flensted - Jensen elaborates on the connection between the fictional and the real Pappy O'Daniel . ) He corresponds to Menelaus in the Odyssey . Daniel von Bargen as Sheriff Cooley , a ruthless rural sheriff who , with his bloodhound , pursues the trio for the duration of the film . It is implied several times that he is the devil incarnate , and Cooley fits Tommy Johnson 's description of Satan : Cooley 's sunglasses evoke Satan 's `` big empty eyes . '' He eventually ambushes the escapees after they have been pardoned by the governor . He intends to hang them nonetheless , but when the valley is flooded , he , his men , and his dog all drown . He corresponds to Poseidon in the Odyssey . He has been compared to Boss Godfrey in Cool Hand Luke . Wayne Duvall as Homer Stokes , the reform candidate in the upcoming election for Governor . He travels the countryside with a dwarf , who depicts the `` little man '' , and a broom , with which he promises to `` sweep this state clean . '' He is secretly an Imperial Wizard in the Ku Klux Klan . He falsely identifies Everett , Pete , and Delmar as people of color because they darkened their faces to remain unseen when freeing Tommy . Ray McKinnon as Vernon T. Waldrip , Penny 's bona fide suitor and the manager of Homer Stokes 's election campaign . It has been suggested that his name is a nod to novelist Howard Waldrop , whose novella A Dozen Tough Jobs is one of the inspirations for the film . He corresponds to the Suitors of Penelope in the Odyssey . Michael Badalucco as George Nelson , a bipolar bank robber who dislikes being called `` Baby Face . '' The real George Nelson died in 1934 , three years before the story is set . Nelson died in a shootout known as the Battle of Barrington rather than by electric chair , as suggested in the film . Stephen Root as Mr. Lund , the blind radio station manager who records Everett 's story in the song `` Man of Constant Sorrow '' and makes him known throughout the state . He corresponds to Homer . Lee Weaver as the Blind Seer , a mysterious railroad man who accurately predicts the outcome of the trio 's adventure as well as several other incidents . He corresponds to Tiresias in the Odyssey . Production ( edit ) The idea of O Brother , Where Art Thou ? arose spontaneously . Work on the script began long before the start of production in December 1997 and was at least half - written by May 1998 . Despite the fact that Ethan Coen described the Odyssey as `` one of my favorite storyline schemes , '' neither of the brothers had read the epic and were only familiar with its content through adaptations and numerous references to the Odyssey in popular culture . According to the brothers , Nelson ( who has a degree in classics from Brown University ) was the only person on the set who had read the Odyssey . The title of the film is a reference to the 1941 Preston Sturges film Sullivan 's Travels , in which the protagonist ( a director ) wants to direct a film about the Great Depression called O Brother , Where Art Thou ? that will be a `` commentary on modern conditions , stark realism , and the problems that confront the average man . '' Lacking any experience in this area , the director sets out on a journey to experience the human suffering of the average man but is sabotaged by his anxious studio . The film has some similarity in tone to Sturges 's film , including scenes with prison gangs and a black church choir . The prisoners at the picture show scene is also a direct homage to a nearly identical scene in Sturges 's film . Joel Coen revealed in a 2000 interview that he came to Phoenix , Arizona , to offer the lead role to Clooney . Clooney agreed to do the role immediately , without reading the script . He stated that he liked even the Coens ' least successful films . Clooney did not immediately understand his character and sent the script to his uncle Jack who lived in Kentucky and asked him to read the entire script into a tape recorder . Unknown to Clooney , in his recording , Jack , a devout Baptist , omitted all instances of the words `` damn '' and `` hell '' from the Coens ' script , which only became known to Clooney after the directors pointed this out to him in the middle of shooting . This was the fourth film of the brothers in which John Turturro has starred . Other actors in O Brother , Where Art Thou ? who had worked previously with the Coens include John Goodman ( three films ) , Holly Hunter ( two ) , Michael Badalucco and Charles Durning ( one film each ) . The Coens used digital color correction to give the film a sepia - tinted look . Joel stated this was because the actual set was `` greener than Ireland . '' Cinematographer Roger Deakins stated , `` Ethan and Joel favored a dry , dusty Delta look with golden sunsets . They wanted it to look like an old hand - tinted picture , with the intensity of colors dictated by the scene and natural skin tones that were all shades of the rainbow . '' Initially the crew tried to perform the color correction using a physical process , however after several tries with various chemical processes proved unsatisfactory , it became necessary to perform the process digitally . This was the fifth film collaboration between the Coen Brothers and Deakins , and it was slated to be shot in Mississippi at a time of year when the foliage , grass , trees , and bushes would be a lush green . It was filmed near locations in Canton , Mississippi and Florence , South Carolina in the summer of 1999 . After shooting tests , including film bipack and bleach bypass techniques , Deakins suggested digital mastering be used . Deakins subsequently spent 11 weeks fine - tuning the look , mainly targeting the greens , making them a burnt yellow and desaturating the overall image in the digital files . This made it the first feature film to be entirely color corrected by digital means , narrowly beating Nick Park 's Chicken Run . O Brother , Where Art Thou ? was the first time a digital intermediate was used on the entirety of a first - run Hollywood film that otherwise had very few visual effects . The work was done in Los Angeles by Cinesite using a Spirit DataCine for scanning at 2K resolution , a Pandora MegaDef to adjust the color , and a Kodak Lightning II recorder to put out to film . A major theme of the film is the connection between old - time music and political campaigning in the Southern U.S. It makes reference to the traditions , institutions , and campaign practices of bossism and political reform that defined Southern politics in the first half of the 20th century . The Ku Klux Klan , at the time a political force of white populism , is depicted burning crosses and engaging in ceremonial dance . The character Menelaus `` Pappy '' O'Daniel , the governor of Mississippi and host of the radio show The Flour Hour , is similar in name and demeanor to W. Lee `` Pappy '' O'Daniel , one - time Governor of Texas and later U.S. Senator from that state . W. Lee O'Daniel was in the flour business , and used a backing band called the Light Crust Doughboys on his radio show . In one campaign , W. Lee O'Daniel carried a broom , an oft - used campaign device in the reform era , promising to sweep away patronage and corruption . His theme song had the hook , `` Please pass the biscuits , Pappy '' , emphasizing his connection with flour . While the film borrows from real - life politics , differences are obvious between the characters in the film and historical political figures . The O'Daniel of the movie used `` You Are My Sunshine '' as his theme song ( which was originally recorded by real - life Governor of Louisiana James Houston `` Jimmie '' Davis ) and Homer Stokes , as the challenger to the incumbent O'Daniel , portrays himself as the `` reform candidate '' , using a broom as a prop . Music ( edit ) See also : O Brother , Where Art Thou ? ( soundtrack ) and Down from the Mountain Music in the film was originally conceived as a major component of the film , not merely as a background or a support . Producer and musician T - Bone Burnett worked with the Coens while the script was still in its working phases , and the soundtrack was recorded before filming commenced . Much of the music used in the film is period - specific folk music , including that of Virginia bluegrass singer Ralph Stanley . The musical selection also includes religious music , including Primitive Baptist and traditional African American gospel , most notably the Fairfield Four , an a cappella quartet with a career extending back to 1921 who appear in the soundtrack and as gravediggers towards the film 's end . Selected songs in the film reflect the possible spectrum of musical styles typical of the old culture of the American South : gospel , delta blues , country , swing and bluegrass . The use of dirges and other macabre songs is a theme that often recurs in Appalachian music ( `` O Death '' , `` Lonesome Valley '' , `` Angel Band '' , `` I Am Weary '' ) in contrast to bright , cheerful songs ( `` Keep On the Sunny Side '' , `` In the Highways '' ) in other parts of the film . The voices of the Soggy Bottom Boys were provided by Dan Tyminski ( lead vocal on `` Man of Constant Sorrow '' ) , Nashville songwriter Harley Allen , and the Nashville Bluegrass Band 's Pat Enright . The three won a CMA Award for Single of the Year and a Grammy Award for Best Country Collaboration with Vocals , both for the song `` Man of Constant Sorrow '' . Tim Blake Nelson sang the lead vocal on `` In the Jailhouse Now '' . `` Man of Constant Sorrow '' has five variations : two are used in the film , one in the music video , and two in the soundtrack album . Two of the variations feature the verses being sung back - to - back , and the other three variations feature additional music between each verse . Though the song received little significant radio airplay , it reached # 35 on the U.S. Billboard Hot Country Singles & Tracks chart in 2002 . The version of `` I 'll Fly Away '' heard in the film is performed not by Krauss and Welch ( as it is on the CD and concert tour ) , but by the Kossoy Sisters with Erik Darling accompanying on long - neck five - string banjo , recorded in 1956 for the album Bowling Green on Tradition Records . Release ( edit ) The film premiered at the AFI Film Festival on October 19 , 2000 . It grossed $71,868,327 worldwide off its $26 million budget . Critical reception ( edit ) Review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes gives it a score of 77 % based on 147 reviews and an average score of 7.1 / 10 . The consensus reads : `` Though not as good as Coen brothers ' classics such as Blood Simple , the delightfully loopy O Brother , Where Art Thou ? is still a lot of fun . '' The film holds an average score of 69 / 100 on Metacritic based on 30 reviews . Roger Ebert gave two and a half out of four stars to the film , saying all the scenes in the film were `` wonderful in their different ways , and yet I left the movie uncertain and unsatisfied '' . Accolades ( edit ) The film was selected into the main competition of the 2000 Cannes Film Festival . The film also received two Academy Award nominations at the 73rd Academy Awards : Best Adapted Screenplay and Best Cinematography . Cinematographer Roger Deakins was recognized with both Academy Award and ASC Outstanding Achievement Award nominations for his work on the film . For his portrayal of Ulysses Everett McGill , George Clooney received the Golden Globe Award for Best Actor -- Motion Picture Musical or Comedy . The film was also nominated for the Golden Globe Award for Best Motion Picture -- Musical or Comedy . Soggy Bottom Boys ( edit ) The Soggy Bottom Boys , the musical group that the main characters form , serve as accompaniment for the film . The name is an homage to the Foggy Mountain Boys , a bluegrass band led by Lester Flatt and Earl Scruggs . In the film , the songs credited to the band are lip - synched by the actors , except that Tim Blake Nelson does sing his own vocals on `` In the Jailhouse Now . '' The actual musicians are Dan Tyminski ( guitar and lead vocals ) , Harley Allen , and Pat Enright . The band 's hit single is Dick Burnett 's `` Man of Constant Sorrow , '' a song that had already enjoyed much success in real life . After the film 's release , the fictitious band became so popular that the country and folk musicians who were dubbed into the film , such as Ralph Stanley , John Hartford , Alison Krauss , Emmylou Harris , Gillian Welch , Chris Sharp , and others , all got together and performed the music from the film in a Down from the Mountain concert tour which was filmed for TV and DVD . References ( edit ) ^ Jump up to : `` O Brother , Where Art Thou ? '' . American Film Institute . Retrieved October 24 , 2016 . ^ Jump up to : `` Box Office Data :O Brother Where Art Thou '' . The Numbers.com . ^ Jump up to : `` O Brother , Where Art Thou ? ( 2000 ) '' . Box Office Mojo . Retrieved January 8 , 2008 . Jump up ^ Richard J. Gray , Owen Robinson . A companion to the literature and culture of the American south . Blackwell Publishing Ltd . ISBN 978 - 0 - 631 - 22404 - 4 . ^ Jump up to : Lafrance , J.D. ( April 5 , 2004 ) . `` The Coen Brothers FAQ '' ( PDF ) . pp. 33 -- 35 . Retrieved November 8 , 2007 . ^ Jump up to : Menaker , Daniel ( November 30 , 2000 ) . `` A Film Score Odyssey Down a Quirky Country Road '' . The New York Times . Retrieved February 4 , 2010 . ^ Jump up to : `` NPR : Pioneering Bluegrass Musician Ralph Stanley '' . National Public Radio . Retrieved November 2 , 2007 . ^ Jump up to : Robertson , Barbara ( May 1 , 2006 ) . `` CGSociety -- The Colorists '' . The Colorists . The CGSociety . p. 3 . Retrieved October 24 , 2007 . Filmed near locations in Canton , MS ; Florence , SC ; and Wardville , LA . ^ Jump up to : `` 2001 Grammy Awards -- Infoplease.com '' . 2001 Grammy Award Winners . Infoplease.com . February 27 , 2000 . Retrieved November 8 , 2007 . ^ Jump up to : Flensted - Jensen , Pernille ( 2002 ) , `` Something old , something new , something borrowed : the Odyssey and O Brother , Where Art Thou '' , Classica Et Mediaevalia : Revue Danoise De Philologie , 53 : 13 -- 30 Jump up ^ `` The real king of delta blues - Tommy Johnson '' . Erinharpe.com . Retrieved 24 August 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Blues Singers '' . University of Virginia . Retrieved 24 August 2016 . Jump up ^ Sorin , Hillary ( August 4 , 2010 ) , `` Today in Texas History : Gov. Pappy O'Daniel resigns '' , The Houston Chronicle , retrieved August 2 , 2011 , Many cultural and political historians think the character Gov. Menelaus `` Pappy '' O'Daniel of Mississippi is based on the notorious Texas politician , Wilbert Lee `` Pappy '' O'Daniel . Jump up ^ Conard , Mark T . The Philosophy of the Coen Brothers ( 2009 ) Jump up ^ Datlow , Ellen ; Howard Waldrop ( 2003 ) . `` Howard Waldrop Interviewed '' . Readercon 15 . Retrieved November 9 , 2007 . Jump up ^ Michel Ciment , Hubert Niogret. ( 1998 ) . The Logic of Soft Drugs . Positive . Jump up ^ Tim Blake Nelson Biography Archived June 28 , 2011 , at the Wayback Machine . Jump up ^ Kari Molvar , `` '' Q&A : Tim Blake Nelson `` '' . Archived from the original on December 26 , 2001 . Retrieved December 26 , 2001 . , Brown Alumni Magazine ( March / April 2001 ) . Jump up ^ Romney , Jonathan ( May 18 , 2000 ) . `` Double Vision '' . The Guardin . Retrieved February 14 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Sullivan 's Travels ( 1941 ) '' . Retrieved November 8 , 2007 . Jump up ^ Hochman , Steve . `` George Clooney : O Brother , Where Art Thou ? '' . Los Angeles Times . Retrieved October 8 , 2013 . ^ Jump up to : Sharf , Zach . `` The Coen Brothers and George Clooney Uncover the Magic of ' O Brother , Where Art Thou ? ' at 15th Anniversary Reunion '' . Indiewire . Retrieved 19 November 2015 . ^ Jump up to : Allen , Robert . `` Digital Domain '' . The Digital Domain : A brief history of digital film mastering -- a glance at the future . Retrieved May 14 , 2007 . Jump up ^ `` O Brother , Where Art Thou : Box office / business '' . IMDb . Archived from the original on January 30 , 2012 . Retrieved February 13 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Fisher , Bob ( October 2000 ) . `` Escaping from chains '' . American Cinematographer . Jump up ^ Crawford , Bill ( 2004 ) . Please Pass the Biscuits , Pappy : Pictures of Governor W. Lee `` Pappy '' O'Daniel . University of Texas Press . p. 19 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 292 - 70575 - 3 . Jump up ^ `` Pappy O'Daniel '' . Texas Treasures . Texas State Library . March 11 , 2003 . Retrieved November 2 , 2007 . ^ Jump up to : Walker , Jesse ( August 19 , 2003 ) . `` Pass the Biscuits -- We 're living in Pappy O'Daniel's world '' . Reason . Retrieved November 2 , 2007 . ^ Jump up to : Boulard , Garry ( February 5 , 2002 ) . `` Following the Leaders '' . Gambit Weekly . Gambit Weekly . p. 1 . Retrieved November 9 , 2007 . Jump up ^ `` River of Song : The Artists '' . Louisiana : Where Music is King . The Filmmakers Collaborative & The Smithsonian Institution . 1998 . Retrieved November 2 , 2007 . Jump up ^ `` O Brother , why art thou so popular ? '' . BBC News . February 28 , 2002 . Retrieved February 14 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Romney , Jonathan ( May 18 , 2000 ) . `` Double Vision '' . The Guardian . Retrieved February 14 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Ridley , Jim ( May 22 , 2000 ) . `` Talking with Joel and Ethan Coen about ' O Brother , Where Art Thou ? ' '' . Nashville Scene . Retrieved February 14 , 2012 . Jump up ^ McClatchy , Debbie ( June 27 , 2000 ) . `` A Short History of Appalachian Traditional Music '' . Appalachian Traditional Music -- A Short History . Retrieved November 8 , 2007 . ^ Jump up to : `` Soggy Bottom Boys Hit the Top at 35th CMA Awards '' . Retrieved November 8 , 2007 . Jump up ^ Long , Roger J. ( April 9 , 2006 ) . `` '' O Brother , Where Art Thou ? '' entry page `` . Retrieved November 9 , 2007 . Jump up ^ `` O Brother , why art thou so popular '' . BBC News . February 28 , 2002 . p. 1 . Retrieved November 8 , 2007 . Jump up ^ `` Top Music Charts -- Hot 100 -- Billboard 200 -- Music Genre Sales '' . p. 1 . Archived from the original on December 23 , 2007 . Retrieved November 2 , 2007 . Jump up ^ `` O Kossoy Sisters , Where Art Thou Been ? '' . Retrieved January 8 , 2009 . Jump up ^ `` O Brother , Where Art Thou ? ( 2000 ) '' . Rotten Tomatoes . Flixster . Retrieved January 11 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Reviews for O Brother , Where Art Thou ? ( 2000 ) '' . Metacritic . Retrieved November 9 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Ebert , Roger ( December 29 , 2000 ) . `` O Brother , Where Art Thou ? Review '' . The Chicago Sun Times . Rogerebert.com . Retrieved February 14 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Festival de Cannes : O Brother , Where Art Thou ? '' . festival-cannes.com . Retrieved October 10 , 2009 . Jump up ^ Temple Kirby , Jack ( 2006 ) . Mockingbird Song : Ecological Landscapes of the South . UNC Press . p. 314 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 8078 - 3057 - 4 . Jump up ^ Rowell , Erica ( 2007 ) . The Brothers Grim : The Films of Ethan and Joel Coen . Rowman & Littlefield . p. 276 n. 59 . ISBN 978 - 0810858503 . Excerpts available at Google Books . Jump up ^ Johnson , Zac . `` The Soggy Bottom Boys '' . AllMusic . Jump up ^ `` Man of Constant Sorrow ( trad. / The Stanley Brothers / Bob Dylan ) '' . Man of Constant Sorrow . Retrieved November 2 , 2007 . External links ( edit ) Mississippi portal Film portal Wikiquote has quotations related to : O Brother , Where Art Thou ? O Brother , Where Art Thou ? on IMDb O Brother , Where Art Thou ? at AllMovie O Brother , Where Art Thou ? at Box Office Mojo O Brother , Where Art Thou ? at Rotten Tomatoes `` Coenesque : The Films of the Coen Brothers '' . `` American Myth Today : O Brother , Where Art Thou ? '' . American Studies at the University of Virginia Works by the Coen brothers Filmography Awards and nominations Frequent collaborators Films directed Blood Simple ( 1984 ) Raising Arizona ( 1987 ) Miller 's Crossing ( 1990 ) Barton Fink ( 1991 ) The Hudsucker Proxy ( 1994 ) Fargo ( 1996 ) The Big Lebowski ( 1998 ) O Brother , Where Art Thou ? ( 2000 ) The Man Who Was n't There ( 2001 ) Intolerable Cruelty ( 2003 ) The Ladykillers ( 2004 ) No Country for Old Men ( 2007 ) Burn After Reading ( 2008 ) A Serious Man ( 2009 ) True Grit ( 2010 ) Inside Llewyn Davis ( 2013 ) Hail , Caesar ! ( 2016 ) Written only Crimewave ( 1985 ) The Naked Man ( 1998 ) Gambit ( 2012 ) Unbroken ( 2014 ) Bridge of Spies ( 2015 ) Suburbicon ( 2017 ) Television The Ballad of Buster Scruggs ( 2018 ) Homer 's Odyssey ( 8th century BC ) Characters Characters House of Odysseus Penelope ( wife ) Telemachus ( son ) Anticlea ( mother ) Laërtes ( father ) Autolycus ( grandfather ) Eurycleia ( chief servant ) Mentor ( advisor ) Phemius ( musician ) Eumaeus ( swineherd ) Philoetius ( cowherd ) Melanthius ( goatherd ) Argos ( pet - dog ) Monarchs and royals Alcinous of Phaeacia Arete of Phaeacia Nestor of Pylos Menelaus of Sparta Princess Nausicaa of Phaeacia Agamemnon of Mycenae Gods Athena Apollo Artemis Atlas Calypso Circe Hermes Poseidon Zeus Oceanus Others Achilles Aeolus Ajax Amphimedon Anticlus Antiphates Antiphus Aretus Cyclopes Demodocus Demoptolemus Deucalion Dolius Echephron Echetus Elpenor Eupeithes Euryalus Eurylochus Halitherses Helen Heracles Idomeneus Irus Kikonians Laodamas Laestrygones Medon Melantho Mentes Old Man of the Sea Peisistratus Perimedes Perseus Polites Polydamna Polyphemus Scylla and Charybdis Sirens Stratichus Tiresias Theoclymenus Thrasymedes Suitors Agelaus Amphinomus Antinous Ctesippus Eurymachus Leodes Odyssean gods Athena Poseidon Calypso Circe Ino Hermes Zeus Heracles Films L'Odissea ( 1911 Italian ) Ulysses ( 1954 Italian ) Ulysses ' Gaze ( 1995 Greek ) O Brother , Where Art Thou ? ( 2000 ) Keyhole ( 2012 ) TV L'Odissea ( 1968 ) Ulysses 31 ( 1981 Japanese anime ) The Odyssey ( 1997 ) Odysseus and the Isle of the Mists ( 2007 ) Star Trek : Odyssey ( 2007 ) Literature True History ( 2nd century AD ) Les Aventures de Télémaque ( 1699 ) The World 's Desire ( 1890 ) Ulysses ( 1922 ) The Human Comedy ( 1943 ) Big Fish : A Novel of Mythic Proportions ( 1998 ) Trojan Odyssey ( 2003 ) The Penelopiad ( 2005 ) The Lost Books of the Odyssey ( 2010 ) Poems Ulysses ( 1842 ) The Odyssey : A Modern Sequel ( 1938 ) The Cantos ( 1962 ) Pagan Operetta ( 1998 ) Stage Current Nobody ( play ) Cyclops ( play ) Ithaka ( play ) Il ritorno d'Ulisse in patria ( opera ) The Golden Apple ( musical ) Glam Slam Ulysses ( musical ) Home Sweet Homer ( musical ) Song `` Tales of Brave Ulysses '' ( song ) `` The Odyssey '' ( song ) The Odyssey ( symphony ) Study Homeric scholarship Homeric Question Chorizontes Geography of the Odyssey Historicity of the Homer epics Odysseus Unbound Homer 's Ithaca Rediscovering Homer The Baltic Origins of Homer 's Epic Tales `` Odysseus ' scar '' Hermoniakos ' Iliad Hysteron proteron Epithets in Homer Dactylic hexameter Translations `` On First Looking into Chapman 's Homer '' On Translating Homer Video games Odyssey : The Search for Ulysses Wishbone and the Amazing Odyssey Phrases In medias res Between Scylla and Charybdis Related Telemachy Nekyia Trojan Horse Suitors of Penelope The Odyssey Old Man of the Sea The Apotheosis of Homer Contempt Cold Mountain ( novel ) Cold Mountain ( film ) Homer 's Daughter Faust Characters Inspiration Johann Georg Faust Johann Fust Simon Magus Theophilus of Adana Legend Erdgeist Faust Mephistopheles Pan Twardowski Comics Doctor Faustus Felix Faust Mephisto Mys - Tech Sebastian Faust Seminal works Historia von D. Johann Fausten ( 1587 chapbook ) Cenodoxus ( 1602 , play ) Doctor Faustus ( 1604 play ) Goethe 's Faust ( 1808 play ) Faust , Part One Faust , Part Two Related Deal with the Devil in popular culture Works based on Faust G vs E Vi veri universum vivus vici Stingy Jack Films Faust and Marguerite ( 1900 ) The Damnation of Faust ( 1903 ) Faust and Marguerite ( 1904 ) The Student of Prague ( 1913 ) The Student of Prague ( 1926 ) Faust ( 1926 ) The Devil and Daniel Webster ( 1941 ) Alias Nick Beal ( 1949 ) Beauty and the Devil ( 1950 ) Marguerite de la nuit ( 1955 ) Damn Yankees ( 1958 ) Faust ( 1960 ) Bedazzled ( 1967 ) Doctor Faustus ( 1967 ) El extraño caso del doctor Fausto ( 1969 ) Mephisto ( 1981 ) Doctor Faustus ( 1982 ) Faust ( 1994 ) The Master and Margarita ( 1994 ) Bedazzled ( 2000 ) Faust : Love of the Damned ( 2001 ) Fausto 5.0 ( 2001 ) I Was a Teenage Faust ( 2002 ) Shortcut to Happiness ( 2003 ) Faust ( 2011 ) Plays Gretchen ( 1879 ) Will Success Spoil Rock Hunter ? ( 1955 ) The Black Bonspiel of Wullie MacCrimmon ( 1965 ) Temptation ( 1986 ) Operas Faust ( 1816 , Spohr ) La damnation de Faust ( 1846 , Berlioz ) Faust ( 1859 , Gounod ) Mefistofele ( 1868 , Boito ) Faust and Marguerite ( 1855 , Lutz ) Faust up to Date ( 1888 , Lutz ) Doktor Faust ( 1916 -- 25 , Busoni ) Doctor Faustus Lights the Lights ( 1938 ) The Rake 's Progress ( 1951 , Stravinsky ) Reuben , Reuben ( 1955 ) Historia von D. Johann Fausten ( 1994 ) Faustus , the Last Night ( 2006 ) Classical music Gretchen am Spinnrade ( 1814 , Schubert ) Faust Overture ( 1840 , Wagner ) Grande sonate ' Les quatre âges ' 2nd movement `` Quasi-Faust '' ( 1847 , Alkan ) Scenes from Goethe 's Faust ( 1853 , Schumann ) Part II of Symphony No. 8 ( 1906 -- 07 , Mahler ) Faust Symphony ( 1854 -- 57 , Liszt ) Mephisto Waltzes ( Liszt ) Gothic Symphony ( Brian ) Bagatelle sans tonalité ( Liszt ) Other music Albums Epica Saga Epica The Black Halo Beethoven 's Last Night The Black Rider Songs `` Mephisto Polka '' ( 1859 -- 85 ) `` Cross Road Blues '' ( 1936 ) `` Sympathy for the Devil '' ( 1968 ) `` Friend of the Devil '' ( 1970 ) `` Bohemian Rhapsody '' ( 1975 ) `` The Devil Went Down to Georgia '' ( 1979 ) `` Faustian Echoes '' ( 2012 ) `` The Mephistopheles of Los Angeles '' ( 2015 ) Television Episodes `` The Devil 's Hands Are Idle Playthings '' ( 2003 ) Other The Devil and Daniel Mouse ( 1978 ) Musicals Damn Yankees ( 1955 ) Randy Newman 's Faust ( 1993 ) Success ! ( 1993 ) Faust ( 2003 ) Prose `` Bearskin '' `` Daniel and the Devil '' Melmoth the Wanderer ( 1820 ) `` The Devil and Tom Walker '' ( 1824 ) St. John 's Eve ( 1830 ) Auriol ( 1844 ) Chasse - galerie ( 1892 ) The Sorrows of Satan ( 1896 ) Exploits and Opinions of Dr. Faustroll , Pataphysician ( 1898 ) The Master and Margarita ( 1929 -- 40 ) Mephisto ( 1936 ) The Devil and Daniel Webster ( 1937 ) None but Lucifer ( 1939 ) Doktor Faustus ( 1947 ) The Devil in Velvet ( 1951 ) The Year the Yankees Lost the Pennant ( 1954 ) Gimmicks Three ( 1956 ) The Devil to Pay in the Backlands ( 1956 ) That Hell - Bound Train ( 1958 ) For a Breath I Tarry ( 1966 ) The Damnation Game ( 1986 ) Eric ( 1990 ) The Devil 's Own Work ( 1991 ) Jack Faust ( 1997 ) Johannes Cabal the Necromancer ( 2009 ) Ballet Faust Art Faust Gods ' Man Poems Manfred Video games Knights Contract Comics Ghost Rider Faust Soul Cartel Anime & manga Faust VIAF : 208718696 LCCN : no2001087856 GND : 4703030 - 6 SUDOC : 179445588 BNE : XX4034610 Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=O_Brother,_Where_Art_Thou%3F&oldid=812132823 '' Categories : 2000 films English - language films 2000s adventure films 2000s criminal comedy films 2000s musical comedy films 2000s road movies American films American adventure comedy films American buddy films American criminal comedy films American musical comedy films American road movies Americana Country music films Films about music and musicians Films based on the Odyssey Films set in the 1930s Films set in 1937 Films set in Mississippi Films shot in Mississippi Great Depression films Slapstick films Treasure hunt films Working Title Films films Films featuring a Best Musical or Comedy Actor Golden Globe winning performance Films directed by the Coen brothers Hidden categories : Webarchive template wayback links Use mdy dates from November 2013 Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Talk Contents About Wikipedia Wikiquote Български Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français 한국어 Hrvatski Italiano עברית ქართული Latina Magyar Bahasa Melayu Nederlands 日本 語 Norsk Polski Português Русский Simple English Slovenčina Српски / srpski Suomi Svenska Türkçe Українська 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 26 November 2017 , at 04 : 31 . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply . By using this site , you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia ® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation , Inc. , a non-profit organization . About Wikipedia

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what does undrafted free agent mean in nfl

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Free_agent&oldid=842365745

Free agent - wikipedia Free agent For other uses , see Free agent ( disambiguation ) . In professional sports , a free agent is a player who is eligible to sign with any club or franchise ; i.e. , not under contract to any specific team . The term is also used in reference to a player who is under contract at present but who is allowed to solicit offers from other teams . In some circumstances , the free agent 's options are limited by league rules . Contents ( hide ) 1 Types 1.1 Terms 1.1. 1 Unrestricted free agent 1.1. 2 Restricted free agent 1.1. 3 Undrafted free agent 1.2 Legal provisions in Europe 2 Usage 2.1 Association football usage 2.2 Australian Football League usage 2.3 Major League Baseball ( MLB ) usage 2.4 National Basketball Association usage 2.5 National Football League usage 2.6 National Hockey League usage 3 Drawbacks for owners 4 Deadlines 5 References Types ( edit ) Terms ( edit ) Unrestricted free agent ( edit ) Unrestricted free agents are players without a team . They have either been released from their club , had the term of their contract expire without a renewal , or were not chosen in a league 's draft of amateur players . These people , generally speaking , are free to entertain offers from all other teams and to decide with whom to sign a contract . Restricted free agent ( edit ) Main article : Restricted free agent The specific rules of restricted free agency vary among the major professional sports , but in principle it means that a player is currently signed to one team but is free to solicit contract offers from other teams ; however , this player can not sign with the competing club if the current club matches ( or in some leagues , comes within 10 % of ) the terms of the offered contract . For a restricted free agent , some leagues require the competing team to offer to the original team one or more draft picks , when an offer is not matched , as compensation for losing the player . Undrafted free agent ( edit ) `` Undrafted '' redirects here . For the film , see Undrafted ( film ) . For the album , see Undrafted ( album ) . Players who are not drafted in a league 's annual draft of amateur players are considered to be unrestricted free agents and are free to sign contracts with any team . In most North American professional sports , players are drafted by sequencing each team from worst to best ( according to the teams ' immediately preceding season record , sometimes invoking a draft lottery factor to avoid having teams intentionally lose their last games to gain higher draft position ) and allowing said teams to claim rights to the top players entering the league that year . Players that pass through an entire draft ( usually several rounds ) without being selected by any of the league 's teams become unrestricted free agents , and these players are sometimes identified simply as an undrafted free agent ( UDFA ) or undrafted sportsperson and are free to sign with any team they choose . The term `` undrafted free agent '' is most common in the National Football League , where rookies enter directly into the NFL and do not play in a minor league system . It can also occasionally be seen in the National Hockey League , which increasingly uses college hockey as a source ; the NHL Entry Draft usually drafts players during high school age ( i.e. , junior leagues ) , which allows overlooked players who excel at the college level or in European professional leagues to bypass the draft and sign directly with the NHL . Legal provisions in Europe ( edit ) In the European Union , the 1995 Bosman ruling by the European Court of Justice established the right of free agency for association football players in all EU member nations . The Bosman ruling has since been extended to cover other professional sports and players from Eastern Europe . Players were still tied to their clubs unless their contract ran out until the Webster ruling allowed players the opportunity to move between nations , though it does not allow free players to move within the national league in which they currently play . Usage ( edit ) Association Football usage ( edit ) In professional association football , a free agent is either a player that has been released by a professional association football club and now is no longer affiliated with any club , or a player whose contract with his or her current club has expired and is thus free to join any other club under the terms of the Bosman ruling . Free agents do not have to be signed during the normal transfer window that is implemented in some countries ' leagues . If they are signed by a team , the team signing them does not have to pay any fees -- sometimes this is known as `` a free transfer '' . If a player is released from their club when the transfer window is closed , they can not sign for another team until the window reopens . A notable case of this being Sol Campbell who in September 2009 was released from Notts County , just after a month from signing on a free transfer . He signed for his former club Arsenal in January 2010 during the winter transfer window , after spending a few months training with the team to maintain his fitness . Australian Football League usage ( edit ) The Australian Football League introduced free agency at the end of 2012 . Out - of - contract players who are not within the top 25 % paid players at their club will become unrestricted free agents after eight seasons of service at one club ; out - of - contract players who are within the top 25 % paid players at their club become restricted free agents after eight seasons , then become unrestricted free agents after ten seasons . Clubs receive compensation in the form of draft picks for the loss of out - of - contract free agents . Players who are delisted will become unrestricted free agents , regardless of length of service ; clubs are not compensated for the transfer of such free agents . Major League Baseball ( MLB ) usage ( edit ) See also : Flood v. Kuhn Free Agency in the MLB came out of the aftermath of the Flood v. Kuhn Supreme Court case . One of the landmark decisions in the aftermath was the Messersmith / McNally Arbitration also known as the Seitz Decision which effectively destroyed the `` reserve clause '' in baseball . With the destruction of the reserve clause in baseball , the players and the league negotiated a new CBA in which was signed on July 12 , 1976 . It gave players a broader range of options as free agents . In Major League Baseball , free agents were previously classified as either Type A , Type B , or unclassified . Type A free agents were those determined by the Collective Bargaining Agreement to be in the top 20 % of all players based on the previous two seasons . Type B free agents were those in the next 20 % . Unclassified free agents were those in the bottom 60 % of players . Teams that lost a Type A free agent to whom they had offered arbitration received the top draft pick from the team that signed the free agent , plus a supplemental draft pick in the upcoming draft as compensation . Teams losing Type B free agents to whom they had offered arbitration received only a supplemental pick as compensation . Teams that have lost unclassified free agents , or who did not offer arbitration to classified free agents , did not receive any compensation . The current collective bargaining agreement between MLB and its players union , signed on November 22 , 2011 and taking effect with the 2012 season , dramatically changed free agent compensation . Players are no longer classified by type , and if a player has six or more years of major - league service ( on the team 's 40 - man roster ) and not under contract for the following season is automatically a free agent . They can offer them an arbitration salary if they want to be able to receive draft pick compensation . The offer must be at least equal to the average of the 125 richest contracts . However , if a player is traded during the final season of his contract , his new team will be ineligible to receive any draft pick compensation . There are more rules than just compensation rules that are included in MLB free agency . One of those rules is that National Basketball Association usage ( edit ) Main article : NBA salary cap § Free agency National Football League usage ( edit ) Exclusive - rights free agents Exclusive - rights free agents ( ERFAs ) are players with two or fewer seasons of service time and whose contracts have expired . If their team tenders a qualifying offer ( a one - year contract usually at league - minimum salary ) the player has no negotiating rights with other teams , and must either sign the tender with the team or sit out the season . Restricted free agents Restricted free agents ( RFAs ) are players who have three accrued seasons of service and whose contracts have expired . RFAs have received qualifying offers from their old clubs and are free to negotiate with any club until a deadline which occurs approximately a week prior to the NFL Draft ( for 2010 the deadline was April 15 ) , at which time their rights revert to their original club . If a player accepts an offer from a new club , the old club will have the right to match the offer and retain the player . If the old club elects not to match the offer , it may receive draft - choice compensation depending on the level of the qualifying offer made to the player . Unrestricted free agents Unrestricted free agents are players with expired contracts that have completed four or more accrued seasons of service . They are free to sign with any franchise . Undrafted free agents Undrafted free agents are players eligible for the NFL Draft but who are not selected ; they can negotiate and sign with any team . `` Plan B '' free agency Plan B free agency was a type of free agency that became active in the National Football League in February 1989 to 1992 . Plan B free agency permitted all teams in the NFL to preserve limited rights of no more than 37 total players a season ; if a player was a protected Plan B free agent , he was incapable of signing with another team without providing his old team the first opportunity to sign him again . The rest of the players were left unprotected , liberated to negotiate contracts with the rest of the teams in the league . Eight players sued the NFL in U.S. federal court , stating that Plan B was an unlawful restraint of trade . In 1992 , a jury found that Plan B violated antitrust laws and awarded damages to these players . National Hockey League usage ( edit ) In the NHL , between 2005 and 2008 , the age of unrestricted free agency declined from 31 to 27 . As of 2008 , any player who is at least 27 years old or has at least seven years of service as an NHL player , and whose contract has expired , will become an unrestricted free agent . On July 1 of each year the free agency period begins , and unrestricted free agents are free to negotiate and sign contracts with any team . Under the old collective agreement , which expired in 2004 , draft picks were awarded as compensation when a team lost an unrestricted free agent ; however , under the current CBA teams losing unrestricted free agents do not receive any compensation . In addition , any player at least 22 years of age who has not been selected in the NHL Draft can sign with any team as a free agent . Any player who is not entry - level , but does not meet the qualifications of unrestricted free agency becomes a restricted free agent when his contract expires . Drawbacks for owners ( edit ) The economics of free agency are disadvantageous for team owners ; it can lead to bidding wars -- and increased player salaries mean decreased owner profits . Restrictions on free agency have therefore been preferred by North American team owners since the abolition of the reserve clause . For example , a draft can be used to keep young and talented players from generating bidding wars and causing higher player salaries throughout the league . Furthermore , some teams which play in large market cities , and hence have a larger revenue stream , would be able to outbid other teams for talented players . Some leagues , such as the National Football League and the National Basketball Association have imposed salary cap rules in order to avert such bidding wars ( the NFL itself was created in an effort to prevent bidding wars that had crippled preceding regional leagues like the Ohio League and Pittsburgh circuit ) . In Europe , the wages of the top players have increased dramatically since the Bosman ruling , although this is partly because of increased television revenues . As in North America , the number of transfers involving a fee are on the decline since clubs can wait for players to finish their contracts and become unrestricted . Also in Major League Baseball the larger and more successful teams often trump the lesser income teams from lack of a salary cap . Deadlines ( edit ) In some leagues , free agency has deadlines . For example , under the most recent NHL Collective Bargaining Agreement , restricted free agents who do not sign contracts by December 1 of a given year will be ineligible to play in the National Hockey League for the balance of that season . However , other leagues ( such as the National Basketball Association ) have no such restrictions . In Europe , players can only move during transfer windows -- during the close season and halfway through the league season . There are exceptions for unsigned professional players in the lower divisions . References ( edit ) Jump up ^ `` Free agency rules '' . Australian Football League . 16 March 2012 . Archived from the original on 17 March 2012 . Retrieved 17 March 2012 . Jump up ^ `` MLBPA History : The 1970 's - MLBPlayers.com '' . www.mlbplayers.com . Retrieved 2017 - 11 - 03 . Jump up ^ Jon Heyman , SI.com ( 2008 - 10 - 31 ) . `` Free agent Mark Teixeira tops the annual Elias player rankings -- 2008 MLB Playoffs -- SI.com '' . Sportsillustrated.cnn.com . Archived from the original on 2008 - 11 - 06 . Retrieved 2010 - 07 - 03 . Jump up ^ `` Learn About Major League Baseball 's Free Agency Rules '' . ThoughtCo . Retrieved 2017 - 11 - 03 . Jump up ^ `` MLB players , owners sign agreement '' . ESPN.com. 2011 - 11 - 23 . Retrieved 2011 - 11 - 23 . Jump up ^ Stark , Jayson ( 2011 - 11 - 22 ) . `` How the new CBA changes baseball '' . ESPN.com . Retrieved 2011 - 11 - 22 . Jump up ^ Fitzgerald , Jason ( March 4 , 2013 ) . `` An Overview of the Various Types of Free Agents '' . overthecap.com . Retrieved March 25 , 2015 . ^ Jump up to : `` Key questions and answers about 2010 NFL free agency '' . NFL.com . March 2010 . Retrieved 26 April 2010 . Jump up ^ McCaig , Sam . `` The NHL 's top 50 unrestricted free agents -- NHL -- Yahoo ! Canada Sports '' . Ca.sports.yahoo.com . Retrieved 2010 - 07 - 03 . Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Free_agent&oldid=842365745 '' Categories : Sports terminology Major League Baseball labor relations National Hockey League labor relations Sports labor relations Talk Contents About Wikipedia Català Deutsch Eesti Español فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Bahasa Indonesia Italiano 日本 語 Polski Русский Simple English Suomi Svenska Türkçe Українська 中文 10 more Edit links This page was last edited on 22 May 2018 , at 00 : 21 . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply . By using this site , you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia ® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation , Inc. , a non-profit organization . About Wikipedia

29428406020748506

where does the cedar river begin and end

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Cedar_River_(Iowa_River_tributary)&oldid=812838483

Cedar River ( Iowa River tributary ) - wikipedia Cedar River ( Iowa River tributary ) Map showing the Cedar ( to the right ) and Iowa ( to the left ) rivers . The Cedar River is a 338 - mile - long ( 544 km ) river in Minnesota and Iowa . It is a tributary of the Iowa River , which flows to the Mississippi River . The Cedar River takes its name from the red cedar ( Juniperus virginiana ) trees growing there , and was originally called the Red Cedar River by the Meskwaki . The first Mississippi steamboat reached Cedar Rapids , Iowa in 1844 , and during the next decade , the Red Cedar ( as it was still called ) was an important commercial waterway . The surrounding region is known officially as the Cedar River Valley , though it is more commonly referred to simply as the Cedar Valley . Contents 1 Geography 2 Flooding 2.1 1993 2.2 2008 2.3 2013 3 See also 4 References 5 External links Geography ( edit ) The headwaters of the Cedar River are located in Dodge County , Minnesota , consisting of a west fork and middle fork approximately three miles northeast of the town of Blooming Prairie , and an east fork approximately one mile south of the town of Hayfield . It then flows into Mower County , Minnesota through the townships of Udolpho , Lansing , Austin ( where Turtle Creek and Dobbins Creek join it ) , and Lyle . It then flows into Mitchell County , Iowa and Floyd County , Iowa with the endpoint being located in Louisa County , Iowa at the town of Columbus Junction , where it joins with the Iowa River which then winds its way to the Mississippi River . Despite being a tributary of the Iowa River , it appears larger than the Iowa River at their confluence point . Palisades - Kepler State Park is located on the Cedar River near Cedar Rapids . Cedar River at the Ramsey Mill Pond near Austin , Minnesota . Cedar County , Iowa is named for the river . Major cities ( with populations greater than 20,000 ) located along the Cedar River include Austin , Minnesota , Cedar Falls , Iowa , Waterloo , Iowa , and Cedar Rapids , Iowa . Flooding ( edit ) 1993 ( edit ) See also : Great Flood of 1993 In 1993 , the river flooded some areas of downtown Cedar Rapids . The river crested at 19.83 feet . This was the worst flood in Iowa 's recorded history , before the Cedar River flooded again in 2008 . 2008 ( edit ) See also : Iowa flood of 2008 In 2008 , flooding of the river caused the evacuation of around 20,000 of Cedar Rapids ' residents and flooded over 1,200 blocks of the city . Upriver , the Waterloo / Cedar Falls metropolitan area was less affected , thanks mainly to the large dikes that protect the downtowns of both cities . To the north , the flooding Cedar River collapsed Charles City 's landmark suspension bridge , as well as destroyed many homes and community parks . 2013 ( edit ) See also : Floods in the United States : 2001 -- present § US Midwest floods 2013 See also ( edit ) List of Iowa rivers List of Minnesota rivers References ( edit ) Jump up ^ U.S. Geological Survey . National Hydrography Dataset high - resolution flowline data . The National Map Archived 2012 - 04 - 05 at WebCite , accessed May 13 , 2011 Jump up ^ John C. Hartman , ed. , Section Red Cedar River , Chapter XIV , Waterways and Bridges , History of Black Hawk County Iowa and its People , S.J. Clarke , Chicago , 1915 ; pages 376 - 378 . Jump up ^ Luther A. Brewer and Barthinius L. Wick , eds. , Section Early Steamboating on the Cedar , Chapter XL , The Bridges across the Cedar at Cedar Rapids and Early Steamboating on the Cedar River , History of Linn County Iowa , Pioneer , Chicago , 1911 ; pages 423 - 434 . Jump up ^ `` Mandatory evacuations in Cedar Rapids flood '' , Chicago Tribune , June 12 , 2008 External links ( edit ) John Page : Cedar River Series Cedar River Environmental Group U.S. Geological Survey Geographic Names Information System : Cedar River Coordinates : 41 ° 16 ′ 59 '' N 91 ° 20 ′ 49 '' W  /  41.28306 ° N 91.34694 ° W  / 41.28306 ; - 91.34694 Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cedar_River_(Iowa_River_tributary)&oldid=812838483 '' Categories : Rivers of Iowa Rivers of Minnesota Rivers of Dodge County , Minnesota Rivers of Mower County , Minnesota Bodies of water of Mitchell County , Iowa Bodies of water of Floyd County , Iowa Rivers of Louisa County , Iowa Bodies of water of Linn County , Iowa Bodies of water of Black Hawk County , Iowa Geography of Cedar Rapids , Iowa Tributaries of the Mississippi River Hidden categories : Webarchive template webcite links Coordinates on Wikidata Talk Contents About Wikipedia Cebuano Dansk Deutsch Français Norsk Română Русский Edit links This page was last edited on 30 November 2017 , at 04 : 32 ( UTC ) . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply . By using this site , you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia ® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation , Inc. , a non-profit organization . About Wikipedia

-1232889570494423885

what happens to toby at the end of the office

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Toby_Flenderson&oldid=797731984

Toby Flenderson - wikipedia Toby Flenderson Jump to : navigation , search ( hide ) This article has multiple issues . Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page . ( Learn how and when to remove these template messages ) This article relies too much on references to primary sources . Please improve this by adding secondary or tertiary sources . ( April 2010 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) This article describes a work or element of fiction in a primarily in - universe style . Please help rewrite it to explain the fiction more clearly and provide non-fictional perspective . ( April 2010 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) Toby Flenderson Paul Lieberstein as Toby Flenderson First appearance `` Diversity Day '' Last appearance `` Finale '' Created by Greg Daniels Portrayed by Paul Lieberstein Information Gender Male Occupation Human Resources Representative , Dunder Mifflin , Scranton Family Unnamed parents ( divorced ) Rory ( brother ) Spouse ( s ) Kathy Becker ( ex-wife ) Significant other ( s ) Amy ( ex-girlfriend ) Pam Halpert ( former unrequited crush ) Nellie Bertram ( love interest ) Children Sasha Flenderson ( daughter ) Religion Roman Catholic Nationality American Toby Flenderson , M.S.W. ( born in 1971 ) is a fictional character on the U.S. comedy television series , The Office . He is portrayed by the show 's writer , director , producer and showrunner Paul Lieberstein , and is an original character with no equivalent in The Office ( UK TV series ) . Contents ( hide ) 1 Overview 2 Biography 3 Relationships 3.1 Michael 3.2 Pam 3.3 Jim 3.4 Kelly and Ryan 3.5 Darryl 3.6 Andy 3.7 Dwight 3.8 Nellie 3.9 Pete and Clark 4 Seasons 1 -- 2 5 Seasons 3 -- 4 6 Seasons 5 -- 6 7 Seasons 7 -- 8 8 Season 9 9 References 10 External links Overview ( edit ) Toby Flenderson is the human resources representative for the Scranton branch of paper distributor Dunder Mifflin / Sabre . Mild - mannered to the point of being physically incapable to voice his opinions or assert himself , Toby can be somewhat mournful about his life choices ( he fell into the field of Human Resources after leaving his training at seminary in order to pursue the woman he 'd later marry and painfully divorce ) . He likes his colleagues , although he is sometimes exasperated by the excessively chatty Kelly Kapoor . He also has a long - standing crush on Pam Halpert , which he almost reveals at the end of Season 4 when he resigns from his position to move to Costa Rica . Toby was intensely despised by branch manager Michael Scott , largely because Michael had no authority over him as Toby reported to corporate headquarters , and because Toby frequently tried to dissuade Michael from many of his ill - conceived and impulsive ideas . Michael sums up his feelings for Toby in the episode `` Casino Night , '' asking , `` Why are you the way that you are ? Honestly every time I try to do something fun or exciting , you make it not that way . I hate so much about the things that you choose to be . '' For Toby 's going away party in `` Goodbye Toby , '' Michael gives him as a gift a rock with a note attached reading `` Suck on This ! '' Shortly after arriving in Costa Rica , Toby suffers a zip - line accident and midway through season 5 , he returns to his old job at Dunder Mifflin , much to Michael 's fury . Biography ( edit ) In his childhood , Toby was forced to testify against both of his parents when the two got divorced . He attended Bishop O'Hara High School and is a Penn State University alumnus . In the Season 5 episode `` Casual Friday , '' a diploma at his cubicle reveals Toby also has a B.S. in Psychology from California Coastal College . The Season 7 episode `` Counseling '' reveals that he has a degree in social work from Temple University . Toby was in a seminary for a year but dropped out because he wanted to have sex with a girl . He followed her back to Scranton , married her and had a young daughter named Sasha . Toby is also divorced ( a fact which Michael constantly and unkindly mentions ) . Toby loves his daughter and went the extra mile in `` Moroccan Christmas '' to buy her one of Dwight 's Princess Unicorn dolls , noting that his ex-wife `` will be so pissed '' and that `` for once , Daddy 's going to be a hero . '' He went to Amsterdam for a week ( or a month ) after his divorce . Toby claims to have no `` passion for HR '' and was only hired at Dunder Mifflin as it was the first job he could find . He joins the others occasionally but only for business matters , such as reviewing the company 's sexual harassment policy and mediating conflict between employees . Toby prefers to let angry employees vent to him , after which they feel better and the conflict eventually settles down and solves itself . This strategy worked virtually trouble - free for years until Michael Scott publicly reads off all listed complaints . Toby is in the unfortunate position of needing to try ( but usually failing ) to enforce corporate policies and rules when Michael disregards them , typified by an incident in which he quashes Michael 's plan to invite Boy Scouts to a Casino Night party : `` Actually , I did n't think it was appropriate to invite children since it 's , uh , you know ... there 's gambling and alcohol ... and it 's in our dangerous warehouse ... it 's a school night , and you know , uh ... Hooters is catering . You know , is that not -- is that enough ? Should I keep going ? '' Toby avoids office activities whenever possible and , like most of the staff , only tolerates Michael . He has reached out to Michael several times despite Michael 's continued abuse . However , he gets along with the rest of the staff and even attends Jim 's barbecue party , playing video games while Michael sings karaoke . When Dwight approached Michael about missing a gift bag during `` A Benihana Christmas , '' Michael immediately suggested stealing it from Toby , much to Toby 's later chagrin , as all the office staff had new robes except for him ( Pam later gave her robe to Toby , and this increased Toby 's unrequited crush on her ) . In addition Michael on numerous occasions attempts to blame Toby for problems that are clearly his own fault such as in `` The Merger '' in which he questions Tony Gardner if the reason he is quitting is because of Toby , though Tony says Toby was in fact kind and helpful and it 's Michael 's management that is the reason . This occurs again notably in `` Classy Christmas '' where Michael himself vandalizes Holly 's Woody doll ( A gift from her boyfriend ) and tries to convince her Toby did it , though Toby fights back , denies it and says the vandalism is something Michael would do . This is evidence that Michael uses Toby as an excuse to hide from the consequences of his own actions . He seems to have plain bad luck in many instances in his life . It seems to be a recurring theme that some sort of tragedy befalls him frequently , if only in a minor sense . He sadly accepts his misfortunes , seeming to accept this way of life as inescapable , which may be the cause of his sad disposition . On some occasions , Toby enjoys some rewards and good fortune , much to his satisfaction ( and to Michael 's annoyance ) . Toby 's favorite movies are Say Anything , The Shining , Annie Hall , and Toy Story 2 . He also likes short stories , mystery novels , and `` old hard - boiled detective '' movies . One of his favorite TV shows is Damages . He once lived in Honolulu for a year and stated in `` Branch Closing '' that he would take severance from the closing , sell his house , and move to Costa Rica . In `` Local Ad , '' it is revealed that he worked in advertising for three years before coming to Dunder Mifflin . Also , according to a deleted scene from the episode `` Launch Party , '' it is stated while Toby is taking a driver 's test that he is colorblind . Toby is also allergic to mushrooms ( `` Survivor Man '' ) . Toby has an ongoing concern about the air quality at the office that borders on an obsession . He worked a recommendation that the air be tested into his goodbye toast in a deleted scene from `` Goodbye , Toby ; '' he ignored the two factions that wanted to use an unexpected surplus for new chairs or a new copier and said the money should go to air testing ( which he called the `` silent killer , '' leading to Michael saying `` You are the silent killer . Go back to the annex . '' ) ; and he put together a meeting to discuss the radon testing kits he was dispersing in `` The Chump . '' Relationships ( edit ) Toby is seen as an awkward and quiet guy in the office . He is often passive when he is teased or when he gets picked on and does not appear to know how to stand up for himself . While members of the office have shown disgust at Michael 's treatment of Toby , for unknown reasons , nobody has ever stood up for Toby when Michael insults him or excludes him from events , but he is generally liked in the office . The others possibly avoid standing up for him as Michael has authority over them ( unlike Toby ) and could potentially punish them for speaking up ( certain episodes have shown that Michael is indeed quick to take offense such as in `` Did I Stutter ? '' ) or possibly because they do not want to suffer the same treatment Toby suffers from Michael . Toby , however , has never asked anyone for help when Michael mistreats him , which is possibly the reason why no one ever stands up for him . Besides Michael , the other staff members treat Toby with respect , for example , after Toby conducts a brief sexual harassment seminar , the staff is left in a good mood and laughing , until Michael comes in and takes over , however there have been others who occasionally like Michael treat him poorly and insult him such as Kevin , Dwight and Jim and in later seasons , Andy and Nellie . Toby himself is occasionally an annoyance to some , such as Jim , but despite this he is considered one of the few intelligent people in the office , being in the `` Finer Things Club '' with Pam and Oscar . His behavior does change somewhat when he meets Nellie ( whom he develops a romance for ) , and he is shown to become somewhat of nuisance to her by being socially awkward and not handling his crush on her with any subtlety ( and also an annoyance to Andy , though this is more of a Michael Scott - like situation where Andy gets angry and frustrated at Toby for doing his HR job at the expense of Andy 's weirder / less legal ideas ) . Michael ( edit ) Michael intensely despised Toby because , according to Michael , his job was to `` make the office fun , while ( Toby 's ) job is to make the office lame '' . Michael 's often - successful self - delusions that he is the life of the party frequently have a light shined on them by Toby 's interactions with him . This is usually not Toby 's intention , but his inability to go along with Michael 's vibe is like a mirror being held up to Michael . It shows him the truth that he is constantly hiding from . In their bitter relationship , Michael is clearly the antagonist and Toby the victim . Michael seems to be completely blind to how harsh his treatment of Toby is and claims that Toby is the bad guy and that he tortures him ( he points this out to Holly in `` Goodbye Toby '' ) , completely ignoring that he verbally puts Toby down on a daily basis while the latter simply does his job and voices his own opinion and attempts to dissuade Micheal from ideas that are truly reckless and impulsive and unethical in the office . Even on occasions where Toby offers kindness to Micheal such as in `` The Deposition '' and `` Niagara '' , Micheal shows nothing but rudeness and hatred . Michael viewed Toby as his sworn enemy and took every opportunity to demean him . As Michael sneers , `` Toby is in HR , which technically means he works for corporate , so he 's really not a part of our family . Also , he 's divorced , so he 's really not a part of his family '' and says that `` Toby Flenderson is everything that is wrong with the paper industry . '' He also stated , `` I hate so much about the things that you choose to be '' ( immediately following the above quote from Toby regarding the Casino Night ) . At various times , Michael has referred to Toby as `` the worst human being ever , '' a `` convicted rapist , '' `` evil snail , '' `` animal rapist , '' `` Satan '' and `` the Antichrist . '' Michael once says that if he `` had a gun with two bullets and was in a room with Hitler , Bin Laden and Toby , ( he ) would shoot Toby twice . '' Michael has physically hurt Toby on a few occasions as well such as throwing a pen at his forehead and checking him while skating . Michael frequently threatened to fire Toby , which he could not do because Toby is not considered a local branch employee , having been hired by the corporate office and then assigned to Scranton . Some of Michael 's techniques that are questionable bring Toby by his own obligation to confront Michael about how corporate would like him to do his job . Ultimately Toby and Michael represent the conflict between employees and upper management . While Toby is mainly a passive victim to Micheal 's abuse who tries his best to remain calm , Toby himself has shown on a few occasions in the series that he enjoys seeing Michael in misery such as when he injures his foot and collapses and struggles in the restroom ( where Michael is disgusted by the idea of Toby helping him instead of Ryan , and Toby gets to mock Michael 's wimpiness and notes with disdain `` you only grilled your foot '' ) and when Toby viciously beats Michael in a game of poker , in which he says he will chase the feeling of taking Michael 's money . Toby has also laughed at Michael 's misfortune on occasion such as in `` The Deposition '' when Toby learns that Michael thinks Ryan is hot and also in `` Koi Pond '' when he learns Michael has fallen into two fountains . Toby once even instructed Pam on how to hit Michael harder after he gave her the opportunity to do so for dating and dumping her mother , showing that he enjoys seeing Michael suffer to a degree . Toby has on occasion stood up to Michael such as in `` Classy Christmas '' when Michael tries to accuse Toby of destroying Holly 's beloved Woody doll to which Toby immediately responds that the vandalism is something that Michael would do , to which everyone agrees . Toby seems to have a strong ability to absorb Michael 's abuse as seen in `` Goodbye Toby '' where he is given a potential opportunity to complain about Michael 's antics and after Michael threatens to kill him ( though he does so in a situation where Holly and Pam would be able to listen to Toby 's issues if he wanted to present them , as they either do n't know how awful Michael has been to him or , in Pam 's case , know it very well ) , Toby claims that everything in the office is fine , and later shrugs to the camera that he has survived Michael 's abuse long enough and that disclosing it is pointless . Toby has never attempted in any way to get Michael punished for his harsh treatment of him ( despite having the power to do so ) and has never gotten angry with him for unknown reasons . This stands in direct contrast to other members of the Office who get angered at Michael for his stupidity and rudeness such as Jim , Pam and notably Stanley . Toby also somewhat seems to be in denial that Michael hates him as seen in `` New Guys '' in which after shooting down his impulsive idea , Andy says to Toby : `` Now I know why Michael hated you so much , '' to which Toby responds `` No , he did n't '' , possibly signifying that Toby does not view Michael 's abuse as hatred . Toby seems to want Michael 's friendship but is too shy to talk to him about it . In `` The Lover , '' Michael opens up to Toby , asking him to keep Pam under control , by giving Toby a hug and calling him a `` good guy . '' Toby says that he is delighted and `` Michael would like me once he got to know me , '' but as soon as Toby fails to keep Pam under control , Michael starts to hate him again . Michael , though , ended up being appreciative of Toby 's efforts to actually help him during their Sabre - mandated counseling sessions ( even if he spent much of the time hurling harsh statements at the HR rep ) , to the point where he decided to talk to Toby instead of simply signing off on a few corrected forms at the sessions ' end . While in `` Take Your Daughter to Work Day , '' Michael ends up bonding with Toby 's daughter Sasha when the employees bring their children into the office . However , later on , Michael becomes withdrawn and sad that he has n't had any children , which Toby senses and ends up being confidant to Michael . Michael inquires about being Sasha 's godfather . Toby simply tells him that she already has one . Michael has on a few occasions realized when his mistreatment of Toby has gone too far such as in `` Women 's Appreciation '' in which he literally asked him to expose his genitals and also in `` Frame Toby '' after attempting to get Toby arrested and fired , possibly showing that Michael 's hatred of Toby has limits . In `` Goodbye , Michael , '' when Michael wants to give everyone in the office a proper goodbye , he somewhat makes up for all the times he has berated and insulted Toby by listening to him without insulting him once , possibly showing that he will miss Toby somewhat . However , his face betrays both his difficulty in doing so and his horror when an appreciative Toby suggests that Michael look up Toby 's brother Rory in Boulder once he 's settled himself in Colorado . This can be viewed as Michael 's final comeuppance for his treatment of Toby as even though he is moving away to Colorado , he will still not escape Toby and will have to endure annoyance from Toby 's brother Rory ( who seems to be virtually identical to him and whom Toby encourages to be friends with Michael ) . Pam ( edit ) Pam and Toby are shown to have a good relationship . Pam has shown much displeasure at Michael 's harsh treatment of Toby . Toby has had a crush on Pam ever since she called off her wedding with Roy and Jim went to Stamford , but he is too shy to tell her his feelings . In `` Cocktails '' Toby spends his whole evening trying to win a stuffed animal duck at a claw machine for her . When he finally wins , Pam gives back the stuffed animal and says `` Do n't you have a daughter ? '' . In `` Dunder Mifflin Infinity '' Toby is the first to find out about Jim and Pam 's relationship , by seeing her kiss him on the cheek in the break room . Upset about Pam 's new relationship , he sends out a memo asking for no `` PDA '' in the office . In the episode `` Business School , '' Pam asks Toby to come to her art show , and he says he ca n't make it because of his daughter 's play . He then gets really upset and yells , `` Damn it ! '' and questions if maybe he does n't have to go to see his daughter 's play and instead could go see Pam 's art show . In `` Night Out , '' Pam thinks that a joke that Toby told was funny , and he gets really excited and touches her awkwardly on the leg . She did not appear to be angered at this . After an awkward silence , Toby announces his move to Costa Rica . In `` Goodbye , Toby '' Pam gives to Toby an office picture of the staff that excludes her ( because she took the picture herself ) for when he leaves for Costa Rica . Toby , unsatisfied by the lack of her presence , shouts at the office staff asking for a camera ( possibly the loudest he 's ever spoken ) . When no one responds , he runs off for an extended amount of time just to find a camera to have a picture of her and him together . Pam also helps Toby take revenge against Michael in this episode after his insulting farewell gift is exposed during a meeting and she gets him to unwillingly give up his watch to Toby , which he does ( Pam potentially may have disclosed Michael 's abuse of Toby if he did n't do what she said ) . At the end of the episode , Pam comments ( though not to Toby ) that she always thought he was kind of cute and that she will miss him a lot . In `` Niagara '' Toby appears to still have feelings for Pam and is happy when they run out on their wedding . He is later disappointed when the wedding is called back on but is seen smiling and clapping after they 're married and run down the aisle . During `` Roy 's Wedding '' , while Jim and Pam are trying to find out if there 's anything they do n't know about each other , Toby correctly answers facts about Pam . Everyone notices him , and Toby , clearly embarrassed , attempts to cover it up . There have been a few occasions when Pam has mistreated Toby somewhat such as hanging up on him on the phone after Toby offered his help and notably in `` Paper Airplane '' after hitting him in the eye with a paper airplane and getting angry at him for crossing ( to which Toby apologizes ) . Pam in response does not apologize and simply asks whether she is still in the contest despite injuring and temporally blinding Toby . In the series finale , while dancing with Pam , Toby began sobbing . Pam questions Toby with `` Is it me ? Is it Nellie ? '' Toby shakes his head , and responds with `` It 's everything . '' Pam then hugs Toby as he weeps . Jim ( edit ) Jim mentions that when he first started working at Dunder Mifflin , he shared a cubicle with Toby and that the two of them got along well . Michael moved them apart because he thought that the two talked too much . In deleted scenes from The Fire and Take Your Daughter to Work Day it 's implied that Toby and Jim are friends and Jim babysits Toby 's daughter on occasion . When Jim becomes Co-Regional Manager with Michael in season six , however , Jim almost begins to mirror Michael 's treatment of Toby somewhat . In `` The Lover '' , when Toby casually says `` Hey Jim '' , a stressed Jim snaps `` Not now Toby ! My God ! '' leaving Toby bewildered and hurt , though it is more likely Jim did this due to being angered upon learning that Michael is dating Pam 's mother behind their backs and also snapped at Michael in the conversation shortly after . In the earlier `` Survivor Man '' , Jim also says about Toby `` He 's great , but sometimes he can be a little bit much , '' showing that he sees Toby as being annoying sometimes . Jim was aware of Toby 's crush on Pam but never seemed very bothered by it . However , Toby would occasionally be bitter towards Jim , as seen in `` Did I Stutter ? '' where he assists Ryan ( now Vice President ) in giving Jim a formal warning for his job performance . During `` Stairmageddon '' , Jim turns to Toby for advice on marriage counselling due to Toby 's past of going to such counselling . Jim is left thoughtful and concerned when Toby notes that Pam is in a very difficult situation of short - term vs. long - term issues with Jim 's work at Athleap . Despite the moments mentioned above , Jim and Toby have a decent relationship . Kelly and Ryan ( edit ) Toby shares the Annex with Kelly , and he is exasperated at being in the close proximity of Kelly and Ryan 's juvenile romantic escapades . Using the excuse that he was allergic to his desk , Toby moved locations to escape Kelly 's constant talking , moving out of the cubicle , albeit only to a desk adjacent to it . Toby later wonders if Michael intentionally moved Ryan to his former area in order to torture him via Ryan and Kelly 's endless fighting , commenting that `` If he did ... genius . '' Kelly stated in a deleted scene from Goodbye , Toby that she was attracted to Toby but could not stand `` his stupid kid '' and was visibly downcast when he announced his plans to leave the office and move to Costa Rica . Toby overall has a good relationship with both Kelly and Ryan and the two have never mistreated him in any way and once even attempted to encourage him to punch Michael in `` Frame Toby '' , possibly showing that they are disgusted at Michael 's harsh treatment of Toby . Darryl ( edit ) In a deleted scene from `` Ben Franklin , '' when warehouse foreman Darryl Philbin is told that Michael has sent Toby home to prevent him from interfering with the hiring of a stripper , Darryl refers to Toby ( `` that red - haired guy with the sad eyes '' ) as a cool guy . While on a trip to the Corporate offices with Darryl and Michael in `` The Negotiation , '' Darryl also offers to let Toby crash for the night at a relative 's house in New York , denying Michael the same opportunity . He also had a nickname for Toby ( `` T - dog '' ) at one point , though their relationship soured when Dwight 's plan to expose Darryl 's worker 's compensation fraud led to embarrassment for all of them and Toby insulted Darryl and his sister . Despite this , the two seem to have a good relationship and Darryl once kindly gave Toby his Christmas doll to give to his daughter Sasha . Andy ( edit ) Toby and Andy did not appear to have any major disputes when Andy was a salesman or during his first year as manager and seemed to have a good relationship . In `` New Guys '' , when Toby shoots down Andy 's intention to make up a cause to fire Nellie Bertram , Andy responds `` now I know why Michael hated you so much '' . Toby appeared dismayed at this . Andy later ridiculed both Toby and Nellie during the slack - lining later in the episode . Andy continued his irritability in `` Work Bus '' when asking Toby `` how are you not murdered every hour '' , suggesting he , like Michael and Jim before him , has inherited the typical manager 's disdain for Toby . Andy was occasionally nasty to Toby on a few other occasions as well and even groped Toby before quitting Dunder Mifflin . Toby appeared aware of Andy 's poor treatment of Erin as a girlfriend , which he pointed out to Nellie in `` Customer Loyalty '' . In the finale , however , after Andy returns with a more positive and friendly attitude , Toby is pleased to hear him ( and several other staff members ) encourage him to join them at the after party in the warehouse , implying the two are now on good terms . Dwight ( edit ) Toby and Dwight appear to have a stable relationship and Dwight does not appear to hate Toby like Michael does , though on a few occasions Dwight has helped Michael make Toby miserable such as trying to get him fired once he returned from his vacation from Costa Rica and stealing a Christmas present from him on Michael 's orders . Dwight also made no attempt to help Toby when he was selling Christmas dolls and ran out just as Toby asked for one for his daughter . Dwight has also on a few occasions laughed at Michael 's insults towards Toby but has also shown some displeasure when Michael takes it too far such as in `` Goodbye Toby , '' where he himself admits that he thought Michael 's idea to give Toby a rock as a goodbye present was over the line . It is likely that Dwight makes Toby miserable due to his loyalty to Michael . The two have gotten along on a few occasions and it is revealed that Dwight complains to Toby all the time about Jim 's pranks against him and once made a deal with him to sign a petition of his in exchange for cookies from Toby 's daughter . Toby and Dwight also share an interest in trains during a conversation while spying on Darryl and Dwight says he is welcome anytime to come to his farm . Toby has on occasion been stern with Dwight such as in `` Casual Friday , '' in which he threatened to write him up if he did n't sit down and has foiled some of Dwight 's dangerous schemes such as leaving weapons in the office and stopping Dwight from wearing dangerous costumes to Halloween ( for which Dwight threatens to kill him ) . In the final episode of the series , Dwight fires Toby alongside Kevin , possibly indicating that he dislikes Toby and that he annoys him to a degree , like his predecessors Michael , Jim , and Andy ( or possibly on orders from Corporate or to prevent him from interfering in his firing of Kevin ) . While Dwight states that he misses Kevin after firing him , he never states the same for Toby . Dwight does , however , invite him to his wedding , possibly showing that he does consider him a friend . Nellie ( edit ) In `` Get the Girl '' Toby introduces himself to Nellie as Tony , to which Pam replies `` You messed up saying your name ? '' He answers her by saying , `` It happens , okay ? '' In `` Dwight Christmas '' , at the office Christmas party , Nellie expressed interest upon hearing that Toby had been a juror in the Scranton Strangler case . He proceeds to bore her , however , with a long , drawn - out account that is implied to have lasted for several hours . Nellie finally leans in close and shushes him . A puzzled Toby then asks if she is about to kiss him . Attempting to save face , Nellie gives him a small kiss , which causes an emboldened Toby to give her a much more passionate kiss . Toby does not appear in the two subsequent episodes , during which the events of the party are not referenced . In `` Customer Loyalty '' , however , he appears very tactile and affectionate towards Nellie , apparently under the impression that the two are now in a relationship . Nellie , for her part , had forgotten the kiss until that point and finds Toby 's affection somewhat awkward . In `` Moving On '' , Nellie gets fed up with Toby 's constant hand - wringing over the possible non-guilt of the convicted Scranton Strangler and pushes him to visit the man in prison ; when the Strangler proves he is the killer and nearly kills Toby himself , Nellie admits Toby was brave and a speechless Toby ( his larynx was injured by the Strangler ) looks happy . However , Nellie later firmly establishes her contempt for Toby and there is no further romantic story - line between them . She is also somewhat rude and insulting to him on a few occasions notably in `` Paper Airplane '' in which she speaks of him as being a loser , however , Nellie 's poor treatment of him could stem from Toby 's awkward and annoying behaviour towards her . When Toby returns to Scranton for the reunion and Angela & Dwight 's wedding , Nellie ( also returning to Scranton from her new home in Poland ) lets the camera crew know she is n't thrilled about seeing Toby again . At the airport , Nellie rebuffs an attempted hug from Toby , snidely brushes aside his comment about a relationship she ended by saying she un-followed him on Facebook and questions him of how long he 's been stalking her ( Toby quietly says anyone can read non-protected tweets ) and declines his offer to share a cab into town . After that point , Toby has no further interactions of any kind with Nellie . Pete and clark ( edit ) After the departure of Kelly and Ryan , Toby appears more excited with the arrival of the two twenty - somethings who are single like himself . He appears to see them as closer friends than they see him but neither of them treats him meanly either . He convinced both of them , along with Kevin and Darryl , to grow moustaches from `` Movember '' , believing this was a bonding activity . He was disappointed when Pete shaved his moustache off after Erin found it off - putting . Toby appears to consider Pete a better fit for Erin than Andy , largely because he does n't appreciate Andy 's belittling treatment of him and also because he never had any romantic interest in Erin . At the documentary reunion , Pete is nice to Toby and is visibly happy when Toby decides to attend an after - party he had been planning to skip . Seasons 1 -- 2 ( edit ) Toby only appears in a few episodes , showing up first in a scene in `` Diversity Day , '' in which he jokes about sitting in an Indian Circle ( to which everyone else laughs ) . Michael , having told many more offensive jokes , is offended by Toby 's joke and tells him that `` This is an environment of welcoming , and you should just get the hell out of here . '' Toby does so and the staff suddenly goes very quiet . This is the first instance in the relationship between the two , Toby trying to be responsible , and Michael trying to demean and undermine him as much as possible . In `` Hot Girl , '' Toby is introduced by Michael to Katy the purse saleswoman ; after Toby and Katy begin talking happily about their high school days , Michael deliberately humiliates Toby by mentioning his divorce and how he once briefly had to live in his car . He also notices the picture of Toby 's daughter on his desk , and refers to her as `` cute '' ; however , this is probably a further attempt to portray Toby , a divorced father , as undesirable . One of Toby 's major appearances was in `` Sexual Harassment , '' where he holds a Sexual Harassment Meeting for the staff , only to be interrupted by Michael and a blow - up doll . Michael then states that everyone is still `` generally quite happy , '' which he thinks is because Toby has not yet had the meeting . In fact , Toby did have the meeting and everyone clapped after he was done , leaving them in a good mood . In a deleted scene of `` Halloween , '' Toby tries to persuade Michael to make a decision as to which employee he must fire . When Michael chooses Toby , Toby replies that he does not report to Michael . When Michael then tries to get Toby to quit , Toby replies that someone else will just take his place . Michael then claims that if he had the authority , he would immediately fire Toby , to which Toby calmly replies , `` I know , Michael . '' In `` Booze Cruise , '' Toby is late arriving at the dock for a company cruise . When Michael orders the ship to leave without him , Toby grins broadly , implying he had planned things in order to miss the event . In `` Take Your Daughter to Work Day , '' Toby 's daughter , Sasha , distracts Michael ; the two actually get along , showing Michael 's friendly side . Toby and Michael have a good conversation about Michael 's desire to have a family : Michael wants to have a biological child , and Toby hints that he should seek out alternatives . When Michael asks if Sasha already has a godfather , Toby quickly replies , `` Yes . '' `` Conflict Resolution '' is by far Toby 's biggest role in the season . Toby shows that he handles inter-office complaints calmly and efficiently , only to see his work undone by Michael 's stupidity . When Dwight threatens to quit unless Michael fires Jim ( because of Jim 's history of pranks against Dwight ) , Michael attempts to resolve the conflict by making vague promises of future action , an approach similar to one Toby had used successfully in the past . Toby covertly shows that he files Dwight 's complaints against Jim in a trash box and that he puts the huge number of complaints against Michael in unmarked boxes that are filed into the vast space of the warehouse . In `` Casino Night , '' Toby tries to convince Michael not to invite Boy Scouts to a company Casino Night . Michael 's response is to demean him in front of everybody . Toby just lets him finish . That night , however , Toby viciously beats Michael at no - limit Texas Hold ' Em , to Michael 's visible irritation . Later , Toby says to the camera , `` I 'm not gon na lie -- it felt good to take money from Michael . I 'm gon na chase that feeling . '' Seasons 3 -- 4 ( edit ) In `` The Convention , '' after finding out that Pam is no longer engaged , Toby makes a couple of attempts to ask her out but ca n't say the words . Michael trashes Toby to Jim and eagerly asks Jim if the HR rep is the reason he left for Stamford . Michael is visibly stung when Jim says no ( he later tells Michael about his declaration of love for Pam ) . In `` The Convict , '' Michael jokingly refers to Toby as a rapist , much to the dismay of those present . Later , Toby convinces Michael to release the office employees from the conference room , whom he had locked in there as punishment for unfavorably comparing Dunder Mifflin to a prison . In `` A Benihana Christmas , '' Michael has Dwight take Toby 's gift bag present of an expensive robe when they run out of enough of them for everyone . Pam later comes over and kindly gives her robe to Toby . In `` Back from Vacation , '' Toby asks Michael about the `` Jamaica Jan Sun Princess '' photo . Michael tries to accuse Toby of stealing the file from him , but Toby says `` nine different people sent it to me , including my ex-wife , and , well , we do n't talk . '' Michael then insults Toby 's divorce again and calls him a perv , but does state for the record that he and Jan do not have a relationship . In `` Phyllis ' Wedding '' Toby is seen with a beautiful woman whom he says he met in the gym , although Kevin believes she is a paid escort . When Phyllis tosses her bouquet , it is Toby 's date that catches it , and then excitedly runs back to Toby and the two share a brief embrace and kiss . Toby is then shown in a talking head as very ecstatic towards the outcome . It is implied that Toby and his date eventually broke up afterwards as this is the only episode where she is seen . In `` Business School '' he tells Pam he can not make it to her art show because his daughter has a play . He then offers to miss his daughter 's play because `` what they do is not art . '' In `` Cocktails '' Toby spends the whole evening trying to win Pam a duck from a claw machine after she comments on how cute it is . When he finally wins it , Pam suggests that he give it to his daughter instead . In `` The Negotiation , '' Toby is forced to listen to Ryan and Kelly bickering nonstop when Michael moves Ryan back to the annex . Toby wonders if Michael did this to punish Toby and that if he did , it was a genius move . Toby goes with Michael and Darryl to New York after Jan says she will not do the contract negotiation unless Toby is there . When Michael repeatedly mentions his and Jan 's relationship at that point , Toby takes notes and Michael insults him , but Toby just says he 's `` preparing for the deposition '' that he thinks will inevitably occur because Michael threatened to withhold sex from a female superior in order to get a modest , scheduled raise , commenting , `` It will be a groundbreaking case when it inevitably goes to trial . '' Additionally , when Darryl says he will stay in New York for the night , he tells Toby he can join him and stay at his relative 's house , pointedly not extending the same offer to Michael . In `` Women 's Appreciation , '' Toby is out of the office at a parent - teacher conference when Phyllis is flashed . When he returns , Michael scoffs at his alibi and seriously asks to see his penis to rule him out as a suspect . Toby turns towards Michael and looks like he 's about to get angry ; Michael then seems to catch himself and admits what he said to Toby was wrong . In `` Beach Games , '' Michael bans Toby from attending the beach event because he wants it to be fun and says it will not be if Toby is there . Toby is visibly upset that he will not get to see Pam in a bikini ( which she ends up not wearing there ) and is seen despondently doing paper work in a deleted scene from the episode . On the Season 3 DVD , Toby gives a series of wraparound interviews . Among other things : He lists the various insulting nicknames Michael has for him , including `` The Devil 's Butthole '' and `` Gargamel '' , noting `` I prefer Toby '' . He describes Michael 's `` invention '' of a safe George Foreman Grill after he burned his foot , which involved putting the Grill inside a bunny cage . He says that his job is not a nightmare because you wake up from nightmares ; it 's more like an unrelenting `` daymare . '' He lists what he would do if he had one day to live , including wanting to `` Burn this place ( The Office ) to the ground '' this makes the interviewer react with horror and / or disbelief which Toby responds to with a confused `` What ? '' . He says , `` HR is n't just a job , it 's a way of life . ( Pause ) But I wish it was just a job . '' In `` Fun Run '' Toby goes against Michael 's theory of an office curse by mentioning he won a drawing at a local pizza place , but Michael insults him and later ignores his statement that you can not ask employees about their religions . Before the race , Dwight puts Imodium in Toby 's drink instead of Ex-Lax and Michael pulls Toby 's shorts down right before the starting gun is fired . Toby later wins the race to cure rabies , beating Michael and accomplishing something noteworthy ; however , no one notices his win , and Kelly does not even bother looking up when he crosses the finish line . Toby then wonders why the 5K course was a straight line instead of a circle that would have returned everyone to the Dunder Mifflin building . In `` Dunder Mifflin Infinity '' after Toby sees Pam kiss Jim he sends out a memo about Public Display of Affection . When Michael accosts Toby about the memo ( thinking it 's about him and Jan having sex in the office ) , Toby tells him , in front of everyone , that it is about Jim and Pam . When they confirm that they are dating everyone is happy , except Toby . Later Pam and Jim visit him to see if they have to sign a `` Love Contract , '' but he tells them to wait and see . In a scene that was added to the episode 's repeat airing on NBC , Toby comes into work with a woman he says is his girlfriend and makes out with her right in front of the reception desk and Pam . In `` Money '' Toby shows that he uses very good grammar when he corrects Michael and clears up a confusion between the usages of the words `` whoever '' and `` whomever '' ( `` who '' is used as a subject , while `` whom '' is used as an object ) . Michael responds by telling Toby to shove a letter opener in his skull . In a deleted scene of `` Local Ad , '' Toby pitches an idea of having a stop motion ad that Michael , of course , puts down although the rest of the office seems to like the idea . When the local ad is being played at the bar , Toby is in the ad , but only briefly . While Michael was shooting the scene of the paper airplane flying out of the hand of Creed towards the conference room window , you see Toby in the conference room packing up whatever work he was finishing . Michael did not want Toby in the video ; however , for a fleeting moment , Toby had managed to unintentionally get a part in the ad . Toby 's distaste for Pam 's relationship with Jim is again brought up in `` Branch Wars '' when Jim is allowed to join `` The Finer Things Club , '' an exclusive organization built up by Pam , Toby , and Oscar , dedicated to discussing civilized culture . During the episode 's final scene , after Jim contributes his ideas on the book being discussed , Toby scrutinizes him very bitterly , hinting again at his disdain for Jim 's success with Pam . His irritation is attributed to the fact that Jim did not read the book , though Oscar and even Pam are also annoyed with Jim 's wisecracking , uninformed behavior . Also in this episode Michael tells Karen she can have Toby instead of Stanley ; when Karen says Toby is not a salesperson , Michael briefly tries to talk up Toby 's ability to learn before saying he ca n't fake it and insulting the HR rep anew . In the episode `` Survivor Man , '' Toby ends up getting on Jim 's nerves . When Jim is named Acting Manager while Michael is off on his `` wilderness adventure '' and starts altering the office 's birthday schedule , Toby asks Jim if he can have a birthday celebration , explaining that Michael deliberately held a party for Toby at 4 : 58 PM on a Friday so no one would attend . Jim agrees but comments that he likes Toby but that the guy is really annoying him , claiming that sometimes Toby can sometimes be a little bit much . Jim 's dismissive , disgusted attitude toward Toby ( whom he has always gotten along with before ) very closely mirrors how Michael treats Toby . It is not clear whether Jim is genuinely fed up with Toby or whether this interplay showed that Jim was beginning to act like Michael . It is also possible that Jim was not annoyed at Toby specifically but at the general reaction to his plan . Jim 's disgusted attitude can also be attributed to the fact that Toby has been treating Jim fairly poorly in previous episodes due to his jealousy of his relationship with Pam . Michael 's hatred for Toby is brought up again in `` The Deposition '' when Michael says he does not want Toby in the deposition and nastily asks if the HR rep is there `` to renew your divorce vows '' ( Toby is also sitting a conspicuous distance from Michael in the uncrowded room being used for the proceedings ) . When the two happen to sit next to each other at lunch , Toby kindly tells Michael that he can relate to Michael 's situation , of Toby 's parents ' divorce . While Toby is talking , Michael pushes Toby 's lunch tray on the floor , then gets up and leaves . Later in the episode , Toby begins to laugh at Michael after learning Michael thinks Ryan is `` hot . '' Also , after Jan 's attorney brings out Michael 's diary , and the head of the deposition says `` Okay , we 'll need ten copies of that diary , '' to which Toby says , `` Make that eleven . '' In a deleted scene , Michael asks Toby if he will tell Meredith that the car accident from Fun Run was Michael 's fault , and Toby nods . In the episode `` Night Out , '' he puts his hand on Pam 's leg and caresses it for a long , awkward moment , which everyone standing around seems to notice , making this the first time the employees see Toby 's possible crush on Pam . Immediately thereafter , realizing what he had just done , he abruptly announces that he is moving to Costa Rica , runs outside to the security fence , scales it , and disappears into the night . This scene was done by a stunt double , as Lieberstein wanted to do it himself but it was decided for insurance reasons to let the stuntman do his work . In `` Did I Stutter ? , '' Toby and Ryan together ( who both have a problem with Jim ; Toby dislikes him for dating Pam and Ryan dislikes him for going over his head ) warn Jim on his job performance , citing specifically his indifference toward his job and use of time ( namely `` goofing off with Dwight '' and `` time spent at Reception '' with Pam ) . Toby then says to the camera that Jim 's time spent with Pam `` has finally caught up to him , '' but he repeats Pam 's name several times when unnecessary . Toby later says , though , that he agrees that Jim has good numbers but Ryan thinks they are not good enough . In the same episode , Toby convinces Michael he needs to deal with Stanley for his open insubordination during a staff meeting , though Michael goes about it a different way because Toby 's method `` did not work because it was stupid . '' Michael also says Toby does not have any friends , but Michael does so in the context of stating that Stanley is Michael 's friend , which is later shown to be completely inaccurate as Stanley despises him for his stupidity and is not afraid to confront Micheal about it . It is also shown that Dwight thinks Toby may be Jewish , as Dwight 's org chart shows a blue Star of David with a question mark next to Toby 's name ; Toby did not say what ( if any ) religion he practiced when Michael prodded the staffers to talk about their religious practices in Fun Run . As Toby spent time in a seminary ( as revealed in season five episode `` Casual Friday , '' ) he is most likely a Roman Catholic . In `` Goodbye , Toby '' , he follows through on his earlier plans and quits his job as HR representative to move to Costa Rica . Michael is overjoyed at his departure and plans to throw a lavish goodbye party that reflects this . Both Kelly and Pam say they are sorry he is leaving , with Pam saying in an interview that she thinks he 's kind of cute . Toby also ends up annoying Holly , his replacement , to a degree while showing her around the office and she is somewhat rude to him and claims that he almost bored her to sleep , something which Michael enjoys hearing ( Holly remains oblivious that Michael , in fact , abuses Toby and Michael claims that Toby tortures him ) . Toby faces a cruel exit interview from Michael but the tables are turned when Holly and Pam join the interview . Michael is unable to berate Toby at length as Holly takes over . When she asks Toby ; `` How can Dunder Mifflin be improved ? , '' Toby claims he has a few ideas . Realizing that Toby has a potential opportunity to reveal and complain about his unethical work behavior and abusive treatment , Michael hides his face and angrily glares at Toby , silently threatening to kill him if he answers the question . Toby does not seem afraid but simply gives a `` things are OK as they are '' answer . Toby later tells the camera that he has survived Michael 's abuse long enough and that disclosing it is pointless . Toby gets revenge when Michael 's insulting farewell gift to him is exposed ( a rock with a note reading : `` Suck on this ! '' ) and Pam gets Michael to unwillingly give up his watch to Toby , which he does , clearly upset . Toby 's main concern on his last day is getting pictures of himself alone with Pam , which he finally does as his party is ending . Michael gets a last dig in by having Hank the security guard escort Toby out of the office as he leaves for his new life in Costa Rica and is still shown to be upset when Toby looks at his new watch . In a deleted scene at his farewell party , Toby refers to an undefined incident involving his sister ; this marks the first time Toby has mentioned having any siblings , although late in season 7 he reveals also having a brother Rory . Seasons 5 -- 6 ( edit ) In season five , Toby is revealed to be in traction in a Costa Rican hospital , with a broken neck , after a zip - line accident on his third day in Costa Rica . He explains that he has yet to see the beach , but expresses some happiness with the camera crew for visiting . He also implies in an earlier talk with Oscar that he is attracted to a woman who is visiting a nearby resort with her husband , thus continuing his tendency to fall for unavailable women à la Pam . In a deleted scene from Baby Shower , Toby can be heard on the speakerphone with Holly , noting that he enjoys his stay at the hospital more than his treatment from Michael at the office . In `` Frame Toby '' it is revealed that Toby had returned to the office for a week without Michael noticing . When the staff tells Michael that Toby is back , Michael thinks it 's a joke until he sees Toby and screams `` No God ! Please No ! No ! '' Michael asks David Wallace to get rid of Toby but the CFO says he can not fire Toby without cause . Michael then attempts to get Toby fired by giving Pam a fake letter to give to Toby , asking him to hug and kiss her no matter how much she resisted , and taunting the HR rep into punching him , but both plans fail . Michael then tries out Dwight 's idea of planting drugs in Toby 's desk ( unknowingly buying basil from a caprese salad from warehouse workers who he thinks sold him marijuana ) . However , he does feel guilty about what he has done and , when the police are investigating the `` drugs , '' Michael tells the police that it 's a mistake and tries to stop them from arresting Toby . This suggests that , while Michael does hate Toby , there are limits to his hatred . Then again , Toby 's reaction to the setup -- that it wasted the cops ' time that could have been used to deal with law enforcement -- inspires more shock and disgust from Michael . He is seen on occasion in the background in the `` Annex '' of the office . When Michael gives his two weeks notice , Toby shows he 's not as resentful towards Michael as Michael is to him in a talking head , referring to him as a movie on an airplane , which is nothing special but something to watch . He was seen breaking up a jam session in the lunch room up between Dwight and Andy who were attempting to impress the new receptionist with guitar and banjo to the song `` Take Me Home , Country Roads '' by John Denver . Toby simply says , `` You have to stop . '' In `` Stress Relief '' , Toby is seen attempting to help the others escape Dwight 's fire drill . In the second part of the episode , during the roasting of Michael , Toby begins to walk to the mike but Michael stops him declaring that only friends are allowed to roast him and Toby agrees and sits back down and laughs with the rest of the audience at Michael being roasted . It is possible Michael stopped Toby from roasting him not only because they are not friends but because Toby would have the worst things to say about him . He is also involved in the episode `` Casual Friday '' where he has a talking head about his beginnings at Dunder Mifflin . He used to be in seminary , but he left because he wanted to have sex with a girl named Kathy and took the HR job at Dunder Mifflin so he could be with her . Kathy is revealed to be the name of his ex-wife , and he does not appear to have a passion for HR . In the same episode , he has to deal with complaints about a too relaxed dress code by Oscar and Meredith . For the first time , he is stern with his employees and enforces HR policy by cancelling Casual Fridays at the office . In the episode `` Gossip '' Michael spreads rumors about various people throughout the Office , including that Toby is a virgin , even though he has a daughter . In the episode `` The Meeting '' , Dwight and Toby investigate a dishonest workman 's compensation claim filed by Darryl , an event which results in Dwight and Darryl filing complaints against each other , leaving Toby to `` drown in a sea of paperwork . '' During the episode , Toby ends up bonding with Dwight when they share an interest in trains , and finds that Dwight is restoring a life size one in his slaughterhouse . Although he does not appear , directly , in the episode The Promotion , Michael and Jim put baked beans on pictures of the employees as a way to decide the raises . Jim then sees a drawn picture of what looks to be a clown with a caption saying `` I 'm an idiot '' and asks Michael who it is , Michael answers , saying it is Toby . Jim reminds Michael that Toby is not part of this and Michael answers `` I just wanted to draw a picture of him '' . In the episode `` Niagara '' , Toby kindly offers Michael the second bed he has in his room but Michael insults him by telling him he will be sleeping alone for the rest of his life and walks away . Toby seems to at least have some feelings left for Pam , as he seems to be happy when reacting to a possibility of Jim and Pam 's wedding being called off . When the wedding does go on , however , he is seen dancing with the others and cheering Jim and Pam on as they walk down the aisle at the ceremony 's end . In the following episode , `` Mafia '' , Oscar comments that with Jim and Pam off on their honeymoon and Toby having `` mentally checked out in June '' he is the only person left to counter insane antics with rational thinking . When hearing of Oscar 's comments Toby casually agrees with him . In the episode `` The Lover '' , Toby is yelled at by both Michael and Jim when he walks in on them just after Michael has told Jim he 's dating Pam 's mom . Later , after Pam blew up at Michael in the conference during an office meeting , Michael comes to Toby desperate to make Pam happy about his relationship with her mother . Toby offers to talk to Pam for Michael and Michael even goes as far as hugging Toby and calls him a good good - guy . Toby is extremely happy at the hope that things will finally change between them that he says `` you know I always knew that if Michael just took the time to get to know me , we would be friends . '' But once Toby is unable to smooth things over , Michael dismisses Toby as a jackass and goes right back to hating him . In the episode `` Koi Pond '' , Toby is present in the meeting where Michael wants to talk about insults in the office and as usual when Toby simply makes a point Michael insults him by calling him a waste of life , though corrects himself claiming that 's what he would like to say but the meeting is an insult free zone . However , when Michael reveals he has fallen into two fountains Toby appears to find this funny and laughs at Michael . After this , he asks for Michael to kick him out of the meeting and Michael tells him to go . In the episode `` Double Date '' , Toby talks to Pam to make sure she plans on hitting Michael off grounds . He then gives Pam some tips on how to punch harder , even going through motions with her on how to do it as Michael watches on from his office , visibly afraid . In the episode `` Secret Santa ' , Toby is called `` Antichrist '' for calling Michael 's Jesus costume inappropriate . In `` The Banker '' Toby is interviewed by an investment banker as he evaluates the branch . Michael tries to have Toby distracted while Dwight impersonates him but Toby appears and makes Dwight leave . Despite knowing of several questionable incidents that have taken place in the office , he does not say anything to the banker . He expresses his torn feelings about this in a talking head . In `` Whistleblower '' , Toby is revealed to have written a few chapters of a mystery novel and receives advice on the plot from Jo Bennett to which he replies in an interview , `` Write your own damn novel ! '' Seasons 7 -- 8 ( edit ) In `` Nepotism '' , as a punishment for physically injuring an employee , Michael is sent to a 6 - hour counselling with Toby . In a deleted scene , Toby tells the camera crew that he finished writing his book over the summer and got four sales out of his self - publishing but is being sued for plagiarism . In `` Counseling '' , Toby does counselling for Michael . They briefly become friends as Michael talks to Toby about his life , but when Michael realizes that Toby is , in fact , counselling him , Michael yells at him . Toby reveals that he has a degree in social work . At the end of the episode , however , he seems to be communicating with Toby civilly , as most of his anger is fixed on Gabe Lewis . In `` Costume Contest '' , Toby dresses up as a hobo . In a deleted scene , while using a Ouija board at the office Hallowe'en party , he mumbles that `` being dead is going to be so relaxing '' , disturbing his co-workers . In `` Christening '' , Toby has trouble entering the church where Jim and Pam 's baby is being christened . After many false starts , he finally enters the chapel and can be seen in front of the altar asking `` Why do you have to be so mean to me ? '' In a deleted scene from WUPHF.com , he 's talking with his daughter via web chat , where he finds out through her that his ex-wife has a new boyfriend . Michael shuts off Toby 's laptop and then proceeds to talk with him about the situation he 's in with Ryan . Toby tries to offer the best advice he can , but as usual , Michael brushes off what he says and then pokes fun at the fact that someone else is banging his wife . In `` Classy Christmas '' Toby has to go on leave so he can report for jury duty . The case turns out to be that of the Scranton Strangler , a fact Toby lets slip out despite his not supposed to be talking about the case . He later says to the camera crew he likes the attention . Michael is visibly disgusted when Toby returns on jury recess to attend the Christmas party and tells the staff to not ask Toby any questions as he will not leave and this will prevent Holly from returning . In the second part of the episode , Michael attempts to frame Toby for vandalizing Holly 's beloved Woody Doll but Toby immediately denies it and flips it around on Michael claiming the vandalism is something he would do , to which everyone agrees to eventually . Toby has a minor role in Michael Scott 's film `` Threat Level Midnight '' as a hostage . When the villain Goldenface ( played by Jim ) , decides to show the hero ( played by Michael Scott ) how serious he is , he decides to kill a hostage , naturally picking Toby . When Goldface shoots Toby 's character , his head explodes in an overly dramatic fashion . However , Michael tells Goldenface that the joke is on him , saying that Toby was a `` wanted animal rapist '' . Toby returns in `` Michael 's Last Dundies '' , where he appears to have lost a considerable amount of weight . In the beginning of the episode , Michael eggs his house in the morning and drives away . Toby is later seen at the Dundies sitting with Jim and Pam . Michael awards Toby with the `` Extreme Repulsiveness '' award ( with Deangelo commenting how mean that is ) . Toby refuses to accept it but is told he has to by the other employees because Michael is leaving . Toby then reluctantly accepts it , but tells Michael he finds the award hateful . He then goes on to say that he 's taking advantage of being up on the platform , and lets everyone know that the jury found The Scranton Strangler guilty and that he is being put to death . However , Toby is now having doubts about the verdict , saying he thinks the Strangler might be innocent , but is interrupted by an `` Oh Yeah '' sound effect from Dwight 's synthesizer . In `` Goodbye , Michael '' , Michael is seen saying goodbye to Toby without insulting him , possibly indicating that he will miss Toby on some level . However , Michael is visibly disgusted when he learns that Toby has a brother , Rory ( played by Paul Lieberstein 's real - life brother Warren ) , who lives in Boulder , Colorado as well . Later , Toby is seen talking to Rory via Skype and tells him he thinks his brother and Michael would `` hit it off in an odd way '' . Rory suggests that he could bring Michael a welcome basket , and asks Toby if Michael likes Jams , but Toby informs him that Michael hates them . In the beginning of `` The Inner Circle '' , Deangelo informs Toby that he is getting a new chair , but Deangelo , trying to be confusing so the staff wo n't `` figure him out '' , tells Toby he does n't care if he likes it . Toby is still grateful . In `` Dwight K. Schrute , ( Acting ) Manager '' , he gets to fill out the gun violence accident form , much to his excitement . After Jo demotes Dwight upon learning of his gun accident , she appoints Toby as one of the search committee members who would be in charge of interviewing candidates for the manager position ( along with Jim and Gabe ) . In `` The List '' , new CEO Robert California makes a list of the people in the office , dividing them between perceived `` winners '' and `` losers '' ; he takes the winners out to lunch . Although Toby is on the list of `` winners '' , he concludes that it must be a mistake , and excuses himself in the middle of lunch . In `` Lotto '' , Toby says in a talking - head interview that if he won the lottery , he would n't change his life at all , except for quitting his job , moving away , and maybe re-entering the dating world . He also says he would spend a lot of time launching his true - crime podcast , `` The Flenderson Files '' . In `` Garden Party '' , Toby arrives at `` Schrute Farms '' and asks Dwight 's cousin , Mose , where to park . Mose states that he is the valet and that Toby has to give him his car . Reluctantly , and after much pressure , Toby lets Mose park his car . It proves to be a bad choice , however , as Mose drives his car straight into a cornfield ( though it is n't damaged , and becomes the first of many cars parked there in odd , Mose - chosen order ) . In `` Spooked '' , Dwight and Robert California 's son Bert hearken back to the days when Toby was continuously mistreated by Michael when they `` prank '' Toby by telling him he 's fired . Toby finds Bert 's treatment of him hurtful -- especially Bert saying he can have Toby fired because he 's the CEO 's kid -- and Dwight finds the whole bit hilarious . In `` Test the Store '' , Toby has a rare substantial role in a Season 8 episode , where he leads a self - defense lecture for the employees after they believe Andy was attacked by a gang and left with a black eye ( Toby and everyone else later find out Andy was punched by a rude 4th - grade girl when he defended Pam from a barrage of tossed pine cones ) . When Toby is n't aggressive enough for Kelly Kapoor 's taste , she stands up and begins threatening and swinging at him , after which Andy defends Toby and gets punched in his other eye . Season 9 ( edit ) In `` New Guys '' , Andy returns from Outward Bound manager training , making him become more `` decisive and confident '' . When Andy tells Toby that he plans to fabricate an excuse to fire Nellie , Toby shoots down the idea as a violation of corporate policy , prompting Andy to tell Toby `` I understand why Michael did n't like you . '' When Andy hosts a motivational exercise involving a tightrope , he insults Toby and Nellie in front of the staff . Since that time , Andy has been rude towards Toby in a manner that echoes Michael Scott 's hatred of his harmless HR rep , though Toby seems much less affected by Andy 's behavior than he was by Michael 's . When Andy went off on his long boat trip , Toby 's time in the last season was devoted to his unrequited romantic interest in Nellie Bertram and his belief that he 'd convicted an innocent man during his jury time on the Scranton Strangler case ( a theory he put to rest when he went to visit the convict in prison and was , in fact , strangled and nearly killed by him ) . In the series finale , it 's revealed that Toby was fired immediately after Dwight fired Kevin Malone ( it 's likely that the Corporate office fired Toby and Dwight simply had the burden of telling him ) and Toby then moved to New York where he 's trying to become a novelist and has six roommates . Toby surprises his former co-workers at the reunion panel when he says that his life feels meaningless now that he 's not being filmed for the documentary anymore . He breaks down in tears while dancing with Pam at Dwight and Angela 's wedding , saying of what 's bad in his life that `` It 's everything ! '' , but he seems cheered a little when the group insists he join them for post-wedding festivities . In a photo gallery NBC released of `` where are they now ? '' info - bits for the characters , it 's revealed that Toby has returned to his destiny by taking on an HR position at a TJ Maxx store . References ( edit ) Jump up ^ Kelly , Kevin ( 2006 - 10 - 27 ) . `` TV Squad Visits the Set of : The Office '' . TV Squad . Retrieved 2007 - 02 - 04 . External link in work = ( help ) Jump up ^ Get the Girl Jump up ^ Season 1 Jump up ^ Season 2 Jump up ^ Season 3 Jump up ^ Season 3 DVD Jump up ^ Season 4 Jump up ^ Season 5 Jump up ^ Season 6 Jump up ^ http://www.nbc.com/the-office/video/wondering-about-a-windfall/1361025?auto=true External links ( edit ) www.nbc.com ( hide ) The Office ( U.S. series ) Episodes Seasons 5 6 7 8 9 Webisodes The Accountants Characters Primary Michael Scott Dwight Schrute Jim Halpert Pam Beesly Ryan Howard Andy Bernard Secondary Jan Levinson Roy Anderson Stanley Hudson Kevin Malone Meredith Palmer Angela Martin Oscar Martinez Phyllis Vance Kelly Kapoor Toby Flenderson Creed Bratton Darryl Philbin Erin Hannon Gabe Lewis Holly Flax Robert California Nellie Bertram Pete Miller Clark Green Recurring Todd Packer David Wallace Other Dunder Mifflin Awards Cast list Worldwide editions Video game Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Toby_Flenderson&oldid=797731984 '' Categories : The Office ( U.S. TV series ) characters Fictional businesspeople Fictional characters introduced in 2005 Hidden categories : CS1 errors : external links Articles lacking reliable references from April 2010 All articles lacking reliable references Articles that need to differentiate between fact and fiction from April 2010 All articles that need to differentiate between fact and fiction Pages using deprecated image syntax Pages using infobox character with unknown parameters Talk Contents About Wikipedia Add links This page was last edited on 28 August 2017 , at 21 : 24 . 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how much were the actors in friends paid

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Friends&oldid=866418206

Friends - wikipedia Friends This article is about the television sitcom . For the social concept , see Friendship . For other uses , see Friends ( disambiguation ) . `` Central Perk '' redirects here . It is not to be confused with Central Park . popular American sitcom created by Marta Kauffman and David Crane Friends Genre Sitcom Created by David Crane Marta Kauffman Starring Jennifer Aniston Courteney Cox Lisa Kudrow Matt LeBlanc Matthew Perry David Schwimmer Theme music composer Michael Skloff Allee Willis Opening theme `` I 'll Be There for You '' by The Rembrandts Country of origin United States Original language ( s ) English No. of seasons 10 No. of episodes 236 ( list of episodes ) Production Executive producer ( s ) David Crane Marta Kauffman Kevin S. Bright Michael Borkow ( season 4 ) Michael Curtis ( season 5 ) Adam Chase ( seasons 5 -- 6 ) Greg Malins ( seasons 5 -- 7 ) Wil Calhoun ( season 7 ) Scott Silveri ( season 8 -- 10 ) Shana Goldberg - Meehan ( season 8 -- 10 ) Andrew Reich ( seasons 8 -- 10 ) Ted Cohen ( seasons 8 -- 10 ) Camera setup Multi-camera Running time 20 -- 22 minutes ( per episode ) 22 -- 65 minutes ( extended international TV & DVD episodes ) Production company ( s ) Bright / Kauffman / Crane Productions Warner Bros. Television Distributor Warner Bros. Television Distribution Release Original network NBC Picture format 480i ( 4 : 3 SDTV ) ( original broadcast ) 1080p ( 16 : 9 HDTV ) ( 2012 remaster ) Audio format Dolby Surround 2.0 ( original broadcast ) Dolby Digital 5.1 ( 2012 remaster ) Original release September 22 , 1994 ( 1994 - 09 - 22 ) -- May 6 , 2004 ( 2004 - 05 - 06 ) External links ( warnervideo.com/friends15/ Website ) Friends is an American television sitcom , created by David Crane and Marta Kauffman , which aired on NBC from September 22 , 1994 to May 6 , 2004 , lasting ten seasons . With an ensemble cast starring Jennifer Aniston , Courteney Cox , Lisa Kudrow , Matt LeBlanc , Matthew Perry and David Schwimmer , the show revolves around six 20 -- 30 year old friends living in Manhattan , New York City . The series was produced by Bright / Kauffman / Crane Productions , in association with Warner Bros. Television . The original executive producers were Kevin S. Bright , Marta Kauffman , and David Crane . Kauffman and Crane began developing Friends under the title Insomnia Cafe between November and December 1993 . They presented the idea to Bright , and together they pitched a seven - page treatment of the show to NBC . After several script rewrites and changes , including a title change to Six of One , and , Friends Like Us , the series was finally named Friends . Filming of the show took place at Warner Bros. Studios in Burbank , California . All ten seasons of Friends ranked within the top ten of the final television season ratings ; ultimately reaching the number one spot in its eighth season . The series finale , aired on May 6 , 2004 , was watched by around 52.5 million American viewers , making it the fifth most - watched series finale in television history , and the most - watched television episode of the 2000s decade . Friends received acclaim throughout its run , becoming one of the most popular television shows of all time . The series was nominated for 62 Primetime Emmy Awards , winning the Outstanding Comedy Series award in 2002 for its eighth season . The show ranked no . 21 on TV Guide 's 50 Greatest TV Shows of All Time , and no . 7 on Empire magazine 's The 50 Greatest TV Shows of All Time . In 1997 , the episode `` The One with the Prom Video '' was ranked no . 100 on TV Guide 's 100 Greatest Episodes of All - Time . In 2013 , Friends ranked no . 24 on the Writers Guild of America 's 101 Best Written TV Series of All Time , and no . 28 on TV Guide 's 60 Best TV Series of All Time . Contents 1 Premise 2 Cast and characters 3 Episodes 3.1 Season 1 3.2 Season 2 3.3 Season 3 3.4 Season 4 3.5 Season 5 3.6 Season 6 3.7 Season 7 3.8 Season 8 3.9 Season 9 3.10 Season 10 4 Production 4.1 Conception 4.2 Casting 4.3 Writing 4.4 Filming 5 Series finale 6 Reception 6.1 Critical reception 6.2 Awards 6.3 Ratings 6.4 Syndication 7 Cultural impact 8 Distribution 8.1 Broadcast 8.1. 1 United States 8.1. 2 International 9 Home media 9.1 Streaming 9.2 Blu - ray and DVD 10 Spin - off 10.1 Joey 11 References 12 Further reading 13 External links Premise Rachel Green flees her wedding day and finds childhood friend Monica Geller , a New York City chef . They become roommates , and Rachel joins Monica 's group of single people in their mid-20s : Struggling actor Joey Tribbiani , business professional Chandler Bing , masseuse and musician Phoebe Buffay , and newly divorced palaeontologist Ross Geller , Monica 's older brother . Rachel becomes a waitress at fictitious Manhattan coffee house Central Perk ; when not there , the group is usually at Monica and Rachel 's nearby West Village apartment , or Joey and Chandler 's across the hall . Episodes depict the friends ' comedic and romantic adventures and career issues , such as Joey auditioning for roles or Rachel seeking jobs in the fashion industry . The six characters each have many dates and serious relationships , such as Monica with Richard Burke and Ross with Emily Waltham . Ross and Rachel 's intermittent relationship is the most often - recurring storyline ; during the ten seasons of the show they repeatedly date and break up , while Ross briefly marries Emily , he and Rachel have a child , Chandler and Monica date and marry each other , and Phoebe marries Mike Hannigan . Other frequently recurring characters include Ross and Monica 's parents , Jack and Judy , from Long Island ; Ross 's ex-wife , Carol and their son , Ben ; Central Perk barista Gunther ; Chandler 's ex-girlfriend Janice ; and Phoebe 's twin sister Ursula . Cast and characters Main article : List of Friends characters The main cast of Friends . From top to bottom : Aniston , Cox , Kudrow , LeBlanc , Perry , and Schwimmer . Jennifer Aniston as Rachel Green : A fashion enthusiast and Monica Geller 's best friend from childhood . Rachel first moves in with Monica in season one after nearly marrying Barry Farber . Rachel and Ross Geller are later involved in an on - again - off - again relationship throughout the series . Rachel dates other men during the series , such as an Italian neighbour , Paolo , in season one ; Joshua Bergin , a client from Bloomingdale 's , in season four ; Tag Jones , her assistant , in season seven ; and Joey Tribbiani in season ten . Rachel 's first job is as a waitress at the coffee house Central Perk , but she later becomes an assistant buyer at Bloomingdale 's in season three , and a buyer at Ralph Lauren in season five . Rachel and Ross have a daughter named Emma in `` The One Where Rachel Has a Baby , Part Two '' at the end of season eight . In the final episode of the series , Ross and Rachel confess their love for each other , and Rachel gives up a job in Paris to be with him . Courteney Cox as Monica Geller : The mother hen of the group and a chef , known for her perfectionist , bossy , competitive , and obsessive - compulsive nature . Monica was overweight as a child . She works as a chef in various restaurants throughout the show . Monica 's first serious relationship is with long - time family friend Richard Burke , who is twenty - one years her senior . The couple maintains a strong relationship for some time until Richard expresses that he does not want to have children . Monica and Chandler Bing later start a relationship after spending a night with each other in London in the season four finale , leading to their marriage in season seven and adoption of twins at the end of the series . Lisa Kudrow as Phoebe Buffay : A masseuse and self - taught musician . As a child , Phoebe lived in uptown New York with her mother , until she committed suicide and Phoebe took to the streets . She writes and sings her own quirky songs , accompanying herself on the guitar . She has an identical twin named Ursula , who shares Phoebe 's quirkiness . Phoebe has three serious relationships over the show 's run : David , a scientist , in season one , whom she breaks up with when he moves to Minsk on a research grant ; Gary , a police officer whose badge she finds , in season five ; and an on - and - off relationship with Mike Hannigan in seasons nine and ten . In season nine , Phoebe and Mike break up due to his desire not to marry . David returns from Minsk , leading to the two getting back together , but she eventually rejects him for Mike when both of them propose to her . Phoebe and Mike marry in season ten . Matt LeBlanc as Joey Tribbiani : A struggling actor and food lover who becomes famous for his role on soap opera Days of Our Lives as Dr. Drake Ramoray . Joey has many short - term girlfriends . Despite his womanizing , Joey is innocent , caring , and well - intentioned . Joey often uses the catchphrase pick - up line `` How you doin ' ? '' in his attempts to win over most of the women he meets . Joey rooms with his best friend Chandler for years , and later with Rachel . He falls in love with Rachel in season eight , but Rachel politely tells Joey that she does not share his feelings . They eventually date briefly in season ten , but after realizing it will not work due to their friendship and Rachel 's complicated relationship with Ross , they return to being friends . Matthew Perry as Chandler Bing : An executive in statistical analysis and data reconfiguration for a large , multinational corporation . Chandler hates this job , although it pays well . He attempts to quit during season one , but is lured back with a new office and a pay raise . He eventually quits this job in season nine due to a transfer to Tulsa . He becomes a junior copywriter at an advertising agency later that season . Chandler has a peculiar family history being the son of an erotic novelist mother and a gay , cross-dressing Las Vegas star father . Chandler is known for his sarcastic sense of humor and bad luck in relationships . Chandler marries Monica in season seven , and they adopt twins at the end of the series . Before his relationship with Monica , Chandler dated Janice Hosenstein in season one and subsequently broke up with her many times . David Schwimmer as Ross Geller : Monica Geller 's older brother , a palaeontologist working at the Museum of Natural History , and later a tenured professor of palaeontology at the New York University . Ross is involved in an on - again , off - again relationship with Rachel throughout the series . He has three failed marriages during the series : Carol Willick , a lesbian who is also the mother of his son , Ben ; Emily Waltham , who divorces him after he accidentally says Rachel 's name instead of hers during their wedding vows ; and Rachel , as the two drunkenly marry in Las Vegas . His divorces become a running joke within the series . Following a one - night stand , he and Rachel have a daughter , Emma , by the end of season eight . They finally confess that they are still in love with each other in the series finale . In their original contracts for the first season , cast members were paid $22,500 per episode . The cast members received different salaries in the second season , beginning from the $20,000 range to $40,000 per episode . Before their salary negotiations for the third season , the cast decided to enter collective negotiations , despite Warner Bros . ' preference for individual deals . The actors were given the salary of the least paid cast member , meaning Aniston and Schwimmer had their salaries reduced . The stars were paid $75,000 per episode in season three , $85,000 in season four , $100,000 in season five , $125,000 in season six , $750,000 in seasons seven and eight , and $1 million in seasons nine and ten , making Aniston , Cox , and Kudrow the highest - paid TV actresses of all time . The cast also received syndication royalties beginning in 2000 after renegotiations . At the time , that financial benefit of a piece of the show 's lucrative back - end profits had only been given out to stars who had ownership rights in a show , like Jerry Seinfeld and Bill Cosby . Series creator David Crane wanted all six actors to be equally prominent , and the series was lauded as being `` the first true ' ensemble ' show . '' The cast members made efforts to keep the ensemble format and not allow one member to dominate ; they entered themselves in the same acting categories for awards , opted for collective salary negotiations , and asked to appear together on magazine cover photos in the first season . The cast members also became best friends off - screen , so much so that recurring guest star Tom Selleck reported that he sometimes felt left out . The cast remained good friends after the series run , most notably Cox and Aniston , with Aniston being godmother to Cox and David Arquette 's daughter , Coco . In the official farewell commemorative book Friends ' Til the End , each separately acknowledged in interviews that the cast had become their family . Episodes Main article : List of Friends episodes Season Episodes Originally aired Nielsen ratings First aired Last aired Rank Rating 24 September 22 , 1994 ( 1994 - 09 - 22 ) May 18 , 1995 ( 1995 - 05 - 18 ) 8 15.6 24 September 21 , 1995 ( 1995 - 09 - 21 ) May 16 , 1996 ( 1996 - 05 - 16 ) 18.7 25 September 19 , 1996 ( 1996 - 09 - 19 ) May 15 , 1997 ( 1997 - 05 - 15 ) 16.8 24 September 25 , 1997 ( 1997 - 09 - 25 ) May 7 , 1998 ( 1998 - 05 - 07 ) 16.1 5 24 September 24 , 1998 ( 1998 - 09 - 24 ) May 20 , 1999 ( 1999 - 05 - 20 ) 15.7 6 25 September 23 , 1999 ( 1999 - 09 - 23 ) May 18 , 2000 ( 2000 - 05 - 18 ) 5 14.0 7 24 October 12 , 2000 ( 2000 - 10 - 12 ) May 17 , 2001 ( 2001 - 05 - 17 ) 5 12.6 8 24 September 27 , 2001 ( 2001 - 09 - 27 ) May 16 , 2002 ( 2002 - 05 - 16 ) 15.0 9 24 September 26 , 2002 ( 2002 - 09 - 26 ) May 15 , 2003 ( 2003 - 05 - 15 ) 13.9 10 18 September 25 , 2003 ( 2003 - 09 - 25 ) May 6 , 2004 ( 2004 - 05 - 06 ) 13.6 Season 1 Main article : Friends ( season 1 ) The first season introduces the six main characters : Rachel , Monica , Phoebe , Joey , Chandler , and Ross . Rachel arrives at Central Perk after running away from her wedding to her fiancé Barry and moves into an apartment with her friend Monica from high school . Ross , who has had a crush on Rachel since the two of them were in high school , constantly attempts to tell her how he feels about her . However , many obstacles stand in his way , such as the fact that he is expecting a baby with his lesbian ex-wife , Carol . Joey is shown to be a bachelor and struggling actor , while Phoebe works as a masseuse and portrays a slightly `` crazy '' attribute to her personality based on her troubles as a child after her mother committed suicide . However , the rest of the group loves her regardless . Chandler breaks up with his girlfriend , Janice ( Maggie Wheeler ) , who frequently returns in later seasons . Carol delivers a baby boy who is named Ben . At the end of the season , Chandler accidentally reveals that Ross loves Rachel , who realizes that she feels the same way . The season ends with Rachel waiting at the airport for Ross ' arrival from a trip . Season 2 Main article : Friends ( season 2 ) The second season begins with Rachel waiting at the gate for Ross to declare her love for him . However , she discovers that he is dating Julie ( Lauren Tom ) , someone he knew from graduate school . Rachel 's attempts to tell Ross she likes him mirror his failed attempts in the first season , although the characters eventually begin a relationship . Joey gets cast in a part in a fictional version of the soap opera , Days of Our Lives , but his character is killed off after conflicts with the show 's writers , rooting from him claiming that he writes many of his own lines . Chandler gets back with Janice , his ex-girlfriend from season one . Monica begins dating Richard ( Tom Selleck ) , a recently divorced family friend and 21 years her senior but they eventually break up . Season 3 Main article : Friends ( season 3 ) Season three takes on a significantly greater serialized format . Rachel begins working at Bloomingdale 's , an upscale department store chain , and Ross becomes jealous of her colleague , Mark . Rachel decides to take a break from their relationship ; and Ross , hurt and drunk sleeps with Chloe , `` the hot girl from the Xerox place '' , causing Rachel to break up with him . In the meantime , Chandler has a hard time dealing with their breakup because it reminds him of his parents ' divorce . After believing she has no family except her twin sister Ursula ( Lisa Kudrow ) , Phoebe becomes acquainted with her half - brother ( Giovanni Ribisi ) and birth mother ( Teri Garr ) . Joey develops a relationship with his acting partner Kate ( Dina Meyer ) , and Monica begins a relationship with millionaire Pete Becker ( Jon Favreau ) which ends because of the disagreements between the two . Season 4 Main article : Friends ( season 4 ) In the fourth - season premiere , Ross and Rachel briefly reconcile after Ross pretends to read a long letter that Rachel wrote for him , but continues to insist that the two were on a break so they break up again . Joey dates Kathy ( Paget Brewster ) , a girl that Chandler has a crush on . Kathy and Chandler later kiss , which causes drama between Chandler and Joey . Joey forgives Chandler only after he spends a day in a box as punishment . Phoebe becomes a surrogate mother for her brother and his wife Alice ( Debra Jo Rupp ) . Monica and Rachel are forced to switch apartments with Joey and Chandler after losing a bet during a quiz game , but , manage to switch back by bribing them with Knicks season tickets and a one - minute kiss ( off - screen ) between the Rachel and Monica . Ross begins dating an English woman named Emily ( Helen Baxendale ) , and the season finale features their wedding in London . Chandler and Monica sleep together , and Rachel decides to attend Ross and Emily 's wedding . While saying his vows , Ross uses the wrong name at the altar ( Rachel 's ) , to the shock of his bride and the guests . Season 5 Main article : Friends ( season 5 ) Season five starts with Ross and Emily 's wedding in London . The season features Monica and Chandler trying to keep their new relationship a secret from their friends . Phoebe gives birth to triplets in the show 's 100th episode . She gives birth to a boy , Frank Jr . Jr. , and two girls : Leslie and Chandler . Emily states that the only condition in which she would remain married to Ross is if he stops all communication with Rachel . Ross agrees , but during a last dinner with all six main characters together , Emily phones Ross and , upon discovering Rachel is there , realizes she does not trust him , which ends the marriage . Phoebe begins a relationship with a police officer , Gary ( Michael Rapaport ) , after finding his badge and using it as her own . Monica and Chandler go public with their relationship , to the surprise and happiness of their friends . They decide to get married on a trip to Las Vegas , but , change their plans after witnessing Ross and Rachel drunkenly stumble out of the wedding chapel . Season 6 Main article : Friends ( season 6 ) In the sixth - season premiere , Ross and Rachel 's marriage is established to be a drunken mistake . Ross and Rachel try to get an annulment because he does not want to have three divorces . However , he realizes he could not do so and tries to keep their wedding a secret from Rachel . Nonetheless , they divorce several episodes later . Monica and Chandler move in together , causing Rachel to move in with Phoebe . Joey lands a role on a cable television series called Mac and C.H.E.E.S.E. , where he stars alongside a robot . Ross gets a job lecturing at New York University and starts dating one of his students , Elizabeth ( Alexandra Holden ) . The relationship ends because of their maturity differences . Phoebe and Rachel 's apartment catches fire , and Rachel moves in with Joey , while Phoebe moves in with Chandler and Monica . Chandler proposes to Monica , who says yes even though her ex-boyfriend Richard confesses his love for her . Season 7 Main article : Friends ( season 7 ) The seventh season mainly follows the various antics of Monica and Chandler , who begin to plan their wedding and run into financial problems which are quickly fixed by Chandler 's secret funds . Joey 's television series Mac and C.H.E.E.S.E is cancelled , but he is offered his job back on Days of Our Lives . Meanwhile , Ross tries to introduce Ben to Hanukkah with the help of an Armadillo costume . Phoebe 's apartment is fixed , but it is rebuilt with only one large bedroom instead of the original two , so Rachel decides to stay with Joey . The season ends just prior to Monica and Chandler 's wedding , with Phoebe and Rachel finding a positive pregnancy test in the bathroom at Monica and Chandler 's apartment . Season 8 Main article : Friends ( season 8 ) In the eighth season , it is revealed at Monica and Chandler 's wedding reception that the positive pregnancy test found in the bathroom at Monica and Chandler 's apartment belongs to Rachel . Rachel takes another pregnancy test , which Phoebe at first claims is negative , in order to find Rachel 's real emotions on the realization of being pregnant . Rachel projects feelings of sadness when she thinks she 's not pregnant , so Phoebe tells her the truth . The two of them and Monica then rejoice in the bathroom . The season revolves around Rachel 's pregnancy ; Ross is revealed to be the father after an investigation involving a red sweater . Rachel and Ross decide to have the baby but do not resume their romantic relationship . Joey develops romantic feelings for Rachel , but she does not reciprocate them . Rachel gives birth to baby Emma in the season finale . At the hospital , Ross 's mother offers him an engagement ring because she wants him to marry Rachel . Ross does not intend to ask Rachel to marry him , but he takes the ring anyway and puts it in his jacket pocket . Meanwhile , in the post-delivery room , Joey looks for some tissue for an upset Rachel , picks up Ross 's jacket , and the ring falls to the floor . He kneels to pick it up and turns to Rachel , still on his knees and still holding the ring . Rachel accepts what she thinks is his proposal of marriage . Season 9 Main article : Friends ( season 9 ) Season nine begins with Ross and Rachel living together as roommates with their daughter Emma . Monica and Chandler try to conceive a baby of their own but find out that they are unable to , due to health restrictions . Phoebe begins dating Mike Hannigan ( Paul Rudd ) and chooses to be with him over her ex-boyfriend David ( Hank Azaria ) . Rachel and Emma move in with Joey in the middle of the season , and Rachel develops infatuation towards him , while the rest of the `` friends '' try hard to get Ross and Rachel back together . The group travels to Barbados in the finale to hear Ross give a keynote speech at a palaeontology conference , where they stay at a hotel . Joey and his girlfriend Charlie ( Aisha Tyler ) break up , and she begins a relationship with Ross . Upon seeing Ross and Charlie kiss each other , Joey goes to Rachel 's hotel room , and the finale ends with them kissing . Season 10 Main article : Friends ( season 10 ) The tenth season closes several long - running storylines . Charlie breaks up with Ross to get back together with her ex-boyfriend . Joey and Rachel try to contend with Ross ' feelings about them being together and decide it would be best to remain friends . Phoebe and Mike get married mid-season outside the Central Perk coffee house . Monica and Chandler apply to adopt a child and are chosen by Erica ( Anna Faris ) . In the series finale , Erica gives birth to twins , to the surprise of Monica and Chandler -- a boy and a girl . Monica and Chandler prepare to move to the suburbs , and Joey becomes upset with the changes in his life . Rachel gets fired from her job and accepts a new offer in Paris . Ross tries to get her job back by secretly meeting her boss but eventually gives up after realizing that the Paris job is her dream job . Rachel says a tearful goodbye to everyone but Ross . A hurt and angry Ross confronts Rachel , and they end up sleeping together . Rachel leaves , and Ross , realizing he loves her , chases after her to the airport . Rachel realizes she loves him too , and cancels her flight to Paris , agreeing to stay with him . The series ends with all friends plus Monica and Chandler 's new babies leaving the apartment , heading to Central Perk for a final cup of coffee . The finale dialogue used in this series is by Chandler , making a joke for the last time . The camera 's last view is of all of the characters ' keys to the apartment on the counter table , finishing with a shot of the apartment 's purple door . Production Conception It 's about sex , love , relationships , careers , a time in your life when everything 's possible . And it 's about friendship because when you 're single and in the city , your friends are your family . -- The original treatment used by Crane , Kauffman and Bright to pitch the series to NBC , . David Crane and Marta Kauffman began developing three new television pilots that would premiere in 1994 after their sitcom Family Album was cancelled by CBS in 1993 . Kauffman and Crane decided to pitch the series about `` six people in their 20s making their way in Manhattan '' to NBC since they thought it would fit best there . Crane and Kauffman presented the idea to their production partner Kevin Bright , who had served as executive producer on their HBO series Dream On . The idea for the series was conceived when Crane and Kauffman began thinking about the time when they had finished college and started living by themselves in New York ; Kauffman believed they were looking at a time when the future was `` more of a question mark . '' They found the concept to be interesting , as they believed `` everybody knows that feeling '' , and because it was also how they felt about their own lives at the time . The team titled the series Insomnia Cafe and pitched the idea as a seven - page treatment to NBC in December 1993 . At the same time , Warren Littlefield , the then - president of NBC Entertainment , was seeking a comedy involving young people living together and sharing expenses . Littlefield wanted the group to share memorable periods of their lives with friends , who had become `` new , surrogate family members . '' However , Littlefield found difficulty in bringing the concept to life and found the scripts developed by NBC to be terrible . When Kauffman , Crane and Bright pitched Insomnia Cafe , Littlefield was impressed that they knew who their characters were . NBC bought the idea as a put pilot , meaning they risked financial penalties if the pilot was not filmed . Kauffman and Crane took three days to write the pilot script for a show they titled Friends Like Us . Littlefield wanted the series to `` represent Generation X and explore a new kind of tribal bonding '' , but the rest disagreed . Crane argued that it was not a series for one generation , and wanted to produce a series that everyone would enjoy watching . NBC liked the script and ordered the series . They changed the title to Six of One , mainly because they felt Friends Like Us was too similar to the ABC sitcom These Friends of Mine . Casting See also : The Pilot ( Friends ) The producers wanted Courteney Cox ( pictured ) to portray Rachel , and Jennifer Aniston as Monica ; However , Cox and Aniston disagreed , so Cox was cast as Monica and Aniston as Rachel Once it became apparent that the series was a favored project at NBC , Littlefield reported that he was getting calls from every agent in town , wanting their client to be a part of the series . Auditions for the lead roles took place in New York and Los Angeles . The casting director shortlisted 1,000 actors who had applied for each role down to 75 . Those who received a callback read again in front of Crane , Kauffman and Bright . At the end of March , the number of potential actors had been reduced to three or four for each part , and were asked to read for Les Moonves , then - president of Warner Bros. Television . Having worked with David Schwimmer in the past , the series creators wrote the character of Ross with him in mind , and he was the first actor cast . Cox wanted to play the role of Monica , but the producers had her in mind to play Rachel because of her `` cheery , upbeat energy '' , which was not how they envisioned Monica ; after Cox 's audition , though , Kauffman agreed with Cox , and she got the role . When Matt LeBlanc auditioned for Joey , he put a `` different spin '' on the character . He played Joey more simple - minded than intended and gave the character heart . Although Crane and Kauffman did not want LeBlanc for the role at the time , they were told by the network to cast him . Jennifer Aniston , Matthew Perry and Lisa Kudrow were cast based on their auditions . More changes occurred to the series 's storylines during the casting process . The writers found that they had to adjust the characters they had written to suit the actors , and the discovery process of the characters occurred throughout the first season . Kauffman acknowledged that Joey 's character became `` this whole new being '' , and that `` it was n't until we did the first Thanksgiving episode that we realized how much fun Monica 's neuroses are . '' Writing In the weeks after NBC 's pick up of Friends , Crane , Kauffman and Bright reviewed sent - in scripts that writers had originally prepared for other series , mainly unproduced Seinfeld episodes . Kauffman and Crane hired a team of seven young writers because `` When you 're 40 , you ca n't do it anymore . The networks and studios are looking for young people coming in out of college . '' The creators felt that using six equal characters , rather than emphasizing one or two , would allow for `` myriad storylines and give the show legs . '' The majority of the storyline ideas came from the writers , although the actors added ideas . Although the writers originally planned the big love story to be between Joey and Monica , the idea of a romantic interest between Ross and Rachel emerged during the period when Kauffman and Crane wrote the pilot script . During the production of the pilot , NBC requested that the script be changed to feature one dominant storyline and several minor ones , but the writers refused , wanting to keep three storylines of equal weight . NBC also wanted the writers to include an older character to balance out the young ones . Crane and Kauffman were forced to comply and wrote a draft of an early episode that featured `` Pat the Cop . '' who would be used to provide advice to the other characters . Crane found the storyline to be terrible , and Kauffman joked , `` You know the kids ( sic ) book , Pat the Bunny ? We had Pat the Cop . '' NBC eventually relented and dropped the idea . Each summer ( June , July , and August in the US ) , the producers would outline the storylines for the subsequent season . Before an episode went into production , Kauffman and Crane would revise the script written by another writer , mainly if something concerning either the series or a character felt foreign . Unlike other storylines , the idea for a relationship between Joey and Rachel was decided on halfway through the eighth season . The creators did not want Ross and Rachel to get back together so soon , and while looking for a romantic impediment , a writer suggested Joey 's romantic interest in Rachel . The storyline was incorporated into the season ; However , when the actors feared that the storyline would make their characters unlikable , the storyline was wrapped up , until it again resurfaced in the season 's finale . For the ninth season , the writers were unsure about the amount of storyline to give to Rachel 's baby , as they wanted the show neither to revolve around a baby nor pretend there to be none . Crane said that it took them a while to accept the idea of a tenth season , which they decided to do because they had enough stories left to tell to justify the season . Kauffman and Crane would not have signed on for an eleventh season , even if all the cast members had wanted to continue . The episode title format -- `` The One ... '' -- was created when the producers realized that the episode titles would not be featured in the opening credits , and therefore would be unknown to most of the audience . Episode titles officially begin with `` The One ... '' except the title of the pilot episode and the series finale `` The Last One . '' Filming The Greenwich Village building , 90 Bedford Street , used as the friends ' apartment block in establishing shots The first season was shot on Stage 5 at Warner Bros. Studios in Burbank , California . NBC executives had worried that the coffee house setting was too hip and asked for the series to be set in a diner , but , eventually consented to the coffee house concept . The opening title sequence was filmed in a fountain at the Warner Bros. Ranch at 4 : 00 am , while it was particularly cold for a Burbank morning . At the beginning of the second season , production moved to the larger Stage 24 , which was renamed `` The Friends Stage '' after the series finale . Filming for the series began during the summer ( June , July , and August in the US ) of 1994 in front of a live audience , who were given a summary of the series to familiarize themselves with the six main characters ; a hired comedian entertained the studio audience between takes . Each 22 - minute episode took six hours to film -- twice the length of most sitcom tapings -- mainly due to the several retakes and rewrites of the script . Although the producers always wanted to find the right stories to take advantage of being on location , Friends was never shot in New York . Bright felt that filming outside the studio made episodes less funny , even when shooting on the lot outside , and that the live audience was an integral part of the series . When the series was criticized for incorrectly depicting New York , with the financially struggling group of friends being able to afford huge apartments , Bright noted that the set had to be big enough for the cameras , lighting , and `` for the audience to be able to see what 's going on '' ; the apartments also needed to provide a place for the actors to execute the funny scripts . The fourth - season finale was shot on location in London because the producers were aware of the series 's popularity in the UK . The scenes were shot in a studio with three audiences each made up of 500 people . These were the show 's largest audiences throughout its run . The fifth - season finale , set in Las Vegas , was filmed at Warner Bros. Studios , although Bright met people who thought it was filmed on location . Series finale Main article : The Last One ( Friends ) The cast became very emotional while filming the final episode . Jennifer Aniston explained , `` We 're like very delicate china right now , and we 're speeding toward a brick wall . '' The series 's creators completed the first draft of the hour - long finale in January 2004 , four months before its original airing . Crane , Kauffman and Bright watched the finales of other sitcoms to prepare the episode 's outline , paying attention to what worked and what did not . They liked the ones that stayed true to the series , citing the finale of The Mary Tyler Moore Show as the gold standard . Crane , Kauffman , and Bright had difficulty writing the finale . They did not want to do `` something high concept , or take the show out of the show . '' The most critical parts of the finale were shot without an audience , and with a minimum number of crew members . The main cast enjoyed the finale and were confident that the fans would react similarly : It 's exactly what I had hoped . We all end up with a sense of a new beginning and the audience has a sense that it 's a new chapter in the lives of all these characters . -- David Schwimmer on the series finale. , NBC heavily promoted the series finale , which was preceded by weeks of media hype . Local NBC affiliates organized viewing parties around the U.S. , including an event at Universal CityWalk featuring a special broadcast of the finale on an outdoor Astrovision screen . The finale was the subject of two episodes of Dateline NBC , a weekly television newsmagazine , one of which ran for two hours . A one - hour retrospective of clips from previous episodes was shown before to the airing of the episode . Following the finale , The Tonight Show with Jay Leno was filmed on the set of the Friends ' Central Perk coffee house , which featured the series 's cast as guests . The advertising rates for the finale averaged $2 million for 30 seconds of commercial time , breaking the record held by the Seinfeld finale at $1.7 million . In the U.S. , 52.5 million viewers watched the finale on May 6 , 2004 , making it the most - watched entertainment telecast since the Seinfeld finale in 1998 . Although not the most - watched episode of the series , the finale was the fourth most - watched series finale in television history , only behind the finales of M * A * S * H , Cheers and Seinfeld , which were respectively watched by 105 , 80.4 and 76.2 million viewers . The retrospective episode was watched by fewer than 36 million viewers , and the finale was the second most - watched television broadcast of the year in the United States , only behind the Super Bowl . Following the finales of Friends and Frasier , media critics speculated about the fate of the sitcom genre . Expressed opinions varied between a signalling of the end of the sitcom genre , a small decline in the large history of the genre , and a general reduction of scripted television in favor of reality shows . Reception Critical reception It may have been impossible for any one episode to live up to the hype and expectations built up around the Friends finale , but this hour probably came as close as fans could have reasonably hoped . Ultimately , the two - hour package did exactly what it was supposed to do . It wrapped up the story while reminding us why we liked the show and will miss it . -- Robert Bianco of USA Today on the series finale. , Early reviews of the series were mixed ; and it holds a Metacritic score of 59 out of 100 , based on 20 sampled reviews , indicating `` mixed to average reviews . '' Tom Feran of The Plain Dealer wrote that the series traded `` vaguely and less successfully on the hanging - out style of Seinfeld '' , while Ann Hodges of the Houston Chronicle called it `` the new Seinfeld wannabe , but it will never be as funny as Seinfeld . '' In the Los Angeles Daily News , Ray Richmond named the series as `` one of the brighter comedies of the new season '' , and the Los Angeles Times called it `` flat - out the best comedy series of the new season . '' Chicago Sun - Times ' Ginny Holbert found Joey and Rachel 's characteristics to be underdeveloped , while Richmond commended the cast as a `` likeable , youth ensemble '' with `` good chemistry . '' Robert Bianco of USA Today was complimentary of Schwimmer , calling him `` terrific . '' He also praised the female leads , but was concerned that Perry 's role as Chandler was `` undefined '' and that LeBlanc was `` relying too much on the same brain - dead stud routine that was already tired the last two times he tried it . '' The authors of Friends Like Us : The Unofficial Guide to Friends thought that the cast was `` trying just a little too hard '' , in particular , Perry and Schwimmer . As the series progressed , reviews became more positive , and Friends became one of the most popular sitcoms of its time . It is now often ranked among the all - time best TV shows . Critics commended the series as having consistently sharp writing and the chemistry between the main actors . Noel Holston of Newsday , who had dismissed the pilot as a `` so - so Seinfeld wannabe '' in 1994 , repudiated his earlier review after rewatching the episode and felt like writing an apology to the writers . Heather Havrilesky of Salon.com thought that the series `` hit its stride '' in the second season . Havrilesky found the character - specific jokes and situations `` could reliably make you laugh out loud a few times each episode '' , and the quality of writing allowed the stories to be `` original and innovative . '' Bill Carter of The New York Times called the eighth season a `` truly stunning comeback . '' Carter found that by `` generating new hot storylines and high - decibel laughs '' , the series made its way `` back into the hearts of its fans . '' However , Liane Bonin of Entertainment Weekly felt that the direction of the ninth season was a `` disappointing buzzkill '' , criticizing it for the non-stop celebrity guest spots and going into jump the shark territory . Although disappointed with the season , Bonin noted that `` the writing ( was ) still sharp . '' Havrilesky thought that the tenth season was `` alarmingly awful , far worse than you would ever imagine a show that was once so good could be . '' Friends was featured on Time 's list of `` The 100 Best TV Shows of All - Time '' , saying , `` the well - hidden secret of this show was that it called itself Friends , and was really about family . '' Reviews of the series finale were mixed . USA Today 's Robert Bianco described the finale as entertaining and satisfying and praised it for deftly mixing emotion and humor while highlighting each of the stars . Sarah Rodman of the Boston Herald praised Aniston and Schwimmer for their acting , but felt that their characters ' reunion was `` a bit too neat , even if it was what most of the show 's legions of fans wanted . '' Roger Catlin of the Hartford Courant felt that newcomers to the series would be `` surprised at how laughless the affair could be , and how nearly every strained gag depends on the sheer stupidity of its characters . '' Ken Parish Perkins , writing for Fort Worth Star - Telegram , pointed out that the finale was `` more touching than comical , more satisfying in terms of closure than knee - slappingly funny . '' Awards Main article : List of awards and nominations received by Friends To maintain the series 's ensemble format , the main cast members decided to enter themselves in the same acting categories for awards . Beginning with the series 's eighth season , the actors decided to submit themselves in the lead actor balloting , rather than in the supporting actor fields . The series was nominated for 62 Primetime Emmy Awards , winning six . Aniston and Kudrow are the only main cast members to win an Emmy , while Cox is the only actor not to be nominated . The series won the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Comedy Series in 2002 , receiving nominations in 1995 , 1996 , 1999 , 2000 , and 2003 . The series also won an American Comedy Award , one GLAAD Media Award , one Golden Globe Award , three Logie Awards , six People 's Choice Awards , one Satellite Award , and one Screen Actors Guild Award . Ratings The table below shows the ratings of Friends in the United States , where it consistently ranked within the top ten of the final television season ratings . `` Rank '' refers to how well Friends rated compared to other television series that aired during primetime hours of the corresponding television season . It is shown in relation to the total number of series airing on the then - six major English - language networks in a given season . `` Viewers '' refers to the average number of viewers for all original episodes , broadcast during the television season in the series 's regular timeslot . The `` season premiere '' is the date that the first episode of the season aired , and the `` season finale '' is the date that the final episode of the season aired . So far , Friends has been the last sitcom to reach the no . 1 spot on television , as its successors were CSI : Crime Scene Investigation , American Idol , NBC Sunday Night Football and NCIS . Ratings table Season Timeslot Season premiere Season finale TV season Rank Viewers ( in millions ) Most - watched episode Title Viewers ( in millions ) Thursday 8 : 30 pm ( 1 -- 16 ) Thursday 9 : 30 pm ( 17 -- 24 ) September 22 , 1994 May 18 , 1995 1994 -- 95 8 24.3 `` The One Where Rachel Finds Out '' 31.3 Thursday 8 : 00 pm September 21 , 1995 May 16 , 1996 1995 -- 96 29.4 `` The One After the Superbowl '' 52.9 September 19 , 1996 May 15 , 1997 1996 -- 97 24.9 `` The One Where Chandler Ca n't Remember Which Sister '' 29.8 September 25 , 1997 May 7 , 1998 1997 -- 98 24.0 `` The One with Ross 's Wedding '' 31.6 5 September 24 , 1998 May 20 , 1999 1998 -- 99 23.5 `` The One After Ross Says Rachel '' 30.9 6 September 23 , 1999 May 18 , 2000 1999 -- 2000 5 20.7 `` The One with the Proposal '' 30.7 7 October 12 , 2000 May 17 , 2001 2000 -- 01 5 20.2 `` The One with Monica and Chandler 's Wedding '' 30.1 8 September 27 , 2001 May 16 , 2002 2001 -- 02 24.5 `` The One Where Rachel Has a Baby '' 34.9 9 September 26 , 2002 May 15 , 2003 2002 -- 03 21.8 `` The One Where No One Proposes '' 34.0 10 September 25 , 2003 May 6 , 2004 2003 -- 04 22.8 `` The Last One '' 52.5 Syndication Because of syndication revenue , Friends continues to generate approximately $1 billion each year for Warner Bros. That translates into about $20 million in annual residuals each for Jennifer Aniston , Courteney Cox , Lisa Kudrow , Matt LeBlanc , Matthew Perry and David Schwimmer , who each get 2 % of syndication income for Friends . The series has a syndication deal through multiple networks including Nickelodeon , TBS , and Paramount ( formerly known as Spike ) . Cultural impact Set of Central Perk at Warner Bros. Studios Although the producers thought of Friends as `` only a TV show '' , numerous psychologists investigated the cultural impact of Friends during the series 's run . Aniston 's hairstyle was nicknamed `` The Rachel '' and copied around the world . Joey 's catchphrase , `` How you doin ' ? '' , became a popular part of Western English slang , often used as a pick - up line or when greeting friends . The series also influenced the English language , according to a study by the University of Toronto that found that the characters used the emphasized word `` so '' to modify adjectives more often than any other intensifier . Although the preference had already made its way into the American vernacular , usage on the series may have accelerated the change . Chandler 's habit of ending a sentence unfinished for sarcasm also influenced viewers ' speech . Following the September 11 attacks , ratings increased 17 % over the previous season . Friends is parodied in the twelfth season Murder , She Wrote episode `` Murder Among Friends . '' In the episode , amateur sleuth Jessica Fletcher ( Angela Lansbury ) investigates the murder of a writer for Buds , a fictional television series about the daily lives of a group of city friends . The episode was devised after CBS moved Murder , She Wrote from its regular Sunday night timeslot to a Thursday night timeslot directly opposite Friends on NBC ; Angela Lansbury was quoted by Bruce Lansbury , her brother and Murder , She Wrote 's supervising producer , as having `` a bit of an attitude '' about the move to Thursday , but he saw the plot as `` a friendly setup , no mean - spiritedness . '' Jerry Ludwig , the writer of the episode , researched the `` flavor '' of Buds by watching episodes of Friends . The Central Perk coffee house , one of the principal settings of the series , has inspired various imitations worldwide . In 2006 , Iranian businessman Mojtaba Asadian started a Central Perk franchise , registering the name in 32 countries . The decor of the coffee houses is inspired by Friends , featuring replica couches , counters , neon signage and bricks . The coffee houses also contain paintings of the various characters from the series , and televisions playing Friends episodes . James Michael Tyler , who plays the Central Perk manager in the series , Gunther , attended the grand opening of the Dubai cafe , where he worked as a waiter . Central Perk was rebuilt as part of a museum exhibit at Warner Bros. Studios and was shown on The Ellen DeGeneres Show in October 2008 . Jennifer Aniston revisited the set for the first time since the series finale in 2004 . From September 24 to October 7 , 2009 , a Central Perk replica was based at Broadwick Street , Soho , London . The coffee house sold real coffee to customers and featured a display of Friends memorabilia and props , such as the Geller Cup from the season three episode `` The One with the Football . '' In Beijing , business owner Du Xin opened a coffee shop named Central Perk in March 2010 . In India , there are six Friends themed cafes , located in Chandigarh ( named Central Perk ) , Kolkata ; West Bengal ( named F.R.I.E.N.D.S. Cafe ) which features many icons from the original T.V. series for example , Chandler and Joey 's ugly dog statue , the orange sofa , the purple door of Monica and Rachel 's apartment and Phoebe 's pink bicycle . The other three cafes are located in Delhi , Gurgaon ; Bhubaneswar , Odisha ; and Pune , Maharashtra . There are two Friends themed cafes in Pakistan as well -- one in Lahore , Punjab known as `` Friends Cafe '' and the other in Peshawar , Khyber Pakhtunkhwa called `` Central Perk '' . Both of those cafes have an iconic couch , a guitar and foosball table , quotes from the show on the walls and even episode reruns on a projector . They 're also planning to have their own Gunther at the bar . In 2016 , a Central Perk replica was opened in Outram , Singapore . It is the only Central Perk that has been given the intellectual property rights by Warner Bros. outside of the United States . The cafe also includes feature walls , replicating the walls of the main characters 's apartments and memorabilia and props used on the show . Friends has also developed an alternative family lifestyle by representing young people that live unconventional domestic lives . It presents the idea that `` all you need is good friends '' and can construct families through choice . The audience is able to identify with the program through the troubles seen on weekly episodes . It portrays a new way of living life and developing relationships which are not normally seen in conventional society . According to a pop - culture expert at the University at Buffalo , Friends is `` one of those rare shows that marked a change in American culture . '' The images of youth and the roles they portray are better defined and represent a lifestyle that centres around creating and sustaining relationships between friends running their own lives and seeking help from each other . Vox stated that Friends impacted the creation of other conflictless `` hangout sitcoms '' , with groups of adult friends who are funny and have similar character traits . One example of this is How I Met Your Mother , which The Guardian 's TV and radio blog notes also shares its setting with Friends , Manhattan . Other examples include The Big Bang Theory , New Girl , and Happy Endings . Readers of TV Guide voted the cast of Friends their Best Comedy cast of all time , ranking at 29 % of the votes , beating Seinfeld , which registered 18 % . A poll undertaken by 60 Minutes and Vanity Fair named Friends the third greatest sitcom of all time . In 2014 , the series was ranked by Mundo Estranho the Best TV Series of All Time . Distribution Broadcast United States After the produced pilot lived up to NBC 's hopes , the series premiered with the name Friends on September 22 , 1994 , in the coveted Thursday 8 : 30 p.m. timeslot . The pilot aired between Mad About You and Seinfeld , and was watched by almost 22 million American viewers . The series was a huge success throughout its run and was a staple of NBC 's Thursday night line - up , dubbed by the network as Must See TV . When Crane told reporters in 2001 that the ninth season was a possibility , critics believed that he was posturing and that at least two of the cast members would not sign on for another season . When it was confirmed that Friends would return for a ninth season , the news was mainly about the amount of money -- $7 million per episode -- that it took to bring the series back for another season . After year - long expectations that the ninth season would be the series 's last , NBC signed a deal in late December 2002 to bring the series back for a final tenth season . The series 's creative team did not want to extend negotiations into the next year and wanted to start writing the rest of the ninth - season episodes and a potential series finale . NBC agreed to pay $10 million to Warner Bros. for the production of each tenth - season episode , the highest price in television history for a 30 - minute series . Although NBC was unable to bring in enough advertising revenue from commercials to cover the costs , the series was integral to the Thursday night schedule , which brought high ratings and profits to the other television series . The cast demanded that the tenth season be reduced from the usual 24 episodes to 18 episodes to allow them to work on outside projects . In fall 2001 , Warner Bros. Domestic Cable made a deal with sister network TBS ( both are owned by Time Warner ) to air the series in rerun syndication . Warner Bros. Domestic Cable announced that it had sold additional cable rights to Friends to Nick at Nite which began airing in the fall of 2011 ( unlike the TBS and broadcast syndication airings , Nick at Nite broadcasts of the series , which began airing as part of a seven - night launch marathon on September 5 , 2011 , replace the end credit tag scenes with marginalized credits featuring promotions for the series and other Nick at Nite programs ) . Warner Bros. was expected to make $200 million in license fees and advertising from the deal . Nick at Nite paid $500,000 per episode to air the episodes after 6 p.m. ET for six years through fall 2017 . In syndication until 2005 , Friends had earned $4 million per episode in cash license fees for a total of $944 million . Beginning on March 5 , 2012 , high definition versions of all 236 Friends episodes were made available to local broadcast stations , starting with the pilot episode . For the remastered episodes , Warner Bros. restored previously cropped images on the left and right sides of the screen , using the original 35 mm film source , to use the entire 16 : 9 widescreen frame . These masters had been airing in New Zealand on TV2 since January 2011 . Netflix added all ten seasons of Friends in high definition to their streaming service in the United States on January 1 , 2015 . International Friends has aired on different channels in the UK in their original , unedited international versions prior to their being re-edited for US broadcast and syndication . These versions , with additional footage not seen domestically , have aired on such stations as Channel 4 , Sky1 , E4 , and Comedy Central UK . On September 4 , 2011 , Friends officially ended on E4 after the channel re-ran the series since 2004 . Comedy Central took over the rights to air the program from October 2011 . In the Republic of Ireland , each season of the show made its European debut on RTÉ2 . After 2004 RTÉ2 began to repeat the series from the start before moving over to TV3 and its digital channel 3e in 2010 . As of February 2015 , repeats of the show have returned to RTÉ2 while also broadcasting on Comedy Central Ireland . Friends has aired in Australia on the Seven Network ( season 1 only ) , Nine Network ( season 2 -- 10 ) , Network Ten ( 2007 -- 09 , repeats ) , on GEM ( a sub-channel of the Nine Network ) , and on pay TV channel TV Hits formerly aired on Arena , 111 Hits . The show is broadcast on TV2 in New Zealand . In Canada , the series was broadcast on Global . In later years , it was syndicated on several of its cable sibling networks , including Slice , DTour , and TVTropolis , its previous incarnation . In India , the show is broadcast by Comedy Central at various times . It is the most - watched English language show in the country . In the Philippines , the show was originally aired on ABC - 5 from 1996 to 2005 and ETC from 2005 to 2014 . In Greece , the show was broadcast on Star Channel . In Cyprus , Friends aired on CyBC 2 while reruns air on TVOne . In Albania , the show was originally broadcast by Top Channel . Reruns were broadcast by A1 Report . Home media Streaming In October 2014 , Warner Bros. chairman and chief executive officer , Kevin Tsujihara , announced that the company had licensed the North American streaming rights of all ten seasons of Friends to Netflix , in a deal said to be worth around $500,000 an episode , or about $120 million in total . The show became available on Netflix from January 1 , 2015 . The Netflix airings are in the versions as aired on NBC rather than the longer international versions , as discussed below . Blu - ray and DVD All ten seasons have been released on DVD individually and as a box set . Each Region 1 season release contains special features and are presented in their aforementioned original international broadcast versions , although Region 2 releases are as originally aired domestically . For the first season , each episode is updated with color correction and sound enhancement . A wide range of Friends merchandise has been produced by various companies . In September 1995 , WEA Records released the first album of music from Friends , the Friends Original TV Soundtrack , containing music featured in previous and future episodes . The soundtrack debuted on the Billboard 200 at number 46 , and sold 500,000 copies in November 1995 . In 1999 , a second soundtrack album entitled Friends Again was released . Other merchandise includes a Friends version of the DVD game `` Scene It ? '' , and a quiz video game for PlayStation 2 and PC entitled Friends : The One with All the Trivia . On September 28 , 2009 , a box set was released in the UK celebrating the series 's 15th anniversary . The box set contained extended episodes , an episode guide , and original special features . Warner Home Video released a complete series collection on Blu - ray on November 13 , 2012 . The collection does not feature the extra deleted scenes and jokes that were included on prior DVD releases , and are therefore presented in their NBC broadcast versions . DVD name Eps DVD release dates Blu - ray release dates Region 1 Region 2 Region 4 Region A Region B UK Region B Australia The Complete First Season 24 April 30 , 2002 May 29 , 2000 October 4 , 2006 April 30 , 2013 The Complete Second Season 24 September 3 , 2002 May 29 , 2000 October 4 , 2006 April 30 , 2013 The Complete Third Season 25 April 1 , 2003 May 29 , 2000 October 4 , 2006 The Complete Fourth Season 24 July 15 , 2003 May 29 , 2000 October 4 , 2006 The Complete Fifth Season 24 November 4 , 2003 May 29 , 2000 October 4 , 2006 The Complete Sixth Season 25 January 27 , 2004 July 17 , 2000 October 4 , 2006 The Complete Seventh Season 24 April 6 , 2004 October 25 , 2004 October 4 , 2006 The Complete Eighth Season 24 November 9 , 2004 October 25 , 2004 October 4 , 2006 The Complete Ninth Season 24 March 8 , 2005 October 25 , 2004 October 4 , 2006 The Complete Tenth Season 18 November 15 , 2005 October 25 , 2004 October 4 , 2006 The Complete Series 236 November 15 , 2005 November 14 , 2006 ( re-issue ) April 16 , 2013 ( re-issue 2013 ) October 2 , 2006 November 12 , 2007 ( re-issue ) September 28 , 2009 ( 15th Anniversary Edition ) November 13 , 2012 November 12 , 2012 November 21 , 2012 ( JB Hi - Fi exclusive ) August 21 , 2013 Spin - off LeBlanc hoped that by having his own show , Joey , `` probably the least evolved character '' on Friends , would become more developed . Joey Main article : Joey ( TV series ) After the series finale in 2004 , LeBlanc signed on for the spin - off series , Joey , following Joey 's move to Los Angeles to pursue his acting career . Kauffman and Crane were not interested in the spin - off , although Bright agreed to executive produce the series with Scott Silveri and Shana Goldberg - Meehan . NBC heavily promoted Joey and gave it Friends ' Thursday 8 : 00 pm timeslot . The pilot was watched by 18.60 million American viewers , but ratings continually decreased throughout the series 's two seasons , averaging 10.20 million viewers in the first season and 7.10 million in the second . The final broadcast episode on March 7 , 2006 , was watched by 7.09 million viewers ; NBC cancelled the series on May 15 , 2006 , after two seasons . Bright blamed the collaboration between NBC executives , the studio and other producers for quickly ruining the series : On Friends , Joey was a womanizer , but we enjoyed his exploits . He was a solid friend , a guy you knew you could count on . Joey was deconstructed to be a guy who could n't get a job , could n't ask a girl out . He became a pathetic , mopey character . I felt he was moving in the wrong direction , but I was not heard . -- Kevin S. Bright on the reason for Joey 's cancellation . References Jump up ^ `` ' Friends ' Was Originally Called ' Six of One ' '' . Abcnews.go.com. April 5 , 2012 . Archived from the original on August 8 , 2016 . Retrieved August 3 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Matt Lauer ( May 5 , 2004 ) . `` ' Friends ' Creators Share Show 's Beginnings '' . NBSnews.com . Archived from the original on October 2 , 2013 . Retrieved May 5 , 2004 . ^ Jump up to : Zach Seemayer ( March 31 , 2014 ) . `` The 10 Most - Watched TV Series Finales Ever ! '' . Archived from the original on September 3 , 2015 . Retrieved May 23 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Stacy Conradt ( February 28 , 2015 ) . `` The 10 Most - Watched Series Finales Ever '' . 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Jump up ^ Rosenberg , Howard ( September 22 , 1994 ) . `` NBC 's Strongest Evening of the Week Has Its Weak Spot Archived April 2 , 2015 , at the Wayback Machine . '' , The Los Angeles Times , Tribune Company . Retrieved on January 4 , 2009 . Jump up ^ Holbert , Ginny ( September 22 , 1994 ) . `` X Marks Spot For Friends On Thursday . '' ( Registration required ) . Chicago Sun - Times . Retrieved on January 4 , 2009 . Jump up ^ Bianco , Robert ( September 22 , 1994 ) . `` Six Friends Sittin ' Around , Talking '' , Pittsburgh Post-Gazette . Jump up ^ Sangster , p. 14 ^ Jump up to : `` Friends climax watched by 51m '' . BBC News . May 7 , 2004 . Archived from the original on February 5 , 2009 . Retrieved January 1 , 2009 . ^ Jump up to : Havrilesky , Heather ( May 7 , 2004 ) . `` Never forget your Friends '' . Salon.com . Archived from the original on January 22 , 2009 . Retrieved January 1 , 2009 . ^ Jump up to : Carter , Bill ( February 18 , 2002 ) . `` Plot Twists Paid Off For Friends '' . The New York Times . Archived from the original on November 18 , 2007 . Retrieved November 13 , 2007 . ^ Jump up to : Bonin , Liane ( January 9 , 2003 ) . `` Is Friends overstaying its welcome ? '' . CNN . Archived from the original on January 22 , 2009 . Retrieved January 1 , 2008 . Jump up ^ `` Friends - The 100 Best TV Shows of All '' . Time . August 13 , 2007 . Archived from the original on April 30 , 2009 . Retrieved April 27 , 2009 . Jump up ^ Rodman , Sarah ( May 7 , 2004 ) . `` Six pals depart on a classy note '' . Boston Herald . p. 3 . Jump up ^ Catlin , Roger ( May 7 , 2004 ) . `` The Long Farewell is Over ; Lots of Fans , Little Fanfare for Mich - Anticipated Finale of Friends '' . Hartford Courant . Retrieved January 1 , 2009 . ( Subscription required ( help ) ) . Jump up ^ Perkins , Ken Parish ( May 7 , 2004 ) . `` Farewell to Friends : The finale to the 10 - year series wraps up all the loose ends '' . Fort Worth Star - Telegram . Retrieved March 7 , 2018 . ( Subscription required ( help ) ) . Jump up ^ Lowry , Brian ( July 19 , 2002 ) . `` Its Coffin Overflows '' . Orlando Sentinel . Archived from the original on January 22 , 2009 . Retrieved December 19 , 2008 . Jump up ^ Friends Archived October 10 , 2011 , at the Wayback Machine . emmys.com . Retrieved June 1 , 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Advanced Primetime Awards Search '' . Academy of Television Arts & Sciences . Archived from the original on January 21 , 2009 . Retrieved January 5 , 2009 . Type `` Friends '' in the `` Program '' field , select `` 1993 '' and `` 2008 '' in `` Year range '' field , and select `` NBC '' in `` Network '' field . Jump up ^ Keck , William ( June 2 , 2005 ) . `` Kudrow back in the fold '' . USA Today . Retrieved January 5 , 2009 . Jump up ^ `` 15 years of recognition '' . TelevisionWeek. April 25 , 2005 . Archived from the original on January 22 , 2009 . Retrieved January 5 , 2009 . Jump up ^ `` HPFA - Jennifer Aniston '' . Golden Globe Award . Archived from the original on January 21 , 2009 . Retrieved January 5 , 2009 . Jump up ^ `` Fed : Logie Award winners '' . Australian Associated Press . May 12 , 2003 . Retrieved January 5 , 2009 . ( Registration required ( help ) ) . Jump up ^ `` Fed : Full list of Logies winners '' . Australian Associated Press . April 19 , 2004 . Retrieved January 5 , 2009 . ( Registration required ( help ) ) . Jump up ^ `` Entertainment Awards Database '' . Los Angeles Times . pp. 2 -- 3 . Retrieved January 5 , 2009 . Jump up ^ `` Tim Allen Wins Twice at Awards '' . Rocky Mountain News . March 6 , 1995 . Retrieved January 5 , 2009 . ( Registration required ( help ) ) . Jump up ^ `` 2001 5th Annual Satellite Awards '' . Satellite Awards . Archived from the original on December 18 , 2008 . Retrieved January 5 , 2009 . Select the `` Television '' field . Jump up ^ `` The 2nd Annual Screen Actors Guild Awards '' . Screen Actors Guild Awards . February 24 , 1996 . Archived from the original on May 25 , 2013 . Retrieved July 10 , 2013 . ^ Jump up to : Ratings for Friends by television seasons : Season 1 : `` TV Season Rankings 1994 -- 95 '' . Archived from the original on September 3 , 2015 . Season 2 : `` How Twitter is Changing Television '' . Archived from the original on September 3 , 2015 . Season 3 : `` A Milestone Year '' . Archived from the original on June 30 , 2015 . Season 4 : `` What Ranked and What Tanked '' . Archived from the original on February 16 , 2015 . Season 5 : `` TV Winners & Losers '' . Archived from the original on October 29 , 2009 . Season 6 : `` Nielsen Ratings for 1999 -- 2000 '' . Archived from the original on February 3 , 2014 . Season 7 : `` Friends Or Foes ? '' . Archived from the original on September 3 , 2015 . Season 8 : `` How Did Your Favorite Show Rate ? '' . Archived from the original on October 15 , 2015 . Season 9 : `` A Look at the Good Ol ' Days of Broadcast Primetime TV : You Know , 2003 '' . Archived from the original on September 3 , 2015 . Season 10 : `` Nielsen TV Index Ranking 2003 -- 04 '' . Archived from the original on August 18 , 2015 . ^ Jump up to : `` You Wo n't Believe What America 's Favorite `` Friends '' Episodes Are `` . Archived from the original on June 20 , 2015 . Retrieved August 12 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Nielsen Ratings ( December 1996 -- January 1997 ) '' ( PDF ) . Archived ( PDF ) from the original on March 3 , 2016 . Retrieved August 12 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` You 'll never believe how much money the ' Friends ' cast STILL earns today '' . USA TODAY . Retrieved 2018 - 04 - 05 . Jump up ^ Anne , S. ( December 27 , 2004 ) . `` Take it easy yaar ! '' . The Hindu . Chennai , India . Retrieved January 4 , 2009 . Jump up ^ Crook , John ( May 2 , 2004 ) . `` Going ' Friends ' - less / Long - running show drops the curtain '' . Toledo Blade . Zap2It . pp. V3 . Retrieved October 15 , 2012 . ^ Jump up to : Littlefield , Kinney ( February 7 , 1996 ) . `` ' Murder , She Wrote ' parodies ' Friends ' '' . Pittsburgh Post-Gazette . Retrieved October 29 , 2009 . Jump up ^ Kalsi , Jyoti ( May 8 , 2006 ) . `` Where Friends hang out '' . Gulf News . Archived from the original on July 8 , 2008 . Retrieved December 30 , 2008 . Jump up ^ Ellen DeGeneres ( host ) ( October 16 , 2008 ) . `` The Ellen DeGeneres Show : Lisa Kudrow / Natasha Bedingfield / Jalen Testerman '' . The Ellen DeGeneres Show . Season 6 . Episode 29 . NBC . Jump up ^ Thorley , Chantelle ( September 15 , 2009 ) . `` London to celebrate 15 years of Friends with Central Perk pop - up '' . Event . Haymarket Media . Archived from the original on April 10 , 2010 . Retrieved September 22 , 2009 . Jump up ^ Hong , Haolan and Jo Ling Kent . `` ' Friends ' in China : ' Central Perk ' hits Beijing Archived March 4 , 2016 , at the Wayback Machine ... '' CNN . July 2 , 2010 . Retrieved on July 4 , 2010 . Jump up ^ These Cafes in India Are Based On Your Favourite ' Friends ' TV Show , August 4 , 2017 Jump up ^ Tiwari , Shwali ( September 27 , 2016 ) . `` India Now Has 5 F.R.I.E.N.D.S Themed Cafes , But There 's A Catch '' . India Times . Archived from the original on February 11 , 2017 . Retrieved February 11 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` A real - life version of Central Perk from F.R.I.E.N.D.S in Peshawar '' . The Good Times -- Unique Pakistan . Archived from the original on December 12 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Quek , Eunice ( 28 November 2016 ) . `` F.R.I.E.N.D.S - themed cafe Central Perk opens for business '' . AsiaOne . Jump up ^ Singson , Ysa ( December 1 , 2016 ) . `` Central Perk , The Cafe From ' Friends , ' Just Opened In Singapore '' . Cosmopolitan Philippines . Jump up ^ Katzman , David M. ( Summer 1998 ) . `` TV and American Culture '' . American Studies . 2 . 39 : 5 -- 12 . Jump up ^ DellaContrada , John ( April 16 , 2004 ) . `` '' Friends '' Reflected Change in American Society , Among First TV Shows to Portray `` Youth on Their Own , '' says UB Pop - Culture Expert `` . Buffalo News . Archived from the original on May 28 , 2012 . Jump up ^ VanDerWerff , Todd ( 13 January 2016 ) . `` Friends was a great show -- that just happened to ruin TV comedy '' . Retrieved 2 August 2018 . Jump up ^ Pickard , Anna ( 9 September 2009 ) . `` How I met Neil Patrick Harris '' . The Guardian . Retrieved 16 June 2018 . Jump up ^ Martin , Daniel ( 19 September 2016 ) . `` The Big Bang Theory : show returns for 10th season , but is it time it went bust ? '' . Retrieved 2 August 2018 . Jump up ^ Lyons , Margaret . `` Happy Endings : Wait , Which Friends Clone Is That Again ? '' . Nymag.com . Retrieved August 4 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Your Favorite TV Casts '' , TV Guide , January 3 , 2011 , page 11 Jump up ^ `` Is ' Seinfeld ' The Greatest Sitcom Ever ? '' . Deadline Hollywood . December 3 , 2012 . Archived from the original on October 2 , 2013 . Retrieved September 30 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` As 100 Melhores Séries da História , segundo jornalistas brasileiros ! '' ( in Portuguese ) . Ligado em Série . October 28 , 2014 . Archived from the original on October 31 , 2014 . Retrieved November 1 , 2014 . Jump up ^ Welsh , James ( January 15 , 2004 ) . `` NBC elaborates on Friends finale plans '' . Digital Spy . Archived from the original on January 21 , 2009 . Retrieved December 31 , 2008 . ^ Jump up to : Carter , Bill ( December 21 , 2002 ) . `` NBC Close to a Deal to Keep Friends for Another Season '' . New York Times . Archived from the original on January 22 , 2009 . Retrieved December 29 , 2008 . Jump up ^ Dempsey , John ( July 11 , 2005 ) . `` Friends of Friends '' . Variety . Archived from the original on January 19 , 2012 . Retrieved September 3 , 2009 . Jump up ^ Albiniak , Paige ( March 5 , 2012 ) . `` With Friends Like These , Who Needs Standard - Def ? '' . Broadcasting & Cable . Archived from the original on February 26 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` The One With the High Definition '' . ScreenScribe . January 17 , 2011 . Archived from the original on July 26 , 2013 . Retrieved July 10 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Ross and Phoebe `` quitting Friends '' `` . BBC News . December 23 , 1999 . Archived from the original on February 6 , 2009 . Retrieved January 1 , 2009 . Jump up ^ `` Channel 4 's £ 100m Friends deal '' . BBC News . December 16 , 1999 . Archived from the original on May 22 , 2009 . Retrieved January 1 , 2009 . Jump up ^ `` Channel 4 to stop showing Friends after 15 years '' . The Daily Telegraph . London . February 10 , 2010 . Archived from the original on February 13 , 2010 . Retrieved May 3 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Friends finale draws record 8.6 m '' . BBC News . May 29 , 2004 . Retrieved January 1 , 2009 . Jump up ^ `` Same time , different channel '' . Comedy Central . September 2 , 2011 . Archived from the original on September 25 , 2011 . Retrieved September 4 , 2011 . Jump up ^ `` European debut of Friends finale on RTÉ '' . Raidió Teilifís Éireann . May 11 , 2004 . Archived from the original on December 18 , 2008 . Retrieved January 1 , 2009 . Jump up ^ `` TV3 Friends '' . tv3.ie . Archived from the original on March 24 , 2011 . Retrieved March 25 , 2011 . Jump up ^ `` TV -- Friends -- entertainment.ie '' . entertainment.ie . Archived from the original on May 18 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Friends -- CCUK '' . Jump up ^ Warneke , Ross ( November 18 , 2004 ) . `` Rewind '' . The Age . Melbourne , Australia . Archived from the original on February 15 , 2009 . Retrieved January 1 , 2009 . Jump up ^ `` Channel Ten seriously in trouble at 7 pm timeslot '' . news.com.au . The Daily Telegraph ( Sydney ) . November 7 , 2008 . Archived from the original on June 25 , 2013 . Retrieved April 6 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Friends '' . TV2 . Archived from the original on February 4 , 2009 . Retrieved January 1 , 2009 . Jump up ^ Global Television Network -- Friends Bumper version 1 . YouTube . November 29 , 2009 . Archived from the original on May 23 , 2015 . Retrieved April 12 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Friends '' . slice.ca . Archived from the original on April 2 , 2015 . Retrieved April 12 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Choudhary , Vidhi ( July 11 , 2016 ) . `` Friends most watched English show on Indian TV in January -- June '' . Live Mint . New Delhi : HT Media Ltd . Retrieved January 24 , 2018 . Jump up ^ `` Κωμωδία Τα Φιλαρακια ( Friends ) Star Tv '' . Star Channel . Retrieved February 18 , 2018 . Jump up ^ `` Friends - Τα Φιλαρακια '' . TVOne . Retrieved February 18 , 2018 . Jump up ^ Lieberman , David ( October 15 , 2014 ) . `` ' Friends ' Licensed To Netflix In Warner Bros Deal -- VIDEO '' . Deadline Hollywood . Retrieved December 24 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Raftery , Liz ( October 15 , 2014 ) . `` Friends Is Coming to Netflix ! '' . TV Guide . tvguide.com . CBS Interactive . Archived from the original on October 18 , 2014 . Retrieved October 15 , 2014 . Jump up ^ Heyman , Jessie ( May 1 , 2015 ) . `` Seinfeld vs. Friends : Breaking Down the Economics of Two Beloved ' 90s Sitcoms '' . Vogue . Retrieved December 24 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Welch , Chris ( January 1 , 2015 ) . `` Every episode of Friends is now on Netflix '' . The Verge . Retrieved December 24 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Dretzka , Gary ( November 2 , 1995 ) . `` Hit Show , Hit Soundtrack : It 's No Longer An Accident '' . Chicago Tribune . Archived from the original on August 23 , 2009 . Retrieved January 3 , 2009 . Jump up ^ Burlingame , Jon ( December 27 , 1995 ) . `` Friends Theme Leads Pack of Hot - Selling TV Soundtracks '' . The Hollywood Reporter . Retrieved January 3 , 2009 . ( Registration required ( help ) ) . Jump up ^ `` Friends Again : Various Artists '' . Amazon.com . Retrieved January 3 , 2009 . Jump up ^ `` Friends : The One With All the Trivia '' . Amazon.com . Retrieved January 3 , 2009 . Jump up ^ `` Friends : The One With All the Trivia '' . Amazon.com . Retrieved October 8 , 2009 . Jump up ^ `` Friends -- Season 1 -- 10 Complete Collection 15th Anniversary DVD : Amazon.co.uk : Jennifer Aniston , Courteney Cox , Lisa Kudrow , Matt LeBlanc , Matthew Perry , David Schwimmer , James Michael Tyler , Elliott Gould , Maggie Wheeler , Christina Pickles , Paul Rudd , Jane Sibbett , David Crane , Marta Kauffman : DVD '' . Amazon.co.uk . Retrieved July 26 , 2010 . Jump up ^ TVShowsonDVD.com ( June 19 , 2012 ) . `` Friends -- Warner Home Video Press Release Announces The Complete Series on Blu - ray Disc ! '' . Archived from the original on June 22 , 2012 . Retrieved June 19 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Friends : The Complete First Season Review '' . DVDfile.com . Retrieved January 4 , 2009 . ^ Jump up to : Fisher , Nick ( May 27 , 2000 ) . `` Videos to buy '' . The Sun . News Group Newspapers . p. 47 . Jump up ^ `` Friends ( Season 1 ) ( 4 DVD Set ) '' . JB Hi - Fi . Archived from the original on January 20 , 2009 . Retrieved January 4 , 2009 . Jump up ^ `` Friends - The Complete Second Season '' . Amazon.com . Retrieved January 3 , 2009 . Jump up ^ `` Friends ( Season 2 ) ( 4 DVD Set ) '' . JB Hi - Fi . Archived from the original on January 20 , 2009 . Retrieved January 4 , 2009 . Jump up ^ `` Friends - The Complete Third Season '' . Amazon.com . Retrieved January 3 , 2009 . Jump up ^ `` Friends ( Season 3 ) ( 4 DVD Set ) '' . JB Hi - Fi . Archived from the original on January 20 , 2009 . Retrieved January 4 , 2009 . Jump up ^ `` Friends - The Complete Fourth Season '' . Amazon.com . Retrieved January 3 , 2009 . Jump up ^ `` Friends ( Season 4 ) ( 4 DVD Set ) '' . JB Hi - Fi . Archived from the original on January 20 , 2009 . Retrieved January 4 , 2009 . Jump up ^ `` Friends - The Complete Fifth Season '' . Amazon.com . Retrieved January 3 , 2009 . Jump up ^ `` Friends ( Season 5 ) ( 4 DVD Set ) '' . JB Hi - Fi . Archived from the original on January 20 , 2009 . Retrieved January 4 , 2009 . Jump up ^ `` Friends - The Complete Sixth Season '' . Amazon.com . Retrieved January 3 , 2009 . Jump up ^ Fisher , Nick ( July 15 , 2000 ) . `` Video view '' . The Sun . News Group Newspapers . p. 40 . Jump up ^ `` Friends ( Season 6 ) ( 4 DVD Set ) '' . JB Hi - Fi . Archived from the original on January 20 , 2009 . Retrieved January 4 , 2009 . Jump up ^ `` Friends - The Complete Seventh Season '' . Amazon.com . Retrieved January 3 , 2009 . Jump up ^ `` Friends : Complete Season 7 - New Edition ( 1995 ) '' . Amazon.com . Retrieved January 4 , 2009 . Jump up ^ `` Friends ( Season 7 ) ( 4 DVD Set ) '' . JB Hi - Fi . Archived from the original on January 20 , 2009 . Retrieved January 4 , 2009 . Jump up ^ `` Friends - The Complete Eighth Season '' . Amazon.com . Retrieved January 3 , 2009 . Jump up ^ `` Friends : Complete Season 8 - New Edition ( 1995 ) '' . Amazon.com . Retrieved January 4 , 2009 . Jump up ^ `` Friends ( Season 8 ) ( 4 DVD Set ) '' . JB Hi - Fi . Archived from the original on January 20 , 2009 . Retrieved January 4 , 2009 . Jump up ^ `` Friends - The Complete Ninth Season '' . Amazon.com . Retrieved January 3 , 2009 . Jump up ^ `` Friends : Complete Season 9 - New Edition ( 1995 ) '' . Amazon.com . Retrieved January 4 , 2009 . Jump up ^ `` Friends ( Season 9 ) ( 4 DVD Set ) '' . JB Hi - Fi . Archived from the original on January 20 , 2009 . Retrieved January 4 , 2009 . Jump up ^ `` Friends - The One with All Ten Seasons ( Limited Edition ) '' . Amazon.com . Retrieved January 3 , 2009 . Jump up ^ `` Friends : Complete Season 10 - New Edition ( 1995 ) '' . Amazon.com . Retrieved January 4 , 2009 . Jump up ^ `` Friends ( Season 10 ) ( 4 DVD Set ) '' . JB Hi - Fi . Archived from the original on January 20 , 2009 . Retrieved January 4 , 2009 . Jump up ^ Endrst , James ( September 5 , 2004 ) . `` Matt LeBlanc 's Joey goes West to seek fame & fortune '' . Daily News . Archived from the original on January 12 , 2012 . Retrieved January 4 , 2009 . Jump up ^ Levin , Gary ( July 24 , 2003 ) . `` NBC has sitcom plans for Friends pal Joey '' . USA Today . Retrieved December 30 , 2008 . Jump up ^ `` Joey finds new friends on NBC '' . CNN . September 10 , 2004 . Archived from the original on January 22 , 2009 . Retrieved January 4 , 2009 . Jump up ^ Weintraub , Joanne ( July 11 , 2004 ) . `` Joey co-star looking for sitcom laughs '' . Milwaukee Journal Sentinel . Archived from the original on February 9 , 2006 . Retrieved January 4 , 2009 . Jump up ^ Moraes , Lisa de ( September 11 , 2004 ) . `` Joey & The Apprentice : Downright Unfriendly '' . Washington Post . Retrieved December 30 , 2008 . Jump up ^ `` Weekly Program Rankings '' . ABC Medianet . March 21 , 2006 . Archived from the original on January 20 , 2009 . Retrieved December 30 , 2008 . Jump up ^ Bauder , David ( May 15 , 2006 ) . `` NBC Betting on Aaron Sorkin 's New Drama '' . Washington Post . Retrieved December 30 , 2008 . Further reading Articles concerning the cultural influence of the programme : Allen , Samantha ( 2014 ) . The Best Reason to Love ' Friends ' Is the One We Never Realized at the Time . Mic . United States . Ihnat , Gwen ( 2014 ) . How Friends Changed The Sitcom Landscape . AV Club . United States . Harrison , Andrew ( 2014 ) . The Hunting Of The Snark . New Statesman . United Kingdom . External links Friends portal Wikiquote has quotations related to : Friends ( TV series ) Wikimedia Commons has media related to Friends ( TV series ) . Friends on IMDb Friends at TV.com Friends at Rotten Tomatoes Friends at Curlie An oral history from Vanity Fair http://friendsfest.co.uk/ Preceded by Extreme 1995 Friends Super Bowl lead - out program Succeeded by The X-Files Friends Characters Chandler Bing Phoebe Buffay Monica Geller Ross Geller Rachel Green Joey Tribbiani Episodes Season 1 `` The Pilot '' ( 1.01 ) `` The One with the Sonogram at the End '' ( 1.02 ) Season 2 `` The One with the Lesbian Wedding '' ( 2.11 ) `` The One After the Superbowl '' ( 2.12 -- 2.13 ) `` The One with the Prom Video '' ( 2.14 ) `` The One Where Dr. Ramoray Dies '' ( 2.18 ) Season 3 `` The One with the Princess Leia Fantasy '' ( 3.01 ) `` The One Where No One 's Ready '' ( 3.02 ) `` The One with the Morning After '' ( 3.16 ) Season 4 `` The One with the Embryos '' ( 4.12 ) `` The One with Ross 's Wedding '' ( 4.23 -- 4.24 ) Season 5 `` The One After Ross Says Rachel '' ( 5.01 ) `` The One Hundredth '' ( 5.03 ) `` The One with All the Thanksgivings '' ( 5.08 ) `` The One with the Girl Who Hits Joey '' ( 5.15 ) `` The One Where Rachel Smokes '' ( 5.18 ) `` The One Where Ross Ca n't Flirt '' ( 5.19 ) `` The One with the Ride - Along '' ( 5.20 ) Season 6 `` The One After Vegas '' ( 6.01 ) `` The One with the Apothecary Table '' ( 6.11 ) `` The One with the Proposal '' ( 6.24 -- 6.25 ) Season 7 `` The One with Monica and Chandler 's Wedding '' ( 7.23 -- 7.24 ) Season 8 `` The One with Rachel 's Date '' ( 8.05 ) `` The One with the Rumor '' ( 8.09 ) Season 9 -- Season 10 `` The Last One '' ( 10.17 -- 10.18 ) Related articles Music `` I 'll Be There for You '' Joey Mad About You Awards and nominations Friends ... ' Til the End Hello Friends Awards for Friends Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Comedy Series The Red Skelton Show ( 1952 ) I Love Lucy ( 1953 ) I Love Lucy ( 1954 ) Make Room for Daddy ( 1955 ) The Phil Silvers Show ( 1956 ) The Phil Silvers Show ( 1957 ) The Phil Silvers Show ( 1958 ) The Jack Benny Program ( 1959 ) The Art Carney Special ( 1960 ) The Jack Benny Program ( 1961 ) The Bob Newhart Show ( 1962 ) The Dick Van Dyke Show ( 1963 ) The Dick Van Dyke Show ( 1964 ) The Dick Van Dyke Show ( 1965 ) The Dick Van Dyke Show ( 1966 ) The Monkees ( 1967 ) Get Smart ( 1968 ) Get Smart ( 1969 ) My World and Welcome to It ( 1970 ) All in the Family ( 1971 ) All in the Family ( 1972 ) All in the Family ( 1973 ) M * A * S * H ( 1974 ) The Mary Tyler Moore Show ( 1975 ) The Mary Tyler Moore Show ( 1976 ) The Mary Tyler Moore Show ( 1977 ) All in the Family ( 1978 ) Taxi ( 1979 ) Taxi ( 1980 ) Taxi ( 1981 ) Barney Miller ( 1982 ) Cheers ( 1983 ) Cheers ( 1984 ) The Cosby Show ( 1985 ) The Golden Girls ( 1986 ) The Golden Girls ( 1987 ) The Wonder Years ( 1988 ) Cheers ( 1989 ) Murphy Brown ( 1990 ) Cheers ( 1991 ) Murphy Brown ( 1992 ) Seinfeld ( 1993 ) Frasier ( 1994 ) Frasier ( 1995 ) Frasier ( 1996 ) Frasier ( 1997 ) Frasier ( 1998 ) Ally McBeal ( 1999 ) Will & Grace ( 2000 ) Sex and the City ( 2001 ) Friends ( 2002 ) Everybody Loves Raymond ( 2003 ) Arrested Development ( 2004 ) Everybody Loves Raymond ( 2005 ) The Office ( 2006 ) 30 Rock ( 2007 ) 30 Rock ( 2008 ) 30 Rock ( 2009 ) Modern Family ( 2010 ) Modern Family ( 2011 ) Modern Family ( 2012 ) Modern Family ( 2013 ) Modern Family ( 2014 ) Veep ( 2015 ) Veep ( 2016 ) Veep ( 2017 ) The Marvelous Mrs. Maisel ( 2018 ) GLAAD Media Award for Outstanding Comedy Series 1990s Doctor Doctor ( 1990 -- 1991 ) Roseanne ( 1992 -- 1993 ) Dream On ( 1994 ) Roseanne / Friends ( 1995 ) Spin City ( 1997 ) Ellen ( 1998 ) Will & Grace ( 1999 ) 2000s Will & Grace ( 2000 -- 2003 ) Sex and the City ( 2004 ) Will & Grace ( 2005 -- 2006 ) Ugly Betty ( 2007 -- 2008 ) Desperate Housewives ( 2009 ) 2010s Glee ( 2010 ) Glee / Modern Family ( 2011 ) Modern Family ( 2012 ) The New Normal ( 2013 ) Orange Is the New Black ( 2014 ) Transparent ( 2015 -- 2017 ) Brooklyn Nine - Nine ( 2018 ) People 's Choice Awards for Favorite New TV Comedy The Love Boat ( 1978 ) Mork & Mindy ( 1979 ) Too Close for Comfort ( 1981 ) Private Benjamin ( 1982 ) Cheers ( 1983 ) Webster ( 1984 ) The Cosby Show ( 1985 ) The Golden Girls ( 1986 ) ALF ( 1987 ) A Different World / My Two Dads ( 1988 ) Roseanne ( 1989 ) Doogie Howser , M.D. ( 1990 ) In Living Color / The Simpsons ( 1991 ) Home Improvement ( 1992 ) Mad About You ( 1993 ) Frasier / Grace Under Fire ( 1994 ) Ellen / Friends ( 1995 ) Caroline in the City ( 1996 ) Cosby ( 1997 ) Veronica 's Closet / Dharma & Greg ( 1998 ) Jesse / Will & Grace ( 1999 ) Stark Raving Mad ( 2000 ) Ed ( 2001 ) My Wife and Kids ( 2002 ) 8 Simple Rules ( 2003 ) Two and a Half Men ( 2004 ) Joey ( 2005 ) My Name Is Earl ( 2006 ) The Class ( 2007 ) Samantha Who ? ( 2008 ) Gary Unmarried ( 2009 ) Glee ( 2010 ) $ h * ! My Dad Says ( 2011 ) 2 Broke Girls ( 2012 ) The New Normal ( 2013 ) Super Fun Night ( 2014 ) Jane the Virgin ( 2015 ) Scream Queens ( 2016 ) Man with a Plan ( 2017 ) Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Comedy Series ( 1994 -- 1999 ) Seinfeld , season 5 / season 6 ( 1994 ) : Alexander ; Louis - Dreyfus ; Richards ; Seinfeld Friends , season 1 / season 2 ( 1995 ) : Aniston ; Cox ; Kudrow ; LeBlanc ; Perry ; Schwimmer Seinfeld , season 7 / season 8 ( 1996 ) : Alexander ; Louis - Dreyfus ; Richards ; Seinfeld Seinfeld , season 8 / season 9 ( 1997 ) : Alexander ; Louis - Dreyfus ; Richards ; Seinfeld Ally McBeal , season 1 / season 2 ( 1998 ) : Bellows ; Carson ; de Rossi ; Flockhart ; Germann ; Krakowski ; Liu ; MacNicol ; Shepard ; Thorne - Smith Frasier , season 6 / season 7 ( 1999 ) : Butler ; Gilpin ; Grammer ; Leeves ; Mahoney ; Pierce Complete list ( 1994 -- 1999 ) ( 2000 -- 2009 ) ( 2010 -- 2019 ) TCA Heritage Award The Simpsons ( 2002 ) Buffy the Vampire Slayer ( 2003 ) 60 Minutes ( 2004 ) Nightline ( 2005 ) The West Wing ( 2006 ) The Sopranos ( 2007 ) The Wire ( 2008 ) ER ( 2009 ) M * A * S * H ( 2010 ) The Dick Van Dyke Show ( 2011 ) Cheers ( 2012 ) All in the Family ( 2013 ) Saturday Night Live ( 2014 ) Late Show / Late Night with David Letterman ( 2015 ) The Mary Tyler Moore Show ( 2016 ) Seinfeld ( 2017 ) Friends ( 2018 ) Teen Choice Award for Choice Comedy Series Friends ( 1999 ) Friends ( 2000 ) Friends ( 2001 ) Friends ( 2002 ) Friends ( 2003 ) Friends ( 2004 ) Gilmore Girls ( 2005 ) High School Musical ( 2006 ) Hannah Montana ( 2007 ) Hannah Montana ( 2008 ) Hannah Montana ( 2009 ) Glee ( 2010 ) Glee ( 2011 ) Glee ( 2012 ) Glee ( 2013 ) The Big Bang Theory ( 2014 ) The Big Bang Theory ( 2015 ) Fuller House ( 2016 ) Fuller House ( 2017 ) The Big Bang Theory ( 2018 ) Nielsen Media Research top - rated United States network television show 1950s 50 -- 51 : Texaco Star Theater 51 -- 52 : Arthur Godfrey 's Talent Scouts 52 -- 53 , 53 -- 54 , 54 -- 55 : I Love Lucy 55 -- 56 : The $64,000 Question 56 -- 57 : I Love Lucy 57 -- 58 , 58 -- 59 , 59 -- 60 : Gunsmoke 1960s 60 -- 61 : Gunsmoke 61 -- 62 : Wagon Train 62 -- 63 , 63 -- 64 : The Beverly Hillbillies ( S1 , S2 ) 64 -- 65 , 65 -- 66 , 66 -- 67 : Bonanza 67 -- 68 : The Andy Griffith Show ( S8 ) 68 -- 69 , 69 -- 70 : Rowan & Martin 's Laugh - In 1970s 70 -- 71 : Marcus Welby , M.D. 71 -- 72 , 72 -- 73 , 73 -- 74 , 74 -- 75 , 75 -- 76 : All in the Family ( S2 , S3 , S4 , S5 , S6 ) 76 -- 77 : Happy Days ( S4 ) 77 -- 78 , 78 -- 79 : Laverne & Shirley ( S3 , S4 ) 79 -- 80 : 60 Minutes 1980s 80 -- 81 , 81 -- 82 : Dallas ( S4 , S5 ) 82 -- 83 : 60 Minutes 83 -- 84 : Dallas ( S7 ) 84 -- 85 : Dynasty 85 -- 86 , 86 -- 87 , 87 -- 88 , 88 -- 89 : The Cosby Show ( S2 , S3 , S4 , S5 ) 89 -- 90 : Roseanne ( S2 ) / The Cosby Show ( S6 ) 1990s 90 -- 91 : Cheers ( S9 ) 91 -- 92 , 92 -- 93 , 93 -- 94 : 60 Minutes 94 -- 95 : Seinfeld ( S6 ) 95 -- 96 , 96 -- 97 : ER ( S2 , S3 ) 97 -- 98 : Seinfeld ( S9 ) 98 -- 99 : ER ( S5 ) 99 -- 2000 : Who Wants to Be a Millionaire 2000s 00 -- 01 : Survivor ( S2 - AO ) 01 -- 02 : Friends ( S8 ) 02 -- 03 , 03 -- 04 , 04 -- 05 , : CSI : Crime Scene Investigation ( S3 , S4 , S5 ) 05 -- 06 , 06 -- 07 , 07 -- 08 , 08 -- 09 , 09 -- 10 : American Idol ( S5 , S6 , S7 , S8 , S9 ) 2010s 10 -- 11 : American Idol ( S10 ) 11 -- 12 : NBC Sunday Night Football 12 -- 13 : NCIS ( S10 ) 13 -- 14 , 14 -- 15 , 15 -- 16 , 16 -- 17 : NBC Sunday Night Football 17 -- 18 : The Big Bang Theory ( S11 ) BNF : cb131904957 ( data ) GND : 4719613 - 0 Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Friends&oldid=866418206 '' Categories : Friends 1994 American television series debuts 2004 American television series endings 1990s American sitcoms 1990s American romantic comedy television series 2000s American sitcoms 2000s American romantic comedy television series BAFTA winners ( television series ) English - language television programs NBC network shows Nielsen ratings winners Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Comedy Series Screen Actors Guild Award winners Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Comedy Series winners Television series about friendship Television series about siblings Television series by Warner Bros. 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where did they film game of thrones season 2

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Game of Thrones ( season 2 ) - Wikipedia Game of Thrones ( season 2 ) Jump to : navigation , search Game of Thrones ( season 2 ) Region 1 DVD artwork Starring See List of Game of Thrones cast Country of origin United States No. of episodes 10 Release Original network HBO Original release April 1 ( 2012 - 04 - 01 ) -- June 3 , 2012 ( 2012 - 06 - 03 ) Season chronology ← Previous Season 1 Next → Season 3 List of Game of Thrones episodes The second season of the fantasy drama television series Game of Thrones premiered in the United States on HBO on April 1 , 2012 , and concluded on June 3 , 2012 . It was broadcast on Sunday at 9 : 00 pm in the United States , consisting of 10 episodes , each running approximately 50 -- 60 minutes . The season mostly covers the events of A Clash of Kings , the second novel of the A Song of Ice and Fire series by George R.R. Martin , adapted for television by David Benioff and D.B. Weiss . HBO ordered the second season on April 19 , 2011 , which began filming in July 2011 , primarily in Ireland , Northern Ireland , Croatia and Iceland . The story takes place in a fictional world , primarily upon a continent called Westeros , with one storyline occurring on another continent to the east known as Essos . Like the novel , the season follows the dramatic death of Lord Eddard `` Ned '' Stark , with all of the Starks being separated across Westeros . Season two mainly centres around the war of the five kings , fought between the leaders of Westerosi factions who are either staking a claim on the Iron Throne , or seeking independence from it . Game of Thrones features a large ensemble cast , including Peter Dinklage , Lena Headey , Nikolaj Coster - Waldau , Michelle Fairley and Emilia Clarke . The season introduced a number of new cast members , including Stephen Dillane , Natalie Dormer , Carice van Houten and Liam Cunningham . Critics praised the show 's production values and cast . Viewership rose compared to the previous season . The second season won six of the eleven Emmy Awards for which it was nominated , it received a nomination for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series ( Peter Dinklage ) and Outstanding Drama Series . U.S. viewership rose by approximately 8 % over the course of the season , from 3.9 million to 4.2 million by the season finale . Contents ( hide ) 1 Plot 2 Episodes 3 Cast 3.1 Main cast 3.1. 1 Starring 3.1. 2 Also starring 3.2 Guest cast 3.2. 1 At and beyond the Wall 3.2. 2 In King 's Landing 3.2. 3 In the Stormlands 3.2. 4 On Dragonstone 3.2. 5 On the Iron Islands 3.2. 6 In the North 3.2. 7 In the Riverlands 3.2. 8 In the Riverlands 3.2. 9 In the Riverlands 3.2. 10 In Essos 4 Production 4.1 Crew 4.2 Casting 4.3 Locations 4.4 Music 4.5 Promotion 5 Reception 5.1 Critical response 5.2 Ratings 5.3 Accolades 6 Release 6.1 Broadcast 6.2 Home media 6.3 Copyright infringement 7 References 8 External links Plot ( edit ) See also : Synopsis of A Song of Ice and Fire The Starks declare war on the Lannisters for the death of Ned and having won three victories , Robb Stark offers the Lannisters peace in exchange for the North 's independence , sending Theon Greyjoy to gain Balon Greyjoy 's support and Catelyn Stark to seek Renly Baratheon 's . Cersei Lannister rejects Robb 's terms . Meanwhile , Tyrion Lannister exiles Janos Slynt , head of the Gold Cloaks , to the Wall , promoting Bronn to commander of the watch . Catelyn arrives at King Renly 's camp to negotiate an alliance , and Brienne of Tarth wins the right to join Renly 's kings guard . Catelyn and Brienne witness Renly 's murder at the hands of dark magic sent by the ' Red Lady ' Melisandre , an emissary of Renly 's brother and rival claimant to the Iron Throne Stannis Baratheon . Catelyn and Brienne flee Renly 's camp and rejoin Robb 's army as Renly 's supporters switch their allegiance to Stannis . Meanwhile , Theon betrays the Starks by siding with his father and seizing Winterfell by force . Robb receives news of Theon 's plans and sends men to retake Winterfell , while inside the city the Starks ' allies form plans to sneak Bran and Rickon Stark out . Robb learns that his mother Catelyn has secretly freed Jaime Lannister , now escorted by Brienne of Tarth , in order to ransom her daughters Sansa and Arya ; he also enters into a romantic relationship with Volantene healer Talisa Maegyr . Yara Greyjoy arrives at Winterfell to bring Theon back to the Iron Islands , after his botched attempt to recapture the Stark boys . Tywin Lannister leaves Harrenhal , which allows Arya , Gendry and Hot Pie to make an escape with the help of the enigmatic Jaqen H'ghar . In King 's Landing , Cersei attempts to blackmail Tyrion by abducting the prostitute , Ros , whom Cersei believes to be his secret lover . Leading the defense against Stannis ' attack on King 's Landing , Tyrion destroys many of the attacking craft with an exploding ship full of wildfire , and is forced to lead a counterattack as King Joffrey Baratheon and his bodyguard Sandor Clegane each desert the battlefield . Stannis 's forces make it inside the castle , but Tyrion leads his men behind the Baratheon forces via underground tunnels and attacks . Baratheon is defeated when Tywin 's forces , aided by House Tyrell , arrive at King 's Landing shortly after . Following Khal Drogo 's death , Daenerys and the remnants of her khalasar find refuge in the city of Qarth , where they are taken in by the merchant Xaro Xhoan Daxos . However , Xaro conspires with the warlock Pyat Pree to kill most of Daenerys ' servants , kidnap her dragons and assume control of Qarth . Daenerys is lured into a showdown with Pyat Pree at the House of the Undying , where her dragons kill Pyat Pree . Daenerys seals Xaro in his own vault as punishment for his treachery and leaves Qarth with Jorah and her remaining servants . Whilst on a ranging beyond the Wall , Jon Snow captures a Wildling , Ygritte , who soon leads him into a trap where he himself is captured by Ygritte 's fellow wildlings . Amongst the wildlings ' prisoners is fellow ranger Qhorin Halfhand , who convinces Jon to kill him in order to gain the wildlings ' trust so he can get close to their leader , King - beyond - the - Wall Mance Rayder . The rest of the rangers set up camp at an ancient fortification , the Fist of the First Men , where they come under attack from an ancient enemy , the White Walkers . Episodes ( edit ) See also : List of Game of Thrones episodes No . overall No. in season Title Directed by Written by Original air date U.S. viewers ( millions ) 11 `` The North Remembers '' Alan Taylor David Benioff & D.B. Weiss April 1 , 2012 ( 2012 - 04 - 01 ) 3.86 To Cersei 's dismay , Tyrion takes up his post as acting Hand at King 's Landing . At Dragonstone , Stannis proclaims allegiance to Melisandre 's new god and lays public claim to the Iron Throne , revealing Joffrey 's bastardy . The latter orders the soldiers to slaughter Robert 's bastards , one of whom named Gendry manages to escape King 's Landing along with Arya . Having won three victories , Robb offers the Lannisters peace in exchange for the North 's independence and Sansa 's return , sending Theon to gain the support of Balon , his father , and Catelyn to seek alliance with Renly , who also claims the throne . Beyond the Wall , the Night 's Watch finds shelter with Craster and his daughters / wives . In Essos , as her people slowly die in the Red Waste , Daenerys sends out riders for reconnaissance . 12 `` The Night Lands '' Alan Taylor David Benioff & D.B. Weiss April 8 , 2012 ( 2012 - 04 - 08 ) 3.76 Returning to his home of Pyke after nine years as the Starks ' ward , Theon is reunited with his sister , Yara , and Balon , who despises Theon for his Northern ways and intends to win back his crown by force . Cersei rejects Robb 's terms and Tyrion exiles Slynt , head of the Gold Cloaks , to the Wall , promoting Bronn to commander of the watch . On the road to the Wall , Arya reveals her true identity to Gendry . North of the Wall , Tarly is approached by one of Craster 's daughters , Gilly , who is pregnant and fears for her unborn son ; Snow is reluctant to help her despite Tarly 's pleas . In the Red Waste , one of the horses returns to Daenerys with the severed head of its rider in a pouch , a message from one of her enemies . In Dragonstone , Davos , Stannis 's henchman , recruits the pirate Salladhor Saan to Stannis ' side , and the latter has sex with Melisandre to obtain the son his wife can not give him . Snow discovers that Craster sacrifices his sons to the White Walkers ; in response , Craster knocks Snow unconscious . 13 `` What Is Dead May Never Die '' Alik Sakharov Bryan Cogman April 15 , 2012 ( 2012 - 04 - 15 ) 3.77 Catelyn arrives at Renly 's camp to negotiate an alliance , watching the female warrior Brienne of Tarth winning the right to join Renly 's guard . Renly has recently married Margaery , Loras 's sister , but refuses to have sex with her due to having feelings for Loras . In the Iron Islands , Balon makes a plan to attack the North , led by Yara . After burning a letter warning Robb of Balon 's impending attack , Theon re-joins the Greyjoys in a water - based ceremony . In King 's Landing , Tyrion crafts a plan to find who is in Cersei 's confidence ; finding it to be Pycelle , whom the former imprisons . Tyrion assigns his prostitute , Shae , as handmaiden to Sansa . Beyond the Wall , Craster demands the Night 's Watchmen leave . Snow finds out that Jeor already knew about Craster 's felonies . On the road to the wall , the band of Night 's Watch recruits are attacked by Lannister soldiers . Yoren is killed and Arya is taken prisoner . The latter states that Gendry was a boy already killed . 14 `` Garden of Bones '' David Petrarca Vanessa Taylor April 22 , 2012 ( 2012 - 04 - 22 ) 3.65 Catelyn tries to convince the Baratheon brothers to abandon their quarrel and unite against the Lannisters ; but Stannis demands Renly submit to his command . Baelish visits her and offers a trade of Jaime for her daughters . Melisandre gives birth to a shadow creature . Sansa is abused by Joffrey in revenge for Robb 's victories . Tyrion intervenes and in return , Joffrey is cruel to the prostitutes Tyrion sends him as `` gifts '' . Tyrion releases Pycelle , but fires him from the Small Council . Tyrion also finds out about the incestuous relationship between Cersei and their cousin , Lancel , forcing the latter to spy on her by threatening to reveal it to Joffrey . Arya and Gendry are taken as captives to the castle of Harrenhal , where prisoners are tortured until death . Tywin arrives and stops the torture , picking her as his servant without knowing about her true identity . After her exhausting journey through the desert , Daenerys arrives at the gates of the prosperous city of Qarth , where Daxos , a member of the Council of Thirteen , convinces the others to let her caravan enter the city . 15 5 `` The Ghost of Harrenhal '' David Petrarca David Benioff & D.B. Weiss April 29 , 2012 ( 2012 - 04 - 29 ) 3.90 H'ghar , one of the three caged prisoners Arya saved , pledges to kill three people of her choosing in order to repay his debt to her . She accepts and first chooses the Tickler , the man who mortally tortured the captives . After Renly 's death at the hands of Melisandre 's shadowy assassin , Catelyn and Brienne , who are accused of the murder , are forced to flee from the camp . Excluding the Tyrells , Renly 's forces submit to Stannis . Brienne swears loyalty to Catelyn . Theon sails from Pyke prepared to prove that he is a true Ironborn , with plans to capture Winterfell while Robb is absent . Tyrion learns from Lancel about the Wildfire , a burning substance mass produced to destroy Stannis ' fleet and army during the upcoming siege . Tyrion takes control of the scheme . The Night 's Watch arrives at an ancient fortress called the Fist of the First Men , where Jeor allows Snow to join the team led by a veteran named Halfhand in order to kill the enemy leader . In Qarth , Daxos proposes marriage to Daenerys in exchange for providing her with the wealth to conquer the Seven Kingdoms . Jorah convinces her to gain the support of the Westerosi people instead . 16 6 `` The Old Gods and the New '' David Nutter Vanessa Taylor May 6 , 2012 ( 2012 - 05 - 06 ) 3.88 Myrcella , Cersei 's daughter , is sent away from King 's Landing . Theon manages to take Winterfell and executes Cassel , a henchman , for insulting him . Osha , the captured wildling , helps Brandon and Rickon escape . Robb reunites with the healer Maegyr . At the Fist of the First Men , Snow captures a Wildling named Ygritte , but gets separated from his patrol when she tries to escape and he is forced to chase her . Joffrey incites a riot at King 's Landing , in which he is nearly killed and Sansa is nearly raped . Tywin allows Baelish to seek the allegiance of the Tyrells . An officer suspects Arya ; and she has H'ghar kill him . Robb receives news of Theon 's plans and sends men to retake Winterfell . At Qarth , Daenerys tries to procure a ship to take her people to Westeros , all the while keeping Daxos at bay . Daenerys ' dragons are stolen . 17 7 `` A Man Without Honor '' David Nutter David Benioff & D.B. Weiss May 13 , 2012 ( 2012 - 05 - 13 ) 3.69 Theon begins tracking Brandon and Rickon . Tywin begins searching Harrenhal for the murderer . Ygritte continues her attempts to seduce Snow and , after a momentary lapse in Jon 's concentration , she escapes and leads him into a trap . Still shaken from the riot , Sansa is horrified when she awakens to find that she has had her first menstruation and can thus bear Joffrey 's children . Cersei warns her to love no one but her children , not even Joffrey . In Robb 's camp , a failed escape attempt by Jaime leaves a guard dead , with some soldiers seeking retribution . In Qarth , the warlock Pree reveals to Daenerys that he stole her dragons , but gives her the opportunity to reunite with them before slaughtering the Council of Thirteen and establishing Daxos as the king . Theon presents to Luwin and his subjects the charred corpses of two boys , claiming that he has tracked down and killed Brandon and Rickon . 18 8 `` The Prince of Winterfell '' Alan Taylor David Benioff & D.B. Weiss May 20 , 2012 ( 2012 - 05 - 20 ) 3.86 Robb learns that Catelyn has secretly freed Jaime , now escorted by Brienne , in order to ransom Sansa and Arya ; he locks her in her tent and sends men to find them , also entering into a romantic relationship with Talisa . Yara arrives at Winterfell to bring Theon back to Pyke , blaming him for his actions . Tywin leaves Harrenhal to attack Robb , which leads Arya , Gendry and their friend Hot Pie to attempt an escape with the help of H'ghar , who agrees in order for Arya to refrain from naming H'ghar himself as the third man to kill . In King 's Landing , Cersei attempts to blackmail Tyrion by abducting the prostitute , Ros , whom the former believes to be his secret lover . On the way to King 's Landing , Stannis promises Seaworth to make him his Hand of the King . Beyond the Wall , the Wildling leader `` Rattleshirt '' leads the captured Snow and Halfhand to his king , Rayder . At the Fist of the First Men , the brothers of the Night 's Watch find a hidden cache of dragonglass . In Qarth , Jorah agrees to accompany Daenerys into the House of the Undying to retrieve her dragons . Brandon and Rickon are revealed to be alive and hiding in Winterfell . 19 9 `` Blackwater '' Neil Marshall George R.R. Martin May 27 , 2012 ( 2012 - 05 - 27 ) 3.38 Baratheon 's fleet assaults King 's Landing . Leading the defense , Tyrion destroys many of the attacking ships with an exploding ship full of wildfire , forcing the former to attack on land . Sandor leads the defense outside the gate , but is defeated and returns inside , denouncing Joffrey and leaving . Joffrey also escapes . Tyrion convinces the Gold Cloaks to fight with him . Baratheon 's forces make it inside the castle , but Tyrion leads his men behind the Baratheon forces via underground tunnels and attacks . Cersei goes to the throne room with Tommen , intending to kill him . Shae convinces Sansa to go to her chamber , where Sandor offers to take her back to Winterfell ; but she decides to stay . As Tyrion is wounded and Cersei is about to poison Tommen , Tywin 's forces , joined by Loras , arrive and defeat Baratheon 's forces , with the latter forced to retreat . 20 10 `` Valar Morghulis '' Alan Taylor David Benioff & D.B. Weiss June 3 , 2012 ( 2012 - 06 - 03 ) 4.20 Joffrey sets Sansa aside in favor of marrying Margaery while Tyrion fears for his and Shae 's safety now that Tywin has replaced him as Hand and relieved Bronn from his command . Melisandre gives Stannis a new hope . Brienne and Jaime are spotted by three Stark soldiers , whom she kills . Catelyn fails to dissuade Robb from marrying Talisa . In Qarth , Daenerys ventures into the House of the Undying and successfully retrieves her dragons , who kill Pree . She then seals Daxos inside his own vault and claims his wealth for herself . In Winterfell , Theon tries to convince his men to fight Robb 's army , but is knocked unconscious by them , who decide to leave . A dying Luwin convinces Brandon 's party to go to the Wall . Arya , having escaped Harrenhal with Hot Pie and Gendry , receives the gift of a valuable coin from H'ghar , who magically changes his face . North of the Wall , Halfhand forces Snow to kill him to prove his loyalty to the wildlings while an army of White Walkers surrounds the Fist of the First Men . Cast ( edit ) See also : List of Game of Thrones characters Peter Dinklage ( Tyrion Lannister ) Lena Headey ( Cersei Lannister ) Nikolaj Coster - Waldau ( Jaime Lannister ) Michelle Fairley ( Catelyn Stark ) Emilia Clarke ( Daenerys Targaryen ) Iain Glen ( Jorah Mormont ) Aidan Gillen ( Petyr Baelish ) Kit Harington ( Jon Snow ) Richard Madden ( Robb Stark ) Main cast ( edit ) Starring ( edit ) Peter Dinklage as Tyrion Lannister Lena Headey as Cersei Lannister Nikolaj Coster - Waldau as Jaime Lannister Michelle Fairley as Catelyn Stark Emilia Clarke as Daenerys Targaryen Aidan Gillen as Petyr `` Littlefinger '' Baelish Iain Glen as Jorah Mormont Kit Harington as Jon Snow Charles Dance as Tywin Lannister Liam Cunningham as Davos Seaworth Isaac Hempstead Wright as Bran Stark Richard Madden as Robb Stark Sophie Turner as Sansa Stark Maisie Williams as Arya Stark Alfie Allen as Theon Greyjoy John Bradley as Samwell Tarly Jack Gleeson as Joffrey Baratheon Rory McCann as Sandor `` The Hound '' Clegane Natalie Dormer as Margaery Tyrell Stephen Dillane as Stannis Baratheon Carice van Houten as Melisandre James Cosmo as Jeor Mormont Jerome Flynn as Bronn Conleth Hill as Varys Sibel Kekilli as Shae Also starring ( edit ) Jason Momoa as Khal Drogo Guest cast ( edit ) The recurring actors listed here are those who appeared in season 2 . They are listed by the region in which they first appear : At and beyond the Wall ( edit ) Simon Armstrong as Qhorin Halfhand Ben Crompton as Eddison Tollett Mark Stanley as Grenn Edward Dogliani as the Lord of Bones Rose Leslie as Ygritte Robert Pugh as Craster Hannah Murray as Gilly Ian Whyte & Ross Mullan as White Walkers In King 's Landing ( edit ) Callum Wharry as Tommen Baratheon Aimee Richardson as Myrcella Baratheon Julian Glover as Grand Maester Pycelle Dominic Carter as Janos Slynt Ian Beattie as Meryn Trant Eugene Simon as Lancel Lannister Wilko Johnson as Ilyn Payne Daniel Portman as Podrick Payne Tony Way as Dontos Hollard Roy Dotrice as Wisdom Hallyne Andrew Wilde as Tobho Mott Esmé Bianco as Ros Antonia Christophers as Mhaegen Sahara Knite as Armeca Maisie Dee as Daisy Josephine Gillan as Marei In the Stormlands ( edit ) Gethin Anthony as Renly Baratheon Gwendoline Christie as Brienne of Tarth Finn Jones as Loras Tyrell On Dragonstone ( edit ) Kerr Logan as Matthos Seaworth Lucian Msamati as Salladhor Saan Oliver Ford Davies as Maester Cressen On the Iron Islands ( edit ) Patrick Malahide as Balon Greyjoy Gemma Whelan as Yara Greyjoy Ralph Ineson as Dagmer Cleftjaw Forbes KB as Black Lorren David Coakley as Drennan In the North ( edit ) Art Parkinson as Rickon Stark Donald Sumpter as Maester Luwin Ron Donachie as Rodrik Cassel Peter Ballance as Farlen Kristian Nairn as Hodor Natalia Tena as Osha In the Riverlands ( edit ) Oona Chaplin as Talisa Maegyr Michael McElhatton as Roose Bolton John Stahl as Rickard Karstark Paul Caddell as Jacks Aidan Crowe as Quent Tyrone McElhennon as Torrhen Karstark In the Riverlands ( edit ) Fintan McKeown as Amory Lorch Ian Gelder as Kevan Lannister Ian Whyte as Gregor Clegane Karl Davies as Alton Lannister Anthony Morris as the Tickler Andy Kellegher as Polliver David Fynn as Rennick In the Riverlands ( edit ) Francis Magee as Yoren Joe Dempsie as Gendry Ben Hawkey as Hot Pie Eros Vlahos as Lommy Greenhands Tom Wlaschiha as Jaqen H'ghar Andy Beckwith as Rorge Gerard Jordan as Biter In Essos ( edit ) Nonso Anozie as Xaro Xhoan Daxos Ian Hanmore as Pyat Pree Nicholas Blane as the Spice King Slavko Juraga as the Silk King Laura Pradelska as Quaithe Steven Cole as Kovarro Elyes Gabel as Rakharo Roxanne McKee as Doreah Amrita Acharia as Irri Production ( edit ) HBO ordered a second season of Game of Thrones on April 19 , 2011 , two days after the series premiere . The second season obtained a 15 % increase in budget in order to be able to stage the war 's most important battle , the Battle of the Blackwater , in episode nine . Filming took place during 106 shooting days . During three - quarters of those , two crews ( `` Dragon '' and `` Wolf '' ) were working simultaneously in different locations . Crew ( edit ) David Benioff and D.B. Weiss serve as main writers and showrunners for the second season . They co-wrote six out of ten episodes . The remaining four episodes were written by story editor Bryan Cogman , A Song of Ice and Fire author George R.R. Martin , and new series writer and co-executive producer Vanessa Taylor , who wrote two episodes . Alan Taylor was promoted to co-executive producer and directed four episodes , including the season premiere and finale . David Petrarca and David Nutter each directed two episodes , while series cinematographer Alik Sakharov and filmmaker Neil Marshall directed the remaining two . Casting ( edit ) The casting for the second season began in May 2011 . Although a large portion of the first - season cast were returning , the producers were still faced with a huge number of new characters to be cast . The producers decided that several characters from A Clash of Kings , including the Freys and Crannogmen Reeds at Winterfell , Frey bannermen of the Starks , the Tullys , Stannis ' wife and daughter , Theon 's uncle Aeron Greyjoy and the bastard Ramsay Snow would not be cast despite appearing in the novel . Showrunners David Benioff and D.B. Weiss commented on this saying that certain character introductions taking place in A Clash of Kings would be delayed until the third season . This was done due to the large number of characters already introduced in season two , and because they could n't afford to have people `` waiting around '' for their characters to become central to the plot . Having to fill so many speaking roles , the showrunners not only `` postponed '' the introduction of several key characters , but they also merged some into one , or certain plot - functions were given to different characters . Many physical traits were also altered , such as the ethnicity or age of characters . The cast was estimated to be the largest on television . Scattered around two fictional continents characters include , by order of importance : Stephen Dillane ( Stannis Baratheon ) Carice van Houten ( Melisandre ) Emerging as the fourth claimant to the throne is the estranged brother of the late king Robert , Stannis Baratheon ( Stephen Dillane ) . The foreign priestess Melisandre , portrayed by Carice van Houten poses as an influential , yet manipulative advisor to Stannis. Van Houten was previously asked ( but unable ) to audition for the role of Cersei in season one . While her character retains her signature red robes and hair , unlike in the novels Melisandre is not portrayed as having red eyes , making her appear somewhat more human . Liam Cunningham stars as Ser Davos Seaworth , the `` Onion Knight '' , a bannerman of Stannis and a former smuggler . Cunningham had already been in talks for a role in the first season . As he is left - handed , his Davos has the fingers of the right hand shortened , unlike in the novels where his left hand is crippled . In an interview , Cunningham said that a lot of new dialogue had to be written for his character , because in the novels Davos , a point - of - view character , is portrayed more through his thoughts than through his actions . These three characters headed a new storyline set on a different location , that by the end of the season merged with the main plot . Theon Greyjoy ( Alfie Allen ) , a main cast member from the first season , but with lesser importance than the others , came to prominence during the second season , as his story unfolded and his character became more central . Gemma Whelan appeared as his sister , Yara Greyjoy . Named `` Asha '' in the novels , the character 's name was changed to avoid confusion with the Wildling Osha , Bran Stark 's companion . `` Asha '' is portrayed as a fairly provocative and independent woman , a captain of thirty ships , as opposed to her television counterpart Yara , who did not retain `` Asha 's '' traits , although her rivalry with Theon remained intact . Their father Balon Greyjoy was played by Patrick Malahide . Many of the characters involved in the Greyjoys ' storyline were n't introduced , most notably Balon 's brother Aeron Greyjoy . Nonetheless , the storyline received enormous praise , with the alternation of Yara 's name and persona being the only criticism . Tom Wlaschiha is cast as Jaqen H'ghar , a mysterious prisoner who develops a murderous relationship with young Arya Stark ( Maisie Williams ) . Wlaschiha 's pronunciation of his character 's name , Jack - in , was adopted for use in the show . Natalie Dormer , best known for her portrayal as seductive Anne Boleyn in Showtime 's The Tudors , was cast in a similar role as Margaery Tyrell , a noblewoman and the wife of the third claimant to the throne , Renly Baratheon . Gwendoline Christie played , to much praise , Brienne of Tarth , a female warrior who joins Renly Baratheon 's guard , but later becomes a follower of Catelyn Stark . To prepare for the role , Christie took up an intense training regimen , adding over a stone ( 6.4 kg ) of muscle mass . So that she could be mistaken for a man , her armor was decorated with lines that slant away from her hips . On the other side of the fictional world , two female roles with rising prominence were added to the cast : Skins star Hannah Murray filled the role of Craster 's daughter Gilly , a love interest to Samwell Tarly ; while the second role , the one of Ygritte , Jon Snow 's love interest among the Wildlings , was played by Rose Leslie . Daenerys Targaryen 's ( Emilia Clarke ) stay at Qarth , opened the way for several recurring characters . Nonso Anozie played Daenerys 's host at Qarth , Xaro Xhoan Daxos . The character differed a lot from his novel counterpart . Xaro 's homosexuality , femininity and caucasian origin were overshadowed by dark skinned Anozie 's masculinity and heterosexuality . Acting as one of her suitors is the treacherous warlock Pyat Pree portrayed by Ian Hanmore . Her third and final suitor was the masked priestess Quaithe ( Laura Pradelska ) . Specially created for the television series was the so - called `` Spice King '' , a rich merchant from Qarth , played by Nicholas Blane . Also an original creation of the show is the character of Talisa ( Oona Chaplin ) , a healer from Volantis and a romantic interest for Robb . She fills the role of another female interest of Robb 's , called Jeyne Westerling , who has no similarities with Talisa whatsoever . In addition to Talisa , Michael McElhatton joins the cast in the role of Roose Bolton , an important character in Robb Stark 's storyline . Lastly , Simon Armstrong plays the legendary Night 's Watch ranger Qhorin Halfhand . Others were also added to the cast , either in a small recurring role or with reduced prominence . The most notable example is Tony Way 's Ser Dontos Hollard , a drunkard knight , who had a pivotal role in Sansa Stark 's storyline that ran in the course of two novels , while in the series the role was reduced to a small scene in the opening episode . Others include : Ben Crompton as `` Dolorous Edd '' Tollet , a man of the Night 's Watch . Robert Pugh as the Wildling Craster , father and husband to Gilly . Kerr Logan as Davos Seaworth 's pious son Matthos . Karl Davies as Ser Alton Lannister , a character created for the series who replaces Cleos Frey as envoy from the Starks to the Lannisters . Daniel Portman took the role of Podrick Payne , the squire to Tyrion Lannister . The 19 - year - old Portman plays Podrick as about 16 years old , instead of about 12 as in the novels . To be able to portray Podrick as awkward , shy and weak , Portman , previously a sportsman , stopped his fitness regimen and gained some weight to appear more endearing . Lucian Msamati played Salladhor Saan , a Lysene pirate and friend of Davos Seaworth . Finally , Edward Dogliani appeared briefly as the `` Lord of Bones '' ( or `` Rattleshirt '' in the novels ) , a Wildling leader and Oliver Ford Davies as Stannis 's maester Cressen . All of the recurring characters from the first season returned , with one notable exception : Conan Stevens , whose role of Gregor Clegane was recast with Ian Whyte , did not return . Roy Dotrice , a friend of George R.R. Martin , known for reading the audio versions of the novels and having previously rejected a role due to health reasons , appears this season as Pyromancer Hallyne , an elderly alchemist at King 's Landing . Locations ( edit ) The walled city of Dubrovnik stands in for King 's Landing in season 2 For the second season , the city of Dubrovnik , Croatia , was used instead of Malta for scenes in King 's Landing and Daenerys ' scenes in Qarth . For example , the Minčeta Tower in Dubrovnik was used as the House of the Undying . Scenes set north of the Wall were filmed in Iceland in November 2011 . The main locations are the Vatnajökull glacier , the Svínafellsjökull glacier near Skaftafell , and the Mýrdalsjökull glacier near Vik used as the location for the Fist of the First Men with Höfðabrekka as the Frostfang Mountains . New shooting locations in Northern Ireland include The Linen Mill Film & Television Studios in Banbridge , Ballintoy Harbour and Downhill Strand . As the story in the second season required that the Winterfell set be expanded , a new set for Winterfell was built at the Moneyglass Estate near Toome village . Music ( edit ) Main article : Game of Thrones : Season 2 ( soundtrack ) The music for the second season , again composed by Ramin Djawadi , was published as a soundtrack album in June 2012 . It contains a rendition of a song often mentioned or sung in the novels , The Rains of Castamere , by the indie rock band The National . The soundtrack for the season was released on June 19 , 2012 . Promotion ( edit ) HBO released numerous teaser trailers for the second season , beginning on December 11 , 2011 . The second trailer , published on January 29 , 2012 , was viewed 3.5 million times in the first three days after publication , a record for HBO promotional content . Other trailers were released on February 24 , March 3 ( set to Florence and the Machine 's Seven Devils ) as well as subsequently . HBO also published other promotional material , such as cast photographs and teaser posters , prior to the airing of the first episode . The second issue of Entertainment Weekly in March 2012 had four alternative covers dedicated to in - costume photographs of Peter Dinklage ( Tyrion ) , Emilia Clarke ( Daenerys ) , Kit Harington ( Jon Snow ) or Nikolaj Coster - Waldau and Lena Headey ( Jaime and Cersei Lannister ) . Reception ( edit ) Thanks to the critical and commercial success of the first season , as well as HBO 's marketing efforts , the second season received intensive media coverage well before it started airing . Sunday is Coming , a two - minute short film for Funny or Die , satirized viewers ' excitement about the return of Game of Thrones . Critical response ( edit ) Several media outlets reviewed the season 's first four episodes before they were broadcast , and rendered almost uniformly positive verdicts . The season holds a Metacritic score of 90 out of 100 , indicating `` universal acclaim '' . On Rotten Tomatoes , the second season has a 96 % approval rating from 33 critics with an average rating of 8.9 out of 10 ; the season also received a 96 % average episode score . Entertainment Weekly rated the new season `` A - '' and praised the `` vivid , vital , and just plain fun '' storytelling . In the reviewer 's opinion , the greatly enlarged cast did not feel like bloat and the show remained accessible to those who had not read the novel . The Huffington Post called the start of the second season `` far more elegant and engaging '' than that of the first , and appreciated the show 's maturation , increased assurance and momentum as well as the visually improved settings and the new actors ' performance . Newsday 's review gave it an `` A + '' , calling it the `` best show on television '' and warranting the preparation required by viewers . The Hollywood Reporter also wrote that Game of Thrones made a `` strong case for being one of TV 's best series '' . Impressed that the series continued to improve in quality as it breathed life into its vast web of interconnected storylines , the reviewer considered that , unlike other genre shows , Game of Thrones had gravitas such that it should not be considered dramatically inferior to shows like Mad Men or Breaking Bad . HitFix 's Alan Sepinwall gave the new , `` bigger and better '' season an `` A '' , praising its increased confidence and smoothness despite its even greater use of `` sexposition '' . New to the series , the Chicago Sun - Times 's reviewer found the season premiere `` engrossing '' and praised the `` top - notch '' acting , writing , sets and storytelling . The New York Times was the only major publication to publish a mixed review . It criticized the lack of complexity in the characters apart from Dinklage 's , the confusing multitude of characters and the meandering plot . Game of Thrones ( season 2 ) : Critical reception by episode Season 2 ( 2012 ) : Percentage of positive reviews tracked by the website Rotten Tomatoes Ratings ( edit ) Game of Thrones : U.S. viewers per episode ( millions ) Season Ep. 1 Ep. 2 Ep. 3 Ep. 4 Ep. 5 Ep. 6 Ep. 7 Ep. 8 Ep. 9 Ep. 10 Average 2.22 2.20 2.44 2.45 2.58 2.44 2.40 2.72 2.66 3.04 2.52 3.86 3.76 3.77 3.65 3.90 3.88 3.69 3.86 3.38 4.20 3.80 4.37 4.27 4.72 4.87 5.35 5.50 4.84 5.13 5.22 5.39 4.97 6.64 6.31 6.59 6.95 7.16 6.40 7.20 7.17 6.95 7.09 6.84 5 8.00 6.81 6.71 6.82 6.56 6.24 5.40 7.01 7.14 8.11 6.88 6 7.94 7.29 7.28 7.82 7.89 6.71 7.80 7.60 7.66 8.89 7.69 7 10.11 9.27 9.25 10.17 10.72 10.24 12.07 N / A 10.26 Source : Nielsen Media Research Accolades ( edit ) See also : List of awards and nominations received by Game of Thrones The second season was nominated for 11 Primetime Emmy Awards , which included Outstanding Drama Series and Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series for Peter Dinklage . It won six awards , for , Outstanding Costumes for a Series , Outstanding Art Direction for a Single - Camera Series , Outstanding Makeup for a Single - Camera Series ( Non-Prosthetic ) , Outstanding Sound Editing for a Series , Outstanding Sound Mixing for a Comedy or Drama Series ( One - Hour ) , and Outstanding Special Visual Effects . Year Award Category Nominee ( s ) Result Ref . 2012 AFI Awards AFI TV Award Game of Thrones Won Artios Awards Outstanding Achievement in Casting -- Television Series Drama Nina Gold Nominated ASCAP Awards Top Television Series Ramin Djawadi Won Portal Award Best Actor Peter Dinklage Nominated Best Actress Lena Headey Won Best Supporting Actor Aidan Gillen Nominated Best Supporting Actress Michelle Fairley Nominated Maisie Williams Won Best Episode Ghost of Harrenhal Nominated Best Series Game of Thrones Won Best Young Actor Jack Gleeson Nominated Maisie Williams Won EWwy Award Best Supporting Actress , Drama Lena Headey Won 64th Primetime Emmy Awards Outstanding Drama Series David Benioff , D.B. Weiss , Frank Doelger , Carolyn Strauss , George R.R. Martin , Vanessa Taylor , Alan Taylor , Guymon Casady , Vince Gerardis and Bernadette Caulfield Nominated Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series Peter Dinklage Nominated 64th Primetime Creative Arts Emmy Awards Outstanding Art Direction for a Single - Camera Series Gemma Jackson , Frank Walsh , and Tina Jones for `` Garden of Bones '' , `` The Ghost of Harrenhal '' and `` A Man Without Honor '' Won Outstanding Casting for a Drama Series Nina Gold and Robert Sterne Nominated Outstanding Costumes for a Series Michele Clapton , Alexander Fordham , and Chloe Aubry for `` The Prince of Winterfell '' Won Outstanding Creative Achievement in Interactive Media HBO Nominated Outstanding Hairstyling for a Single - Camera Series Kevin Alexander , Candice Banks , Rosalia Culora , and Gary Machin for `` The Old Gods and the New '' Nominated Outstanding Makeup for a Single - Camera Series ( Non-Prosthetic ) Paul Engelen and Melissa Lackersteen for `` The Old Gods and the New '' Won Outstanding Prosthetic Makeup for a Series , Miniseries , Movie or a Special Paul Engelen , Conor O'Sullivan , and Rob Trenton for `` Valar Morghulis '' Nominated Outstanding Sound Editing for a Series Peter Brown , Kira Roessler , Tim Hands , Paul Aulicino , Stephen P. Robinson , Vanessa Lapato , Brett Voss , James Moriana , Jeffrey Wilhoit , and David Klotz for `` Blackwater '' Won Outstanding Sound Mixing for a Drama Series ( 1 hour ) Matthew Waters , Onnalee Blank , Ronan Hill , and Mervyn Moore for `` Blackwater '' Won Outstanding Special Visual Effects Rainer Gombos , Juri Stanossek , Sven Martin , Steve Kullback , Jan Fiedler , Chris Stenner , Tobias Mannewitz , Thilo Ewers , and Adam Chazen for `` Valar Morghulis '' Won 2nd Critics ' Choice Television Awards Best Drama Series Game of Thrones Nominated Best Supporting Actor in a Drama Series Peter Dinklage Nominated Hollywood Post Alliance Awards Outstanding Visual Effects -- Television `` The Prince of Winterfell '' Won Golden Nymph awards Outstanding International Producer David Benioff , Frank Doelger , Carolyn Strauss and D.B. Weiss Won Outstanding Actress in a Drama Series Emilia Clarke Nominated Lena Headey Nominated Outstanding Actor in a Drama Series Peter Dinklage Nominated Kit Harington Nominated British Society of Cinematographers Best Cinematography in a Television Drama Sam McCurdy for `` Blackwater '' Nominated 17th Satellite Awards Best Supporting Actor -- Series , Miniseries or Television Film Peter Dinklage Nominated Best Television Series -- Drama Game of Thrones Nominated IGN Awards Best TV Episode Blackwater Won Best TV DVD or Blu - ray For the complete first season on Blu - ray Won Best TV Series Game of Thrones Nominated Best TV Drama Series Game of Thrones Nominated Best TV Villain Jack Gleeson as Joffrey Baratheon Nominated IGN People 's Choice Award Best TV Episode Blackwater Won Best TV Drama Series Game of Thrones Won Best TV Villain Jack Gleeson as Joffrey Baratheon Won Best TV DVD or Blu - ray For the complete first season on Blu - ray Won Best TV Series Game of Thrones Won 28th TCA Awards Program of the Year Game of Thrones Won Individual Achievement in Drama Peter Dinklage Nominated Outstanding Achievement in Drama Game of Thrones Nominated Gold Derby TV Awards 2012 Best Drama Series Game of Thrones Nominated Best Drama Supporting Actor Peter Dinklage Nominated Best Drama Supporting Actress Lena Headey Nominated Breakthrough Performer of the Year Maisie Williams Nominated Ensemble of the Year The cast of Game of Thrones Nominated 2013 People 's Choice Awards Favorite Thriller Show Game of Thrones Nominated ADG Excellence in Production Design Award One - Hour Single Camera Television Series Gemma Jackson for `` The Ghost of Harrenhal '' Won American Society of Cinematographers Outstanding Achievement in Cinematography in One - Hour Episodic Television Series Kramer Morgenthau for `` The North Remembers '' Won SFX Awards Best Actress Emilia Clarke Won Best Actress Lena Headey Nominated Best Actor Peter Dinklage Nominated NewNowNext Awards Cause You 're Hot Richard Madden Nominated British Academy Television Awards International Game of Thrones Nominated Radio Times Audience Award Game of Thrones Won Costume Designers Guild Awards Outstanding Period / Fantasy Television Series Game of Thrones Nominated Cinema Audio Society Awards Outstanding Achievement in Sound Mixing -- Television Series -- One Hour Ronan Hill , Onnalee Blank , Mathew Waters , and Brett Voss for `` Blackwater '' Nominated Dorian Awards TV Drama of the Year Game of Thrones Nominated 10th Irish Film & Television Awards Best Television Drama Game of Thrones Nominated Best Director of Photography P.J. Dillon Nominated Best Sound Ronan Hill , Mervyn Moore Nominated Astra Awards Favourite Program -- International Drama Game of Thrones Won Golden Reel Awards Best Sound Editing -- Long Form Dialogue and ADR in Television Game of Thrones for `` Valar Morghulis '' Won Best Sound Editing -- Long Form Sound Effects and Foley in Television Game of Thrones for `` Valar Morghulis '' Won Best Sound Editing -- Short Form Dialogue and ADR in Television Game of Thrones for `` Blackwater '' Nominated Best Sound Editing -- Short Form Music in Television Game of Thrones for `` Blackwater '' Nominated Best Sound Editing -- Short Form Sound Effects and Foley in Television Game of Thrones for `` Blackwater '' Nominated Hugo Awards Best Dramatic Presentation , Short Form Neil Marshall ( director ) and George R.R. Martin ( writer ) for `` Blackwater '' Won Producers Guild Awards `` The Norman Felton Award for Outstanding Producer of Episodic Television , Drama '' David Benioff , Bernadette Caulfield , Frank Doelger , Carolyn Strauss , D.B. Weiss Nominated Saturn Award Best Television Presentation Game of Thrones Nominated 19th Screen Actors Guild Awards Outstanding Action Performance by a Stunt Ensemble in a Television Series Rob Cooper , Jamie Edgell , Dave Fisher , Dave Forman , Paul Herbert , Michelle McKeown , Sian Miline , Jimmy O'Dee , Domonkos Pardanyi , Marcus Shakesheff , CC Smiff , and Mark Southworth Won Visual Effects Society Outstanding Animated Character in a Commercial or Broadcast Program Irfan Celik , Florian Friedmann , Ingo Schachner , Chris Stenner for `` Training the Dragons '' Won Outstanding Compositing in a Broadcast Program Falk Boje , Esther Engel , Alexey Kuchinsky , Klaus Wuchta for `` White Walker Army '' Won Outstanding Created Environment in a Commercial or Broadcast Program Rene Borst , Thilo Ewers , Adam Figielski , Jonas Stuckenbrock for `` Pyke '' Won Outstanding Visual Effects in a Broadcast Program Rainer Gombos , Steve Kullback , Sven Martin , Juri Stanossek for `` Valar Morghulis '' Won Writers Guild of America Awards Television Drama Series David Benioff , Bryan Cogman , George R.R. Martin , Vanessa Taylor , D.B. Weiss Nominated Young Artist Award Best Performance in a TV Series -- Supporting Young Actor Isaac Hempstead - Wright Nominated Best Performance in a TV Series -- Supporting Young Actress Sophie Turner Nominated Best Performance in a TV Series -- Supporting Young Actress Maisie Williams Nominated IGN Awards Best TV DVD or Blu - ray For the complete second season on Blu - ray Nominated Release ( edit ) Broadcast ( edit ) The second season of Game of Thrones was broadcast on HBO in the United States from April 1 , 2012 to June 3 , 2012 . Home media ( edit ) DVD / Blu - ray box sets and digital downloads of the second season were released in North America on February 19 , 2013 . The DVD set contains a 30 - minute feature covering the production of the episode `` Blackwater '' , actor interviews , character profiles , twelve audio commentaries by cast and crew , and a discussion about Westerosi religions by the showrunners and George R.R. Martin . The Blu - ray set additionally contains a feature about the `` War of the Five Kings '' that breaks out in season two , as well as 19 animated histories of the mythology of Westeros and Essos . Game of Thrones : The Complete Second Season Set details Special features Format : AC - 3 , Blu - ray , DTS Surround Sound , Dubbed , NTSC , Subtitled , Widescreen Language : English , French , Castilian , Czech , Hungarian , Polish , Spanish Subtitles : English , Castilian , Spanish , Czech , Danish , Dutch , Finnish , French , Hebrew , Hungarian , Norwegian , Polish , Portuguese , Romanian , Serbian , Swedish , Turkish 16 : 9 aspect ratio 5 - disc set , 10 episodes `` Creating the Battle of Blackwater Bay '' : A 30 - minute feature including new footage from the set and interviews . `` Game of Thrones : Inner Circle '' : Interviews with several cast member to talk about their experiences shooting season two , moderated by executive producers David Benioff and D.B. Weiss . `` The Religions of Westeros '' : George R.R. Martin , David Benioff and D.B. Weiss discuss the competing religions in the series and how they influence the various characters in Westeros and beyond . `` Character Profiles '' : Profiles of seven major characters as described by the actors portraying them including Renly Baratheon , Stannis Baratheon , Robb Stark , Theon Greyjoy and more . Twelve audio commentaries by , among others , Benioff , Weiss , Martin , Clarke , Dinklage , Harington and more . Blu - ray exclusive : `` War of the Five Kingss '' : Track the claims , strategies and key players involved in the battle for the Iron Throne with this interactive guide that follows the movements of various armies detailing their victories and defeats . `` Histories & Lore '' : 19 animated histories detailing the mythology of Westeros and Essos as told from the varying perspectives of the characters themselves and featuring , in - part , illustrations from Game of Thrones storyboard artist Will Simpson . `` In - Episode Guide '' : In - feature resource that provides background information about on - screen characters , locations and relevant histories . `` Hidden Dragon Eggs '' , easter eggs . DVD release dates Region 1 Region 2 Region 4 February 19 , 2013 March 4 , 2013 March 6 , 2013 Copyright infringement ( edit ) The second season of Game of Thrones was the most - pirated TV series in 2012 . References ( edit ) Jump up ^ Seidman , Robert ( April 3 , 2012 ) . `` Sunday Cable Ratings : ' Game of Thrones ' Returns To Series High ; + ' Khloe & Lamar , ' ' The Killing ' , ' Mad Men , ' Army Wives ' & More '' . TV by the Numbers . Archived from the original on March 4 , 2016 . Retrieved April 3 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Bibel , Sara ( April 10 , 2012 ) . `` Sunday Cable Ratings : ' Game of Thrones ' Leads + Atlanta ' Housewives , ' ' Mad Men , ' ' Khloe & Lamar , ' ' Army Wives , ' ' The Client List ' & Much More '' . TV by the Numbers . Archived from the original on September 1 , 2016 . Retrieved April 10 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Kondolojy , Amanda ( April 17 , 2012 ) . `` Sunday Cable Ratings : ' Game of Thrones , ' + ' Real Housewives ATL ' ' Mad Men , ' ' Khloe & Lamar , ' ' The Client List ' & More '' . TV by the Numbers . Archived from the original on September 1 , 2016 . Retrieved April 17 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Kondolojy , Amanda ( April 24 , 2012 ) . `` Sunday Cable Ratings : ' Game of Thrones , ' + ' Real Housewives ATL ' ' Mad Men , ' ' Khloe & Lamar , ' ' The Client List ' & More '' . TV by the Numbers . Archived from the original on March 4 , 2016 . Retrieved April 24 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Bibel , Sara ( May 1 , 2012 ) . `` Sunday Cable Ratings : ' Game of Thrones ' Rises , Ties NBA Playoffs + ' Real Housewives , ' ' The Client List , ' ' Army Wives , ' ' Mad Men ' & More '' . TV by the Numbers . Archived from the original on September 1 , 2016 . Retrieved May 1 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Kondolojy , Amanda ( May 8 , 2012 ) . `` Sunday Cable Ratings : NBA Playoffs + ' Game of Thrones ' , ' The Client List ' , ' Army Wives , ' ' Khloe & Lamar ' , ' Mad Men ' + More '' . TV by the Numbers . Archived from the original on May 27 , 2016 . Retrieved May 8 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Bibel , Sara ( May 15 , 2012 ) . `` Sunday Cable Ratings : ' Game Of Thrones ' Tops , ' Real Housewives NJ , ' ' The Client List , ' ' Khloe & Lamar , ' ' Army Wives ' & More '' . TV by the Numbers . Archived from the original on September 1 , 2016 . Retrieved May 15 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Kondolojy , Amanda ( May 22 , 2012 ) . `` Sunday Cable Ratings : NBA Playoffs , + ' Game of Thrones ' , ' Keeping Up With the Kardashians ' , ' Ax Men ' , ' The Client List ' , ' Sister Wives ' , + More '' . TV by the Numbers . Archived from the original on September 1 , 2016 . Retrieved May 22 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Bibel , Sara ( May 30 , 2012 ) . `` Sunday Cable Ratings : NBA Playoffs Win Night , ' Game of Thrones ' , ' Mad Men ' , ' Keeping Up With the Kardashians ' , ' Girls ' , ' Pawn Stars ' , & More '' . TV by the Numbers . Archived from the original on June 10 , 2016 . Retrieved May 30 , 2012 . 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Jump up ^ Nededog , Jethro ( July 19 , 2011 ) . `` ' Game of Thrones ' Casts Liam Cunningham as Davos Seaworth '' . The Hollywood Reporter . Retrieved March 5 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Lash , Jolie ( February 1 , 2012 ) . `` Access Countdown To ' Game Of Thrones ' Season 2 : Q&A Liam Cunningham Talks Davos Seaworth '' . Access Hollywood . Retrieved February 1 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Hibberd , James ( August 2 , 2011 ) . `` ' Game of Thrones ' casts Theon 's fierce sister '' . Entertainment Weekly . Retrieved August 2 , 2011 . Jump up ^ `` Patrick Malahide cast as Balon Greyjoy '' . WinterIsComing.net . August 24 , 2011 . Retrieved September 19 , 2011 . Jump up ^ `` Exclusive : Tom Wlaschiha is Jaqen H'ghar '' . WinterIsComing.net . August 3 , 2011 . Retrieved August 10 , 2011 . Jump up ^ `` Access Countdown To ' Game Of Thrones ' Season 2 Q&A : Tom Wlaschiha Talks Jaqen H'ghar '' . Access Hollywood . March 1 , 2012 . Retrieved March 1 , 2012 . 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Martin 's A Song of Ice and Fire A Game of Thrones ( 1996 ) A Clash of Kings ( 1998 ) A Storm of Swords ( 2000 ) A Feast for Crows ( 2005 ) A Dance with Dragons ( 2011 ) The Winds of Winter ( TBA ) Franchise media Novellas Tales of Dunk and Egg ( 1998 -- 2010 ) The Princess and the Queen ( 2013 ) The Rogue Prince ( 2014 ) The Sons of the Dragon ( 2017 ) TV series Episodes Season 1 5 6 7 Awards Characters Music `` Game of Thrones Theme '' `` The Rains of Castamere '' `` The Bear and the Maiden Fair '' `` Light of the Seven '' Catch the Throne Live Concert Experience Soundtracks Season 1 5 6 Title sequence After the Thrones Thronecast Video games A Game of Thrones : Genesis Game of Thrones ( 2012 ) Game of Thrones Ascent Game of Thrones ( 2014 ) Other media The World of Ice & Fire ( 2014 ) Board game Card game ( Second edition ) Comic book series Characters Petyr Baelish Joffrey Baratheon Renly Baratheon Robert Baratheon Stannis Baratheon Tommen Baratheon Ramsay Bolton Roose Bolton Bronn Gregor Clegane Sandor Clegane Khal Drogo Gendry Tormund Giantsbane Gilly Theon Greyjoy Cersei Lannister Jaime Lannister Tyrion Lannister Tywin Lannister Oberyn Martell Melisandre Missandei Jorah Mormont Daario Naharis Ellaria Sand Davos Seaworth Jon Snow High Sparrow Arya Stark Bran Stark Catelyn Stark Ned Stark Rickon Stark Robb Stark Sansa Stark Daenerys Targaryen Viserys Targaryen Samwell Tarly Brienne of Tarth Margaery Tyrell Olenna Tyrell Varys Ygritte World Languages Dothraki Valyrian Themes Iron Throne White Walker Miscellaneous Fandom Book Category Game of Thrones episodes Seasons : 1 5 6 7 Season 2 `` The North Remembers '' `` The Night Lands '' `` What Is Dead May Never Die '' `` Garden of Bones '' `` The Ghost of Harrenhal '' `` The Old Gods and the New '' `` A Man Without Honor '' `` The Prince of Winterfell '' `` Blackwater '' `` Valar Morghulis '' Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Stunt Ensemble in a Television Series 24 , season 6 ( 2007 ) Heroes , season 3 , part I ( 2008 ) 24 , season 7 ( 2009 ) True Blood , season 3 ( 2010 ) Game of Thrones , season 1 ( 2011 ) Game of Thrones , season 2 ( 2012 ) Game of Thrones , season 3 ( 2013 ) Game of Thrones , season 4 ( 2014 ) Game of Thrones , season 5 ( 2015 ) Game of Thrones , season 6 ( 2016 ) Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Game_of_Thrones_(season_2)&oldid=798882302 '' Categories : Game of Thrones 2012 American television seasons Hidden categories : Official website different in Wikidata and Wikipedia Talk Contents About Wikipedia Wikiquote Languages Dansk Deutsch Español فارسی Français Galego Հայերեն Bahasa Indonesia Italiano ქართული Magyar Português Română Русский Suomi Türkçe 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 4 September 2017 , at 10 : 37 . 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when did the emperor lose power in japan

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Emperor_of_Japan&oldid=854736235

Emperor of Japan - wikipedia Emperor of Japan Monarch in Japan `` Japanese Emperor '' and `` Tennō '' redirect here . For the butterfly , see Sasakia charonda . For other uses , see Tenno ( disambiguation ) . Emperor of Japan 天皇 Imperial Imperial Standard Incumbent Akihito since 7 January 1989 Details Style His Imperial Majesty or His Majesty Heir apparent Crown Prince Naruhito First monarch Emperor Jimmu ( mythical ) Formation 660 BC Residence Tokyo Imperial Palace ( official residence ) Website The Imperial Household Agency Japan This article is part of a series on the politics and government of Japan Constitution ( show ) The Constitution History Laws The Monarchy ( show ) Emperor ( list ) Akihito Crown Prince Naruhito Imperial House Imperial Household Agency Legislature ( show ) National Diet House of Representatives Speaker Tadamori Oshima Vice-Speaker Hirotaka Akamatsu House of Councillors President Chuichi Date Vice-President Akira Gunji Leader of the Opposition Yukio Edano Executive ( show ) Prime Minister ( list ) Shinzō Abe Deputy Prime Minister Tarō Asō Government Cabinet Ministries Administrative Agencies Judiciary ( show ) Chief Justice ( list ) Naoto Ōtani Supreme Court Intellectual Property High Court Administrative Divisions ( show ) Prefectures Governors ( list ) Subprefectures Districts Municipalities Mergers and Dissolutions Submunicipalities Elections ( show ) House of Councillors 2007 2013 2016 House of Representatives 2009 2012 2014 2017 Next General Election Political parties ( show ) Major parties Liberal Democratic Constitutional Democratic Democratic Party for the People Other parties Foreign relations ( show ) Foreign policy Related topics ( show ) National Police Imperial Guard Special Assault Team Special Investigation Team Self - Defense Force Air Ground Maritime Japan portal Other countries Atlas The Emperor of Japan is the head of the Imperial Family and the head of state of Japan . Under the 1947 constitution , he is defined as `` the symbol of the State and of the unity of the people . '' Historically , he was also the highest authority of the Shinto religion . In Japanese , the Emperor is called Tennō ( 天皇 ) , literally `` heavenly sovereign '' . In English , the use of the term Mikado ( 帝 or 御門 ) for the Emperor was once common , but is now considered obsolete . Currently , the Emperor of Japan is the only head of state in the world with the English title of `` Emperor '' . The Imperial House of Japan is the oldest continuing monarchical house in the world . The historical origins of the Emperors lie in the late Kofun period of the 3rd -- 7th centuries AD , but according to the traditional account of the Kojiki ( finished 712 ) and Nihon Shoki ( finished 720 ) , Japan was founded in 660 BC by Emperor Jimmu , who was said to be a direct descendant of the sun - goddess Amaterasu . The current Emperor is Akihito . He acceded to the Chrysanthemum Throne upon the death of his father , Emperor Shōwa ( Hirohito ) , in 1989 . The Japanese government announced in December 2017 that Akihito will abdicate on 30 April 2019 . The role of the Emperor of Japan has historically alternated between a largely ceremonial symbolic role and that of an actual imperial ruler . Since the establishment of the first shogunate in 1199 , the Emperors of Japan have rarely taken on a role as supreme battlefield commander , unlike many Western monarchs . Japanese Emperors have nearly always been controlled by external political forces , to varying degrees . In fact , between 1192 and 1867 , the shōguns , or their shikken regents in Kamakura ( 1203 -- 1333 ) , were the de facto rulers of Japan , although they were nominally appointed by the Emperor . After the Meiji Restoration in 1867 , the Emperor was the embodiment of all sovereign power in the realm , as enshrined in the Meiji Constitution of 1889 . Since the enactment of the 1947 Constitution , he has been a ceremonial head of state without even nominal political powers . Since the mid-nineteenth century , the Imperial Palace has been called Kyūjō ( 宮城 ) , later Kōkyo ( 皇居 ) , and is on the former site of Edo Castle in the heart of Tokyo ( the current capital of Japan ) . Earlier , Emperors resided in Kyoto ( the ancient capital ) for nearly eleven centuries . The Emperor 's Birthday ( December 23 ) is a national holiday . Contents 1 Role 2 History 2.1 Origin 2.2 Factional control 2.3 Disputes 2.4 Territorial matters 2.5 Shōguns 2.6 Meiji restoration 2.7 World War II 2.8 Current constitution 2.9 Relation to Shinto 2.10 Education 3 Addressing and naming 3.1 Origin of the title 4 Marriage traditions 5 Burial traditions 6 Succession 6.1 Current status 7 Wealth 8 Notes 9 See also 10 References 10.1 Citations 10.2 Sources 11 External links Role ( edit ) Unlike most constitutional monarchs , the Emperor is not even the nominal chief executive . Article 65 explicitly vests executive power in the Cabinet , of which the Prime Minister is the leader . The Emperor is also not the commander - in - chief of the Japan Self - Defense Forces . The Japan Self - Defense Forces Act of 1954 also explicitly vests this role with the Prime Minister . The Emperor 's powers are limited only to important ceremonial functions . Article 4 of the Constitution stipulates that the Emperor `` shall perform only such acts in matters of state as are provided for in the Constitution and he shall not have powers related to government . '' It also stipulates that `` the advice and approval of the Cabinet shall be required for all acts of the Emperor in matters of state '' ( Article 3 ) . Article 4 also states that these duties can be delegated by the Emperor as provided for by law . While the Emperor formally appoints the Prime Minister to office , Article 6 of the Constitution requires him to appoint the candidate `` as designated by the Diet '' , without giving the Emperor the right to decline appointment . Article 6 of the Constitution delegates the Emperor the following ceremonial roles : Appointment of the Prime Minister as designated by the Diet . Appointment of the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court as designated by the Cabinet . The Emperor 's other duties are laid down in article 7 of the Constitution , where it is stated that `` the Emperor , with the advice and approval of the Cabinet , shall perform the following acts in matters of state on behalf of the people . '' In practice , all of these duties are exercised only in accordance with the binding instructions of the Cabinet : Promulgation of amendments of the constitution , laws , cabinet orders , and treaties . Convocation of the Diet . Dissolution of the House of Representatives . Proclamation of general election of members of the Diet . Attestation of the appointment and dismissal of Ministers of State and other officials as provided for by law , and of full powers and credentials of Ambassadors and Ministers . Attestation of general and special amnesty , commutation of punishment , reprieve , and restoration of rights . Awarding of honors . Attestation of instruments of ratification and other diplomatic documents as provided for by law . Receiving foreign ambassadors and ministers . Performance of ceremonial functions . Regular ceremonies of the Emperor with a constitutional basis are the Imperial Investitures ( Shinninshiki ) in the Tokyo Imperial Palace and the Speech from the Throne ceremony in the House of Councillors in the National Diet Building . The latter ceremony opens ordinary and extra sessions of the Diet . Ordinary sessions are opened each January and also after new elections to the House of Representatives . Extra sessions usually convene in the autumn and are opened then . History ( edit ) Although the Emperor has been a symbol of continuity with the past , the degree of power exercised by the Emperor has varied considerably throughout Japanese history . In the early 7th century , the Emperor had begun to be called the `` Son of Heaven '' ( 天子 , tenshi , or 天子 様 tenshi - sama ) . Origin ( edit ) See also : List of Emperors of Japan The title of Emperor was borrowed from China , being derived from Chinese characters and was retroactively applied to the legendary Japanese rulers who reigned before the 7th -- 8th centuries AD . According to the traditional account of the Nihon Shoki , Japan was founded by Emperor Jimmu in 660 BC . Modern historians agree that the Emperors before the possible late 3rd century AD ruler known traditionally as Emperor Ōjin are legendary . Emperor Ankō of the 5th century AD , traditionally the 20th emperor , is the earliest generally agreed upon historical ruler of all or a part of Japan . The reign of Emperor Kinmei ( c. 509 -- 571 AD ) , the 29th emperor , is the first for which contemporary historiography is able to assign verifiable dates ; however , the conventionally accepted names and dates of the early emperors were not to be confirmed as `` traditional '' until the reign of Emperor Kanmu ( 737 -- 806 ) , the 50th sovereign of the Yamato dynasty . Archaeological information about the earliest historical rulers of Japan may lie within the ancient tombs known as kofun , constructed between the early 3rd century and the early 7th century AD . However , since the Meiji period , the Imperial Household Agency has refused to open the kofun to the public nor to archaeologists , citing their desire not to disturb the spirits of the past Emperors . In December 2006 , the Imperial Household Agency reversed its position and decided to allow researchers to enter some of the kofun with no restrictions . Factional control ( edit ) There have been six non-imperial families who have controlled Japanese emperors : the Soga ( 530s -- 645 ) , the Fujiwara ( 850s -- 1070 ) , the Taira ( 1159 - 1180s ) , the Minamoto ( and Kamakura bakufu ) ( 1192 -- 1333 ) , the Ashikaga ( 1336 -- 1565 ) , and the Tokugawa ( 1603 -- 1867 ) . However , every shogun from the Minamoto , Ashikaga , and Tokugawa families had to be officially recognized by the Emperors , who were still the source of sovereignty , although they could not exercise their powers independently from the Shogunate . Disputes ( edit ) The growth of the samurai class from the 10th century gradually weakened the power of the imperial family over the realm , leading to a time of instability . Emperors have been known to come into conflict with the reigning shogun from time to time . Some instances , such as Emperor Go - Toba 's 1221 rebellion against the Kamakura shogunate and the 1336 Kenmu Restoration under Emperor Go - Daigo , show the power struggle between the imperial court and the military governments of Japan . Territorial matters ( edit ) Until recent centuries , Japan 's territory did not include several remote regions of its modern - day territory . The name `` Nippon '' came into use only many centuries after the start of the current imperial line . Centralized government only began to appear shortly before and during the time of Prince Shōtoku ( 572 -- 622 ) . The Emperor was more like a revered embodiment of divine harmony than the head of an actual governing administration . In Japan , it has always been easy for ambitious lords to hold actual power , as such positions have not been inherently contradictory to the Emperor 's position . The parliamentary government today continues a similar coexistence with the Emperor as have various shoguns , regents , warlords , guardians , etc . Historically the titles of Tennō in Japanese have never included territorial designations as is the case with many European monarchs . The position of Emperor is a territory - independent phenomenon -- the Emperor is the Emperor , even if he has followers only in one province ( as was the case sometimes with the southern and northern courts ) . Shōguns ( edit ) From 1192 to 1867 , sovereignty of the state was exercised by the shōguns , or their shikken regents ( 1203 -- 1333 ) , whose authority was conferred by Imperial warrant . When Portuguese explorers first came into contact with the Japanese ( see Nanban period ) , they described Japanese conditions in analogy , likening the Emperor with great symbolic authority but little political power , to the Pope , and the shōgun to secular European rulers ( e.g. , the Holy Roman Emperor ) . In keeping with the analogy , they even used the term `` Emperor '' in reference to the shōguns and their regents , e.g. in the case of Toyotomi Hideyoshi , whom missionaries called `` Emperor Taico - sama '' ( from Taikō and the honorific sama ) . Meiji Restoration ( edit ) Main article : Meiji Restoration After the United States Navy Commodore Matthew C. Perry 's Black Ships forcibly opened Japan to foreign trade , and the shogunate proved incapable of hindering the `` barbarian '' interlopers , the Emperor Kōmei began to assert himself politically . By the early 1860s , the relationship between the imperial court and the Shogunate was changing radically . Disaffected domains and rōnin began to rally to the call of sonnō jōi ( `` revere the Emperor , expel the barbarians '' ) . The domains of Satsuma and Chōshū , historic enemies of the Tokugawa , used this turmoil to unite their forces and won an important military victory outside of Kyoto against Tokugawa forces . In 1868 , imperial `` restoration '' was declared , and the Shogunate was dissolved . A new constitution described the Emperor as `` the head of the Empire , combining in Himself the rights of sovereignty '' , whose rights included to sanction and promulgate laws , to execute them and to exercise `` supreme command of the Army and the Navy '' . The liaison conference created in 1893 also made the Emperor the leader of the Imperial General Headquarters . World War II ( edit ) The role of the Emperor as head of the State Shinto religion was exploited during the war , creating an Imperial cult that led to kamikaze bombers and other fanaticism . This in turn led to the requirement in the Potsdam Declaration for the elimination `` for all time ( of ) the authority and influence of those who have deceived and misled the people of Japan into embarking on world conquest '' . In State Shinto , the Emperor was believed to be a Arahitogami ( a living god ) . Following Japan 's surrender , the Allies issued the Shinto Directive separating church and state within Japan . Current Constitution ( edit ) The constitution provides for a parliamentary system of government and guarantees certain fundamental rights . Under its terms , the Emperor of Japan is `` the symbol of the State and of the unity of the people '' and exercises a purely ceremonial role without the possession of sovereignty . The constitution , also known as the `` Constitution of Japan '' ( 日本 国 憲法 , Nihonkoku - Kenpō , formerly written 日本 國 憲法 ( same pronunciation ) ) , `` Postwar Constitution '' ( 戦後 憲法 , Sengo - Kenpō ) or the `` Peace Constitution '' ( 平和 憲法 , Heiwa - Kenpō ) , was drawn up under the Allied occupation that followed World War II and was intended to replace Japan 's previous militaristic and quasi-absolute monarchy system with a form of liberal democracy . Currently , it is a rigid document and no subsequent amendment has been made to it since its adoption . Relation to Shinto ( edit ) In Japanese mythology , according to Kojiki and Nihon Shoki , the Emperor and his family are said to be direct descendants of the sun - goddess Amaterasu . During World War II , the role of the Emperor as head of the Shinto religion was exploited , which resulted in the creation of State Shinto and an Imperial cult . Following the end of the Second World War , the Allies issued the Shinto Directive which abolished the state support for the Shinto religion , leading to the Humanity Declaration of the incumbent Emperor which refuted the idea that the Emperor is a living divine being , and dismissed the importance of `` myths and legends '' for the Emperor 's status . However , the Emperors have continued to perform many traditional ceremonies privately . Education ( edit ) The Emperors traditionally had an education officer . In recent times , Emperor Taishō had Count Nogi Maresuke , Emperor Shōwa had Marshal - Admiral Marquis Tōgō Heihachirō , and Emperor Akihito had Elizabeth Gray Vining as well as Shinzō Koizumi as their tutors . Addressing and naming ( edit ) There are two Japanese words equivalent to the English word `` Emperor '' : tennō ( 天皇 , `` heavenly sovereign '' ) , which is used exclusively to refer to the Emperor of Japan , and kōtei ( 皇帝 , the title used for all other foreign Emperors ) , which is used primarily to describe non-Japanese Emperors . Sumeramikoto ( `` the Imperial person '' ) was also used in Old Japanese . The term tennō was used by the Emperors up until the Middle Ages ; then , following a period of disuse , it was used again from the 19th century . In English , the term mikado ( 御門 or 帝 ) , literally meaning `` the honorable gate '' ( i.e. the gate of the imperial palace , which indicates the person who lives in and possesses the palace ) , was once used ( as in The Mikado , a 19th - century operetta ) , but this term is now obsolete . ( Compare Sublime Porte , an old term for the Ottoman government . ) Traditionally , the Japanese considered it disrespectful to call any person by his given name , and more so for a person of noble rank . This convention is only slightly relaxed in the modern age and it is still inadvisable among friends to use the given name , use of the family name being the common form of address . In the case of the imperial family , it is considered extremely inappropriate to use the given name . Since Emperor Meiji , it has been customary to have one era per Emperor and to rename each Emperor after his death using the name of the era over which he presided . Before Emperor Meiji , the names of the eras were changed more frequently , and the posthumous names of the Emperors were chosen differently . Play media The Emperor of Japan giving a New Year 's address to the people in 2010 Outside Japan , the previous Emperor is usually called Hirohito in English , although he was never referred to as Hirohito in Japan , and was renamed Shōwa Tennō after his death , which is the only name that Japanese speakers currently use when referring to him . The current Emperor on the throne is typically referred to as Tennō Heika ( 天皇 陛下 , `` His ( Imperial ) Majesty the Emperor '' ) , Kinjō Heika ( 今 上 陛下 , `` His Current Majesty '' ) or simply Tennō , when speaking Japanese . The current Emperor will be renamed Daijō Tennō ( 太 上 天皇 , Retired Emperor ) , often shortened to Jōkō ( 上皇 ) , upon his planned retirement on 30 April 2019 , and renamed Heisei Tennō ( 平成 天皇 ) after his death and will then be referred to exclusively by that name in Japanese . In Japanese culture , it is considered a major faux pas to refer to a living Emperor by his posthumous name , although the posthumous name is the same as the era , which is used in official documents . Origin of the title ( edit ) Originally , the ruler of Japan was known as either 大和 大王 / 大 君 ( Yamato - ōkimi , Grand King of Yamato ) , 倭 王 / 倭国 王 ( Wa - ō / Wakoku - ō , King of Wa , used externally ) or 治 天下 大王 ( Ame - no - shita shiroshimesu ōkimi or Sumera no mikoto , Grand King who rules all under heaven , used internally ) in Japanese and Chinese sources before the 7th century . The oldest documented use of the word `` Tennō '' is on a wooden slat , or mokkan , that was unearthed in Asuka - mura , Nara Prefecture in 1998 and dated back to the reign of Emperor Tenmu and Empress Jitō . Marriage traditions ( edit ) The current empress , Michiko Throughout history , Japanese Emperors and noblemen appointed the position of chief wife , rather than just keeping a harem or an assortment of female attendants . The Japanese imperial dynasty consistently practiced official polygamy , a practice that only ended in the Taishō period ( 1912 -- 1926 ) . Besides the Empress , the Emperor could take , and nearly always took , several secondary consorts ( `` concubines '' ) of various hierarchical degrees . Concubines were allowed also to other dynasts ( Shinnōke , Ōke ) . After a decree by Emperor Ichijō , some Emperors even had two empresses simultaneously ( kōgō and chūgū are the two separate titles for that situation ) . With the help of all this polygamy , the imperial clan thus was capable of producing more offspring . ( Sons by secondary consorts were usually recognized as imperial princes , too , and could be recognized as heir to the throne if the empress did not give birth to an heir . ) Of the eight female Tennō ( reigning empresses ) of Japan , none married or gave birth after ascending the throne . Some of them , being widows , had produced children before their reigns . In the succession , children of the empress were preferred over sons of secondary consorts . Thus it was significant which quarters had preferential opportunities in providing chief wives to imperial princes , i.e. supplying future empresses . Apparently , the oldest tradition of official marriages within the imperial dynasty were marriages between dynasty members , even half - siblings or uncle and niece . Such marriages were deemed to preserve better the imperial blood or were aimed at producing children symbolic of a reconciliation between two branches of the imperial dynasty . Daughters of others remained concubines , until Emperor Shōmu ( 701 -- 706 ) -- in what was specifically reported as the first elevation of its kind -- elevated his Fujiwara consort Empress Kōmyō to chief wife . Japanese monarchs have been , as much as others elsewhere , dependent on making alliances with powerful chiefs and other monarchs . Many such alliances were sealed by marriages . The specific feature in Japan has been the fact that these marriages have been soon incorporated as elements of tradition which controlled the marriages of later generations , though the original practical alliance had lost its real meaning . A repeated pattern has been an imperial son - in - law under the influence of his powerful non-imperial father - in - law . Beginning from the 7th and 8th centuries , Emperors primarily took women of the Fujiwara clan as their highest wives -- the most probable mothers of future monarchs . This was cloaked as a tradition of marriage between heirs of two kami ( Shinto deities ) : descendants of Amaterasu with descendants of the family kami of the Fujiwara . ( Originally , the Fujiwara were descended from relatively minor nobility , thus their kami is an unremarkable one in the Japanese myth world . ) To produce imperial children , heirs of the nation , with two - side descent from the two kami , was regarded as desirable -- or at least it suited powerful Fujiwara lords , who thus received preference in the imperial marriage market . The reality behind such marriages was an alliance between an imperial prince and a Fujiwara lord , his father - in - law or grandfather , the latter with his resources supporting the prince to the throne and most often controlling the government . These arrangements created the tradition of regents ( Sesshō and Kampaku ) , with these positions held only by a Fujiwara sekke lord . Earlier , the Emperors had married women from families of the government - holding Soga lords , and women of the imperial clan itself , i.e. various - degree cousins and often even their own sisters ( half - sisters ) . Several imperials of the 5th and 6th centuries such as Prince Shōtoku were children of half - sibling couples . These marriages often were alliance or succession devices : the Soga lord ensured his domination of a prince who would be put on the throne as a puppet ; or a prince ensured the combination of two imperial descents , to strengthen his own and his children 's claim to the throne . Marriages were also a means to seal a reconciliation between two imperial branches . After a couple of centuries , Emperors could no longer take anyone from outside such families as primary wife , no matter what the expediency of such a marriage and power or wealth brought by such might have been . Only very rarely did a prince ascend the throne whose mother was not descended from the approved families . The earlier necessity and expediency had mutated into a strict tradition that did not allow for current expediency or necessity , but only dictated that daughters of a restricted circle of families were eligible brides , because they had produced eligible brides for centuries . Tradition had become more forceful than law . Fujiwara women were often Empresses , and concubines came from less exalted noble families . In the last thousand years , sons of an imperial male and a Fujiwara woman have been preferred in the succession . The five Fujiwara families , Ichijō , Kujō , Nijō , Konoe , and Takatsukasa , were the primary source of imperial brides from the 8th century to the 19th century , even more often than daughters of the imperial clan itself . Fujiwara daughters were thus the usual empresses and mothers of Emperors . This restriction on brides for the Emperor and crown prince was made explicit in the Meiji - era Imperial House Law of 1889 . A clause stipulated that daughters of Sekke ( the five main branches of the higher Fujiwara ) and daughters of the imperial clan itself were primarily acceptable brides . The law was repealed in the aftermath of World War II . The present Emperor , Akihito , became the first crown prince for over a thousand years to marry a consort from outside the previously eligible circle . Burial traditions ( edit ) Entrance of the Musashi Imperial Graveyard in Hachiōji , Tokyo During the Kofun period , so - called `` archaic funerals '' were held for the dead Emperors , but only the funerary rites from the end of the period , which the chronicles describe in more detail , are known . They were centered around the rite of the mogari ( 殯 ) , a provisional depository between death and permanent burial . Empress Jitō was the first Japanese imperial personage to be cremated ( in 703 ) . After that , with a few exceptions , all Emperors were cremated up to the Edo period . For the next 350 years , in - ground burial became the favoured funeral custom . In 2013 , the Imperial Household Agency announced that Emperor Akihito and Empress Michiko would be cremated after they die . Until 1912 , the Emperors of Japan were usually buried in Kyoto . From the Taishō Emperor onward , the Emperors have been buried at the Musashi Imperial Graveyard in Tokyo . Succession ( edit ) Tokyo Imperial Palace The Japanese imperial dynasty bases its position in the expression that it has `` reigned since time immemorial '' ( 万世 一 系 bansei ikkei ) . It is true that its origins are buried in the mists of time : there are no records of any Emperor who was not said to have been a descendant of other , yet earlier Emperors . There is suspicion that Emperor Keitai ( c. 500 AD ) may have been an unrelated outsider , though the sources state that he was a male - line descendant of Emperor Ōjin . However , his descendants , including his successors , were according to records descended from at least one and probably several imperial princesses of the older lineage . The tradition built by those legends has chosen to recognize just the putative male ancestry as valid for legitimizing his succession , not giving any weight to ties through the said princesses . Millennia ago , the Japanese imperial family developed its own peculiar system of hereditary succession . It has been non-primogenitural , more or less agnatic , based mostly on rotation . Today , Japan uses strict agnatic primogeniture , which was adopted from Prussia , by which Japan was greatly influenced in the 1870s . The controlling principles and their interaction were apparently very complex and sophisticated , leading to even idiosyncratic outcomes . Some chief principles apparent in the succession have been : Women were allowed to succeed ( but there existed no known children of theirs whose father did not also happen to be an agnate of the imperial house , thus there is neither a precedent that a child of an imperial woman with a non-imperial man could inherit , nor a precedent forbidding it for children of empresses ) . However , female accession was clearly much more rare than male . Adoption was possible and a much used way to increase the number of succession - entitled heirs ( however , the adopted child had to be a child of another member agnate of the imperial house ) . Abdication was used very often , and in fact occurred more often than death on the throne . In those days , the Emperor 's chief task was priestly ( or godly ) , containing so many repetitive rituals that it was deemed that after a service of around ten years , the incumbent deserved pampered retirement as an honored former Emperor . Primogeniture was not used -- rather , in the early days , the imperial house practiced something resembling a system of rotation . Very often a brother ( or sister ) followed the elder sibling even in the case of the predecessor leaving children . The `` turn '' of the next generation came more often after several individuals of the senior generation . Rotation went often between two or more of the branches of the imperial house , thus more or less distant cousins succeeded each other . Emperor Go - Saga even decreed an official alternation between heirs of his two sons , which system continued for a couple of centuries ( leading finally to shogun - induced ( or utilized ) strife between these two branches , the `` southern '' and `` northern '' Emperors ) . Towards the end , the alternates were very distant cousins counted in degrees of male descent ( but all that time , intermarriages occurred within the imperial house , thus they were close cousins if female ties are counted ) . During the past five hundred years , however , probably due to Confucian influence , inheritance by sons -- but not always , or even most often , the eldest son has been the norm . Historically , the succession to the Chrysanthemum Throne has always passed to descendants in male line from the imperial lineage . Generally , they have been males , though of the over one hundred monarchs there have been nine women ( one pre-historical and eight historical ) as Emperor on eleven occasions . Over a thousand years ago , a tradition started that an Emperor should ascend relatively young . A dynast who had passed his toddler years was regarded suitable and old enough . Reaching the age of legal majority was not a requirement . Thus , a multitude of Japanese Emperors have ascended as children , as young as 6 or 8 years old . The high - priestly duties were deemed possible for a walking child . A reign of around ten years was regarded a sufficient service . Being a child was apparently a fine property , to better endure tedious duties and to tolerate subjugation to political power - brokers , as well as sometimes to cloak the truly powerful members of the imperial dynasty . Almost all Japanese empresses and dozens of Emperors abdicated , and lived the rest of their lives in pampered retirement , wielding influence behind the scenes . Several Emperors abdicated to their entitled retirement while still in their teens . These traditions show in Japanese folklore , theater , literature , and other forms of culture , where the Emperor is usually described or depicted as an adolescent . Before the Meiji Restoration , Japan had eleven reigns of reigning empresses , all of them daughters of the male line of the Imperial House . None ascended purely as a wife or as a widow of an Emperor . Imperial daughters and granddaughters , however , usually ascended the throne as a sort of a `` stop gap '' measure -- if a suitable male was not available or some imperial branches were in rivalry so that a compromise was needed . Over half of Japanese empresses and many Emperors abdicated once a suitable male descendant was considered to be old enough to rule ( just past toddlerhood , in some cases ) . Four empresses , Empress Suiko , Empress Kōgyoku ( also Empress Saimei ) , and Empress Jitō , as well as the mythical Empress Jingū , were widows of deceased Emperors and princesses of the blood imperial in their own right . One , Empress Genmei , was the widow of a crown prince and a princess of the blood imperial . The other four , Empress Genshō , Empress Kōken ( also Empress Shōtoku ) , Empress Meishō , and Empress Go - Sakuramachi , were unwed daughters of previous Emperors . None of these empresses married or gave birth after ascending the throne . Article 2 of the Meiji Constitution ( the Constitution of the Empire of Japan ) stated , `` The Imperial Throne shall be succeeded to by imperial male descendants , according to the provisions of the Imperial House Law . '' The 1889 Imperial Household Law fixed the succession on male descendants of the imperial line , and specifically excluded female descendants from the succession . In the event of a complete failure of the main line , the throne would pass to the nearest collateral branch , again in the male line . If the Empress did not give birth to an heir , the Emperor could take a concubine , and the son he had by that concubine would be recognized as heir to the throne . This law , which was promulgated on the same day as the Meiji Constitution , enjoyed co-equal status with that constitution . Article 2 of the Constitution of Japan , promulgated in 1947 by influence of the U.S. occupation administration , provides that `` The Imperial Throne shall be dynastic and succeeded to in accordance with the Imperial Household Law passed by the Diet . '' The Imperial Household Law of 1947 , enacted by the ninety - second and last session of the Imperial Diet , retained the exclusion on female dynasts found in the 1889 law . The government of Prime Minister Yoshida Shigeru hastily cobbled together the legislation to bring the Imperial Household in compliance with the American - written Constitution of Japan that went into effect in May 1947 . In an effort to control the size of the imperial family , the law stipulates that only legitimate male descendants in the male line can be dynasts ; that imperial princesses lose their status as Imperial Family members if they marry outside the Imperial Family ; and that the Emperor and other members of the Imperial Family may not adopt children . It also prevented branches , other than the branch descending from Taishō , from being imperial princes any longer . Current status ( edit ) Main article : Line of succession to the Japanese throne Succession is now regulated by laws passed by the National Diet . The current law excludes women from the succession . A change to this law had been considered until Princess Kiko gave birth to a son . Until the birth of Prince Hisahito , son of Prince Akishino , on September 6 , 2006 , there was a potential succession problem , since Prince Akishino was the only male child to be born into the imperial family since 1965 . Following the birth of Princess Aiko , there was public debate about amending the current Imperial Household Law to allow women to succeed to the throne . In January 2005 , Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi appointed a special panel composed of judges , university professors , and civil servants to study changes to the Imperial Household Law and to make recommendations to the government . The panel dealing with the succession issue recommended on October 25 , 2005 , amending the law to allow females of the male line of imperial descent to ascend the Japanese throne . On January 20 , 2006 , Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi devoted part of his annual keynote speech to the controversy , pledging to submit a bill allowing women to ascend the throne to ensure that the succession continues in the future in a stable manner . Shortly after the announcement that Princess Kiko was pregnant with her third child , Koizumi suspended such plans . Her son , Prince Hisahito , is the third in line to the throne under the current law of succession . On January 3 , 2007 , Prime Minister Shinzō Abe announced that he would drop the proposal to alter the Imperial Household Law . Wealth ( edit ) Until World War II , the Japanese monarchy was thought to be among the wealthiest in the world . Before 1911 , no distinction was made between the imperial crown estates and the Emperor 's personal properties , which were considerable . The Imperial Property Law , which came into effect in January 1911 , established two categories of imperial properties : the hereditary or crown estates and the personal ( `` ordinary '' ) properties of the imperial family . The Imperial Household Minister was given the responsibility for observing any judicial proceedings concerning imperial holdings . Under the terms of the law , imperial properties were only taxable in cases where no conflict with the Imperial House Law existed ; however , crown estates could only be used for public or imperially - sanctioned undertakings . Personal properties of certain members of the imperial family , in addition to properties held for imperial family members who were minors , were exempted from taxation . Those family members included the Empress Dowager , the Empress , the Crown Prince and Crown Princess , the Imperial Grandson and the consort of the Imperial Grandson . As a result of the poor economic conditions in Japan , 289,259.25 acres of crown lands ( about 26 % of the total landholdings ) were either sold or transferred to government and private - sector interests in 1921 . In 1930 , the Nagoya Detached Palace ( Nagoya Castle ) was donated to the city of Nagoya , with six other imperial villas being either sold or donated at the same time . In 1939 , Nijō Castle , the former Kyoto residence of the Tokugawa shoguns and an imperial palace since the Meiji Restoration , was likewise donated to the city of Kyoto . At the end of 1935 , according to official government figures , the Imperial Court owned roughly 3,111,965 acres of landed estates , the bulk of which ( 2,599,548 acres ) were the Emperor 's private lands , with the total acreage of the crown estates amounting to some 512,161 acres ; those landholdings comprised palace complexes , forest and farm lands and other residential and commercial properties . The total value of the imperial properties was then estimated at ¥ 650 million , or roughly US $195 million at prevailing exchange rates . This was in addition to the Emperor 's personal fortune , which itself amounted to hundreds of millions of yen and included numerous family heirlooms and furnishings , purebred livestock and investments in major Japanese firms , such as the Bank of Japan , other major Japanese banks , the Imperial Hotel and Nippon Yusen . Following Japan 's defeat in the Second World War , all of the collateral branches of the imperial family were abolished under the Allied occupation of the country and the subsequent constitutional reforms , forcing those families to sell their assets to private or government owners . Staff numbers in the imperial households were slashed from a peak of roughly 6000 to about 1000 . The imperial estates and the Emperor 's personal fortune ( then estimated at US $17.15 million , or roughly US $625 million in 2017 terms ) were transferred to either state or private ownership , excepting 6,810 acres of landholdings . Since the 1947 constitutional reforms , the imperial family has been supported by an official civil list sanctioned by the Japanese government . The largest imperial divestments were the former imperial Kiso and Amagi forest lands in Gifu and Shizuoka prefectures , grazing lands for livestock in Hokkaido and a stock farm in the Chiba region , all of which were transferred to the Ministry of Agriculture , Forestry and Fisheries . Imperial property holdings have been further reduced since 1947 after several handovers to the government . Today , the primary imperial properties include the two Imperial Palaces at Tokyo and Kyoto , imperial villas at Hayama and at Nasu and a number of imperial farms and game preserves . As of 2017 , Akihito , the present Emperor , has an estimated net worth of US $40 million . The exact wealth and expenditures of the Emperor and the imperial family have remained a subject of speculation , and were largely withheld from the public until 2003 , when Mori Yohei , a former royal correspondent for the Mainichi Shimbun , obtained access to 200 documents through a recently passed public information law . Mori 's findings , which he published in a book , revealed details of the imperial family 's US $240 million civil list ( in 2003 values ) . Among other details , the book revealed the royal family employed a staff of over 1,000 people . Notes ( edit ) Jump up ^ Roughly US $19.9 billion in 2017 , in terms of economic status value ( https://www.measuringworth.com/calculators/uscompare/ ) See also ( edit ) Japan portal Monarchy portal Reigning Emperor Daijō Tennō List of Emperors of Japan Japanese imperial family tree Sacred king Chrysanthemum taboo Japanese official state car Japanese Air Force One Japanese honors system State Shinto Divine right of kings References ( edit ) Citations ( edit ) ^ Jump up to : Kanʼichi Asakawa . The early institutional life of Japan : a study in the reform of 645 A.D. . Tokyo : Shueisha ( 1903 ) , p. 25 . `` We purposely avoid , in spite of its wide usage in foreign literature , the misleading term Mikado . If it be not for the natural curiosity of the races , which always seeks something novel and loves to call foreign things by foreign names , it is hard to understand why this obsolete and ambiguous word should so sedulously be retained . It originally meant not only the Sovereign , but also his house , the court , and even the State , and its use in historical writings causes many difficulties which it is unnecessary to discuss here in detail . The native Japanese employ the term neither in speech nor in writing . It might as well be dismissed with great advantage from sober literature as it has been for the official documents . '' Jump up ^ `` Japan desperate for male heir to oldest monarchy '' . London : independent.co.uk . March 1 , 1996 . Retrieved June 5 , 2010 . Jump up ^ Kinsley , David ( 1989 ) . The goddesses ' mirror : visions of the divine from East and West . Albany : State University of New York Press . pp. 80 -- 90 . ISBN 9780887068355 . Jump up ^ `` Amaterasu '' . Ancient History Encyclopedia . Retrieved 21 October 2017 . Jump up ^ Enjoji , Kaori ( December 1 , 2017 ) . `` Japan Emperor Akihito to abdicate on April 30 , 2019 '' . CNN . Tokyo . Retrieved December 1 , 2017 . Jump up ^ The formal investiture of the Prime Minister in 2010 , the opening of the ordinary session of the Diet in January 2012 and the opening of an extra session of the Diet in the autumn of 2011 . The 120th anniversary of the Diet was commemorarated with a special ceremony in the House of Councillors in November 2010 , when also the Empress and the Prince and Princess Akishino were present . Jump up ^ Boscaro , Adriana ; Gatti , Franco ; Raveri , Massimo , eds. ( 2003 ) . Rethinking Japan : Social Sciences , Ideology and Thought. II . Japan Library Limited . p. 300 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 904404 - 79 - 1 . Jump up ^ Charles Holcombe ( January 2001 ) . The Genesis of East Asia : 221 B.C. -- A.D. 907 . University of Hawaii Press . pp. 198 -- . ISBN 978 - 0 - 8248 - 2465 - 5 . Jump up ^ Kelly , Charles F. `` Kofun Culture '' , Japanese Archaeology. 27 April 2009 . Jump up ^ Titsingh , pp. 34 -- 36 ; Brown , pp. 261 -- 262 ; Varley , pp. 123 -- 124 . Jump up ^ Hoye , Timothy . ( 1999 ) . Japanese Politics : Fixed and Floating Worlds , p. 78 ; excerpt , `` According to legend , the first Japanese emperor was Jinmu . Along with the next 13 emperors , Jinmu is not considered an actual , historical figure . Historically verifiable Emperors of Japan date from the early sixth century with Kinmei . Jump up ^ Aston , William . ( 1896 ) . Nihongi , pp. 109 . Jump up ^ 役員 、 総代 として の 基礎 知識 全国 神社 総代 会 編集 発行 「 改訂 神社 役員 、 総代 必携 」 ( in Japanese ) Jump up ^ `` The Ritual Ceremonies of the Imperial Palace - The Imperial Household Agency '' . www.kunaicho.go.jp . Retrieved 22 September 2017 . Jump up ^ `` List of main ritual ceremonies of the Imperial Palace - The Imperial Household Agency '' . www.kunaicho.go.jp . Retrieved 22 September 2017 . Jump up ^ Screech , ( 2006 ) . Secret Memoirs of the Shoguns : Isaac Titsingh and Japan , 1779 -- 1822 , p. 232 n4 . ^ Jump up to : François Macé . `` The Funerals of the Japanese Emperors '' . Jump up ^ `` Emperor , Empress plan to be cremated '' . The Japan Times . Retrieved November 21 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Seidensticker , Edward . ( 1990 ) . Tokyo Rising , p. 20 . Jump up ^ Martin , Alex , `` Imperial law revisited as family shrinks , Emperor ages '' , Japan Times , December 16 , 2011 , p. 3 . Jump up ^ `` Report : Japan to drop plan to allow female monarch '' . USA Today . McLean , VA : Gannett . The Associated Press . January 3 , 2007 . ISSN 0734 - 7456 . Retrieved October 20 , 2011 . Jump up ^ `` Legacy of Hirohito '' . The Times . 3 May 1989 . ^ Jump up to : `` Japan - The Imperial Court '' . The Japan - Manchoukuo Year Book . The Japan - Manchoukuo Year Book Co. 1938 . pp. 50 -- 51 . Jump up ^ pp. 332 -- 333 , `` Exchange and Interest Rates '' , Japan Year Book 1938 -- 1939 , Kenkyusha Press , Foreign Association of Japan , Tokyo Jump up ^ Reed , Christopher ( 5 October 1971 ) . `` Few personal possessions for reigning monarch '' . The Times . Jump up ^ `` Akihito Net Worth 2017 : How Rich Is Japanese Emperor As Parliament Passed Historic Law For His Abdication '' . The International Business Times . June 9 , 2017 . Retrieved May 27 , 2018 . Jump up ^ `` British Pound to US Dollar Spot Exchange Rates for 2003 from the Bank of England '' . PoundSterling Live . Retrieved May 27 , 2018 . Jump up ^ `` Book lifts the lid on Emperor 's high living '' . The Daily Telegraph . 7 September 2003 . Retrieved May 27 , 2018 . Sources ( edit ) Asakawa , Kan'ichi ( 1903 ) . The Early Institutional Life of Japan . Tokyo : Shueisha . OCLC 4427686 ; see online , multi-formatted , full - text book at openlibrary.org Screech , Timon ( 2006 ) . Secret Memoirs of the Shoguns : Isaac Titsingh and Japan , 1779 -- 1822 . London : RoutledgeCurzon . ISBN 0 - 7007 - 1720 - X ; ISBN 978 - 0 - 7007 - 1720 - 0 . Brinkley , Francis ( 1911 ) . `` Japan § Domestic History '' . In Chisholm , Hugh . Encyclopædia Britannica. 15 ( 11th ed . ) . Cambridge University Press . pp. 252 -- 273 ) . External links ( edit ) Wikimedia Commons has media related to Emperors of Japan . Wikisource has the text of the 1920 Encyclopedia Americana article Mikado . The Imperial Household Agency List of the Emperors , accompanied with the regents and shoguns during their reign and a genealogical tree of the imperial family The Emperor of Japan , explanation of the title of Emperor in the context of western terminology Japan opens imperial tombs for research Emperor of Japan 's New Year Address 2017 ( YouTube ) Links to related articles Japanese monarchs Jōmon ( legendary ) 660 BC -- 291 BC Jimmu Suizei Annei Itoku Kōshō Kōan Yayoi ( legendary ) 290 BC -- 269 AD Kōrei Kōgen Kaika Sujin Suinin Keikō Seimu Chūai Jingū Kofun ( Yamato ) 269 -- 539 Ōjin Nintoku Richū Hanzei Ingyō Ankō Yūryaku Seinei Kenzō Ninken Buretsu Keitai Ankan Senka Asuka ( Yamato ) 539 -- 710 Kinmei Bidatsu Yōmei Sushun Suiko Jomei Kōgyoku Kōtoku Saimei Tenji Kōbun Tenmu Jitō Monmu Genmei Nara 710 -- 794 Genmei Genshō Shōmu Kōken Junnin Shōtoku Kōnin Kanmu Heian 794 -- 1185 Kanmu Heizei Saga Junna Ninmyō Montoku Seiwa Yōzei Kōkō Uda Daigo Suzaku Murakami Reizei En'yū Kazan Ichijō Sanjō Go - Ichijō Go - Suzaku Go - Reizei Go - Sanjō Shirakawa Horikawa Toba Sutoku Konoe Go - Shirakawa Nijō Rokujō Takakura Antoku Go - Toba Kamakura 1185 -- 1333 Tsuchimikado Juntoku Chūkyō Go - Horikawa Shijō Go - Saga Go - Fukakusa Kameyama Go - Uda Fushimi Go - Fushimi Go - Nijō Hanazono Go - Daigo Northern Court 1333 -- 1392 Kōgon Kōmyō Sukō Go - Kōgon Go - En'yū Go - Komatsu Muromachi 1333 -- 1573 Go - Murakami Chōkei Go - Kameyama Go - Komatsu Shōkō Go - Hanazono Go - Tsuchimikado Go - Kashiwabara Go - Nara Ōgimachi Azuchi - Momoyama 1573 -- 1603 Ōgimachi Go - Yōzei Edo 1603 -- 1868 Go - Yōzei Go - Mizunoo Meishō Go - Kōmyō Go - Sai Reigen Higashiyama Nakamikado Sakuramachi Momozono Go - Sakuramachi Go - Momozono Kōkaku Ninkō Kōmei Meiji Empire of Japan 1868 -- 1947 Meiji Taishō Shōwa Japan ( Post-war Japan ) 1947 -- present Shōwa Akihito ( Reigning Emperor ) Unless otherwise noted ( as BC ) , years are in CE / AD Imperial consort and regent Empress Jingū is not traditionally listed . 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what happens to hale in sons of anarchy

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=David_Hale_(Sons_of_Anarchy)&oldid=834247650

David Hale ( Sons of Anarchy ) - wikipedia David Hale ( Sons of Anarchy ) Jump to : navigation , search David Hale First appearance `` Pilot '' ( episode 1.01 ) ( 2008 ) Last appearance `` So '' ( episode 3.01 ) ( 2010 ) Created by Kurt Sutter Portrayed by Taylor Sheridan Information Nickname ( s ) Captain America , Dave , Davy Gender Male Occupation Deputy Chief of the Charming Police Department Title Deputy Chief Family Jacob Hale ( father ) Jacob Hale Jr. ( brother ) Deputy Chief David Hale is a fictional character on the FX television series Sons of Anarchy , played by Taylor Sheridan . He was the Deputy Chief of Police in the small Northern Californian town of Charming . The Chief , Wayne Unser , nicknamed him `` Captain America '' for his black and white views , and squeaky - clean adherence to the law , and possibly because of his square jawed all - American looks . Contents ( hide ) 1 Biography 1.1 First season 1.2 Second season 1.3 Third season 2 References Biography ( edit ) Hale is a native of Charming , California , and his father , Jacob , was a county judge and a very powerful and wealthy man . He also has an older brother , Jacob , Jr . As a boy , he delivered newspapers to the town 's infamous Teller household . He was a childhood friend of Jax Teller , Tara Knowles and Opie Winston , until they graduated from high school . Hale enlisted in the American Marine Corps . After his honorable discharge , he went on to become a police officer at the local police department and is now Deputy Chief , next in line for the Chief job once Wayne Unser retires . Unlike Unser , Hale wishes to purge the town of SAMCRO ( the local biker gang , run by the Tellers ) upon becoming Chief of Police . Like him , his father and brother also want to see SAMCRO leave Charming , but , unlike him , their desire is motivated by their wish to profit financially from the gang 's absence , something which appears to irritate David . Because of Hale 's attitude , SAMCRO leader Clay Morrow convinced Unser to continue on as police Chief in order to ensure Hale does n't assume the position and become a threat to SAMCRO and their allies . He serves as an antagonist to SAMCRO during the first season , but became less hostile during Season Two . First season ( edit ) After learning that Unser is staying on , Hale calls in the Bureau of Alcohol , Tobacco , Firearms and Explosives to see if they can circumvent Unser . He soon became sexually involved with Agent June Stahl , which is against department regulations . One of their encounters was witnessed by Jax Teller while he was breaking Cherry out of the County Jail . The two lovers fell out , however , over Stahl 's decision to delude SAMCRO into believing that Opie Winston was an informant and her locking Hale out of the investigation . When Stahl removed Opie 's protective detail , Hale ( after much convincing from Unser ) decided to inform the SAMCRO that Opie was not a `` rat . '' The information came too late to prevent the murder of Opie 's wife , Donna . At the crime scene , Hale icily informed Stahl , `` This blood 's on you . '' Second season ( edit ) At the start of Season Two , Hale is introduced to Ethan Zobelle by his older brother , Jacob , in the hopes of getting SAMCRO out of Charming . Zobelle leads the White separatist group , the League of American Nationals ( L.O.A.N. ) . David , aware of L.O.A.N. 's racial beliefs , initially refused Zobelle 's help ( Jacob , a businessman who hopes to profit from SAMCRO 's absence in Charming , is not concerned with L.O.A.N. 's beliefs or methods ) . However , David is so determined to rid Charming of SAMCRO that he begins to accept Zobelle 's assistance ( or , at least , turns a blind eye towards L.O.A.N. 's activities ) even though he knows that they use more violent tactics than the Sons . L.O.A.N. 's first illegal action was giving Darby and the Nords the backing to operate a meth lab in Charming . SAMCRO discovered that the Nords were dealing meth in Charming and tipped off Hale , who then visited the property where the meth lab was located . Although Hale threatened Darby that he would get a warrant to search the property , but instead he told Unser that he investigated SAMCRO 's tip and that there was no meth lab . SAMCRO , now feeling that Hale had fallen in with Zobelle 's group , took the matter into their own hands and destroyed the lab themselves . Zobelle then tried to force Hale into taking action against SAMCRO by providing surveillance footage of Opie blowing up the meth lab that Hale allowed to operate . At the same time , Hale is also given footage of himself apparently taking a bribe from Darby ( actually just a gift certificate to Zobelle 's Impeccable Smokes shop opening ) . After being reprimanded by Unser for collaborating with Zobelle , being informed by Unser about what Zobelle 's people did to Gemma , and being told he needs to be the `` clean one '' , Hale gave Clay and Jax information they needed to sink a real estate scam run by Jacob Hale and let them know that Zobelle was surveiling them . Hale also told them that he was n't Unser and was n't on anyone 's payroll . Throughout season two , Hale started to show some signs of cooperation with SAMCRO , realizing that L.O.A.N. was more of threat to Charming than SAMCRO . He began to understand Unser 's behavior , realizing that the elderly chief did n't have much of a choice anymore in whether or not to deal with Clay Morrow and the Sons . In the episode `` The Culling , '' Unser informs Hale that he will be the new acting chief ( possibly signifying Unser 's retirement in the near future ) . In the second - season finale , perhaps adopting some of Unser 's attitude , Hale appeared unconcerned with what SAMCRO did to A.J. Weston and Ethan Zobelle as long as it was not done in Charming . Ethan Zobelle , cornered in a deli outside of Charming by SAMCRO , called Hale for help . Hale lied and told Zobelle that the sheriffs were on the way , but after hanging up he made no effort to inform the local sheriffs . He was last seen consoling a distraught Tara Knowles over the kidnapping of Abel Teller . Third season ( edit ) In the season premiere , Hale is first seen moving into the office of the chief , a position that he states will soon be official . His brother , Jacob , apologizes for bringing Zobelle to Charming , and states that he never intended things to escalate as far as they did . Jacob also tells Hale that he is continuing with his campaign to be mayor of Charming , and asks for `` the support of the chief . '' Hale agrees to support his brother . Later in the episode , Hale keeps vigil over Half - Sack 's funeral which is being attended by numerous Sons Of Anarchy members and associates . Jacob meets him there and reiterates his disgust for the gang and the apparent outpouring of support for them . Hale explains that people , including those in Charming , do n't like to see SAMCRO vulnerable since it makes everyone uncomfortable . Later into the funeral , an unknown party , later revealed to be the Calaveras MC , commits a drive - by shooting , injuring and killing several attendees . Hale tries to stop them by getting in front of their van and firing at the driver , but is killed when the vehicle runs him over . Jacob and Unser both futilely rush towards his bloodied body as the van speeds off . In an interview , series creator and executive producer , Kurt Sutter , explained that the decision to kill Hale in the season premiere was motivated by Sheridan 's desire to move on to another project . References ( edit ) Jump up ^ `` Sons of Anarchy '' . IMDb . Jump up ^ `` Hunnam , Glenn and Sagal in FX 's Anarchy '' . Comingsoon.net. 2008 - 01 - 11 . Retrieved 2012 - 02 - 09 . Jump up ^ Rob Owen ' Sons of Anarchy ' shocker ( spoiler for West coast ) . blogs.sites.post-gazette.com . September 7 , 2010 ( hide ) Sons of Anarchy Created by : Kurt Sutter Episodes `` Pilot '' Seasons 6 7 Characters Clay Morrow Jax Teller Gemma Teller Morrow Tara Knowles Opie Winston Bobby Munson Tig Trager Chibs Telford Piney Winston Juice Ortiz Half - Sack Epps Happy Wayne Unser David Hale June Stahl Josh Kohn Ernest Darby Marcus Álvarez Ethan Zobelle Universe Sons of Anarchy MC Charming , CA List of gangs Music `` This Life '' Songs of Anarchy Songs of Anarchy Volume 2 Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=David_Hale_(Sons_of_Anarchy)&oldid=834247650 '' Categories : Sons of Anarchy characters Fictional American police officers Fictional characters introduced in 2008 Hidden categories : All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from May 2011 Pages using infobox character with unknown parameters Talk Contents About Wikipedia Add links This page was last edited on 4 April 2018 , at 18 : 14 . 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8142593921177883591

is eugene from walking dead really a scientist

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Eugene_Porter&oldid=825315978

Eugene Porter - wikipedia Eugene Porter Jump to : navigation , search For other people named Eugene Porter , see Eugene Porter ( disambiguation ) . Eugene Porter The Walking Dead character Eugene , as portrayed by Josh McDermitt in the television adaptation and the comic book series . First appearance Comic : Here We Remain `` Issue # 53 '' ( October 10 , 2008 ) Television : `` Inmates '' ( 4.10 ) ( 2014 ) Created by Robert Kirkman Charlie Adlard Portrayed by Josh McDermitt Information Occupation High school science teacher ( comics ) Spouse ( s ) Comic : Rosita Espinosa Dr. Eugene Porter is a fictional character from the comic book series The Walking Dead and is portrayed by Josh McDermitt beginning in the fourth season of the American television series of the same name . In both mediums he claims to be a scientist who knows the cure to the zombie plague and is being escorted to Washington D.C. by Sgt . Abraham Ford and Rosita Espinosa , and encounter Rick Grimes and his group and recruit them to assist their mission . Eugene is overweight , possesses virtually no survival skills of his own and is extremely dependent on the group , but is highly intelligent and resourceful in using technology to ensure the group 's survival . Eventually it is revealed that Eugene is not a scientist , but a high school science teacher , and that he does n't know how to cure the virus but lied to manipulate the other survivors into taking him to Washington D.C. believing it to be the best chance for survival . This proves true as the group eventually finds the Alexandria Safe - Zone where Eugene becomes its primary engineer . Though his lie puts a strain on their friendship , Abraham eventually forgives him and they resume being friends . Contents ( hide ) 1 Character background 2 Appearances 2.1 Comic book series 2.2 Television series 2.2. 1 Season 4 2.2. 2 Season 5 2.2. 3 Season 6 2.2. 4 Season 7 2.2. 5 Season 8 3 Casting 4 Critical reception 5 References Character background ( edit ) In the comics , Eugene is an overweight high school science teacher prior to the apocalypse . Post-apocalypse , he utilizes his intelligence to pretend to be a scientist in order to gain the protection of others . He has no survival skills of his own . His TV counterpart also claimed to be a scientist before revealing his deception . He rarely shows emotion , has a vast knowledge of subjects through reading , is an avid reader and speaks in a pedantic , clinical fashion . He sports a mullet , which he is proud of . He is somewhat of a voyeur , who enjoys watching others play . Appearances ( edit ) Comic book series ( edit ) Eugene Porter , as portrayed in the comic book series . Art by Charlie Adlard . Eugene first appears at Hershel 's farm , which is now occupied by the remaining prison survivors . Eugene claims to know what has caused the plague , but will not disclose any information with the remaining survivors , including Abraham and Rosita . He says he will only share information with officials in Washington , D.C. His lie , along with a belief that Washington is the only safezone , prompts the rest of the survivors to head there in hopes of long - term survival . During the journey , Eugene studies various zombies in order to gain knowledge about them , but is careful to shadow the convoy to protect himself . Eugene 's deception is discovered after the Hunter ordeal . Everyone learns of his true career as a science teacher , and that he is using the radio as an excuse to get to Washington , D.C. He is hated by the group after this but remains a member , travelling with them to the Alexandria Safe - Zone , where he lives alone . After Rosita and Abraham break up , she moves in with Eugene , where he tries to create a relationship between them . Eugene eventually realizes he can begin to manufacture bullets in a repair shop nearby , where Abraham is killed when they scout it out only moments after they make amends . During the war with Negan , the shop is overrun by walkers and Eugene with his crew are captured by Negan . They are tortured for information but eventually escape with the help of Dwight , taking a van with a mix of Alexandrians and defecting Saviours back . After the two year time jump , Eugene and Rosita have a strained relationship . He works on many projects in the zone and is now a respected member of the community . It turns out Rosita is pregnant by another man but Eugene vows to raise the child like his own . Television series ( edit ) Season 4 ( edit ) In the episode `` Inmates '' , Abraham , Rosita , and Eugene meet survivors Tara and an unconscious Glenn on the road as they escape the ruins of the destroyed prison . In the episode `` Claimed '' , Abraham reveals to Glenn and Tara that Eugene is a scientist with classified information of the pandemic and the means to end it . Eugene has told his companions that he had been in contact with government officials located in Washington , D.C. and requires them to escort him there . In the episode `` Us '' , Eugene convinces Abraham to go to Terminus after Glenn reunites with Maggie , Sasha , and Bob , citing that they would gain new recruits and supplies . In the season finale `` A '' , when Rick , his son Carl , and Michonne and Daryl are locked up a shipping container by the residents of Terminus , it is revealed that Eugene and the rest have all been captured and are being held there as well . Season 5 ( edit ) In the season premiere `` No Sanctuary '' , the group escapes from Terminus . In the episode `` Strangers '' , Eugene accompanies them to Father Gabriel 's church . In the episode `` Four Walls and a Roof '' , they have the final confrontation with the survivors of Terminus . The next day , Tara , Glenn and Maggie depart with Abraham , Rosita and Eugene in a bus , heading for Washington , D.C. In the episode `` Self Help '' , when the bus crashes , the group decide to continue north . While camped in a library , Eugene reveals to Tara that he purposefully sabotaged the bus , fearing his abandonment if he does not succeed in abolishing the epidemic . The following morning , the group continue traveling in a fire truck , but are eventually forced to stop after spotting hordes of walkers . During an argument about how they should proceed , Eugene reveals that he lied about his knowledge of a cure and fabricated the mission in order to convince others to help him stay alive . Abraham beats him unconscious . In the episode `` Crossed '' , Eugene is unconscious as a result of Abraham 's beating . At one point , Maggie uses a ladder and a blanket to shield Eugene from the sun . In the episode `` Them '' , Eugene is with the group on their long trek . When ' a friend ' leaves them water and the others do not want to risk it being poison , Eugene tries to drink some but Abraham swats it away . He later helps keep the barn doors closed when walkers attack . In the episode `` The Distance '' , Eugene watches as the group deal with Aaron , then goes out to guard the perimeter . He rides the RV on both legs of the journey to Alexandria , playing cards on the table . In the episode `` Remember '' , Eugene enters Alexandria with the rest of his group . He can be seen residing in the house with everyone during the first few nights of their stay in Alexandria . In the episode `` Spend '' , Glenn , Noah , Tara , Eugene , Aiden , and Nicholas head to a warehouse to scavenge parts to repair Alexandria 's solar power system . Eugene is reluctant to go , but he is needed to identify the parts they need . As the group enters , they encounter a zombified soldier wearing body armor and grenades and Aiden shoots it , causing an explosion . Tara is critically wounded , and walkers enter the warehouse . Eugene carries Tara out of the warehouse . Eugene arrives in the van and lures the walkers on the outside away . Nicholas goes to the van and tells Eugene they must leave immediately . When Eugene refuses , Nicholas pulls him out of the van and tries to leave without him . Glenn arrives and knocks Nicholas out . In the season finale `` Conquer '' , Abraham visits Tara and talks with Eugene . Eugene credits Abraham for getting them to Alexandria , and apologizes for lying to him about Washington , D.C. ; Abraham also apologizes for nearly beating Eugene to death . Season 6 ( edit ) In the season premiere , `` First Time Again '' , Eugene is in the food pantry gathering food for himself when he overhears one Alexandrian , Carter , trying to convince Deanna 's son Spencer , Tobin , Francine , and Olivia to help kill Rick and take back Alexandria from Rick as he believes they are becoming dangerous and power - hungry . Eugene drops a glass jar which alerts Carter of his presence . Carter approaches Eugene and says that he heard the plan before aiming his gun at Eugene . Eugene states that he did n't hear anything . He is almost killed by Carter , but is saved as Rick , Michonne , and newcomer Morgan Jones walk in on them and disarm Carter . In `` JSS '' , Eugene meets Dr. Denise Cloyd , who is the new doctor after Pete 's death . In `` Heads Up '' , Eugene is seen attending Rosita 's lesson on how to use a machete , but seems very distracted by the noise of the walkers outside . He admits that he 's scared of dying ; Rosita tells him that dying is easy and that watching friends die is much harder to bear . In the mid-season finale , `` Start to Finish '' , Eugene is rescued by Tara and Rosita from the herd of walkers , seconds after hearing Daryl on the radio and letting out a cry of help . The three seek refuge and get trapped in a nearby garage . Later , Eugene uses his lock - picking skills to escape the room . They stumble into the same room where Owen is holding Denise captive , with Carol and Morgan unconscious on the floor . He forces them to surrender their weapons and Eugene watches as the Wolf leaves the house , taking Denise with him . In the mid-season premiere `` No Way Out '' , Eugene helps kill the remaining herd , showing his growing acts of bravery . In the episode `` Twice as Far '' , Eugene now goes on patrols with Abraham . He calls himself a survivor now . Eugene is furious after Abraham does not allow him to kill a walker and tells Abraham he no longer needs his protection and has outlived his usefulness to him . Abraham leaves and tells Eugene to find his own way home . After Denise is killed by Dwight , it is revealed that he and his men have captured Eugene . Dwight demands that he , Daryl and Rosita take them back to Alexandria and if they do not oblige , he will kill them . Eugene spots Abraham hiding behind oil barrels nearby and insists that they should kill him first . Dwight orders one of his men to investigate , and while he is distracted Eugene turns and bites his crotch . Abraham uses the distraction to shoot two Saviors , and Daryl and Rosita are able to retrieve their guns . Dwight manages to break free from Eugene , who is hit during the shootout . As Dwight and the remaining Saviors flee , Abraham , Rosita and Daryl carry Eugene back to Alexandria . Abraham reconciles with Eugene at home . In the season finale `` Last Day on Earth '' , Eugene accompanies a small group to bring an ill Maggie to the Hilltop . The Saviors trap the group and Negan kills one of them after a twisted variation of the game , Eeny , meeny , miny , moe . Season 7 ( edit ) In the season premiere `` The Day Will Come When You Wo n't Be '' , Eugene witnessed Abraham die after Negan picked him to be beaten with Lucille . Because Daryl attacked Negan as he was intimidating Rosita , Negan also killed Glenn without mercy . Eugene later picked up Abraham 's remains with Sasha and Rosita , after Negan and the Saviors left . In the episode `` Sing Me a Song '' , Eugene makes a bullet from a used casing , after Rosita berates him for being a coward . In the mid-season finale `` Hearts Still Beating '' , when Negan and his people visit the Alexandria Safe - Zone while Rick and several others are not there due to heading off to either gather supplies or seek revenge , Negan kills Spencer after he tried to convince Negan to have Rick killed and him promoted as the community 's leader , due to Spencer blaming Rick for why his family ended up dead . Rosita tries to shoot Negan after he guts Spencer with a knife , but fails by making her only bullet damage Negan 's bat `` Lucille '' instead . Enraged , Negan demands to know how Rosita got a hold of the bullet due to the guns being taken away by the Saviors during their previous visit . Eugene knows Negan will kill more people , after witnessing Arat ( a female Savior ) murder Olivia . Eugene admits he was the one who made the bullet , so Negan has his people take him away since he would be capable of making more bullets . `` Hostiles and Calamities '' show Eugene brought to the Sanctuary . After impressing Negan with claims of being a scientist and giving him advice to preserve his walkers , Negan takes a liking to Eugene due to his intellect and his ability to make things . This results in Eugene being given authority in The Sanctuary and he seemingly submits to Negan 's will ( no doubt enjoying the comforts and respect he receives ) . Interrupting Negan when he asks `` who are you ? '' , by declaring `` I am Negan , '' Eugene joins the Saviors and seemingly has Negan 's trust . In `` Something They Need '' , Sasha and Rosita try to rescue Eugene during their attempt to kill Negan , but he refuses to leave . In `` Something They Need '' , Sasha is shown to have been caught and she is visited by Eugene . He attempts to explain why she should join Negan as this way they 'll never have to experience the same fear as when Abraham died . Sasha refuses and later asks Eugene to bring her a means to which she plans to use against Negan . Eugene , thinking that she truly wants , slips a poison pill in a bag under her cell door . In the finalie `` The First Day of the Rest of Your Lives , '' Eugene takes part in the assault on Alexandria , but provides Sasha with a music player to help her pass the time . Eugene is shocked to discover that Sasha has died and reanimated as a walker . He later lies about how Sasha died to Negan Season 8 ( edit ) Eugene appears as one of Negan 's lieutenants in `` Mercy , '' but is essentially ignored by Rick beyond a brief acknowledgment when Rick tries to negotiate with the lieutenants . Along with the rest of the Saviors , he is trapped in the Sanctuary by the herd the Militia lures there . In `` The Big Scary U , '' Eugene acts as part of the council trying to decide how to deal with the siege . Eugene disagrees with Simon 's amoral plans for escape , backed up by Dwight . As a result , Eugene thanks Dwight for his help privately . Eugene later realizes that Dwight is the traitor in the Sanctuary helping Rick 's group . After Gabriel is brought in as a prisoner , Eugene attempts to bring him food and discovers that Gabriel is deathly ill . Gabriel asks for Eugene 's help in rescuing Doctor Harlan Carson from the Sanctuary so that Doctor Carson can aid Maggie in her pregnancy . In `` Time for After , '' Eugene confronts Dwight about his betrayal . Though Dwight admits to it , he insists that all Eugene needs to do is let things play out as Rick only wishes Negan dead and is trying to force everyone else to surrender . Eugene is shown to have conflicted loyalties , drinking heavily and contemplating the seriously ill Gabriel 's request to help rescue Doctor Carson . Eugene eventually comes up with a plan to lure the walkers away using the music player he gave Sasha , but is foiled by Dwight . Shortly afterwards , Daryl and Tara crash a garbage truck into the Sanctuary flooding it with walkers . Eugene refuses to help Gabriel , stating that he is now out only for himself . Eugene presents a plan to defeat the herd to Negan , but stops short of exposing Dwight 's treachery . In `` How It 's Gotta Be , '' its revealed that Eugene successfully found a way to clear the Sanctuary of walkers , allowing the Saviors to retaliate against Alexandria , the Hilltop and the Kingdom . Eugene continues to struggle with his conscience , resulting in Eugene drinking heavily and not sleeping . Finally , Eugene decides to help Gabriel and Doctor Carson escape despite the likelihood that it will result in Gabriel 's death due to his condition . Eugene discreetly disables one of the gate guards and leaves a vehicle for Gabriel and Doctor Carson to use that he `` accidentally '' drops the keys to before leaving the two . Though Gabriel requests that Eugene return with them where he will be welcomed back , Eugene refuses . Casting ( edit ) The Eugene character was announced in a casting call for Episode 10 back in July , under code - name `` Wayne Kasey '' . The character 's real name and the actor who would play the role ( McDermitt ) were confirmed during the show 's panel at New York Comic Con 2013 . The Hollywood Reporter and other media publicized the confirmation afterwards . Critical reception ( edit ) Writing for IGN , Dan Phillips praised Eugene 's introduction in issue # 53 . References ( edit ) Jump up ^ Goldberg , Lesley ( 12 October 2013 ) . `` ' Walking Dead ' Casts Two Pivotal Comic Book Characters '' . The Hollywood Reporter . Retrieved 1 April 2015 . Jump up ^ https://www.rollingstone.com/tv/recaps/the-walking-dead-season-premiere-recap-the-big-bash-w445350 Jump up ^ http://www.dailymail.co.uk/tvshowbiz/article-4352094/Negan-tries-recruit-prisoner-Sasha-Walking-Dead.html Jump up ^ DarkUFO ( 22 July 2013 ) . `` The Walking Dead - Episode 4.10 - 3 Recurring Roles being cast '' . SpoilerTV . Retrieved 1 April 2015 . Jump up ^ http://ign.com/articles/2008/10/09/the-walking-dead-53-review ( hide ) The Walking Dead Robert Kirkman Tony Moore Charlie Adlard Comic books The Walking Dead Television series The Walking Dead Episodes season 1 5 6 7 8 Accolades Soundtrack Vol. 1 Talking Dead Fear the Walking Dead Episodes season 1 Web series The Walking Dead Torn Apart Cold Storage The Oath Fear the Walking Dead Flight 462 Passage Video games The Walking Dead Season One `` 400 Days '' Two Michonne Three : A New Frontier Other games Survival Instinct Road to Survival Novels Rise of the Governor The Road to Woodbury The Fall of the Governor Descent Invasion Search and Destroy Return to Woodbury Characters Lists Comic book series Television series Aaron Alden Amy Jessie Anderson Andrea Axel Tara Chambler Clementine Daryl Dixon Merle Dixon Dwight Rosita Espinosa Lee Everett King Ezekiel Abraham Ford Gareth The Governor Gregory Beth Greene Hershel Greene Maggie Greene Carl Grimes Lori Grimes Rick Grimes Dale Horvath Morgan Jones Lilly Milton Mamet Caesar Martinez Deanna Monroe Paul `` Jesus '' Monroe Morales Michonne Negan Olivia The Prisoners Carol Peletier Sophia Peletier Eugene Porter Glenn Rhee Lizzie and Mika Samuels Gabriel Stokes Bob Stookey T - Dog Shane Walsh Sasha Williams Tyreese Williams Comics portal Fictional characters portal Horror fiction portal Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Eugene_Porter&oldid=825315978 '' Categories : Comics characters introduced in 2008 The Walking Dead characters Fictional schoolteachers Characters created by Robert Kirkman Hidden categories : Pages using deprecated image syntax Comics articles needing issue citations Articles with unsourced statements from November 2014 Articles with unsourced statements from February 2015 Talk Contents About Wikipedia Français Português Edit links This page was last edited on 12 February 2018 , at 18 : 29 . 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2025392644941556934

what is the exchange particle for strong nuclear force

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Nuclear_force&oldid=813917407

Nuclear force - wikipedia Nuclear force Jump to : navigation , search This article is about the force that holds nucleons together in a nucleus . For the force that holds quarks together in a nucleon , see Strong interaction . Not to be confused with weak nuclear force . Nuclear physics Nucleus Nucleons ( p , n ) Nuclear matter Nuclear force Nuclear structure Nuclear reaction Models of the nucleus ( show ) Liquid drop Nuclear shell model Interacting boson model Ab initio Nuclides ' classification ( show ) Isotopes -- equal Z Isobars -- equal A Isotones -- equal N Isodiaphers -- equal N − Z Isomers -- equal all the above Mirror nuclei -- Z ↔ N Stable Magic Even / odd Halo Nuclear stability ( show ) Binding energy p -- n ratio Drip line Island of stability Valley of stability Radioactive decay ( show ) Alpha α Beta β ( 2β , β ) K / L capture Isomeric ( Gamma γ Internal conversion ) Spontaneous fission Cluster decay Neutron emission Proton emission Decay energy Decay chain Decay product Radiogenic nuclide Nuclear fission ( show ) Spontaneous Products ( pair breaking ) Photofission Capturing processes ( show ) electron neutron ( s r ) proton ( p rp ) High energy processes ( show ) Spallation ( by cosmic ray ) Photodisintegration Nucleosynthesis and nuclear astrophysics ( show ) Nuclear fusion Processes : Stellar Big Bang Supernova Nuclides : Primordial Cosmogenic Artificial High energy nuclear physics ( show ) Quark -- gluon plasma RHIC LHC Scientists ( show ) Alvarez Becquerel Bethe A. Bohr N. Bohr Chadwick Cockcroft Ir. Curie Fr. Curie Pi. Curie Skłodowska - Curie Davisson Fermi Hahn Jensen Lawrence Mayer Meitner Oliphant Oppenheimer Proca Purcell Rabi Rutherford Soddy Strassmann Szilárd Teller Thomson Walton Wigner Force ( in units of 10,000 N ) between two nucleons as a function of distance as computed from the Reid potential ( 1968 ) . The spins of the neutron and proton are aligned , and they are in the S angular momentum state . The attractive ( negative ) force has a maximum at a distance of about 1 fm with a force of about 25,000 N. Particles much closer than a distance of 0.8 fm experience a large repulsive ( positive ) force . Particles separated by a distance greater than 1 fm are still attracted ( Yukawa potential ) , but the force falls as an exponential function of distance . Corresponding potential energy ( in units of MeV ) of two nucleons as a function of distance as computed from the Reid potential . The potential well is a minimum at a distance of about 0.8 fm . With this potential nucleons can become bound with a negative `` binding energy . '' The nuclear force ( or nucleon -- nucleon interaction or residual strong force ) is a force that acts between the protons and neutrons of atoms . Neutrons and protons , both nucleons , are affected by the nuclear force almost identically . Since protons have charge + 1 e , they experience an electric force that tends to push them apart , but at short range the attractive nuclear force is strong enough to overcome the electromagnetic force . The nuclear force binds nucleons into atomic nuclei . The nuclear force is powerfully attractive between nucleons at distances of about 1 femtometre ( fm , or 1.0 × 10 metres ) , but it rapidly decreases to insignificance at distances beyond about 2.5 fm . At distances less than 0.7 fm , the nuclear force becomes repulsive . This repulsive component is responsible for the physical size of nuclei , since the nucleons can come no closer than the force allows . By comparison , the size of an atom , measured in angstroms ( Å , or 1.0 × 10 m ) , is five orders of magnitude larger . The nuclear force is not simple , however , since it depends on the nucleon spins , has a tensor component , and may depend on the relative momentum of the nucleons . The nuclear force is not one of the fundamental forces of nature . The nuclear force plays an essential role in storing energy that is used in nuclear power and nuclear weapons . Work ( energy ) is required to bring charged protons together against their electric repulsion . This energy is stored when the protons and neutrons are bound together by the nuclear force to form a nucleus . The mass of a nucleus is less than the sum total of the individual masses of the protons and neutrons . The difference in masses is known as the mass defect , which can be expressed as an energy equivalent . Energy is released when a heavy nucleus breaks apart into two or more lighter nuclei . This energy is the electromagnetic potential energy that is released when the nuclear force no longer holds the charged nuclear fragments together . A quantitative description of the nuclear force relies on equations that are partly empirical . These equations model the internucleon potential energies , or potentials . ( Generally , forces within a system of particles can be more simply modeled by describing the system 's potential energy ; the negative gradient of a potential is equal to the vector force . ) The constants for the equations are phenomenological , that is , determined by fitting the equations to experimental data . The internucleon potentials attempt to describe the properties of nucleon -- nucleon interaction . Once determined , any given potential can be used in , e.g. , the Schrödinger equation to determine the quantum mechanical properties of the nucleon system . The discovery of the neutron in 1932 revealed that atomic nuclei were made of protons and neutrons , held together by an attractive force . By 1935 the nuclear force was conceived to be transmitted by particles called mesons . This theoretical development included a description of the Yukawa potential , an early example of a nuclear potential . Mesons , predicted by theory , were discovered experimentally in 1947 . By the 1970s , the quark model had been developed , by which the mesons and nucleons were viewed as composed of quarks and gluons . By this new model , the nuclear force , resulting from the exchange of mesons between neighboring nucleons , is a residual effect of the strong force . Contents ( hide ) 1 Description 1.1 Field strength 1.2 Nuclear Binding 2 History 3 The nuclear force as a residual of the strong force 4 Nucleon -- nucleon potentials 4.1 From nucleons to nuclei 4.2 Nuclear potentials 5 See also 6 References 7 Bibliography 8 Further reading Description ( edit ) While the nuclear force is usually associated with nucleons , more generally this force is felt between hadrons , or particles composed of quarks . At small separations between nucleons ( less than ~ 0.7 fm between their centers , depending upon spin alignment ) the force becomes repulsive , which keeps the nucleons at a certain average separation , even if they are of different types . This repulsion arises from the Pauli exclusion force for identical nucleons ( such as two neutrons or two protons ) . A Pauli exclusion force also occurs between quarks of the same type within nucleons , when the nucleons are different ( a proton and a neutron , for example ) . Field strength ( edit ) At distances larger than 0.7 fm the force becomes attractive between spin - aligned nucleons , becoming maximal at a center -- center distance of about 0.9 fm . Beyond this distance the force drops exponentially , until beyond about 2.0 fm separation , the force is negligible . Nucleons have a radius of about 0.8 fm . At short distances ( less than 1.7 fm or so ) , the attractive nuclear force is stronger than the repulsive Coulomb force between protons ; it thus overcomes the repulsion of protons within the nucleus . However , the Coulomb force between protons has a much greater range as it varies as the inverse square of the charge separation , and Coulomb repulsion thus becomes the only significant force between protons when their separation exceeds about 2 to 2.5 fm . The nuclear force has a spin - dependent component . The force is stronger for particles with their spins aligned than for those with their spins anti-aligned . If two particles are the same , such as two neutrons or two protons , the force is not enough to bind the particles , since the spin vectors of two particles of the same type must point in opposite directions when the particles are near each other and are ( save for spin ) in the same quantum state . This requirement for fermions stems from the Pauli exclusion principle . For fermion particles of different types , such as a proton and neutron , particles may be close to each other and have aligned spins without violating the Pauli exclusion principle , and the nuclear force may bind them ( in this case , into a deuteron ) , since the nuclear force is much stronger for spin - aligned particles . But if the particles ' spins are anti-aligned the nuclear force is too weak to bind them , even if they are of different types . The nuclear force also has a tensor component which depends on the interaction between the nucleon spins and the angular momentum of the nucleons , leading to deformation from a simple spherical shape . Nuclear binding ( edit ) To disassemble a nucleus into unbound protons and neutrons requires work against the nuclear force . Conversely , energy is released when a nucleus is created from free nucleons or other nuclei : the nuclear binding energy . Because of mass -- energy equivalence ( i.e. Einstein 's famous formula E = mc ) , releasing this energy causes the mass of the nucleus to be lower than the total mass of the individual nucleons , leading to the so - called `` mass defect '' . The nuclear force is nearly independent of whether the nucleons are neutrons or protons . This property is called charge independence . The force depends on whether the spins of the nucleons are parallel or antiparallel , as it has a non-central or tensor component . This part of the force does not conserve orbital angular momentum , which under the action of central forces is conserved . The symmetry resulting in the strong force , proposed by Werner Heisenberg , is that protons and neutrons are identical in every respect , other than their charge . This is not completely true , because neutrons are a tiny bit heavier , but it is an approximate symmetry . Protons and neutrons are therefore viewed as the same particle , but with different isospin quantum number . The strong force is invariant under SU ( 2 ) transformations , just as are particles with intrinsic spin . Isospin and intrinsic spin are related under this SU ( 2 ) symmetry group . There are only strong attractions when the total isospin is 0 , which is confirmed by experiment . Our understanding of the nuclear force is obtained by scattering experiments and the binding energy of light nuclei . A Feynman diagram of a strong proton -- neutron interaction mediated by a neutral pion . Time proceeds from left to right . The nuclear force occurs by the exchange of virtual light mesons , such as the virtual pions , as well as two types of virtual mesons with spin ( vector mesons ) , the rho mesons and the omega mesons . The vector mesons account for the spin - dependence of the nuclear force in this `` virtual meson '' picture . The nuclear force is distinct from what historically was known as the weak nuclear force . The weak interaction is one of the four fundamental interactions , and plays a role in such processes as beta decay . The weak force plays no role in the interaction of nucleons , though it is responsible for the decay of neutrons to protons and vice versa . History ( edit ) The nuclear force has been at the heart of nuclear physics ever since the field was born in 1932 with the discovery of the neutron by James Chadwick . The traditional goal of nuclear physics is to understand the properties of atomic nuclei in terms of the ' bare ' interaction between pairs of nucleons , or nucleon -- nucleon forces ( NN forces ) . Within months after the discovery of the neutron , Werner Heisenberg and Dmitri Ivanenko had proposed proton -- neutron models for the nucleus . Heisenberg approached the description of protons and neutrons in the nucleus through quantum mechanics , an approach that was not at all obvious at the time . Heisenberg 's theory for protons and neutrons in the nucleus was a `` major step toward understanding the nucleus as a quantum mechanical system . '' Heisenberg introduced the first theory of nuclear exchange forces that bind the nucleons . He considered protons and neutrons to be different quantum states of the same particle , i.e. , nucleons distinguished by the value of their nuclear isospin quantum numbers . One of the earliest models for the nucleus was the liquid drop model developed in the 1930s . One property of nuclei is that the average binding energy per nucleon is approximately the same for all stable nuclei , which is similar to a liquid drop . The liquid drop model treated the nucleus as a drop of incompressible nuclear fluid , with nucleons behaving like molecules in a liquid . The model was first proposed by George Gamow and then developed by Niels Bohr , Werner Heisenberg and Carl Friedrich von Weizsäcker . This crude model did not explain all the properties of the nucleus , but it did explain the spherical shape of most nuclei . The model also gave good predictions for the nuclear binding energy of nuclei . In 1934 , Hideki Yukawa made the earliest attempt to explain the nature of the nuclear force . According to his theory , massive bosons ( mesons ) mediate the interaction between two nucleons . Although , in light of quantum chromodynamics ( QCD ) , meson theory is no longer perceived as fundamental , the meson - exchange concept ( where hadrons are treated as elementary particles ) continues to represent the best working model for a quantitative NN potential . The Yukawa potential ( also called a screened Coulomb potential ) is a potential of the form V Yukawa ( r ) = − g 2 e − μ r r , ( \ displaystyle V_ ( \ text ( Yukawa ) ) ( r ) = - g ^ ( 2 ) ( \ frac ( e ^ ( - \ mu r ) ) ( r ) ) , ) where g is a magnitude scaling constant , i.e. , the amplitude of potential , μ ( \ displaystyle \ mu ) is the Yukawa particle mass , r is the radial distance to the particle . The potential is monotone increasing , implying that the force is always attractive . The constants are determined empirically . The Yukawa potential depends only on the distance between particles , r , hence it models a central force . Throughout the 1930s a group at Columbia University led by I.I. Rabi developed magnetic resonance techniques to determine the magnetic moments of nuclei . These measurements led to the discovery in 1939 that the deuteron also possessed an electric quadrupole moment . This electrical property of the deuteron had been interfering with the measurements by the Rabi group . The deuteron , composed of a proton and a neutron , is one of the simplest nuclear systems . The discovery meant that the physical shape of the deuteron was not symmetric , which provided valuable insight into the nature of the nuclear force binding nucleons . In particular , the result showed that the nuclear force was not a central force , but had a tensor character . Hans Bethe identified the discovery of the deuteron 's quadrupole moment as one of the important events during the formative years of nuclear physics . Historically , the task of describing the nuclear force phenomenologically was formidable . The first semi-empirical quantitative models came in the mid-1950s , such as the Woods -- Saxon potential ( 1954 ) . There was substantial progress in experiment and theory related to the nuclear force in the 1960s and 1970s . One influential model was the Reid potential ( 1968 ) . V Reid ( r ) = − 10.463 e − μ r μ r + 1650.6 e − 4 μ r μ r + 6484.2 e − 7 μ r μ r ( \ displaystyle V_ ( \ text ( Reid ) ) ( r ) = - 10.463 ( \ frac ( e ^ ( - \ mu r ) ) ( \ mu r ) ) + 1650.6 ( \ frac ( e ^ ( - 4 \ mu r ) ) ( \ mu r ) ) + 6484.2 ( \ frac ( e ^ ( - 7 \ mu r ) ) ( \ mu r ) ) ) In recent years , experimenters have concentrated on the subtleties of the nuclear force , such as its charge dependence , the precise value of the πNN coupling constant , improved phase shift analysis , high - precision NN data , high - precision NN potentials , NN scattering at intermediate and high energies , and attempts to derive the nuclear force from QCD . The nuclear force as a residual of the strong force ( edit ) An animation of the interaction . The colored double circles are gluons . Anticolors are shown as per this diagram ( larger version ) . The same diagram as that above with the individual quark constituents shown , to illustrate how the fundamental strong interaction gives rise to the nuclear force . Straight lines are quarks , while multi-colored loops are gluons ( the carriers of the fundamental force ) . Other gluons , which bind together the proton , neutron , and pion `` in - flight , '' are not shown . The nuclear force is a residual effect of the more fundamental strong force , or strong interaction . The strong interaction is the attractive force that binds the elementary particles called quarks together to form the nucleons ( protons and neutrons ) themselves . This more powerful force is mediated by particles called gluons . Gluons hold quarks together with a force like that of electric charge , but of far greater strength . Quarks , gluons and their dynamics are mostly confined within nucleons , but residual influences extend slightly beyond nucleon boundaries to give rise to the nuclear force . The nuclear forces arising between nucleons are analogous to the forces in chemistry between neutral atoms or molecules called London forces . Such forces between atoms are much weaker than the attractive electrical forces that hold the atoms themselves together ( i.e. , that bind electrons to the nucleus ) , and their range between atoms is shorter , because they arise from small separation of charges inside the neutral atom . Similarly , even though nucleons are made of quarks in combinations which cancel most gluon forces ( they are `` color neutral '' ) , some combinations of quarks and gluons nevertheless leak away from nucleons , in the form of short - range nuclear force fields that extend from one nucleon to another nearby nucleon . These nuclear forces are very weak compared to direct gluon forces ( `` color forces '' or strong forces ) inside nucleons , and the nuclear forces extend only over a few nuclear diameters , falling exponentially with distance . Nevertheless , they are strong enough to bind neutrons and protons over short distances , and overcome the electrical repulsion between protons in the nucleus . Sometimes , the nuclear force is called the residual strong force , in contrast to the strong interactions which arise from QCD . This phrasing arose during the 1970s when QCD was being established . Before that time , the strong nuclear force referred to the inter-nucleon potential . After the verification of the quark model , strong interaction has come to mean QCD . Nucleon -- nucleon potentials ( edit ) Two - nucleon systems such as the deuteron , the nucleus of a deuterium atom , as well as proton -- proton or neutron -- proton scattering are ideal for studying the NN force . Such systems can be described by attributing a potential ( such as the Yukawa potential ) to the nucleons and using the potentials in a Schrödinger equation . The form of the potential is derived phenomenologically ( by measurement ) , although for the long - range interaction , meson - exchange theories help to construct the potential . The parameters of the potential are determined by fitting to experimental data such as the deuteron binding energy or NN elastic scattering cross sections ( or , equivalently in this context , so - called NN phase shifts ) . The most widely used NN potentials are the Paris potential , the Argonne AV18 potential , the CD - Bonn potential and the Nijmegen potentials . A more recent approach is to develop effective field theories for a consistent description of nucleon -- nucleon and three - nucleon forces . Quantum hadrodynamics is an effective field theory of the nuclear force , comparable to QCD for color interactions and QED for electromagnetic interactions . Additionally , chiral symmetry breaking can be analyzed in terms of an effective field theory ( called chiral perturbation theory ) which allows perturbative calculations of the interactions between nucleons with pions as exchange particles . From nucleons to nuclei ( edit ) The ultimate goal of nuclear physics would be to describe all nuclear interactions from the basic interactions between nucleons . This is called the microscopic or ab initio approach of nuclear physics . There are two major obstacles to overcome before this dream can become reality : Calculations in many - body systems are difficult and require advanced computation techniques . There is evidence that three - nucleon forces ( and possibly higher multi-particle interactions ) play a significant role . This means that three - nucleon potentials must be included into the model . This is an active area of research with ongoing advances in computational techniques leading to better first - principles calculations of the nuclear shell structure . Two - and three - nucleon potentials have been implemented for nuclides up to A = 12 . Nuclear potentials ( edit ) A successful way of describing nuclear interactions is to construct one potential for the whole nucleus instead of considering all its nucleon components . This is called the macroscopic approach . For example , scattering of neutrons from nuclei can be described by considering a plane wave in the potential of the nucleus , which comprises a real part and an imaginary part . This model is often called the optical model since it resembles the case of light scattered by an opaque glass sphere . Nuclear potentials can be local or global : local potentials are limited to a narrow energy range and / or a narrow nuclear mass range , while global potentials , which have more parameters and are usually less accurate , are functions of the energy and the nuclear mass and can therefore be used in a wider range of applications . See also ( edit ) Physics portal Strong interaction Standard Model References ( edit ) This article needs additional citations for verification . Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . ( October 2007 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) ^ Jump up to : Reid , R.V. ( 1968 ) . `` Local phenomenological nucleon -- nucleon potentials '' . Annals of Physics. 50 : 411 -- 448 . Bibcode : 1968AnPhy ... 50 ... 411R . doi : 10.1016 / 0003 - 4916 ( 68 ) 90126 - 7 . Jump up ^ Kenneth S. Krane ( 1988 ) . Introductory Nuclear Physics . Wiley & Sons . ISBN 0 - 471 - 80553 - X . Jump up ^ Binding Energy , Mass Defect , Furry Elephant physics educational site , retr 2012 7 1 Jump up ^ Chapter 4 NUCLEAR PROCESSES , THE STRONG FORCE , M. Ragheb 1 / 30 / 2013 , University of Illinois Jump up ^ Povh , B. ; Rith , K. ; Scholz , C. ; Zetsche , F. ( 2002 ) . Particles and Nuclei : An Introduction to the Physical Concepts . Berlin : Springer - Verlag . p. 73 . ISBN 978 - 3 - 540 - 43823 - 6 . Jump up ^ Stern , Dr. Swapnil Nikam ( February 11 , 2009 ) . `` Nuclear Binding Energy '' . `` From Stargazers to Starships '' . NASA website . Retrieved 2010 - 12 - 30 . Jump up ^ Griffiths , David , Introduction to Elementary Particles Jump up ^ Heisenberg , W. ( 1932 ) . `` Über den Bau der Atomkerne . I '' . Z . Phys. 77 : 1 -- 11 . Bibcode : 1932ZPhy ... 77 ... 1H . doi : 10.1007 / BF01342433 . Jump up ^ Heisenberg , W. ( 1932 ) . `` Über den Bau der Atomkerne. II '' . Z . Phys. 78 ( 3 -- 4 ) : 156 -- 164 . Bibcode : 1932ZPhy ... 78 ... 156H . doi : 10.1007 / BF01337585 . Jump up ^ Heisenberg , W. ( 1933 ) . `` Über den Bau der Atomkerne . III '' . Z . Phys. 80 ( 9 -- 10 ) : 587 -- 596 . Bibcode : 1933ZPhy ... 80 ... 587H . doi : 10.1007 / BF01335696 . Jump up ^ Iwanenko , D.D. , The neutron hypothesis , Nature 129 ( 1932 ) 798 . Jump up ^ Miller A.I. Early Quantum Electrodynamics : A Sourcebook , Cambridge University Press , Cambridge , 1995 , ISBN 0521568919 , pp. 84 -- 88 . Jump up ^ Brown , L.M. ; Rechenberg , H. ( 1996 ) . The Origin of the Concept of Nuclear Forces . Bristol and Philadelphia : Institute of Physics Publishing . ISBN 0750303735 . ^ Jump up to : John S. Rigden ( 1987 ) . Rabi , Scientist and Citizen . New York : Basic Books , Inc . pp. 99 -- 114 . ISBN 9780674004351 . Retrieved May 9 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Kellogg , J.M. ; Rabi , I.I. ; Ramsey , N.F. ; Zacharias , J.R. ( 1939 ) . `` An electrical quadrupole moment of the deuteron '' . Physical Review . 55 : 318 -- 319 . Bibcode : 1939PhRv ... 55 ... 318K . doi : 10.1103 / physrev. 55.318 . Retrieved May 9 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Wiringa , R.B. ; Stoks , V.G.J. ; Schiavilla , R. ( 1995 ) . `` Accurate nucleon -- nucleon potential with charge - independence breaking '' . Physical Review C. 51 : 38 . arXiv : nucl - th / 9408016 . Bibcode : 1995PhRvC ... 51 ... 38W . doi : 10.1103 / PhysRevC. 51.38 . Bibliography ( edit ) Gerald Edward Brown and A.D. Jackson , The Nucleon -- Nucleon Interaction , ( 1976 ) North - Holland Publishing , Amsterdam ISBN 0 - 7204 - 0335 - 9 R. Machleidt and I. Slaus , `` The nucleon -- nucleon interaction '' , J. Phys . G 27 ( 2001 ) R69 ( topical review ) . E.A. Nersesov , Fundamentals of atomic and nuclear physics , ( 1990 ) , Mir Publishers , Moscow , ISBN 5 - 06 - 001249 - 2 P. Navrátil and W.E. Ormand , `` Ab initio shell model with a genuine three - nucleon force for the p - shell nuclei '' , Phys. Rev. C 68 , 034305 ( 2003 ) . Further reading ( edit ) Nuclear Forces Ruprecht Machleidt , Scholarpedia , 9 ( 1 ) : 30710 . doi : 10.4249 / scholarpedia. 30710 Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_force&oldid=813917407 '' Categories : Nuclear physics Quantum chromodynamics Force Hidden categories : Wikipedia articles needing clarification from August 2016 Articles needing additional references from October 2007 All articles needing additional references Talk Contents About Wikipedia বাংলা Беларуская Български Català Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto فارسی Fiji Hindi Français 한국어 Հայերեն हिन्दी Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska עברית Magyar Македонски മലയാളം नेपाल भाषा Norsk Norsk nynorsk پنجابی Polski Português Simple English Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska தமிழ் ไทย Türkçe Tiếng Việt ייִדיש 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 5 December 2017 , at 22 : 51 . 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where is the dead sea located in the world

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Dead_Sea&oldid=834273252

Dead Sea - wikipedia Dead Sea Jump to : navigation , search For the novel , see Dead Sea ( novel ) . Dead Sea ים המלח ‬ ( in Hebrew ) البحر الميت ( in Arabic ) A view of the sea from the Israeli shore Location Israel Jordan Palestine Coordinates 31 ° 30 ′ N 35 ° 30 ′ E  /  31.500 ° N 35.500 ° E  / 31.500 ; 35.500 Coordinates : 31 ° 30 ′ N 35 ° 30 ′ E  /  31.500 ° N 35.500 ° E  / 31.500 ; 35.500 Lake type Endorheic Hypersaline Primary inflows Jordan River Primary outflows None Catchment area 41,650 km ( 16,080 sq mi ) Basin countries Israel Jordan Palestine Max. length 50 km ( 31 mi ) ( northern basin only ) Max . width 15 km ( 9.3 mi ) Surface area 605 km ( 234 sq mi ) ( 2016 ) Average depth 199 m ( 653 ft ) Max . depth 298 m ( 978 ft ) ( elevation of deepest point , 728 m BSL ( below sea level ) , minus current surface elevation ) Water volume 114 km ( 27 cu mi ) Shore length 135 km ( 84 mi ) Surface elevation − 430.5 m ( − 1,412 ft ) ( 2016 ) References Shore length is not a well - defined measure . Play media Short video about the Dead Sea from the Israeli News Company The Dead Sea ( Hebrew : יָם הַמֶּלַח ‬ Yam ha - Melah lit . Sea of Salt ; Arabic : البحر الميت ‎ Al - Bahr al - Mayyit ) is a salt lake bordered by Jordan to the east and Israel and Palestine to the west . Its surface and shores are 430.5 metres ( 1,412 ft ) below sea level , Earth 's lowest elevation on land . The Dead Sea is 304 m ( 997 ft ) deep , the deepest hypersaline lake in the world . With a salinity of 342 g / kg , or 34.2 % , ( in 2011 ) , it is 9.6 times as salty as the ocean and one of the world 's saltiest bodies of water . This salinity makes for a harsh environment in which plants and animals can not flourish , hence its name . The Dead Sea is 50 kilometres ( 31 mi ) long and 15 kilometres ( 9 mi ) wide at its widest point . It lies in the Jordan Rift Valley , and its main tributary is the Jordan River . The Dead Sea has attracted visitors from around the Mediterranean basin for thousands of years . It was one of the world 's first health resorts ( for Herod the Great ) , and it has been the supplier of a wide variety of products , from asphalt for Egyptian mummification to potash for fertilisers . People also use the salt and the minerals from the Dead Sea to create cosmetics and herbal sachets . The Dead Seawater has a density of 1.24 kg / litre , which makes swimming similar to floating . The Dead Sea is receding at an alarming rate . Multiple canals and pipelines were proposed to reduce its recession , which had begun causing many problems . The Red Sea -- Dead Sea Water Conveyance project , carried out by Jordan , will provide water to neighbouring countries , while the brine will be carried to the Dead Sea to help stabilise its levels . The first phase of the project is scheduled to begin in 2018 and be completed in 2021 . Contents ( hide ) 1 Etymology and toponymy 2 Geography 3 Natural history 4 Climate 5 Chemistry 6 Putative therapies 6.1 Psoriasis 6.2 Rhinosinusitis 6.3 Osteoarthritis 7 Fauna and flora 8 Human settlement 9 Human history 9.1 Biblical period 9.2 Greek and Roman period 9.3 Byzantine period 9.4 Modern times 10 Tourism and leisure 10.1 British Mandate period 10.2 Israel 10.3 Jordan 10.4 West Bank 11 Chemical industry 11.1 British Mandate period 11.2 Israel 11.3 Jordan 11.4 West Bank 11.5 Extraction 12 Recession and environmental concerns 13 See also 14 References 15 Further reading 16 External links Etymology and toponymy In Hebrew , the Dead Sea is Yām ha - Melaḥ ( help info ) ( ים המלח ‬ ) , meaning `` sea of salt '' ( Genesis 14 : 3 ) . The Bible uses this term alongside two others : the Sea of the Arabah ( Yām ha - ' Ărāvâ ים הערבה ‬ ) , and the Eastern Sea ( Yām ha - Mizraḥî ים המזרחי ‬ ) . The designation `` Dead Sea '' never appears in the Bible . In prose sometimes the term Yām ha - Māvet ( ים המוות ‬ , `` sea of death '' ) is used , due to the scarcity of aquatic life there . In Arabic the Dead Sea is called al - Bahr al - Mayyit ( help info ) ( `` the Dead Sea '' ) , or less commonly baḥru lūṭa ( بحر لوط , `` the Sea of Lot '' ) . Another historic name in Arabic was the `` Sea of Zoʼar '' , after a nearby town in biblical times . The Greeks called it Lake Asphaltites ( Attic Greek ἡ Θάλαττα ἀσφαλτῖτης , hē Thálatta asphaltĩtēs , `` the Asphaltite sea '' ) . Geography Satellite photograph showing the location of the Dead Sea east of the Mediterranean Sea The Dead Sea is an endorheic lake located in the Jordan Rift Valley , a geographic feature formed by the Dead Sea Transform ( DST ) . This left lateral - moving transform fault lies along the tectonic plate boundary between the African Plate and the Arabian Plate . It runs between the East Anatolian Fault zone in Turkey and the northern end of the Red Sea Rift offshore of the southern tip of Sinai . It is here that the Upper Jordan River / Sea of Galilee / Lower Jordan River water system comes to an end . The Jordan River is the only major water source flowing into the Dead Sea , although there are small perennial springs under and around the Dead Sea , forming pools and quicksand pits along the edges . There are no outlet streams . The Mujib River , biblical Arnon , is one the larger water sources of the Dead Sea other than the Jordan . The Wadi Mujib valley , 420 m below the sea level in the southern of Jordan valley , is a biosphere reserve , with an area of 212 km ( 82 sq mi ) . Other more substantial sources are Wadi Darajeh ( Arabic ) / Nahal Dragot ( Hebrew ) , and Nahal Arugot . Wadi Hasa ( biblical Zered ) is another wadi flowing into the Dead Sea . Rainfall is scarcely 100 mm ( 4 in ) per year in the northern part of the Dead Sea and barely 50 mm ( 2 in ) in the southern part . The Dead Sea zone 's aridity is due to the rainshadow effect of the Judaean Mountains . The highlands east of the Dead Sea receive more rainfall than the Dead Sea itself . To the west of the Dead Sea , the Judaean mountains rise less steeply and are much lower than the mountains to the east . Along the southwestern side of the lake is a 210 m ( 700 ft ) tall halite formation called `` Mount Sodom '' . Natural History There are two contending hypotheses about the origin of the low elevation of the Dead Sea . The older hypothesis is that the Dead Sea lies in a true rift zone , an extension of the Red Sea Rift , or even of the Great Rift Valley of eastern Africa . A more recent hypothesis is that the Dead Sea basin is a consequence of a `` step - over '' discontinuity along the Dead Sea Transform , creating an extension of the crust with consequent subsidence . Around 3.7 million years ago , what is now the valley of the Jordan River , Dead Sea , and the northern Wadi Arabah was repeatedly inundated by waters from the Mediterranean Sea . The waters formed in a narrow , crooked bay that is called by geologists the Sedom Lagoon , which was connected to the sea through what is now the Jezreel Valley . The floods of the valley came and went depending on long - scale climate change . The Sedom Lagoon deposited beds of salt that eventually became 2.5 km ( 1.55 mi ) thick . Approximately two million years ago , the land between the Rift Valley and the Mediterranean Sea rose to such an extent that the ocean could no longer flood the area . Thus , the long lagoon became a landlocked lake . The Sedom Lagoon extended at its maximum from the Sea of Galilee in the north to somewhere around 50 km ( 30 mi ) south of the current southern end of the Dead Sea , and the subsequent lakes obviously never surpassed this expanse . The Hula Depression was never part of any of these water bodies due to its higher elevation and the high threshold of the Korazim block separating it from the Sea of Galilee basin . The first prehistoric lake to follow the Sedom Lagoon is named Lake Amora , followed by Lake Lisan and finally by the Dead Sea . The water levels and salinity of these lakes have either risen or fallen as an effect of the tectonic dropping of the valley bottom , and due to climate variation . As the climate became more arid , Lake Lisan finally shrank and became saltier , leaving the Dead Sea as its last remainder . Pebbles cemented with halite on the western shore of the Dead Sea near Ein Gedi . In prehistoric times , great amounts of sediment collected on the floor of Lake Amora . The sediment was heavier than the salt deposits and squeezed the salt deposits upwards into what are now the Lisan Peninsula and Mount Sodom ( on the southwest side of the lake ) . Geologists explain the effect in terms of a bucket of mud into which a large flat stone is placed , forcing the mud to creep up the sides of the bucket . When the floor of the Dead Sea dropped further due to tectonic forces , the salt mounts of Lisan and Mount Sodom stayed in place as high cliffs ( see salt dome ) . From 70,000 to 12,000 years ago , the lake 's level was 100 m ( 330 ft ) to 250 m ( 820 ft ) higher than its current level . This lake , Lake Lisan , fluctuated dramatically , rising to its highest level around 26,000 years ago , indicating a very wet climate in the Near East . Around 10,000 years ago , the lake 's level dropped dramatically , probably to even lower than today 's . During the last several thousand years , the lake has fluctuated approximately 400 m ( 1,300 ft ) , with some significant drops and rises . Current theories as to the cause of this dramatic drop in levels rule out volcanic activity ; therefore , it may have been a seismic event . Climate The Dead Sea 's climate offers year - round sunny skies and dry air . It has less than 50 millimetres ( 2 in ) mean annual rainfall and a summer average temperature between 32 and 39 ° C ( 90 and 102 ° F ) . Winter average temperatures range between 20 and 23 ° C ( 68 and 73 ° F ) . The region has weaker ultraviolet radiation , particularly the UVB ( erythrogenic rays ) . Given the higher atmospheric pressure , the air has a slightly higher oxygen content ( 3.3 % in summer to 4.8 % in winter ) as compared to oxygen concentration at sea level . Barometric pressures at the Dead Sea were measured between 1061 and 1065 hPa and clinically compared with health effects at higher altitude . ( This barometric measure is about 5 % higher than sea level standard atmospheric pressure of 1013.25 hPa , which is the global ocean mean or ATM . ) The Dead Sea affects temperatures nearby because of the moderating effect a large body of water has on climate . During the winter , sea temperatures tend to be higher than land temperatures , and vice versa during the summer months . This is the result of the water 's mass and specific heat capacity . On average , there are 192 days above 30C ( 86F ) annually . ( hide ) Climate data for Dead Sea , Sedom ( 390 m below sea level ) Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year Record high ° C ( ° F ) 26.4 ( 79.5 ) 30.4 ( 86.7 ) 33.8 ( 92.8 ) 42.5 ( 108.5 ) 45.0 ( 113 ) 46.4 ( 115.5 ) 47.0 ( 116.6 ) 44.5 ( 112.1 ) 43.6 ( 110.5 ) 40.0 ( 104 ) 35.0 ( 95 ) 28.5 ( 83.3 ) 47.0 ( 116.6 ) Average high ° C ( ° F ) 20.5 ( 68.9 ) 21.7 ( 71.1 ) 24.8 ( 76.6 ) 29.9 ( 85.8 ) 34.1 ( 93.4 ) 37.6 ( 99.7 ) 39.7 ( 103.5 ) 39.0 ( 102.2 ) 36.5 ( 97.7 ) 32.4 ( 90.3 ) 26.9 ( 80.4 ) 21.7 ( 71.1 ) 30.4 ( 86.7 ) Daily mean ° C ( ° F ) 16.6 ( 61.9 ) 17.7 ( 63.9 ) 20.8 ( 69.4 ) 25.4 ( 77.7 ) 29.4 ( 84.9 ) 32.6 ( 90.7 ) 34.7 ( 94.5 ) 34.5 ( 94.1 ) 32.4 ( 90.3 ) 28.6 ( 83.5 ) 23.1 ( 73.6 ) 17.9 ( 64.2 ) 26.1 ( 79 ) Average low ° C ( ° F ) 12.7 ( 54.9 ) 13.7 ( 56.7 ) 16.7 ( 62.1 ) 20.9 ( 69.6 ) 24.7 ( 76.5 ) 27.6 ( 81.7 ) 29.6 ( 85.3 ) 29.9 ( 85.8 ) 28.3 ( 82.9 ) 24.7 ( 76.5 ) 19.3 ( 66.7 ) 14.1 ( 57.4 ) 21.9 ( 71.4 ) Record low ° C ( ° F ) 5.4 ( 41.7 ) 6.0 ( 42.8 ) 8.0 ( 46.4 ) 11.5 ( 52.7 ) 19.0 ( 66.2 ) 23.0 ( 73.4 ) 26.0 ( 78.8 ) 26.8 ( 80.2 ) 24.2 ( 75.6 ) 17.0 ( 62.6 ) 9.8 ( 49.6 ) 6.0 ( 42.8 ) 5.4 ( 41.7 ) Average precipitation mm ( inches ) 7.8 ( 0.307 ) 9.0 ( 0.354 ) 7.6 ( 0.299 ) 4.3 ( 0.169 ) 0.2 ( 0.008 ) 0.0 ( 0 ) 0.0 ( 0 ) 0.0 ( 0 ) 0.0 ( 0 ) ( 0.047 ) 3.5 ( 0.138 ) 8.3 ( 0.327 ) 41.9 ( 1.65 ) Average precipitation days 3.3 3.5 2.5 1.3 0.2 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.4 1.6 2.8 15.6 Average relative humidity ( % ) 41 38 33 27 24 23 24 27 31 33 36 41 32 Source : Israel Meteorological Service Chemistry Halite deposits ( and teepee structure ) along the western Dead Sea coast . Beach pebbles made of halite ; western Dead Sea coast . With 34.2 % salinity ( in 2011 ) , it is one of the world 's saltiest bodies of water , though Lake Vanda in Antarctica ( 35 % ) , Lake Assal in Djibouti ( 34.8 % ) , Lagoon Garabogazköl in the Caspian Sea ( up to 35 % ) and some hypersaline ponds and lakes of the McMurdo Dry Valleys in Antarctica ( such as Don Juan Pond ( 44 % ) ) have reported higher salinities . Until the winter of 1978 -- 79 , when a major mixing event took place , the Dead Sea was composed of two stratified layers of water that differed in temperature , density , age , and salinity . The topmost 35 meters ( 115 ft ) or so of the Dead Sea had an average salinity of 342 parts per thousand ( in 2002 ) , and a temperature that swung between 19 ° C ( 66 ° F ) and 37 ° C ( 99 ° F ) . Underneath a zone of transition , the lowest level of the Dead Sea had waters of a consistent 22 ° C ( 72 ° F ) temperature and complete saturation of sodium chloride ( NaCl ) . Since the water near the bottom is saturated , the salt precipitates out of solution onto the sea floor . Beginning in the 1960s , water inflow to the Dead Sea from the Jordan River was reduced as a result of large - scale irrigation and generally low rainfall . By 1975 , the upper water layer was saltier than the lower layer . Nevertheless , the upper layer remained suspended above the lower layer because its waters were warmer and thus less dense . When the upper layer cooled so its density was greater than the lower layer , the waters mixed ( 1978 -- 79 ) . For the first time in centuries , the lake was a homogeneous body of water . Since then , stratification has begun to redevelop . The mineral content of the Dead Sea is very different from that of ocean water . The exact composition of the Dead Sea water varies mainly with season , depth and temperature . In the early 1980s , the concentration of ionic species ( in g / kg ) of Dead Sea surface water was Cl ( 181.4 ) , Br ( 4.2 ) , SO ( 0.4 ) , HCO ( 0.2 ) , Ca ( 14.1 ) , Na ( 32.5 ) , K ( 6.2 ) and Mg ( 35.2 ) . The total salinity was 276 g / kg . These results show that the composition of the salt , as anhydrous chlorides on a weight percentage basis , was calcium chloride ( CaCl ) 14.4 % , potassium chloride ( KCl ) 4.4 % , magnesium chloride ( MgCl ) 50.8 % and sodium chloride ( NaCl ) 30.4 % . In comparison , the salt in the water of most oceans and seas is approximately 85 % sodium chloride . The concentration of sulfate ions ( SO ) is very low , and the concentration of bromide ions ( Br ) is the highest of all waters on Earth . The salt concentration of the Dead Sea fluctuates around 31.5 % . This is unusually high and results in a nominal density of 1.24 kg / l . Anyone can easily float in the Dead Sea because of natural buoyancy . In this respect the Dead Sea is similar to the Great Salt Lake in Utah in the United States . An unusual feature of the Dead Sea is its discharge of asphalt . From deep seeps , the Dead Sea constantly spits up small pebbles and blocks of the black substance . Asphalt - coated figurines and bitumen - coated Neolithic skulls from archaeological sites have been found . Egyptian mummification processes used asphalt imported from the Dead Sea region . Putative therapies This article needs more medical references for verification or relies too heavily on primary sources . Please review the contents of the article and add the appropriate references if you can . Unsourced or poorly sourced material may be challenged and removed . ( March 2015 ) The Dead Sea area has become a location for health research and potential treatment for several reasons . The mineral content of the water , the low content of pollens and other allergens in the atmosphere , the reduced ultraviolet component of solar radiation , and the higher atmospheric pressure at this great depth each may have specific health effects . For example , persons experiencing reduced respiratory function from diseases such as cystic fibrosis seem to benefit from the increased atmospheric pressure . The region 's climate and low elevation have made it a popular center for assessment of putative therapies : Climatotherapy : Treatment which exploits local climatic features such as temperature , humidity , sunshine , barometric pressure and special atmospheric constituents Heliotherapy : Treatment that exploits the biological effects of the sun 's radiation Thalassotherapy : Treatment that exploits bathing in Dead Sea water Psoriasis Climatotherapy at the Dead Sea may be a therapy for psoriasis by sunbathing for long periods in the area due to its position below sea level and subsequent result that UV rays are partially blocked by the increased cloud cover over the Dead Sea . Rhinosinusitis Rhinosinusitis patients receiving Dead Sea saline nasal irrigation exhibited improved symptom relief compared to standard hypertonic saline spray in one study . Osteoarthritis Dead Sea mud pack therapy has been suggested to temporarily relieve pain in patients with osteoarthritis of the knees . According to researchers of the Ben Gurion University of the Negev , treatment with mineral - rich mud compresses can be used to augment conventional medical therapy . Panorama of the Dead Sea from the Mövenpick Resort , Jordan . Fauna and flora Dead Sea in the morning , seen from Masada The sea is called `` dead '' because its high salinity prevents macroscopic aquatic organisms , such as fish and aquatic plants , from living in it , though minuscule quantities of bacteria and microbial fungi are present . In times of flood , the salt content of the Dead Sea can drop from its usual 35 % to 30 % or lower . The Dead Sea temporarily comes to life in the wake of rainy winters . In 1980 , after one such rainy winter , the normally dark blue Dead Sea turned red . Researchers from Hebrew University of Jerusalem found the Dead Sea to be teeming with a type of alga called Dunaliella . Dunaliella in turn nourished carotenoid - containing ( red - pigmented ) halobacteria , whose presence caused the color change . Since 1980 , the Dead Sea basin has been dry and the algae and the bacteria have not returned in measurable numbers . In 2011 a group of scientists from Be'er Sheva , Israel and Germany discovered fissures in the floor of the Dead Sea by scuba diving and observing the surface . These fissures allow fresh and brackish water to enter the Dead Sea . They sampled biofilms surrounding the fissures and discovered numerous species of bacteria and archaea . Many animal species live in the mountains surrounding the Dead Sea . Hikers can see ibex , hares , hyraxes , jackals , foxes , and even leopards . Hundreds of bird species inhabit the zone as well . Both Jordan and Israel have established nature reserves around the Dead Sea . The delta of the Jordan River was formerly a jungle of papyrus and palm trees . The Jewish historian Flavius Josephus described Jericho as `` the most fertile spot in Judea '' . In Roman and Byzantine times , sugarcane , henna , and sycamore fig all made the lower Jordan valley wealthy . One of the most valuable products produced by Jericho was the sap of the balsam tree , which could be made into perfume . By the 19th century , Jericho 's fertility had disappeared . Human settlement There are several small communities near the Dead Sea . These include Ein Gedi , Neve Zohar and the Israeli settlements in the Megilot Regional Council : Kalya , Mitzpe Shalem and Avnat . There is a nature preserve at Ein Gedi , and several Dead Sea hotels are located on the southwest end at Ein Bokek near Neve Zohar . Highway 90 runs north - south on the Israeli side for a total distance of 565 km ( 351 mi ) from Metula on the Lebanese border in the north to its southern terminus at the Egyptian border near the Red Sea port of Eilat . Potash City is a small community on the Jordanian side of the Dead Sea , and others including Suweima . Highway 65 runs north - south on the Jordanian side from near Jordan 's northern tip down past the Dead Sea to the port of Aqaba . Human History Mount Sodom , Israel , showing the so - called `` Lot 's Wife '' pillar ( made of halite like the rest of the mountain ) A cargo boat on the Dead Sea as seen on the Madaba Map , from the 6th century AD Biblical period Dwelling in caves near the Dead Sea is recorded in the Hebrew Bible as having taken place before the Israelites came to Canaan , and extensively at the time of King David . Just northwest of the Dead Sea is Jericho . Somewhere , perhaps on the southeastern shore , would be the cities mentioned in the Book of Genesis which were said to have been destroyed in the time of Abraham : Sodom and Gomorra ( Genesis 18 ) and the three other `` Cities of the Plain '' , Admah , Zeboim and Zoar ( Deuteronomy 29 : 23 ) . Zoar escaped destruction when Abraham 's nephew Lot escaped to Zoar from Sodom ( Genesis 19 : 21 - 22 ) . Before the destruction , the Dead Sea was a valley full of natural tar pits , which was called the vale of Siddim . King David was said to have hidden from Saul at Ein Gedi nearby . In Ezekiel 47 : 8 - 9 there is a specific prophecy that the sea will `` be healed and made fresh '' , becoming a normal lake capable of supporting marine life . A similar prophecy is stated in Zechariah 14 : 8 , which says that `` living waters will go out from Jerusalem , half of them to the eastern sea ( likely the Dead Sea ) and half to the western sea ( the Mediterranean ) . '' Greek and Roman period Aristotle wrote about the remarkable waters . The Nabateans and others discovered the value of the globs of natural asphalt that constantly floated to the surface where they could be harvested with nets . The Egyptians were steady customers , as they used asphalt in the embalming process that created mummies . The Ancient Romans knew the Dead Sea as `` Palus Asphaltites '' ( Asphalt Lake ) . King Herod the Great built or rebuilt several fortresses and palaces on the western bank of the Dead Sea . The most famous was Masada , where in 70 CE a small group of Jewish zealots fled after the fall of the destruction of the Second Temple . The zealots survived until 73 CE , when a siege by the X Legion ended in the deaths by suicide of its 960 inhabitants . Another historically important fortress was Machaerus ( מכוור ) , on the eastern bank , where , according to Josephus , John the Baptist was imprisoned by Herod Antipas and died . Also in Roman times , some Essenes settled on the Dead Sea 's western shore ; Pliny the Elder identifies their location with the words , `` on the west side of the Dead Sea , away from the coast ... ( above ) the town of Engeda '' ( Natural History , Bk 5.73 ) ; and it is therefore a hugely popular but contested hypothesis today , that same Essenes are identical with the settlers at Qumran and that `` the Dead Sea Scrolls '' discovered during the 20th century in the nearby caves had been their own library . Josephus identified the Dead Sea in geographic proximity to the ancient Biblical city of Sodom . However , he referred to the lake by its Greek name , Asphaltites . Various sects of Jews settled in caves overlooking the Dead Sea . The best known of these are the Essenes of Qumran , who left an extensive library known as the Dead Sea Scrolls . The town of Ein Gedi , mentioned many times in the Mishna , produced persimmon for the temple 's fragrance and for export , using a secret recipe . `` Sodomite salt '' was an essential mineral for the temple 's holy incense , but was said to be dangerous for home use and could cause blindness . The Roman camps surrounding Masada were built by Jewish slaves receiving water from the towns around the lake . These towns had drinking water from the Ein Feshcha springs and other sweetwater springs in the vicinity . Byzantine period Intimately connected with the Judean wilderness to its northwest and west , the Dead Sea was a place of escape and refuge . The remoteness of the region attracted Greek Orthodox monks since the Byzantine era . Their monasteries , such as Saint George in Wadi Kelt and Mar Saba in the Judaean Desert , are places of pilgrimage . Modern times In the 19th century the River Jordan and the Dead Sea were explored by boat primarily by Christopher Costigan in 1835 , Thomas Howard Molyneux in 1847 , William Francis Lynch in 1848 , and John MacGregor in 1869 . The full text of W.F. Lynch 's 1949 book Narrative of the United States ' Expedition to the River Jordan and the Dead Sea is available online . Charles Leonard Irby and James Mangles travelled along the shores of the Dead Sea already in 1817 - 18 , but did n't navigate on its waters . World 's lowest ( dry ) point , Jordan , 1971 Explorers and scientists arrived in the area to analyze the minerals and research the unique climate . After the find of the `` Moabite Stone '' in 1868 on the plateau east of the Dead Sea , Moses Wilhelm Shapira and his partner Salim al - Khouri forged and sold a whole range of presumed `` Moabite '' antiquities , and in 1883 Shapira presented what is now known as the `` Shapira Strips '' , a supposedly ancient scroll written on leather strips which he claimed had been found near the Dead Sea . The strips were declared to be forgeries and Shapira took his own life in disgrace . In the late 1940s and early 1950s , hundreds of religious documents dated between 150 BCE and 70 CE were found in caves near the ancient settlement of Qumran , about one mile ( 1.6 kilometres ) inland from the northwestern shore of the Dead Sea ( presently in the West Bank ) . They became known and famous as the Dead Sea Scrolls . The world 's lowest roads , Highway 90 , run along the Israeli and West Bank shores of the Dead Sea , along with Highway 65 on the Jordanian side , at 393 m ( 1,289 ft ) below sea level . Tourism and leisure Ein Bokek , a resort on the Israeli shore British mandate period A golf course named for Sodom and Gomorrah was built by the British at Kalia on the northern shore . Israel The first major Israeli hotels were built in nearby Arad , and since the 1960s at the Ein Bokek resort complex . Israel has 15 hotels along the Dead Sea shore , generating total revenues of $291 million in 2012 . Most Israeli hotels and resorts on the Dead Sea are on a six - kilometre ( 3.7 - mile ) stretch of the southern shore . Jordan Kempinski Hotel , one of the many hotels on the Jordanian shore On the Jordanian side , nine international franchises have opened seaside resort hotels near the King Hussein Bin Talal Convention Center , along with resort apartments , on the eastern shore of the Dead Sea . The 9 hotels have boosted the Jordanian side 's capacity to 2,800 rooms . On November 22 , 2015 , the Dead Sea panorama road was included along with 40 archaeological locations in Jordan , to become live on Google Street View . West Bank The Palestinian Dead Sea Coast is about 40 kilometres ( 25 miles ) long . The World Bank estimates that a Palestinian Dead Sea tourism industry could generate $290 million of revenues per year and 2,900 jobs . However , Palestinians have been unable to obtain construction permits for tourism - related investments on the Dead Sea . According to the World Bank , Officials in the Palestinian Ministry of Tourism and Antiquities state that the only way to apply for such permits is through the Joint Committees established under the Oslo Agreement , but the relevant committee has not met with any degree of regularity since 2000 . Chemical industry The southern basin of the Dead Sea as of 1817 - 18 , with the Lisan Peninsula and its ford ( now named Lynch Strait ) . North is to the right . View of salt evaporation pans on the Dead Sea , taken in 1989 from the Space Shuttle Columbia ( STS - 28 ) . The southern half is separated from the northern half at what used to be the Lisan Peninsula because of the fall in level of the Dead Sea . View of the mineral evaporation ponds almost 12 years later ( STS - 102 ) . A northern and small southeastern extension were added and the large polygonal ponds subdivided . The dwindling water level of the Dead Sea British mandate period In the early part of the 20th century , the Dead Sea began to attract interest from chemists who deduced the sea was a natural deposit of potash ( potassium chloride ) and bromine . The Palestine Potash Company was chartered in 1929 , after its founder , Siberian Jewish engineer and pioneer of Lake Baikal exploitation , Moses Novomeysky , worked for the charter for over ten years . The first plant was on the north shore of the Dead Sea at Kalya and produced potash by solar evaporation of the brine . Employing Arabs and Jews , it was an island of peace in turbulent times . The company quickly grew into the largest industrial site in the Middle East , and in 1934 built a second plant on the southwest shore , in the Mount Sodom area , south of the ' Lashon ' region of the Dead Sea . Palestine Potash Company supplied half of Britain 's potash during World War II . Both plants were destroyed by the Jordanians in the 1948 Arab -- Israeli War . Israel The Dead Sea Works was founded in 1952 as a state - owned enterprise based on the remnants of the Palestine Potash Company . In 1995 , the company was privatized and it is now owned by Israel Chemicals . From the Dead Sea brine , Israel produces ( 2001 ) 1.77 million tons potash , 206,000 tons elemental bromine , 44,900 tons caustic soda , 25,000 tons magnesium metal , and sodium chloride . Israeli companies generate around US $3 billion annually from the sale of Dead Sea minerals ( primarily potash and bromine ) , and from other products that are derived from Dead Sea Minerals . Jordan On the Jordanian side of the Dead Sea , Arab Potash ( APC ) , formed in 1956 , produces 2.0 million tons of potash annually , as well as sodium chloride and bromine . The plant is located at Safi , South Aghwar Department , in the Karak Governorate . Jordanian Dead Sea mineral industries generate about $1.2 billion in sales ( equivalent to 4 percent of Jordan 's GDP ) . West Bank The Palestinian Dead Sea Coast is about 40 kilometres ( 25 miles ) long . The Palestinian economy is unable to benefit from Dead Sea chemicals due to restricted access , permit issues and the uncertainties of the investment climate . The World Bank estimates that a Palestinian Dead Sea chemicals industry could generate $918 m incremental value added per year , `` almost equivalent to the contribution of the entire manufacturing sector of Palestinian territories today '' . Extraction Both companies , Dead Sea Works Ltd. and Arab Potash , use extensive salt evaporation pans that have essentially diked the entire southern end of the Dead Sea for the purpose of producing carnallite , potassium magnesium chloride , which is then processed further to produce potassium chloride . The ponds are separated by a central dike that runs roughly north - south along the international border . The power plant on the Israeli side allows production of magnesium metal ( by a subsidiary , Dead Sea Magnesium Ltd . ) . Due to the popularity of the sea 's therapeutic and healing properties , several companies have also shown interest in the manufacturing and supplying of Dead Sea salts as raw materials for body and skin care products . Recession and environmental concerns The planned Red Sea -- Dead Sea Water Conveyance , whose first phase will begin construction in 2018 , will work towards stabilizing the falling levels of the Dead Sea . Since 1930 , when its surface was 1,050 km ( 410 sq mi ) and its level was 390 m ( 1,280 ft ) below sea level , the Dead Sea has been monitored continuously . In recent decades , the Dead Sea has been rapidly shrinking because of diversion of incoming water from the Jordan River to the north . The southern end is fed by a canal maintained by the Dead Sea Works , a company that converts the sea 's raw materials . From a water surface of 395 m ( 1,296 ft ) below sea level in 1970 it fell 22 m ( 72 ft ) to 418 m ( 1,371 ft ) below sea level in 2006 , reaching a drop rate of 1 m ( 3 ft ) per year . As the water level decreases , the characteristics of the Sea and surrounding region may substantially change . The Dead Sea level drop has been followed by a groundwater level drop , causing brines that used to occupy underground layers near the shoreline to be flushed out by freshwater . This is believed to be the cause of the recent appearance of large sinkholes along the western shore -- incoming freshwater dissolves salt layers , rapidly creating subsurface cavities that subsequently collapse to form these sinkholes . Gully in unconsolidated Dead Sea sediments exposed by recession of water levels . It was excavated by floods from the Judean Mountains in less than a year . In May 2009 at the World Economic Forum , Jordan announced its plans to construct the `` Jordan National Red Sea Development Project '' ( JRSP ) . This is a plan to convey seawater from the Red Sea near Aqaba to the Dead Sea . Water would be desalinated along the route to provide fresh water to Jordan , with the brine discharge sent to the Dead Sea for replenishment . The early planning called for developer and financier selection to be completed by year 's end , with detailed design to begin in early 2010 , and water delivery by 2017 . Israel expressed its support and will likely benefit from some of the water delivery to its Negev region . Some hydro - power will be collected near the Dead Sea from the dramatic change in elevation on the downhill side of the project . At a regional conference in July 2009 , officials expressed concern about the declining water levels . Some suggested industrial activities around the Dead Sea might need to be reduced . Others advised environmental measures to restore conditions such as increasing the volume of flow from the Jordan River to replenish the Dead Sea . Currently , only sewage and effluent from fish ponds run in the river 's channel . Experts also stressed the need for strict conservation efforts . They said agriculture should not be expanded , sustainable support capabilities should be incorporated into the area and pollution sources should be reduced . Year Water level ( m ) Surface ( km ) 1930 − 390 1050 1980 − 400 680 − 407 675 − 411 670 − 417 662 − 423 655 2016 − 430.5 605 Sources : Israel Oceanographic and Limnological Research , Haaretz , Jewish Virtual Library , Jordan Valley Authority . In October 2009 , the Jordanians announced accelerated plans to extract around 300 million cubic metres ( 11 billion cubic feet ) of water per year from the Red Sea , desalinate it for use as fresh water and send the waste water to the Dead Sea by tunnel , despite concerns about inadequate time to assess the potential environmental impact . According to Jordan 's minister for water , General Maysoun Zu'bi , this project could be considered as the first phase of the Red Sea -- Dead Sea Water Conveyance . In December 2013 , Israel , Jordan and the Palestinian Authority signed an agreement for laying a water pipeline to link the Red Sea with the Dead Sea . The pipeline will be 180 km ( 110 mi ) long and is estimated to take up to five years to complete . In January 2015 it was reported that the level of water is now dropping by 1 m ( 3 ft ) a year . On 27 November 2016 , it was announced that the Jordanian government is shortlisting five consortiums to implement the project . Jordan 's ministry of Water and Irrigation said that the $100 million first phase of the project will begin construction in the first quarter of 2018 , and will be completed by 2021 . Views in 1972 , 1989 , and 2011 compared See also Red Sea -- Dead Sea Water Conveyance Aral Sea Dead Sea Works Great Salt Lake List of drying lakes List of places on land with elevations below sea level Mediterranean -- Dead Sea Canal Benjamin Elazari Volcani World Discoveries III : Dead Sea References ^ Jump up to : `` Virtual Israel Experience : The Dead Sea '' . Jewish Virtual Library . Retrieved 21 January 2013 . ^ Jump up to : `` The Dead Sea Is Dying Fast : Is It Too Late to Save It , or Was It Always a Lost Cause ? '' . Haaretz. 7 October 2016 . Archived from the original on 22 December 2016 . ^ Jump up to : Dead Sea Data Summary 2015. Water Authority of Israel . The World Bank - ' The Red Sea - Dead Sea Water Conveyance Study Program ' - 2013 Archived 2013 - 09 - 15 at the Wayback Machine ... ^ Jump up to : `` Long - Term changes in the Dead Sea '' . Israel Oceanographic and Limnological Research - Israel Marine Data Center ( ISRAMAR ) . ^ Jump up to : The first article al - is unnecessary and usually not used . Jump up ^ `` Israel and Jordan Sign ' Historic ' $900 Million Deal to Save the Dead Sea '' . Newsweek . Jump up ^ Goetz , P.W. , ed. ( 1986 ) . `` The New Encyclopædia Britannica ( 15th ed . ) '' . 3 . Chicago : 937 . Jump up ^ RW McColl , ed. ( 2005 ) . Encyclopedia of world geography . Facts on File . p. 237 . ISBN 9780816072293 . Jump up ^ `` Dead Sea - Composition of Dead Sea Water '' . Archived from the original on 2013 - 11 - 04 . ^ Jump up to : `` 5 alliances shortlisted to execute Red - Dead 's phase I '' . The Jordan Times . 27 November 2016 . Retrieved 3 December 2016 . Jump up ^ David Bridger ; Samuel Wolk ( September 1976 ) . The New Jewish Encyclopedia . Behrman House , Inc. p. 109 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 87441 - 120 - 1 . Retrieved July 25 , 2011 . It was named the `` Dead Sea '' because of the fact that no living thing can exist there , since the water is extremely salty and bitter . Jump up ^ See bitumen and asphalt for more about asphaltite . Jump up ^ `` Springs and quicksand at the Dead Sea '' . Retrieved August 27 , 2008 . ^ Jump up to : Red Sea -- Dead Sea Water Conveyance Study ( RSDSC ) Program : Dead Sea Study , July 2010 , p. 64 Jump up ^ `` Mujib '' . UNESCO . Retrieved 7 May 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Dead Sea '' . Exact Me.org . Archived from the original on January 20 , 2013 . Retrieved January 21 , 2013 . ^ Jump up to : Mordechai Stein . `` The limnological history of late Pleistocene -- Holocene water bodies in the Dead Sea basin '' ( PDF ) . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on 2013 - 05 - 13 . ^ Jump up to : Uri Kafri ; Yoseph Yechieli ( 2010 ) . Groundwater Base Level Changes and Adjoining Hydrological Systems . Springer Science & Business Media . p. 123 . ISBN 978 - 3642139444 . Jump up ^ Geochemical Society ; Meteoritical Society ( 1971 ) . Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta . Pergamon Press . Retrieved April 12 , 2011 . Jump up ^ `` Natural Resources '' . Dead Sea Research Center . Retrieved 27 October 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Lowest Elevation : Dead Sea '' . Extreme Science . Retrieved May 22 , 2007 . Jump up ^ Kramer , MR ; Springer C ; Berkman N ; Glazer M ; Bublil M ; Bar - Yishay E ; Godfrey S ( March 1998 ) . `` Rehabilitation of hypoxemic patients with COPD at low altitude at the Dead Sea , the lowest place on earth '' ( PDF ) . Chest. 113 ( 3 ) : 571 -- 575 . doi : 10.1378 / chest. 113.3. 571 . PMID 9515826 . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on 2013 - 10 - 29 . PMID 9515826 Jump up ^ `` Climatological Averages for Dead Sea '' . IMS . Archived from the original on June 7 , 2011 . Retrieved June 9 , 2011 . Jump up ^ `` Averages and Records for several places in Israel '' . Israel Meteorological Service . June 2011 . Archived from the original on 2010 - 09 - 14 . ^ Jump up to : `` Dead Sea Canal '' . American.edu. 1996 - 12 - 09 . Archived from the original on May 22 , 2009 . Retrieved May 5 , 2009 . Jump up ^ I. Steinhorn , In Situ Salt Precipitation at the Dead Sea , Limnol . Oceanogr. 28 ( 3 ) , 1983 , 580 - 583 Jump up ^ Bein , A. ; O. Amit ( 2007 ) . `` The evolution of the Dead Sea floating asphalt blocks : simulations by pyrolisis '' . Journal of Petroleum Geology . Journal of Petroleum Geology. 2 ( 4 ) : 439 -- 447 . doi : 10.1111 / j. 1747 - 5457.1980. tb00971. x . Jump up ^ Niemi , Tina M. , Zvi Ben - Avraham and Joel Gat , eds. , The Dead Sea : the lake and its setting , 1997 , Oxford University Press , p. 251 ISBN 978 - 0 - 19 - 508703 - 1 Jump up ^ J. Rullkötter ; A. Nissenbaum ( December 1988 ) . `` Dead sea asphalt in Egyptian mummies : Molecular evidence '' . Naturwissenschaften. 75 ( 12 ) : 618 . Bibcode : 1988NW ... 75 ... 618R . doi : 10.1007 / BF00366476 . Jump up ^ `` Asthma , Cystic Fibrosis , Chronic Obstructive Lung Disease '' . Dead Sea Research Center . Retrieved May 22 , 2007 . Jump up ^ Cohen , Arnon D. ; Van ‐ Dijk , Dina ; Naggan , Lechaim ; Vardy , Daniel A. ( 2005 ) . `` Effectiveness of climatotherapy at the Dead Sea for psoriasis vulgaris : A community - oriented study introducing the Beer Sheva Psoriasis Severity Score '' . Dermatological Treatment . 16 ( 5 -- 6 ) : 308 -- 313 . doi : 10.1080 / 09546630500375841 . Jump up ^ S. Halevy ; et al. `` Dead sea bath salt for the treatment of psoriasis vulgaris : a double - blind controlled study '' . 9 ( 3 ) . Journal of the European Academy of Dermatology and Venereology : 237 -- 242 . Jump up ^ Michael Friedman ; Ramakrishnan Vidyasagar ; Ninos Joseph ( June 2006 ) . A Randomized , Prospective , Double - Blind Study on the Efficacy of Dead Sea Salt Nasal Irrigations. 116 . The Laryngoscope . pp. 878 -- 882 . doi : 10.1097 / 01. mlg. 0000216798.10007. 76 . Jump up ^ Flusser , Daniel ; Abu - Shakra , Mahmoud ; Friger , Michael ; Codish , Shlomi ; Sukenik , Shaul ( August 2002 ) . `` Therapy With Mud Compresses for Knee Osteoarthritis : Comparison of Natural Mud Preparations With Mineral - Depleted Mud '' ( PDF ) . 8 ( 4 ) . Journal of Clinical Rheumatology : 197 -- 203 . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on 2011 - 08 - 16 . Jump up ^ `` PLOS ONE '' . Jump up ^ `` Asphaltites examples from ancient sources '' . Wordnik.com . Retrieved 2013 - 08 - 22 . Jump up ^ Josephus , Antiquities of the Jews 18.119 . Jump up ^ Josephus. `` 9 '' . Antiquities of the Jews . 1 . Jump up ^ Found today in the Shrine of the Book at the Israel Museum of Jerusalem Jump up ^ `` Sodomite salt could cause blindness '' . Archived from the original on 2009 - 08 - 15 . Jump up ^ A synagogue mosaic floor ( circa 100 BCE ) at Ein Gedi repeats the Mishna , portraying a curse on whoever reveals the town 's secret persimmon recipe . Papyrus parchments found in caves near the Dead Sea document the vast amount of cultivated land in the area , especially persimmon trees , but also olive and date trees Jump up ^ `` History of the Dead Sea - Discover the Dead Sea with Us ! '' . 1 July 2016 . Jump up ^ `` ' The unfortunate Costigan ' , first surveyor of the Dead Sea '' . 25 February 2013 . ^ Jump up to : World Bank , Poverty Reduction and Economic Management Department , Area C and the Future of the Palestinian Economy , October 2 , 2013 Jump up ^ `` Dead Sea , Aqaba hotels packed during Eid Al Fitr holiday '' . The Jordan Times . 10 July 2016 . Retrieved 12 July 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Google Street View '' . Jump up ^ `` Wealth From The Dead Sea '' . Popular Mechanics . Chicago : Hearst Magazines . 54 ( 5 ) : 794 -- 798 . November 1930 . Jump up ^ Hurlbert , Stuart H. ( 6 December 2012 ) . `` Saline Lakes V : Proceedings of the Vth International Symposium on Inland Saline Lakes , held in Bolivia , 22 -- 29 March 1991 '' . Springer Science & Business Media -- via Google Books . Jump up ^ Schechter , Asher ( 14 April 2013 ) . `` Who Really Owns the Dead Sea ? '' -- via Haaretz . Jump up ^ `` Overview of Middle East Water Resources_Dead Sea '' . Jewish Virtual Library . December 1998 . Retrieved 31 May 2014 . Jump up ^ C. Klein ; A. Flohn . Contribution to the Knowledge in the Fluctuations of the Dead Sea Level . 38 . Theoretical and Applied Climatology . pp. 151 -- 156 , 1987 . Jump up ^ M. Abelson ; Y . Yechieli ; O. Crouvi ; G. Baer ; D. Wachs ; A. Bein ; V. Shtivelman ( 2006 ) . Evolution of the Dead Sea Sinkholes in . special paper 401 . Geological Society of America . pp. 241 -- 253 . Jump up ^ Ehud Zion Waldoks ( July 8 , 2009 ) . ( tp://www.jpost.com/Features/Article.aspx?id=148034 `` Back from the Dead ? '' ) . The Jerusalem Post . Jump up ^ `` Water level of the Dead Sea '' . Jewish Virtual Library . Retrieved 31 May 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Water level and surface area of the Dead Sea '' . Jewish Virtual Library . Retrieved 31 May 2014 . Jump up ^ Eng . Sa'ad Abu Hammour , JVA . `` River Basin Management '' ( PDF ) . Jordan Valley Authority . Retrieved 31 May 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Jordan to refill shrinking Dead Sea '' . Daily Telegraph . 10 October 2009 . Jump up ^ Sherwood , Harriet ( 2013 - 12 - 09 ) . `` Dead Sea neighbours agree to pipeline to pump water from Red Sea '' . The Guardian . Jump up ^ Catholic Online . `` Dead Sea Dying : Levels of salt water are dropping by three feet annually '' . Jump up ^ `` The Dead Sea : Image of the Day '' . Further reading The World Bank - ' The Red Sea - Dead Sea Water Conveyance Study Program ' - 2013 , and source of basic data on the Dead Sea . Yehouda Enzel , et al. , eds ( 2006 ) New Frontiers in Dead Sea Paleoenvironmental Research , Geological Society of America , ISBN 0 - 8137 - 2401 - 5 Niemi , Tina M. , Ben - Avraham , Z. , and Gat , J. , eds. , 1997 , The Dead Sea : The Lake and Its Setting : N.Y. , Oxford University Press , 286 p . 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4106540 - 2 NDL : 00636059 SELIBR : 143283 SUDOC : 027708403 VIAF : 239922660 Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dead_Sea&oldid=834273252 '' Categories : Dead Sea Endorheic lakes of Asia Extreme points of Earth Bodies of water of Jordan Lakes of the Great Rift Valley Lakes of Israel Catholic pilgrimage sites Sacred lakes Shrunken lakes Hebrew Bible geography Lakes of the West Bank Saline lakes Lowest points Israel -- Jordan border Borders of the West Bank International lakes of Asia Hidden categories : Webarchive template wayback links All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from December 2017 Articles with permanently dead external links Articles with dead external links from December 2016 Wikipedia pages under 30 - 500 editing restriction Articles with Hebrew - language external links Articles containing Arabic - language text Articles with Arabic - language external links Coordinates on Wikidata Articles containing Hebrew - 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where did harvey originate and when did it become an official hurricane

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Hurricane_Harvey&oldid=810568621

Hurricane Harvey - wikipedia Hurricane Harvey Jump to : navigation , search For other storms of the same name , see Tropical Storm Harvey . Hurricane Harvey Category 4 major hurricane ( SSHWS / NWS ) Hurricane Harvey at peak intensity , prior to landfall in southern Texas on August 25 Formed August 17 , 2017 ( 2017 - 08 - 17 ) Dissipated September 3 , 2017 ( 2017 - 09 - 03 ) ( Extratropical after September 1 ) Highest winds 1 - minute sustained : 130 mph ( 215 km / h ) Lowest pressure 938 mbar ( hPa ) ; 27.7 inHg Fatalities 63 direct , 28 indirect Damage $198.63 billion ( 2017 USD ) ( Costliest tropical cyclone on record ) Areas affected Windward Islands , Suriname , Guyana , Nicaragua , Honduras , Belize , Cayman Islands , Yucatán Peninsula , Southern and Eastern United States ( especially Texas , Louisiana ) Part of the 2017 Atlantic hurricane season Hurricane Harvey was the costliest tropical cyclone on record , inflicting nearly $200 billion in damage , breaking the previous record set by Hurricane Katrina , primarily from widespread flooding in the Houston metropolitan area . It was the first major hurricane to make landfall in the United States since Wilma in 2005 , ending a record 12 - year span in which no hurricanes made landfall at such an intensity in the country . In a four - day period , many areas received more than 40 inches ( 100 cm ) of rain as the system slowly meandered over eastern Texas and adjacent waters , causing catastrophic flooding . With peak accumulations of 64.58 in ( 164.0 cm ) , Harvey was the wettest tropical cyclone on record in the United States . The resulting floods inundated hundreds of thousands of homes , displaced more than 30,000 people , and prompted more than 17,000 rescues . The eighth named storm , third hurricane , and the first major hurricane of the extremely active 2017 Atlantic hurricane season , Harvey developed from a tropical wave to the east of the Lesser Antilles , reaching tropical storm status on August 17 . The storm crossed through the Windward Islands on the following day , passing just south of Barbados and later near Saint Vincent . Upon entering the Caribbean Sea , Harvey began to weaken due to moderate wind shear and degenerated into a tropical wave north of Colombia early on August 20 . The remnants were monitored for regeneration as it continued west - northwestward across the Caribbean and the Yucatán Peninsula , before redeveloping over the Bay of Campeche on August 23 . Harvey then began to rapidly intensify on August 24 , regaining tropical storm status and becoming a hurricane later that day . While the storm moved generally northwest , Harvey 's intensification phase stalled slightly overnight from August 24 -- 25 ; however , Harvey soon resumed strengthening and quickly became a major hurricane and attained Category 4 intensity later that day . Hours later , Harvey made landfall near Rockport , Texas , at peak intensity . Afterwards , rapid weakening ensued , and Harvey had downgraded to a tropical storm as it stalled near the coastline of the state , dropping torrential and unprecedented amounts of rainfall over the Lone Star state . On August 28 , it emerged back over the Gulf of Mexico , strengthening slightly before making a third and final landfall in Louisiana on August 29 . As Harvey drifted inland , it quickly weakened again as it became extratropical on September 1 , before dissipating two days later . Harvey caused at least 91 confirmed deaths : 1 in Guyana , and 90 in the United States . Total damage from the hurricane is estimated at $198.63 billion , making it the costliest natural disaster ever in the United States . Contents ( hide ) 1 Meteorological history 1.1 Formation and initial degeneration ( Caribbean ) 1.2 Regeneration , peak intensity , and stalling ( Gulf of Mexico ) 1.3 Final landfall and dissipation ( Eastern United States ) 2 Preparations 2.1 Caribbean and Latin America 2.2 United States 2.2. 1 Video briefings by officials 2.2. 2 Texas 2.2. 3 Louisiana 3 Effects in the Caribbean and Latin America 4 Effects in the United States 4.1 Texas 4.1. 1 Landfall area 4.1. 2 Houston metropolitan area flooding 4.1. 3 Deep East Texas and Beaumont -- Port Arthur area 4.2 Louisiana 4.3 Elsewhere 4.4 Energy production 4.5 Sports 5 Aftermath 5.1 Texas 5.2 Economic loss estimates 5.3 Federal Government response 5.4 Non-governmental organization response 5.5 Foreign government response 5.6 Health and environmental hazards in flood waters 6 Environmental factors 6.1 Urban development 6.2 Subsidence 6.3 Climate change 7 See also 8 Notes 9 References 10 External links Meteorological history ( edit ) Map plotting the track and intensity of the storm according to the Saffir -- Simpson scale . Formation and initial degeneration ( Caribbean ) ( edit ) Early on August 13 , the National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) began monitoring a area of low pressure on the western coast of Africa . Amid favorable environmental conditions , the wave was expected to merge with a broad tropical wave to its west , southwest of Cape Verde and gradually organize thereafter . Instead , the two disturbances remained separate , with the broad trough continuing westward and the tropical wave moving farther north , eventually becoming Potential Tropical Cyclone Ten . On August 17 , shower and thunderstorm activity in association with the trough began to show signs of organization , while high - resolution satellite showed an increasingly defined low - level circulation . As such , the NHC initiated advisories on a potential tropical cyclone , allowing tropical storm watches and warnings to be hoisted for portions of the Lesser Antilles . An Air Force Reserve Hurricane Hunter aircraft deployed to the disturbance later that afternoon found a well - defined center and tropical storm - force winds , prompting the NHC to upgrade it to Tropical Storm Harvey at 21 : 00 UTC . Following its designation , the cyclone moved swiftly westward into the Caribbean Sea under the influence of an expansive ridge of high pressure to its north . An environment of moderate wind shear complicated the weather of the storm 's intensity , with global forecast models suggesting dissipation in the central Caribbean , whereas statistical and hurricane models suggested the potential for Harvey to be near hurricane strength in later days . Over the next day , the storm changed little in structure , remaining poorly organized with its low - level center on the eastern edge of associated deep convection . Harvey 's presentation began to deteriorate early on August 19 ; its convective pattern became elongated while the circulation became less defined . In fact , a reconnaissance aircraft was unable to find a loosely - closed circulation at 850 mb ( 4,781 ft ) , though it did locate one at lower levels . Harvey was downgraded to a tropical depression at 21 : 00 UTC on August 19 ; six hours later , based on continued data from a reconnaissance aircraft , it was declared an open tropical wave . The remnants of Harvey as a tropical wave , over the Gulf of Honduras on August 21 , within the shadow of a total solar eclipse . Early on August 20 , the NHC began monitoring the remnants of Harvey for redevelopment . Although the effects of strong upper - level winds and dry air were expected to limit development in the near - term , conditions were expected to become more conducive to tropical storm and hurricane conditions when the disturbance entered the northwestern Caribbean Sea , and especially in the Bay of Campeche . Despite an increase in convective organization , the disturbance still lacked a well - defined center as it approached the Yucatán Peninsula . While traversing inland , satellite images and surface observations indicated that the circulation became better defined . Regeneration , peak intensity , and stalling ( Gulf of Mexico ) ( edit ) A reconnaissance aircraft investigating the remnants of Harvey around 15 : 00 UTC on August 23 indicated that it once again acquired a well - defined center , and the NHC upgraded it to a tropical depression accordingly . The system began to slowly consolidate amid an increasingly favorable environment , attaining tropical storm intensity by 06 : 00 UTC on August 24 . Later that morning , Harvey began to undergo rapid intensification as an eye developed and its central pressure quickly fell . By 17 : 00 UTC , the storm was upgraded to the third hurricane of the season . Slight entrainment of dry air slowed the intensification process , however , by the next day , Harvey was able to quickly strengthen into a Category 3 major hurricane by 19 : 00 UTC . Further deepening occurred as the storm approached the coast of Texas , with Harvey becoming a Category 4 hurricane at 23 : 00 UTC , based on reconnaissance aircraft data . Around 03 : 00 UTC on August 26 , the hurricane made landfall at peak intensity at Rockport with winds of 135 mph ( 215 km / h ) and an atmospheric pressure of 938 mbar ( 27.7 inHg ) . Harvey became the first major hurricane to make landfall in the United States since Wilma in 2005 and the strongest in terms of wind speed to hit the country since Charley in 2004 . It was the first hurricane to strike Texas since Hurricane Ike in 2008 , the first major hurricane in the state since Bret in 1999 , and the strongest in Texas since Carla in 1961 . Harvey as a hurricane on August 24 After striking land , the storm moved over the Copano Bay and made a second landfall in Texas just north of Holiday Beach at 06 : 00 UTC on August 26 as a Category 3 hurricane . Afterwards , rapid weakening ensued as its speed slowed dramatically to a crawl , and Harvey weakened to a tropical storm at 18 : 00 UTC on August 26 . For about two days the storm stalled just inland , dropping very heavy rainfall and causing widespread flash flooding . Harvey 's center drifted back towards the southeast , positioning itself near or just off the Texas coast at Matagorda by 15 : 00 UTC on August 28 . Once offshore , convection blossomed and allowed the once - exposed low - level circulation to become obscured . An Air Force reconnaissance plane investigating the system during the afternoon of August 29 found that maximum winds had increased to 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) . Around 09 : 00 UTC the next morning , Harvey made its third and final landfall just west of Cameron , Louisiana , with winds of 45 mph ( 75 km / h ) . Final landfall and dissipation ( eastern United States ) ( edit ) The system continued north and then north - northeast , weakening to a tropical depression over central Louisiana around 00 : 00 UTC on August 30 . Associated convection with Harvey became focused north of the center and along a warm front on September 1 , indicating that the system transitioned into a post-tropical cyclone by 15 : 00 UTC that day . However , Harvey 's remnants continued moving northeastward , while slowly weakening . Late on September 2 , the WPC issued its final advisory on Harvey 's remnant low , while it was located over Ohio . Harvey 's remnants continued to drift northward , before being absorbed by another low pressure system north of Lake Erie , late on September 3 . Preparations ( edit ) Caribbean and latin America ( edit ) Tropical Storm Harvey in the Eastern Caribbean on August 18 Tropical cyclone warnings and watches for the Windward Islands were issued starting at 15 : 00 UTC on August 17 , about six hours before Harvey developed . At that time , a tropical storm watch was posted for Dominica , while a tropical storm warning became in effect in Barbados , Martinique , Saint Lucia , and Saint Vincent and the Grenadines . All watches and warnings were discontinued by late on August 18 , as the storm continued westward into the Caribbean . In Honduras , a green alert was issued for the Atlántida , Islas de la Bahía , Colón , Cortés , Gracias a Dios , Olancho , and Yoro departments . About 8 inches ( 20 cm ) of precipitation was expected along the coast , while inland areas were forecast to receive 2.76 to 3.15 in ( 7.0 to 8.0 cm ) of rain . As the remnants of Harvey approached Mexico , the Civil Protection Secretary of the state of Campeche issued a blue alert , indicting minimal danger . When Harvey redeveloped at 15 : 00 UTC on August 23 , the Government of Mexico issued a tropical storm watch in Tamaulipas from Boca De Catan to the mouth of the Rio Grande . The watch remained in effect until 21 : 00 UTC on August 25 , after it became evident that the storm no longer posed a significant threat to that area . United States ( edit ) FEMA worked with the Coast Guard , Customs and Border Protection , and Immigration and Customs Enforcement to prepare for the storm and its aftermath . The agency placed disaster response teams on standby at emergency posts in Austin , Texas , and Baton Rouge , Louisiana . Video briefings by officials ( edit ) Play media Comments from the White House ( begin at 25 : 50 ) Play media Comments from National Weather Service director Louis Uccellini Play media Shelter in place briefing by FEMA Play media Comments by the Governor of Texas Texas ( edit ) Upon the NHC resuming advisories for Harvey at 15 : 00 UTC on August 23 , a hurricane watch was issued in Texas from Port Mansfield to San Luis Pass , while a tropical storm watch was posted from Port Mansfield south to the mouth of the Rio Grande and from San Luis Pass to High Island . Additionally , a storm surge watch became in effect from Port Mansfield to High Island . Additional watches and warnings were posted in these areas at 09 : 00 UTC on August 24 , with a hurricane warning from Port Mansfield to Matagorda ; a tropical storm warning from Matagorda to High Island ; a hurricane watch and tropical storm warning from Port Mansfield to the Rio Grande ; a storm surge warning from Port Mansfield to San Luis Pass ; and a storm surge from Port Mansfield to the Rio Grande . The watches and warnings were adjusted accordingly after Harvey moved inland and began weakening , with the warning discontinued at 15 : 00 UTC on August 26 . By 09 : 00 UTC on the following day , only a tropical storm warning and a storm surge warning remained in effect from Port O'Connor to Sargent . However , watches and warnings were re-issued as Harvey began to re-emerge into the Gulf of Mexico , and beginning at 15 : 00 UTC on August 28 , a tropical storm warning was in effect for the entire Gulf Coast of Texas from High Island northward . Governor Greg Abbott declared a state of emergency for 30 counties on August 23 , while mandatory evacuations were issued for Brazoria , Calhoun , Jackson , Refugio , San Patricio , and Victoria counties , as well as parts of Matagorda County . On August 26 , Governor Abbott added an additional 20 counties to the state of emergency declaration . Furthermore , the International Charter on Space and Major Disasters was activated by the USGS on behalf of the Governor 's Texas Emergency Management Council , including the Texas Division of Emergency Management , thus providing for humanitarian satellite coverage . Louisiana ( edit ) In Louisiana , Governor John Bel Edwards declared a state of emergency for the entire state . A mandatory evacuation was ordered in Cameron Parish for the cities of Big Lake , Cameron , Creole , Grand Chenier , Hackberry , Holly Beach , and Johnson Bayou . Additionally , a voluntary evacuation was ordered in Vermilion Parish for low - lying areas south of State Highway 14 . The Louisiana National Guard prepared about 500,000 sandbags and emergency boats and high - water - rescue vehicles were placed on standby should flooding occur . In New Orleans , there were concerns about whether or not the city 's drainage system could handle a heavy rainfall event , with only 105 of the 120 water pumps being operational and some power turbines being out of service . The city 's public schools , as well as six universities and a medical school , closed on August 29 . As Harvey began re-emerging into the Gulf of Mexico on August 28 , the tropical storm warning in Texas from Mesquite Bay to High Island was extended eastward into Louisiana to the community of Cameron at 12 : 00 UTC , while a tropical storm watch was issued from Cameron to Intracoastal City . Effects in the Caribbean and latin America ( edit ) Winds left residents throughout Barbados without electricity , with a majority of outages occurring in Christ Church , Saint Joseph , Saint Lucy , and Saint Michael provinces . Flooding washed one house off its foundation , while water entered some houses , forcing some people to evacuate . Bridges in Saint Andrew and Saint Joseph were damaged . Additionally , a fuel depot in Speightstown was flooded . Winds deroofed a church . In Saint Vincent and the Grenadines , nine homes were flooded and four others experienced wind damage . Also , a tree fell on a school , damaging the building . Blocked drains in Port Elizabeth resulted in more than 15 businesses being flooded . A total of 15 people were housed in shelters after the storm . Strong winds and heavy rainfall also affected Suriname and Guyana . In the former , high winds in the capital city of Paramaribo caused roof damage to the Presidential Palace and two homes , while the Torarica Hotel and Casino suffered structural impact . Additionally , four dwellings were deroofed in Commewijne and three others lost their roofs in Wanica ; in the latter , the Ministry of Social Affairs building was damaged by falling trees . In Guyana , the village of Jawalla bore the brunt of the storm . Four homes were demolished , while five other residences and two shops were damaged . Several public buildings were also damaged , including the community center , the village council buildings , the nursery , and public schools . A 29 - year - old woman died after her house collapsed on her . Effects in the United States ( edit ) Texas ( edit ) Flooding in Port Arthur , Texas , on August 31 Throughout Texas , more than 300,000 people were left without electricity and billions of dollars of property damage was sustained . As of November 1 , at least 89 fatalities have been confirmed , most of which were drownings . By August 29 , 2017 approximately 13,000 people had been rescued across the state while an estimated 30,000 were displaced . The refinery industry capacity was reduced , and oil and gas production was affected in the Gulf of Mexico and inland Texas . On Monday , various news outlets announced the closure of oil refineries ahead of Hurricane Harvey , creating an artificial fuel shortage . Panicked , motorists waited in long lines . Consequently , gas stations through the state were forced to close due to the rush . More than 20 percent of refining capacity was affected . More than 48,700 homes were affected by Harvey throughout the state , including over 1,000 that were completely destroyed and more than 17,000 that sustained major damage ; approximately 32,000 sustained minor damage . Nearly 700 businesses were damaged as well . Texas Department of Public Safety stated more than 185,000 homes were damaged and 9,000 destroyed . Landfall area ( edit ) Play media Coast Guard video during an overflight from Port Aransas to Port O'Connor , Texas , Aug. 26 , 2017 Making landfall as a Category 4 , Harvey inflicted tremendous damage across Aransas County . Wind gusts were observed up to 132 mph ( 212 km / h ) near Port Aransas . In Rockport , entire blocks were leveled by the hurricane 's winds . The city 's courthouse was severely damaged when a cargo trailer was hurled into it , coming to a stop halfway through the structure . The gymnasium of the Rockport - Fulton High School lost multiple walls while the school itself suffered some damage . A Fairfield Inn in the city was severely damaged . One person died in a house fire in the city , unable to be rescued due to the extreme weather conditions . As of August 28 , an estimated 30 -- 40 people remain unaccounted for across Aransas County , including 9 in Rockport . Nearly every structure in Port Aransas suffered damage . By the afternoon of August 26 , more than 20 in ( 51 cm ) of rain had fallen in the Corpus Christi metropolitan area . All of Victoria was left without water and most had no power . Houston metropolitan area flooding ( edit ) Many locations in the Houston metropolitan area observed at least 30 in ( 76 cm ) of precipitation , with a maximum of 64.58 in ( 164.0 cm ) in Nederland . This makes Harvey the wettest tropical cyclone on record for both Texas and the United States , surpassing the previous rainfall record held by Tropical Storm Amelia . The local National Weather Service office in Houston observed all - time record daily rainfall accumulations on both August 26 and 27 , measured at 14.4 in ( 37 cm ) and 16.08 in ( 40.8 cm ) respectively . Due to the amount of rain accumulated from Harvey , the National Weather Service added 2 new colors to the rain index representing around 50 % of the maximum rainfall dropped by Harvey . Multiple flash flood emergencies were issued in the Houston area by the National Weather Service beginning the night of August 26 . In Pearland , a suburb south of Houston , a report was made of 9.92 '' of rainfall in 90 minutes . The 39.11 in ( 99.3 cm ) of rain in August made the month the wettest ever recorded in Houston since record keeping began in 1892 , more than doubling the previous record of 19.21 in ( 48.8 cm ) in June 2001 . The storm surge peaked at 6 feet at Port Lavaca , reducing outflow of rainwater from land to sea . During the storm , more than 800 Houston area flights were canceled , including 704 at George Bush Intercontinental Airport and 123 at William P. Hobby Airport . Both airports eventually closed . Several tornadoes were spawned in the area , one of which damaged or destroyed the roofs of dozens of homes in Sienna Plantation . As of August 29 , 14 fatalities have been confirmed from flooding in the Houston area , including 6 from the same family who died when their van was swept off a flooded bridge . A police officer drowned while trying to escape rising waters . Enlarged map of rainfall from the hurricane in the Houston and Beaumont metropolitan areas in southeast Texas . Areas in yellow indicate accumulations in excess of 40 in ( 1,000 mm ) . An estimated 25 -- 30 percent of Harris County -- roughly 444 mi ( 1,150 km ) of land -- was submerged . Play media U.S. Navy Sailors conduct a search and rescue mission above a residence in Beaumont , Texas Late on August 27 , a mandatory evacuation was issued for all of Bay City as model projections indicated the downtown area would be inundated by 10 ft ( 3.0 m ) of water . Flooding was anticipated to cut off access to the city around 1 : 00 p.m. CDT on August 28 . Evacuations took place in Conroe on August 28 following release of water from the Lake Conroe dam . On the morning on August 29 , a levee along Columbia Lakes in Brazoria County was breached , prompting officials to urgently request for everyone in the area to evacuate . On August 28 , the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers began controlled water releases from Addicks and Barker Reservoirs in the Buffalo Bayou watershed in an attempt to manage flood levels in the immediate area . According to the local Corps commander , `` It 's going to be better to release the water through the gates directly into Buffalo Bayou as opposed to letting it go around the end and through additional neighborhoods and ultimately into the bayou . '' At the time the releases started , the reservoirs had been rising at more than 6 inches ( 15 cm ) per hour . Many people began evacuating the area , fearing a levee breach . Despite attempts to alleviate the water rise , the Addicks Reservoir reached capacity on the morning of August 29 and began spilling out . The NASA Johnson Space Center was closed to employees and visitors due to the flooding until September 5 . Only the critical mission control staff remain and reside in the control rooms to monitor procedures of the International Space Station . Deep east Texas and Beaumont -- Port Arthur area ( edit ) `` Anyone who chooses to not ( evacuate ) can not expect to be rescued and should write their social security numbers in permanent marker on their arm so their bodies can be identified . The loss of life and property is certain . GET OUT OR DIE ! '' -- Jacques Blanchette , Tyler County Emergency Management The Beaumont -- Port Arthur metropolitan area also experienced torrential precipitation , including 32.55 in ( 82.7 cm ) of rainfall in Beaumont . Rising waters of the Neches River caused the city to lose service from its main pump station , as well as its secondary water source in Hardin County , cutting water supply to the city for an unknown amount of time . Flooding to the north and east of the Houston area resulted in mandatory evacuations for portions of Liberty , Jefferson , and Tyler counties , while Jasper and Newton counties were under a voluntary evacuation . One death occurred in Beaumont when a woman exited her disabled vehicle , but was swept away . In Port Arthur , the mayor stated that the entire city was submerged by water . Hundreds of displaced residents went to the Robert A. `` Bob '' Bowers Civic Center for shelter , but they were evacuated again after the building began to flood . Water entered at least several hundreds of homes in Jefferson County . Louisiana ( edit ) Heavy rainfall extended eastward into Louisiana , with the state recording up to 14.88 in ( 37.8 cm ) of precipitation near the town of Iowa . In the town of Lake Charles , water reached 4 ft ( 1.2 m ) in height , with homes flooded and hundreds of people forced to evacuate in one neighborhood alone . Throughout the state , about 500 people were rescued by August 28 , while 269 people went to a shelter in southwest Louisiana , about 200 of whom were rescued from their homes . An EF2 tornado near Evangeline damaged four homes , one of which was destroyed . The tornado also damaged fences , a motorcycle , a pickup truck , and toppled three electrical poles . Elsewhere ( edit ) Map of the total rainfall from Hurricane Harvey in the United States . Satellite image of Hurricane Harvey 's remnants over the Eastern US , on September 2 . In Alabama , a tornado in the vicinity of Reform damaged two homes and destroyed a barn along State Route 17 , while four people were hospitalized for their injuries . A possible tornado in Lamar County near Kennedy caused damage to trees and roofs . In Tennessee , more than 19,000 people lost electricity in Memphis . Low - lying streets in the area were inundated with water . One indirect death occurred in Memphis due to a weather - related head - on collision of a car and a tractor trailer on Interstate 40 . Heavy rainfall in Nashville inundated a number of roads and flooded an apartment complex , resulting in the evacuation of 13 people . Overall , about 50 people in the city evacuated from flooded areas . Energy production ( edit ) See also : 2017 Arkema plant explosion Energy production in the Gulf of Mexico declined in the wake of Harvey by approximately 21 % -- 378,633 barrels per day of the 1.75 million barrels of oil produced each day . Natural gas production declined by about 25.71 % -- 827.89 million metric standard cubic meters per day ( MMSCFD ) . The Eagle Ford Rock Formation ( shale oil and gas ) in southern Texas reduced production by 300,000 to 500,000 bpd , according to the Texas Railroad Commission . Many energy - related ports and terminals are closed , delaying about fourteen crude oil tankers . About 2.25 million bpd of refining capacity was offline for several days ; that is about 12 % of total US capacity , with refineries affected at Corpus Christi , and later Port Arthur and Beaumont , and Lake Charles , Louisiana . The price of Brent crude versus West Texas Intermediate crude oil achieved a split of U.S. $ 5 . Two ExxonMobil refineries had to be shut down following related storm damage and releases of hazardous pollutants . Two oil storage tanks owned by Burlington Resources Oil and Gas collectively spilled 30,000 gallons of crude in DeWitt County . An additional 8,500 gallons of wastewater was spilled in the incidents . On August 30 , the CEO of Arkema warned one of its chemical plants in Crosby , Texas , could explode or be subject to intense fire due to the loss of `` critical refrigeration '' of materials . All workers at the facility and residents within 1.5 mi ( 2.4 km ) were evacuated . Eight of the plant 's nine refrigeration units failed without power , enabling the stored chemicals to decompose and become combustible . Two explosions occurred around 2 : 00 a.m. on August 31 ; 21 emergency personnel were briefly hospitalized . Due to the shutdown in refineries , gas prices did see an increase nationwide . However , the increase was not as extensive as Hurricane Katrina due to the development of more fuel - efficient vehicles as well as fracking technology having been refined since Katrina to allow oil drilling in shale areas such as the Marcellus Formation . Additionally , Harvey 's impact coincided with Labor Day Weekend , which sees a traditional increase in gas prices due to the heavy travel for that weekend . Nonetheless , the spike brought the highest gas prices in two years . Sports ( edit ) In the aftermath of the storm , the Houston Astros began wearing this patch during the 2017 season in support of the storm 's victims in Houston . They eventually went on to win the World Series . The flooding in Houston from the storm required the traditional Governor 's Cup National Football League preseason game between the Dallas Cowboys and the Houston Texans scheduled for August 31 to be moved from NRG Stadium in Houston to AT&T Stadium in Arlington , Texas . The game was later cancelled to allow the Houston Texans players to return to Houston after the storm . In addition , the Houston Astros were forced to move their August 29 -- 31 series with the Texas Rangers from Minute Maid Park in Houston to Tropicana Field in St. Petersburg , Florida ; ironically , just two weeks later , Hurricane Irma would force the stadium 's regular tenants , the Tampa Bay Rays , to move three home games to Citi Field in New York City . In the aftermath , the Houston Astros began to wear patches which had the logo of the team with the word `` Strong '' on the bottom of the patch , as well as promoting the hashtag Houston Strong , prominently displaying them as the Astros won the 2017 World Series . Manager A.J. Hinch has stated in an interview that the team was n't just playing for a title , but to help boost moral support for the city . The annual Texas Kickoff game that was to feature BYU and LSU to kick off the 2017 college football season was moved to the Mercedes - Benz Superdome in New Orleans , Louisiana . The NCAA FBS football game between Houston and UTSA was postponed due to the aftermath of the storm . It was originally scheduled for September 2 at the Alamodome in San Antonio and is expected to be rescheduled . The Houston Dynamo rescheduled a planned Major League Soccer match against Sporting Kansas City on August 26 to October 11 . The Houston Dash of the National Women 's Soccer League rescheduled their August 27 match against the North Carolina Courage to a date that has not been announced . Both teams moved their training camps to Toyota Stadium in Frisco , Texas ( near Dallas ) while preparing for their next matches ; the Dash 's match the following week , against the Seattle Reign , will be played in Frisco , with all proceeds from ticket sales benefiting an American Red Cross relief fund for hurricane victims . The Dynamo and Major League Soccer also donated a combined $1 million into the hurricane relief fund , while also opening BBVA Compass Stadium to accept donated supplies for processing and distribution . Athletic events were rescheduled as far away as Kentucky , where the storm 's remnants were expected to cause heavy rains on September 1 , interfering with Friday night high school football . More than 50 high schools in the state moved games that had been scheduled for Friday to either Thursday or Saturday . Aftermath ( edit ) Play media President Trump participating in a tour of the Emergency Operations Center , video from the White House Interview with Sylvester Turner and Al Sharpton on September 1st 2017 -- from MSNBC Damage by Harvey to a marina in Rockport , Texas , on August 28 , 2017 Texas ( edit ) Houston Mayor Sylvester Turner imposed a mandatory curfew on August 29 from 12 a.m. to 5 a.m. local time until further notice . He cited looting as the primary reason for the curfew . On August 29 , President Trump , First Lady Melania Trump , and U.S. Senators John Cornyn and Ted Cruz toured damage in the Corpus Christi metropolitan area . President Trump made a formal request for $5.95 billion in federal funding on August 31 for affected areas , the vast majority of which would go to FEMA . Texas Governor Greg Abbott deployed the state 's entire National Guard for search and rescue , recovery , and clean up operations due to the devastating damage caused by the storm and resulting floods . Other states ' National Guard 's have offered assistance , with several having already been sent . Meanwhile , the United States Immigration and Customs Enforcement assigned approximately 150 employees from around the country to assist with disaster relief efforts , while stating that no immigration enforcement operations would be conducted . Approximately 32,000 people were displaced in shelters across the state by August 31 . The George R. Brown Convention Center , the state 's largest shelter , reached capacity with 8,000 evacuees . The NRG Center opened as a large public shelter accordingly . More than 210,000 people registered with FEMA for disaster assistance . The Cajun Navy , an informal organization of volunteers with boats from Louisiana , deployed to Texas to assist in high - water rescues . The Houston Independent School District announced that all students on any of the district 's campuses would be eligible for free lunch throughout the 2017 -- 18 school year . The Federal Department of Education eased financial aid rules and procedures for those affected by Harvey , giving schools the ability to waive paperwork requirements ; loan borrowers were given more flexibility in managing their loan payments . A 36 - year - old inmate sentenced to death for a 2003 murder was granted a temporary reprieve as a result of Harvey , as his legal team was based in Harris County , an area heavily affected by the hurricane . By August 30 , corporations across the nation collectively donated more than $72 million to relief efforts , with 42 companies donating at least $1 million . Professional athletic teams , their players , and managers provided large donations to assist victims of the storm . The Houston Astros pledged $4 million to relief along with all proceeds from their home game raffles . Houston Rockets owner Leslie Alexander also donated $4 million to the cause . A fundraiser established by Houston Texans defensive lineman J.J. Watt exceeded $37 million . The Texas Rangers and Tennessee Titans both provided $1 million , while the New England Patriots pledged to match up to $1 million in donations to the Red Cross . Multiple Hollywood celebrities also pitched in , collectively donating more than $10 million , with Sandra Bullock providing the largest single donation of $1 million . Leonardo DiCaprio provided $1 million to the United Way Harvey Recovery Fund through his foundation . President Donald Trump reportedly donated $1 million to 12 charities involved in relief efforts . Rachael Ray provided donations totaling $1 million to animal shelters across the Houston area . Costliest U.S. Atlantic hurricanes Cost refers to total estimated property damage Rank Hurricane Season Damage Harvey 2017 7011198000000000000 ♠ $198 billion Katrina 2005 7011108000000000000 ♠ $108 billion Sandy 2012 7010714000000000000 ♠ $71.4 billion Ike 2008 7010295200000000000 ♠ $29.5 billion 5 Andrew 7010265000000000000 ♠ $26.5 billion 6 Wilma 2005 7010210070000000000 ♠ $21 billion 7 Ivan 7010188200000000000 ♠ $18.8 billion 8 Irene 2011 7010156000000000000 ♠ $15.6 billion 9 Charley 7010151130000000000 ♠ $15.1 billion 10 Rita 2005 7010120370000000000 ♠ $12 billion Source : National Hurricane Center Economic loss estimates ( edit ) Moody 's Analytics initially estimated the total economic cost of the storm at $81 billion to $108 billion or more ; most of the economic losses are damage to homes and commercial property . USA Today reported an AccuWeather estimate of $190 billion , released August 31 . On September 3 , Texas state governor Greg Abbott estimated that damages will be between $150 billion and $180 billion , surpassing the $120 billion that it took to rebuild New Orleans after Katrina . According to weather analytics firm Planalytics , lost revenue to Houston area retailers and restaurants alone will be approximately $1 billion . The Houston area controls 4 % of the spending power in the United States . In September 2017 , the Insurance Council of Texas estimated the total insured losses from Hurricane Harvey at $19 billion . This figure represents $11 billion in flood losses insured by the National Flood Insurance Program ( NFIP ) , $3 billion in `` insured windstorm and other storm - related property losses '' ; and about $4.75 billion in insured flood losses of private and commercial vehicles . In early November 2017 , Ball State University compiled a preliminary damage report for Hurricane Harvey , with the total costs reaching at least $198.63 billion ( 2017 USD ) . This makes Hurricane Harvey the costliest tropical cyclone on record , surpassing Hurricane Katrina . A significant portion of the storm 's damages are uninsured losses . Regular homeowner insurance policies generally exclude coverage for flooding , as the NFIP underwrites most flood insurance policies in the US . Although the purchase of flood insurance is obligatory for federally guaranteed mortgages for homes within the 100 - year flood plain , enforcement of the requirement is difficult and many homes , even within the 100 - year flood plain , lack flood insurance . In Harris County , Texas -- which includes the city of Houston -- only 15 % of homes have flood insurance policies issued by the NFIP . Participation in the NFIP is higher , but still low , in neighboring Galveston ( 41 % ) , Brazoria ( 26 % ) , and Chambers Counties ( 21 % ) . Homeowners sued authorities after reservoir releases damaged homes . Federal Government response ( edit ) President Trump signs H.R. 601 into effect providing $15 billion in disaster relief for hurricane victims On September 8 , President Donald Trump signed into law H.R. 601 , which among other spending actions designated $15 billion for Hurricane Harvey relief . Non-governmental organization response ( edit ) The American Red Cross , Salvation Army , United Methodist Committee on Relief ( UMCOR ) United States Equestrian Federation , Humane Society of the United States , Knights of Columbus , Catholic Charities USA , AmeriCares , Operation BBQ relief , many celebrities , and many other charitable organizations provided help to the victims of the storm . Anarchists ( including Antifa ) also provided relief . Business aviation played a part in the rescue efforts , providing support during the storm as well as relief flights bringing in suppliers in the immediate aftermath . Volunteers from amateur radio 's emergency service wing , the Amateur Radio Emergency Service , provided communications in American Red Cross shelters in South Texas . Many corporations also contributed to relief efforts . Operation BBQ relief had the help from several local individuals and businesses kick off the support of providing meals for volunteers and victims . Smokers , pallets of wood , and another company came up with the pounds of pork to kick off the support effort . Although Operation BBQ relief has been in effect since May 2011 with the 2011 Joplin tornado , they estimate the Houston 2017 relief project to be their biggest ever . Operation BBQ relief vendors volunteering for the Houston flood relief estimates that they will serve at least 450,000 meals . On August 27 , 2017 it was estimated that Operation BBQ relief will be expecting 25,000 to 30,000 meals a day . On August 27 , 2017 KSL - TV , KSL Newsradio , FM100. 3 , and 103.5 The Arrow created a fundraiser to help Texas residents impacted by Hurricane Harvey . Because of an anonymous donor willing to match $2 for every $1 raised up to a total of $100,000 , Peter Huntsman also agreed to match donations up to $100,000 . The combined total of $200,000 was met by August 31 , 2017 . Their new goal is $1 million . Foreign Government response ( edit ) Singapore dispatched Boeing CH - 47 Chinook helicopters from the Republic of Singapore Air Force to areas affected by the hurricane for humanitarian operations , working alongside the Texas National Guard . Israel pledged $1 million in relief funds for restoration of non-state run communal infrastructure . Mexico sent volunteers from the Mexican Red Cross , firemen from Coahuila , and rescue teams from Guanajuato to Houston to assist in relief . Mexico later rescinded their commitment for aid after Hurricane Katia made landfall on Mexico 's Gulf Coast , on September 9 , 2017 . Venezuela offered $5 million through the state - owned Citgo Petroleum , which operates a refinery in Corpus Christi . Health and environmental hazards in flood waters ( edit ) The floodwaters contain a number of hazards to the environment and human health . The Houston Health Department stated that `` millions of contaminants '' were present in floodwaters . These include E. coli and coliform bacteria ; measurements of colony - forming units showed the concentrations were so high that there were risks of contracting flesh - eating disease from the water . Houston officials stated that the Houston drinking water and sewer systems were intact ; however , `` hundreds of thousands of people across the 38 Texas counties affected by Hurricane Harvey use private wells , according to an estimate by Louisiana State University researchers , and those people must fend for themselves . '' Additionally , Harris County , which includes Houston , contains a large number of Superfund - designed brownfield sites that contain a wide variety of toxins and carcinogens . Two Superfund sites in Corpus Christi were flooded . Environmental factors ( edit ) Houston 's very flat topography makes flooding a problem . ( Simulated - color image ) The geography of Houston places it in a low - lying part of the Gulf Coastal Plain , and its clay - based soils provide poor drainage . The climate of Houston brings very heavy rainfall , which together with tidal flood events means that there have been repeated floods in the city ever since its founding in 1836 , though the flood control district founded in 1947 , aided by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers , managed to prevent statewide flooding for over fifty years . More recently , residents died in `` historic flooding '' in May 2015 , and in the April 2016 `` tax day floods '' . There is a tendency for storms to move very slowly over the region , and drop huge amounts of rain over an extended period , as occurred during Tropical Storm Claudette in 1979 , and Tropical Storm Allison in 2001 . The area is a very flat flood plain at shallow gradient , slowly draining rainwater through an intricate network of channels and bayous to the sea . The main waterways , the San Jacinto River and the Buffalo Bayou , meander slowly , laden with mud , and have little capacity for carrying storm water . Urban development ( edit ) Houston has seen rapid urban development ( urban sprawl ) , with absorbent prairie and wetlands replaced by hard surfaces which rapidly shed storm water , overwhelming the drainage capacity of the rivers and channels . Between 1992 and 2010 , almost 25,000 acres of wetlands were lost , decreasing the detention capacity of the region by four billion gallons . However , Harvey was estimated to have dropped more than fifteen trillion gallons of water in the area . The Katy Prairie in western Harris County , which once helped to absorb floodwaters in the region , has been reduced to one quarter of its previous size in the last several decades due to suburban development , and one analysis discovered that more than 7,000 housing units have been built within the 100 - year floodplain in Harris County since 2010 . Subsidence ( edit ) Extraction of oil and groundwater from underground aquifers leaves unsupported voids resulting in ground collapse , a process called subsidence . Houston itself is in a very large subsidence bowl , with smaller bowls within that area showing greater subsidence : in some cases as much as 9 feet ( 2.7 m ) . These result in drainage systems no longer having the required gradient to operate efficiently , so storm water drains more slowly . The coastline near Houston has seen sea level increasing by 6 inches ( 15 cm ) in recent decades due to subsidence combined with the effects of climate change . Climate change ( edit ) See also : Tropical cyclone § Climate change The Gulf of Mexico is known for hurricanes in August , so their incidence alone can not be attributed to global warming , but the warming climate does influence certain attributes of storms . Studies in this regard show that storms tend to intensify more rapidly prior to landfall . Weather events are due to multiple factors , and so can not be said to be caused by one precondition , but climate change affects aspects of extreme events , and very likely worsened some of the impacts of Harvey . In a briefing , the World Meteorological Organization stated that the quantity of rainfall from Harvey had very likely been increased by climate change . The relationship between climate change and the frequency of hurricanes ( or tropical cyclones ) is still unclear , and is the subject of continuing research . Harvey approached Houston over sea - surface waters which were significantly above average temperatures . Warm waters provide the main source of energy for hurricanes , and increased ocean heat can result in storms being larger , more intense and longer lasting , in particular bringing greatly increased rainfall . Sea level rise added to the resulting problems . According to officials from the Harris County Flood Control District , Harvey caused the third ' 500 - year ' flood in three years . The National Climate Assessment states : The recent increases in activity are linked , in part , to higher sea surface temperatures in the region that Atlantic hurricanes form in and move through . Numerous factors have been shown to influence these local sea surface temperatures , including natural variability , human - induced emissions of heat - trapping gases , and particulate pollution . Quantifying the relative contributions of natural and human - caused factors is an active focus of research . Warmer air can hold more water vapour , in accordance with the Clausius -- Clapeyron relation , and there has been a global increase of daily rainfall records . Regional sea surface temperatures around Houston have risen around 0.5 ° C ( 0.9 ° F ) in recent decades , which caused a 3 -- 5 % increase in moisture in the atmosphere . This had the effect of allowing Harvey to strengthen more than expected . The water temperature of the Gulf of Mexico was above average for this time of the year , and likely to be a factor in Harvey 's impact . Within a week of Harvey Hurricane Irma formed due to the same unusually warm sea - water . Some scientists fear this may be becoming a ' new normal ' . Also higher sea - water temperatures can make hurricanes more devastating . The slow movement of Harvey over Texas allowed the storm to drop prolonged heavy rains on the state , as has also happened with earlier storms . Harvey 's stalled position was due to weak prevailing winds linked to a greatly expanded subtropical high pressure system over much of the US at the time , which had pushed the jet stream to the north . Research and model simulations have indicated an association between this pattern and human - caused climate change . See also ( edit ) Wikimedia Commons has media related to Hurricane Harvey ( 2017 ) . List of Category 4 Atlantic hurricanes List of Texas hurricanes ( 1980 -- present ) List of costliest Atlantic hurricanes List of wettest tropical cyclones Hurricane Irma -- Another major hurricane in the 2017 Atlantic hurricane season , which made landfall in Florida Hurricane Maria -- Another major hurricane in the 2017 Atlantic hurricane season , which devastated Puerto Rico Other tropical cyclones that made landfall in the same region of the Texas Gulf coast : 1886 Indianola hurricane -- Destroyed the burgeoning port city of Indianola 1900 Galveston hurricane -- Deadliest natural disaster in US history , impacting Galveston with unmitigated storm surge and killing as many as 12,000 1932 Freeport hurricane -- Rapidly intensifying Category 4 hurricane that brought heavy rainfall to the Angleton and Freeport areas Hurricane Celia ( 1970 ) -- Produced destructive winds in the Corpus Christi area Hurricane Ike ( 2008 ) The last hurricane to make landfall in Texas before Harvey Tropical cyclones portal Disasters portal United States portal 2010s portal Notes ( edit ) Jump up ^ A major hurricane is a hurricane that ranks as Category 3 or higher on the Saffir -- Simpson scale . Jump up ^ All damage figures in this table are in the USD amounts of their respective year . References ( edit ) ^ Jump up to : `` GUYANA : Emergency Situation at Jawalla Village , Region 7 '' . Caribbean Disaster Emergency Management Agency . Caribbean : Caribbean Community . August 22 , 2017 . Retrieved August 24 , 2017 . ^ Jump up to : George M. Eberhart ( November 1 , 2017 ) . `` Hurricanes Harvey and Irma '' . American Libraries . Retrieved November 5 , 2017 . ^ Jump up to : `` Death toll from Hurricane Harvey in US state of Texas hits 88 : preliminary survey - Xinhua English.news.cn '' . news.xinhuanet.com . Retrieved 2017 - 10 - 14 . ^ Jump up to : Moravec , Eva . `` Storm deaths : Harvey claims lives of more than 75 in Texas '' . Houston Chronicle . Retrieved 1 October 2017 . ^ Jump up to : `` Harvey brings destruction through Alabama to Tennessee '' . The Birmingham News . September 1 , 2017 . Retrieved September 1 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Cindy George and Todd Ackerman ( September 28 , 2017 ) . `` Kingwood woman confirmed as Harvey death from flesh - eating bacteria '' . Chron . Retrieved September 29 , 2017 . ^ Jump up to : Rachel Sigel ( October 25 , 2017 ) . `` A man who helped repair homes after Hurricane Harvey just died of flesh - eating bacteria '' . The Washington Post . Retrieved November 5 , 2017 . ^ Jump up to : Michael Hicks and Mark Burton ( September 8 , 2017 ) . Hurricane Harvey : Preliminary Estimates of Commercial and Public Sector Damages on the Houston Metropolitan Area ( PDF ) ( Report ) . Ball State University . Retrieved November 1 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Stacy R. Stewart ( August 13 , 2017 ) . `` Graphical Tropical Weather Outlook '' . National Hurricane Center . Miami , Florida : United States Government . Retrieved August 24 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Robbie J. Berg ( August 15 , 2017 ) . `` Graphical Tropical Weather Outlook '' . National Hurricane Center . Miami , Florida : United States Government . Retrieved August 24 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Cangialosi , John P. ( August 17 , 2017 ) . `` Graphical Tropical Weather Outlook '' . National Hurricane Center . Miami , Florida : United States Government . Retrieved August 24 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Beven II , John L. ( August 17 , 2017 ) . `` Potential Tropical Cyclone Nine Discussion Number 1 '' . National Hurricane Center . Miami , Florida : United States Government . Retrieved August 24 , 2017 . ^ Jump up to : Beven II , John L. ( August 17 , 2017 ) . `` Potential Tropical Cyclone Nine Public Advisory Number 1 '' . National Hurricane Center . Miami , Florida : United States Government . Retrieved August 24 , 2017 . ^ Jump up to : Beven II , John L. ( August 17 , 2017 ) . `` Tropical Storm Harvey Discussion Number 2 '' . National Hurricane Center . Miami , Florida : United States Government . Retrieved August 24 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Beven II , John L. ( August 19 , 2017 ) . `` Tropical Storm Harvey Discussion Number 9 '' . National Hurricane Center . Miami , Florida : United States Government . Jump up ^ Beven II , John L. ( August 19 , 2017 ) . `` Tropical Storm Harvey Discussion Number 9 '' . Miami , Florida : National Hurricane Center . Jump up ^ Beven II , John L. ( August 19 , 2017 ) . `` Tropical Depression Harvey Discussion Number 10 '' . National Hurricane Center . Miami , Florida : United States Government . Retrieved August 24 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Berg , Robbie J. ( August 19 , 2017 ) . `` Remnants of Harvey Discussion Number 11 '' . National Hurricane Center . Miami , Florida : United States Government . Retrieved August 24 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Brown , Daniel P. ( August 20 , 2017 ) . `` Graphical Tropical Weather Outlook '' . National Hurricane Center . Miami , Florida : United States Government . Retrieved August 24 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Pasch , Richard J. ; Berg , Robbie J. ( August 20 , 2017 ) . `` Special Tropical Weather Outlook '' . National Hurricane Center . Miami , Florida : United States Government . Retrieved August 24 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Blake , Eric S. ( August 22 , 2017 ) . `` Graphical Tropical Weather Outlook '' . National Hurricane Center . Miami , Florida : United States Government . Retrieved August 24 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Blake , Eric S. ( August 23 , 2017 ) . `` Tropical Depression Harvey Discussion Number 12 '' . National Hurricane Center . Miami , Florida : United States Government . Retrieved August 24 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Beven II , John L. ( August 23 , 2017 ) . `` Tropical Depression Harvey Discussion Number 14 '' . National Hurricane Center . Miami , Florida : United States Government . Retrieved August 24 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Avila , Lixion A. ( August 24 , 2017 ) . `` Tropical Storm Harvey Intermediate Advisory Number 14A '' . National Hurricane Center . Miami , Florida : United States Government . Retrieved August 24 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Berg , Robbie J. ( August 23 , 2017 ) . `` Tropical Storm Harvey Discussion Number 16 '' . National Hurricane Center . Miami , Florida : United States Government . Retrieved August 24 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Berg , Robbie J. ; Brennan , Michael J. ( August 24 , 2017 ) . `` Hurricane Harvey Tropical Cyclone Update '' . National Hurricane Center . Miami , Florida : United States Government . Retrieved August 24 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Beven II , John L. ( August 25 , 2017 ) . `` Hurricane Harvey Tropical Cyclone Update '' . National Hurricane Center . Miami , Florida : United States Government . Retrieved August 25 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Blake , Eric S. ( August 25 , 2017 ) . `` Hurricane Harvey Tropical Cyclone Update '' . National Hurricane Center . Miami , Florida : United States Government . Retrieved August 26 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Beven II , John L. ( August 26 , 2017 ) . `` Hurricane Harvey Advisory Number 23 '' . National Hurricane Center . Miami , Florida : United States Government . Retrieved August 26 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Brian McNoldy ( August 25 , 2017 ) . `` Harvey will probably make landfall as a ' major ' hurricane . Here 's what that means '' . The Washington Post . Washington , D.C. : Nash Holdings LLC . Retrieved August 26 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Mark Osborne and Morgan Winsor ( August 25 , 2017 ) . `` Hurricane Harvey makes landfall in Texas as Category 4 storm '' . ABC News . New York City : ABC . Retrieved August 26 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Berg , Robbie J. ( August 26 , 2017 ) . `` Hurricane Harvey Intermediate Advisory Number 23A '' . National Hurricane Center . Miami , Florida : United States Government . Retrieved August 27 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Lixion A. Avila ( August 26 , 2017 ) . Tropical Storm Harvey Intermediate Advisory Number 25A ( Report ) . Miami , Florida : National Hurricane Center . Retrieved August 27 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Beven II , John L. ( August 28 , 2017 ) . Tropical Storm Harvey Public Advisory Advisory Number 33 . National Hurricane Center ( Report ) . Miami , Florida : United States Government . Retrieved August 27 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Avila , Lixion A. ( August 29 , 2017 ) . Tropical Storm Harvey Discussion Number 38 ( Report ) . Miami , Florida : National Hurricane Center . Retrieved September 12 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Berg , Robbie J. ( August 30 , 2017 ) . Tropical Storm Harvey Public Advisory Number 40 ( Report ) . Miami , Florida : National Hurricane Center . Retrieved September 12 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Brown , Daniel P. ( August 30 , 2017 ) . Tropical Depression Harvey Intermediate Advisory Number 42A ( Report ) . Miami , Florida : National Hurricane Center . Retrieved September 12 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Krekeler , Jason ( September 1 , 2017 ) . Post-Tropical Cyclone Harvey Public Advisory Number 49 ( Report ) . College Park , Maryland : Weather Prediction Center . Retrieved September 12 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Post-tropical Cyclone HARVEY Advisory Number 53 '' . Weather Prediction Center . September 2 , 2017 . Retrieved September 13 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Service , NOAA 's National Weather ( September 3 , 2017 ) . `` WPC surface analysis valid for 09 / 03 / 2017 at 15 UTC '' . www.wpc.ncep.noaa.gov . Retrieved September 13 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Beven II , John L. ( August 18 , 2017 ) . `` Tropical Storm Harvey Intermediate Advisory Number 5A '' . National Hurricane Center . Miami , Florida : United States Government . Retrieved August 25 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Harvey se acerca a Honduras como depresión tropical '' . La Prensa ( in Spanish ) . San Pedro Sula : Organización Publicitaria , S.A. August 19 , 2017 . Retrieved August 28 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Levantan la alerta azul Tormenta Harvey '' . Tribuna de Campeche ( in Spanish ) . Campeche . August 21 , 2017 . Retrieved August 28 , 2017 . ^ Jump up to : Blake , Eric S. ( August 23 , 2017 ) . `` Tropical Depression Harvey Advisory Number 12 '' . National Hurricane Center . Miami , Florida : United States Government . Retrieved August 25 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Berg , Robbie J. ( August 25 , 2017 ) . `` Tropical Storm Harvey Advisory Number 22 '' . National Hurricane Center . Miami , Florida : United States Government . Retrieved August 28 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Fandos , Nicholas ( August 25 , 2017 ) . `` Trump Administration Prepares for Hurricane Harvey '' . The New York Times . New York City : The New York Times Company . Retrieved August 26 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Avila , Lixion A. ; Zelinsky , David A. ( August 24 , 2017 ) . `` Tropical Storm Harvey Advisory Number 15 '' . National Hurricane Center . Miami , Florida : United States Government . Retrieved August 28 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Avila , Lixion A. ; Lapenta , William M. ( August 26 , 2017 ) . `` Hurricane Harvey Advisory Number 25 '' . National Hurricane Center . Miami , Florida : United States Government . Retrieved August 28 , 2017 . ^ Jump up to : John L. Beven II ( August 28 , 2017 ) . Tropical Storm Harvey Advisory Number 33 . National Hurricane Center ( Report ) . Miami , Florida : United States Government . Retrieved August 28 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Nestel , M.L. ( August 25 , 2017 ) . `` Harvey expected to make landfall as a major hurricane '' . ABC News . New York City : ABC . Retrieved August 25 , 2017 . ^ Jump up to : Dart , Tom ; Helmore , Edward ( August 26 , 2017 ) . `` Hurricane Harvey : at least one dead in Texas as storm moves inland '' . The Guardian . London : Guardian Media Group . Retrieved August 27 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Cyclone in the U.S '' . International Charter on Space and Major Disasters . August 24 , 2017 . Retrieved August 28 , 2017 . Jump up ^ James Crugnale ( August 25 , 2017 ) . `` Hurricane Harvey : Louisiana Gov. Urges Residents to Remain Vigilant as Storm Strikes Texas '' . The Weather Channel . Atlanta : Landmark Communications ( 1982 -- 2008 ) / Consortium made up of The Blackstone Group , Bain Capital , and NBCUniversal ( 2008 -- ) . Retrieved August 26 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Amy , Jeff ; Kunzelman , Michael ( August 29 , 2017 ) . `` Haunted by Katrina 's memory , Louisiana now faces Harvey '' . Chicago Tribune . Chicago : Troc Inc . Associated Press . Retrieved August 29 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` CDEMA Situation Report # 1 -- Tropical Storm Harvey -- as of 4 : 00pm on August 18th , 2017 '' . ReliefWeb . New York City : United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs . August 18 , 2017 . Retrieved August 24 , 2017 . ^ Jump up to : Kevin Sullivan , Arelis R. Hernandez and David A. Fahrenthold ( August 29 , 2017 ) . `` Harvey leaving record rainfall , at least 22 deaths behind in Houston '' . Chicago Tribune . Washington Post . Retrieved August 30 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Scheyder , Ernest ; Seba , Erwin ( August 28 , 2017 ) . `` Harvey throws a wrench into U.S. energy engine '' . Reuters . Canary Wharf , London : Thomson Reuters . Retrieved August 28 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Harvey 's toll on refineries sparks widespread gasoline shortages , price hikes '' . Houston Chronicle . Houston : Hearst Communications . August 31 , 2017 . Retrieved September 1 , 2017 . Jump up ^ www.oil-price.net . `` Impact of Hurricanes on oil prices '' . oil-price.net . ^ Jump up to : `` The Latest : Death toll 31 as 6 more fatalities confirmed '' . Associated Press . New York City : AP Board of Directors . August 31 , 2017 . Retrieved August 31 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Houston residents begin ' massive ' cleanup as Harvey death toll hits 45 '' . The Guardian . London : Guardian Media Group . September 1 , 2017 . Retrieved September 1 , 2017 . ^ Jump up to : Breslin , Sean ( August 28 , 2017 ) . `` Harvey 's Ground Zero : Search Continues for Missing Along Texas Coast '' . The Weather Channel . Atlanta : Landmark Communications ( 1982 -- 2008 ) Consortium made up of The Blackstone Group , Bain Capital , and NBCUniversal ( 2008 -- ) . Retrieved August 29 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Tate , Jennifer Elyse ( August 29 , 2017 ) . `` Storm Summary Number 14 for Tropical Storm Harvey Rainfall and Wind '' . Weather Prediction Center . College Park , Maryland : United States Government . Retrieved August 29 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Breslin , Sean ; Wright , Pam ( August 26 , 2017 ) . `` Hurricane Harvey Update : More Than 100 Evacuated from Damaged Rockport Hotel : Tens of Thousands Without Power '' . The Weather Channel . Atlanta : Landmark Communications ( 1982 -- 2008 ) Consortium made up of The Blackstone Group , Bain Capital , and NBCUniversal ( 2008 -- ) . Retrieved August 26 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Phil McCausland ; Daniel Arkin ; Kurt Chirbas ( August 27 , 2017 ) . `` Hurricane Harvey : At Least 2 Dead After Storm Hits Texas Coast '' . NBC News . Retrieved August 27 , 2017 . ^ Jump up to : Tate , Jennifer ( August 29 , 2017 ) . Storm Summary Number 15 for Tropical Storm Harvey Rainfall and Wind . Weather Prediction Center ( Report ) . College Park , Maryland : United States Government . Retrieved August 29 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Post Tropical Cyclone Report ... Tropical Storm Harvey ... Updated ( Report ) . National Weather Service Office in Shreveport , Louisiana . September 21 , 2017 . Archived from the original on September 21 , 2017 . Retrieved September 21 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Avila , Lixion ( August 29 , 2017 ) . `` Tropical Storm Harvey Advisory Number 37 '' . National Hurricane Center . Miami , Florida : United States Government . Retrieved August 29 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Erdman , Jon ; Dolce , Chris ( August 29 , 2017 ) . `` It 's Not Over : Tropical Storm Harvey Rainfall Sets Preliminary All - Time Lower 48 States Record , Still Soaking Texas , Louisiana '' . The Weather Channel . Atlanta : Landmark Communications ( 1982 -- 2008 ) Consortium made up of The Blackstone Group , Bain Capital , and NBCUniversal ( 2008 -- ) . Jump up ^ National Weather Service Office in Houston , Texas ( @ NWSHouston ) ( August 28 , 2017 ) . `` After checking the rain gauge , a new daily rainfall record was set at the NWS Office of 16.08 '' beating yesterday 's record of 14.40 '' # houwx '' ( Tweet ) . Retrieved August 28 , 2017 -- via Twitter . Jump up ^ `` 24 hours after making landfall , Harvey 's rainfall prompts flash flood emergencies in Houston '' . WHNT - TV . Huntsville , Alabama : Tribune Broadcasting ( sale to Sinclair Broadcast Group pending ) . August 27 , 2017 . Retrieved September 6 , 2017 . Jump up ^ National Weather Service Houston ( @ NWSHouston ) ( August 31 , 2017 ) . `` Houston 's August 2017 rainfall total ( 39.11 inches ) is more than double the previous wettest month . # txwx # houwx # bcswx # Harvey '' ( Tweet ) . Retrieved August 31 , 2017 -- via Twitter . Jump up ^ `` Hurricane Harvey '' . U-SURGE . Archived from the original on September 10 , 2017 . Retrieved September 10 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Hurricane Harvey storm surge video -- CBC News on YouTube Jump up ^ Fischetti , Mark ( August 28 , 2017 ) . `` Hurricane Harvey : Why Is It So Extreme ? '' . Scientific American . United States : Springer Nature . ISSN 0036 - 8733 . Retrieved September 10 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Eliott C. McLaughlin ; Ralph Ellis ; Joe Sterling . `` Harvey 's rain ' beyond anything experienced , ' weather service says '' . CNN . Atlanta : Turner Broadcasting System . Retrieved August 27 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Family of six counted among the dead as Harvey death toll rises to 14 '' . Fox News Channel . August 29 , 2017 . Retrieved August 29 , 2017 . Jump up ^ St. John Barned - Smith ( August 29 , 2017 ) . `` Houston Police officer drowns in Harvey floodwaters '' . Houston Chronicle . Retrieved August 29 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Brenda Burr ( August 28 , 2017 ) . `` 10 foot floods expected , evacuate by 1 p.m. today officials say '' . Bay City Tribune . Retrieved August 28 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Dam release ramps up Conroe evacuation plans '' . KTRK . August 28 , 2017 . Retrieved August 29 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Residents south of Houston urged to leave area after levee breach '' . KCRA3 . August 29 , 2017 . Retrieved August 29 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Barned - Smith , St. John ; Carpenter , Jacob ; Foxhall , Emily ( August 30 , 2017 ) . `` Brazoria team works against the clock '' . Houston Chronicle . Retrieved September 5 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Corps Releases at Addicks and Barker Dams to begin '' ( Press release ) . United States Army Corps of Engineers . August 28 , 2017 . Retrieved August 28 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Conditions worsen for West Houston neighborhood '' . KSAT . August 29 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Houston flood : Addicks dam begins overspill '' . BBC . August 29 , 2017 . Retrieved August 29 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` NASA 's Johnson Space Center Closes for Hurricane Harvey '' . NASA . August 29 , 2017 . Retrieved August 30 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` East Texas county tells residents ' GET OUT OR DIE ! ' '' . KSBW . August 30 , 2017 . Retrieved August 30 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Brad Penisson ( August 31 , 2017 ) . `` The City of Beaumont has lost water supply '' . Beaumont , Texas : City of Beaumont , Texas . Retrieved August 31 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Brandon Scott ( August 28 , 2017 ) . `` Mandatory evacuations ordered in parts of Jefferson , Liberty , Tyler counties '' . KFDM . Retrieved August 30 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Brandon Scott ( August 29 , 2017 ) . `` Beaumont , Texas woman with small child killed in Harvey related flooding '' . KFDM . Retrieved August 30 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Travis Fedschun ( August 30 , 2017 ) . `` Nation 's largest oil refinery in Port Arthur , Texas shut down ; mayor says ' whole city is underwater ' '' . Fox News Channel . Retrieved August 30 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Kelly McCarthy ; Julia Jacobo ( August 29 , 2017 ) . `` Louisiana begins evacuations for Harvey on 12th anniversary of Hurricane Katrina '' . ABC News . Retrieved August 29 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Public Information Statement ( Report ) . National Weather Service Lake Charles , Louisiana . August 31 , 2017 . Retrieved September 1 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Stephanie Taylor ( August 31 , 2017 ) . `` Tornado causes damage in Pickens County '' . The Tuscaloosa News . Retrieved September 1 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Eric Chaney ( September 1 , 2017 ) . `` Harvey Beyond Houston : Possible Tornado Causes Damage in Alabama ; Tennessee Flooding Prompts Evacuations '' . The Weather Channel . Retrieved September 1 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Bart Jansen ( September 1 , 2017 ) . `` Harvey floods Tennessee , Kentucky , as Hurricane Irma spins up in the Atlantic '' . USA Today . Retrieved September 1 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` U.S. : Hurricane Harvey 's Toll on Texas Energy '' . Stratfor . August 28 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` ExxonMobil refineries are damaged in Hurricane Harvey , releasing hazardous pollutants '' . The Washington Post . August 29 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` The Latest : Death toll 31 as 6 more fatalities confirmed '' . Miami Herald . August 30 , 2017 . Retrieved August 31 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Harvey aftershock : Chemical plant near Houston could explode , CEO says '' . Fox News Channel . August 30 , 2017 . Retrieved August 31 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Harvey Live Updates : In Crosby , Texas , Blasts at a Chemical Plant and More Are Feared '' . The New York Times . August 31 , 2017 . Retrieved August 31 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Texas refineries begin restart after hit from Harvey '' . Reuters . September 2 , 2017 . ^ Jump up to : `` Gas prices up to 2 - year high after Hurricane Harvey '' . CBS News . September 1 , 2017 . Retrieved September 4 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Harvey spikes N.J. gas prices ahead of holiday weekend . How high will they go ? '' . NJ.com . Retrieved September 4 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Cowboys - Texans game relocated to AT&T Stadium '' . NFL . August 28 , 2017 . Retrieved August 28 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Jori Epstein ( August 30 , 2017 ) . `` Cowboys - Texans game canceled to give Houston players chance to go home after Harvey '' . The Dallas Morning News . Retrieved August 30 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` TEX - HOU moved to Rays ' park ; millions donated '' . MLB . August 29 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Yanks - Rays series off to Citi Field due to Irma '' . Jump up ^ Pingue , Frank ( October 23 , 2017 ) . `` Astros give Houston boost during Hurricane Harvey recovery '' . Reuters . Retrieved October 30 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Dart , Tom ( October 28 , 2017 ) . `` World Series unites Houston as road to hurricane recovery winds on '' . The Guardian . Retrieved October 30 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Baxter , Kevin ( October 28 , 2017 ) . `` Astros playing for more than a title in hurricane - ravaged Houston '' . Los Angeles Times . Retrieved October 30 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` LSU - BYU game moving from Houston to New Orleans '' . SB Nation . Jump up ^ `` No Houston Teams to Compete This Weekend '' . UHCOUGARS.com . August 29 , 2017 . Retrieved August 30 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Corey Roepken ( August 25 , 2017 ) . `` Dynamo , Dash games postponed due to Hurricane Harvey '' . Houston Chronicle . Retrieved August 31 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Houston Dynamo & Dash to train in North Texas for remainder of the week '' . Houston Dynamo . August 30 , 2017 . Retrieved August 31 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Corey Roepken ( August 31 , 2017 ) . `` Dynamo , MLS combine for $1 million Hurricane Harvey donation '' . Houston Chronicle . Retrieved August 31 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` BBVA Compass Stadium at capacity ; no longer collecting donations for storm relief '' . Houston Dynamo . August 30 , 2017 . Retrieved August 31 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Josh Moore ( August 30 , 2017 ) . `` List of high school football games moving due to Hurricane Harvey weather system '' . Lexington Herald - Leader . Lexington , Kentucky . Retrieved August 31 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Blair Shiff ; Julia Jacobo ; Emily Shapiro ( August 29 , 2017 ) . `` Houston mayor imposes curfew to prevent potential looting '' . ABC News . Retrieved August 29 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Alex Pappas ( August 29 , 2017 ) . `` Trump surveys Harvey damage , calls for recovery ' better than ever before ' '' . Fox News Channel . Retrieved August 30 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Perry Chiaramonte ( September 1 , 2017 ) . `` Trump pushing for $6 billion in Harvey recovery funding '' . Fox News Channel . Retrieved September 1 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Governor Abbott Activates Entire Texas National Guard In Response To Hurricane Harvey Devastation '' . Office of the Texas Governor ( Press release ) . August 28 , 2017 . Retrieved August 30 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Leada Gore ( August 28 , 2017 ) . `` Hurricane Harvey latest forecast : Texas National Guard activated ; Trump responds ; how to help '' . AL.com . Retrieved August 30 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Jake Lowary ( August 29 , 2017 ) . `` Tennessee National Guard : We 're ready for Hurricane Harvey response '' . Tennessean . Retrieved August 30 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Scott Wise ( August 30 , 2017 ) . `` Va . National Guard helps Hurricane Harvey recovery '' . WTVR . Retrieved August 30 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Explosions and Black Smoke Reported at Chemical Plant '' . The New York Times . August 31 , 2017 . Retrieved August 31 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Edmund D. Fountain and Trip Gabriel ( August 30 , 2017 ) . `` ' Cajun Navy ' Brings Its Rescue Fleet to Houston 's Flood Zone '' . The New York Times . Retrieved August 31 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Kaya Yurieff ( August 30 , 2017 ) . `` Businesses donate over $72 million to Harvey relief efforts '' . CNN Money . Retrieved August 31 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Olivia Pulsinelli ( August 29 , 2017 ) . `` Astros owner , foundation commit $4 M to Harvey relief ; Crane Worldwide launches donation effort '' . Houston Business Journal . Retrieved August 31 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Click here to support Houston Flood Relief Fund '' . YouCaring . Jump up ^ Scott Polacek ( August 29 , 2017 ) . `` Texas Rangers Donate $1 Million to Hurricane Harvey Relief '' . Bleacher Report . Retrieved August 31 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Sarah Polus ( August 30 , 2017 ) . `` Celebrities open their hearts -- and checkbooks -- to Harvey victims '' . The Washington Post . Retrieved August 31 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Erin Jensen ( August 29 , 2017 ) . `` Leonardo DiCaprio , the Kardashians , more celebs pledge donations for Hurricane Harvey relief efforts '' . USA Today . Retrieved August 31 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Manchester , Julia ; Greenwood , Max ( 2017 - 09 - 16 ) . `` Trump makes good on pledge to donate to Harvey relief '' . The Hill . Retrieved 2017 - 09 - 19 . The Hill confirmed with multiple groups that they received the funds this week . Jump up ^ Ana Calderone ( August 30 , 2017 ) . `` Rachael Ray Donates $1 Million to Support Animal Rescue in Texas Flood Areas '' . People . Retrieved August 31 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Blake , Eric S ; Landsea , Christopher W ; Gibney , Ethan J ; National Climatic Data Center ; National Hurricane Center ( August 10 , 2011 ) . The deadliest , costliest and most intense United States tropical cyclones from 1851 to 2010 ( and other frequently requested hurricane facts ) ( PDF ) ( NOAA Technical Memorandum NWS NHC - 6 ) . National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration . p. 47 . Retrieved August 10 , 2011 . Jump up ^ Blake , Eric S ; Kimberlain , Todd B ; Berg , Robert J ; Cangialosi , John P ; Beven II , John L ; National Hurricane Center ( February 12 , 2013 ) . Hurricane Sandy : October 22 -- 29 , 2012 ( PDF ) ( Tropical Cyclone Report ) . United States National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 's National Weather Service . Archived from the original on February 17 , 2013 . Retrieved February 17 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Hurricane / Post-Tropical Cyclone Sandy , October 22 -- 29 , 2012 ( PDF ) ( Service Assessment ) . United States National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 's National Weather Service . May 2013 . p. 10 . Archived from the original on June 2 , 2013 . Retrieved June 2 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Don Lee ( September 1 , 2017 ) . `` Harvey is likely to be the second-most costly natural disaster in U.S. history '' . Los Angeles Times . Jump up ^ Doyle Rice ( August 30 , 2017 ) . `` Harvey to be costliest natural disaster in U.S. history , with an estimated cost of $190 billion '' . USA Today . Jump up ^ Gary McWilliams ; Parraga Marianna . `` Texas governor says Harvey damage could reach $180 billion '' . Reuters . Retrieved September 3 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Oliver Milman . `` Harvey recovery bill expected to exceed the $120 bn required after Katrina '' . The Guardian . Retrieved September 3 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Adrianne Pasquarelli ( August 28 , 2017 ) . `` Harvey Blasts Brands : Could Cost More Than $1 B in Sales '' . Advertising Age . Retrieved August 29 , 2017 . Jump up ^ ( http://www.insurancejournal.com/news/southcentral/2017/09/15/464484.htm ICT Pegs Hurricane Harvey Insured Losses at $19 B , Insurance Journal ( September 15 , 2017 ) . ^ Jump up to : Mary Williams Walsh ( August 28 , 2017 ) . `` Homeowners ( and Taxpayers ) Face Billions in Losses From Harvey Flooding '' . The New York Times . Retrieved August 30 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Chris Isidore ( August 26 , 2017 ) . `` Most homes in Tropical Storm Harvey 's path do n't have flood insurance '' . CNN . Retrieved August 30 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Sims , Bryan ( September 13 , 2017 ) . `` Harvey storm - water releases were unlawful government takings : lawsuits '' . Retrieved September 13 , 2017 -- via Reuters . Jump up ^ `` News Wrap : Trump signs $15 billion Hurricane Harvey relief bill '' . PBS Newshour . September 8 , 2017 . Retrieved 27 September 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Salvation Army Accepting Hurricane Harvey Relief Donations In Tulsa '' . News On 6 Tulsa . September 1 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Janet Patton ( September 1 , 2017 ) . `` Harvey equine relief tops $150,000 ; supply list available for donors '' . Lexington Herald Leader . Jump up ^ Perri Blumberg ( August 30 , 2017 ) . `` Animal Rescue Groups in Texas Need Your Help -- Here 's What You Can Do '' . Yahoo News Southern Living . Jump up ^ `` The Red Cross Wo n't Save Houston . Texas Residents Are Launching Community Relief Efforts Instead '' . Democracy Now ! . 2017 - 08 - 30 . Retrieved 2017 - 09 - 02 . Jump up ^ Gollan , Doug . `` After Harvey , As Irma Bears Down On Florida , Here 's How Business Aviation Plays A Critical Role '' . Jump up ^ `` Amateur Radio Volunteers Assisting Where Needed in Hurricane Response '' . ARRL . August 30 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Greg Morago ( August 30 , 2017 ) . `` Operation BBQ Relief pulls into Houston to comfort , nourish with smoked meat '' . Houston Chronicle . Jump up ^ Kevin Kilbane ( September 1 , 2017 ) . `` Fort Wayne residents pitching in to help Hurricane Harvey victims '' . Fort Wayne News Sentinel . Jump up ^ Mike Lacy ( August 27 , 2017 ) . `` Operation BBQ Relief ready and waiting to help flood victims '' . WLOX ABC News . Jump up ^ `` KSL Hope for Houston : Help us raise $1 M to help with Harvey recovery '' . KSL News . 2017 - 08 - 31 . Jump up ^ `` RSAF Chinooks arrive to assist in Hurricane Harvey disaster relief '' . Jump up ^ Sarah Levi ( September 4 , 2017 ) . `` In Wake of Harvey Devastation , Israel Pledges $1 M. to Houston 's Jewish Community '' . The Jerusalem Post . Retrieved September 4 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Corchado , Alfredo ( August 31 , 2017 ) . `` Abbott says Texas will accept Mexican offer of Hurricane Harvey relief '' . Dallas News . Retrieved September 8 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Mexico says it will not be possible to help Texas with recovery efforts '' . Newsweek. 2017 - 09 - 11 . Retrieved 2017 - 09 - 19 . Jump up ^ Amanda Erickson ( August 30 , 2017 ) . `` America sanctioned Venezuela . Then it offered $5 million in aid to Harvey victims '' . The Washington Post . Retrieved September 9 , 2017 . ^ Jump up to : Hiroko Tabuchi & Shelia Kaplan , A Sea of Health and Environmental Hazards in Houston 's Floodwaters , New York Times ( August 31 , 2017 ) . Jump up ^ `` Floodwater from Harvey loaded with E. coli '' . Erin Burnett OutFront . CNN . September 1 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Adam Gabbatt ( August 28 , 2017 ) . `` What makes Houston so vulnerable to serious floods ? '' . the Guardian . Retrieved August 30 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Justin Fox ( August 29 , 2017 ) . `` How to Make 500 - Year Storms Happen Every Year '' . Bloomberg.com . Retrieved August 30 , 2017 . ^ Jump up to : `` How A Warmer Climate Helped Shape Harvey '' . NPR.org . August 28 , 2017 . Retrieved August 30 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Ralph Vartabedian ( August 29 , 2017 ) . `` For years , engineers have warned that Houston was a flood disaster in the making . Why did n't somebody do something ? '' . Los Angeles Times . Retrieved August 31 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Manny Fernandez ; Richard Fausset ( August 27 , 2017 ) . `` A Storm Forces Houston , the Limitless City , to Consider Its Limits '' . The New York Times . Retrieved August 31 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Campoy , Ana ; Yanofsky , David ( August 29 , 2017 ) . `` Houston 's flooding shows what happens when you ignore science and let developers run rampant '' . Retrieved September 12 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Herriges , Daniel ( August 30 , 2017 ) . `` Houston is n't flooded because of its land use planning '' . Retrieved September 12 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Henry Grabar ( August 27 , 2017 ) . `` Houston Was n't Built for a Storm Like This '' . Slate . Retrieved August 29 , 2017 . ^ Jump up to : John D. Harden ( May 20 , 2016 ) . `` For years , the Houston area has been losing ground '' . Houston Chronicle . Retrieved August 30 , 2017 . ^ Jump up to : Michael E. Mann ( August 28 , 2017 ) . `` It 's a fact : climate change made Hurricane Harvey more deadly '' . the Guardian . Retrieved August 28 , 2017 . ^ Jump up to : `` What you can and ca n't say about climate change and Hurricane Harvey '' . The Washington Post . August 27 , 2017 . ^ Jump up to : Stefan Rahmstorf . `` Storm Harvey : impacts likely worsened due to global warming '' . Potsdam Institute for Climate Impact Research Research Portal . Retrieved August 31 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Tom Miles ( August 29 , 2017 ) . `` Storm Harvey 's rainfall likely linked to climate change : U.N '' . Reuters U.K . Retrieved August 31 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Did Climate Change Intensify Hurricane Harvey ? '' . The Atlantic . August 27 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Houston is experiencing its third ' 500 - year ' flood in 3 years . How is that possible ? '' . The Washington Post . August 30 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Joyce , Christpher ( September 8 , 2017 ) . `` Hurricanes Are Sweeping The Atlantic . What 's The Role Of Climate Change ? '' . NPR . Washington , D.C. : National Public Radio , Inc . Retrieved September 9 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Meyer , Robinson ( August 27 , 2017 ) . `` Did Climate Change Intensify Hurricane Harvey ? '' . The Atlantic . Washington , D.C. : Atlantic Media . Retrieved September 9 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Extreme Weather '' . National Climate Assessment . Jump up ^ `` How Hurricane Harvey Became So Destructive '' . The New York Times . August 28 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Watts , Jonathan ( September 6 , 2017 ) . `` Twin megastorms have scientists fearing this may be the new normal '' . The Guardian . Kings Place , London : Guardian Media Group . Retrieved September 9 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Michael E. Mann ; Stefan Rahmstorf ; Kai Kornhuber ; Byron A. Steinman ; Sonya K. Miller ; Dim Coumou ( March 27 , 2017 ) . `` Influence of Anthropogenic Climate Change on Planetary Wave Resonance and Extreme Weather Events '' . Scientific Reports . Springer Nature . 7 : 45242 . Bibcode : 2017NatSR ... 745242M . doi : 10.1038 / srep45242 . ISSN 2045 - 2322 . External links ( edit ) Wikimedia Commons has media related to Hurricane Harvey ( 2017 ) . Hurricane Harvey Advisory Archive Harvey Could Be America 's First $200 Billion Hurricane , but Other Estimates Are More Conservative ( hide ) Tropical cyclones of the 2017 Atlantic hurricane season TS Arlene TS Bret TS Cindy TD Four TS Don TS Emily Franklin Gert Harvey PT Ten 5 Irma Jose Katia Lee 5 Maria Nate Ophelia TS Philippe TS Rina Book Portal WikiProject Commons Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hurricane_Harvey&oldid=810568621 '' Categories : Hurricane Harvey 2017 Atlantic hurricane season Category 4 Atlantic hurricanes 2017 in Texas 2017 natural disasters in the United States 2010s in Houston Atlantic hurricanes in Mexico August 2017 events in Mexico August 2017 events in North America August 2017 events in the United States Houston hurricanes Hurricanes in Barbados Hurricanes in Louisiana Hurricanes in Saint Vincent and the Grenadines Hurricanes in Texas Hurricanes in the Windward Islands Hidden categories : CS1 Spanish - language sources ( es ) Use mdy dates from August 2017 Articles containing video clips Talk Contents About Wikipedia Čeština Dansk Español Euskara فارسی Français Gaeilge 한국어 Հայերեն Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית Magyar Nederlands Norsk Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча Polski Português Română Русский Scots Simple English Suomi Svenska தமிழ் Українська Tiếng Việt 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 16 November 2017 , at 02 : 17 . 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what is the youngest age you can marry in the usa

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Age_of_marriage_in_the_United_States&oldid=857054274

Age of marriage in the United states - wikipedia Age of marriage in the United states General age of marriage ( without parental or court approval or other exceptions taken into account ) 18 19 21 Unlike most Western countries , 18 of the U.S. states do not have a legal minimum age of marriage . Individuals aged 18 have the ability to marry in U.S. states except Nebraska ( 19 ) and Mississippi ( 21 ) . In addition , all states , except Delaware and New Jersey , allow minors to marry in certain circumstances , such as parental consent , judicial consent , pregnancy , or a combination of these situations . Most states allow parties aged 16 and 17 to marry with parental consent alone . In most states , children under 16 can be married too . In the 32 states which have an absolute minimum age set by statute , this age varies between 14 and 18 , while in 18 states there is no statutory minimum age if other legal conditions are met . Although in such states there is no set minimum age by statute , the traditional common law minimum age is 14 for boys and 12 for girls - ages which have been confirmed by case law in some states . Over the past 15 years , more than 200,000 minors married in US , and in Tennessee girls as young as 10 were married in 2001 , before the state finally set a minimum age of 17 in 2018 . State / Territory Minimum age Notes Statutory age when all exceptions are taken into account General age Alabama 16 18 Alaska 14 18 Arizona 16 18 Since 2018 , the minimum age with approval of a superior court judge and parental consent is 16 . Arkansas none 18 California none 18 No minimum age with approval of a superior court judge and parental consent . Colorado none 18 No minimum age with judicial approval and parental consent . Connecticut 16 18 Since 2017 , the minimum age is 16 with parental and judicial consent . Delaware 18 18 Since May 2018 , the Delaware child marriage ban bill was signed into law and went into effect immediately to implement a clear minimum age of 18 with no exceptions . District of Columbia 16 18 Florida 17 18 Since July 1 , 2018 17 - year - olds need both parental and judicial approval and may not marry anyone more than 2 years older . Georgia 16 18 Hawaii 15 18 15 with parental or judicial consent . Idaho none 18 Illinois 16 18 Indiana 15 18 15 in the case of pregnancy with both parental and judicial consent . Iowa 16 18 Kansas 15 18 Kentucky 17 18 Since 2018 , 17 - year - olds need judicial approval . Louisiana none 18 Maine none 18 Maryland 15 18 Massachusetts none 18 Consent can be just judicial , but is normally both parental and judicial . In the absence of any statutory minimum age , one opinion is that the traditional minimum common law marriageable age of 12 for girls and 14 for boys may still be in effect . Michigan none 18 16 with parental consent Minnesota 16 18 Mississippi none 21 females 15 -- 21 and males 17 -- 21 can marry with parental consent alone Missouri 16 18 In July 2018 a bill was signed into law by the Governor of Missouri , to implement an absolute minimum age of 16 and to ban people over 21 years old marrying people under the age of 18 . The law went into effect on August 28 , 2018 . Montana 16 18 Nebraska 17 19 Nevada none 18 New Hampshire 16 ( in effect from January 1 , 2019 ) 18 In 2018 , the minimum age was set at 16 ( in effect from 1 January , 2019 ) . New Jersey 18 18 Since June 2018 , the New Jersey child marriage ban bill was signed into law and went into effect immediately to implement a clear minimum age of 18 with no exceptions . New Mexico none 18 New York 17 18 Since 2017 , the minimum age is 17 with parental and judicial consent . North Carolina 14 18 North Dakota 16 18 16 with parental consent . Ohio none 18 18 for males regardless of parental consent . 16 for females with parental consent , 18 for females without parental consent . Oklahoma none 18 Oregon 17 18 Consenting parent or guardian must accompany the applicant when applying for the marriage license . Pennsylvania none 18 Under 16 years of age if a Judge of the Orphans Court `` decides that it is to the best interest of the applicant and authorizes the issuance of the license . '' Puerto Rico 18 ( males ) , 16 ( females ) 21 Puerto Rico is a territory of the United States , and its people are Americans . Rhode Island none 18 South Carolina 16 / none ( conflicting laws ) 18 The age is 16 , with parental consent , but there is controversy regarding the interpretation of the law , which some judges consider to allow marriage without an age limit in case of pregnancy . South Dakota 16 18 Tennessee 17 18 In 2018 , the minimum age was set to 17 and no minor can marry someone more than 4 years older . Texas 16 18 Since 2017 , the minimum age is 18 , however emancipated minors aged 16 -- 17 have an exemption to legally marry . Utah 15 18 15 with court approval and parental consent . Vermont 16 18 Virginia 16 18 In 2016 , VA made 18 the minimum age ; and 16 with court approval in special cases Washington none 18 May be waived by superior court judge . West Virginia none 18 No minimum with both parental and judicial consent Wisconsin 16 18 Wyoming none 18 See also ( edit ) Child marriage in the United States Marriageable age Minor ( law ) Parental consent References ( edit ) Jump up ^ in 2017 , Connecticut and Texas became the 24th and 25th states to set a minimum age ( 1 ) ( 2 ) , and in 2018 , Florida , Kentucky , Arizona , Delaware , Tennessee , New Jersey , and Missouri became the 26th , 27th , 28th , 29th , 30th , 31st , and 32nd states to set a minimum age ( 3 ) ( 4 ) ( 5 ) ( 6 ) ( 7 ) ( 8 ) ( 9 ) ^ Jump up to : `` Understanding State Statutes on Minimum Marriage Age and Exceptions '' . Tahirih Justice Center . November 2016 . Retrieved 2017 - 06 - 03 . Jump up ^ https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/americas/200000-children-married-us-15-years-child-marriage-child-brides-new-jersey-chris-christie-a7830266.html ^ Jump up to : `` Gov. Bill Haslam signs law banning Tennessee marriage of minors under 17 '' . The Tennessean . Retrieved 2018 - 05 - 31 . Jump up ^ `` Section 30 - 1 - 4 : Minimum age for contracting marriage '' . Code of Alabama . Alabama Legislature. 1975 . Retrieved 2017 - 06 - 03 . A person under the age of 16 years is incapable of contracting marriage . ^ Jump up to : `` Marriage Laws of the Fifty States , District of Columbia and Puerto Rico '' . Legal Information Institute . 2008 - 04 - 14 . Retrieved 2017 - 06 - 03 . ^ Jump up to : ( 10 ) ^ Jump up to : Renick , Christie ( April 13 , 2018 ) . `` Arizona Sets Minimum Age for Marriage of Minors '' . Chronicle of Social Change . Retrieved May 7 , 2018 . Jump up ^ `` California Marriage Age Requirements Laws '' . findlaw.com . Retrieved 2017 - 06 - 03 . Jump up ^ `` Office of the Clerk and Recorder : Marriage & Recording / License Information / Marriage of Minors '' . City and County of Denver . Retrieved 2017 - 06 - 03 . Jump up ^ C.R.S. Colorado Revised Statutes 14 - 2 - 106 ^ Jump up to : https://www.cga.ct.gov/asp/cgabillstatus/cgabillstatus.asp?selBillType=Bill&bill_num=HB05442&which_year=2017 Jump up ^ ( 11 ) Jump up ^ ( 12 ) Jump up ^ ( 13 ) Jump up ^ ( 14 ) Jump up ^ ( 15 ) Jump up ^ `` IC 31 - 11 - 1 : ARTICLE 11 . FAMILY LAW : MARRIAGE '' . Indiana Code 2016 . Indiana General Assembly . Retrieved 2017 - 06 - 03 . Jump up ^ ( 16 ) Jump up ^ ( 17 ) Jump up ^ `` Nonage minors ; authorization of marriage '' , General Laws : Chapter 207 , Section 25 , Massachusetts General Court , retrieved 2017 - 06 - 03 Jump up ^ Richards , Victoria ( 2016 - 03 - 09 ) . `` Child marriage chart reveals girls can wed at 12 in some parts of the US - as lawmakers battle to raise age to 16 '' . The Independent . Retrieved 2017 - 06 - 03 . Jump up ^ Hayden , Meg ( 2007 - 01 - 08 ) . `` Child Brides '' . Massachusetts Trial Court Law Libraries . Retrieved 2017 - 06 - 03 . Jump up ^ `` Section 551.103 : MARRIAGE LICENSE ( EXCERPT ) , Act 128 of 1887 '' . Michigan Legislature. 2015 . Retrieved 2017 - 06 - 03 . Jump up ^ `` Title 93 - DOMESTIC RELATIONS , Chapter 1 - MARRIAGE § 93 - 1 - 5 - Conditions precedent to issuance of license ; penalty for noncompliance '' . 2013 Mississippi Code . Retrieved 2017 - 06 - 03 . Every male who is at least seventeen ( 17 ) years old and every female who is at least fifteen ( 15 ) years old shall be capable in law of contracting marriage . Jump up ^ https://legiscan.com/MO/bill/SB655/2018 Jump up ^ ( 18 ) Jump up ^ ( 19 ) Jump up ^ ( 20 ) Jump up ^ ( 21 ) Jump up ^ ( 22 ) Jump up ^ ( 23 ) Jump up ^ `` TITLE XLIII : DOMESTIC RELATIONS , CHAPTER 457 : MARRIAGES , Age : Section 457 : 4 '' . New Hampshire General Court . Archived from the original on 2008 - 02 - 02 . Retrieved 2017 - 06 - 03 . Jump up ^ ( 24 ) Jump up ^ ( 25 ) Jump up ^ ( 26 ) Jump up ^ https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-marriage-children/new-jersey-law-gives-momentum-to-u-s-efforts-to-ban-child-marriage-idUSKBN1JI2X9 Jump up ^ https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-marriage-children/new-jersey-law-gives-momentum-to-u-s-efforts-to-ban-child-marriage-idUSKBN1JI2X9 Jump up ^ https://www.hrw.org/news/2017/06/20/us-new-york-governor-signs-anti-child-marriage-law `` Human Rights Watch : NY State Marriage Laws Update 2016 / 2017 '' . Human Rights Watch . Human Rights Watch . June 2017 . Retrieved 2017 - 06 - 21 . Jump up ^ http://www.legis.nd.gov/cencode/t14c03.pdf ^ Jump up to : `` Ohio 's Marriage Laws '' . Ohio State Bar Association . 2015 - 08 - 21 . Retrieved 2017 - 06 - 03 . Jump up ^ `` Title 23 : CHAPTER 13 , MARRIAGE LICENSE '' . Pennsylvania General Assembly . Retrieved 2017 - 06 - 03 . Jump up ^ http://fortune.com/2018/06/22/south-carolina-child-brides-underage-marriage/ Jump up ^ https://legiscan.com/TN/bill/HB2134/2017 Jump up ^ ( 27 ) Jump up ^ http://www.legis.state.tx.us/BillLookup/History.aspx?LegSess=85R&Bill=SB1705 Jump up ^ ( 28 ) Jump up ^ ( 29 ) Jump up ^ ( 30 ) Jump up ^ `` Marriage Licenses '' . Courts of Utah . 2016 - 04 - 04 . Retrieved 2017 - 06 - 03 . Jump up ^ Portnoy , Jenna ( 2016 - 07 - 03 ) . `` Why 13 - year - olds can no longer marry in Virginia '' . The Washington Post . Retrieved 2017 - 06 - 03 . Jump up ^ Tsui , Anjali ( 2016 - 07 - 08 ) . `` America 's child marriage crisis : Virginia law tackles continuing issue '' . The Guardian . Retrieved 2017 - 06 - 03 . Jump up ^ `` RCW 26.04. 010 Marriage contract -- Void marriages '' . Revised Code of Washington . Washington State Legislature. 2016 - 12 - 23 . Retrieved 2017 - 06 - 03 . Every marriage entered into in which either person has not attained the age of seventeen years is void except where this section has been waived by a superior court judge of the county in which one of the parties resides on a showing of necessity . Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Age_of_marriage_in_the_United_States&oldid=857054274 '' Categories : Adolescence in the United States Law - related lists Marriage , unions and partnerships in the United States Minimum ages Sex laws Statutory law Youth rights in the United States Hidden categories : All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from June 2017 Articles with unsourced statements from October 2015 Talk About Wikipedia Deutsch Edit links This page was last edited on 29 August 2018 , at 07 : 47 ( UTC ) . About Wikipedia

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what's the difference between russia and siberia

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Siberia&oldid=854125397

Siberia - wikipedia Siberia `` Siberian '' redirects here . For the Federal district , see Siberian Federal District . For other uses , see Siberia ( disambiguation ) and Siberian ( disambiguation ) . Coordinates : 60 ° 0 ′ N 105 ° 0 ′ E  /  60.000 ° N 105.000 ° E  / 60.000 ; 105.000 Siberia Russian : Сибирь ( Sibir ) Geographical region Siberian Federal District Geographic Russian Siberia North Asia Country Russia , Kazakhstan Region North Asia , Eurasia Borders on West : Ural Mountains North : Arctic Ocean East : Pacific Ocean South : Kazakhstan , Mongolia , China Parts West Siberian Plain Central Siberian Plateau others ... Highest point Klyuchevskaya Sopka - elevation 4,649 m ( 15,253 ft ) Area 13,100,000 km ( 5,057,938 sq mi ) Population 36,000,000 ( 2017 ) Density 2.7 / km ( 7 / sq mi ) Siberia ( / saɪˈbɪəriə / ; Russian : Сиби́рь , tr . Sibir ' , IPA : ( sjɪˈbjirj ) ( listen ) ) is an extensive geographical region , and by the broadest definition is also known as Eurasia and North Asia . Siberia has historically been a part of modern Russia since the 16th and 17th centuries . The territory of Siberia extends eastwards from the Ural Mountains to the watershed between the Pacific and Arctic drainage basins . The Yenisei River conditionally divides Siberia into two parts , Western and Eastern . Siberia stretches southwards from the Arctic Ocean to the hills of north - central Kazakhstan and to the national borders of Mongolia and China . With an area of 13.1 million square kilometres ( 5,100,000 sq mi ) , Siberia accounts for 77 % of Russia 's land area , but it is home to approximately 36 million people -- 27 % of the country 's population . This is equivalent to an average population density of about 3 inhabitants per square kilometre ( 7.8 / sq mi ) ( approximately equal to that of Australia ) , making Siberia one of the most sparsely populated regions on Earth . If it were a country by itself , it would still be the largest country in area , but in population it would be the world 's 35th - largest and Asia 's 14th - largest . Worldwide , Siberia is well known primarily for its long , harsh winters , with a January average of − 25 ° C ( − 13 ° F ) , as well as its extensive history of use by Russian and Soviet administrations as a place for prisons , labour camps , and exile . Contents 1 Etymology 2 Prehistory 3 History 4 Geography 4.1 Mountain ranges 4.2 Lakes and rivers 4.3 Grasslands 4.4 Geology 4.5 Climate 5 Fauna 5.1 Order Artiodactyla 5.2 Order Carnivora 5.2. 1 Family Felidae 5.2. 2 Family Ursidae 6 Flora 7 Politics 8 Borders and administrative division 8.1 Major cities 9 Economy 10 Sport 11 Demographics 12 Religion 13 Transport 14 Culture 14.1 Cuisine 15 See also 16 References 17 Bibliography Etymology ( edit ) The origin of the name is unknown . Some sources say that `` Siberia '' originates from the Siberian Tatar word for `` sleeping land '' ( Sib Ir ) . Another account sees the name as the ancient tribal ethnonym of the Sirtya ( ru ) ( also `` Syopyr '' ( sjɵpᵻr ) ) , an ethnic group which spoke a language that later evolved into the Ugric languages . The Sirtya people were later assimilated into the Siberian Tatars . The modern usage of the name was recorded in the Russian language after the Empire 's conquest of the Siberian Khanate . A further variant claims that the region was named after the Xibe people . The Polish historian Chycliczkowski has proposed that the name derives from the proto - Slavic word for `` north '' ( север , sever ) , but Anatole Baikaloff has dismissed this explanation . He said that the neighbouring Chinese , Turks , and Mongolians , who have similar names for the region , would not have known Russian . He suggests that the name might be a combination of two words with Turkic origin , `` su '' ( water ) and `` bir '' ( wild land ) . Prehistory ( edit ) The region has paleontological significance , as it contains bodies of prehistoric animals from the Pleistocene Epoch , preserved in ice or in permafrost . Specimens of Goldfuss cave lion cubs , Yuka ( mammoth ) and another woolly mammoth from Oymyakon , a woolly rhinoceros from the Kolyma River , and bison and horses from Yukagir have been found . The Siberian Traps were formed by one of the largest - known volcanic events of the last 500 million years of Earth 's geological history . Their activity continued for a million years and some scientists consider it a possible cause of the `` Great Dying '' about 250 million years ago , -- estimated to have killed 90 % of species existing at the time . At least three species of human lived in Southern Siberia around 40,000 years ago : H. sapiens , H. neanderthalensis , and the Denisovans . In 2010 DNA evidence identified the last as a separate species . History ( edit ) Main articles : History of Siberia and List of Russian explorers Chukchi , one of many indigenous peoples of Siberia Siberia was inhabited by different groups of nomads such as the Enets , the Nenets , the Huns , the Scythians and the Uyghurs . The Khan of Sibir in the vicinity of modern Tobolsk was known as a prominent figure who endorsed Kubrat as Khagan of Old Great Bulgaria in 630 . The Mongols conquered a large part of this area early in the 13th century . The map of the Siberian route in the 18th century ( green ) and the early 19th century ( red ) . With the breakup of the Golden Horde , the autonomous Khanate of Sibir was established in the late 15th century . Turkic - speaking Yakut migrated north from the Lake Baikal region under pressure from the Mongol tribes during the 13th to 15th century . Siberia remained a sparsely populated area . Historian John F. Richards wrote : `` ... it is doubtful that the total early modern Siberian population exceeded 300,000 persons . '' The growing power of Russia in the West began to undermine the Siberian Khanate in the 16th century . First , groups of traders and Cossacks began to enter the area . The Russian Army was directed to establish forts farther and farther east to protect new settlers from European Russia . Towns such as Mangazeya , Tara , Yeniseysk and Tobolsk were developed , the last being declared the capital of Siberia . At this time , Sibir was the name of a fortress at Qashlik , near Tobolsk . Gerardus Mercator , in a map published in 1595 , marks Sibier both as the name of a settlement and of the surrounding territory along a left tributary of the Ob . Other sources contend that the Xibe , an indigenous Tungusic people , offered fierce resistance to Russian expansion beyond the Urals . Some suggest that the term `` Siberia '' is a Russification of their ethnonym . By the mid-17th century , Russia had established areas of control that extended to the Pacific . Some 230,000 Russians had settled in Siberia by 1709 . Siberia was a destination for sending exiles . The first great modern change in Siberia was the Trans - Siberian Railway , constructed during 1891 -- 1916 . It linked Siberia more closely to the rapidly industrialising Russia of Nicholas II . Around seven million people moved to Siberia from European Russia between 1801 and 1914 . From 1859 to 1917 , more than half a million people migrated to the Russian Far East . Siberia has extensive natural resources . During the 20th century , large - scale exploitation of these was developed , and industrial towns cropped up throughout the region . Siberian Cossack family in Novosibirsk At 7 : 15 a.m. on 30 June 1908 , millions of trees were felled near the Podkamennaya Tunguska ( Stony Tunguska ) River in central Siberia in the Tunguska Event . Most scientists believe this resulted from the air burst of a meteor or a comet . Even though no crater has ever been found , the landscape in the ( sparsely inhabited ) area still bears the scars of this event . In the early decades of the Soviet Union ( especially the 1930s and 1940s ) , the government established the GULAG state agency to administer a system of penal labour camps , replacing the previous katorga system . According to semi-official Soviet estimates , which were not made public until after the fall of the Soviet government , from 1929 to 1953 more than 14 million people passed through these camps and prisons , many of which were in Siberia . Another seven to eight million people were internally deported to remote areas of the Soviet Union ( including entire nationalities or ethnicities in several cases ) . Half a million ( 516,841 ) prisoners died in camps from 1941 to 1943 due to food shortages caused by World War II . At other periods , mortality was comparatively lower . The size , scope , and scale of the GULAG slave labour camps remains a subject of much research and debate . Many Gulag camps were positioned in extremely remote areas of northeastern Siberia . The best known clusters are Sevvostlag ( The North - East Camps ) along the Kolyma River and Norillag near Norilsk , where 69,000 prisoners were kept in 1952 . Major industrial cities of Northern Siberia , such as Norilsk and Magadan , developed from camps built by prisoners and run by former prisoners . Geography ( edit ) Further information : Geography of Russia and Geography of North Asia Gulf of Ob Novaya Zemlya Kara Sea Yenisei Ob Taymyr Peninsula Severnaya Zemlya Arctic Ocean Central Siberian Plateau Siberian Federal District Lena Sakha Republic Laptev Sea New Siberian Islands Kolyma Verkhoyansk Range Urals Federal District Kazakhstan Ob Irtysh Altai Tian Shan Syr Darya Taklamakan Himalayas Pamir Hindukush Tibetan Lake Baikal Mongolia Gobi North China Plain Yangtze Plain Plateau Stanovoy Range Manchuria Korea Sakhalin Amur Sea of Okhotsk Japan Pacific Ocean Physical map of Northern Asia . Altai , Lake Kutsherla in the Altai Mountains The peninsula of Svyatoy Nos , Lake Baikal Vasyugan River in the southern West Siberian Plain Siberian taiga Koryaksky volcano towering over Petropavlovsk - Kamchatsky on the Kamchatka Peninsula With an area of 13.1 million square kilometres ( 5,100,000 sq mi ) , Siberia makes up roughly 77 % of Russia 's total territory and almost 10 % of Earth 's land surface ( 148,940,000 km , 57,510,000 sq mi ) . While Siberia falls entirely within Asia , many authorities such as the UN geoscheme will not subdivide countries and will place all of Russia as part of Europe and / or Eastern Europe . Major geographical zones include the West Siberian Plain and the Central Siberian Plateau . Eastern and central Sakha comprises numerous north - south mountain ranges of various ages . These mountains extend up to almost 3,000 metres ( 9,800 ft ) , but above a few hundred metres they are almost completely devoid of vegetation . The Verkhoyansk Range was extensively glaciated in the Pleistocene , but the climate was too dry for glaciation to extend to low elevations . At these low elevations are numerous valleys , many of them deep and covered with larch forest , except in the extreme north where the tundra dominates . Soils are mainly turbels ( a type of gelisol ) . The active layer tends to be less than one metre deep , except near rivers . The highest point in Siberia is the active volcano Klyuchevskaya Sopka , on the Kamchatka Peninsula . Its peak is at 4,750 metres ( 15,580 ft ) . Mountain ranges ( edit ) Altai Mountains Anadyr Range Baikal Mountains Chamar - Daban Chersky Range Dzhugdzhur Mountains Gydan Mountains Koryak Mountains Sayan Mountains Tannu - Ola Mountains Ural Mountains Verkhoyansk Mountains Yablonoi Mountains Lakes and rivers ( edit ) Main article : Rivers in Russia Anabar River Angara River Indigirka River Irtysh River Kolyma River Lake Baikal Lena River Lower Tunguska River Novosibirsk Reservoir Ob River Popigay River Stony Tunguska River Upper Angara River Uvs Nuur Yana River Yenisei River Grasslands ( edit ) Ukok Plateau -- part of a UNESCO World Heritage Site Geology ( edit ) The West Siberian Plain consists mostly of Cenozoic alluvial deposits and is somewhat flat . Many deposits on this plain result from ice dams which produced a large glacial lake . This mid - to late - Pleistocene lake blocked the northward flow of the Ob and Yenisei rivers , resulting in a redirection southwest into the Caspian and Aral seas via the Turgai Valley . The area is very swampy , and soils are mostly peaty histosols and , in the treeless northern part , histels . In the south of the plain , where permafrost is largely absent , rich grasslands that are an extension of the Kazakh Steppe formed the original vegetation , most of which is no longer visible . The Central Siberian Plateau is an ancient craton ( sometimes named Angaraland ) that formed an independent continent before the Permian ( see the Siberian continent ) . It is exceptionally rich in minerals , containing large deposits of gold , diamonds , and ores of manganese , lead , zinc , nickel , cobalt and molybdenum . Much of the area includes the Siberian Traps -- a large igneous province . This massive eruptive period was approximately coincident with the Permian -- Triassic extinction event . The volcanic event is said to be the largest known volcanic eruption in Earth 's history . Only the extreme northwest was glaciated during the Quaternary , but almost all is under exceptionally deep permafrost , and the only tree that can thrive , despite the warm summers , is the deciduous Siberian Larch ( Larix sibirica ) with its very shallow roots . Outside the extreme northwest , the taiga is dominant , covering a significant fraction of the entirety of Siberia . Soils here are mainly turbels , giving way to spodosols where the active layer becomes thicker and the ice content lower . Belukha Mountain Autumn forest in the eastern Sayan Mountains , Buryatia The Lena - Tunguska petroleum province includes the Central Siberian platform ( some authors refer to it as the Eastern Siberian platform ) , bounded on the northeast and east by the Late Carboniferous through Jurassic Verkhoyansk foldbelt , on the northwest by the Paleozoic Taymr foldbelt , and on the southeast , south and southwest by the Middle Silurian to Middle Devonian Baykalian foldbelt . A regional geologic reconnaissance study begun in 1932 , followed by surface and subsurface mapping , revealed the Markova - Angara Arch ( anticline ) . This led to the discovery of the Markovo Oil Field in 1962 with the Markovo 1 well , which produced from the Early Cambrian Osa Horizon bar - sandstone at a depth of 2,156 metres ( 7,073 ft ) . The Sredne - Botuobin Gas Field was discovered in 1970 , producing from the Osa and the Proterozoic Parfenovo Horizon . The Yaraktin Oil Field was discovered in 1971 , producing from the Vendian Yaraktin Horizon at depths of up to 1,750 metres ( 5,740 ft ) , which lies below Permian to Lower Jurassic basalt traps . Climate ( edit ) Main article : Climate of Russia polar desert tundra alpine tundra taiga montane forest temperate broadleaf forest temperate steppe dry steppe Vegetation in Siberia is mostly taiga , with a tundra belt on the northern fringe , and a temperate forest zone in the south . The climate of Siberia varies dramatically , but it typically has short summers and long , brutally cold winters . On the north coast , north of the Arctic Circle , there is a very short ( about one - month - long ) summer . Taiga near Lake Baikal Almost all the population lives in the south , along the Trans - Siberian Railway . The climate in this southernmost part is Humid continental climate ( Köppen Dfb ) with cold winters but fairly warm summers lasting at least four months . The annual average is about 0.5 ° C ( 32.9 ° F ) . January averages about − 20 ° C ( − 4 ° F ) and July about + 19 ° C ( 66 ° F ) while daytime temperatures in summer typically are above 20 ° C ( 68 ° F ) . With a reliable growing season , an abundance of sunshine and exceedingly fertile chernozem soils , southern Siberia is good enough for profitable agriculture , as was proven in the early 20th century . By far the most commonly occurring climate in Siberia is continental subarctic ( Koppen Dfc or Dwc ) , with the annual average temperature about − 5 ° C ( 23 ° F ) and an average for January of − 25 ° C ( − 13 ° F ) and an average for July of + 17 ° C ( 63 ° F ) , although this varies considerably , with a July average about 10 ° C ( 50 ° F ) in the taiga -- tundra ecotone . The Business oriented website and blog Business Insider lists Verkhoyansk and Oymyakon , in Siberia 's Sakha Republic , as being in competition for the title of the Northern Hemisphere 's Pole of Cold . Oymyakon is a village which recorded a temperature of − 67.7 ° C ( − 89.9 ° F ) on 6 February 1933 . Verkhoyansk , a town further north and further inland , recorded a temperature of − 69.8 ° C ( − 93.6 ° F ) for 3 consecutive nights : 5 , 6 and 7 February 1933 . Each town is alternately considered the Northern Hemisphere 's Pole of Cold , meaning the coldest inhabited point in the Northern hemisphere . Each town also frequently reaches 86 ° F ( 30 ° C ) in the summer , giving them , and much of the rest of Russian Siberia , the world 's greatest temperature variation between summer 's highs and winter 's lows , often being well over 170 -- 180 + ° F ( 94 -- 100 + ° C ) between the seasons . Southwesterly winds bring warm air from Central Asia and the Middle East . The climate in West Siberia ( Omsk , Novosibirsk ) is several degrees warmer than in the East ( Irkutsk , Chita ) where in the north an extreme winter subarctic climate ( Köppen Dfd or Dwd ) prevails . But summer temperatures in other regions can reach + 38 ° C ( 100 ° F ) . In general , Sakha is the coldest Siberian region , and the basin of the Yana River has the lowest temperatures of all , with permafrost reaching 1,493 metres ( 4,898 ft ) . Nevertheless , as far as Imperial Russian plans of settlement were concerned , cold was never viewed as an impediment . In the winter , southern Siberia sits near the center of the semi-permanent Siberian High , so winds are usually light in the winter . Precipitation in Siberia is generally low , exceeding 500 millimetres ( 20 in ) only in Kamchatka where moist winds flow from the Sea of Okhotsk onto high mountains -- producing the region 's only major glaciers , though volcanic eruptions and low summer temperatures allow limited forests to grow . Precipitation is high also in most of Primorye in the extreme south where monsoonal influences can produce quite heavy summer rainfall . hide Climate data for Novosibirsk , Siberia 's largest city Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year Average high ° C ( ° F ) − 12.2 ( 10 ) − 10.3 ( 13.5 ) − 2.6 ( 27.3 ) 8.1 ( 46.6 ) 17.5 ( 63.5 ) 24.0 ( 75.2 ) 25.7 ( 78.3 ) 22.2 ( 72 ) 16.6 ( 61.9 ) 6.8 ( 44.2 ) − 2.9 ( 26.8 ) − 8.9 ( 16 ) 7.0 ( 44.6 ) Daily mean ° C ( ° F ) − 16.2 ( 2.8 ) − 14.7 ( 5.5 ) − 7.2 ( 19 ) 3.2 ( 37.8 ) 11.6 ( 52.9 ) 18.2 ( 64.8 ) 20.2 ( 68.4 ) 17.0 ( 62.6 ) 11.5 ( 52.7 ) 3.4 ( 38.1 ) − 6.0 ( 21.2 ) − 12.7 ( 9.1 ) 2.4 ( 36.3 ) Average low ° C ( ° F ) − 20.1 ( − 4.2 ) − 19.1 ( − 2.4 ) − 11.8 ( 10.8 ) − 1.7 ( 28.9 ) 5.6 ( 42.1 ) 12.3 ( 54.1 ) 14.7 ( 58.5 ) 11.7 ( 53.1 ) 6.4 ( 43.5 ) 0.0 ( 32 ) − 9.1 ( 15.6 ) − 16.4 ( 2.5 ) − 2.3 ( 27.9 ) Average precipitation mm ( inches ) 19 ( 0.75 ) 14 ( 0.55 ) 15 ( 0.59 ) 24 ( 0.94 ) 36 ( 1.42 ) 58 ( 2.28 ) 72 ( 2.83 ) 66 ( 2.6 ) 44 ( 1.73 ) 38 ( 1.5 ) 32 ( 1.26 ) 24 ( 0.94 ) 442 ( 17.4 ) Source : Researchers , including Sergei Kirpotin at Tomsk State University and Judith Marquand at Oxford University , warn that Western Siberia has begun to thaw as a result of global warming . The frozen peat bogs in this region may hold billions of tons of methane gas , which may be released into the atmosphere . Methane is a greenhouse gas 22 times more powerful than carbon dioxide . In 2008 , a research expedition for the American Geophysical Union detected levels of methane up to 100 times above normal in the atmosphere above the Siberian Arctic , likely the result of methane clathrates being released through holes in a frozen ' lid ' of seabed permafrost , around the outfall of the Lena River and the area between the Laptev Sea and East Siberian Sea . Fauna ( edit ) A Siberian tigress and cub . Order Artiodactyla ( edit ) Manchurian wapiti Siberian musk deer Order Carnivora ( edit ) Family Felidae ( edit ) Amur leopard Amur tiger Family Ursidae ( edit ) Asian black bear Brown bear Polar bear Flora ( edit ) Picea obovata Pinus pumila Politics ( edit ) Main article : Siberian regionalism Siberian flag used by Siberian separatists Borders and administrative Division ( edit ) Map of the most populated area of Siberia with clickable city names ( SVG ) Comparison of the nine biggest Siberian cities ' growth in the 20th century The term `` Siberia '' has a long history . Its meaning has gradually changed during ages . Historically , Siberia was defined as the whole part of Russia to the east of Ural Mountains , including the Russian Far East . According to this definition , Siberia extended eastward from the Ural Mountains to the Pacific coast , and southward from the Arctic Ocean to the border of Russian Central Asia and the national borders of both Mongolia and China . Soviet - era sources ( Great Soviet Encyclopedia and others ) and modern Russian ones usually define Siberia as a region extending eastward from the Ural Mountains to the watershed between Pacific and Arctic drainage basins , and southward from the Arctic Ocean to the hills of north - central Kazakhstan and the national borders of both Mongolia and China . By this definition , Siberia includes the federal subjects of the Siberian Federal District , and some of the Ural Federal District , as well as Sakha ( Yakutia ) Republic , which is a part of the Far Eastern Federal District . Geographically , this definition includes subdivisions of several other subjects of Urals and Far Eastern federal districts , but they are not included administratively . This definition excludes Sverdlovsk Oblast and Chelyabinsk Oblast , both of which are included in some wider definitions of Siberia . Other sources may use either a somewhat wider definition that states the Pacific coast , not the watershed , is the eastern boundary ( thus including the whole Russian Far East ) or a somewhat narrower one that limits Siberia to the Siberian Federal District ( thus excluding all subjects of other districts ) . In Russian , the word for Siberia is used as a substitute for the name of the federal district by those who live in the district itself and less commonly used to denote the federal district by people residing outside of it . Ulan - Ude Novosibirsk is the largest city in Siberia Federal subjects of Siberia ( GSE ) Subject Administrative center Ural Federal District Khanty -- Mansi Autonomous Okrug Khanty - Mansiysk Kurgan Oblast Kurgan Tyumen Oblast Tyumen Yamalo - Nenets Autonomous Okrug Salekhard Siberian Federal District Altai Krai Barnaul Altai Republic Gorno - Altaysk Buryat Republic Ulan - Ude Irkutsk Oblast Irkutsk Republic of Khakassia Abakan Kemerovo Oblast Kemerovo Krasnoyarsk Krai Krasnoyarsk Novosibirsk Oblast Novosibirsk Omsk Oblast Omsk Tomsk Oblast Tomsk Tuva Republic Kyzyl Zabaykalsky Krai Chita Far Eastern Federal District Sakha ( Yakutia ) Republic Yakutsk Amur waterfront in Khabarovsk Vladivostok , Primorsky Krai Yakutsk is the capital of the Sakha Republic Federal subjects of Siberia ( in wide sense ) Subject Administrative center Far Eastern Federal District Amur Oblast Blagoveshchensk Chukotka Autonomous Okrug Anadyr Jewish Autonomous Oblast Birobidzhan Kamchatka Krai Petropavlovsk - Kamchatsky Khabarovsk Krai Khabarovsk Magadan Oblast Magadan Primorsky Krai Vladivostok Sakhalin Oblast Yuzhno - Sakhalinsk Ural Federal District Chelyabinsk Oblast Chelyabinsk Sverdlovsk Oblast Yekaterinburg Major cities ( edit ) The most populous city of Siberia , as well as the third most populous city of Russia , is the city of Novosibirsk . Other major cities include : Barnaul Irkutsk Kemerovo Krasnoyarsk Novokuznetsk Omsk Tomsk Tyumen Wider definitions of Siberia also include : Chelyabinsk Khabarovsk Vladivostok Yekaterinburg - Some sources such as Encyclopædia Britannica include this city as it lies in the Ural Mountains . Inhabitants have distanced themselves though saying that there is a difference between Siberian and Urals culture . Economy ( edit ) Russia is a key oil and gas supplier to much of Europe . Siberia is extraordinarily rich in minerals , containing ores of almost all economically valuable metals . It has some of the world 's largest deposits of nickel , gold , lead , coal , molybdenum , gypsum , diamonds , diopside , silver and zinc , as well as extensive unexploited resources of oil and natural gas . Around 70 % of Russia 's developed oil fields are in the Khanty - Mansiysk region . Russia contains about 40 % of the world 's known resources of nickel at the Norilsk deposit in Siberia . Norilsk Nickel is the world 's biggest nickel and palladium producer . Siberian agriculture is severely restricted by the short growing season of most of the region . However , in the southwest where soils are exceedingly fertile black earths and the climate is a little more moderate , there is extensive cropping of wheat , barley , rye and potatoes , along with the grazing of large numbers of sheep and cattle . Elsewhere food production , owing to the poor fertility of the podzolic soils and the extremely short growing seasons , is restricted to the herding of reindeer in the tundra -- which has been practiced by natives for over 10,000 years . Siberia has the world 's largest forests . Timber remains an important source of revenue , even though many forests in the east have been logged much more rapidly than they are able to recover . The Sea of Okhotsk is one of the two or three richest fisheries in the world owing to its cold currents and very large tidal ranges , and thus Siberia produces over 10 % of the world 's annual fish catch , although fishing has declined somewhat since the collapse of the USSR . While the development of renewable energy in Russia is held back by the lack of a conducive government policy framework , Siberia still offers special opportunities for off - grid renewable energy developments . Remote parts of Siberia are too costly to connect to central electricity and gas grids , and have therefore historically been supplied with costly diesel , sometimes flown in by helicopter . In such cases renewable energy is often cheaper . Sport ( edit ) Bandy at Sibselmash Stadium in Novosibirsk , Siberia 's biggest city and the third biggest one in Russia Professional football teams include FC Tom Tomsk , FC Sibir Novosibirsk and FK Yenisey Krasnoyarsk . The Yenisey Krasnoyarsk basketball team has played in the VTB United League since 2011 -- 12 . Russia 's third most popular sport , bandy , is important in Siberia . In the 2015 -- 16 Russian Bandy Super League season Yenisey from Krasnoyarsk became champions for the third year in a row by beating Baykal - Energiya from Irkutsk in the final . Two or three more teams ( depending on the definition of Siberia ) play in the Super League , the 2016 - 17 champions SKA - Neftyanik from Khabarovsk as well as Kuzbass from Kemerovo and Sibselmash from Novosibirsk . In 2007 Kemerovo got Russia 's first indoor arena specifically built for bandy . Now Khabarovsk has the world 's biggest indoor arena specifically built for bandy , Arena Yerofey . It will be the venue for Division A of the 2018 World Championship . The 2019 Winter Universiade will be hosted by Krasnoyarsk . Demographics ( edit ) Main article : Demographics of Siberia Tomsk , one of the oldest Siberian cities , was founded in 1604 . According to the Russian Census of 2010 , the Siberian and Far Eastern Federal Districts , located entirely east of the Ural Mountains , together have a population of about 25.6 million . Tyumen and Kurgan Oblasts , which are geographically in Siberia but administratively part of the Urals Federal District , together have a population of about 4.3 million . Thus , the whole region of Asian Russia ( or Siberia in the broadest usage of the term ) is home to approximately 30 million people . It has a population density of about three people per square kilometre . All Siberians are Russian citizens , and of these Russian citizens of Siberia , most are Slavic - origin Russians and russified Ukrainians . The remaining Russian citizens of Siberia consists of other groups of non-indigenous ethnic origins and those of indigenous Siberian origin . Among the largest non-Slavic group of Russian citizens of Siberia are the approximately 400,000 ethnic Volga Germans . The original indigenous groups of Siberia , including Mongol and Turkic groups such as Buryats , Tuvinians , Yakuts , and Siberian Tatars still mostly reside in Siberia , though they are minorities outnumbered by all other non-indigenous Siberians . Indeed , Slavic - origin Russians by themselves outnumber all of the indigenous peoples combined , both in Siberia as a whole and its cities , except in the Republic of Tuva . Slavic - origin Russians make up the majority in the Buryat , Sakha , and Altai Republics , outnumbering the indigenous Buryats , Sakha , and Altai . The Buryat make up only 25 % of their own republic , and the Sakha and Altai each are only one - third , and the Chukchi , Evenk , Khanti , Mansi , and Nenets are outnumbered by non-indigenous peoples by 90 % of the population . According to the 2002 census there are 500,000 Tatars in Siberia , but of these , 300,000 are Volga Tatars who also settled in Siberia during periods of colonization and are thus also non-indigenous Siberians , in contrast to the 200,000 Siberian Tatars which are indigenous to Siberia . Of the indigenous Siberians , the Buryats , numbering approximately 500,000 , are the most numerous group in Siberia , and they are mainly concentrated in their homeland , the Buryat Republic . According to the 2002 census there were 443,852 indigenous Yakuts . Other ethnic groups indigenous to Siberia include Kets , Evenks , Chukchis , Koryaks , Yupiks , and Yukaghirs . About seventy percent of Siberia 's people live in cities , mainly in apartments . Many people also live in rural areas , in simple , spacious , log houses . Novosibirsk is the largest city in Siberia , with a population of about 1.5 million . Tobolsk , Tomsk , Tyumen , Krasnoyarsk , Irkutsk , and Omsk are the older , historical centers . Religion ( edit ) Transfiguration Cathedral , Khabarovsk See also : Shamanism in Siberia and Religion in Russia There are a variety of beliefs throughout Siberia , including Orthodox Christianity , other denominations of Christianity , Tibetan Buddhism and Islam . The Siberian Federal District alone has an estimation of 250,000 Muslims . An estimated 70,000 Jews live in Siberia , some in the Jewish Autonomous Region . The predominant religious group is the Russian Orthodox Church . Tradition regards Siberia the archetypal home of shamanism , and polytheism is popular . These native sacred practices are considered by the tribes to be very ancient . There are records of Siberian tribal healing practices dating back to the 13th century . The vast territory of Siberia has many different local traditions of gods . These include : Ak Ana , Anapel , Bugady Musun , Kara Khan , Khaltesh - Anki , Kini'je , Ku'urkil , Nga , Nu'tenut , Numi - Torem , Numi - Turum , Pon , Pugu , Todote , Toko'yoto , Tomam , Xaya Iccita , Zonget . Places with sacred areas include Olkhon , an island in Lake Baikal . Transport ( edit ) Many cities in northern Siberia , such as Petropavlovsk - Kamchatsky , can not be reached by road , as there are virtually none connecting from other major cities in Russia or Asia . The best way to tour Siberia is through the Trans - Siberian Railway . The Trans - Siberian Railway operates from Moscow in the west to Vladivostok in the east . Cities that are located far from the railway are best reached by air or by the separate Baikal - Amur - Railway ( BAM ) . Culture ( edit ) Cuisine ( edit ) Stroganina is a raw fish dish of the indigenous people of northern Arctic Siberia made from raw , thin , long - sliced frozen fish . It is a popular dish with native Siberians . See also ( edit ) Siberian regionalism References ( edit ) Jump up ^ `` Great Soviet Encyclopedia ( in Russian ) '' . Encycl.yandex.ru . Archived from the original on 12 July 2012 . Retrieved 15 May 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Arctic Oscillation and Polar Vortex Analysis and Forecasts '' . AER . Retrieved 2018 - 05 - 20 . Jump up ^ Euan Ferguson . `` Trans - Siberian for softies '' . the Guardian . Retrieved 14 January 2016 . Jump up ^ Crossley , Pamela Kyle ( 2002 ) . The Manchus . Peoples of Asia . 14 ( 3rd ed . ) . Wiley - Blackwell . p. 213 . ISBN 0 - 631 - 23591 - 4 . Retrieved 28 December 2013 . Jump up ^ Czaplicka , M.C. ( 1915 ) . Aboriginal Siberia . Jump up ^ Baikaloff , Anatole ( Dec 1950 ) . `` Notes on the origin of the name `` Siberia '' `` . Slavonic and East European Review . 29 ( 72 ) : 288 . Jump up ^ `` Meet this extinct cave lion , at least 10,000 years old -- world exclusive '' . siberiantimes.com . Retrieved 2016 - 01 - 30 . Jump up ^ `` '' Yellowstone 's Super Sister `` '' . Archived from the original on 14 March 2005 . Retrieved 17 April 2010 . ( ... ) the Siberian Traps is the prime suspect in wiping out 90 percent of all living species 251 million years ago -- the most severe extinction event in Earth 's history ... Discovery Channel . Jump up ^ Benton , M.J. ( 2005 ) . When Life Nearly Died : The Greatest Mass Extinction of All Time . Thames & Hudson . ISBN 978 - 0 - 500 - 28573 - 2 . Jump up ^ `` DNA identifies new ancient human dubbed ' X-woman ' , '' BBC News . 25 March 2010 . Jump up ^ Pakendorf , B. ; Novgorodov , I.N. ; Osakovskij , V.L. ; Danilova , A.B.P. ; Protod'Jakonov , A.P. ; Stoneking , M. ( 2006 ) . `` Investigating the effects of prehistoric migrations in Siberia : Genetic variation and the origins of Yakuts '' . Human Genetics . 120 ( 3 ) : 334 -- 353 . doi : 10.1007 / s00439 - 006 - 0213 - 2 . PMID 16845541 . This article incorporates text from this source , which is in the public domain . Jump up ^ Richards , 2003 p. 538 . Jump up ^ Asia ex magna Orbis terrae descriptione Gerardi Mercatoris desumpta , studio & industria G.M. Iunioris Jump up ^ Sean C. Goodlett . `` Russia 's Expansionist Policies I . The Conquest of Siberia '' . Falcon.fsc.edu . Archived from the original on 11 May 2011 . Retrieved 15 May 2010 . Jump up ^ https://www.economist.com/news/books-and-arts/21705305-prison-without-roof?fsrc=scn/tw/te/pe/ed/prisonwithoutaroof https://twitter.com/TheEconomist/status/768263225708257284 Jump up ^ `` Review : The Great Siberian Migration : Government and Peasant in Resettlement from Emancipation to the First World War '' . Retrieved 14 January 2016 . Jump up ^ The Russian Far East : A History . John J. Stephan ( 1996 ) . Stanford University Press . p. 62 . ISBN 0 - 8047 - 2701 - 5 Jump up ^ Fiona Hill , Russia -- Coming In From the Cold ? Archived 24 April 2013 at the Wayback Machine. , The Globalist , 23 February 2004 Jump up ^ The Unknown Gulag : The Lost World of Stalin 's Special Settlements . Lynne Viola ( 2007 ) . Oxford University Press US . p. 3 . ISBN 0 - 19 - 518769 - 5 Jump up ^ Robert Conquest in `` Victims of Stalinism : A Comment , '' Europe - Asia Studies , Vol. 49 , No. 7 ( Nov. 1997 ) , pp. 1317 -- 1319 states : `` We are all inclined to accept the Zemskov totals ( even if not as complete ) with their 14 million intake to Gulag ' camps ' alone , to which must be added four to five million going to Gulag ' colonies ' , to say nothing of the 3.5 million already in , or sent to , ' labour settlements ' . However taken , these are surely ' high ' figures . '' Jump up ^ Zemskov , `` Gulag , '' Sociologičeskije issledovanija , 1991 , No. 6 , pp. 14 -- 15 . Jump up ^ Stéphane Courtois , Mark Kramer . Livre noir du Communisme : crimes , terreur , répression . Harvard University Press , 1999 . p. 206 . ISBN 0 - 674 - 07608 - 7 Jump up ^ Courtois and Kramer ( 1999 ) , Livre noir du Communisme , p. 239 . Jump up ^ `` Gulag : a History of the Soviet Camps '' . Arlindo-correia.org . Retrieved 6 January 2009 . Jump up ^ `` Altai : Saving the Pearl of Siberia '' . Archived from the original on 22 March 2007 . Retrieved 30 November 2006 . Jump up ^ Lioubimtseva E.U. , Gorshkov S.P. & Adams J.M. ; A Giant Siberian Lake During the Last Glacial : Evidence and Implications ; Oak Ridge National laboratory Archived 13 December 2006 at the Wayback Machine . Jump up ^ C. Michael Hogan . 2011 . Taiga . eds . M. McGinley & C. Cleveland . Encyclopedia of Earth . National Council for Science and the Environment . Washington DC ^ Jump up to : Meyerhof , A.A. , 1980 , `` Geology and Petroleum Fields in Proterozoic and Lower Cambrian Strata , Lena - Tunguska Petroleum Province , Eastern Siberia , USSR '' , in Giant Oil and Gas Fields of the Decade : 1968 -- 1978 , AAPG Memoir 30 , Halbouty , M.T. , editor , Tulsa : American Association of Petroleum Geologists , ISBN 0891813063 Jump up ^ `` Novosibirsk climate '' . Worldclimate.com. 4 February 2007 . Retrieved 15 May 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Omsk climate '' . Worldclimate.com. 4 February 2007 . Retrieved 15 May 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Kazachengoye climate '' . Worldclimate.com. 4 February 2007 . Retrieved 15 May 2010 . Jump up ^ Business Insider , February 2014 , http://www.businessinsider.com/verkhoyansk-russia-most-miserable-place-2014-2 Jump up ^ Гидрометцентр России ( in Russian ) . Archived from the original on 27 June 2008 . Retrieved 8 January 2009 . Jump up ^ Ian Sample , `` Warming hits ' tipping point ' '' . The Guardian , 11 August 2005 Jump up ^ Connor , Steve ( 23 September 2008 ) . `` Exclusive : The methane time bomb '' . The Independent . Retrieved 3 October 2008 . Jump up ^ N. Shakhova , I. Semiletov , A. Salyuk , D. Kosmach , and N. Bel'cheva ( 2007 ) , Methane release on the Arctic East Siberian shelf , Geophysical Research Abstracts , 9 , 01071 Jump up ^ Valerius Geist ( January 1998 ) . Deer of the World : Their Evolution , Behaviour , and Ecology . Stackpole Books . p. 211 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 8117 - 0496 - 0 . Retrieved 30 January 2016 . Jump up ^ Nyambayar , B. ; Mix , H. & Tsytsulina , K. ( 2008 ) . `` Moschus moschiferus '' . IUCN Red List of Threatened Species . Version 2008 . International Union for Conservation of Nature . Retrieved 30 January 2016 . Database entry includes a brief justification of why this species is of vulnerable . Jump up ^ Uphyrkina , O. ; Miquelle , D. ; Quigley , H. ; Driscoll , C. ; O'Brien , S.J. ( 2002 ) . `` Conservation Genetics of the Far Eastern Leopard ( Panthera pardus orientalis ) '' ( PDF ) . Journal of Heredity. 93 ( 5 ) : 303 -- 11 . doi : 10.1093 / jhered / 93.5. 303 . PMID 12547918 . Retrieved 30 January 2016 . Jump up ^ Miquelle , D. ; Darman , Y. ; Seryodkin , I. ( 2011 ) . `` Panthera tigris ssp . altaica '' . IUCN Red List of Threatened Species . Version 2014.2 . International Union for Conservation of Nature . Retrieved 30 January 2016 . Jump up ^ Garshelis , D.L. ; Steinmetz , R. & IUCN SSC Bear Specialist Group ( 2008 ) . `` Ursus thibetanus '' . IUCN Red List of Threatened Species . Version 2015.2 . International Union for Conservation of Nature . Retrieved 30 January 2016 . Jump up ^ McLellan , B.N. ; Servheen , C. & Huber , D. ( 2008 ) . `` Ursus arctos '' . IUCN Red List of Threatened Species . Version 2008 . International Union for Conservation of Nature . Retrieved 30 January 2016 . Jump up ^ Farjon , A. ( 2013 ) . `` Pinus pumila '' . The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species . IUCN. 2013 : e. T42405A2977712 . doi : 10.2305 / IUCN. UK. 2013 - 1. RLTS. T42405A2977712. en . Retrieved 12 January 2018 . Jump up ^ A. Farjon ( 2013 ) . `` Picea obovata '' . The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species . IUCN. 2013 : e. T42331A2973177 . doi : 10.2305 / IUCN. UK. 2013 - 1. RLTS. T42331A2973177. en . Retrieved 12 January 2018 . Jump up ^ Малый энциклопедический словарь Брокгауза и Ефрона ( The Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary , in Russian ) Jump up ^ Сибирь -- Большая советская энциклопедия ( The Great Soviet Encyclopedia , in Russian ) Jump up ^ Сибирь - Словарь современных географических названий ( in Russian ) Jump up ^ Encyclopædia Britannica . `` Siberia - Britannica online encyclopedia '' . Britannica.com . Retrieved 15 May 2010 . Jump up ^ `` '' Siberia `` '' . Archived from the original on 24 August 2000 . Retrieved 4 June 2008 . CS1 maint : BOT : original - url status unknown ( link ) , The Columbia Encyclopedia , Sixth Edition Jump up ^ David Filipov ( January 5 , 2017 ) . `` This Russian city says : ' Do n't call us Siberia ' '' . The Washington Post . Retrieved January 6 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Statistics on the Development of Gas Fields in Western Siberia , Daily Questions on Energy and Economy Jump up ^ Schlindwein , Simone ( August 26 , 2008 ) . `` The City Built on Oil : EU - Russia Summit Visits Siberia 's Boomtown '' . Spiegel . Retrieved 8 August 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Norilsk raises 2010 nickel output forecast '' . Reuters. 29 January 2010 . Retrieved 8 August 2014 . Jump up ^ `` FAO National Aquaculture Sector Overview ( NASO ) '' . 16 January 2005 . Retrieved 14 January 2016 . Jump up ^ Overland , Indra ; Kjaernet , Heidi ( 2009 ) . Russian renewable energy : The potential for international cooperation ( PDF ) . Ashgate . Jump up ^ Overland , Indra ( 2011 ) . `` The Siberian Curse : A Blessing in Disguise for Renewable Energy ? '' . Sibirica. 9 ( 2 ) : 1 -- 20 -- via ResearchGate . Jump up ^ `` Google Translate '' . Retrieved 14 April 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Google Translate '' . Retrieved 14 April 2016 . Jump up ^ https://i.ytimg.com/vi/_Y0lhvnE7pU/hqdefault.jpg Jump up ^ `` Информация о стадионе `` КЛМ стадиона `` Химик '' , Кемерово -- Реестр -- Федерация хоккея с мячом России `` . rusbandy.ru . Retrieved 14 April 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Информация о стадионе `` Арена `` Ерофей '' , Хабаровск -- Реестр -- Федерация хоккея с мячом России `` . rusbandy.ru . Retrieved 14 April 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Census 2010 official results ( Russian ) Archived 23 May 2013 at WebCite '' Jump up ^ `` Ukrainians in Russia 's Far East try to maintain community life '' . The Ukrainian Weekly . May 4 , 2003 . Jump up ^ `` Siberian Germans '' . Everyculture.com . Retrieved 15 May 2010 . Jump up ^ Batalden 1997 , p. 37 . Jump up ^ `` Archived copy '' . Archived from the original on 27 February 2002 . Retrieved 21 February 2003 . Jump up ^ World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples -- Russian Federation : Buryats . Jump up ^ World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples -- Russian Federation : Yakuts . Jump up ^ `` Russian Embassy website -- Religion in Russia '' . Archived from the original on 26 September 2000 . Retrieved 19 February 2010 . Jump up ^ Arnold , Thomas Walker ( 1896 ) . The Preaching of Islam : A History of the Propagation of the Muslim Faith . Westminster : Archibald Constable and Company . pp. 206 -- 207 . Retrieved 2015 - 10 - 11 . Of the spread of Islam among the Tatars of Siberia , we have a few particulars . It was not until the latter half of the sixteenth century that it gained a footing in this country , but even before this period Muhammadan missionaries had from time to time made their way into Siberia with the hope of winning the heathen population over to the acceptance of their faith , but the majority of them met with a martyr 's death . When Siberia came under Muhammadan rule , in the reign of Kuchum Khan , the graves of seven of these missionaries were discovered ( ... ) . ( ... ) Kuchum Khan ( ... ) made every effort for the conversion of his subjects , and sent to Bukhara asking for missionaries to assist him in this pious undertaking . Jump up ^ `` Planting Jewish roots in Siberia '' . Fjc.ru. 24 May 2004 . Archived from the original on 27 August 2009 . Retrieved 15 May 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Why some Jews would rather live in Siberia than Israel '' , The Christian Science Monitor. 7 June 2010 Jump up ^ Hoppál 2005 : 13 Jump up ^ `` Secrets of Siberian Shamanism New Dawn : The World 's Most Unusual Magazine '' . www.newdawnmagazine.com . Retrieved 2017 - 01 - 09 . Jump up ^ Rasputin , V. ; Winchell , M. ; Mikkelson , G. ( 1997 ) . Siberia , Siberia . Northwestern University Press . pp. 322 -- 323 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 8101 - 1575 - 0 . Jump up ^ Motarjemi , Yasmine ; Moy , Gerald ; Todd , E.C.D. ( 2013 ) . Encyclopedia of Food Safety . Amsterdam : Elsevier Science , Academic Press . p. 176 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 12 - 378613 - 5 . Bibliography ( edit ) Batalden , Stephen K. ( 1997 ) . The Newly Independent States of Eurasia : Handbook of Former Soviet Republics . Contributor Sandra L. Batalden ( revised ed . ) . Greenwood Publishing Group . ISBN 0897749405 . Retrieved 24 April 2014 . Bisher , Jamie ( 2006 ) . White Terror : Cossack Warlords of the Trans - Siberian . Routledge . ISBN 1135765952 . Retrieved 24 April 2014 . Bisher , Jamie ( 2006 ) . White Terror : Cossack Warlords of the Trans - Siberian . Routledge . ISBN 1135765960 . Retrieved 24 April 2014 . Black , Jeremy ( 2008 ) . War and the World : Military Power and the Fate of Continents , 1450 -- 2000 . Yale University Press . ISBN 0300147694 . Retrieved 24 April 2014 . Nicholas B. Breyfogle , Abby Schrader and Willard Sunderland ( eds ) , Peopling the Russian Periphery : Borderland Colonization in Eurasian history ( London , Routledge , 2007 ) . Etkind , Alexander ( 2013 ) . Internal Colonization : Russia 's Imperial Experience . John Wiley & Sons . ISBN 0745673546 . Retrieved 24 April 2014 . Forsyth , James ( 1994 ) . A History of the Peoples of Siberia : Russia 's North Asian Colony 1581 -- 1990 ( illustrated , reprint , revised ed . ) . Cambridge University Press . ISBN 0521477719 . Retrieved 24 April 2014 . James Forsyth , A History of the Peoples of Siberia : Russia 's North Asian Colony , 1581 -- 1990 ( Cambridge , Cambridge University Press , 1994 ) . Jack , Zachary Michael , ed. ( 2008 ) . Inside the Ropes : Sportswriters Get Their Game On . U of Nebraska Press . ISBN 0803219075 . Retrieved 24 April 2014 . Steven G. Marks , Road to Power : The Trans - Siberian Railroad and the Colonization of Asian Russia , 1850 -- 1917 ( London , I.B. Tauris , 1991 ) . Mote , Victor L. ( 1998 ) . Siberia : Worlds Apart . Westview series on the post-Soviet republics ( illustrated ed . ) . Westview Press . ISBN 0813312981 . Retrieved 24 April 2014 . Igor V. Naumov , The History of Siberia . Edited by David Collins ( London , Routledge , 2009 ) ( Routledge Studies in the History of Russia and Eastern Europe ) . Stephan , John J. ( 1996 ) . The Russian Far East : A History ( illustrated , reprint ed . ) . Stanford University Press . ISBN 0804727015 . Retrieved 24 April 2014 . Pesterev , V. ( 2015 ) . Siberian frontier : the territory of fear . Royal Geographical Society ( with IBG ) , London . Wood , Alan ( 2011 ) . Russia 's Frozen Frontier : A History of Siberia and the Russian Far East 1581 -- 1991 ( illustrated ed . ) . A&C Black . ISBN 034097124X . Retrieved 24 April 2014 . Alan Wood ( ed . ) , The History of Siberia : From Russian Conquest to Revolution ( London , Routledge , 1991 ) . Condé Nast 's Traveler , Volume 36 . Condé Nast Publications . 2001 . Retrieved 24 April 2014 . Yearbook . Contributor International Work Group for Indigenous Affairs . International Work Group for Indigenous Affairs . 1992 . Retrieved 24 April 2014 . Regions of the world Regions of Africa Central Africa Guinea region Gulf of Guinea Cape Lopez Mayombe Igboland Mbaise Maputaland Pool Malebo Congo Basin Chad Basin Congolese rainforests Ouaddaï highlands Ennedi Plateau East Africa African Great Lakes Albertine Rift East African Rift Great Rift Valley Gregory Rift Rift Valley lakes Swahili coast Virunga Mountains Kavirondo Zanj Serengeti Horn of Africa Afar Triangle Al - Habash Barbara Danakil Alps Danakil Desert Ethiopian Highlands Gulf of Aden Gulf of Tadjoura Indian Ocean islands Comoros Islands North Africa Maghreb Barbary Coast Bashmur Ancient Libya Atlas Mountains Nile Valley Cataracts of the Nile Darfur Gulf of Aqaba Lower Egypt Lower Nubia Middle Egypt Nile Delta Nuba Mountains Nubia The Sudans Upper Egypt Western Sahara West Africa Pepper Coast Gold Coast Slave Coast Ivory Coast Cape Palmas Cape Mesurado Guinea region Gulf of Guinea Niger Basin Guinean Forests of West Africa Niger Delta Inner Niger Delta Southern Africa 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why did the us demand trade with japan

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Perry_Expedition&oldid=817961878

Perry expedition - wikipedia Perry expedition Jump to : navigation , search The Perry Expedition was a diplomatic expedition to Bakumatsu period Japan , involving two separate trips by warships of the United States Navy , which took place during 1853 -- 54 . The goals of this expedition included exploration , surveying , and the establishment of diplomatic relations and negotiation of trade agreements with various nations of the region ; opening contact with the government of Japan was considered a top priority of the expedition , and was one of the key reasons for its inception . The expedition was commanded by Commodore Matthew Calbraith Perry , under orders from American President Millard Fillmore . Perry 's primary goal was to force an end to Japan 's 220 - year - old policy of isolation and to open Japanese ports to American trade , through the use of gunboat diplomacy if necessary . The Perry Expedition led directly to the establishment of diplomatic relations between Japan and the western `` Great Powers '' , and eventually to the collapse of the ruling Tokugawa shogunate . Contents ( hide ) 1 Background 2 Preparation 3 First visit to Japan , 1852 -- 1853 3.1 Threat of force and negotiation 4 Second visit to Japan , 1854 5 Return to the United States , 1855 6 See also 7 References 8 Notes 9 External links Background ( edit ) Commodore Matthew Perry The growing commerce between America and China , the presence of American whalers in waters off Japan , and the increasing monopolization of potential coaling stations by the British and French in Asia were all contributing factors in the decision by President Fillmore to dispatch an expedition to Japan . The Americans were also driven by concepts of Manifest Destiny and the desire to impose the benefits of western civilization and the Christian religion on what they perceived as `` backward '' Asian nations . By the early nineteenth century , the Japanese policy of isolation was increasingly under challenge . In 1844 , King William II of the Netherlands sent a letter urging Japan to end the isolation policy on its own before change would be forced from the outside . Between 1790 and 1853 at least twenty - seven U.S. ships ( including three warships ) visited Japan , only to be turned away . There were increasing sightings and incursions of foreign ships in Japanese waters , and this led to considerable internal debate in Japan on how best to meet this potential threat to Japan 's economic and political sovereignty . In May 1851 , American Secretary of State Daniel Webster authorized Commodore John H. Aulick , commander of the East India Squadron , to attempt to return seventeen shipwrecked Japanese then in San Francisco , which might provide the opportunity for opening commercial relations with Japan . On May 10 , 1851 , Webster drafted a letter addressed to the `` Japanese Emperor '' with assurances that the expedition had no religious purpose , but was only to request `` friendship and commerce '' and supplies of coal needed by ships en route to China . The letter also boasted of American expansion across the North American continent and its technical prowess , and was signed by President Fillmore . However , Aulick became involved in a diplomatic row with a Brazilian diplomat and quarrels with the captain of his flagship , and was relieved of his command before he could undertake the Japan expedition . His replacement , Commodore Matthew Calbraith Perry ( 1794 -- 1858 ) was a senior - ranking officer in the United States Navy , and had extensive diplomatic experience . Preparation ( edit ) Perry was well aware of the difficulties involving attempting to establish relations with Japan , and initially protested that he would prefer to command the Mediterranean Squadron of the US Navy instead of being assigned to yet another doomed attempt to `` open '' Japan . These precedents included : From 1797 to 1809 , several American ships traded in Nagasaki under the Dutch flag , upon the request of the Dutch , who were not able to send their own ships because of their conflict against Britain during the Napoleonic Wars . In 1837 , an American businessman in Canton named Charles W. King saw an opportunity to open trade by trying to return to Japan three Japanese sailors ( among them , Otokichi ) who had been shipwrecked a few years before on the coast of Washington . He went to Uraga Channel with Morrison , an unarmed American merchant ship . The ship was attacked several times , and sailed back without completing its mission . In 1846 , Commander James Biddle , anchored in Edo Bay on an official mission with two ships , including one warship armed with 72 cannons , asking for ports to be opened for trade , but his requests for a trade agreement remained unsuccessful . In 1849 , Captain James Glynn sailed to Nagasaki , leading at last to the first successful negotiation by an American with Japan . James Glynn recommended to the United States Congress that negotiations to open Japan be backed up by a demonstration of force , thus paving the way for Perry 's expedition . In advance of his voyage , Perry read widely amongst available books about Japan . His research also included consultation with the renowned Japanologist Philipp Franz von Siebold . Siebold spent eight years working , teaching , and studying at the isolated Dutch island - trading post of Dejima in Nagasaki harbour , before returning to Leiden in the Netherlands . Perry also demanded greater latitude in his orders from Webster , a demand the Secretary of State granted just before his death in October 1852 . Perry thus sailed for Japan with `` full and discretionary powers , '' including possible use of force if the Japanese tried to treat him as they had the unfortunate Commodore Biddle . Perry also refused to allow any professional diplomats to accompany the expedition . He asked the German painter William Heine and pioneer daguerreotype photographer Eliphalet M. Brown , Jr. to join the expedition as official artists . Agricultural specialist Dr. James Morrow was assigned by the US State Department . Several Japanese castaways were also taken on as unofficial interpreters . The expedition was assigned the steam warships Mississippi , Susquehanna , Powhatan , and Allegheny , and the sailing sloops Plymouth and Saratoga , as well as the battleships Vermont and Macedonian To command his fleet , Perry chose officers with whom he had served in the Mexican - American War . Commander Franklin Buchanan was captain of Susquehanna and Joel Abbot was captain of Macedonian . Commander Henry A. Adams became the Commodore 's chief of staff with the title `` Captain of the Fleet '' . Major Jacob Zeilin ( future commandant of the United States Marine Corps ) was the ranking Marine officer , and was stationed on Mississippi . Perry also received permission to take government stores as `` gifts '' for the natives , especially obsolete small arms . These included 40 M1819 Hall rifles ( with 4,000 cartridges ) , 20 percussion pistols ( with 2,000 cartridges ) , 20 artillery swords , 20 muskets with Maynard percussion locks and 40 light cavalry sabers , as well as 100 Colt revolvers . First visit to Japan , 1852 -- 1853 ( edit ) Japanese woodblock print of Perry ( center ) and other high - ranking American seamen Perry chose the black - hulled paddle - wheeled Mississippi as his flagship , and cleared Hampton Roads , Virginia on 24 November 1852 . Perry made port calls at Madeira ( December 11 -- 15 ) , St Helena ( January 10 -- 11 ) , Cape Town ( January 24 -- February 3 ) , Mauritius ( February 18 -- 28 ) , Ceylon ( March 10 -- 15 ) , Singapore ( March 25 -- 29 ) and Macao and Hong Kong ( April 7 -- 28 ) , where he met with American - born Sinologist Samuel Wells Williams ( who had been to Japan with the Morrison in 1837 ) , who provided Chinese language translations of his official letters , and where he rendezvoused with Plymouth and Saratoga . He continued to Shanghai ( May 4 -- 17 ) , where met with the Dutch - born American diplomat , Anton L.C. Portman , who translated his official letters into the Dutch language , and where he rendezvoused with Susquehanna . Perry then switched his flag to Susquehanna and called on the Ryukyu islands from May 17 -- 26 . Ignoring the claims of Satsuma Domain to the islands , as well as his own orders , he threatened and bluffed local authorities by threatening to attack with 200 troops unless he were allowed trading rights and land for a coaling station . Perry landed his Marines , whom he drilled on the beach for hours at a time , and demanded an audience with the Ryukyu King Shō Tai at Shuri Castle . Knowing that his every action would be reported to Japanese authorities in Edo , Perry was careful to avoid meeting with low - ranked officials and made much use of military ceremony and shipboard hospitality to demonstrate both American military power and the peaceful intent of his expedition . Perry left with promises that the islands would be completely open to trade with the United States . Continuing on the Ogasawara islands in mid-June , Perry met with the local inhabitants and even purchased a plot of land . Threat of force and negotiation ( edit ) Perry finally reached Uraga at the entrance to Edo Bay in Japan on 8 July 1853 . His fleet at this time consisted of four vessels : Susquehanna , Mississippi , Plymouth and Saratoga . As he arrived , Perry ordered his ships to steam past Japanese lines towards the capital of Edo , and position their guns towards the town of Uraga . He also fired blank shots from his 73 cannons , which he claimed was in celebration of the American Independence Day . Perry 's ships were equipped with new Paixhans shell guns , cannons capable of wreaking great explosive destruction with every shell . The American ships were almost surrounded by Japanese guard boats ; however , Perry ordered that any attempt at boarding was to be repelled . One boat carried a large sign in French ordering the American fleet to depart immediately . On 9 July , a yoriki from the Uraga bugyō , Nakajima Saburosuke , accompanied interpreter Hori Tatsunosuke , rowed out to Susquehanna , but were at first refused permission to come on board . After some negotiation , they were permitted to board , where they displayed the order that no foreign ships were allowed into Japanese ports . Perry remained in his cabin and refused to meet them , sending word through his officers that as he carried a letter from the President of the United States , he would only deal with officials of sufficient stature and authority . On 10 July , yoriki Kayama Eizaemon , pretending to be the Uraga bugyō , called on Susquehanna and was allowed to meet Captain Franklin , whom he advised to travel to Nagasaki , as this was the designated port for all foreign contact . Kayama was told that unless a suitable official came to receive the document , Perry would land troops and march on Edo , to deliver the letter in person . Kayama asked for three days in order to respond . The actual Uraga bugyō , Ido Hiromichi , sent a report to the Shogun and advised that his defenses were totally inadequate to repel the Americans by force . In the meantime , Perry began a campaign of intimidation , by sending boats to survey the surrounding area , and threatened to use force if the Japanese guard boats around the American squadron did not disperse . He also presented the Japanese with a white flag and a letter which told them that in case they chose to combat , the Americans would necessarily vanquish them . In the meantime , the Japanese government was paralyzed due to the incapacitation by illness of Shogun Tokugawa Ieyoshi and by political indecision on how to handle the unprecedented threat to the nation 's capital . On 11 July , senior rōjū Abe Masahiro temporized , deciding that simply accepting a letter from the Americans would not constitute a violation of Japanese sovereignty . The decision was conveyed to Uraga , and Perry was asked to move his fleet slightly southwest to the beach at Kurihama ( in modern - day Yokosuka ) , where he was allowed to land on 14 July . Perry went ashore with considerable pomp , landing with 250 sailors and Marines in 15 ships 's boats after a 13 - gun salute from Susquehanna . Major Zuilin 's Marines presented arms , and a band played Hail Columbia . President Fillmore 's letter was formally received by hatamoto Toda `` Izu - no - kami '' Ujiyoshi and by Ido `` Iwami - no - kami '' Hiromichi . Perry 's squadron eventually departed on 17 July for the Chinese coast , promising to return for a reply . After Perry 's departure , an extensive debate ensued within the Shogunal court on how to respond to the American 's implied threats . Shogun Tokugawa Ieyoshi died days after Perry 's departure , and was succeeded by his sickly young son , Tokugawa Iesada , leaving effective administration in the hands of the Council of Elders ( rōjū ) led by Abe Masahiro . Abe felt that it was currently impossible for Japan to resist the American demands by military force , and yet was reluctant to take any action on his own authority for such an unprecedented situation . Attempting to legitimize any decision taken , Abe polled all of the daimyo for their opinions . This was the first time that the Tokugawa shogunate had allowed its decision - making to be a matter of public debate , and had the unforeseen consequence of portraying the Shogunate as weak and indecisive . The results of the poll also failed to provide Abe with an answer , as of the 61 known responses , 19 were in favor of accepting the American demands , and 19 were equally opposed . Of the remainder , 14 gave vague responses expressing concern of possible war , 7 suggested making temporary concessions and two advised that they would simply go along with whatever was decided . The only universal recommendation was that steps be taken immediately to bolster Japan 's coastal defenses . Fortifications were hurriedly built close to current day Odaiba in order to protect Edo from a subsequent American naval incursion . Odaiba battery at the entrance of Tokyo , built in 1853 -- 54 to prevent an American intrusion One of the cannons of Odaiba , now at the Yasukuni Shrine. 80 - pound bronze , bore : 250mm , length : 3830mm . Second visit to Japan , 1854 ( edit ) Commodore Perry 's fleet for his second visit to Japan in 1854 Although having told the Japanese that he would return the following year , Perry soon learned that Russian admiral Vice-Admiral Yevfimy Putyatin had called in at Nagasaki shortly after he departed from Edo Bay , and had spent a month attempting to force the Chinese to sign a treaty before his return . He also was told by both the British and French that they intended to accompany him to Japan in the spring to ensure that the Americans did not obtain any exclusive privileges . Perry thus returned on 13 February 1854 with a total of ten vessels and 1600 men . The fleet now also included : Lexington , Macedonian , Powhatan , Vandalia , Southampton and Supply . By the time of Perry 's return , the Tokugawa shogunate had decided to accept virtually all the demands in Fillmore 's letter . However , negotiators procrastinated for weeks over the site for negotiations , with Perry insisting on Edo , and the Japanese offering various other locations . Perry eventually lost his temper and threatened to bring 100 ships ( more than the actual size of the US Navy at the time ) within 20 days to war on Japan . Both sides eventually compromised on the tiny village of Yokohama , where a purpose - built hall was erected . Perry landed on 8 March with 500 sailors and Marines in 27 ship 's boats , with three bands playing the Star Spangled Banner ( with all sailors standing ) . After three weeks of negotiations , on 31 March , Perry signed the Convention of Kanagawa which opened the ports of Shimoda and Hakodate to American ships , provided for care of shipwrecked sailors , and the establishment of an American consulate in Shimoda . The treaty was signed on the Japanese side by Hayashi Akira . After the signing of the treaty , the Americans presented the Japanese with a miniature steam locomotive , a telegraph apparatus , various agricultural tools , and small arms , as well as one hundred gallons of whiskey , clocks , stoves , and books about the United States . The Japanese responded with gold - lacquered furniture and boxes , bronze ornaments , porcelain goblets and upon learning of Perry 's personal hobby , a collection of seashells . Japanese 1854 print relating Perry 's visit . Perry then dispatched Saratoga home with the signed treaty , while the rest of the squadron went to survey Hakodate , Shimoda and the site of the future consulate . Bust of Matthew Perry in Shimoda , Shizuoka After departing Shimoda , the fleet returned to the Ryukyu Islands , where Perry swiftly drafted the `` Compact between the United States and the Ryukyu Kingdom '' , which was formally signed on 11 July 1854 . Return to the United States , 1855 ( edit ) After Perry returned to the United States in 1855 , Congress voted to grant him a reward of $20,000 in appreciation of his work in Japan . Perry used part of this money to prepare and publish a report on the expedition in three volumes , titled Narrative of the Expedition of an American Squadron to the China Seas and Japan . He was also advanced to the grade of rear - admiral on the retired list ( when his health began to fail ) as a reward for his services . Perry was known to have suffered severe arthritis that left him in frequent pain , that on occasion precluded him from his duties . Perry spent his last years preparing for publication his account of the Japan expedition , announcing its completion on 28 December 1857 . Two days later he was detached from his last post , an assignment to the Naval Efficiency Board . He died awaiting further orders on 4 March 1858 in New York City , of `` rheumatism '' that had spread to the heart , compounded by complications of gout . See also ( edit ) Gunboat diplomacy History of Japan Meiji Restoration Yokohama Archives of History List of Westerners who visited Japan before 1868 References ( edit ) Arnold , Bruce Makoto ( 2005 ) . Diplomacy Far Removed : A Reinterpretation of the U.S. Decision to Open Diplomatic Relations with Japan ( Thesis ) . University of Arizona . ( 2 ) Dupree , A. Hunter , ' Science vs. the Military : Dr. James Morrow and the Perry Expedition ' , The Pacific Historical Review , vol. 22 , no . 1 , ( 1953 ) , pp. 29 -- 37 . Hawks , Francis . ( 1856 ) . Narrative of the Expedition of an American Squadron to the China Seas and Japan Performed in the Years 1852 , 1853 and 1854 under the Command of Commodore M.C. Perry , United States Navy , Washington : A.O.P. Nicholson by order of Congress , 1856 ; originally published in Senate Executive Documents , No. 34 of 33rd Congress , 2nd Session . ( reprinted by London : Trafalgar Square , 2005 . ISBN 1 - 84588 - 026 - 9 ( paper ) ) Houchins , Chang - su. ( 1995 ) . Artifacts of diplomacy : Smithsonian collections from Commodore Matthew Perry 's Japan Expedition ( 1853 - 1854 ) . Washington , D.C. : Smithsonian Institution Press ; available online . Samuel Eliot Morison , Old Bruin ( 1967 ) . Morrow , James , and Allan B. Cole . ( 1947 ) . A Scientist with Perry in Japan : the Journal of Dr. James Morrow . Edited by Allan B. Cole . Chapel Hill : the University of North Carolina Press . John Schroeder , Matthew Calbraith Perry ( 2001 ) . Sewall , John S. ( 1905 ) . The Logbook of the Captain 's Clerk : Adventures in the China Seas , Bangor , Maine : Chas H. Glass & Co. ( reprint by Chicago : R.R. Donnelly & Sons , 1995 ) ISBN 0 - 548 - 20912 - X . Notes ( edit ) Jump up ^ W.G. Beasley , The Meiji Restoration , p. 88 . ^ Jump up to : W.G. Beasley , The Meiji Restoration , p. 78 Jump up ^ http://www.encyclopediavirginia.org/Aulick_John_H_ca_1791-1873 Jump up ^ Sewell , pp. xxxiv - xxxv , xlix , lvi . Jump up ^ English Wikipedia on Preble Logbook Jump up ^ Sewall , p. xxxviii . Jump up ^ J.W. Hall , Japan , p. 207 . Jump up ^ McWilliams , Jane ( 2011 ) . Annapolis , City on the Severn : A History . Baltimore , Maryland : The Johns Hopkins University Press . p. 158 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 8018 - 9659 - 0 . Jump up ^ Schroeder , John ( 2014 ) . Thompson , Antonio , ed . The Routledge Handbook of American Military and Diplomatic History . Routledge . p . Chapter 29 . ISBN 9781317813347 . ^ Jump up to : The Perry mission to Japan , 1853 - 1854 by William Gerald Beasley , Aaron Haight Palmer , Henry F. Graff , Yashi Shōzan , Ernest Mason Satow , Shuziro Watanabe p. 153ff Jump up ^ Arms and Men : A Study in American Military History - Walter Millis - Google Books . Books.google.com. 1981 . ISBN 9780813509310 . Retrieved 2015 - 03 - 09 . Jump up ^ Walworth , Arthur ( November 2008 ) . Black Ships Off Japan : The Story of Commodore Perry 's Expedition - Arthur Walworth - Google Books . ISBN 9781443728508 . Jump up ^ `` Among the items presented to the Japanese were a white flag and a letter from Perry . The letter attempted to intimidate Japanese officials by explaining that in the event the Japanese elected war rather than negotiation , they could use the white flag to sue for peace , since victory would naturally belong to the Americans '' Matthew Calbraith Perry : antebellum sailor and diplomat by John H. Schroeder p. 286 Note 44 Jump up ^ The economic aspects of the history of the civilization of Japan Yosaburō Takekoshi p. 285 - 86 ( 1 ) Jump up ^ `` Perry Ceremony Today ; Japanese and U.S. Officials to Mark 100th Anniversary . '' The New York Times , July 14 , 1953 Jump up ^ Sewall , pp. 183 - 195 . Jump up ^ J.W. Hall , Japan , p. 211 . Jump up ^ W.G. Beasley , The Meiji Restoration , s. 90 - 95 . Jump up ^ Sewall , pp. 243 - 264 . Jump up ^ Sewall , p. lxxxvii . Jump up ^ `` Commodore Perry 's Expedition to Japan '' . Ben Griffiths 2005 . Retrieved September 12 , 2009 . Jump up ^ Morison , Samuel Eliot . ( 1967 ) . ' Old Bruin ' Commodore Matthew Calbraith Perry p. 431 . External links ( edit ) Wikimedia Commons has media related to Perry Expedition . Perry Visits Japan : A Visual History Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Perry_Expedition&oldid=817961878 '' Categories : Expeditions from the United States Bakumatsu United States Navy in the 19th century 1853 in Japan 1854 in Japan 1850s in the United States 19th century in Tokyo Naval diplomacy Hidden categories : All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from November 2016 Talk Contents About Wikipedia Bân - lâm - gú Français 한국어 Bahasa Indonesia 日本 語 吴语 粵語 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 31 December 2017 , at 16 : 50 . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply . By using this site , you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia ® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation , Inc. , a non-profit organization . About Wikipedia

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why might it be difficult for medical professionals to diagnose a specific illness

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Medical_diagnosis&oldid=831641516

Medical diagnosis - wikipedia Medical diagnosis Jump to : navigation , search Radiography is an important tool in diagnosis of certain disorders . Medical diagnosis ( abbreviated Dx or D ) is the process of determining which disease or condition explains a person 's symptoms and signs . It is most often referred to as diagnosis with the medical context being implicit . The information required for diagnosis is typically collected from a history and physical examination of the person seeking medical care . Often , one or more diagnostic procedures , such as diagnostic tests , are also done during the process . Sometimes posthumous diagnosis is considered a kind of medical diagnosis . Diagnosis is often challenging , because many signs and symptoms are nonspecific . For example , redness of the skin ( erythema ) , by itself , is a sign of many disorders and thus does not tell the healthcare professional what is wrong . Thus differential diagnosis , in which several possible explanations are compared and contrasted , must be performed . This involves the correlation of various pieces of information followed by the recognition and differentiation of patterns . Occasionally the process is made easy by a sign or symptom ( or a group of several ) that is pathognomonic . Diagnosis is a major component of the procedure of a doctor 's visit . From the point of view of statistics , the diagnostic procedure involves classification tests . Contents ( hide ) 1 History 2 Medical uses 3 Procedure 3.1 Differential diagnosis 3.2 Pattern recognition 3.3 Diagnostic criteria 3.4 Clinical decision support system 3.5 Other diagnostic procedure methods 4 Adverse effects 4.1 Overdiagnosis 4.2 Errors 4.3 Lag time 5 Society and culture 5.1 Etymology 5.2 Social context 5.3 Concepts related to diagnosis 6 See also 6.1 Lists 7 References 8 External links History ( edit ) Main article : History of medical diagnosis The first recorded examples of medical diagnosis are found in the writings of Imhotep ( 2630 -- 2611 BC ) in ancient Egypt ( the Edwin Smith Papyrus ) . A Babylonian medical textbook , the Diagnostic Handbook written by Esagil - kin - apli ( fl. 1069 -- 1046 BC ) , introduced the use of empiricism , logic and rationality in the diagnosis of an illness or disease . Traditional Chinese Medicine , as described in the Yellow Emperor 's Inner Canon or Huangdi Neijing , specified four diagnostic methods : inspection , auscultation - olfaction , interrogation , and palpation . Hippocrates was known to make diagnoses by tasting his patients ' urine and smelling their sweat . Medical uses ( edit ) A diagnosis , in the sense of diagnostic procedure , can be regarded as an attempt at classification of an individual 's condition into separate and distinct categories that allow medical decisions about treatment and prognosis to be made . Subsequently , a diagnostic opinion is often described in terms of a disease or other condition , but in the case of a wrong diagnosis , the individual 's actual disease or condition is not the same as the individual 's diagnosis . A diagnostic procedure may be performed by various health care professionals such as a physician , physical therapist , optometrist , healthcare scientist , chiropractor , dentist , podiatrist , nurse practitioner , or physician assistant . This article uses diagnostician as any of these person categories . A diagnostic procedure ( as well as the opinion reached thereby ) does not necessarily involve elucidation of the etiology of the diseases or conditions of interest , that is , what caused the disease or condition . Such elucidation can be useful to optimize treatment , further specify the prognosis or prevent recurrence of the disease or condition in the future . The initial task is to detect a medical indication to perform a diagnostic procedure . Indications include : Detection of any deviation from what is known to be normal , such as can be described in terms of , for example , anatomy ( the structure of the human body ) , physiology ( how the body works ) , pathology ( what can go wrong with the anatomy and physiology ) , psychology ( thought and behavior ) and human homeostasis ( regarding mechanisms to keep body systems in balance ) . Knowledge of what is normal and measuring of the patient 's current condition against those norms can assist in determining the patient 's particular departure from homeostasis and the degree of departure , which in turn can assist in quantifying the indication for further diagnostic processing . A complaint expressed by a patient . The fact that a patient has sought a diagnostician can itself be an indication to perform a diagnostic procedure . For example , in a doctor 's visit , the physician may already start performing a diagnostic procedure by watching the gait of the patient from the waiting room to the doctor 's office even before she or he has started to present any complaints . Even during an already ongoing diagnostic procedure , there can be an indication to perform another , separate , diagnostic procedure for another , potentially concomitant , disease or condition . This may occur as a result of an incidental finding of a sign unrelated to the parameter of interest , such as can occur in comprehensive tests such as radiological studies like magnetic resonance imaging or blood test panels that also include blood tests that are not relevant for the ongoing diagnosis . Procedure ( edit ) General components which are present in a diagnostic procedure in most of the various available methods include : Complementing the already given information with further data gathering , which may include questions of the medical history ( potentially from other people close to the patient as well ) , physical examination and various diagnostic tests . A diagnostic test is any kind of medical test performed to aid in the diagnosis or detection of disease . Diagnostic tests can also be used to provide prognostic information on people with established disease . Processing of the answers , findings or other results . Consultations with other providers and specialists in the field may be sought . There are a number of methods or techniques that can be used in a diagnostic procedure , including performing a differential diagnosis or following medical algorithms . In reality , a diagnostic procedure may involve components of multiple methods . Differential diagnosis ( edit ) Main article : Differential diagnosis The method of differential diagnosis is based on finding as many candidate diseases or conditions as possible that can possibly cause the signs or symptoms , followed by a process of elimination or at least of rendering the entries more or less probable by further medical tests and other processing until , aiming to reach the point where only one candidate disease or condition remains as probable . The final result may also remain a list of possible conditions , ranked in order of probability or severity . The resultant diagnostic opinion by this method can be regarded more or less as a diagnosis of exclusion . Even if it does not result in a single probable disease or condition , it can at least rule out any imminently life - threatening conditions . Unless the provider is certain of the condition present , further medical tests , such as medical imaging , are performed or scheduled in part to confirm or disprove the diagnosis but also to document the patient 's status and keep the patient 's medical history up to date . If unexpected findings are made during this process , the initial hypothesis may be ruled out and the provider must then consider other hypotheses . Pattern recognition ( edit ) In a pattern recognition method the provider uses experience to recognize a pattern of clinical characteristics . It is mainly based on certain symptoms or signs being associated with certain diseases or conditions , not necessarily involving the more cognitive processing involved in a differential diagnosis . This may be the primary method used in cases where diseases are `` obvious '' , or the provider 's experience may enable him or her to recognize the condition quickly . Theoretically , a certain pattern of signs or symptoms can be directly associated with a certain therapy , even without a definite decision regarding what is the actual disease , but such a compromise carries a substantial risk of missing a diagnosis which actually has a different therapy so it may be limited to cases where no diagnosis can be made . Diagnostic criteria ( edit ) Main article : Clinical case definition The term diagnostic criteria designates the specific combination of signs , symptoms , and test results that the clinician uses to attempt to determine the correct diagnosis . Some examples of diagnostic criteria , also known as clinical case definitions , are : Amsterdam criteria for hereditary nonpolyposis colorectal cancer McDonald criteria for multiple sclerosis ACR criteria for systemic lupus erythematosus Centor criteria for strep throat Clinical decision support system ( edit ) Clinical decision support systems are interactive computer programs designed to assist health professionals with decision - making tasks . The clinician interacts with the software utilizing both the clinician 's knowledge and the software to make a better analysis of the patients data than either human or software could make on their own . Typically the system makes suggestions for the clinician to look through and the clinician picks useful information and removes erroneous suggestions . Other diagnostic procedure methods ( edit ) Other methods that can be used in performing a diagnostic procedure include : An example of a medical algorithm for assessment and treatment of overweight and obesity . Usage of medical algorithms An `` exhaustive method '' , in which every possible question is asked and all possible data is collected . This is often referred to as a `` diagnostic workup '' . Use of a sensory pill that collects and transmits physiological information after being swallowed . Using optical coherence tomography to produce detailed images of the brain or other soft tissue , through a `` window '' made of zirconia that has been modified to be transparent and implanted in the skull . Adverse effects ( edit ) Diagnosis problems are the dominant cause of medical malpractice payments , accounting for 35 % of total payments in a study of 25 years of data and 350,000 claims . Overdiagnosis ( edit ) Main article : Overdiagnosis Overdiagnosis is the diagnosis of `` disease '' that will never cause symptoms or death during a patient 's lifetime . It is a problem because it turns people into patients unnecessarily and because it can lead to economic waste ( overutilization ) and treatments that may cause harm . Overdiagnosis occurs when a disease is diagnosed correctly , but the diagnosis is irrelevant . A correct diagnosis may be irrelevant because treatment for the disease is not available , not needed , or not wanted . Errors ( edit ) Further information : Medical error Most people will experience at least one diagnostic error in their lifetime , according to a 2015 report by the National Academies of Sciences , Engineering , and Medicine . Causes and factors of error in diagnosis are : the manifestation of disease are not sufficiently noticeable a disease is omitted from consideration too much significance is given to some aspect of the diagnosis the condition is a rare disease with symptoms suggestive of many other conditions the condition has a rare presentation Lag time ( edit ) When making a medical diagnosis , a lag time is a delay in time until a step towards diagnosis of a disease or condition is made . Types of lag times are mainly : Onset - to - medical encounter lag time , the time from onset of symptoms until visiting a health care provider Encounter - to - diagnosis lag time , the time from first medical encounter to diagnosis Society and culture ( edit ) Etymology ( edit ) The plural of diagnosis is diagnoses . The verb is to diagnose , and a person who diagnoses is called a diagnostician . The word diagnosis / daɪ. əɡˈnoʊsɪs / is derived through Latin from the Greek word διάγνωσις from διαγιγνώσκειν , meaning `` to discern , distinguish '' . Medical diagnosis or the actual process of making a diagnosis is a cognitive process . A clinician uses several sources of data and puts the pieces of the puzzle together to make a diagnostic impression . The initial diagnostic impression can be a broad term describing a category of diseases instead of a specific disease or condition . After the initial diagnostic impression , the clinician obtains follow up tests and procedures to get more data to support or reject the original diagnosis and will attempt to narrow it down to a more specific level . Diagnostic procedures are the specific tools that the clinicians use to narrow the diagnostic possibilities . Social context ( edit ) Diagnosis can take many forms . It might be a matter of naming the disease , lesion , dysfunction or disability . It might be a management - naming or prognosis - naming exercise . It may indicate either degree of abnormality on a continuum or kind of abnormality in a classification . It 's influenced by non-medical factors such as power , ethics and financial incentives for patient or doctor . It can be a brief summation or an extensive formulation , even taking the form of a story or metaphor . It might be a means of communication such as a computer code through which it triggers payment , prescription , notification , information or advice . It might be pathogenic or salutogenic . It 's generally uncertain and provisional . Once a diagnostic opinion has been reached , the provider is able to propose a management plan , which will include treatment as well as plans for follow - up . From this point on , in addition to treating the patient 's condition , the provider can educate the patient about the etiology , progression , prognosis , other outcomes , and possible treatments of her or his ailments , as well as providing advice for maintaining health . A treatment plan is proposed which may include therapy and follow - up consultations and tests to monitor the condition and the progress of the treatment , if needed , usually according to the medical guidelines provided by the medical field on the treatment of the particular illness . Relevant information should be added to the medical record of the patient . A failure to respond to treatments that would normally work may indicate a need for review of the diagnosis . Concepts related to diagnosis ( edit ) Sub-types of diagnoses include : Clinical diagnosis A diagnosis made on the basis of medical signs and patient - reported symptoms , rather than diagnostic tests Laboratory diagnosis A diagnosis based significantly on laboratory reports or test results , rather than the physical examination of the patient . For instance , a proper diagnosis of infectious diseases usually requires both an examination of signs and symptoms , as well as laboratory characteristics of the pathogen involved . Radiology diagnosis A diagnosis based primarily on the results from medical imaging studies . Greenstick fractures are common radiological diagnoses . Principal diagnosis The single medical diagnosis that is most relevant to the patient 's chief complaint or need for treatment . Many patients have additional diagnoses . Admitting diagnosis The diagnosis given as the reason why the patient was admitted to the hospital ; it may differ from the actual problem or from the discharge diagnoses , which are the diagnoses recorded when the patient is discharged from the hospital . Differential diagnosis A process of identifying all of the possible diagnoses that could be connected to the signs , symptoms , and lab findings , and then ruling out diagnoses until a final determination can be made . Diagnostic criteria Designates the combination of signs , symptoms , and test results that the clinician uses to attempt to determine the correct diagnosis . They are standards , normally published by international committees , and they are designed to offer the best sensitivity and specificity possible , respect the presence of a condition , with the state - of - the - art technology . Prenatal diagnosis Diagnosis work done before birth Diagnosis of exclusion A medical condition whose presence can not be established with complete confidence from history , examination or testing . Diagnosis is therefore by elimination of all other reasonable possibilities . Dual diagnosis The diagnosis of two related , but separate , medical conditions or co-morbidities ; the term almost always refers to a diagnosis of a serious mental illness and a substance addiction . Self - diagnosis The diagnosis or identification of a medical conditions in oneself . Self - diagnosis is very common . Remote diagnosis A type of telemedicine that diagnoses a patient without being physically in the same room as the patient . Nursing diagnosis Rather than focusing on biological processes , a nursing diagnosis identifies people 's responses to situations in their lives , such as a readiness to change or a willingness to accept assistance . Computer - aided diagnosis Providing symptoms allows the computer to identify the problem and diagnose the user to the best of its ability . Health screening begins by identifying the part of the body where the symptoms are located ; the computer cross-references a database for the corresponding disease and presents a diagnosis . Overdiagnosis The diagnosis of `` disease '' that will never cause symptoms , distress , or death during a patient 's lifetime Wastebasket diagnosis A vague , or even completely fake , medical or psychiatric label given to the patient or to the medical records department for essentially non-medical reasons , such as to reassure the patient by providing an official - sounding label , to make the provider look effective , or to obtain approval for treatment . This term is also used as a derogatory label for disputed , poorly described , overused , or questionably classified diagnoses , such as pouchitis and senility , or to dismiss diagnoses that amount to overmedicalization , such as the labeling of normal responses to physical hunger as reactive hypoglycemia . Retrospective diagnosis The labeling of an illness in a historical figure or specific historical event using modern knowledge , methods and disease classifications . See also ( edit ) Diagnosis codes Diagnosis - related group Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders Doctor - patient relationship Etiology ( medicine ) International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems ( ICD ) Medical classification Merck Manual of Diagnosis and Therapy Misdiagnosis and medical error Nosology Nursing diagnosis Pathogenesis Pathology Preimplantation genetic diagnosis Lists ( edit ) List of diagnostic classification and rating scales used in psychiatry List of diseases List of disorders List of medical symptoms Category : Diseases References ( edit ) Jump up ^ See List of medical abbreviations : D for variants . Jump up ^ `` Edwin Smith Papyrus '' . Retrieved 2015 - 02 - 28 . Jump up ^ H.F.J. Horstmanshoff , Marten Stol , Cornelis Tilburg ( 2004 ) , Magic and Rationality in Ancient Near Eastern and Graeco - Roman Medicine , p. 97 - 98 , Brill Publishers , ISBN 90 - 04 - 13666 - 5 . Jump up ^ Jingfeng , C. ( 2008 ) . `` Medicine in China '' . Encyclopaedia of the History of Science , Technology , and Medicine in Non-Western Cultures . pp. 1529 -- 1534 . doi : 10.1007 / 978 - 1 - 4020 - 4425 - 0_8500 . ISBN 978 - 1 - 4020 - 4559 - 2 . Jump up ^ `` What Would Hipocrates Do ? '' . Retrieved February 28 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Thompson , C. & Dowding , C. ( 2009 ) Essential Decision Making and Clinical Judgement for Nurses . ^ Jump up to : Making a diagnosis , John P. Langlois , Chapter 10 in Fundamentals of clinical practice ( 2002 ) . Mark B. Mengel , Warren Lee Holleman , Scott A. Fields . 2nd edition . p. 198 . ISBN 0 - 306 - 46692 - 9 Jump up ^ Making a diagnosis , John P. Langlois , Chapter 10 in Fundamentals of clinical practice ( 2002 ) . Mark B. Mengel , Warren Lee Holleman , Scott A. Fields . 2nd edition . p. 204 . ISBN 0 - 306 - 46692 - 9 Jump up ^ Decision support systems . 26 July 2005 . 17 Feb. 2009 < http://www.openclinical.org/dss.html > Jump up ^ `` workup '' . The Free Dictionary . Jump up ^ Bilton , Nick ( June 23 , 2013 ) . `` Disruptions : Medicine That Monitors You '' . The New York Times . Archived from the original on June 24 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Damestani , Yasaman ( 2013 ) . `` Transparent nanocrystalline yttria - stabilized - zirconia calvarium prosthesis '' . Nanomedicine . Elsevier Inc . doi : 10.1016 / j. nano. 2013.08. 002 . Retrieved September 11 , 2013 . Explained by Mohan , Geoffrey ( September 4 , 2013 ) . `` A window to the brain ? It 's here , says UC Riverside team '' . Los Angeles Times . Jump up ^ `` Diagnostic errors are leading cause of successful malpractice claims '' . The Washington Post . 2012 - 04 - 30 . Retrieved 2016 - 10 - 31 . Jump up ^ National Academies of Sciences , Engineering , and Medicine ( 2015 ) . Improving Diagnosis in Health Care . Washington , DC : The National Academies Press . p . S - 1 . doi : 10.17226 / 21794 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 309 - 37769 - 0 . CS1 maint : Multiple names : authors list ( link ) Jump up ^ Johnson , P.E. ; Duran , A.S. ; Hassebrock , F. ; Moller , J. ; Prietula , M. ; Feltovich , P.J. ; Swanson , D.B. ( 1981 ) . `` Expertise and Error in Diagnostic Reasoning '' . Cognitive Science . 5 ( 3 ) : 235 -- 283 . doi : 10.1207 / s15516709cog0503_3 . ^ Jump up to : Chan , K.W. ; Felson , D.T. ; Yood , R.A. ; Walker , A.M. ( 1994 ) . `` The lag time between onset of symptoms and diagnosis of rheumatoid arthritis '' . Arthritis and Rheumatism. 37 ( 6 ) : 814 -- 820 . doi : 10.1002 / art. 1780370606 . PMID 8003053 . Jump up ^ `` Online Etymology Dictionary '' . Jump up ^ Treasure , Wilfrid ( 2011 ) . `` Chapter 1 : Diagnosis '' . Diagnosis and Risk Management in Primary Care : words that count , numbers that speak . Oxford : Radcliffe . ISBN 978 - 1 - 84619 - 477 - 1 . Jump up ^ WebMed Solutions . `` Connection between onset of symptoms and diagnosis '' . Retrieved 15 January 2012 . External links ( edit ) Look up diagnosis in Wiktionary , the free dictionary . Media related to Medical diagnosis at Wikimedia Commons Basic medical terms used to describe disease conditions Medical sign Symptom Syndrome Medical diagnosis Differential diagnosis Prognosis Acute Chronic Cure / Remission Disease Eponymous disease Acronym or abbreviation Medical examination and history taking Medical history Chief complaint History of the present illness Systems review Nursing assessment Allergies Medications Past medical history Surgical history Family history Social history Psychiatric history Progress notes Mnemonics SAMPLE OPQRST SOAP COASTMAP Physical examination General / IPPA Inspection Auscultation Palpation Percussion Vital signs Temperature Heart rate Blood pressure Respiratory rate HEENT Oral mucosa TM Eyes ( Ophthalmoscopy , Swinging - flashlight test ) Hearing ( Weber , Rinne ) Respiratory Respiratory sounds Cyanosis Clubbing Cardiovascular Precordial examination Peripheral vascular examination Heart sounds Other Jugular venous pressure Abdominojugular test Carotid bruit Ankle - brachial pressure index Abdominal Digestive Liver span Rectal Murphy 's sign Bowel sounds Urinary Murphy 's punch sign Extremities / Joint Back ( Straight leg raise ) Knee ( McMurray test ) Hip Wrist ( Tinel sign , Phalen maneuver ) Shoulder ( Adson 's sign ) GALS screen Neurological Mental state Mini -- mental state examination Cranial nerve examination Upper limb neurological examination Neonatal Apgar score Ballard Maturational Assessment Gynecological Well - woman examination Vaginal examination Breast examination Cervical motion tenderness Assessment and plan Medical diagnosis Differential diagnosis Health care Economics Equipment Guidelines Industry Philosophy Policy Providers Ranking Reform System Professions Medicine Nursing Healthcare science Dentistry Allied health professions Pharmacy Health information management Settings Assisted living Clinic Hospital Nursing home Medical school ( Academic health science centre , Teaching hospital ) Care Acute Chronic End - of - life Hospice Overutilization Palliative Primary Self Total Skills / Training Bedside manner Cultural competence Diagnosis Education Universal precautions Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Medical_diagnosis&oldid=831641516 '' Categories : Medical diagnosis Medical terminology Nosology Advanced practice registered nursing Hidden categories : CS1 maint : Multiple names : authors list Pages using div col with deprecated parameters Commons category with local link different than on Wikidata Talk Contents About Wikipedia Alemannisch Български Bosanski Brezhoneg Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Eesti Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Gaeilge Galego 한국어 Հայերեն हिन्दी עברית ქართული Қазақша Latina Latviešu Lëtzebuergesch Magyar Bahasa Melayu 日本 語 Norsk Norsk nynorsk ਪੰਜਾਬੀ Polski Português Română Русский Scots Simple English کوردی Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska தமிழ் ไทย Тоҷикӣ Українська 吴语 粵語 中文 41 more Edit links This page was last edited on 21 March 2018 , at 15 : 25 . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply . By using this site , you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia ® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation , Inc. , a non-profit organization . About Wikipedia

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where did the term out of left field come from

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Out_of_left_field&oldid=800498401

Out of left field - wikipedia Out of left field Jump to : navigation , search This article is about an American slang term . For the Hank Williams Jr album , see Out of Left Field . `` Out of left field '' is American slang meaning `` unexpectedly '' , `` odd '' or `` strange '' . The phrase came from baseball terminology referring to the area covered by the left fielder who has the farthest throw to first base . According to mlb.com there is another meaning : `` The term ' way out in left field ' is taken to mean ' crazy . ' '' Cook County Hospital ( by the West Side Grounds , the Chicago Cubs first location under what is now the University of Illinois at Chicago College of Medicine ) had a mental institution behind left field , ( This can not be true . Left field was against Wood St . ) ( ... ) The bottom line is , patients could be heard yelling and screaming things at fans behind the left field wall . ' '' Variations include `` out in left field '' and simply `` left field '' . Music industry ( edit ) Popular music historian Arnold Shaw wrote in 1949 for the Music Library Association that the term `` out of left field '' was first used in the idiomatic sense of `` from out of nowhere '' by the music industry to refer to a song that unexpectedly performed well in the market . Based on baseball lingo , a sentence such as `` That was a hit out of left field '' was used by song pluggers who promoted recordings and sheet music , to describe a song requiring no effort to sell . A `` rocking chair hit '' was the kind of song which came `` out of left field '' and sold itself , allowing the song plugger to relax . A 1943 article in Billboard magazine expands the use to describe people unexpectedly drawn to radio broadcasting : `` Latest twist in radio linked with the war is the exceptional number of quasi-clerical groups and individuals who have come out of left field in recent months and are trying to buy , not promote , radio time . '' Further instances of the phrase were published in the 1940s , including more times in Billboard magazine and once in a humor book titled How to Be Poor . Later explanations ( edit ) In May 1981 , columnist William Safire asked readers of The New York Times to send him any ideas they had regarding the origin of the phrase `` out of left field '' -- he did not know where it came from , and did not refer to Shaw 's work . On June 28 , 1981 , he devoted most of his Sunday column to the phrase , offering up various responses he received . The earliest scholarly citation Safire could find was a 1961 article in the journal American Speech , which defined the variation `` out in left field '' as meaning `` disoriented , out of contact with reality . '' Linguist John Algeo told Safire that the phrase most likely came from baseball observers rather than from baseball fans or players . In Safire 's Political Dictionary , Safire writes that the phrase `` out of left field '' means `` out of the ordinary , out of touch , far out . '' The variation `` out in left field '' means alternately `` removed from the ordinary , unconventional '' or `` out of contact with reality , out of touch . '' He compares the term to left - wing politics and the Left Coast -- slang for the liberal - leaning coastal cities in California , Oregon and Washington . In 1998 , American English professor Robert L. Chapman , in his book American Slang , wrote that the phrase `` out of left field '' was in use by 1953 . He did not cite Shaw 's work and he did not point to printed instances of the phrase in the 1940s . Marcus Callies , an associate professor of English and philology at the University of Mainz in Germany , wrote that `` the precise origin is unclear and disputed '' , referring to Christine Ammer 's conclusion in The American Heritage Dictionary of Idioms . Callies suggested that the left fielder in baseball might throw the ball to home plate in an effort to get the runner out before he scores , and that the ball , coming from behind the runner out of left field , would surprise the runner . From the Way Out In Left Field Society : `` The phrase `` way out in left field '' has evolved to mean an eccentric , odd , misguided or peculiar statement or act . Although the origin of the phrase has been challenged and debated over the years , the most logical and realistic explanation comes from an extinct baseball park called West Side Grounds that the Chicago Cubs called home from 1893 to 1915 . As legend has it , a mental hospital called the Neuropsychiatric Institute was located directly behind the left field wall . The Institute housed mental patients who could be heard making strange and bizarre comments within listening distance of players and fans . Thus , if someone said that you were `` way out in left field , '' the person was questioning your sanity and comparing you with a mental patient '' References ( edit ) Jump up ^ http://m.mlb.com/news/article/2954187/ Jump up ^ Partridge , Eric ; Dalzell , Tom ; Victor , Terry ( 2007 ) . The Concise New Partridge Dictionary of Slang and Unconventional English . Psychology Press . p. 396 . ISBN 0415212596 . ^ Jump up to : Shaw , Arnold ( December 1949 ) . `` The Vocabulary of Tin - Pan Alley Explained '' . Notes . Music Library Association . 7 ( 1 ) : 33 , 48 , 50 . doi : 10.2307 / 889665 . JSTOR 889665 . Out of left field . Used with reference to a song that unexpectedly does well . Expression , obviously adapted from baseball , goes : ' That was a hit out of left field . ' Implication is that song was not a plug song and that no work was done on it until sales and performances developed of themselves . Jump up ^ `` Religion All of a Sudden : Groups With Self - Styled Piety Capitalizing on War Nerves by Buys on Indies But Nets Sneer '' . The Billboard . Nielsen Business Media . 55 ( 17 ) : 8 . April 24 , 1943 . ISSN 0006 - 2510 . Jump up ^ Smith , Bill ( February 8 , 1947 ) . `` Follow - up Review '' . The Billboard . Nielsen Business Media : 39 . ISSN 0006 - 2510 . Jump up ^ Webman , Hal ; Fischler , Alan ( June 19 , 1948 ) . `` The Record Year '' . The Billboard . Nielsen Business Media : 14 . ISSN 0006 - 2510 . Jump up ^ Fay , Frank ( 1945 ) . How to Be Poor . Prentice - Hall . p. 47 . Jump up ^ Safire , William ( May 10 , 1981 ) . `` Word - Watchers at Work '' . The New York Times . Retrieved May 9 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Smith , Red ( July 1 , 1981 ) . `` Sportspeak and Stuff '' . The New York Times . Retrieved May 9 , 2012 . ^ Jump up to : Safire , William ( June 28 , 1981 ) . `` Out Of Left Field '' . The New York Times . Retrieved May 9 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Hukill , Peter B. ( May 1961 ) . `` The Spoken Language of Medicine : Argot , Slang , Cant '' . American Speech . The American Dialect Society . 36 ( 2 ) : 145 -- 151 . doi : 10.2307 / 453853 . JSTOR 453853 . Jump up ^ Safire , William ( 1997 ) . `` Out of Left Field '' . In John Thorn . The Complete Armchair Book of Baseball : An All - Star Lineup Celebrates America 's National Pastime . Sterling Publishing . pp. 270 -- 273 . ISBN 1578660041 . ^ Jump up to : Safire , William ( 2008 ) . Safire 's Political Dictionary . Oxford University Press . p. 384 . ISBN 0195343344 . Jump up ^ Chapman , Robert L. ( 1998 ) . American Slang ( 2 ed . ) . HarperCollins . p. 374 . ISBN 0062732935 . ^ Jump up to : Callies , Marcus ; Keller , Wolfram R. ; Lohöfer , Astrid ( 2011 ) . `` Widening the goalposts of cognitive metaphor research '' . Bi-Directionality in the Cognitive Sciences : Avenues , Challenges , and Limitations . Human Cognitive Processing . 30 . John Benjamins Publishing . p. 74 . ISBN 902722384X . Jump up ^ `` The Way Out in Left Field Society '' . Jump up ^ `` Cubs originally called West Side home '' . Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Out_of_left_field&oldid=800498401 '' Categories : English phrases Metaphors referring to sport Talk About Wikipedia Add links This page was last edited on 13 September 2017 , at 22 : 54 . About Wikipedia

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where can i find dragon ball super english dubbed

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=List_of_Dragon_Ball_Super_episodes&oldid=801185132

List of Dragon Ball Super episodes - wikipedia List of Dragon Ball Super episodes Jump to : navigation , search Promotional artwork Dragon Ball Super is a Japanese anime television series produced by Toei Animation that began airing on July 5 , 2015 on Fuji TV . It is the first Dragon Ball television series featuring a new storyline in 18 years . Storywise , the series retells the events of the last two Dragon Ball Z films , Battle of Gods and Resurrection ' F ' , which themselves follow the events of Dragon Ball Z . Afterwards , the series proceeds to tell an original story about the exploration of other universes , the reemergence of Future Trunks , and a new threat to his Earth known as Goku Black and a Supreme Kai from Universe 10 named Zamasu . Later , the Z Fighters participate in a universal tournament held by Zeno - sama to decide the fate of multiple universes . If they lose in the universal tournament then their entire universe will be destroyed . The first opening theme song for episodes 1 to 76 is `` Chōzetsu ☆ Dynamic ! '' ( 超絶 ☆ ダイナミック ! , Chōzetsu Dainamikku , `` Excellent Dynamic ! '' ) by Kazuya Yoshii of The Yellow Monkey . The lyrics were penned by Yukinojo Mori who has written numerous songs for the Dragon Ball series . The second opening theme song from episode 77 onwards is `` Limit - Break x Survivor '' ( 限界 突破 × サバイバー , Genkai Toppa x Sabaibā ) by Kiyoshi Hikawa . Yukinojo Mori wrote the lyrics for the rock number `` Genkai Toppa x Survivor '' and Takafumi Iwasaki composed the music . The first ending theme song for episodes 1 to 12 is `` Hello Hello Hello '' ( ハロー ハロー ハロー , Harō Harō Harō ) by Japanese rock band Good Morning America . The second ending theme song for episodes 13 to 25 is `` Starring Star '' ( スターリング スター , Sutāringu Sutā ) by Key Talk . The third ending theme song for episodes 26 to 36 is `` Usubeni '' ( 薄 紅 , `` Light Pink '' ) by Lacco Tower . The fourth ending theme song for episodes 37 to 49 is `` Forever Dreaming '' ( フォーエバー ドリーミング , Fōebā Dorīmingu ) by Czecho No Republic . The fifth ending theme song for episodes 50 to 59 is `` Yokayoka Dance '' ( よかよか ダンス , Yokayoka Dansu , `` It 's Fine Dance '' ) by idol group Batten Showjo Tai . The sixth ending theme for episodes 60 to 72 is `` Chao Han Music '' ( 炒飯 MUSIC , Chāhan Myūjikku ) by Arukara . The seventh ending theme from episodes 73 to 83 is `` Aku no Tenshi to Seigi no Akuma '' ( 悪 の 天使 と 正義 の 悪魔 , An Evil Angel and the Righteous Devil ) by THE COLLECTORS . The eighth ending theme from episodes 84 to 96 is `` Boogie Back '' by Miyu Innoue . The ninth ending theme from episodes 97 onwards is `` Haruka '' by Lacco Tower . The anime episodes are being released on Japanese Blu - ray and DVD sets that contain twelve episodes each . The first set was released on December 2 , 2015 . The second set was released on March 2 , 2016 . The third set was released on July 2 , 2016 . The fourth set was released on October 10 , 2016 . Dragon Ball Super received an English - language dub that premiered on the Toonami channel in Southeast Asia and India in January 2017 . The series has been aired in Israel on Nickelodeon and in Portugal on SIC . Toei Animation Europe announced that Dragon Ball Super would be broadcast in France , Italy , Spain , and English - speaking Africa in Fall 2016 . An official English sub of the series would be simulcasted legally on Crunchyroll , Daisuki.net , and Anime Lab beginning October 22 , 2016 . Funimation announced the company acquired the rights to the series and will be producing an English dub . As well as officially announcing the dub , it was also announced they will be simulcasting the series on their streaming platform , FunimationNow . Funimation 's English dub of Dragon Ball Super started airing on Adult Swim 's Toonami block starting January 7 , 2017 . Contents ( hide ) 1 Series overview 2 Episode list 2.1 Season 1 : God of Destruction Beerus 2.2 Season 2 : Golden Frieza 2.3 Season 3 : Universe 6 2.4 Season 4 : `` Future '' Trunks 2.5 Season 5 : Universe Survival 3 Blu - ray and DVD release 3.1 Region 1 ( North America ) 3.1. 1 Volumes 3.2 Region 2 ( Japan ) 4 References Series overview ( edit ) Season Saga Episodes Originally aired First aired Last aired God of Destruction Beerus 14 July 5 , 2015 ( 2015 - 07 - 05 ) October 11 , 2015 ( 2015 - 10 - 11 ) Golden Frieza 13 October 18 , 2015 ( 2015 - 10 - 18 ) January 17 , 2016 ( 2016 - 01 - 17 ) Universe 6 19 January 24 , 2016 ( 2016 - 01 - 24 ) June 5 , 2016 ( 2016 - 06 - 05 ) `` Future '' Trunks 30 June 12 , 2016 ( 2016 - 06 - 12 ) January 29 , 2017 ( 2017 - 01 - 29 ) 5 Universe Survival TBA February 5 , 2017 ( 2017 - 02 - 05 ) TBA Episode list ( edit ) Season 1 : God of Destruction Beerus ( edit ) Overall No . Saga No . English translation / Dub title Original Japanese title Original airdate American airdate `` The Peace Reward - Who Will Get the 100 Million Zeni ? '' / `` A Peacetime Reward : Who Gets the 100,000,000 Zeni ? ! ? ! '' `` Heiwa no hōshū - ichioku Zenī wa dare no te ni ! ? '' ( 平和 の 報酬 1 億 ゼニー は 誰 の 手 に ! ? ) July 5 , 2015 January 7 , 2017 After Son Goku defeated the dangerous Majin Buu , peace has returned to Earth . Chi - Chi wants Goku to get a job , so he works as a farmer . Son Goten and his friend Trunks search for a gift for his sister - in - law Videl , who is married to his older brother , Son Gohan . The two consider jewelry and makeup , but they are unable to afford anything . Goten and Trunks head for the hot springs in the woods to bottle up some mineral water instead . While there , they are attacked by a giant snake , which they manage to scare away . For his purported role in saving Earth from Majin Buu , Mr. Satan has been awarded with 100 million Zeni that he does not want . He decides to give the money to one of the fighters . Goku gives the money to Chi - Chi , so she would let him train . Meanwhile , somewhere in the depths of space , Beerus , the God of Destruction , has awakened from his slumber . Keen on battling the worthy opponent that appeared to him in his visions , Beerus and his attendant , Whis , set out to discover who this opponent is . `` To the Promised Resort ! Vegeta Goes on a Family Trip ? ! '' / `` To the Promised Resort ! Vegeta Takes a Family Trip ! '' `` Yakusoku no rizōto e ! Bejīta ga kazoku ryokō ! ? '' ( 約束 の リゾート へ ! ベジータ が 家族 旅行 ! ? ) July 12 , 2015 January 14 , 2017 Goku goes to King Kai 's planet to train with King Kai . Meanwhile , Vegeta , Bulma , and Trunks take a family trip to a resort . Bulma and Trunks are enjoying the family time together , while Vegeta is bothered by the fact that Goku gets to train . Fed up with what he considers a waste of time , Vegeta flies away and heads back to Capsule Corporation to train . Somewhere in space , Beerus and Whis scour an alien planet in search of dinosaur meat . They are confronted by the planet 's strongest dweller , but he proves to be no match for them . Shortly afterwards , Beerus destroys the planet in order to have another vision of his destined opponent -- the Super Saiyan God . `` Where 's the Rest of the Dream ? ! In Search of the Super Saiyan God ! '' / `` Where Does the Dream Pick Up ? Find the Super Saiyan God ! '' `` Yume no tsuzuki wa doko da ! ? Sūpā Saiya - jin Goddo o sagase ! '' ( 夢 の 続き は どこ だ ! ? 超 ( スーパー ) サイヤ 人 ゴッド を 探せ ! ) July 19 , 2015 January 21 , 2017 Fearing what might happen knowing that the God of Destruction is awake , the Old Supreme Kai and Supreme Kai urge King Kai to ensure that Goku never finds out about Beerus . However , Goku overhears the conversation and becomes curious . Back in his temple , Beerus and Whis continue their search for the Super Saiyan God . They soon learn of Goku and his feats . Beerus and Whis decide to pay him and King Kai a visit . Meanwhile , back on Earth , Goku 's friends and family members begin gathering on the cruise ship for Bulma 's birthday party except for Vegeta who is still training to overpower Goku and everyone else in the universe . `` Aim for the Dragon Balls ! Pilaf Gang in Action ! '' / `` Bid for the Dragon Balls ! Pilaf and Crew 's Impossible Mission ! '' `` Mezase Doragon Bōru ! Pirafu ichimi no dai - sakusen ! '' ( 目指せ ドラゴンボール ! ピラフ 一味 の 大 作戦 ! ) August 2 , 2015 January 28 , 2017 With all guests now gathered except for Goku and Vegeta , Bulma 's birthday party gets underway . Trunks shows Goten where his mother hid the bingo tournament grand prize -- the Dragon Balls . Not far off from the ship , the Pilaf Gang are now poor and hungry . They are trying to get by until they find the Dragon Balls and make their wishes come true . When his Dragon Radar picks up a signal coming from Bulma 's ship , Pilaf and his henchmen hastily board the ship with Trunks and Goten 's help . Meanwhile , on his planet , King Kai explains to Goku who and what Beerus exactly is and that for every benevolent God there must be a malevolent one in order to keep the universe in balance . Just as he finishes , Beerus and Whis arrive . 5 5 `` The Ultimate Fight on King Kai 's Planet ! Goku vs. the God of Destruction Beerus '' / `` Showdown on King Kai 's World ! Goku vs. Beerus the Destroyer ! '' `` Kaiō - sei no kessen ! Gokū VS Hakaishin Birusu '' ( 界 王 星 の 決戦 ! 悟空 VS 破壊 神 ビルス ) August 9 , 2015 February 4 , 2017 Beerus and Whis arrive on King Kai 's planet and detect Goku 's presence . While he is initially disappointed that Goku does not know what a `` Super Saiyan God '' is , he agrees to test his strength in a sparring match . Goku attempts to fight him in all of the Super Saiyan transformations , but Beerus effortlessly defeats him in two strikes . Beerus and Whis head for Earth shortly afterwards , while King Kai uses his telepathy to warn Vegeta ahead of their arrival . 6 6 `` Do n't Anger the God of Destruction ! Excitement at the Birthday Party '' / `` Do n't Anger the Destroyer ! A Heart - Pounding Birthday Party ! '' `` Hakaishin o okoraseru na ! Doki - doki tanjō pātī '' ( 破壊 神 を 怒ら せる な ! ドキドキ 誕生 パーティー ) August 16 , 2015 February 11 , 2017 Beerus and Whis arrive on Earth , where Bulma 's birthday party is underway . Initially , Vegeta is paralyzed by Beerus ' presence . He recalls a childhood encounter with the deity a long time ago when Beerus visited Planet Vegeta and threatened his father , King Vegeta . Shortly afterwards , Bulma pops up . She invites Beerus and Whis to join the party . The two gladly accept her offer and quickly become enamored with the Earth 's cuisine . They start mingling with the other guests , while Vegeta tries his best to ensure that Beerus remains calm . Whis soon learns of pudding , which he finds to be extraordinarily delicious . Whis urges Beerus to have some too . It turns out that Majin Buu had taken the remaining pudding cups for himself and refuses to share . Angered by Majin Buu 's insolence , Beerus attacks him . 7 7 `` How Dare You Hurt My Bulma ! Vegeta 's Sudden , Angry Shift ? ! '' / `` How Dare You Do That To My Bulma ! Vegeta 's Metamorphosis of Fury ? '' `` Yokumo ore no Buruma o ! Bejīta ikari no totsuzenhen'i ! ? '' ( よく も オレ の ブルマ を ! ベジータ 怒り の 突然 変異 ! ? ) August 23 , 2015 February 18 , 2017 Beerus effortlessly disposes of Majin Buu , while Vegeta stands by in awe . Vegeta tries to persuade Beerus to calm down and enjoy himself , but he refuses to listen . Trunks and Goten fuse into Gotenks and attack to no avail . Powerless to do anything else , Gotenks starts insulting Beerus for which he is promptly punished . Piccolo , Tien Shinhan , and Android 18 try taking on Beerus with little success . Majin Buu attacks again , but he is unable to land a single hit . While observing the battle , Dende realizes what Beerus actually is and immediately informs Piccolo . Before Piccolo is able to warn him , Gohan powers up and charges towards Beerus . Using Majin Buu as a weapon , Beerus repels Gohan and takes them both out . Being the last one standing , Vegeta confronts Beerus , but he is swiftly brought to the ground . Beerus tells Vegeta that he is disappointed with him since he is just as weak as his father was . Just as Beerus is about to finish Vegeta , Bulma walks up and slaps him for ruining her party . Beerus retaliates in similar fashion . Seeing Bulma struck infuriates Vegeta . He explodes and powers up immensely . 8 8 `` Goku Arrives ! A Last Chance from Beerus Sama ? ! '' / `` Goku Makes an Entrance ! A Last Chance from Lord Beerus ? '' `` Gokū kenzan ! Birusu - sama kara no rasuto chansu ! ? '' ( 悟空 見参 ! ビルス 様 から の ラスト チャンス ! ? ) August 30 , 2015 February 25 , 2017 Having powered up , Vegeta charges towards Beerus . He manages to land a few punches before Beerus , who was using only a fraction of his power , knocks him out . Just as he is about to destroy Earth , Beerus has a sudden idea . He decides to give the Earthlings another chance at saving Earth . Meanwhile , fearing for their lives , the Pilaf Gang disembark Bulma 's ship on a rowboat and sail away . Thinking he is the same as Majin Buu because of his pink hue , Beerus picks Oolong out of the crowd and challenges him to a game of rock -- paper -- scissors to decide the fate of the Earth . Oolong manages to draw twice , but Beerus eventually wins and proceeds to power up his attack . Just as Beerus is about to fire , Goku chimes in and says he has thought of a way to find out about the Super Saiyan God . He will summon and ask Shenron about it . 9 9 `` Sorry for the Wait , Beerus Sama . The Super Saiyan God Is Finally Born ! '' / `` Thanks for Waiting , Lord Beerus ! A Super Saiyan God is Born At Last ! '' `` O matase , Birusu - sama . Tsuini Sūpā Saiya - jin Goddo tanjō ! '' ( お 待た せ 、 ビルス 様 . ついに 超 ( スーパー ) サイヤ 人 ゴッド 誕生 ! ) September 6 , 2015 March 4 , 2017 Goku gathers the Dragon Balls together and summons Shenron , who is startled by Beerus ' presence . Shenron quickly explains that the Super Saiyan God is not a person , but it is a legendary transformation that only kindhearted Saiyans can achieve by fusing their power together . The Saiyans attempt to transform Goku , but they fail as they are one Saiyan short . Growing tired of waiting , Beerus starts preparing his attack to destroy the planet . Suddenly , Videl jumps in front of the Saiyans . She says that there is one more Saiyan who might be able to help them , who happens to be her and Gohan 's unborn child . The Saiyans and Videl attempt the transformation again and manage to transform Goku into the Super Saiyan God . 10 10 `` Unleash It , Goku ! The Power of the Super Saiyan God ! ! '' / `` Show Us , Goku ! The Power of a Super Saiyan God ! '' `` Misero Gokū ! Sūpā Saiya - jin Goddo no pawā ! ! '' ( 見せろ 悟空 ! 超 ( スーパー ) サイヤ 人 ゴッド の 力 ( パワー ) ! ! ) September 13 , 2015 March 11 , 2017 Goku is now a Super Saiyan God . He confronts Beerus . Goku is amazed by the immense power his body has gained with the transformation . He is initially unable to fully grasp its newfound potential . Fighting with Beerus , Goku manages to grow gradually into his new form . Seeing as how Goku might turn out to be a worthy adversary after all , Beerus decides it is time for them to unleash their true power and have a real battle of Gods . 11 11 `` Let 's Keep Going , Beerus Sama ! Our Battle of Gods ! '' / `` Let 's Keep Going , Lord Beerus ! The Battle of Gods ! '' `` Tsudukeyō ze Birusu - sama ! Kami to kami no tatakai o ! '' ( 続け よう ぜ ビルス 様 ! 神 と 神 の 戦い を ! ) September 20 , 2015 March 18 , 2017 Having somewhat got a grip on the Super Saiyan God form , Goku initially manages to keep up with Beerus . He soon realizes that his opponent is still not fighting at his maximum . It is revealed that Beerus is doing so only to motivate Goku to catch up with him . To that end , Beerus drags Goku to space , where he swiftly knocks him out . Goku comes crashing down back to Earth and ends up in an ocean . Amazed by such power , Goku gets excited and powers up . He heals himself in the process . Willing to have another go , Goku flies out of the ocean and dashes towards Beerus . 12 12 `` The Universe Crumbles ? ! Clash ! God of Destruction vs. Super Saiyan God '' / `` The Universe Will Shatter ? Clash ! Destroyer vs. Super Saiyan God '' `` Uchū ga kudakeru ! ? Gekitotsu ! Haikaishin VS Sūpā Saiya - jin Goddo ! '' ( 宇宙 が 砕ける ! ? 激突 ! 破壊 神 VS 超 ( スーパー ) サイヤ 人 ゴッド ! ) September 27 , 2015 March 25 , 2017 Goku and Beerus continue to fight in space . As both of them power up and clash , the universe begins to crumble under the power of the gods . Celestial bodies blow up due to the shock waves . Meanwhile , Old Supreme Kai reveals to the younger Supreme Kai that with three more blows the whole universe would be destroyed along with Beerus and Goku . When Goku lands the third clash with Beerus , he unknowingly stops the universe 's collapse by balancing Beerus ' attack with his own . Beerus gets enraged and uses his atomic bomb attack on Goku . Goku uses the Super Saiyan God energy to power up his Kamehameha attack to keep Beerus ' attack at bay . 13 13 `` Goku , Go Beyond Super Saiyan God '' / `` Goku , Surpass Super Saiyan God ! '' `` Gokū yo , Sūpā Saiya - jin Goddo o koete ike ! '' ( 悟空 よ 、 超 ( スーパー ) サイヤ 人 ゴッド を 越え て 行け ! ) October 4 , 2015 April 8 , 2017 The Supreme Kais are surprised that the universe is still intact following the battle , but they fear the worst is still to come . On Earth , Vegeta , Whis , and the others are still standing by while watching the battle . Whis is surprised by the Super Saiyan God 's power and its ability to keep up with his trainee . In space , Goku struggles to keep up with Beerus ' attack , which ultimately ends up in a massive explosion that blinds everyone on Earth . Shortly after , the light clears out , which reveals everything to be as it was prior to the explosion . Beerus explains that he used his full power to negate the explosion , which saved the universe . Seeing it as a perfect opportunity to boast , Mr. Satan arranges to have himself be falsely credited with saving the planet yet again . Despite being at his limit , Goku remains calm , which annoys the God of Destruction . Beerus thinks Goku might have a strategy that he has been hiding , which Goku promptly denies . Goku says that everything he had been doing was improvised as they fought . The Gods quickly power up and continue fighting , but this time both are at their limit . As soon as they start , Goku loses his Super Saiyan God aura and reverts to the ordinary Super Saiyan form . Upon noticing that , Beerus decides to quit . He thinks it is pointless to fight an ordinary Super Saiyan . However , Goku does not notice and keeps going at it . Whis is able to sense Goku 's mortal energy . Whis assumes that the battle has concluded and that Goku has lost . However , Piccolo begs to differ . Surprised that Goku is still able to hit him even after losing his Super Saiyan God form , Beerus surmises that Goku 's body has adjusted to the Super Saiyan God power . This made him stronger in his ordinary form . With or without the Super Saiyan God form , Goku proclaims that it is still him that Beerus is up against . Beerus and Goku resume their battle of Gods . Note : This episode was originally scheduled to air on April 1 , 2017 , but an unannounced change in schedule on April Fools ' Day supplanted a new Dragon Ball Super episode with the premiere of the third season of Rick and Morty , which aired repeatedly from 8 PM to midnight . 14 14 `` This Is Every Ounce of Power I Have ! The Battle of Gods ' Conclusion ! '' / `` This Is All the Power I 've Got ! A Settlement Between Gods '' `` Kore ga ora no arittake no chikarada ! Ketchaku ! Kami to kami '' ( これが オラ の ありったけ の 力 だ ! 決着 ! 神 と 神 ) October 11 , 2015 April 15 , 2017 Now with only a Super Saiyan form at his disposal , Goku powers up and attacks but to no avail , as Beerus knocks him out effortlessly . With Goku knocked out , Beerus prepares to destroy the Earth . In a final effort to stop Beerus , Goku once again powers up and charges his Kamehameha attack . Goku manages to prevent Beerus ' attack , but he completely depletes what was left of his energy in the process . He comes crashing down to Earth onto Bulma 's ship , where Vegeta manages to catch him . Beerus lands on the planet shortly after to finish what he started , but he suddenly falls asleep . Whis explains that Goku must have tired Beerus out , and that by the time he wakes up he will have forgotten about their trip to Earth . Beerus was faking his sudden sleep because the Earth 's food convinced him to spare the planet . Beerus and Whis leave for Beerus ' planet . With Earth safe again , Goku decides to relax and enjoy the party . Season 2 : Golden Frieza ( edit ) Overall No . Saga No . English translation / Dub title Original Japanese title Original airdate American airdate 15 `` Make a Miracle , Satan the Hero ! A Challenge from Outer Space ! '' / `` Valiant Mr. Satan , Work a Miracle ! A Challenge from Outer Space ! '' `` Yūsha Satan yo kiseki o okose ! Uchū kara no chōsenjō ! ! '' ( 勇者 サタン よ 奇跡 を 起こせ ! 宇宙 から の 挑戦 状 ! ! ) October 18 , 2015 April 22 , 2017 With Earth no longer in danger , Goku and the others return to their ordinary lives . Chi - Chi tells Goku she has already spent the 100 million Zeni received from Mr. Satan . She orders Goku to leave training behind and find a job so he can support the family . Meanwhile , Mr. Satan 's self - promotion goes awry when a group of aliens land in the city . The aliens reveal that they are ambassadors who wish to thank and reward whoever defeated Beerus and thus protected their planet from destruction . Before he is given the reward , Mr. Satan is asked to demonstrate his godlike power against the alien 's mightiest champion in a sparring match . Knowing that he does not stand a chance , Mr. Satan quickly scampers away to safety and calls for help , but no one answers him . Suddenly , Goku arrives at the scene in need of Mr. Satan 's help . Mr. Satan arranges to have Goku fight for him instead . Just before the fight , Goku spots Chi - Chi and immediately runs away to avoid being scolded for disobeying her . Mr. Satan is left to confront the alien champion on his own . Suddenly , the cynophobic aliens spot Mr. Satan 's dog and run away in fear . With the aliens gone , the crowd praises Mr. Satan , whom they think saved them and Earth yet again . 16 `` Vegeta Becomes an Apprentice ? ! Winning Whis Over ! '' / `` Vegeta Becomes a Student ? ! Win Over Whis ! '' `` Bejīta ga deshi'iri ! ? Uisu o kōryakuse yo ! '' ( ベジータ が 弟子入り ! ? ウイス を 攻略 せよ ! ) October 25 , 2015 April 29 , 2017 Chi - Chi still has Goku doing work out on the farm . Instead of working , Goku decides to rest and falls asleep . Krillin flies in and wakes up Goku . Krillin is very surprised to hear that Goku is still on Earth and not training with King Kai . He reminisces about his training with Goku under Master Roshi and the power level difference between them since they were children . Curious to see how large the gap is , Krillin tells Goku to punch him with all his power . A reluctant Goku tries to change Krillin 's mind . Goku ends up punching Krillin anyway , which sends Krillin flying into a boulder . Shortly afterwards , Goku heads home . Android 18 treats Krillin 's wounds . Krillin states that he misses martial arts and wishes to start training again . Meanwhile , Vegeta is seen in the wastelands standing determined . He states his intent to surpass Goku without the aid of others . Elsewhere , Whis and Bulma are having lunch together . Whis is enjoying all the food Bulma is having her chef make . While they dine , Bulma asks Whis to protect Earth from Beerus in case he ever shows up again . Vegeta arrives and sees Whis . He asks Whis to see Beerus , but Whis refuses to do so . Whis tells Vegeta that he is Beerus ' martial arts teacher . Whis informs Vegeta that with the proper tutelage he could one day surpass Goku . Vegeta bows and kneels before Whis and begs to become his student . An unimpressed Whis walks past him . Vegeta decides to convince Whis by giving him the tastiest food on Earth . After several failed attempts , Vegeta finally impresses Whis with a cup of instant noodle . Before Vegeta heads off with Whis to train on Beerus ' planet , Bulma hands him new battle armor . Whis and Vegeta arrive on Beerus ' planet . Whis prepares to train Vegeta . 17 `` Pan Is Born ! And Goku Goes on a Training Trip ? ! '' / `` Pan is Born ! And Goku Goes on a Training Journey ? ! '' `` Pan tanjō ! Soshite Gokū wa shugyō no tabi he ! ? '' ( パン 誕生 ! そして 悟空 は 修行 の 旅 へ ! ? ) November 1 , 2015 May 6 , 2017 Pan has been born . While most of her family members and friends think that she should be taught martial arts , Chi - Chi is revolted by the very idea . She believes that Pan should be raised to be a lady and not a mindless fighter like her grandfather Goku . Everyone tries to persuade Chi - Chi to change her mind but to no avail . Bulma accidentally mentions that Vegeta has been away training with Whis for six months , which shocks Goku . After some time , Whis returns to Earth to enjoy more of the food Earth has to offer . Goku approaches Whis and asks to become his pupil . Whis accepts Goku 's plea . Whis thinks it is the perfect time for Goku to join Vegeta in training . Just as the two are about to depart , Chi - Chi runs up and stops Goku from leaving . Despite her wishes , Goku ends up leaving with Whis . Chi - Chi has a sudden change of heart . She says that Goku will return once he gets hungry anyway . 18 `` I 'm Here , Too ! Training Begins on Beerus ' Planet ! '' / `` I 'm Here , Too ! Training Commences on Beerus ' World ! '' `` Ora mo kita zo ! Birusu - sei de shugyō kaishi da ! '' ( オラ も 来 た ぞ ! ビルス 星 で 修行 開始 だ ! ) November 8 , 2015 May 13 , 2017 Goku and Whis arrive on Beerus ' planet , where Vegeta is tasked with housekeeping . Goku is surprised to learn that Vegeta has gotten considerably stronger training under Whis . Goku wants to start his training right away . Before he is allowed to train , Whis orders him to help Vegeta with the chores including changing Beerus ' bed sheets without waking him up . Goku and Vegeta promptly do their chores and start their training with Whis . Whis ' training routine quickly wears Goku out . He falls asleep . Vegeta , who is willing to surpass Goku at any cost , keeps on training . The next day , Whis decides to have a sparring match with his apprentices in order to gauge their speed . The two prove to be no match for Whis . Goku and Vegeta are too slow to land a single hit on Whis . Somewhere in space , surviving members of Frieza 's army are led by Sorbet . They continue with their effort of resurrecting their leader . Not far off , mysterious beings from a different universe named Champa ( シャンパ , Shanpa ) and Vados ( ヴァドス , Vadosu ) continue their search for Beerus . 19 5 `` Despair Rises ! The Emperor of Evil , Frieza , Resurrected ! '' / `` Despair Redux ! The Return of the Evil Emperor , Frieza ! '' `` Zetsubō futatabi ! Aku no teiō Furīza no fukkatsu ! '' ( 絶望 ふたたび ! 悪 の 帝王 ・ フリーザ の 復活 ! ) November 15 , 2015 May 20 , 2017 Goku and Vegeta continue their training under Whis on Beerus ' planet . Meanwhile , Sorbet and his assistant Tagoma ( タゴマ ) depart their ship and head for Earth in order to find the Dragon Balls , which they intend to resurrect their leader Frieza . They run into the Pilaf Gang , who had collected all seven Dragon Balls just before their arrival . Sorbet coerces Pilaf into summoning Shenron . At first , Shenron refuses to revive Frieza because he sees it as pointless given his current state , where Frieza was cut in pieces just as he was when Future Trunks killed him . Tagoma suggests using their advanced healing technology to make Frieza intact again . Sorbet has Frieza resurrected . Sorbet and Tagoma collect all of Frieza 's pieces and return to their ship . Frieza is completely renewed shortly afterwards . 20 6 `` Jaco 's Warning ! Frieza and His 1000 Troops Approach '' / `` A Warning from Jaco ! Frieza and 1,000 Soldiers Close In '' `` Jako kara no keikoku ! Semari kuru Furīza to 1000 - ri no heishi - tachi ! '' ( ジャコ から の 警告 ! 迫り 来る フリーザ と 1000 人 の 兵士 達 ) November 22 , 2015 June 3 , 2017 Once restored , Frieza plans revenge against Goku and Future Trunks . Tagoma objects to Frieza 's plans , but Frieza promptly subdues him . When Frieza finds out that Goku has gotten much stronger since they last met , he decides to train in order to become more powerful . Since Frieza 's power was inborn , he reveals that he had never felt the need to train a day in his life before now . Four months pass before Frieza and his army head for Earth . All the while , Goku and Vegeta continue their training under Whis . Jaco the Galactic Patrolman travels to Earth to inform Bulma that Frieza had been revived . Frieza will be approaching Earth shortly with an army of one thousand soldiers . With Frieza 's army fast approaching , Bulma gathers the remaining fighters to fight Frieza 's army in hopes of holding out until Goku and Vegeta make it back to Earth . 21 7 `` The Start of Revenge ! The Malice of Frieza Army Strikes Gohan ! '' / `` The Start of Vengeance ! The Frieza Force 's Malice Strikes Gohan ! '' `` Fukushū no hajimari ! Furīza - gun no akuiga satoshi Gohan outsu ! '' ( 復讐 の 始まり ! フリーザ 軍 の 悪意 が 悟 飯 を 撃つ ! ) November 29 , 2015 June 10 , 2017 Frieza and his army arrive on Earth , where Gohan , Piccolo , Krillin , Master Roshi , Tien , and Jaco have gathered to hold out until Goku and Vegeta return . Frieza says that he has waited a long time to have his revenge and that he wishes to face Goku . Seeing as how Goku is not present to help , Frieza orders his army to attack the Earthlings . His army proves to be no match for the fighters even for Krillin , who had given up fighting . Disappointed with his lackluster army , Frieza orders Sorbet to send in his elite soldier , Shisami ( シサミ ) , to take out Gohan . Suddenly , Tagoma fires a beam at Shisami and Gohan , which kills the former and badly injures the latter . Sorbet is surprised by Tagoma 's newfound power , which he had achieved through training with Frieza . Frieza promises Tagoma the command of his army if he takes out the Earthlings . He accepts and prepares to fight the Earthlings . Meanwhile , Goku and Vegeta are oblivious to what is happening on Earth . They continue their training under Whis on Beerus ' planet . 22 8 `` Change ! An Unexpected Return ! His Name is Ginyu ! ! '' `` Chēnji ! Masaka no fukkatsu ! Sono na wa Ginyū ! ! '' ( チェーンジ ! まさかの 復活 ! その 名 は ギニュー ! ! ) December 6 , 2015 June 17 , 2017 Tagoma powers up and confidently approaches his opponents . Piccolo is instantly outmatched . Gohan blasts Tagoma , which causes him to fly several yards away . As the dust settles , Tagoma reveals himself to be unharmed . Suddenly , Gotenks arrives and headbutts Tagoma . Everybody is shocked to see this . While Tagoma is struggling to recuperate from Gotenks ' attack , Captain Ginyu , who is in his frog form , pounces close to him and inscribes a message in the gravel . Tagoma accidentally sets off Ginyu 's signature move , and the two swap bodies . Ginyu rapidly adjusts to his new body 's immense power and assaults all of his rivals simultaneously . Bulma , Trunks , and Goten attempt to contact Whis , which bewilders Jaco . While fighting Gohan , Ginyu appears to have the upper hand until Gohan transforms into a Super Saiyan and defeats him . When Gohan shows mercy to Ginyu , Frieza becomes enraged and repeatedly fires multiple blasts at Gohan . Before Frieza can kill Gohan , Piccolo steps in to save him . 23 9 `` The Earth ! Gohan ! Absolute Peril ! Hurry and Get Here , Son Goku ! ! '' / `` Earth ! Gohan ! Both on the Ropes ! Hurry and Get Here , Goku ! ! '' `` Chikyū ga ! Gohan ga ! Zettaizetsumei ! Hayaku kite kure Son Gokū ! ! '' ( 地球 が ! 悟 飯 が ! 絶 体 絶命 ! 早く 来 て くれ 孫悟空 ! ! ) December 13 , 2015 June 24 , 2017 Piccolo takes Frieza 's attack to save Gohan and dies in the process . On Beerus ' planet , Beerus desires more pizza . Whis gets an invitation from Bulma for a strawberry dessert . As Whis telepathically contacts her , she reveals Frieza 's revival and Piccolo 's death to him . Initially shocked to realize that Frieza is revived , Goku and Vegeta get set to fight Frieza . As Whis says it would take some time to reach Earth , Goku resorts to instant transmission on Beerus ' advice . Goku realizes that instant transmission is impossible due to the large distance between Earth and Beerus ' planet . Nevertheless , Goku tries to search for someone 's energy on Earth . On Earth , Gohan powers up to his maximum limit . This helps Goku to identify an energy source to perform instant transmission . Goku and Vegeta arrive on Earth in the nick of time to save Gohan . Vegeta executes Ginyu . As Goku and Frieza meet after a long time , Frieza transforms into his final form in a fit to demonstrate his new power . This results in the death of all his men except for Sorbet , who is at a considerable distance . Perplexed by Frieza 's new power , Goku prepares to engage in a battle . 24 10 `` Clash ! Frieza vs. Son Goku ; This Is The Result of My Training ! '' / `` Clash ! Frieza vs. Goku ! This is the Result of My Training ! '' `` Gekitotsu ! Furīza VS Son Gokū ; Kore ga ora no shugyō no seikada ! '' ( 激突 ! フリーザ VS 孫悟空 これが オラ の 修行 の 成果 だ ! ) December 20 , 2015 July 8 , 2017 The battle between Goku and Frieza begins . They fight on even ground , and neither one is able to inflict significant damage to the other . Frieza resorts to attacking Krillin and Bulma . When Goku tries to save them , he is caught off guard when Frieza lands several blows on him . Vegeta grows impatient due to the constant rambling by both fighters . He charges at Goku in frustration and asks him to give it all he has . Goku takes Vegeta 's request into account and convinces Frieza to power up to his maximum . When Frieza calls out to Goku to show his full power , Goku transforms into a Super Saiyan Blue . 25 11 `` An All - Out Battle ! The Revenge of Golden Frieza ! '' / `` A Full - Throttle Battle ! The Vengeful Golden Frieza '' `` Zenkai Batoru ! Fukushū no Gōruden Furīza '' ( 全開 バトル ! 復讐 の ゴールデン フリーザ ) December 27 , 2015 July 15 , 2017 After briefly testing Goku 's new transformation , Frieza transforms into Golden Frieza . Both are impressed by the other 's progress . They engage in a fierce battle . Meanwhile , Whis informs Bulma of their arrival on Earth in a few minutes . On their way to Earth , Beerus and Whis encounter the God of Destruction of Universe Six , Champa , and his assistant , Vados . After having a short conversation with Champa and Vados , Beerus and Whis finally arrive on the battlefield . While eating Bulma 's delicious dessert , Beerus and Whis acknowledge that Frieza has indeed become significantly stronger . They also notice that Goku seems to have a tough time keeping up with Golden Frieza . Still not use to his newest form , Goku struggles to keep up with Golden Frieza 's speed and prowess . 26 12 `` A Glint of Hope Shines Through in a Crisis ! Time to Fight Back , Son Goku ! '' / `` A Chance Appears in a Tight Spot ! Launch a Counteroffensive , Goku ! '' `` Dai pinchi ni shōki ga mieta ! Hangeki kaishida Son Gokū ! '' ( 大 ピンチ に 勝機 が 見え た ! 反撃 開始 だ 孫悟空 ! ) January 10 , 2016 July 22 , 2017 Frieza and Goku continue their protracted battle with Frieza landing more blows on Goku . While no match for Frieza 's raw power , Goku manages to withstand and dodge Frieza 's attacks . Goku and Vegeta notice that Frieza is progressively losing stamina and that his power level is dropping . Frieza himself fails to notice this . Vegeta urges Goku to quickly finish Frieza off before he has a chance to recover , or he will step up and do so himself . After Goku and Frieza exchange some sarcastic banter , they power up again and continue their fight . Frieza still has the upper hand , but Goku knows that he only needs to continue for a while longer before Frieza 's weakness appears again . After a fully powered Frieza unleashes a barrage of attacks , he quickly becomes tired and starts running out of breath . His attacks no longer hurt Goku . Frieza finally realizes his weakness . Goku explains that Frieza rushed to Earth immediately after achieving the Golden form without giving himself enough time to master it . Frieza mouths a few inaudible words to his subordinate , Sorbet , and agonizes over his failed chance at revenge . Goku tells Frieza to leave Earth , while he still can . To everyone 's surprise , a laser beam pierces Goku 's chest fired from Sorbet 's ray gun . Frieza steps on Goku 's chest wound and gloats about his backup strategy to have Goku let his guard down . As Goku screams in pain , Frieza mocks him for being overconfident . According to Frieza , Goku 's overconfidence prevents him from being the strongest fighter . Before Frieza can unleash his killing shot on Goku , Vegeta fires at Frieza and announces that it is his turn to fight . 27 13 `` The Earth Explodes ? ! The Deciding Kamehameha '' / `` The Earth Explodes ? A Decisive Kamehameha ! '' `` Chikyū bakuhatsu ! ? Ketchaku no kamehameha '' ( 地球 爆発 ! ? 決着 の かめ はめ 波 ) January 17 , 2016 July 29 , 2017 Goku is critically injured , but Vegeta intervenes before Frieza can deliver a killing blow . When Krillin attempts to deliver Goku a Senzu Bean , Frieza attempts to blast him . Vegeta redirects the blast to Sorbet , which kills him . Afterwards , Vegeta demonstrates his new ability to transform into a Super Saiyan Blue . Frieza attempts to land a hit on Vegeta , but he fails to do so . Frieza quickly finds himself completely outmatched by Vegeta . Enraged and humiliated , Frieza refuses to accept defeat . While Vegeta powers up his final attack , Frieza instead blows up the Earth . Whis protects Goku and the others . As Goku laments his missed opportunity to defeat Frieza , Whis offers to turn back time by a couple of minutes , which will allow Goku to have another chance . The moment is reset to the end of Vegeta and Frieza 's battle . This allows Goku just enough time to charge up a Kamehameha attack and kill Frieza . Later , the group gathers at Capsule Corporation . Piccolo is revived with the Namekian Dragon Balls . Gohan tells Piccolo that he intends to resume his training so that he can protect his loved ones . Piccolo is delighted to hear this . Season 3 : Universe 6 ( edit ) Overall No . Saga No . English translation Dub title Original Japanese title Original airdate American airdate 28 `` The God of Destruction from Universe 6 - His Name Is Champa ! '' / `` The 6th Universe 's Destroyer ! His Name is Champa ! '' `` Dai - 6 uchū no hakaishin - Sono na wa Shanpa '' ( 第 6 宇宙 の 破壊 神 その 名 は シャンパ ) January 24 , 2016 August 5 , 2017 As Goku and Vegeta continue their vigorous training , Champa and Vados abruptly arrive on Beerus ' planet . After a small skirmish between Beerus and Champa , everyone settles down to eat some food . Formal introductions are exchanged , where Champa is introduced as Beerus ' twin brother and Vados as Whis ' older sister . An argument erupts concerning which universe 's food is superior . This leaves Goku and Vegeta bewildered . Whis explains that there are twelve universes . When two universes add up to thirteen , each universe compliments each other such as the sixth and the seventh universe . After Vados discovers that Universe Six 's Earth has been destroyed through warfare , Champa proposes a tournament between Universe Six and Seven to determine who acquires the Earth of Universe Seven . Beerus protests the idea . He believes it is impossible to do so . Champa ascertains that it is doable by using the Super Dragon Balls , which the Namekian Dragon Balls were trimmed from . At the current moment , Champa has six of them . Goku informs Beerus and Champa that Bulma is capable of locating the final Super Dragon Ball necessary to perform the wish . With tensions mounted , Beerus accepts Champa 's proposal . 29 `` The Martial Arts Match Has Been Decided ! The Team Captain Is Stronger Than Goku '' / `` Combat Matches Are a Go ! The Captain is Someone Stronger Than Goku '' `` Kakutō shiai kaisai kettei ! Shushō wa Gokū yori tsuyoi yatsu '' ( 格闘 試合 開催 決定 ! 主将 は 悟空 より も 強い ヤツ ) January 31 , 2016 August 12 , 2017 Champa decides to host the tournament on a vacated nameless planet located between Universe Six and Universe Seven . Goku suggests the rules be similar to that of the Tenkaichi Budokai tournaments held on Earth . Vegeta recommends a written exam be implemented in order to prevent insensitive beings lacking knowledge of the regulations from participating . The tournament is scheduled to begin several days after the encounter between Beerus and Champa . On Earth , Whis requests that Bulma use her Dragon Radar in order to obtain the final Super Dragon Ball . Contrary to this , Bulma believes it would be easier to simply summon Shenron to locate it instead . Shenron reveals that tracking down the Super Dragon Balls is beyond his power . Meanwhile , Vados selects a portion of the nameless planet and transforms it into the tournament 's arena . After judging Whis ' students , Champa realizes he should also enlist a Saiyan onto his team . Beerus explains that Goku is merely the second strongest opponent he has ever faced . He proceeds to take off to inform Monaka ( モナカ ) , the strongest warrior he has ever fought , of the tournament . The next morning , Bulma finishes constructing the Super Dragon Radar . She intends to collect the Super Dragon Balls of Universe Seven before Beerus can use them to wish for total annihilation of the entire world . 30 `` A Review Before the ' Martial Arts Match ' - Who Are the Last Two Members ? ! '' / `` A Run - Through For the Competition ! Who Are the Last Two Members ? '' `` '' Kakutō '' shiai e no o sarai - Nokori futari no menbā wa dareda ! ? '' ( 「 格闘 試合 」 へ の お さらい 残り 二 人 の メンバー は 誰 だ ! ? ) February 7 , 2016 August 19 , 2017 Goku and Vegeta meet up with Krillin , who goes with them to recruit Majin Buu as the fourth combatant of the Universe Seven team . Although Majin Buu is reluctant due to his hatred of Beerus , he agrees when Goku promises him a wish from the Super Dragon Balls , which he plans on giving to Mr. Satan . Goten and Trunks try to join , but they are denied by Vegeta because their use of fusion is illegal . The group finds Piccolo training with Gohan . They recruit Piccolo as the fifth and final member . Gohan considers joining the team , but he can not participate due to a business meeting on the day of the tournament . Beerus and the others think back over recent events . Beerus and Whis contemplate the intentions behind Champa 's plans . A series of flashbacks recapping the series is shown up to Frieza 's demise . 31 `` Off to Zuno Sama 's ! Find Out Where Super Dragon Balls Are ! '' / `` Off to See Master Zuno ! Find Out Where the Super Dragon Balls Are ! '' `` Zunō - sama no moto e ! Sūpā Doragon Bōru no arika o kikidase ! '' ( ズノー 様 の も と へ ! 超 ( スーパー ) ドラゴンボール の あり か を 聞き 出せ ! ) February 14 , 2016 August 26 , 2017 Bulma and Jaco travel to meet an omniscient alien , Zunō - sama ( ズノー 様 ) , to ask him about the Super Dragon Balls . After arriving on Zunō - sama 's planet , the duo encounters a spacefaring criminal named Burpman ( ゲップマン , Geppuman ) , who is wanted for leaving a restaurant without paying the bill . As a reward for subduing the criminal , Zunō - sama 's attendants allow Bulma and Jaco to skip the lengthy waiting list and seek Zunō - sama 's advice right away . Bulma unwittingly wastes two of her three questions , but she does glean information on the radius and other properties of the Super Dragon Balls . This includes the fact that they were formerly scattered across both Universe Six and Universe Seven . 32 5 `` The Match Begins ! Let 's All Go to the `` Nameless Planet '' ! '' / `` The Matches Begin ! We 're All Off to the Planet with No Name ! '' `` Shiaikaishi da ! Min'na de `` Namae no nai hoshi '' e ! '' ( 試合 開始 だ ! みんな で 「 名前 の ない 星 」 へ ! ) February 21 , 2016 September 9 , 2017 On Earth , everyone gathers for the trip to the tournament . Goku and Vegeta arrive after having trained in the Hyperbolic Time Chamber for three years . After stopping at Beerus ' planet to get both him and Monaka , everyone proceeds to go to the tournament . The group meets their competition who are all somewhat unusual . This includes a Saiyan with a radically different history as well as a fighter who looks like Frieza . After the written test , the Universe Seven team is left one team member down because Majin Buu falls asleep . Majin Buu is deemed unfit and disqualified . Beerus decides that Monaka will go last . After a round of rock - paper - scissors , it is decided that Goku will fight first , followed by Piccolo , and then Vegeta . Goku and his competitor named Botamo ( ボタモ ) , who is a giant bear - like creature , enter the tournament ring . 33 6 `` Behold , Universe 6 ! This Is the Super Saiyan ? Son Goku ! '' / `` Surprise , 6th Universe ! This is Super Saiyan Goku ! '' `` Odoroke Dai - 6 uchū yo ! Kore ga Sūpā Saiya - jin ・ Son Gokū da ! '' ( 驚け 第 6 宇宙 よ ! これが 超 ( スーパー ) サイヤ 人 ・ 孫悟空 だ ! ) February 28 , 2016 September 16 , 2017 The fight between Goku and Botamo commences . Goku takes a while to warm up due to having overeaten during the trip . Although Goku seems faster and more well trained than Botamo , none of the hits that he lands seem to have an effect . Botamo seems content to simply take the punishment . Urged by Vegeta to think before he acts , Goku drags Botamo to the side of the ring and throws him out . This results in a win for Universe Seven . The next match begins almost immediately . The Frieza look alike named Frost ( フロスト , Furosuto ) is Goku 's next opponent . In direct contrast to Frieza , Frost is a kind and beloved hero in Universe Six who looks forward to a challenge . Goku surprises Frost with knowledge of his transformations . Frost assumes a form that mirrors Frieza 's third form . Goku mentions his ability to transform as well . He transforms into a Super Saiyan . Frost responds by transforming into his final form . Frost seems greatly outmatched by Goku even in his final transformation . Suddenly , a strange effect comes over Goku that severely weakens him and allows Frost a chance to strike . Frost knocks Goku out of the ring , which stuns everyone from Universe Seven . 34 7 `` Piccolo vs. Frost - Put It All on the Special Beam Cannon ! '' / `` Piccolo vs Frost ! Stake it All on the Special Beam Cannon ! '' `` Pikkoro VS Furosuto - Makankōsappō ni subete o kakero ! '' ( ピッコロ VS フロスト 魔 貫 光 殺 砲 に すべて を かけろ ! ) March 6 , 2016 September 23 , 2017 Frost beats Goku by knocking him out of the ring . Piccolo walks up to Frost to face him next . Piccolo charges his signature attack while simultaneously evading Frost 's attacks . To buy himself time to charge his attack , Piccolo creates clones of himself to distract Frost . Frost quickly disposes of decoys and charges at Piccolo . After a bout of close combat , Frost defeats Piccolo with a power blast . Before the referee could rule in Frost 's favor , Jaco chimes in claiming that Frost had been cheating all along . The referee examines Frost and finds that he had been using a forbidden tool . Champa is initially outraged to find that Frost had cheated . Champa decides to forgive and help him in his universe if Frost continues to play by the rules . Frost reveals that he set up the attacks on the planets he saved . The referee declares Piccolo the winner until Vegeta steps in and says that he wishes to face Frost . 35 8 `` Turn Rage into Strength ! Vegeta 's Full - On Battle ! '' / `` Turn Your Anger into Strength ! Vegeta 's Full - Bore Battle ! '' `` Ikari o chikara ni kaero ! Bejīta no zenkai batoru '' ( 怒り を 力 に 変えろ ! ベジータ の 全開 バトル ) March 20 , 2016 September 30 , 2017 Frost cockily announces his intent to utterly defeat Vegeta in combat with the presentation of yet another weapon . Both parties agree that the match should not be regulated by the standard rules of the tournament in order to avoid disqualification and allow the combatants to fight at their full power . Vegeta mercilessly assaults Frost and sends him flying out of the barrier . He then declares that he did not kill Frost because he was not going to stoop down to the latter 's level . Beerus discovers that Goku was also affected by Frost 's weapon , and he proceeds to convince the referee to allow Goku to return to the competition . Goku protests the turn order because he desperately wants to see Monaka in combat . Beerus explains that Monaka , as his trump card , must fight last . This prompts a hushed remark from Whis concerning Monaka 's `` true colors '' . Vados generates a new barrier around the ring as the referee announces a new rule , where any contact an individual makes with the barrier automatically disqualifies them . Meanwhile , Frost attempts to steal the tournament winnings and escape in Champa 's transportation cube . Frost is stunned by Hit ( ヒット , Hitto ) , a purple humanoid , in the process . Hit then takes the unconscious Frost back to the arena . The next match begins . Vegeta faces off against the robot Magetta ( マゲッタ ) . The audience begins to dispute over Magetta 's eligibility because of the fact that Magetta can spit lava . Magetta is declared eligible because the lava is just his saliva . Magetta 's volcanic fumes engulf the barrier and cause Vegeta to perspire rapidly and breathe heavily from the extreme heat . 36 9 `` An Unexpected Desperate Battle ! Vegeta 's Furious Explosion ! '' / `` An Astonishing Tough Battle ! Vegeta 's Explosion of Rage ! '' `` Masaka no dai kusen ! Bejīta ikari no dai bakuhatsu ! '' ( まさかの 大 苦戦 ! ベジータ 怒り の 大 爆発 ! ) March 27 , 2016 TBA Vegeta continues his battle with Magetta . He is struggling against the rising temperatures in the enclosed arena . Vegeta tries to win quickly , but Magetta endures and counters his attacks . Magetta follows it with a punch that sends Vegeta flying toward the ground . After nearly being disqualified through by going out of bounds , Vegeta powers up in anger and destroys the barrier of the arena . He blasts Magetta and forces him to the very edge of the stage . However , Vegeta is unable to knock Magetta off of the stage . However , after Vegeta insults Magetta , he loses his will to fight and is knocked out of the ring . 37 10 `` Do n't Forget Your Saiyan Pride ! Vegeta vs. the Saiyan of Universe 6 ! '' / `` Do n't Forget Your Saiyan Pride ! Vegeta vs Universe 6 's Saiyan Cabba ! '' `` Saiya - jin no hokori o wasureruna ! Bejīta VS Dai - 6 uchū no Saiya - jin '' ( サイヤ 人 の 誇り を 忘れる な ! ベジータ VS 第 6 宇宙 の サイヤ 人 ) April 3 , 2016 TBA Vegeta faces Cabba ( キャベ ) , a slim and short Saiyan from Universe Six , in the following round . Unlike their Universe Seven counterparts , Saiyans of Universe Six are heroic and kind . They are known as benevolent galactic protectors . Vegeta and Cabba are initially equally matched . After Vegeta pushes Cabba to power up , Cabba admits he can not do it . Cabba asks for Vegeta to teach him how to transform . This seemingly enrages Vegeta . Vegeta transforms into a Super Saiyan and begins to mercilessly beat Cabba . Vegeta threatens Cabba . He says he will kill him and destroy his planet if he forfeits . An enraged Cabba suddenly transforms and goes on the offensive . Vegeta reveals that , since the Super Saiyan transformation is unlocked through drawing on one 's inner anger , his actions were intended to bring about that transformation . Vegeta quickly powers up even more and knocks Cabba out with a single punch . After the fight , Cabba thanks Vegeta for telling him about his untapped potential . Vegeta brushes him off and tells him not to forget his Saiyan pride and to aim to surpass all other Saiyans . Cabba acknowledges Vegeta 's advice and walks off stage . With Universe Six now down to their last fighter , Champa is still unconcerned as he is certain his hit man Hit will be able to settle the score . 38 11 `` The Ultimate Warrior of Universe 6 ! Assassin Hit Appears ! ! '' / `` Dai - 6 uchū saikyō no senshi ! Koroshi ya Hitto kenzan ! ! '' ( 第 6 宇宙 最強 の 戦士 ! 殺し 屋 ヒット 見参 ! ! ) April 10 , 2016 TBA Vegeta and Hit start their battle . To Vegeta 's surprise , he is unable to land a single blow on Hit due to his superior speed . Eventually , Vegeta is struck by a heavy blow and collapses . Hit is declared the winner of the match . Suddenly , it is revealed that Hit used a `` time - skipping '' technique , where he gets to time travel and be the only person able to move for a split second . Goku walks up to battle Hit . Initially , Hit overpowers Goku , which prompts him to ask Goku to surrender . Goku refuses and says he used the time to figure out how Hit 's technique works . Goku predicts Hit 's moves and evades his attacks . Hit claims that Goku 's foresight was a just a fluke and that he will not be able to use it again . However , Goku is , yet again , able to foresee Hit 's attacks and defend himself . Goku proposes that both of them fight at their full power . Hit concurs and withdraws . Shortly after , both start preparing for their next fight . 39 12 `` The Advanced `` Time - Skip '' Fights Back ? ! Will It Come Forth ? Goku 's New Technique ! '' / `` Seichōshita `` toki tobashi '' no hangeki ! ? Deru ka ! ? Gokū no aratana waza ! '' ( 成長 した `` 時 とばし '' の 反撃 ! ? 出る か ! ? 悟空 の 新た な 技 ! ) April 17 , 2016 TBA Goku and Hit both power up before the match . Goku is finally able to counter Hit 's time - manipulating attacks , which displeases Hit . Hit tries to power up even more , but Goku prevents him . Soon after , Hit manages to counter Goku 's blows , while he simultaneously grows even stronger . Badly hurt , Goku hits the ground . Champa tells Hit to finish off Goku , but Hit refuses to obey his order . Goku manages to get back on his feet , and the two resume their fight . Goku is soon backed into a corner and resorts to his Kaiō - ken technique , which greatly increases his strength and speed . Having powered up , Goku begins pummeling and blasting Hit , who manages to evade most of the attacks with ease . 40 13 `` At Last , It Comes to an End ! Is the Winner Beerus ? Or is it Champa ? '' / `` Tsuini ketchaku ! Shōsha wa Birusu ? Soretomo Shanpa ? '' ( ついに 決着 ! 勝者 は ビルス ? それとも シャンパ ? ) April 24 , 2016 TBA Goku and Hit fight to an indecisive stalemate . Neither side is able to gain ground against the other . Goku requests that the rules of the fight be waived so that Hit can use his assassination techniques freely . Champa and Beerus argue over this decision . During their argument , Goku jumps out of the arena , forfeiting the match as a result . Goku argues that he would have been unable to continue due to the strain on his body brought on by his Kaiō - ken technique . Shortly afterwards , Monaka faces Hit , who throws the fight as repayment for Goku enabling him to surpass his limits . With Hit defeated , the Universe Seven team comes out as the winners of the tournament . Just as the festivities are about to conclude , Zenō ( 全 王 ) , a mysterious `` King of Universes '' , appears in the center of the arena . 41 14 `` Come , God of Dragons - And Pretty Please Grant My Wish ! '' / `` Ide deyo kami no ryū - soshite negai o kanaete chonmage ! '' ( 出 で よ 神 の 龍 そして 願い を 叶え て ちょんまげ ! ) May 1 , 2016 TBA Zenō announces that he will organize a martial arts tournament for all twelve universes . Goku disrespectfully approaches and talks to Zenō , much to Zenō 's amusement and everyone else 's discomfort . Champa scolds his team for losing and orders them to train for the upcoming tournament . Champa and his team leave shortly afterwards . Beerus asks the Earthlings to find the Super Dragon Balls . Android 18 notices that all Super Dragon Balls are clumped together on the radar , and Monaka deduces that the planet they have been fighting on is actually the seventh Super Dragon Ball . Beerus , Goku , and the others leave for the location of all seven Super Dragon Balls . Once they are there , Whis summons Super Shenron ( スーパー シェンロン , Chāo Shénlóng ) , which is a more powerful version of Shenlong . Unknown to anyone else , Beerus secretly wishes to have Universe Six 's Earth restored back to normal . Vados informs Champa what Beerus wished for . Whis leaves Beerus and Monaka on Beerus ' planet and departs for Earth . Monaka is revealed to be an ordinary mail deliveryman who is an aspiring fighter . Beerus rewards Monaka with money for his help motivating Goku and Vegeta . Goku , Vegeta , and the others from Earth return home , much to Goku 's delight . 42 15 `` Trouble at the Victory Celebration ! Showdown at Last ? ! Monaka vs. Son Goku ! '' / `` Haran no shukushō kai ! Tsuini taiketsu ! ? Monaka VS Son Gokū ! '' ( 波乱 の 祝勝 会 ! 遂に 対決 ! ? モナカ VS 孫悟空 ) May 8 , 2016 TBA With the tournament completed , Bulma decides to hold a celebration party at the Capsule Corporation . She also decides to invite Monaka who she considers to be the real winner of the tournament . Beerus and Whis are opposed to Bulma 's idea as they believe that Goku would want to fight Monaka if he were to attend . Ultimately , Monaka does attend . Beerus decides to tell everyone besides Goku about Monaka 's secret . Monaka is not nearly as powerful as everyone believes him to be . Goten and Trunks suggest that Beerus disguises himself as Monaka and fight Goku in Monaka 's place . Beerus agrees to the plan and disguises himself . Pu'ar also shape - shifts itself into Beerus to act as a decoy . Goku and a disguised Beerus begin their match shortly after . Following a brief clash , Whis interrupts the battle . Everyone carries on with the festivities . 43 16 `` Goku 's `` Ki '' is Out of Control ? ! Looking After Pan is A Lot of Trouble ! '' / `` Gokū no `` Ki '' ga seigyo funō ! ? Pan no osewa de shikuhakku ! '' ( 悟空 の 「 気 」 が 制御 不能 ! ? パン の お世話 で 四苦八苦 ) May 15 , 2016 TBA Due to overexerting himself during the tournament , Goku has problems controlling his energy . He decides to take a break and relax in order to get his strength back . While Gohan and Videl are out , Goku and his family babysit Pan . That morning , Pilaf and his companions plan to attack Goku , while he is asleep . They end up fleeing in terror and bring Pan along with them . Inside their ship , Pilaf accidentally launches them into the stratosphere . The pressure from the launch destroys their ship , but Pan is able to fly back home with her captives in tow . On their way home , Goku 's family is relieved to find Pan even though they remain ignorant of her exploits . 44 17 `` Seal of Planet Potofu - Secret of the Superhuman Water Is Unleashed ! '' / `` Potofu sei no fūin toki hanatareta - `` Chōjin sui '' no himitsu ! '' ( ポトフ 星 の 封印 解き放た れ た `` 超人 水 '' の 秘密 ! ) May 22 , 2016 TBA While Monaka delivers a package to Bulma , Goten and Trunks sneak into his delivery truck and are accidentally taken to Planet Potofu . A group of space bandits , headed by a teal humanoid Grill ( グリル , Guriru ) , attempt to steal a key to an item called the Superhuman Water ( 超人 水 , Chōjin Mizu ) from an elder named Potaji ( ポタジ ) . The bandits succeed and are absorbed and cloned by the purple viscous liquid . At Bulma 's request , Vegeta and Jaco arrive on the planet to search for the children . Shortly after they arrive , the liquid absorbs and clones Vegeta . 45 18 `` Vegeta Disappears ? ! The Threat of Duplicated Vegeta ! '' / `` Bejīta ga kieru ! ? Fukusei bejīta no kyōi ! '' ( ベジータ が 消える ! ? 複製 ベジータ の 脅威 ! ) May 29 , 2016 TBA Vegeta is powerless due to the purple viscous liquid cloning and absorbing his powers . The liquid is revealed to be a sentient being known as Komeson ( コメソン ) . Superhuman Water is just one of its many names known throughout the universe . Vegeta and the rest flee from the cloned Vegeta and the space bandits . Learning that the original will disappear once cloned , Goten and Trunks attempt to defeat the clone before that happens . Goku is fully recovered while training on King Kai 's planet . He senses that Goten and Trunks are in danger and teleports to Goten 's side . Goku prepares to fight the cloned Vegeta . 46 19 `` Goku vs. Duplicated Vegeta ! Who 's Gonna Win ? ! '' / `` Gokū VS fukusei Bejīta ! Katsu no wa dotchida ! ? '' ( 悟空 VS 複製 ベジータ ! 勝つ の は どっち だ ! ? ) June 5 , 2016 TBA Goku and the cloned Vegeta begin their battle . Each side holds its own . Vegeta tells Goku that he can not beat him with attacks like that . The cloned Vegeta backs Goku into a corner . Goku teleports behind his opponent and lands a blow on him , which briefly turns the battle in his favor . Vegeta starts getting frustrated that his clone is failing to dodge certain attacks and begins cheering for the clone when it knocks Goku away . Trunks reminds Vegeta that if they do not defeat the clone , Vegeta would die . Vegeta attempts to attack the clone himself , but he fails to do any damage . Frustrated , Vegeta criticizes both his clone and Goku . Goku begins wondering whose side Vegeta is on . He and the cloned Vegeta quickly power up , and the two continue their fight . Jaco points out that Vegeta is even more transparent than before . Potaji tells Vegeta to use Komeson to gain time . Trunks wonders if there might be another way to save Vegeta in case their plan fails . Potaji suggests that the Komeson should be destroyed to weaken the clones it had created . Trunks , Goten , Potaji , and Jaco fly away to retrieve the weapon . Meanwhile , Goku manages to fight off cloned Vegeta . Vegeta is frustrated that it is Goku who is fighting the clone and not him . The fight causes a destructive shock wave . Komeson takes advantage of this and quickly attacks Trunks . Vegeta feels that Trunks is in trouble and tries to reach him . Monaka accidentally steps on Komeson 's core behind him , which damages it along with its clones . Potaji notes that even though the core was destroyed , time has run out and Vegeta is disappearing . Realizing this is his last chance , Goku destroys the cloned Vegeta . As a result , Vegeta 's body regenerates and Potaji reseals Komeson . Goku thanks Monaka for his help and says that he would have been beaten by the cloned Vegeta if it were not for him . With the Planet Potofu saved and the threat destroyed , Goku and the others return to Earth . Meanwhile , in an annihilated alternate timeline , Future Trunks looks to destroy a new threat that has been terrorizing his world . Season 4 : `` Future '' Trunks ( edit ) Overall No . Saga No . English translation Original Japanese title Original airdate American airdate 47 `` An SOS from the Future ! A Dark New Enemy Emerges ! ! '' `` Mirai kara no esuōesu ! Kuroki arata na teki arawaru ! '' ( 未来 から の SOS ! 黒き 新た な 敵 現 る ! ! ) June 12 , 2016 TBA In an alternate timeline , Future Trunks is hiding from a mysterious enemy that has been terrorizing the Future Earth . He meets with his mother in their hideout , Future Bulma , who is relieved that he survived . She is revealed to have been working on the time machine for their trip to find help . Just as they are about to leave , an explosion destroys Future Bulma 's equipment . Seeing as they are in danger , Future Bulma urges Future Trunks to leave without her . Shortly after , a mysterious enemy demolishes the hideout . Future Bulma is killed by falling debris following the explosion , but Future Trunks manages to escape . Back in the present timeline , Goku is showing his new farm to Chi - Chi and Goten . Piccolo arrives shortly after at Goku 's request . Goku says he wants to use his work as a way to train . While Goku and Piccolo are having a harvesting competition , on Beerus ' planet , Vegeta is training with Whis . Goku notices this and teleports to them . Beerus asks if Goku brought him a gift , and Goku gives him a ball of lettuce he grabbed during his contest with Piccolo . Beerus enjoys the lettuce , but he considers it inadequate . Meanwhile , in the alternate timeline , Future Trunks meets up with Future Mai . Future Trunks tells her that his mother has sacrificed herself so he could escape and return to the past and save his world . Back on Beerus ' planet , Goku , Vegeta , Beerus , and Whis discuss Zenō , who is the `` King of Universes '' . Beerus says that Zenō is the most powerful being there is . Whis says that Zenō is also able to destroy entire universes as there has originally been more than there are at present . In the alternate timeline , Future Trunks and Future Mai are eating and resting . They discuss about going back 17 years in the past , where Future Trunks ' friends would be . They make their way to Capsule Corporation . They stumble upon a vortex in the sky out of which arrives the mysterious enemy that the two have been running away from . Future Trunks tells Future Mai to go on ahead as he draws his sword . He tries to face the enemy but to no avail . In order to save Future Trunks and give him a chance to escape , Future Mai acts as a decoy . Future Mai is hit by the enemy 's blast and seemingly killed on the spot . Future Trunks is enraged and looks at the enemy , who is revealed to be a Goku look - alike being named Goku Black ( ゴクウ ブラック , Gokū Burakku ) . 48 `` Hope ! ! Once More Awaken in the Present , Trunks '' `` Kibō ! ! Futatabi - Imade mezame yo Torankusu '' ( HOPE ( き ぼう ) ! ! 再び 現在 で 目覚めよ トランクス ) June 19 , 2016 TBA Goku Black taunts Future Trunks as he could not save any of his family or friends . Future Trunks powers up to Super Saiyan to fight Goku Black , but he is outmatched . He distracts Goku Black with an energy attack and quickly boards the Time Capsule and escapes 17 years into the past . Goku Black is frustrated that he can not find Trunks in the future timeline . Meanwhile in the present timeline , Trunks is studying in class along with Pilaf 's Gang . During a recess break , Trunks feels strange and looks at the sky to observe the Time Capsule arriving with Future Trunks inside . He immediately calls for his mother Bulma . Bulma contacts Vegeta and Goku who are training on Beerus ' planet . Bulma asks Trunks to power up in order for Goku to be able to teleport himself and Vegeta to their location . Whis and Beerus also arrive to see Future Trunks . Vegeta asks Goku to get some Senzu beans . Goku goes to Korin 's place to get some Senzu beans . Future Trunks regains consciousness thanks to the Senzu bean . Upon spotting Goku , Future Trunks recalls Goku Black 's attacks and immediately charges towards Goku , which shocks everyone around . 49 `` A Message from the Future - Goku Black Strikes ! '' `` Mirai kara no messēji - Gokū Burakku shūrai ! '' ( 未来 から の メッセージ ゴクウ ブラック 襲来 ! ) June 26 , 2016 TBA Goku manages to fight off Future Trunks . Bulma manages to calm down Future Trunks . Future Trunks gets clued in as to where he had ended up . He is also introduced to Beerus and Whis . Future Trunks apologizes to Goku for attacking him . He tells him he looks just like an enemy he was after . Both Goku and Vegeta are intrigued by this enemy . They decide to help him . Meanwhile in an alternate timeline , Goku Black is searching for Future Trunks . Realizing Future Trunks escaped using a time - traveling machine , Goku Black decides to go after him . Goku and Future Trunks decide to have a quick fight to determine each other 's power . Goku easily defeats Future Trunks , but Future Trunks warns Goku that Goku Black is a lot more powerful . While Goku and Future Trunks practice , a portal opens above them . Goku Black comes out of the portal and introduces himself . 50 `` Goku vs. Black ! The Closed Path to the Future '' `` Gokū VS Burakku ! Tozasareta mirai e no michi '' ( 悟空 VS ブラック ! 閉ざさ れ た 未来 へ の 道 ) July 3 , 2016 TBA Goku Black arrives in the past . Future Trunks decides to fight Goku Black , but Vegeta stops him . Curious to know how powerful Goku Black really is , Goku decides to fight him . Neither of them seems to be particularly interested in their fight . Goku decides to transform into a Super Saiyan . Goku Black proves to be no match for powered - up Goku . Future Trunks wonders why Goku does not simply destroy his opponent . Goku Black tries to power up but before he is able to , Goku thwarts him . While Goku and Goku Black fight , the time portal starts to disappear . It also starts dragging Goku Black towards itself . Goku Black realizes this . He destroys the Time Machine as soon as he had been dragged into it , which prevents others to return to the future . With Goku Black suddenly gone , Goku wonders where his enemy could have disappeared . Whis explains that Goku Black used a time - traveling method only Supreme Kai know about . Bulma decides to search for the other Time Machine that Cell used to travel back in time . Just as Goku Black reappears in the future timeline , Mai regains consciousness . 51 5 `` Feelings That Travel Beyond Time - Trunks and Mai '' `` Toki o koeta omoi - Torankusu to Mai '' ( 時 を こえ た 想い トランクス と マイ ) July 10 , 2016 TBA Bulma finds the Time Machine that Cell used to travel to the past and promptly gathers the team to repair it . While Future Trunks is waiting for Bulma to finish the repairs , Goku heads off to King Kai 's planet to train . Future Trunks and Mai discuss their counterparts from alternate timelines . Future Trunks explains to Mai that Future Mai was a leader of Earth 's resistance movement who died fighting to protect the planet . He also mentions Goku Black 's ultimate goal , which is to rid the world of humans who are seen as inferior beings . Determined to find Goku Black , Beerus and Whis search for the villain 's energy signature . Meanwhile , Goku Black is surprised that he had grown stronger fighting Goku . He seeks to fight him again to become even stronger . 52 6 `` Teacher and Student Reunited - Son Gohan and `` Future '' Trunks '' `` Shitei saikai - Son Gohan to `` Mirai '' Torankusu '' ( 師弟 再会 孫 悟 飯 と `` 未来 '' トランクス ) July 17 , 2016 TBA Bulma and her team are still repairing the Time Machine . Piccolo and Krillin are mending the damages in the wake of Goku 's fight with Goku Black . Piccolo mentions that Gohan had changed since he is not the pupil he had trained years ago . He is dissatisfied with the fact that Gohan decided to abandon his training to become a scholar . Future Trunks is surprised by Piccolo 's point of view . Piccolo and Krillin suggest that Future Trunks should meet their timeline 's Gohan . Future Trunks meets Gohan at the latter 's house , and the two discuss their shared future . Gohan introduces Future Trunks to his family . Shortly after , Future Trunks leaves for the Capsule Corporation . Meanwhile , Goku , Beerus , and Whis travel to an alternate universe , where they had detected Goku Black 's energy . 53 7 `` Uncover Black 's Identity ! To the Sacred World of the Kais ! '' `` Burakku no shōtai o abake ! Iza dai 10 uchū no kaiōshin kai e ! '' ( ブラック の 正体 を 暴け ! いざ 第 10 宇宙 の 界 王 神 界 へ ! ) July 31 , 2016 TBA Goku , Beerus , and Whis arrive to Universe Ten . They meet the Supreme Kai beings called Zamasu ( ザマス ) , an apprentice Supreme Kai , and Gowasu ( ゴワス ) , Zamasu 's master . Gowasu shows to be a kind hearted Supreme Kai who loves all creation , while Zamasu despises mortals , specifically humans . Goku is excited by the idea of fighting a Supreme Kai . He asks Zamasu to spar with him . Zamasu objects to fighting Goku , but he is asked to fight by his master . Zamasu is baffled to learn that he is no match for Goku . Beerus and Whis realize that the energy they had detected is actually that of Zamasu . Goku , Beerus , and Whis head back to Universe Seven 's Earth . Meanwhile on Earth , Krillin introduces Future Trunks to his wife , Android 18 , and his daughter , Marron . 54 8 `` The One Who Inherits the Saiyan Blood - Trunk 's Resolve '' `` Saiya - jin no chiohikumono - Torankusu no ketsui '' ( サイヤ 人 の 血 を ひく 者 トランクス の 決意 ) August 7 , 2016 TBA Bulma and her team put the finishing touches to the rebuilt Time Machine . Meanwhile , Vegeta wants to test Future Trunks ' power to see how strong his son had become . Future Trunks proves to be no match for Vegeta at his full power . Future Trunks is outmatched in every way . However , Future Trunks finds this fact reassuring . Knowing how powerful Vegeta and Goku have become , he is certain that Goku Black will not be much of a threat . Vegeta is disappointed and angry with Future Trunks . Vegeta believes that Saiyans should continually strive to grow stronger and not only when enemies present themselves . On Beerus ' planet , Beerus and Whis are about to eat dinner . Suddenly , Zenō contacts them and tells them that he wishes to meet Goku , which shocks Beerus and Whis . 55 9 `` I Want to See Son Goku - Zen - Oh Sama 's Summoning ! '' `` Son Gokū ni aitai no ne - Zenō - sama kara no yobidashi ! '' ( 孫悟空 に 会 いたい の ね 全 王様 から の よびだし ! ) August 21 , 2016 TBA Whis and Beerus are worried over Zenō - sama 's request to meet Goku and what it could mean for their universe . They do not want Goku to meet Zenō - sama out of fear that he would come across as crude and offensive . Whis and Beerus reluctantly decide to heed Zenō - sama 's request . They tell Goku to keep quiet about their plans regarding Goku Black and time - traveling . In Universe Ten on Planet Babari ( 惑星 ババリ , Wakusei Babari ) , Zamasu kills one of the natives after it tried to attack them . Gowasu scolds his student and says such behavior goes against his teaching of maintaining the balance between good and evil . Zamasu flouts that mindset and argues that the only way to maintain balance is to eradicate mortals . As Zamasu stands in the wind , rose petals start to whirl around him , which gives an allusion to distinctive red energy of Goku Black . Goku and the others arrive to Zenō - sama 's sanctuary . Zenō - sama says that all he wanted was a friend to play with when he feels like having fun . Goku promises that he will find more friends for him to play with . Before Goku leaves , Zenō - sama gives him a button and says to press it if Goku ever wants to summon him . Shortly afterwards , Goku and the others leave for Earth , where the Time Machine has been repaired . Goku , Vegeta , and Future Trunks arrive into Future Trunks ' alternate timeline . As soon as they arrive , Goku is attacked by the Earth 's resistance forces who mistook him for Goku Black . 56 10 `` Rematch With Goku Black ! Super Saiyan Rosé Appears '' `` Saisen Gokū Burakku ! Sūpā Saiya - jin Roze tōjō ! ! '' ( 再戦 ゴクウ ブラック ! 超 ( スーパー ) サイヤ 人 ロゼ 登場 ! ! ) August 28 , 2016 TBA Future Trunks quickly pacifies the resistance fighters . He explains that he has returned with Goku and Vegeta to defeat Goku Black . The fighters reveal that Future Mai has left them with an action plan in case Goku Black appears . Future Trunks , Goku , and Vegeta leave and meet Future Mai at her hideout . Future Mai explains that after she managed to escape , she stumbled on a group of resistance members who took her in . However , their refuge was soon attacked and destroyed by Goku Black . Goku spots Template : Future Yajirobe , who Future Trunks believed to be dead in the resistance 's ranks . Future Yajirobe reveals that his life was saved by a Senzu bean , which Korin had given him . Vegeta states that he plans to take on Goku Black alone this time . Goku suggests that they play a game of Rock - paper - scissors to decide who gets to fight first . Vegeta accepts the proposal and wins . Meanwhile , Goku Black is wandering the desolate ruins of Earth . Future Trunks , Goku , and Vegeta suddenly appear near him . Vegeta powers up and engages Goku Black who seems to be completely uninterested . Goku Black transforms into a pink - haired Super Saiyan and fights Vegeta . He dubs the form Super Saiyan Rose ( 超 サイヤ 人 ロゼ , Sūpā Saiya - jin Roze ) following Goku 's naming pattern . Goku Black tells Vegeta that their fight only made him stronger . Vegeta and Goku Black exchange a few blows . Vegeta knocks him away . Vegeta charges in to attack again . Goku Black uses his ki to form an energy blade on his hand and stabs Vegeta in the chest , which critically wounds him . Goku quickly powers up and charges at Goku Black . As the two fight , Future Trunks thinks they are evenly matched , but Vegeta notices that Goku Black has an advantage over Goku as well . Just as Goku Black begins charging his attack , Zamasu appears and stops the fight . He urges Goku Black to allow him to kill Goku just as they have agreed . 57 11 `` The God With the Immortal Body - Zamasu Descends '' `` Fujimi no karada o motsu kami - Zamasu kōrin '' ( 不死身 の 体 を 持つ 神 ザマス 降臨 ) September 4 , 2016 TBA Zamasu appears unexpectedly from the sky . He states that he and Goku Black are `` kindred spirits '' who want a world without mortals . Goku challenges Zamasu to a fight and Zamasu accepts . During the fight , Goku Black suddenly comes between Goku and Zamasu and smashes Goku into a corner . Future Trunks appears and attacks Goku Black . Goku Black uses Goku 's Kamehameha blast at Goku and Future Trunks . They fail to dodge it . As Goku Black and Zamasu use their combined power to finish off Goku and Future Trunks , Vegeta steps in and saves the two . Vegeta himself gets badly wounded . Future Yajirobe swoops in to rescue wounded Goku and Future Trunks and takes them to a safer location . Before Goku Black and Zamasu are able to finish off Vegeta , Future Mai and the resistance soldiers intervene and rescue Vegeta . Goku and the others return to their timeline using the Time Machine . Future Mai and Future Yajirobe are left behind . 58 12 `` Zamasu and Black - The Mystery of the Two Deepens '' `` Zamasu to Burakku - Fukamaru futari no nazo '' ( ザマス と ブラック 深まる 二 人 の 謎 ) September 11 , 2016 TBA Wanting to learn more about the Super Dragon Balls , Zamasu visits Zunō - sama 's planet . Under duress , Zunō - sama explains exactly how the Super Dragon Balls work and where they are . At Capsule Corporation , Bulma nurses Goku , Vegeta , and Future Trunks back to health . Beerus and Whis arrive with Supreme Kai . After listening to what happened in the alternate timeline , Whis posits a theory as to what exactly Zamasu is planning . He believes that , after losing to Goku , Zamasu became obsessed with Goku and his incredible power . Zamasu needed an ally as powerful as Goku to achieve his goal of obliterating mortals . Goku Black was therefore supposed to be a copy of Goku and created using the Super Dragon Balls . Whis also adds his earlier theory about how Goku Black is able to time travel using Supreme Kai 's method . He believes that their timeline 's Zamasu is the one who is going to kill Gowasu and give Goku Black the time - traveling device known as the Time Ring ( 時 の 指輪 , Toki no yubiwa ) . Supreme Kai takes Goku , Beerus , and Whis to Universe Ten to warn Gowasu , while Vegeta stays behind . They arrive to the Supreme Kai Realm ( 界 王 神 界 , Kaiōshin Kai ) , where they meet Gowasu . Gowasu explains that Zamasu has left on what he called an important mission . Goku tries to warn Gowasu of what Zamasu has done in the future , but Beerus promptly silences him . They wonder if Gowasu noticed anything wrong with his apprentice . Gowasu mentions the doubts Zamasu has had regarding the role of the Supreme Kai and their relationship with mortals , but it should not be a cause for concern . Just as Gowasu finishes , Zamasu arrives . 59 13 `` Protect Supreme Kai Gowasu - Destroy Zamasu ! '' `` Kaiōshin Gowasu o mamore - Zamasu o hakai seyo ! '' ( 界 王 神 ゴワス を 守れ ザマス を 破壊 せよ ! ) September 25 , 2016 TBA Whis gifts Gowasu with rice cakes and says that he and the others did not mean to disturb Zamasu and him . They leave shortly after . While they are in space , Whis uses his staff to eavesdrop on Gowasu and Zamasu . They watch as Zamasu kills Gowasu . Whis turns back time so that Goku can save Gowasu . Zamasu claims he did not plan on killing Gowasu , but Whis tells him otherwise . Angered that his plan has failed , Zamasu tries to kill Goku . Beerus saves Goku and kills Zamasu . With the present day Zamasu killed , Goku and the others decide to track down Goku Black . In the alternate timeline , Zamasu and Goku Black are discussing Goku Black 's power . 60 14 `` Back to the Future - Goku Black 's Identity Is Revealed ! ! '' `` Futatabi mirai e - Akasareru Gokū Burakku no shōtai ! ! '' ( 再び 未来 へ 明かさ れる ゴクウ ブラック の 正体 ! ! ) October 2 , 2016 TBA With Zamasu defeated , Beerus is convinced that Future Trunks ' timeline has become peaceful once again . Although hesitant , Future Trunks decides to go back to his timeline to make sure that is the case . Goku , Vegeta , and Bulma accompany him . As soon as they arrive , they realize that nothing has changed . Future Zamasu and Goku Black learn of Goku and the others ' return . The two groups meet shortly after . Goku Black reveals himself to be the version of Zamasu who successfully killed Gowasu and was apparently erased by Whis ' time powers ; he had protected himself by using the Time Ring . Afterwards , he stole the body of his timeline 's Goku with the wish granted by the Super Dragon Balls . Goku Black used its potential to grow stronger than Goku himself . 61 15 `` Zamasu 's Ambition - The Awful `` Zero Mortal Plan '' Is Revealed '' `` Zamasu no yabō - Katarareru kyōfu no `` Ningen 0 keikaku '' '' ( ザマス の 野望 語 られる 恐怖 の 『 人間 0 計画 』 ) October 9 , 2016 TBA Future Zamasu reveals himself to be Zamasu from Future Trunks ' alternate timeline , who used the Super Dragon Balls in this timeline to wish for immortality . Goku fights Goku Black and Future Zamasu , but he is outmatched by the two villains . Goku Black tells Goku that after taking over his body , he killed Chi - Chi and Goten just to spite him . Enraged , Goku takes on both of the villains . He is initially able to hold his own , but he is soon overpowered and knocked out . With Goku defeated , Future Trunks and Vegeta are backed into a corner . Future Zamasu holds Future Trunks and his constant time - traveling responsible for thwarting his plan to eradicate all mortals . This infuriates Future Trunks , who explodes and transforms into an immensely powerful new form of Super Saiyan . 62 16 `` I 'll Protect the World ! Trunks ' Furious Super Power Explodes ! ! '' `` Sekai wa ore ga mamoru ! Torankusu ikari no sūpā pawā sakuretsu ! ! '' ( 世界 は オレ が 守る ! トランクス 怒り の 超 ( スーパー ) パワー 炸裂 ! ! ) October 16 , 2016 TBA While Future Trunks ' new form is enough to match Goku Black , Future Trunks is still unable to deal the death blow . Future Trunks tells Vegeta to take Goku back to the past , while he faces their opponents . Goku Black attempts to prevent them from escaping , but he fails to do so . Goku , Vegeta , and Bulma arrive in the present . Vegeta explains what happened in Future Trunks ' timeline and Goku Black 's origin to Beerus and Whis . Believing they had done their part , Beerus and Whis leave . Meanwhile , Chi - Chi and Gohan meet with Krillin to ask if he knows where Goku went . Krillin hesitates and dodges the question . They leave for Bulma 's house to ask her the same question . Once there , they meet Goku in bandages . With everyone present , Piccolo thinks of a new plan . He proposes using Evil Containment Wave ( 魔 封 波 , Mafūba ) , which is an ancient technique used to seal demons in jars . Wondering what the Evil Containment Wave is , Goku quickly teleports to Kame House . Goku spends the night at Master Roshi 's house training to master the Evil Containment Wave , while Vegeta trains in the Hyberbolic Time Chamber . 63 17 `` Do n't Disrespect Saiyan Cells ! Vegeta 's Heroic Battle Begins ! ! '' `` Saiya - jin no saibō o kegasu na ! Bejīta no sōzetsu batoru kaien ! ! '' ( サイヤ 人 の 細胞 を 汚す な ! ベジータ の 壮絶 バトル 開演 ! ! ) October 23 , 2016 TBA Before Goku Black and Zamasu are able to kill him , Future Trunks is saved by the resistance . Future Yajirobe informs Future Trunks that Mai has found Goku Black 's hideout . Future Trunks leave for the hideout . Mai tries to shoot Goku Black , but she misses her shot . Just as Goku Black and Zamasu try to retaliate , Future Trunks intervenes in the nick of time . Future Trunks fights the two again without success . Goku and Vegeta arrive just in time to save him . Goku Black destroys the Time Machine , but Bulma manages to salvage what was left by dousing the fire . Gowasu and Supreme Kai arrive from the past to stop Zamasu from going on a killing spree . Goku Black and Future Zamasu explain that they killed all of the Supreme Kais in the future timeline ; during the conversation , it is revealed that Whis and those like him are actually angels . Goku Black tries to kill Gowasu , but Goku and Vegeta stop him . Goku fights Future Zamasu , while Vegeta battles Goku Black . Bulma begins repairing the Time Machine and asks Future Trunks to prepare the seal , which Goku has brought to seal Zamasu . Vegeta gets the upper hand over Goku Black due to his latest training , which he interprets as a tipping point in his latent power that he possesses as the Prince of Saiyans . 64 18 `` Revere Him ! Praise Him ! Fusion Zamasu 's Explosive Birth ! ! '' `` Agameyo ! Tataeyo ! Gattai Zamasu bakutan ! ! '' ( 崇めよ ! 讃えよ ! 合体 ザマス 爆誕 ! ! ) October 30 , 2016 TBA Vegeta continues to overpower Goku Black . Future Zamasu attempts to intervene , but Goku cuts him off . Goku Black realizes that Vegeta 's increased power comes from his anger and uses that method to increase his own power . Goku Black distracts Goku and Vegeta by creating many energy duplicates of himself to confuse them , while Future Zamasu goes after Future Trunks , Mai , and Bulma . Bulma attempts to buy time for Future Trunks to prepare the Evil Containment Wave by flirting with Future Zamasu . However , he sees through her trick and knocks her out . This angers Future Trunks , who powers up to his new Super Saiyan form and uses the Evil Containment Wave on Future Zamasu . The Evil Containment Wave works on Future Zamasu , who is sealed within the jar . However , in the present , Master Roshi realizes that he forgot to give Goku the paper amulet that would make the seal permanent . As a result , the seal fails and Future Zamasu breaks out of the jar , which weakened him . Goku Black goes to help him , and Goku and Vegeta follow in pursuit . Realizing that they have underestimated their enemies , Goku Black and Future Zamasu use their Potarra Earrings to fuse into a single immensely powerful being known as Fusion Zamasu . 65 19 `` Is This the Final Judgement ? ! The Ultimate Power of the Absolute God '' `` Saigo no shipan ka ! ? Zettai shin no kyūkyoku no pawā '' ( 最後 の 審判 か ! ? 絶対 神 の 究極 の 力 ( パワー ) ) November 6 , 2016 TBA Fusion Zamasu explains that he possesses the immortality of Future Zamasu as well as Goku Black 's Saiyan ability to grow stronger from each fight . He shows off his power and devastates the Earth in the process . Meanwhile , Future Trunks decides to rejoin the fight , while Mai and Bulma are working on the Time Machine . Goku and Vegeta fight Fusion Zamasu , but they are easily defeated . Future Trunks joins the fight , but he is also overpowered . Fusion Zamasu begins charging up an enormous ki blast known as the Holy Wrath to destroy the planet . Future Trunks uses a last - ditch Galick Gun attack to hold him off . Vegeta joins the clash with his own all - out Galick Gun . Surprisingly , their combined attack overpowers Fusion Zamasu 's attack and saves the Earth . However , Fusion Zamasu survives unscathed . Vegeta barely saves Future Trunks from a deadly attack by Fusion Zamasu . Vegeta gets knocked out by the blast . Fusion Zamasu charges a second attack , but Goku rejoins the fight and counters it with his Kamehameha attack . 66 20 `` The Climactic Battle ! The Miraculous Power of a Relentless Warrior ! '' `` Kessen ! Akiramenai senshi - tachi no kiseki no pawā ! '' ( 決戦 ! あきらめ ない 戦士 たち の 奇跡 の 力 ( パワー ) ! ) November 13 , 2016 TBA Goku puts all of his power into his Kamehameha , which is able to pierce through Fusion Zamasu 's attack and stop him from destroying Earth . In the wake of the explosion , Goku is exhausted , and Fusion Zamasu is injured . When Fusion Zamasu grabs him , Goku overpowers him using his Kaio - ken technique , and knocks Fusion Zamasu back temporarily . However , Goku 's use of the Kaio - ken drains all of his energy , and he collapses . Fusion Zamasu regains consciousness and powers up , but he still does not heal properly . Vegeta wonders why Fusion Zamasu is not healing . Gowasu explains that Fusion Zamasu must be mortal since Goku Black was as well . Goku decides that the only way they can win is for him and Vegeta to fuse using Supreme Kai 's Potarra Earrings . Vegeta initially refuses until Gowasu explains that a Potarra fusion that does not involve a Kai only lasts for one hour . Goku and Vegeta fuse to become Vegito . Vegito powers up to Super Saiyan Blue and begins fighting Fusion Zamasu . Vegito quickly gains the advantage , but Fusion Zamasu grows even stronger . Gowasu explains that Zamasu 's mutation is a result of his anger manifesting in physical form . Meanwhile , Bulma and Mai finish repairing the Time Machine . Mai gives Future Trunks his broken sword , which inspires him to keep fighting . Future Trunks uses his power to restore the sword . Vegito and Fusion Zamasu continue fighting . Vegito is winning until his fusion abruptly breaks . Fusion Zamasu begins to pummel Goku and Vegeta until Future Trunks arrives to help . Future Trunks unknowingly begins gathering energy from all living things on Earth . With this new power , Future Trunks runs his sword through Fusion Zamasu and cuts him in half . 67 21 `` With New Hope ! ! In Our Hearts - Farewell , Trunks '' `` Aratana kibō ! ! O mune ni - saraba Torankusu '' ( 新た な HOPE ( き ぼう ) ! ! を 胸 に さらば トランクス ) November 20 , 2016 TBA Fusion Zamasu expresses his disbelief that a mortal could defeat him and then disintegrates . However , as everyone exchanges congratulations , Fusion Zamasu 's essence returns and begins spreading over the entire planet . Gowasu explains that Zamasu has cast off his physical form and is trying to physically merge his spirit and energy with the entire universe . Zamasu begins raining destruction down on the Earth and annihilates everything and everyone on the planet except Goku and the others . Zamasu 's power is even felt in the present timeline , where Beerus and Whis sense it . Goku looks for another Senzu bean in his pocket , but instead he finds the button that Zenō - sama gave him in the present timeline . Goku presses the button and Future Zenō - sama appears . After Goku explains the situation , Future Zenō - sama decides to erase the future timeline due to the corruption that Zamasu has caused . Gowasu and Supreme Kai teleport away , while Goku and the others escape using the Time Machine . Future Zenō - sama erases the entire future timeline and destroys Fusion Zamasu . After the others return to the present , Goku and Future Trunks return to what is left of the future timeline . They retrieve Future Zenō - sama and bring him back to the present with them . Goku and Whis bring Future Zenō - sama to meet the present Zenō - sama , which fulfills Goku 's promise to provide the present Zenō - sama with a friend to play with . Whis also meets another angel , the Great Priest ( 大 神官 , Daishinkan ) , who is revealed to be his father , and invites him to visit Universe Seven . In the aftermath , Whis devises a solution for Future Trunks and Future Mai . Whis explains that they can return to the future timeline before Zamasu became a threat , which would create a new and safe version of the future timeline with the price of there being two duplicates of both Future Trunks and Future Mai living in the new timeline . Future Trunks and Future Mai accept Whis ' solution and use the time machine to travel to their new future . 68 22 `` Come Forth , Shenlong ! Whose Wish Will Be Granted ? ! '' `` Ideyo Shenron ! Kanaeru negai wa dare no mono ! ? '' ( いでよ 神龍 ( シェンロン ) ! 叶える 願い は 誰 の もの ! ? ) November 27 , 2016 TBA Bulma is secretly trying to build a new Time Machine , but she has so far been unsuccessful . Goku decides to gather the Dragon Balls and use them to revive King Kai . However , Bulma wants to use them to acquire a rare mineral that she needs for the Time Machine , which can only be found at the Earth 's core . Wanting to taste more Earth food , Beerus and Whis return to Earth . Bulma takes them to a seafood restaurant and attempts to keep them from finding out about the Time Machine as they had previously forbidden her from making another Time Machine . Goku gathers the Dragon Balls and summons Shenron . Before Goku can make his wish , several others show up who want to make their respective wishes . As the others are all fighting over the wishes , Gohan arrives with Pan , who is sick and suffering from a severe fever . Goku and the others immediately allow Gohan to use one of the two wishes to heal Pan . After Gohan and Pan leave , the others resume fighting over the remaining wish . Bulma manages to talk everyone else out of making wishes by solving their problems herself . Goku still insists on getting his wish granted . Bulma agrees , but she convinces Goku to go to the Earth 's core and retrieve the rare mineral she needs in exchange for letting him use the wish . Beerus and Whis finish eating and leave the restaurant . They spot Shenron and promptly go to the scene , and they find Goku at the Earth 's core . Having deduced that Bulma is trying to make another Time Machine , Beerus destroys both the mineral and the Time Machine . Just as Goku is about to make his wish , the Dragon Balls deactivate and scatter around the Earth . Goku promises to revive King Kai as soon as the Dragon Balls reactivate . 69 23 `` Goku vs. Arale ! A Ridiculous Battle Will End the Earth ? ! '' `` Gokū VS Arare ! Hachamechabatoru de Chikyū ga owaru ! ? '' ( 悟空 VS アラレ ! ハチャメチャ バトル で 地球 が 終わる ! ? ) December 4 , 2016 TBA Vegeta , Bulma , and Trunks attend a science competition that Bulma is participating in , which is hosted by Mr. Satan , while Goku is hired to work security for the event . Dr. Senbei Norimaki of Penguin Village , who has created a device that can create any item its user can think of out of thin air , wins the award . Dr. Norimaki 's nemesis , Dr. Mashirito , appears as a ghost , and reveals that he has used a chemical called Playtine - X to gain control over Norimaki 's powerful robot daughter , Arale Norimaki . Vegeta attempts to stop Arale , but her overwhelming strength and seeming ability to defy the laws of physics are too much for him . She sends him flying into the distance . Goku transforms into Super Saiyan Blue and begins fighting Arale . They initially seem to be evenly matched , but it becomes apparent that their battle could easily destroy the Earth . Dr. Norimaki is able to use his new invention to distract Arale temporarily . Meanwhile , Bulma uses the invention to conjure up a mass of delicious food , which immediately attracts Beerus , who had been taking a nap . Dr. Mashirito confronts Beerus , who promptly obliterates him . Beerus also easily overpowers Arale . Just as Beerus is about to destroy her , the food he has eaten causes him severe stomach pain , which prompts him to rush home with Whis immediately . Shortly after , Dr. Norimaki and Arale leave and return home . Goku and Arale agree to fight again in the future . 70 24 `` Champa 's Challenge ! This Time We Fight with Baseball ! ! '' `` Shanpa kara no chōsen - jō ! Kondo wa yakyū de shōbuda ! ! '' ( シャンパ から の 挑戦 状 ! 今度 は 野球 で 勝負 だ ! ! ) December 11 , 2016 TBA Champa contacts Beerus and challenges him to a game of baseball ( 野球 , Yakyū ) as a way of reconciling Universes Six and Seven . The baseball game is arranged to be held on Universe Seven 's Earth . Champa explains to Vados that he intends to use the game as an opportunity to steal food from Earth . The game begins with Goku initially unsuccessful as the pitcher for Beerus ' team due to his lack of experience . Yamcha , who has extensive experience playing baseball , steps up and gives the Universe Seven team an advantage . However , he is injured several times over the course of the game by Vegeta , who is playing on the Universe Six team with Champa . Champa and Beerus end up fighting , which almost destroys the planet . Whis and Vados intervene and call the game off . Vados reveals that Yamcha , despite his injuries , made it to home plate and scored a run before the game was called off , thereby winning the game for Universe Seven . Champa and his team return to Universe Six . Champa has seemingly forgotten his goal of stealing Universe Seven 's Earth 's food , as he has already become obsessed with training to prepare for a rematch . 71 25 `` The Death of Goku ! The Guaranteed Assassination Mission '' `` Gokū shisu ! Zettai shikkō no ansatsu ninrai ! '' ( 悟空 死す ! 絶対 執行 の 暗殺 任 頼 ) December 18 , 2016 TBA Goku begins acting strangely . He admits to Gohan and Goten that he thinks someone wants to kill him . Meanwhile , in Universe Six , Hit carries out an assassination mission by killing a crime boss . His next target is revealed to be Goku . Goku senses Hit coming and flies to a remote area so that their fight would not put anyone else in danger . Hit arrives to kill Goku . Goku charges at Hit , but he can not hit him . Hit seemingly kills Goku with a single blow to the chest and disappears just before Piccolo , Gohan , and Goten arrive and find Goku 's body . 72 26 `` Will There Be a Counterattack ? ! The Invisible Killing Strike ! ! '' `` Hangeki naruka ! ? Mienai koroshi no waza ! ! '' ( 反撃 なる か ! ? 見え ない 殺し の 技 ! ! ) December 25 , 2016 TBA Piccolo tries to revive Goku to no avail , but Goku had fired an energy blast in the air shortly before he was killed , reviving him . Goku learns that Hit 's assassination technique is an invisible energy blast . Goku shocks Hit by being the first person to ever dodge this technique , but he is still unable to land a blow on Hit and remains at a disadvantage . Meanwhile , Champa and Vados come to see the fight . They are later joined by Vegeta , Beerus , and Whis . Vados explains how Hit is able to use his secret technique , which makes him seemingly untouchable . In the midst of the battle , Goku fires his Kamehameha attack , which proves to be powerful enough to knock out both Hit and himself . In the aftermath , Goku reveals to Vegeta , Champa , and Beerus that he had hired Hit , because he wanted to fight him at full strength , and that Whis and Vados were involved in his plan as well . 73 27 `` Gohan 's Misfortune ! An Unexpected Great Saiyaman Movie ? ! '' `` Gohan no sainan ! Gurētosaiyaman masakano eiga ka ! ? '' ( 悟 飯 の 災難 ! グレート サイヤマン まさかの 映画 化 ! ? ) January 8 , 2017 TBA Mr. Satan reveals to Videl and Gohan that he is starring in a new superhero film : `` Great Saiyaman vs. Mister Satan '' ! As Videl , Gohan , and Pan check out the film set , the lead in the film -- - a famous but self - absorbed actor named Barry Kahn -- becomes enamored with Videl and tries to woo her . Videl rejects Barry in front of the entire film crew , which angers him . Seeking revenge on Videl for his humiliation , Barry convinces Gohan to take over as the main stuntman for the film in order to embarrass and potentially maim him . As Gohan is the real Great Saiyaman , he uses his powers to easily take on the role . Gohan later dons the suit again for a fight against a pair of bank robbers . When the film crew accuses Gohan of using the suit and stopping the bank robbery , Bulma bails him out . However , Gohan 's identity is accidentally revealed to Cocoa , who is a starlet in the film . Cocoa blackmails Gohan into flying her around the city . Meanwhile , Jaco chases after a being known as Watagashi ( 綿 餓死 ) , which is an extraterrestrial parasitic criminal that possesses its hosts . Suspecting that `` The Great Saiyaman '' might be the host of Watagashi , Jaco attacks Gohan with a vaporizing cannon . 74 28 `` For the Ones He Loves ! The Unbeatable Great Saiyaman ! ! '' `` Aisuru mono no tame ni ! Fukutsu no Gurēto Saiyaman ! ! '' ( 愛する ものの ため に ! 不屈 の グレート サイヤマン ! ! ) January 15 , 2017 TBA Gohan manages to dodge Jaco 's cannon blast and learns of Watagashi 's ability to possess its hosts . Cocoa brings Gohan back to her apartment to rehearse , but she hides the fact that she was forced by Barry to let photos be taken of the pair for the tabloids . She has a secret change of heart and does not let the photos get taken in her room . When the pair go to the roof the next morning , Barry gets the pictures of Gohan getting a kiss from Cocoa and revealing himself as Great Saiyaman . Barry immediately brings the photos to Videl in an attempt to expose Gohan as a cheater . As he tries to woo Videl again , she sees through Barry 's act and refuses his advances . Watagashi finds and possesses Barry by turning him into a powerful monster in the process . The possessed Barry dispatches Gohan and kidnaps Pan . He seeks a final showdown with Gohan . Barry proves formidable . Gohan is nearly killed in the struggle . Videl and Pan express complete faith in Gohan 's desire to protect them and call out for his aid . Gohan transforms into `` Super Great Saiyaman '' and knocks out Barry , which separates him from Watagashi in the process . The film becomes a hit . Cocoa blackmails Barry into keeping Gohan 's secret with the knowledge that Barry was the monster that attacked the city . Now seeing him as less of a threat , Jaco lets Watagashi escape . 75 29 `` Goku and Krillin Back to the Old Training Grounds '' `` Gokū to Kuririn - Natsukashi no shugyō no ba e '' ( 悟空 と クリリン 懐かし の 修行 の 場 へ ) January 22 , 2017 TBA Goku seeks a sparring partner to train with , but he laments being unable to find a suitable opponent . On Goten 's suggestion , Goku goes to ask Krillin , who is still working as a police officer . Krillin is grazed by a bullet during a shootout with a pair of burglars , but they are easily disarmed by Goku . Krillin declines Goku 's offer to spar . He knows he would be no challenge for Goku and that he has given up martial arts for good . Krillin is chastised by Android 18 , who says the strong man she fell in love could never be harmed by a bullet . Her words lead Krillin to reconsider Goku 's offer and ultimately accepts it . The two leave for Master Roshi 's to train as they did when they were children . Krillin proves to be no match for Goku even though Goku is wearing a heavy suit as a handicap . Sensing Krillin 's self - doubt and believing that a different approach is needed , Master Roshi sends his students on a race to a heavily forested island to recover a rare herb . As a reward , Master Roshi offers to teach the winner a secret technique that can immensely increase the user 's strength . On the island , Goku and Krillin meet Fortuneteller Baba . They tell her about Master Roshi 's challenge . Interested to see what will happen , Baba decides to observe the race using her crystal ball . Goku and Krillin venture into the forest in search of the herb . As they enter , a heavy fog rolls in , where familiar foes emerge . 76 30 `` Defeat These Terrifying Enemies ! Krillin 's Fighting Spirit Returns ! '' `` Kowa teki o uchiyabure ! Kuririn no tōshi futatabi ! '' ( 恐 敵 を 打ち破れ ! クリリン の 闘志 ふたたび ! ) January 29 , 2017 TBA Android 18 arrives at Master Roshi 's house and searches for Krillin . Master Roshi and Fortuneteller Baba explain that Krillin and Goku have entered the `` Forest of Terror , '' which is a place where they have to face illusions of enemies that they had battled before . Master Roshi intended this exercise as a way to help Krillin overcome his lack of confidence . In the forest , Krillin is terrified by what he sees . Among the group of illusions are Tambourine , Frieza , Dabura , and Majin Buu , where all of them previously killed or seriously wounded Krillin . Overcome with fear , Krillin attempts to abandon the race and fly out of the forest . The trees move to block the entrance , which leave Goku and Krillin stranded . The illusions attack and separate Goku and Krillin . Krillin finds himself surrounded by the illusions , but his attacks only make them stronger . After slicing one in half , he discovers that they are powered by his own energy . He heeds Master Roshi 's training and calms himself down , which weakens the illusions . As a final challenge , Fortuneteller Baba summons an illusion of Super Shenron , which immediately ensnares Goku . Krillin quickly arrives and frees him . The two of them use a combined Kamehameha blast to destroy the illusion . The illusions turn into the rare herbs that Master Roshi wanted . Goku and Krillin return to Master Roshi 's house with bags full of the herb . Master Roshi admits that there is actually no secret technique . Krillin , who has regained his confidence , disagrees . Goku and Krillin soon leave . Krillin returns home , where Android 18 shaves his head . This signals Krillin 's decision to pick up his martial arts training once again . Season 5 : Universe Survival ( edit ) Overall No . Saga No . English translation Original Japanese title Original airdate American airdate 77 `` Let 's Do It , Zen - Oh Sama ! The All - Universe Martial Arts Tournament ! ! '' `` Yarou ze Zenō - sama ! Uchū ichi Budō - kai ! ! '' ( や ろう ぜ 全 王様 ! 宇宙 一 武道 会 ! ! ) February 5 , 2017 TBA The Present Zenō - sama and Future Zenō - sama are playing a game together in their realm , but both have become bored with their monotonous routine . Meanwhile , Goku heads to a local farmer 's market to sell his produce and get Chi - Chi off his back about making money . On the way home , he is ambushed by some robbers . Goku defeats them , but he is injured in the process . Deciding that he has grown rusty , Goku and Goten decide to train with Whis . They head to the Capsule Corporation building , where Bulma reveals she is pregnant with her and Vegeta 's second child . Goten remains behind to train with Trunks . Vegeta declines to accompany Goku so that he can be with Bulma when she gives birth . Goku heads to Beerus ' planet alone . While training with Whis , Goku remembers Zenō - sama 's intention to hold a multiverse martial arts tournament . Heedless of Beerus and Whis ' warnings , Goku uses Zenō - sama 's button to head to his realm and convince both Zenō - samas to hold the tournament . When he returns to Beerus ' planet , Beerus angrily berates Goku and explains that Zenō - sama 's naive and innocent nature combined with his extreme power makes him a danger to the multiverse . Beerus threatens to kill Goku if he steps out of line again . Goku , Beerus , and Whis head to the Sacred World of the Kais , where the Great Priest arrives . He tells the group to assemble their ten most powerful warriors to compete in the `` Tournament of Power '' ( 力 の 大会 , Chikara no Taikai ) . 78 `` The Gods of Every Universe in Shock ? ! Losers Erased in the Tournament of Power '' `` Zen uchū no kami - sama mo don hiki ! ? Maketara shōmetsu `` Chikara no taikai '' '' ( 全 宇宙 の 神様 も ドン 引き ! ? 負け たら 消滅 「 力 の 大会 」 ) February 12 , 2017 TBA The Great Priest explains the details of the `` Tournament of Power '' and states that it will be held on `` the World of Void '' . It is a place of `` infinite nothingness '' , where the competitors can fight without limits . The tournament champion will be granted a wish by the Super Dragon Balls , while the losers and their respective universes will be completely erased from existence . Everyone is horrified by this harsh penalty . Goku suggests asking Zenō - sama to ignore it , but Whis advises against this . Whis tells Goku that Zenō - sama has already made up his mind and attempting to change it could be dangerous . Beerus demands that Goku takes responsibility for asking Zenō - sama to hold the tournament in the first place . Goku declares that he will defeat any opponent he faces . The Great Priest also reveals that Universes 7 and 9 are to have a smaller exhibition tournament for Future Zenō - sama 's benefit . Each universe is to name three fighters . Goku sets off to recruit teammates . After Vegeta refuses , Goku recruits Gohan and Majin Buu , who is accompanied by Mr. Satan to represent Universe 7 . Goku also explains the potential penalty to Gohan . Gohan tells Goku to keep the stakes a secret to prevent mass panic . Back at Zenō - sama 's palace , all the gods from all 12 universes gather . The Great Priest explains the purpose of the Zen Exhibition Match . He alludes to the possibility of Zenō - sama erasing the fighters that he deems unfit for the tournament . In the first round , Majin Buu is to fight Basil ( バジル , Bajiru ) , a humanoid canine fighter from Universe 9 . 79 `` Universe 9 's Basil the Kicker VS Universe 7 's Majin Buu ! ! '' `` Dai - 9 uchū keri no Bajiru VS Dai - 7 uchū Majinbū ! ! '' ( 第 9 宇宙 蹴り の バジル VS 第 7 宇宙 魔 人 ブウ ! ! ) February 19 , 2017 TBA Basil quickly gains the upper hand and beats down Majin Buu , who is not taking the fight seriously and thinks of it as a game . Goku goads Basil into showing his full power to get Majin Buu 's attention , which leads to Basil using his ultimate attack . As Roh ( ロウ , Rō ) , the Supreme Kai of Universe 9 , claims victory , Majin Buu emerges with a hole in his stomach , but he is otherwise unmoved . Basil and Roh are shocked to see this . Mr. Satan is injured during the attack . He tells Majin Buu to beat Basil before falling unconscious . This enrages Majin Buu to the point , where he effortlessly beats Basil and knocks him out of the ring . However , since neither Zenō - sama is satisfied with the fight , Basil is allowed to get back into the ring . Roh gives Basil a drug that makes him far more powerful . Although Beerus demands that Basil is disqualified for obvious cheating , Zenō - sama is entertained by this and allows the fight to continue . The Great Priest announces that the rules will be improvised as the tournament goes along . Basil overpowers Majin Buu and seemingly beats him , which causes Roh to prematurely gloat about the superiority of Universe 9 . However , Majin Buu emerges unscathed and launches a full power attack at Basil . This knocks him out and clinches Universe 7 the victory . As the Universe 9 team laments Basil 's loss , Basil 's second oldest brother Lavender ( ラベンダ , Rabenda ) says that if he is allowed to kill his opponent , which Bergamo gives him permission to do , he can win his match . Gohan volunteers to fight Lavender . 80 `` Awaken Your Sleeping Battle Spirit ! Son Gohan 's Fight ! ! '' `` Nemutta tōshi o yobisamase ! Son Gohan no tatakai ! ! '' ( 眠っ た 闘志 を 呼び覚ませ ! 孫 悟 飯 の 闘い ! ! ) February 26 , 2017 TBA As their battle begins , Lavender spits a poison mist into Gohan 's eyes and blinds him . Shin offers Gohan a Senzu bean to cure the poison , but Gohan refuses and says he wants to fight with his strength alone . Unable to see , Gohan uses his other senses to track Lavender and scores several blows . Lavender counters by levitating , which eliminates the sound of his footsteps . Gohan responds by powering up to Super Saiyan and bouncing his own ki off of Lavender 's body , which uses it as a kind of active radar . Powering up also causes the poison to spread rapidly through Gohan 's body . Lavender mounts a comeback . In desperation , Gohan grabs hold of Lavender and launches a kamikaze attack . He drives both of their bodies into the ring at high speed . Lavender is knocked out , but Gohan is so weakened by the poison that he can not continue . With both fighters down , the match is declared a tie . After Goku feeds Gohan a Senzu bean , the Great Priest announces to those in attendance that all universes that lose the Tournament of Power will be erased with their respective gods as well . However , Universes 1 , 5 , 8 , and 12 will be exempt from erasure as will the Angels from all universes because their inhabitants are particularly strong . Zeno - sama had long believed that there were too many universes . He was planning to erase most of them anyway , but the tournament will afford one of the weaker universes the chance to be spared . With the announcement concluded , the ring is repaired in preparation for the final exhibition match where Goku will fight Bergamo ( ベルガモ , Berugamo ) , Basil 's oldest brother who is also a humanoid canine . 81 5 `` Bergamo the Crusher Vs Son Goku ! Which One Wields the Limitless Power ? ! '' `` Tsubushi no Berugamo VS Son Gokū ! Aotenjō no tsuyosa wa dotchida ! ? '' ( 潰し の ベルガモ VS 孫悟空 ! 青 天井 の 強 さ は どっち だ ! ? ) March 5 , 2017 TBA Before their battle begins , Bergamo denounces Goku before the assembled gods . Bergamo pleads with Zenō - sama to rescind the rule that the universes that lose the Tournament of Power be erased . Zenō - sama agrees on the condition that Bergamo beats Goku in an all out battle . Great Priest states that if Goku holds back to cancel the destruction , Zenō - sama will immediately destroy all of the universes . Both Goku and Bergamo agree to the terms . When the fight begins , Bergamo invites Goku to hit him and leaves himself exposed . Goku obliges and strikes Bergamo several times , but Bergamo absorbs the energy of Goku 's attacks . He grows stronger and physically larger . Goku continues to attack , which causes Bergamo to grow so large that the ring begins to buckle under his weight . Goku transforms to Super Saiyan Blue , which shocks the gods and quickly overwhelms Bergamo with a Kaioken powered Kamehameha . Bergamo claims every universe participating in the Tournament of Power will seek vengeance on Goku for making them face destruction , but Goku relishes the idea of such a challenge . The Zen Exhibition Match comes to a close and the Tournament of Power will soon begin . The universe with the most fighters remaining or the last fighter standing will be declared the winner . Suddenly , a mysterious fighter from Universe 11 named Toppo ( トッポ ) appears and challenges Goku to a battle . Goku , who is unsatisfied after his short fight with Bergamo , agrees to fight Toppo . 82 6 `` Never Forgive Son Goku ! Toppo the Warrior of Justice Intrudes ! ! '' `` Son Gokū yurusumaji ! Seigi no senshi Toppo ran'nyū ! ! ! '' ( 孫悟空 許す まじ ! 正義 の 戦士 トッポ 乱入 ! ! ) March 19 , 2017 TBA After obtaining Zenō - sama 's blessing to proceed , Goku and Toppo begin their battle . Toppo quickly gains the upper hand and dislocates Goku 's shoulder . Goku responds by attacking with a flurry of blows , but Toppo manages to grab Goku in a powerful bear hug . He begins squeezing the life out of Goku , which forces Goku to turn Super Saiyan Blue to escape . Goku gains the upper hand in this form and damages Toppo with a Kamehameha . Just as the two power up even more , the Great Priest puts an end to the fight . As Toppo leaves , he reveals to Goku that Universe 11 has a warrior even stronger than him named Jiren ( ジレン ) . The Great Priest begins creating a martial arts arena suitable for the Tournament of Power . In the Sacred World of the Kais , Beerus and Goku get into an argument over Goku 's constant relaxed and negligent attitude , which Whis breaks up . The group agrees to convene at the Capsule Corporation to discuss their future strategy . 83 7 `` Form the Universe 7 Representing Team ! Who are the Strongest Ten ? ! '' `` Dai - 7 uchū daihyō chīmu o kessei seyo ! Saikyō no 10 - ri wa dareda ? '' ( 第 7 宇宙 代表 チーム を 結成 せよ ! 最強 の 10 人 は 誰 だ ! ? ) March 26 , 2017 TBA Goku and the others arrive at Capsule Corporation . They discuss who should be on the team . Goku immediately suggests Monaka , but Beerus tells him that Monaka is sick and can not participate . Goku and Gohan agree on Vegeta , Piccolo , Krillin , Master Roshi , No. 18 , and No. 17 , which would bring the total number of fighters up to nine . Trunks and Goten are ruled out due to their inexperience . They proceed to ask Vegeta , who has been thinking of a name for his second child . Vegeta refuses to participate . He says he will not fight , while Bulma is pregnant . Whis uses his time warping ability to birth the baby sooner than expected in order to get Vegeta to agree to the fight . Everyone celebrates the baby 's birth . Trunks is slightly disappointed he has a sister because he wanted to train with a younger brother . As soon as the baby is handed to Vegeta , he develops an attachment to her . Bulma names the baby Bulla even though Vegeta hoped to give her the Saiyan name Eschalot . However , Vegeta quickly accepts Bulla 's name . Goku leaves to recruit members and heads to Krillin 's house . 84 8 `` Son Goku the Recruiter Invites Krillin and No. 18 '' `` Sukautoman Son Gokū - Kuririn to 18 - gō o izanau '' ( スカウト マン 孫悟空 クリリン と 18 号 を 誘う ) April 2 , 2017 TBA Goku and Gohan arrive at Krillin 's house and ask him and No. 18 to join the Tournament of Power . No. 18 convinces Krillin to participate in order to put his newfound martial arts training to use . No. 18 is reluctant to join herself . She quickly suspects Goku and Gohan of hiding something from them , but Goku convinces her that the secret is a 10 million Zeni reward , which convinces her to participate . Gohan decides to test Krillin in a sparring match on the coast . After Gohan overpowers him in hand to hand combat , Krillin swiftly defeats Gohan by blinding him with his new move named Solar Flare x 100 and knocking him into the sea . Goku is excited by Krillin 's new power . He challenges him to a sparring match as well . They relocate to a building owned by Mr. Satan , where Krillin 's strategies make up for the gap in power , forcing Goku to go Super Saiyan . Goku then transforms into his Super Saiyan Blue form , and he and Krillin have a Kamehameha clash . As Goku increases his power and starts to overpower Krillin , No. 18 intervenes and blocks Goku 's Kamehameha , just as Krillin collapses from exhaustion . She justifies herself by noting that the Tournament of Power will be a battle royal and that Goku can not expect to fight one - on - one all the time . Goku concedes the match and realizes he will have to adjust his tactics in order to win the Tournament of Power . No. 18 reveals that No. 17 is currently working at a wildlife reserve , but she does not know where . Goku decides to ask Dende to find No. 17 . 85 9 `` The Universes Begin to Make Their Moves Their Individual Motives '' `` Ugokidasu uchū - sorezore no omowaku '' ( 動き出す 宇宙 - それぞれ の 思惑 ) April 9 , 2017 TBA Gohan leaves to recruit Piccolo , while Goku prepares to head to the Lookout . He encounters Majin Buu and Mr. Satan training . Goku discovers that Buu has lost weight and has gotten much slimmer in appearance . The two spar together . Buu defeats Goku by overwhelming him with ki blasts and knocking him out of the fighting stage . Meanwhile , Khai ( カイ ) , the Supreme Kai of Universe 11 , gathers all of the Supreme Kais involved in the tournament except for Universe 7 's , who is ostracized due to Goku 's involvement with the creation of the tournament . Khai asks his fellow Supreme Kais to request that Zenō - sama cancel the destruction of the universes , but they are all too afraid of his wrath to do so . Champa gathers all the Gods of Destruction involved in the tournament except Beerus after finding out about the Supreme Kai 's meeting , and they discuss Goku . Toppo recruits his fellow Pride Troopers Kahseral ( カーセラル , Kāseraru ) and Dyspo ( ディスポ , Disupo ) . Champa recruits Cabba and demands he find more powerful Saiyans . Goku meets Dende and Mr. Popo at the Lookout and learns No. 17 's location . Gohan prepares to train with Piccolo . 86 10 `` Fist Cross for the First Time ! Android # 17 VS Son Goku ! ! '' `` Hajimete majiwaru kobushi ! Jinzōningen Jūnana - gō VS Son Gokū ! ! '' ( 初めて 交わる 拳 ! 人造 人間 17 号 VS 孫悟空 ! ! ) April 16 , 2017 TBA On their way to the island where No. 17 is working , Dende explains that since the conclusion of the Cell Games , No. 17 has started a family and gotten far stronger . Dende also reveals that Kid Buu has reincarnated as a young Earthling with massive fighting potential and asks Goku to train him when he is old enough . They reach the island as Goku arrives just in time to witness No. 17 defeat a group of armed poachers . As they introduce themselves to each other , a large army of poachers arrive . Goku and No. 17 team up to subdue them all . Afterwards , No. 17 explains that the poachers are after the last Minotaurus in order to steal its rare and valuable horns . The two decide to have a sparring match . No. 17 evenly matches Super Saiyan Goku , which causes him to turn Super Saiyan Blue . Goku launches a Kamehameha at No. 17 , who easily deflects it with an energy shield . The two go toe - to - toe until No. 17 ends the match in order to avoid catching the island in the crossfire . Goku and No. 17 acknowledge that they were both holding back in the fight . Afterwards , Goku attempts to convince him to join the Tournament of Power , but No. 17 is uninterested . He remains indifferent even when Goku reveals that the losing universes will be erased . Meanwhile , alien poachers arrive on Earth and they set their sights on the Minotaurus . 87 11 `` Hunt the Poachers ! Goku and No. 17 's United Front ! ! '' `` Mitsuryō - dan o kare ! Gokū to Jūnana - gō no kyōtō ! ! '' ( 密漁 団 を 狩れ ! 悟空 と 17 号 の 共闘 ! ! ) April 23 , 2017 TBA Goku entices No. 17 with a wish on the Super Dragon Balls . As he begins to consider Goku 's offer , the alien poachers arrive and abduct all of the island 's animals . Goku uses his Instant Transmission to teleport himself and No. 17 aboard their ship before it can escape . After defeating some of the poachers , No. 17 sets off to defeat the leader , while Goku remains behind to battle the rest of the poachers . No. 17 confronts and easily defeats the leader . Goku catches up just as the leader pulls out a switch and threatens to self - destruct if he is not released immediately . No. 17 smashes him out of a window , which vents both of them into deep space . Goku manages to use his Instant Transmission to teleport all three of them to King Kai 's world . Dende contacts Goku and informs him that the leader 's threat was a bluff . Afterwards , Goku and No. 17 return the animals to their rightful homes . Jaco arrives to arrest the alien poachers . No. 17 decides to leave his island in the hands of Goten and Trunks and accepts Goku 's offer to fight in the Tournament of Power . He hopes to use the Super Dragon Balls to wish for an expensive boat and travel the world with his family . 88 12 `` Gohan and Piccolo Teacher and Pupil Clash in Max Training ! '' `` Gohan to Pikkoro Shitei gekitotsu no Genkai shugyō ! '' ( 悟 飯 と ピッコロ 師弟 激突 の 限界 修業 ! ) April 30 , 2017 TBA Gohan and Piccolo engage in intense training . Piccolo explains that Goku has already informed him about the potential destruction of the universe and that he is going to participate in the Tournament of Power . He points out that Gohan 's over eagerness to protect his loved ones is making him reckless . Gohan transforms into a Super Saiyan , and the two continue to spar . Meanwhile , Cabba heads to the residence of his retired captain and mentor , Renso ( レンソウ ) . Cabba asks him to join Universe 6 's team for the Tournament of Power , but Renso refuses due to an injury to his leg . Renso suggests his sister , Caulifla ( カリフラ , Karifura ) , instead , who he claims is even stronger than him . Back in Universe 7 , Piccolo removes his weighted clothes to go all out and quickly defeats Gohan . Piccolo explains that Gohan has a tendency to become arrogant when he has the advantage in battle . After being encouraged by Piccolo , Gohan manages to reach the Mystic form he used against Super Buu . The two fight again , and Gohan successfully severs Piccolo 's arm . However , Piccolo blasts him in the back with the severed arm and defeats Gohan , which proves Piccolo 's point about Gohan 's overconfidence . That night , Piccolo vows to push Gohan to new heights of power . They both agree to work on combination moves . 89 13 `` An Unknown Beauty Appears ! The Tenshin - Style Dojo 's Mystery ? ! '' `` Arawareta nazo no bijo ! Tenshin - ryū Dōjō no kai ! ? '' ( 現れ た 謎 の 美女 ! 天津 流 道場 の 怪 ! ? ) May 7 , 2017 TBA Goku heads to Master Roshi 's island , where Oolong informs him that Tien and Chiaotzu have started a martial arts dojo , and that Roshi has headed there to act as a special instructor . Goku decides to make Tien the tenth member of the team , and heads off to recruit him and Roshi . At Tien 's dojo , a woman named Yurin ( ユーリン , Yūrin ) with a grudge against Tien arrives and requests to join the dojo . Although Tien denies her because her motivation of beauty was unfit for his dojo , Roshi drags Yurin off to ogle her . Goku arrives and asks Tien to join the Tournament of Power , but , even after Goku bribes him with 10 million Zeni , Tien refuses . Yurin escapes Roshi 's advances and uses witchcraft to drive Tien 's students on a rampage throughout town . Goku , Tien , Chiaotzu , and Roshi arrive at the village , where Yurin confronts them . Yurin explains that she is a former classmate of Tien 's during his time at the Crane School and that she swore revenge on him after he left the school and refused to fight her . Meanwhile , Cabba sways Caulifla into joining Universe 6 's team by promising to teach her how to become a Super Saiyan . Back on Earth , while Goku , Chiaotzu , and Tien cure the students of their brainwashing , Roshi battles Yurin . He lowers his guard after catching a glimpse of Yurin 's panties , which allows her to brainwash him . The brainwashed Roshi quickly defeats Tien , but Goku intervenes . While Chiaotzu temporarily disables Yurin , Goku subdues Roshi with a Kamehameha and cures him of the brainwashing . Tien orders Yurin to apologize to everyone she hurt and offers her a place at his dojo . Tien decides to join the Tournament of Power because he believes that the 10 million Zeni Goku promised will repair the village . After hearing about the 10 million Zeni , Master Roshi quickly agrees to join as well . 90 14 `` See The Wall That Must Be Passed ! Goku vs Gohan '' `` Koerubeki kabe o misuete ! Gokū bāsasu Gohan '' ( 超える べき 壁 を 見据え て ! 悟空 VS 悟 飯 ) May 14 , 2017 TBA As Gohan finishes training with Piccolo , they go to meet with Goku , Master Roshi , and Tien . At Gohan 's request , Goku and Tien have a fight against Gohan and Piccolo to practice for the tournament . Although Tien views this as a practice match and wants to avoid injuring anyone , Gohan and Goku take the fight seriously . As Gohan fights both his father and Tien , Piccolo spends the time charging a strong technique , which ultimatley destroys the mountain fighting stage when it is launched . Tien calls the match off on the grounds that the fighting stage is now destroyed . Although Goku agrees , Gohan requests to have a one - on - one fight against his father . Goku accepts , and Gohan transforms into his Mystic Form while Goku goes Super Saiyan 2 . Although Goku has the upper hand for much of the fight , Gohan turns the tables and begins to overpower Goku . Gohan begs Goku to use his full power . Goku responds by becoming a Super Saiyan Blue and using his Kaio - Ken technique , then defeats Gohan with a single blow . Impressed with his son 's improvement , Goku assigns Gohan as the leader of their Universe 7 team . Meanwhile , Rumsshi ( ラムーシ , Ramūshi ) recruits a powerful fighter named Murichim ( ムリチム , Murichimu ) and his companions to represent Universe 10 in the tournament . 91 15 `` Which Universe Will Survive ? ! The Strongest Warriors Are Gathering ! ! '' `` Kachinokoru no wa dono Uchū da ! ? Zokuzoku to tsudou Saikyō no senshi - tachi ! ! '' ( 勝ち残る の は どの 宇宙 だ ! ? 続々 と 集う 最強 の 戦士 たち ! ! ) May 21 , 2017 TBA The Zenō - samas are suffering from extreme boredom again . They decide to observe the universes ' progress in assembling their strongest warriors . In Universe 7 , Vegeta prepares to enter the Hyperbolic Time Chamber for some intense training . Goku spars with Whis in Vegeta 's gravity chamber . Master Roshi and Puar train to remove Roshi 's weakness to seduction techniques , which fails miserably . In Universe 9 , word has spread of the potential destruction of their universe . The populace has descended into anarchy . The three canine brothers have been unable to find any other fighters . In Universe 6 , Hit tracks down the destitute Frost and forces him to join the Tournament of Power , while he relieves him of his poison needles in the process . In Universe 11 , Toppo 's comrade Kahseral is delayed from joining when he aids a cat stuck in a tree . In Universe 2 , a magical girl named Brianne de Chateau ( ブリアン ・ デ ・ シャトー , Burian de Shatō ) transforms into her alter ego named Ribrianne ( リブリアン , Riburian ) and auditions for a spot in the tournament . In Universe 10 , Murichim and his comrades record a dance video to improve team spirit . Back in Universe 7 , Mr. Satan calls and unexpectedly reveals that Majin Buu has fallen into a deep sleep and can not join the tournament , which horrifies everyone . 92 16 `` Emergency Development ! The Incomplete Ten Members ! ! '' `` Kinkyū jitai hassei ! Sorowanai jū nin no menbā ! ! '' ( 緊急 事態 発生 ! そろわ ない 10 人 の メンバー ! ! ) May 28 , 2017 TBA Goku races to Mr. Satan 's house , where he proves unable to wake Majin Buu from his hibernation . Meanwhile , all of Universe 7 's remaining warriors except Master Roshi and No. 17 gather at the Capsule Corporation . After Krillin brings up the 10 million Zeni prize that Goku had bribed him , Piccolo and Gohan reveal to Krillin , No. 18 , and Tien that the prize of 10 million Zeni was a lie and that the universe will be destroyed if they lose . When Goku returns , Krillin berates him and threatens to withdraw from the team along with No. 18 . After Goku fails to convince them otherwise , Beerus swiftly threatens Krillin into staying , while Bulma agrees to pay out the promised reward . In Universe 6 , Cabba takes Caulifla to a deserted wasteland to teach her how to become a Super Saiyan . As Caulifla 's protégée , Kale ( ケール , Kēru ) , observes them , Cabba ineffectually attempts to provoke Caulifla in order to make her transform . When that fails , he teaches her to focus her energy on an area in her back . Caulifla successfully transforms into a Super Saiyan . Caulifla tests her newfound power and agrees to join Universe 6 's team for the Tournament of Power . She beckons Kale over to attempt the transformation herself . In Universe 11 , Kahseral arrives at the Pride Trooper headquarters , where he and Toppo agree to leave the universe in their trainees ' hands so they can participate in the tournament . In Universe 3 , two cyborg warriors named Nigrisshi ( ニグリシ , Nigrisshi ) and Narirama ( ナリラマ , Narirāma ) display their upgrades for the tournament to Universe 3 's God of Destruction Mosco ( モスコ , Mosuko ) , Supreme Kai Ea ( エア ) , and Angel Campari ( カンパーリ , Kanpāri ) . Back in Universe 7 , Goku and his friends are unable to figure out who can replace Buu . When Beerus claims they have no suitable fighters because Goku destroyed the Frieza Force , Goku is inspired to recruit Frieza , which shocks everyone . 93 17 `` You 're The Tenth Warrior ! Goku Goes To See Frieza ! ! '' `` Jū ninme no senshi wa omē da ! Gokū Furīza no moto e ! ! '' ( 10 人目 の 戦士 はお め え だ ! 悟空 フリーザ の も と へ ! ! ) June 4 , 2017 TBA Goku 's idea is met with much hesitance from his comrades . He explains that he intends to have Fortuneteller Baba resurrect Frieza for 24 hours to fight in the tournament . If Frieza betrays them then either he or Vegeta can defeat him . Goku 's friends reluctantly agree , and he sets out to the afterlife . The Universe 7 team are unaware that a spy from Universe 4 is observing them . In Universe 6 , Cabba and Caulifla attempt to teach Kale how to turn into a Super Saiyan but to no avail . Kale begins to despair over her own uselessness , and it enrages her enough to trigger her transformation into an extremely powerful Uncontrollable Super Saiyan ( スーパー サイヤ 人 ( 暴走 ) , Sūpā Saiya - jin ( Bōsō ) ) . Kale immediately goes berserk and attacks Cabba . Caulifla quickly deduces that Kale is jealous of her and Cabba 's perceived relationship . She denies having any sort of feelings for Cabba . Kale calms down and collapses in Caulifla 's arms . Cabba , who is impressed by Kale 's power , decides to add her to Universe 6 's team . Back in Universe 7 , Goku arrives in the afterlife and receives King Yemma 's permission to visit Frieza . He explains about the Tournament of Power and asks Frieza to join them . Frieza agrees to aid him on the condition that he be properly resurrected with Earth 's Dragon Balls . When Goku hesitates to agree , Frieza goads him by playing to his desire to see how powerful Frieza can become . Goku accepts his terms . In Universe 4 , Ganos ( ガノス , Ganosu ) reports Universe 7 's latest actions to Universe 4 's God of Destruction Quitela ( キテラ , Kitera ) and Supreme Kai Kuru ( クル ) . Quitela immediately begins making plans to counter Beerus . 94 18 `` The Emperor of Evil Returns ! A Reception of Mysterious Assassins ? ! '' `` Aku no Teiō fukkatsu ! Demukaeru Nazo no Shikaku - tachi ! ? '' ( 悪 の 帝王 復活 ! 出迎える 謎 の 刺客 たち ! ? ) June 11 , 2017 TBA Quitela contacts Universe 9 's God of Destruction Sidra ( シドラ , Shidora ) and informs him that Universe 7 is planning to use Frieza to assassinate their rivals before the tournament begins and that the only way to counter them is to kill them first . Sidra and Roh agree to have Frieza killed . Meanwhile , Goku returns to the Capsule Corporation to update everyone on his success . As Master Roshi completes his training at Korin 's tower , Krillin and No. 18 head to No. 17 's island to pick him up and drop off Goten , Trunks , and Marron . Goku goes to Fortuneteller Baba 's home , where she completes the ritual to resurrect Frieza . As Goku and Frieza prepare to depart , an army of assassins arrives to claim their heads . Despite the time pressure , Frieza wounds the assassins ' leader , transforms into his Golden form , and prepares for battle . 95 19 `` The Worst ! The Most Evil ! Frieza 's Rampage ! ! '' `` Saikyō ! Saiaku ! Furīza Ōabare ! ! '' ( 最 凶 ! 最悪 ! フリーザ 大 暴れ ! ! ) June 18 , 2017 TBA Frieza explains to Goku that he spent his recent incarceration in Hell undergoing intense mental training to overcome the stamina issues that plagued him during his previous battles with the Z - Fighters . He quickly slaughters most of the assassins , which horrifies Goku . The assassins ' leader , who has been directly empowered by Sidra , attacks Frieza with Sidra 's power , but Frieza manages to overcome and hijack the attack . Frieza spitefully uses the attack on Goku and traps him . Frieza tortures and kills the assassins until they reveal that Roh and Sidra hired them . Frieza contacts Universe 9 and offers his services as a defector . Roh and Sidra begin arguing about whether or not to accept him . Roh fears Frieza 's psychopathic and treasonous nature , while Sidra wants his power . Sidra is confident he could kill him if he stepped out of line . Their argument buys time for Beerus and Whis to arrive and rescue Goku . Frieza cuts the connection . He begins making plans to use the Tournament of Power to manipulate the gods to suit his own ends . Goku and Frieza have a brief sparring match , which ends in a draw . Goku , Frieza , Beerus , and Whis return to the Capsule Corporation . The Universe 7 team prepare to travel to the World of Void for the Tournament of Power . 96 20 `` The Time Is Here ! To The World Of Void For The Fate Of The Universe ! ! '' `` Toki wa kita ! Uchū no Meiun o kake Mu no Kai e ! ! '' ( 時 は きた ! 宇宙 の 命運 を かけ 無 の 界 へ ! ! ) June 25 , 2017 TBA In the World of Void , Universes 1 , 5 , and 8 's Gods of Destruction Iwne ( イワン , Iwan ) , Arack ( アラク , Araku ) , and Liquiir ( リキュール , Rikīru ) have a brief exhibition match to test the durability of the Tournament of Power 's fighting stage . Afterwards , the Great Priest forces them all to clean up their mess and fix the stage . In Universe 7 , Gohan and Shin 's strategy is to have the team members stick together to conserve energy and use strength of numbers to defeat anyone who attacks them . This suggestion offends Goku and Vegeta 's Saiyan pride . Whis transports the team to the World of Void . All of the other universes arrive . Frieza and Frost befriend each other and agree to work together , while Goku singles out Jiren as a potential rival due to his extreme power . As the Great Priest introduces each team , Universe 4 seemingly has only 8 warriors on their team , which confuses most of Universe 7 , except for Tien , who tells No. 18 that he can sense a faint presence . After a speech from the Zenō - samas , the 80 warriors prepare for battle . 97 21 `` Survive ! The Tournament of Power Begins at Last ! ! '' `` Ikinokore ! Tsui ni kaimaku Chikara no Taikai ! ! '' ( 生き残れ ! ついに 開幕 「 力 の 大会 」 ! ! ) July 2 , 2017 TBA The Great Priest reminds everyone of the rules and officially starts the tournament . A massive free - for - all ensues . Goku targets Toppo , but he is intercepted by Ganos . Disregarding Gohan 's plan as well , No. 17 , No. 18 , Vegeta , and Frieza all jump into the fray . Universe 3 gains an early advantage when Narirama unleashes a spinning attack designed to knock its opponents off the stage , but Hit and Basil disable it . Universe 10 's Lilibeu ( リリベウ , Ririberu ) attacks Basil , but Basil successfully knocks her off the stage . Meanwhile , the five Universe 7 warriors who stayed together are confronted by a gang of warriors from varying universes , but Universe 7 uses teamwork to fend them off . Basil nearly defeats Universe 10 's Napapa , but Napapa is able to push his attacks away at the last moment . As Goku is pursuing Toppo , he comes face to face with Jiren until Universe 4 's Nink ( ニンク , Ninku ) outflanks Goku by grappling and dragging him towards the edge of the stage with the intention of jumping off with him . Goku turns Super Saiyan Blue and knocks Nink off the stage . As Goku reverts back to his normal form to conserve energy , Basil , Lavender , Bergamo , and two other Universe 9 warriors surround him with 47 minutes remaining in the tournament . 98 22 `` Oh , Uncertainty ! A Universe Despairs ! ! '' `` Ā mujou ! Zetsubō suru Uchū ! ! '' ( あぁ 無常 ! 絶望 する 宇宙 ! ! ) July 9 , 2017 TBA Roh orders his warriors to attack Goku to avenge their defeat at the Zen Exhibition Match . Goku is forced to avoid fighting at his fullest in order to conserve stamina for later in the tournament . He fights Team Universe 9 , where the Trio de Dangers brothers manage to overwhelm him thanks to their teamwork . Vegeta notices Goku 's plight and reinforces him . Roh sends over three more fighters . Team Universe 9 is able to push Goku and Vegeta to the brink until Vegeta tricks Lavender and Hop ( ソレル , Hoppu ) into accidentally hitting each other . Goku and Vegeta take advantage of the confusion to defeat five of the Universe 9 warriors . No. 18 and Frieza each defeat Sorrel ( ソレル , Soreru ) and Roselle . Only Basil , Lavender , and Bergamo remain in the tournament for Team Universe 9 . Goku and Vegeta push them to the edge of the stage . The brothers use a combination beam as a last ditch effort , but Goku and Vegeta power up to Super Saiyan Blue and knock them off the stage with a Final Kamehameha . With all 10 members defeated , Universe 9 is eliminated from the tournament . As a result , the Zenō - samas erase Universe 9 , Roh , Sidra , and all of their fighters . This amuses Universe 9 's angel Mojito ( モヒイト , Mohi'ito ) and horrifies everyone else . 99 23 `` Show Them ! Krillin 's True Power ! ! '' `` Misetsukero ! Kuririn no sokojikara ! ! '' ( 見せつけろ ! クリリン の 底力 ! ! ) July 16 , 2017 TBA As the other warriors recover from the shock of Universe 9 's destruction , No. 17 reminds No. 18 that they have infinite stamina due to their cyborg bodies and have no reason to hold back . Vegeta tries to fight Hit , but he is blocked by Botamo , who is immune to damage . Vegeta manages to pick Botamo up and nearly throws him off the stage , but Magetta stops him at the last moment . Meanwhile , Universe 10 's Jium ( ジウム , Jiumu ) attacks Gohan and his friends . Jium is swiftly defeated by Master Roshi . Universe 4 's Shosa ( ショイサ , Shōsa ) tricks No. 18 into lowering her guard by faking his own death and nearly knocks her off the stage with a barrage of ki blasts . Krillin rescues No. 18 , and the two defeat Shosa with a powerful combination attack . They are challenged by Universe 4 's Majora ( マジョラ ) , who is a blind fighter that uses his powerful sense of smell to locate his enemies in battle . Although Majora proves to be stronger than Krillin , Krillin disables his nose by throwing his smelly shoe at him and knocks him off the stage . Krillin boasts about his victory , which allows Frost to knock him off with a single blow . Beerus and Shin berate Krillin for his carelessness with 43 minutes remaining in the tournament . 100 24 `` Out Of Control ! The Savage Berserker Awakens ! ! '' `` Daibōsō ! Mezame araburu Kyōsenshi ! ! '' ( 大 暴走 ! 目覚め 荒 ぶる 狂 戦士 ! ! ) July 23 , 2017 TBA As Universe 7 recovers from Krillin 's defeat , Cabba defeats Nigrisshi and Universe 10 's Murisam ( ムリサーム ) and confronts Vegeta . Hit blows off Narirama 's limbs and uses his time skip ability to dodge his ultimate attack . He flicks him off the stage . Meanwhile , Kale is disabled by Universe 10 's Napapa and Methiop ( メチオープ ) . They knock her unconscious and attempt to throw her off the stage , but Caulifla rescues her and defeats Napapa . The two confront Goku , and Caulifla knocks away Universe 2 's Jimeze ( ジーミズ , Jimizu ) and demands to know how to become a Super Saiyan Blue . Goku refuses , and Caulifla transforms into an Ultra Super Saiyan . However , her increased muscle mass cripples her speed and allows Goku to counterattack . With Goku 's aid , Caulifla manages to become a Super Saiyan 2 , and the two resume their fight . As Kale watches them , she is once again consumed by her feelings of uselessness and transforms into the Uncontrollable Super Saiyan . Hit uses his time skip to save Caulifla from getting caught in the crossfire . Kale flies into a jealous rage and attacks Goku for allegedly stealing Caulifla from her . Kale easily overwhelms Goku and forces him to power up to Super Saiyan Blue . He unleashes a powerful Kamehameha , but Kale powers through it unharmed . As Piccolo realizes she has lost control of her power , Kale begins firing ki blasts at everything in sight and defeats Methiop . When Universe 11 's Vuon ( ブーオン , Būon ) attempts to stop her , Kale defeats him as well . Jiren knocks her unconscious with a single ki blast . As Hit and Caulifla retreat with Kale , Goku challenges Jiren . 101 25 `` The Impending Warriors of Justice ! The Pride Troopers ! ! '' `` Semari kuru seigi no senshi ! Puraido Torūpāsu ! ! '' ( 迫り くる 正義 の 戦士 ! プライド ・ トルーパス ! ! ) July 30 , 2017 TBA As Goku prepares to fight Jiren , Toppo suddenly ambushes him with a barrage of ki blasts . Toppo and Jiren decide to retreat and conserve their stamina . This leaves Goku to be dealt with by Kahseral and their fellow Pride Troopers Tupper ( タッパー , Tappā ) , Zoiray ( ゾイレー , Zoirē ) , Cocotte ( ココット , Kokotto ) , and Kettol . The five declare their intent to defeat Caulifla and Kale to avenge Vuon 's defeat . The two are forced to form a temporary alliance with Goku . Meanwhile , Master Roshi and Tien team up to defeat Universe 3 's The Preecho ( ザ ・ プリーチョ ) . They regroup with Gohan , Piccolo , Vegeta , and Frieza , where he has defeated Murichim . The Pride Troopers push Goku , Caulifla , and Kale to the brink , but No. 17 and No. 18 rescue them . No. 18 and Goku defeat Tupper , while No. 17 easily overpowers Kahseral . The remaining Pride Troopers regroup and focus their assault on the wounded Caulifla and Kale . Cocotte seals them in a separate dimension to ensure that Goku , No. 17 , and No. 18 do not interfere . As the four beat Caulifla , Kale 's self - hatred causes her to return to the Uncontrollable Super Saiyan form , but she remains in control of herself this time . Caulifla and Kale use an extremely powerful combination ki blast to defeat Kahseral , Zoiray , and Kettol . Cocotte seals herself in a mini-dimension to avoid the blast , but No. 18 simply throws it off , eliminating Cocotte . Goku allows Caulifla and Kale to retreat so he can fight them at their full strength after they rest . The group is unaware that Brianne is observing them . 102 26 `` The Power of Love Explodes ? ! Universe 2 's Little Witch Warriors ! ! '' `` Ai no chikara ga dai bakuhatsu ! ? dai ni uchu majo - kko senshi ! ! '' ( 愛 の 力 が 大 爆発 ! ? 第 2 宇宙 の 魔女 っ 子 戦士 ! ! ) August 6 , 2017 TBA Brianne and her companions Sanka Ku ( サンカ ・ クー , Sanka Kū ) and Su Roas ( スー ・ ロース , Sū Rōsu ) announce themselves to the other fighters and begin to transform into their magical girl alter - egos . No. 17 blasts them before they can transform , but Brianne , Goku , and Toppo berate him for his dishonorable tactics and browbeat him into allowing them to transform , much to Beerus ' dismay . They assume their alter - egos Ribrianne , Kakunsa ( カクンサ , Kakunsa ) , and Rozie ( ロージィ , Rōjī ) and barrage the arena with a powerful love - based attack that brainwashes some of the fighters . Universe 7 's mental discipline allows them to overcome its effects . Gohan 's group elects to split up and fight independently . Vegeta attacks Ribrianne , who counters with a rolling attack that knocks out Universe 10 's Jirasen ( ジラセン ) . Rozie attacks Goku with a flurry of blows that grows more powerful the longer she keeps it up , while Kakunsa battles No. 17 with her animalistic fighting style . No. 17 baits her into overextending herself and stuns her with a barrier . He attempts to knock her out of the stage , but her teammate Vikal ( ビカル , Bikaru ) rescues her . No. 17 decides to stop holding back and swiftly eliminates Vikal . He also eliminates Kakunsa with a powerful ki blast . Enraged by his actions , Ribrianne powers up and prepares to battle No. 17 . 103 27 `` Gohan , Show No Mercy ! Showdown With Universe 10 ! ! '' `` Gohan yo hijōnare ! Dai ju uchu to no kessen ! ! '' ( 悟 飯 よ 非情 なれ ! 第 10 宇宙 と の 決戦 ! ! ) August 13 , 2017 TBA Ribrianne and No. 17 fiercely attack each other , while Rozie begins to overwhelm Goku 's defenses . She surrounds him with ki balls and attempts to blow him up , but No. 17 protects him with a barrier . Goku , who has studied Rozie 's techniques , hits her with a powerful ki blast . As he and No. 17 corner Rozie and Ribrianne , Jimeze arrives and rescues them with instant transmission . Elsewhere , Botamo challenges Gohan on Champa 's orders . As Piccolo and Goku observe , Gohan attacks with a flurry of blows , which apparently have no effect . However , Gohan 's attacks begin to lift Botamo off the ground and renders him unable to defend himself , allowing Gohan to knock him off the stage . Universe 10 's Obuni ( オブニ ) and Rubalt ( ルバルト , Rubaruto ) appear to challenge Gohan and Piccolo . Jimeze defeats Universe 10 's Jilcol ( ジルコル Jirukoru ) . With 8 warriors eliminated , Gowasu accepts his imminent demise , while Rumsshi remains defiant . Obuni shifts his ki away from his body to render himself impossible to detect and wounds Gohan . Rubalt initially has the upper hand against Piccolo , but Piccolo uses his Hellzone Grenade attack to knock out Rubalt , leaving Universe 10 with only Obuni . Obuni begins to overwhelm Gohan , which makes Gowasu want to cling to life again . Gohan powers up to his Mystic form and powers through one of Obuni 's punches . He counterattacks Obuni 's moves by locating and hitting Obuni after he gets hit . Obuni pauses the fight to show his respect for Gohan , but refuses to lose for the sake of Universe 10 . Gohan battles and defeats Obuni with a Kamehameha . All of Universe 10 's fighters have been eliminated . Right before Universe 10 is annihilated , Gohan discovers a locket containing a picture of Obuni and his wife and child . Gohan and Universe 10 's angel , Cus ( クス , Kusu ) , mourn Universe 10 's destruction . 104 28 `` The Ultimate High Speed Battle Begins ! Goku and Hit Join Forces ! ! '' `` Chōzetsu kōsoku batoru boppatsu ! Gokū to hitto no kyōdō sensen ! ! '' ( 超絶 光速 バトル 勃発 ! 悟空 と ヒット の 共同 戦線 ! ! ) August 20 , 2017 TBA Dyspo challenges Hit and uses his incredible speed to overwhelm Hit 's Time Skip . Everyone quickly deduces that Dyspo is listening for the sound of Hit 's body tensing up to determine when he is about to attempt to use Time Skip . Hit resorts to fighting him conventionally , but he is pushed to the edge of the stage . Toppo deduces that Hit has adjusted to Dyspo 's fighting style and is luring him into a trap . Toppo sends fellow pride trooper Kunshi ( クンシー , Kunshī ) to back him up . Before Dyspo can land the finishing blow , Hit suddenly turns intangible and sends Dyspo over the edge . However , Kunshi uses ropes made of his energy to pull Dyspo back onto the stage before he is eliminated . The two launch a renewed assault against Hit and drive him into a corner . Before they can finish him off , Goku interferes and rescues Hit . Goku uses his Super Saiyan God form to counter Dyspo 's speed , while Hit uses his assassination technique to injure Kunshi . The two switch places . Hit uses a fake Time Skip to throw Dyspo off and wound him , while Goku overwhelms Kunshi with his Super Saiyan Blue form . Hit attempts to eliminate Dyspo , but Kunshi rescues him again . Kunshi charges Hit , who turns intangible and knocks him off the stage . Dyspo retreats and regroups with his allies . Toppo abandons all notions of justice and decides to focus on survival . Hit decides not to battle Goku as thanks for lending a hand . Goku and Hit vow to settle the score if they both make it to the end of the tournament . 105 29 `` A Desperate Battle ! Master Roshi 's Sacrifice ! ! '' `` Funsen ! Mutenroshi inochi o Moyasu ! ! '' ( 奮戦 ! 武 天 老師 命 を 燃やす ! ! ) August 27 , 2017 TBA Master Roshi quietly observes the battles from afar . He is challenged by an attractive warrior from Universe 4 , Caway ( キャウェイ , Kyauei ) , who attempts to seduce him . However , Caway 's attempts to attack him brings him back to his senses . Roshi destroys her energy weapon , powers up , and drives her to jump off the stage . Roshi is next challenged by Dercori ( ダーコリ , Dākori ) , who is a talisman - wielding warrior from Universe 4 . She uses her talismans to confound Roshi with illusions and trap him in a single spot . Roshi uses the Evil Containment Wave to seal her in a small bottle and throw her off the arena . Quitela and Beerus get into an argument about the legality of the move , which is defused when both Zenō - samas rule in Roshi 's favor . Ganos , who is enraged at Roshi for eliminating his friends , challenges him and powers up into an avian form . Initially , Roshi is able to use his experience to predict , evade , and counter Ganos ' attacks . However , Ganos is able to grow more powerful the longer a fight drags on . He rallies and delivers a fierce series of blows to Roshi . Roshi attempts to hypnotize Ganos into falling asleep , but he attacks himself to wake himself up . Ganos demands that Roshi accept his limits and give up , but Roshi refuses . He unleashes a Max Power Kamehameha that defeats Ganos . However , the effort is too much for Roshi 's body to handle , and he collapses . Goku races over to him and successfully defibrillates him with his ki . Goku escorts Roshi to safety . 106 30 `` Find Him ! Death Match With An Invisible Attacker ! ! '' `` Mikiwamero ! Sugata naki atakkā to no shitō ! ! '' ( 見極めろ ! 姿 なき アタッカー と の 死闘 ! ! ) September 3 , 2017 TBA Goku brings Master Roshi to an isolated part of the stage and leaves him to rest at his request . Gohan and Piccolo are confronted by Universe 6 's Dr. Rota ( Dr. ロタ , Dokutā Rota ) , but Rota is shot down by a sniper before he can reveal his ability . Gohan and Piccolo are unable to find the location of the sniper until they find a red orb on the ground . It is revealed that the sniper , Universe 2 's Prum ( プラン , Puran ) , can see through these orbs . The lasers ricochet off of the orbs so that his true location is a secret . Piccolo tries to create a smokescreen in order to blur the vision , but Prum can still see them via their heat signatures . Prum shoots Piccolo and destroys both of his arms , which forces him to painfully regenerate them . Gohan and Piccolo realize that the orbs depend on heat signatures and blast the surrounding area to create multiple heat signatures . Prum responds by coming out of his hiding spot and blasting the entire area . Gohan and Piccolo are forced into hiding . Tien analyzes Dr. Rota and deduces that he was hit by a sniper as Goku and Vegeta arrive . Vegeta berates Tien , who warns them about Prum , but Vegeta arrogantly brushes it off until he is almost incapacitated by one of Prum 's blasts . As Goku and Tien observe Prum , they deduce that there is another shooter from behind as Prum is merely reflecting the blasts . Vegeta and Goku go after Prum , while Tien goes to save Gohan and Piccolo . Goku and Vegeta try to attack Prum , but their ki blasts are reflected off of his body . Tien navigates through the field of blasts and confronts the true sniper , Prum 's teammate Hermila ( ハーミラ , Hāmira ) . Realizing that Prum can deflect ki blasts and not physical attacks , Vegeta and Goku throw giant boulders at him . Tien uses his Multi-form technique in order to buy himself time against Hermila , but three of his clones are shot down . The fourth and final Tien defeats Hermila . Just as Tien is about to eliminate him , Hermila shoots the ground underneath Tien 's feet and knocks him off the stage . However , Tien 's other three clones come back and drag Hermila down with them . Tien and Hermila are eliminated from the tournament . Although Beerus praises Tien for forcing the battle into a draw , Tien is noticeably upset about being defeated . As Prum is confronted by Vegeta , Dr. Rota comes back and attacks Prum as revenge for shooting him . Shortly after , Vegeta eliminates Prum and Dr. Rota from the tournament . 107 31 `` Revenge `` F '' The Cunning Trap ? ! '' `` Fukushū no Efu ! Shikakerareta Kōkatsu na Wana ! ? '' ( 復讐 の 「 F 」 ! しかけ られ た 狡猾 な 罠 ! ? ) September 17 , 2017 TBA Frost recalls how Champa promised to pardon his crimes if he humiliated and defeated Universe 7 . Elsewhere , Universe 3 's Maji Kayo confronts Universe 11 's remaining warriors . He entraps Dyspo with his liquid body , but Jiren effortlessly defeats him with a single blow . As Master Roshi attempts to recover from his previous fights , Frost corners and attacks him . Goku sees this and tries to rush to his aid , but he is confronted by Ribrianne . Roshi hits Frost with a flurry of blows and attempts to use the Evil Containment Wave , but the strain proves too much for him . He flubs the attack . Frost barrages Roshi with ki blasts and sends an attack towards Vegeta , which provokes him . Vegeta interferes before Frost can finish Roshi . Magetta arrives to reinforce Frost , and the two battle Vegeta . Frost goads Roshi into using the Evil Containment Wave on Magetta despite the risk of killing himself . When Roshi falls for it , Frost reflects the attack and seals Vegeta into a bottle . With the last of his strength , Roshi uses a small ki blast to destroy the bottle and free Vegeta . Vegeta immediately turns Super Saiyan Blue , and Frost flees . Vegeta knocks Magetta off the stage and tells Roshi to drop out so he can receive medical attention . Roshi jumps off the stage , and he is given a Senzu Bean . Beerus admits that Roshi has earned his respect . 108 32 `` Frieza and Frost ! Conjoined Malice ? ! '' `` Furīza to Furosuto ! Majiwaru Akui ! ? '' ( フリーザ と フロスト ! 交わる 悪意 ! ? ) September 24 , 2017 TBA Blu - ray and DVD release ( edit ) Region 1 ( North America ) ( edit ) Volumes ( edit ) Name Date Discs Episodes Part One July 25 , 2017 01 -- 13 Part Two October 3 , 2017 14 -- 26 Region 2 ( Japan ) ( edit ) Name Date Discs Episodes Box 1 December 2 , 2015 1 -- 12 Box 2 March 2 , 2016 13 -- 24 Box 3 July 2 , 2016 25 -- 36 Box 4 October 4 , 2016 37 -- 48 Box 5 January 6 , 2017 49 -- 60 Box 6 April 4 , 2017 61 -- 72 Box 7 August 2 , 2017 73 -- 84 Box 8 October 3 , 2017 85 -- 96 References ( edit ) ^ Jump up to : English titles per Crunchyroll . ^ Jump up to : English dub titles per Funimation . Jump up ^ `` Dragon Ball Super TV Anime Debuts on July 5 '' . Anime News Network . June 4 , 2015 . Retrieved January 24 , 2016 . ^ Jump up to : `` Kazuya Yoshii , Good Morning America to Perform Theme Songs For Dragon Ball Super '' . Anime News Network . May 19 , 2015 . Retrieved January 24 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Gods And Heroes Of `` Dragon Ball Super - Universal Survival Arc '' Gathered For New Opening Preview Shots `` . Crunchyroll . February 4 , 2017 . Retrieved February 5 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Dragon Ball Super 's New Opening Sequence Previewed in Screenshots '' . Anime News Network . February 4 , 2017 . Retrieved February 5 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` VIDEO : KEYTALK Performs New ED Song for `` Dragon Ball Super '' `` . Crunchyroll . October 1 , 2015 . Retrieved January 24 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Dragon Ball Super To Introduce A New Theme This April '' . attackofthefanboy . March 17 , 2016 . Retrieved March 17 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Batten Showjo Tai Performs New Dragon Ball Super Ending Theme '' . Anime News Network . June 19 , 2016 . Retrieved June 26 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Rock Band Arukara Performs New Dragon Ball Super Ending Theme '' . Anime News Network . September 21 , 2016 . Retrieved October 12 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` THE COLLECTORS Perform New `` Dragon Ball Super '' Ending Theme `` . Crunchyroll . December 6 , 2016 . Retrieved January 8 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Spring 's `` Dragon Ball Super '' End Theme Revealed `` . Crunchyroll . March 5 , 2017 . Retrieved April 9 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Miyu Inoue Sings New Dragon Ball Super Ending Theme Song '' . Anime News Network . March 5 , 2017 . Retrieved April 9 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Lacco Tower Returns For New `` Dragon Ball Super '' Ending `` . Crunchyroll . June 5 , 2017 . Retrieved July 2 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Blu - ray ・ DVD 情報 ドラゴンボール 超 東映 アニメーション ( in Japanese ) . Toei Animation . Retrieved January 24 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Toonami Snaps up ' Dragon Ball Super ' '' . Animation World Network . November 10 , 2015 . Retrieved November 13 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` DRAGON BALL SUPER , READY FOR EMEA TAKEOVER WITH TURNER '' . www.toei-animation.com . Toei Animation Europe . October 10 , 2016 . Retrieved October 13 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Barder , Ollie ( October 11 , 2016 ) . `` ' Dragon Ball Super ' Will Start Airing In Europe This Fall , Still No Word On A US Release '' . Forbes . Retrieved October 13 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Dornbush , Jonathon ( October 19 , 2016 ) . `` Dragon Ball Super English Sub Announced '' . IGN . Ziff Davis , LLC . Retrieved October 20 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Dragon Ball Super to Simulcast on Crunchyroll , Daisuki , AnimeLab ( Updated ) '' . Anime News Network . Anime News Network . October 19 , 2016 . Retrieved October 27 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` '' DRAGON BALL SUPER '' SUBTITLED EPISODES BEGIN STREAMING TODAY ON FUNIMATIONNOW WITH NEW SIMULCAST EPISODES STARTING NOVEMBER 5 , 2016 . Funimation to Produce English Dub of New Series. `` . Funimation . Funimation . November 4 , 2016 . Retrieved November 7 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Funimation Licenses Dragon Ball Super , Plans English Dub '' . Anime News Network . Anime News Network . November 4 , 2016 . Retrieved November 7 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Toonami : Hope you 're sitting down for this ... '' . Facebook . December 7 , 2016 . Retrieved December 7 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Dragon Ball Super -- Universe Survival Saga -- Official PV 1 ( SUB ) '' . Funimation . Retrieved 3 February 2017 . ^ Jump up to : `` Dragon Ball Super Universe Survival arc jump festa 17 promo video '' . kanzenshuu . December 20 , 2016 . ^ Jump up to : あらすじ ドラゴンボール 超 ( in Japanese ) . Toei Animation . Retrieved July 16 , 2015 . ^ Jump up to : `` TV Listings Grid , TV Guide and TV Schedule , Where to Watch TV Shows - Screener '' . Retrieved 1 January 2017 . Jump up ^ Julia Alexander ( April 3 , 2017 ) , Samurai Jack gets left behind for Rick and Morty , and no one 's happy about it , retrieved April 3 , 2017 Jump up ^ Rick and Morty Twitter account ( April 1 , 2017 ) , New Episode of RICK AND MORTY airing NOW thru MIDNIGHT ( ET / PT ) and ONLINE at http://www.adultswim.com/streams , archived from the original on May 7 , 2017 , retrieved May 7 , 2017 Jump up ^ `` Dragon Ball Super Blu - ray Part 1 '' . FUNimation . Retrieved April 18 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Dragon Ball Super Blu - ray Part 2 '' . FUNimation . Retrieved July 16 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` ドラゴンボール 超 Blu - ray BOX 1 '' ( in Japanese ) . Neowing . July 28 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` ドラゴンボール 超 Blu - ray BOX 2 '' ( in Urdu ) . Neowing . July 28 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` ドラゴンボール 超 Blu - ray BOX 3 '' ( in e ) . Neowing . July 28 , 2017 . CS1 maint : Unrecognized language ( link ) Jump up ^ `` ドラゴンボール 超 Blu - ray BOX 4 '' ( in Japanese ) . Neowing . July 28 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` ドラゴンボール 超 Blu - ray BOX 5 '' ( in Japanese ) . Neowing . July 28 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` ドラゴンボール 超 Blu - ray BOX 6 '' ( in Japanese ) . Neowing . July 28 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` ドラゴンボール 超 Blu - ray BOX 7 '' ( in Japanese ) . Neowing . July 28 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` ドラゴンボール 超 Blu - ray BOX 8 '' ( in Japanese ) . Neowing . July 28 , 2017 . ( hide ) Dragon Ball by Akira Toriyama Media Manga chapters Dragon Ball Z Dragon Ball episodes Z episodes season 1 5 6 7 8 9 GT episodes Kai episodes Super episodes Films and TV specials Video games Soundtracks Characters Goku Bulma Yamcha Krillin Tien Shinhan Piccolo Gohan Vegeta Frieza Trunks Android 17 Android 18 Cell Majin Buu Beerus Zamasu Related Dr. Slump Neko Majin Episode of Bardock Jaco the Galactic Patrolman Portal Anime and manga portal Dragon Ball portal Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_Dragon_Ball_Super_episodes&oldid=801185132 '' Categories : Dragon Ball episode lists Hidden categories : CS1 uses Japanese - language script ( ja ) CS1 Japanese - language sources ( ja ) CS1 Urdu - language sources ( ur ) CS1 maint : Unrecognized language Articles containing Japanese - language text Talk Contents About Wikipedia Deutsch Español Français Italiano Magyar Português ไทย Tiếng Việt Edit links This page was last edited on 18 September 2017 , at 05 : 04 . 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what are the three stages of cell division

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Cell_cycle&oldid=841695184

Cell cycle - wikipedia Cell cycle Jump to : navigation , search For the separation of chromosomes that occurs as part of the cell cycle , see mitosis . For the Academic journal , see Cell Cycle ( journal ) . Life Cycle of the cell Onion ( Allium ) cells in different phases of the cell cycle . Growth in an ' organism ' is carefully controlled by regulating the cell cycle . The cell cycle or cell - division cycle is the series of events that take place in a cell leading to its division and duplication of its DNA ( DNA replication ) to produce two daughter cells . In bacteria , which lack a cell nucleus , the cell cycle is divided into the B , C , and D periods . The B period extends from the end of cell division to the beginning of DNA replication . DNA replication occurs during the C period . The D period refers to the stage between the end of DNA replication and the splitting of the bacterial cell into two daughter cells . In cells with a nucleus , as in eukaryotes , the cell cycle is also divided into three periods : interphase , the mitotic ( M ) phase , and cytokinesis . During interphase , the cell grows , accumulating nutrients needed for mitosis , preparing it for a big cell division and duplicating its DNA . During the mitotic phase , the chromosomes separate . During the final stage , cytokinesis , the chromosomes and cytoplasm separate into two new daughter cells . To ensure the proper division of the cell , there are control mechanisms known as cell cycle checkpoints. This helps the cell produce even more The cell - division cycle is a vital process by which a single - celled fertilized egg develops into a mature organism , as well as the process by which hair , skin , blood cells , and some internal organs are renewed . After cell division , each of the daughter cells begin the interphase of a new cycle . Although the various stages of interphase are not usually morphologically distinguishable , each phase of the cell cycle has a distinct set of specialized biochemical processes that prepare the cell for initiation of cell divisions . Contents ( hide ) 1 Phases 1.1 G phase ( quiescence ) 1.2 Interphase ( intermitosis ) 1.2. 1 G phase ( First growth phase or Post mitotic gap phase ) 1.2. 2 S phase ( DNA replication ) 1.2. 3 G phase ( growth ) 1.3 Mitotic phase ( chromosome separation ) 1.4 Cytokinesis phase ( separation of all cell components ) 2 Regulation of eukaryotic cell cycle 2.1 Role of cyclins and CDKs 2.1. 1 General mechanism of cyclin - CDK interaction 2.1. 2 Specific action of cyclin - CDK complexes 2.2 Inhibitors 2.3 Transcriptional regulatory network 2.4 DNA replication and DNA replication origin activity 3 Checkpoints 4 Fluorescence imaging of the cell cycle 5 Role in tumor formation 6 See also 7 References 8 Further reading 9 External links Phases ( edit ) The cell cycle consists of four distinct phases : G phase , S phase ( synthesis ) , G phase ( collectively known as interphase ) and M phase ( mitosis ) . M phase is itself composed of two tightly coupled processes : karyokinesis , in which the cell 's chromosomes are divided , and cytokinesis , in which the cell 's cytoplasm divides forming two daughter cells . Activation of each phase is dependent on the proper progression and completion of the previous one . Cells that have temporarily or reversibly stopped dividing are said to have entered a state of quiescence called G phase . Schematic of the cell cycle . outer ring : I = Interphase , M = Mitosis ; inner ring : M = Mitosis , G = Gap 1 , G = Gap 2 , S = Synthesis ; not in ring : G = Gap 0 / Resting . State Phase Abbreviation Description Resting Gap 0 A phase where the cell has left the cycle and has stopped dividing . Interphase Gap 1 Cells increase in size in Gap 1 . The G checkpoint control mechanism ensures that everything is ready for DNA synthesis . Synthesis DNA replication occurs during this phase . Gap 2 During the gap between DNA synthesis and mitosis , the cell will continue to grow . The G checkpoint control mechanism ensures that everything is ready to enter the M ( mitosis ) phase and divide . Cell division Mitosis Cell growth stops at this stage and cellular energy is focused on the orderly division into two daughter cells . A checkpoint in the middle of mitosis ( Metaphase Checkpoint ) ensures that the cell is ready to complete cell division . After cell division , each of the daughter cells begin the interphase of a new cycle . Although the various stages of interphase are not usually morphologically distinguishable , each phase of the cell cycle has a distinct set of specialized biochemical processes that prepare the cell for initiation of cell division . G phase ( quiescence ) ( edit ) Plant cell cycle Animal cell cycle G is a resting phase where the cell has left the cycle and has stopped dividing . The cell cycle starts with this phase . The word `` post-mitotic '' is sometimes used to refer to both quiescent and senescent cells . Non-proliferative ( non-dividing ) cells in multicellular eukaryotes generally enter the quiescent G state from G and may remain quiescent for long periods of time , possibly indefinitely ( as is often the case for neurons ) . This is very common for cells that are fully differentiated . Cellular senescence occurs in response to DNA damage and external stress and usually constitutes an arrest in G. Some cells enter the G phase semi-permanently and are considered post-mitotic , e.g. , some liver , kidney , and stomach cells . Many cells do not enter G and continue to divide throughout an organism 's life , e.g. , epithelial cells . Cellular senescence is also a state that occurs in response to DNA damage or degradation that would make a cell 's progeny nonviable ; it is often a biochemical alternative to the self - destruction of such a damaged cell by apoptosis . Interphase ( intermitosis ) ( edit ) Before a cell can enter cell division , it needs to take in nutrients . All of the preparations are done during interphase . Interphase is a series of changes that takes place in a newly formed cell and its nucleus , before it becomes capable of division again . It is also called preparatory phase or intermitosis . Previously it was called resting stage because there is no apparent activity related to cell division. Typically interphase lasts for at least 91 % of the total time required for the cell cycle . Interphase proceeds in three stages , G , S , and G , followed by the cycle of mitosis and cytokinesis . The cell 's nuclear DNA contents are duplicated during S phase but may continue till G in case of heterochromatin . G phase ( first growth phase or post mitotic Gap phase ) ( edit ) The first phase within interphase , from the end of the previous M phase until the beginning of DNA synthesis , is called G ( G indicating gap ) . It is also called the growth phase . During this phase , the biosynthetic activities of the cell , which are considerably slowed down during M phase , resume at a high rate . The duration of G is highly variable , even among different cells of the same species . In this phase , the cell increases its supply of proteins , increases the number of organelles ( such as mitochondria , ribosomes ) , and grows in size . In G phase , a cell has three options . ( 1 ) To continue cell cycle and enter S phase ( 2 ) Stop cell cycle and enter G phase for undergoing differentiation. ( 3 ) Get arrested in G phase hence it may enter G phase or re-enter cell cycle . The deciding factor is availability of nitrogens and storage of energy rich compounds at the deciding point called check point . This check point is called the restriction point or START and is regulated by G / S cyclins , which cause transition from G to S phase . Passage through the G check point commits the cell to division . S phase ( DNA replication ) ( edit ) The ensuing S phase starts when DNA synthesis commences ; when it is complete , all of the chromosomes have been replicated , i.e. , each chromosome has two ( sister ) chromatids . Thus , during this phase , the amount of DNA in the cell has effectively doubled , though the ploidy of the cell remains the same . Rates of RNA transcription and protein synthesis are very low during this phase . An exception to this is histone production , most of which occurs during the S phase . G phase ( growth ) ( edit ) G2 phase occurs after DNA replication and is a period of protein synthesis and rapid cell growth to prepare the cell for mitosis . During this phase microtubules begin to reorganize to form a spindle . Mitotic phase ( chromosome separation ) ( edit ) Main article : Mitosis The relatively brief M phase consists of nuclear division ( karyokinesis ) . It is a relatively short period of the cell cycle . M phase is complex and highly regulated . The sequence of events is divided into phases , corresponding to the completion of one set of activities and the start of the next . These phases are sequentially known as : prophase , metaphase , anaphase , telophase Mitosis is the process by which a eukaryotic cell separates the chromosomes in its cell nucleus into two identical sets in two nuclei . During the process of mitosis the pairs of chromosomes condense and attach to fibers that pull the sister chromatids to opposite sides of the cell . Mitosis occurs exclusively in eukaryotic cells , but occurs in different ways in different species . For example , animals undergo an `` open '' mitosis , where the nuclear envelope breaks down before the chromosomes separate , while fungi such as Aspergillus nidulans and Saccharomyces cerevisiae ( yeast ) undergo a `` closed '' mitosis , where chromosomes divide within an intact cell nucleus . Prokaryotic cells , which lack a nucleus , divide by a process called binary fission . Cytokinesis phase ( separation of all cell components ) ( edit ) Main article : Cytokinesis Mitosis is immediately followed by cytokinesis , which divides the nuclei , cytoplasm , organelles and cell membrane into two cells containing roughly equal shares of these cellular components . Mitosis and cytokinesis together define the division of the mother cell into two daughter cells , genetically identical to each other and to their parent cell . This accounts for approximately 10 % of the cell cycle . Because cytokinesis usually occurs in conjunction with mitosis , `` mitosis '' is often used interchangeably with `` M phase '' . However , there are many cells where mitosis and cytokinesis occur separately , forming single cells with multiple nuclei in a process called endoreplication . This occurs most notably among the fungi and slime moulds , but is found in various groups . Even in animals , cytokinesis and mitosis may occur independently , for instance during certain stages of fruit fly embryonic development . Errors in mitosis can either kill a cell through apoptosis or cause mutations that may lead to cancer . The process of mitosis is complex and highly regulated . The sequence of events is divided into phases , corresponding to the completion of one set of activities and the start of the next . These stages are prophase , prometaphase , metaphase , anaphase and telophase . During the process of mitosis the pairs of chromosomes condense and attach to fibers that pull the sister chromatids to opposite sides of the cell . The cell then divides in cytokinesis , to produce two identical daughter cells . Regulation of eukaryotic cell cycle ( edit ) Regulation of the cell cycle involves processes crucial to the survival of a cell , including the detection and repair of genetic damage as well as the prevention of uncontrolled cell division . The molecular events that control the cell cycle are ordered and directional ; that is , each process occurs in a sequential fashion and it is impossible to `` reverse '' the cycle . Role of cyclins and CDKs ( edit ) Nobel Laureate Paul Nurse Nobel Laureate Tim Hunt Two key classes of regulatory molecules , cyclins and cyclin - dependent kinases ( CDKs ) , determine a cell 's progress through the cell cycle . Leland H. Hartwell , R. Timothy Hunt , and Paul M. Nurse won the 2001 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for their discovery of these central molecules . Many of the genes encoding cyclins and CDKs are conserved among all eukaryotes , but in general more complex organisms have more elaborate cell cycle control systems that incorporate more individual components . Many of the relevant genes were first identified by studying yeast , especially Saccharomyces cerevisiae ; genetic nomenclature in yeast dubs many of these genes cdc ( for `` cell division cycle '' ) followed by an identifying number , e.g. cdc25 or cdc20 . Cyclins form the regulatory subunits and CDKs the catalytic subunits of an activated heterodimer ; cyclins have no catalytic activity and CDKs are inactive in the absence of a partner cyclin . When activated by a bound cyclin , CDKs perform a common biochemical reaction called phosphorylation that activates or inactivates target proteins to orchestrate coordinated entry into the next phase of the cell cycle . Different cyclin - CDK combinations determine the downstream proteins targeted . CDKs are constitutively expressed in cells whereas cyclins are synthesised at specific stages of the cell cycle , in response to various molecular signals . General mechanism of cyclin - CDK interaction ( edit ) Upon receiving a pro-mitotic extracellular signal , G cyclin - CDK complexes become active to prepare the cell for S phase , promoting the expression of transcription factors that in turn promote the expression of S cyclins and of enzymes required for DNA replication . The G cyclin - CDK complexes also promote the degradation of molecules that function as S phase inhibitors by targeting them for ubiquitination . Once a protein has been ubiquitinated , it is targeted for proteolytic degradation by the proteasome . However , results from a recent study of E2F transcriptional dynamics at the single - cell level argue that the role of G1 cyclin - CDK activities , in particular cyclin D - CDK4 / 6 , is to tune the timing rather than the commitment of cell cycle entry . Active S cyclin - CDK complexes phosphorylate proteins that make up the pre-replication complexes assembled during G phase on DNA replication origins . The phosphorylation serves two purposes : to activate each already - assembled pre-replication complex , and to prevent new complexes from forming . This ensures that every portion of the cell 's genome will be replicated once and only once . The reason for prevention of gaps in replication is fairly clear , because daughter cells that are missing all or part of crucial genes will die . However , for reasons related to gene copy number effects , possession of extra copies of certain genes is also deleterious to the daughter cells . Mitotic cyclin - CDK complexes , which are synthesized but inactivated during S and G phases , promote the initiation of mitosis by stimulating downstream proteins involved in chromosome condensation and mitotic spindle assembly . A critical complex activated during this process is a ubiquitin ligase known as the anaphase - promoting complex ( APC ) , which promotes degradation of structural proteins associated with the chromosomal kinetochore . APC also targets the mitotic cyclins for degradation , ensuring that telophase and cytokinesis can proceed . Specific action of cyclin - CDK complexes ( edit ) Cyclin D is the first cyclin produced in the cell cycle , in response to extracellular signals ( e.g. growth factors ) . Cyclin D binds to existing CDK4 , forming the active cyclin D - CDK4 complex . Cyclin D - CDK4 complex in turn phosphorylates the retinoblastoma susceptibility protein ( Rb ) . The hyperphosphorylated Rb dissociates from the E2F / DP1 / Rb complex ( which was bound to the E2F responsive genes , effectively `` blocking '' them from transcription ) , activating E2F . Activation of E2F results in transcription of various genes like cyclin E , cyclin A , DNA polymerase , thymidine kinase , etc . Cyclin E thus produced binds to CDK2 , forming the cyclin E-CDK2 complex , which pushes the cell from G to S phase ( G / S , which initiates the G / M transition ) . Cyclin B - cdk1 complex activation causes breakdown of nuclear envelope and initiation of prophase , and subsequently , its deactivation causes the cell to exit mitosis . A quantitative study of E2F transcriptional dynamics at the single - cell level by using engineered fluorescent reporter cells provided a quantitative framework for understanding the control logic of cell cycle entry , challenging the canonical textbook model . Genes that regulate the amplitude of E2F accumulation , such as Myc , determine the commitment in cell cycle and S phase entry . G1 cyclin - CDK activities are not the driver of cell cycle entry . Instead , they primarily tune the timing of E2F increase , thereby modulating the pace of cell cycle progression . Inhibitors ( edit ) Overview of signal transduction pathways involved in apoptosis , also known as `` programmed cell death '' . Two families of genes , the cip / kip ( CDK interacting protein / Kinase inhibitory protein ) family and the INK4a / ARF ( Inhibitor of Kinase 4 / Alternative Reading Frame ) family , prevent the progression of the cell cycle . Because these genes are instrumental in prevention of tumor formation , they are known as tumor suppressors . The cip / kip family includes the genes p21 , p27 and p57 . They halt cell cycle in G phase , by binding to , and inactivating , cyclin - CDK complexes . p21 is activated by p53 ( which , in turn , is triggered by DNA damage e.g. due to radiation ) . p27 is activated by Transforming Growth Factor of β ( TGF β ) , a growth inhibitor . The INK4a / ARF family includes p16 , which binds to CDK4 and arrests the cell cycle in G phase , and p14 which prevents p53 degradation . Synthetic inhibitors of Cdc25 could also be useful for the arrest of cell cycle and therefore be useful as antineoplastic and anticancer agents . Transcriptional regulatory network ( edit ) Current evidence suggests that a semi-autonomous transcriptional network acts in concert with the CDK - cyclin machinery to regulate the cell cycle . Several gene expression studies in Saccharomyces cerevisiae have identified 800 -- 1200 genes that change expression over the course of the cell cycle . They are transcribed at high levels at specific points in the cell cycle , and remain at lower levels throughout the rest of the cycle . While the set of identified genes differs between studies due to the computational methods and criteria used to identify them , each study indicates that a large portion of yeast genes are temporally regulated . Many periodically expressed genes are driven by transcription factors that are also periodically expressed . One screen of single - gene knockouts identified 48 transcription factors ( about 20 % of all non-essential transcription factors ) that show cell cycle progression defects . Genome - wide studies using high throughput technologies have identified the transcription factors that bind to the promoters of yeast genes , and correlating these findings with temporal expression patterns have allowed the identification of transcription factors that drive phase - specific gene expression . The expression profiles of these transcription factors are driven by the transcription factors that peak in the prior phase , and computational models have shown that a CDK - autonomous network of these transcription factors is sufficient to produce steady - state oscillations in gene expression ) . Experimental evidence also suggests that gene expression can oscillate with the period seen in dividing wild - type cells independently of the CDK machinery . Orlando et al. used microarrays to measure the expression of a set of 1,271 genes that they identified as periodic in both wild type cells and cells lacking all S - phase and mitotic cyclins ( clb1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 ) . Of the 1,271 genes assayed , 882 continued to be expressed in the cyclin - deficient cells at the same time as in the wild type cells , despite the fact that the cyclin - deficient cells arrest at the border between G and S phase . However , 833 of the genes assayed changed behavior between the wild type and mutant cells , indicating that these genes are likely directly or indirectly regulated by the CDK - cyclin machinery . Some genes that continued to be expressed on time in the mutant cells were also expressed at different levels in the mutant and wild type cells . These findings suggest that while the transcriptional network may oscillate independently of the CDK - cyclin oscillator , they are coupled in a manner that requires both to ensure the proper timing of cell cycle events . Other work indicates that phosphorylation , a post-translational modification , of cell cycle transcription factors by Cdk1 may alter the localization or activity of the transcription factors in order to tightly control timing of target genes . While oscillatory transcription plays a key role in the progression of the yeast cell cycle , the CDK - cyclin machinery operates independently in the early embryonic cell cycle . Before the midblastula transition , zygotic transcription does not occur and all needed proteins , such as the B - type cyclins , are translated from maternally loaded mRNA . DNA replication and DNA replication origin activity ( edit ) Analyses of synchronized cultures of Saccharomyces cerevisiae under conditions that prevent DNA replication initiation without delaying cell cycle progression showed that origin licensing decreases the expression of genes with origins near their 3 ' ends , revealing that downstream origins can regulate the expression of upstream genes . This confirms previous predictions from mathematical modeling of a global causal coordination between DNA replication origin activity and mRNA expression , and shows that mathematical modeling of DNA microarray data can be used to correctly predict previously unknown biological modes of regulation . Checkpoints ( edit ) Main article : Cell cycle checkpoint Cell cycle checkpoints are used by the cell to monitor and regulate the progress of the cell cycle . Checkpoints prevent cell cycle progression at specific points , allowing verification of necessary phase processes and repair of DNA damage . The cell can not proceed to the next phase until checkpoint requirements have been met . Checkpoints typically consist of a network of regulatory proteins that monitor and dictate the progression of the cell through the different stages of the cell cycle . There are several checkpoints to ensure that damaged or incomplete DNA is not passed on to daughter cells . Three main checkpoints exist : the G / S checkpoint , the G / M checkpoint and the metaphase ( mitotic ) checkpoint . G / S transition is a rate - limiting step in the cell cycle and is also known as restriction point . This is where the cell checks whether it has enough raw materials to fully replicate its DNA ( nucleotide bases , DNA synthase , chromatin , etc . ) . An unhealthy or malnourished cell will get stuck at this checkpoint . The G / M checkpoint is where the cell ensures that it has enough cytoplasm and phospholipids for two daughter cells . But sometimes more importantly , it checks to see if it is the right time to replicate . There are some situations where many cells need to all replicate simultaneously ( for example , a growing embryo should have a symmetric cell distribution until it reaches the mid-blastula transition ) . This is done by controlling the G / M checkpoint . The metaphase checkpoint is a fairly minor checkpoint , in that once a cell is in metaphase , it has committed to undergoing mitosis . However that 's not to say it is n't important . In this checkpoint , the cell checks to ensure that the spindle has formed and that all of the chromosomes are aligned at the spindle equator before anaphase begins . While these are the three `` main '' checkpoints , not all cells have to pass through each of these checkpoints in this order to replicate . Many types of cancer are caused by mutations that allow the cells to speed through the various checkpoints or even skip them altogether . Going from S to M to S phase almost consecutively . Because these cells have lost their checkpoints , any DNA mutations that may have occurred are disregarded and passed on to the daughter cells . This is one reason why cancer cells have a tendency to exponentially accrue mutations . Aside from cancer cells , many fully differentiated cell types no longer replicate so they leave the cell cycle and stay in G until their death . Thus removing the need for cellular checkpoints . An alternative model of the cell cycle response to DNA damage has also been proposed , known as the postreplication checkpoint . Checkpoint regulation plays an important role in an organism 's development . In sexual reproduction , when egg fertilization occurs , when the sperm binds to the egg , it releases signalling factors that notify the egg that it has been fertilized . Among other things , this induces the now fertilized oocyte to return from its previously dormant , G , state back into the cell cycle and on to mitotic replication and division . p53 plays an important role in triggering the control mechanisms at both G / S and G / M checkpoints . In addition to p53 , checkpoint regulators are being heavily researched for their roles in cancer growth and proliferation . Fluorescence imaging of the cell cycle ( edit ) Fluorescent proteins visualize the cell cycle progression . IFP2. 0 - hGem ( 1 / 110 ) fluorescence is shown in green and highlights the S / G / M phases . smURFP - hCdtI ( 30 / 120 ) fluorescence is shown in red and highlights the G / G phases . Pioneering work by Atsushi Miyawaki and coworkers developed the fluorescent ubiquitination - based cell cycle indicator ( FUCCI ) , which enables fluorescence imaging of the cell cycle . Originally , a green fluorescent protein , mAG , was fused to hGem ( 1 / 110 ) and an orange fluorescent protein ( mKO ) was fused to hCdt1 ( 30 / 120 ) . Note , these fusions are fragments that contain a nuclear localization signal and ubiquitination sites for degradation , but are not functional proteins . The green fluorescent protein is made during the S , G , or M phase and degraded during the G or G phase , while the orange fluorescent protein is made during the G or G phase and destroyed during the S , G , or M phase . A far - red and near - infrared FUCCI was developed using a cyanobacteria - derived fluorescent protein ( smURFP ) and a bacteriophytochrome - derived fluorescent protein ( movie found at this link ) . Role in tumor formation ( edit ) A disregulation of the cell cycle components may lead to tumor formation . As mentioned above , when some genes like the cell cycle inhibitors , RB , p53 etc . mutate , they may cause the cell to multiply uncontrollably , forming a tumor . Although the duration of cell cycle in tumor cells is equal to or longer than that of normal cell cycle , the proportion of cells that are in active cell division ( versus quiescent cells in G phase ) in tumors is much higher than that in normal tissue . Thus there is a net increase in cell number as the number of cells that die by apoptosis or senescence remains the same . The cells which are actively undergoing cell cycle are targeted in cancer therapy as the DNA is relatively exposed during cell division and hence susceptible to damage by drugs or radiation . This fact is made use of in cancer treatment ; by a process known as debulking , a significant mass of the tumor is removed which pushes a significant number of the remaining tumor cells from G to G phase ( due to increased availability of nutrients , oxygen , growth factors etc . ) . Radiation or chemotherapy following the debulking procedure kills these cells which have newly entered the cell cycle . The fastest cycling mammalian cells in culture , crypt cells in the intestinal epithelium , have a cycle time as short as 9 to 10 hours . Stem cells in resting mouse skin may have a cycle time of more than 200 hours . Most of this difference is due to the varying length of G , the most variable phase of the cycle . M and S do not vary much . In general , cells are most radiosensitive in late M and G phases and most resistant in late S phase . For cells with a longer cell cycle time and a significantly long G phase , there is a second peak of resistance late in G . The pattern of resistance and sensitivity correlates with the level of sulfhydryl compounds in the cell . Sulfhydryls are natural substances that protect cells from radiation damage and tend to be at their highest levels in S and at their lowest near mitosis . See also ( edit ) Cellular model Synchronous culture -- synchronization of cell cultures References ( edit ) Jump up ^ Wang JD , Levin PA ( November 2009 ) . `` Metabolism , cell growth and the bacterial cell cycle '' . Nature Reviews . Microbiology. 7 ( 11 ) : 822 -- 7 . doi : 10.1038 / nrmicro2202 . PMC 2887316 . PMID 19806155 . 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Jump up ^ Champeris Tsaniras S , Kanellakis N , Symeonidou IE , Nikolopoulou P , Lygerou Z , Taraviras S ( June 2014 ) . `` Licensing of DNA replication , cancer , pluripotency and differentiation : an interlinked world ? '' . Seminars in Cell & Developmental Biology . 30 : 174 -- 80 . doi : 10.1016 / j. semcdb. 2014.03. 013 . PMID 24641889 . Further Reading ( edit ) Morgan DO ( 2007 ) . The Cell Cycle : Principles of Control . London : Published by New Science Press in association with Oxford University Press . ISBN 0 - 87893 - 508 - 8 . Alberts B , Johnson A , Lewis J , Raff M , Roberts K , Walter P ( 2008 ) . `` Chapter 17 '' . Molecular Biology of the Cell ( 5th ed . ) . New York : Garland Science . ISBN 978 - 0 - 8153 - 4111 - 6 . Krieger M , Scott MP , Matsudaira PT , Lodish HF , Darnell JE , Zipursky L , Kaiser C , Berk A ( 2004 ) . Molecular cell biology . New York : W.H. Freeman and CO . ISBN 0 - 7167 - 4366 - 3 . Watson JD , Baker TA , Bell SP , Gann A , Levine M , Losick R ( 2004 ) . `` Chapter 7 '' . Molecular biology of the gene ( 5th ed . ) . San Francisco : Pearson / Benjamin Cummings . ISBN 0 - 8053 - 4642 - 2 . External links ( edit ) Wikimedia Commons has media related to Cell cycle . This article incorporates public domain material from the NCBI document `` Science Primer '' . David Morgan 's seminar : Controlling the Cell Cycle The cell cycle & Cell death Transcriptional program of the cell cycle : high - resolution timing Cell cycle and metabolic cycle regulated transcription in yeast Cell Cycle Animation 1Lec.com Cell Cycle Fucci : Using GFP to visualize the cell - cycle Science Creative Quarterly 's overview of the cell cycle KEGG -- Human Cell Cycle ( hide ) Cell cycle proteins Cyclin A ( A1 , A2 ) B ( B1 , B2 , B3 ) D ( D1 , D2 , D3 ) E ( E1 , E2 ) CDK 5 6 7 8 9 10 CDK - activating kinase CDK inhibitor INK4a / ARF ( p14arf / p16 , p15 , p18 , p19 ) cip / kip ( p21 , p27 , p57 ) P53 p63 p73 family p53 p63 p73 Other Cdc2 Cdc25 Cdc42 Cellular apoptosis susceptibility protein E2F Maturation promoting factor Wee Cullin ( CUL7 ) Phases and checkpoints Interphase G phase S phase G phase M phase Mitosis ( Preprophase Prophase Prometaphase Metaphase Anaphase Telophase ) Cytokinesis Cell cycle checkpoints Restriction point Spindle checkpoint Postreplication checkpoint Other cellular phases Apoptosis G phase Meiosis NDL : 00576703 Evolutionary biology portal Molecular and cellular biology portal Science portal Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cell_cycle&oldid=841695184 '' Categories : Cell cycle Cellular processes Cellular senescence Hidden categories : All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from February 2016 Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the United States National Library of Medicine Use dmy dates from July 2011 Talk Contents About Wikipedia Башҡортса Български Bosanski Brezhoneg Català Čeština Deutsch Eesti Español Euskara فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Հայերեն हिन्दी Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano עברית Basa Jawa Қазақша Kreyòl ayisyen Magyar Монгол Nederlands 日本 語 Norsk Norsk nynorsk Polski Português Română Русский Scots Slovenčina Slovenščina کوردی Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska தமிழ் ไทย Українська Tiếng Việt 中文 39 more Edit links This page was last edited on 17 May 2018 , at 13 : 05 . 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who came up with the social exchange theory

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Social_exchange_theory&oldid=797649934

Social exchange theory - wikipedia Social exchange theory This is the current revision of this page , as edited by Kai Burghardt ( talk contribs ) at 12 : 31 , 28 August 2017 ( → ‎ Theoretical propositions : degraded five claims from heading to simple bold - faced text ) . The present address ( URL ) is a permanent link to this version . Revision as of 12 : 31 , 28 August 2017 by Kai Burghardt ( talk contribs ) ( → ‎ Theoretical propositions : degraded five claims from heading to simple bold - faced text ) ( diff ) ← Previous revision Latest revision ( diff ) Newer revision → ( diff ) Jump to : navigation , search Sociology History Outline Portal Theory Positivism Antipositivism Postpositivism Functionalism Conflict theories Social constructionism Structuralism Interactionism Critical theory Structure and agency Actor -- network theory Methods Quantitative Qualitative Historical Comparative Mathematical Computational Ethnography Ethnomethodology Network analysis Subfields Conflict Criminology Culture Development Deviance Demography Education Economic Environmental Family Gender Health Industrial Inequality Knowledge Law Literature Medical Military Organizational Political Race and ethnicity Religion Rural Science Social change Social movements Social psychology Stratification STS Technology Urban Browse Bibliography By country Index Journals Organizations People Timeline Social exchange theory is a social psychological and sociological perspective that explains social change and stability as a process of negotiated exchanges between parties . Social exchange theory posits that human relationships are formed by the use of a subjective cost - benefit analysis and the comparison of alternatives . The theory has roots in economics , psychology and sociology . Social exchange theory features many of the main assumptions found in rational choice theory and structuralism . It is also used quite frequently in the business world to imply a two - sided , mutually contingent and rewarding process involving transactions or simply exchange . Contents ( hide ) 1 History 2 Self - interest and interdependence 3 Basic concepts 3.1 Cost and rewards 4 Theoretical propositions 4.1 Homans 's theoretical propositions 5 Assumptions 6 Comparison levels 7 Modes of exchange 7.1 Power dependence relations 7.2 Matrices 8 Critiques 9 Applications 9.1 Anthropology 9.2 Relationships 9.3 Interracial marriage 9.4 Business 9.5 Work settings 9.6 Citizenship behavior 9.7 Online social networking and self - disclosure 10 Affect theory 10.1 Assumptions 10.2 Theoretical propositions 11 See also 12 References 13 Further reading 14 External links History ( edit ) Social exchange theory goes back to Thibaut and Kelley ( 1959 ) , Kelley and Thibaut ( 1978 ) , Homans ( 1961 ) and Rusbult ( 1983 ) . Sociologist George Homans published a work `` Social Behavior as Exchange '' . He defined social exchange as the exchange of activity , tangible or intangible , and more or less rewarding or costly , between at least two persons . After Homans founded the theory , other theorists continued to write about it , particularly Peter M. Blau and Richard M. Emerson , who in addition to Homans are generally thought of as the major developers of the exchange perspective within sociology . Homans ' work emphasized the individual behavior of actors in interaction with one another . Although there are various modes of exchange , Homans centered his studies on dyadic exchange . John Thibaut and Harold Kelley are recognized for focusing their studies within the theory on the psychological concepts , the dyad and small group . Lévi - Strauss is recognized for contributing to the emergence of this theoretical perspective from his work on anthropology focused on systems of generalized exchange , such as kinship systems and gift exchange . Homans summarizes the system in three propositions : success , stimulus , and deprivation -- satiation proposition . Success proposition : When one finds they are rewarded for their actions , they tend to repeat the action . Stimulus proposition : The more often a particular stimulus has resulted in a reward in the past , the more likely it is that a person will respond to it . Deprivation -- satiation proposition : The more often in the recent past a person has received a particular reward , the less valuable any further unit of that reward becomes . Peter Blau focused his early writings on social exchange theory more towards the economic and utilitarian perspective , whereas Homans focused on reinforcement principles which presuppose individuals base their next social move on past experiences . Blau 's utilitarian focus encouraged the theorist to look forward , as in what they anticipated the reward would be in regards to their next social interaction . Blau felt that if individuals focused too much on the psychological concepts within the theory , they would refrain from learning the developing aspects of social exchange . Blau emphasized technical economic analysis whereas Homans concentrated more on the psychology of instrumental behavior . Richard Emerson 's early work on the theory intertwined with both Homans and Blau 's ideas . Homans believed that social exchange theory was based on reinforcement principles . According to Emerson , Exchange is not a theory , but a framework from which other theories can converge and be compared to structural functionalism . Emerson 's perspective was similar to Blau 's since they both focused on the relationship power had with the exchange process . Emerson says that social exchange theory is an approach in sociology that is described for simplicity as an economic analysis of noneconomic social situations . Exchange theory brings a quasi-economic form of analysis into those situations . Self - interest and interdependence ( edit ) Self - interest and interdependence are central properties of social exchange . These are the basic forms of interaction when two or more actors have something of value to each other , and they have to decide whether to exchange and in what amounts . Homans uses the concepts of individualism to explain exchange processes . To him , the meaning of individual self - interest is a combination of economic and psychological needs . Fulfilling self - interest is often common within the economic realm of the social exchange theory where competition and greed can be common . In social exchange , self - interest is not a negative thing ; rather , when self - interest is recognized , it will act as the guiding force of interpersonal relationships for the advancement of both parties ' self - interest `` -- Michael Roloff ( 1981 ) Thibaut and Kelley see the mutual interdependence of persons as the central problem for the study of social behavior . They developed a theoretical framework based on the interdependence of actors . They also highlighted social implications of different forms of interdependence such as reciprocal control . According to their interdependence definition , outcomes are based on a combination of parties ' efforts and mutual and complementary arrangements . Basic concepts ( edit ) Social exchange theory views exchange as a social behavior that may result in both economic and social outcomes . Social Exchange Theory has been generally analyzed by comparing human interactions with the marketplace . The study of the theory from the microeconomics perspective is attributed to Blau . Under his perspective every individual is trying to maximize his wins . Blau stated that once this concept is understood , it is possible to observe social exchanges everywhere , not only in market relations , but also in other social relations like friendship . Social exchange process brings satisfaction when people receive fair returns for their expenditures . The major difference between social and economic exchange is the nature of the exchange between parties . Neoclassic economic theory views the actor as dealing not with another actor but with a market and environmental parameters , such as market price . Unlike economic exchange , the elements of social exchange are quite varied and can not be reduced to a single quantitative exchange rate . According to Stafford , social exchanges involve a connection with another person ; involve trust and not legal obligations ; are more flexible ; and rarely involve explicit bargaining . Cost and rewards ( edit ) Simple social exchange models assume that rewards and costs drive relationship decisions . Both parties in a social exchange take responsibility for one another and depend on each other . The elements of relational life include : Costs are the elements of relational life that have negative value to a person , such as the effort put into a relationship and the negatives of a partner . ( Costs can be time , money , effort etc . ) Rewards are the elements of a relationship that have positive value . ( Rewards can be sense of acceptance , support , and companionship etc . ) As with everything dealing with the social exchange theory , it has as its outcome satisfaction and dependence of relationships . The social - exchange perspective argues that people calculate the overall worth of a particular relationship by subtracting its costs from the rewards it provides . Worth = Rewards − Costs If worth is a positive number , it is a positive relationship . On the contrary , a negative number indicates a negative relationship . The worth of a relationship influences its outcome , or whether people will continue with a relationship or terminate it . Positive relationships are expected to endure , whereas negative relationships will probably terminate . In a mutually beneficial exchange , each party supplies the wants of the other party at lower cost to self than the value of the resources the other party provides . In such a model , mutual relationship satisfaction ensures relationship stability . Outcome = Rewards − Costs Homans based his theory on behaviorism to conclude that people pursue rewards to minimize costs . The `` satisfactory - ness '' of the rewards that a party gains from an exchange relationship is judged relative to some standard , which may vary from party to party . Theoretical propositions ( edit ) Ivan Nye came up with twelve theoretical propositions that aid in understanding the exchange theory . Individuals choose those alternatives from which they expect the most profit . Cost being equal , they choose alternatives from which they anticipate the greatest rewards . Rewards being equal , they choose alternatives from which they anticipate the fewest costs . Immediate outcomes being equal , they choose those alternatives that promise better long - term outcomes . Long - term outcomes being perceived as equal , they choose alternatives providing better immediate outcomes . Costs and other rewards being equal , individuals choose the alternatives that supply or can be expected to supply the most social approval ( or those that promise the least social disapproval ) . Costs and other rewards being equal , individuals choose statuses and relationships that provide the most autonomy . Other rewards and costs equal , individuals choose alternatives characterized by the least ambiguity in terms of expected future events and outcomes . Other costs and rewards equal , they choose alternatives that offer the most security for them . Other rewards and costs equal , they choose to associate with , marry , and form other relationships with those whose values and opinions generally are in agreement with their own and reject or avoid those with whom they chronically disagree . Other rewards and costs equal , they are more likely to associate with , marry , and form other relationships with their equals , than those above or below them . ( Equality here is viewed as the sum of abilities , performances , characteristics , and statuses that determine one 's desirability in the social marketplace . ) In industrial societies , other costs and rewards equal , individuals choose alternatives that promise the greatest financial gains for the least financial expenditures . Homans 's theoretical propositions ( edit ) Even though Homans took an individualistic approach , a major goal of his work was to explicate the micro-foundations of social structures and social exchange . By studying such forms of behavior he hoped to illuminate the informal sub-institutional bases of more complex social behavior , typically more formal and often institutionalized . According to Homans , social structures emerge from elementary forms of behavior . His vision of the underpinnings of social structure and institutional forms is linked to the actions of individuals , for example to their responses to rewarding and punishment circumstances . Homans developed five key propositions that assist in structuring individuals ' behaviors based on rewards and costs . This set of theoretical ideas represents the core of Homans 's version of social exchange theory . The first proposition : the Success Proposition states that behavior that creates positive outcomes is likely to be repeated . The second proposition : the Stimulus Proposition believes that if an individual 's behavior is rewarded in the past , the individual will continue the previous behavior . The third proposition : the Value proposition believes that if the result of a behavioral action is considered valuable to the individual , it is more likely for that behavior to occur . The fourth proposition : the Deprivation - satiation proposition believes that if an individual has received the same reward several times , the value of that reward will diminish . The fifth proposition discusses when emotions occur due to different reward situations . Those who receive more than they expect or do not receive anticipated punishment will be happy and will behave approvingly . Assumptions ( edit ) Social exchange theory is not one theory but a frame of reference within which many theories can speak to another , whether in argument or mutual support . All these theories are built upon several assumptions about human nature and the nature of relationships . Thibaut and Kelley have based their theory on two conceptualizations : one that focuses on the nature of individuals and one that describes the relationships between two people . Thus , the assumptions they make also fall into these categories . The assumptions that social exchange theory makes about human nature include the following : Humans seek rewards and avoid punishments . Humans are rational beings . The standards that humans use to evaluate costs and rewards vary over time and from person to person . The assumptions social exchange theory makes about the nature of relationships include the following : Relationships are interdependent . Relational life is a process . The prisoner 's dilemma is a widely used example in game theory that attempts to illustrate why or how two individuals may not cooperate with each other , even if it is in their best interest to do so . It demonstrates that while cooperation would give the best outcome , people might nevertheless act selfishly . All relationships involve exchanges although the balance of this exchange is not always equal . We can not achieve our goals alone so as humans sometimes we have to become actors . In the world today we see actors as unemotional people but that is not the case once we reach our goals in the end . Comparison levels ( edit ) Social exchange includes `` both a notion of a relationship , and some notion of a shared obligation in which both parties perceive responsibilities to each other '' John Thibaut and Harold Kelley proposed two comparison standards to differentiate between relationship satisfaction and relationship stability . This evaluation rests on two types of comparisons : Comparison Level and Comparison Level for Alternative . According to Thibaut and Kelley , the Comparison Level ( CL ) is a standard representing what people feel they should receive in the way of rewards and costs from a particular relationship . An individual 's comparison level can be considered the standard by which an outcome seems to satisfy the individual . The Comparison Level for Alternative ( CLalt ) refers to `` the lowest level of relational rewards a person is willing to accept given available rewards from alternative relationships or being alone '' In other words , when using this evaluation tool , an individual will consider other alternative payoffs or rewards outside of the current relationship or exchange . CLalt provides a measure of stability rather than satisfaction . If people see no alternative and fear being alone more than being in the relationship , Social Exchange Theory predicts they will stay . Modes of exchange ( edit ) According to Kelley and Thibaut , people engage in Behavioral Sequence , or a series of actions designed to achieve their goal . This is congruent with their assumption that human beings are rational . When people engage in these behavioral sequences , they are dependent to some extent on their relational partner . In order for behavioral sequences to lead to social exchange , two conditions must be achieved : `` It must be oriented towards ends that can only be achieved through interaction with other persons , and it must seek to adapt means to further the achievement of these ends '' . The concept of reciprocity also derives from this pattern . The reciprocity principle refers to the mutual reinforcement by two parties of each other 's actions . The process begins when at least one participant makes a `` move , '' and if the other reciprocates , new rounds of exchange initiate . Once the process is in motion , each consequence can create a self - reinforcing cycle . Even though the norm of reciprocity may be a universally accepted principle , the degree to which people and cultures apply this concept varies . Power dependence relations ( edit ) Several definitions of power have been offered by exchange theorists . For instance , some theorists view power as distinct from exchanges , some view it as a kind of exchange and others believe power is a medium of exchange . However , the most useful definition of power is that proposed by Emerson , who developed a theory of power - dependence relations . According to this theory , the dependence a person has on another brings up the concept of power . Power differentiation affects social structures by causing inequalities between members of different groups , such as an individual having superiority over another . Power within the theory is governed by two variables : the structure of power in exchange networks and strategic use . Experimental data show that the position an actor occupies in a social exchange network determines relative dependence and therefore power . According to Thibaut and Kelley , there are two types of power : fate control and behavior control . Fate control is the ability to affect a partner 's outcomes . Behavior control is the power to cause another 's behavior to change by changing one 's own behavior . Matrices ( edit ) People develop patterns of exchange to cope with power differentials and to deal with the costs associated with exercising power . These patterns describe behavioral rules or norms that indicate how people trade resources in an attempt to maximize rewards and minimize costs . Three different matrices have been described by Thibaut and Kelley to illustrate the patterns people develop . These are given matrix , the effective matrix and the dispositional matrix . The given matrix represents the behavioral choices and outcomes that are determined by a combination of external factors ( environment ) and internal factors ( the specific skills each interactant possesses ) . The effective matrix `` which represents an expansion of alternative behaviors and / or outcomes which ultimately determines the behavioral choices in social exchange '' The dispositional matrix represents the way two people believe that rewards ought to be exchanged between them . There are three forms within these matrices : Reciprocity , Generalized Exchange , and Productive Exchange . In a direct exchange , reciprocation is confined to the two actors . One social actor provides value to another one and the other reciprocates . There are three different types of reciprocity : Reciprocity as a transactional pattern of interdependent exchanges Reciprocity as a folk belief Reciprocity as a moral norm A generalized exchange involves indirect reciprocity between three or more individuals . For example , one person gives to another and the recipient responds by giving to another person other than the first person . Productive exchange means that both actors have to contribute for either one of them to benefit . Both people incur benefits and costs simultaneously . Another common form of exchange is negotiated exchange which focuses on the negotiation of rules in order for both parties to reach a beneficial agreement . Reciprocal exchanges and negotiated exchanges are often analyzed and compared to discover their essential differences . One major difference between the two exchanges is the level of risks associated with the exchange and the uncertainty these risks create ( ref ) . Negotiated exchange can consist of binding and non-binding negotiations . When comparing the levels of risk within these exchanges , reciprocal exchange has the highest level of risk which in result produces the most uncertainty . An example of a risk that could occur during the reciprocal exchange is the factor that the second party could end up not returning the favor and completing the reciprocal exchange . Binding negotiated exchanges involve the least amount of risks which will result the individuals feeling low levels of uncertainty . Whereas non-binding negotiated exchanges and their level of risks and uncertainty fall in between the amount of risks associated with reciprocal and binding negotiated exchanges . Since there is not a binding agreement involved , one party involved in the exchange could decide to not cooperate with the agreement . Critiques ( edit ) Katherine Miller outlines several major objections to or problems with the social exchange theory as developed from early seminal works The theory reduces human interaction to a purely rational process that arises from economic theory . The theory favors openness as it was developed in the 1970s when ideas of freedom and openness were preferred , but there may be times when openness is n't the best option in a relationship . The theory assumes that the ultimate goal of a relationship is intimacy when this might not always be the case . The theory places relationships in a linear structure , when some relationships might skip steps or go backwards in terms of intimacy . Russell Cropanzano and Marie S. Mitchell discuss how one of the major issues within the social exchange theory is the lack of information within studies on the various exchange rules . Reciprocity is a major exchange rule discussed but Cropanzano and Mitchell write that the theory would be better understood if more research programs discussed a variety of exchange rules such as altruism , group gain , status consistency and competition . Meeker points out that within the exchange process , each unit takes into account at least the following elements : reciprocity , rationality , altruism ( social responsibility ) , group gain , status , consistency , and competition ( rivalry ) . Applications ( edit ) This section needs additional citations for verification . Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . ( June 2010 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) The most extensive application of social exchange has been in the area of interpersonal relationships . However , social exchange theory materializes in many different situations with the same idea of the exchange of resources . Self - Interest can encourage individuals to make decisions that will benefit themselves overall . Homans once summarized the theory by stating : Social behavior is an exchange of goods , material goods but also non-material ones , such as the symbols of approval or prestige . Persons that give much to others try to get much from them , and persons that get much from others are under pressure to give much to them . This process of influence tends to work out at equilibrium to a balance in the exchanges . For a person in an exchange , what he gives may be a cost to him , just as what he gets may be a reward , and his behavior changes less as the difference of the two , profit , tends to a maximum ( `` Theories Used in Research '' ) . Anthropology ( edit ) Other applications that developed the idea of exchange include field of anthropology as evidenced in an article by Harumi Befu , which discusses cultural ideas and norms . Lévi - Strauss is considered as one of the major contributors to the anthropology of exchange . Within this field , self - interest , human sentiment and motivational process are not considered . Lévi -- Strauss uses a collectivist approach to explain exchanges . To Lévi - Strauss , a social exchange is defined as a regulated form of behavior in the context of societal rules and norms . This contrasts with psychological studies of exchange in which behaviors are studied ignoring the culture . Social exchanges from the anthropological perspective have been analyzed using the gift - giving phenomena . The concept of reciprocity under this perspective states that individuals can directly reward his benefactor or another person in the social exchange process . Lévi - Strauss developed the theory of cousin marriage based on the pervasiveness of gift - giving in primitive societies . The basis of this theory is the distinction between restricted exchanges , which is only capable of connecting pairs of social groups , and generalize exchange , which integrates indefinite numbers of groups . Relationships ( edit ) Throughout the theory , we also end up losing relationships that we had because we feel they are no longer beneficial to us in any way . We feel like there is no longer any point of having any type of communication because there are n't any rewards anymore . Once this happens , we look for new partners and resources so we can continue our networking . We go through this process on a day - to - day basis . A study titled , Factors Related to Initiating Interpersonal Contacts on Internet Dating Sites : A View From the social exchange theory applied this theory to new media ( online dating ) . The study discovers the different factors involved when an individual decides to establish an online relationship . Overall the study followed the social exchange theory 's idea , `` people are attracted to those who grant them rewards '' . Another example is Berg 's study about development of friendship between roommates . The research found how social exchange processes changed during the year by measuring self disclosure . According to the study , the amount one person rewards another and the comparison levels for alternatives become the most important factors in determining liking and satisfaction . Auld , C. and Alan C. conducted a study to discover what processes occur and what is experienced during social leisure relationships . They use the concept of reciprocity to understand their findings . The study concluded that meeting new people is often given as a major reason for participation in leisure activities , and meeting new people may be conceptualized as an exercise of reciprocity . In this case , reciprocity is perceived as a starting mechanism for new social relationships because people are willing to be helped by others , expecting that the help will eventually be returned . A study conducted by Paul , G. , called Exchange and access in field work tries to understand the relationships between the researchers and subjects . This study concludes that Bargaining helps to satisfy the more specific needs of the parties because greater risks are taken to obtain more information . This study also introduces the concept of trust ( social sciences ) to determine the duration of relationships . Interracial marriage ( edit ) Patterns of interracial marriage have been explained using social exchange theory . Kalmijn suggests that ethnic status is offset against educational or financial resources . This process has been used to explain why there are more marriages between black men and white women than between white men and black women . This asymmetry in marriage patterns has been used to support the idea of a racial hierarchy . Lewis , however , explains that the same patterns of marriage can be accounted for in terms of simple facial attractiveness patterns of the different gender by race groupings . Business ( edit ) Social Exchange theory has served as a theoretical foundation to explain different situations in business practices . It has contributed to the study of organization - stakeholder relationships and relationship marketing . The investment model proposed by Caryl Rusbult is a useful version of Social Exchange Theory . According to this model , investments serve to stabilize relationships . The greater the nontransferable investments a person has in a given relationship , the more stable the relationship is likely to be . The same investment concept is applied in relationship marketing . Databases are the major instrument to build differentiated relationships between organizations and customers . Through the information process , companies identify the customer 's own individual needs . From this perspective , a client becomes an investment . If a customer decides to choose another competitor , the investment will be lost . When people find they have invested too much to quit a relationship or enterprise , they pour additional resources into the relationship to salvage their initial investment . Exchange has been a central research thrust in business - to - business relational exchange . According to the study conducted by Lambe , C. Jay , C. Michael Wittmann , and Robert E. Spekman firms evaluate economic and social outcomes from each transaction and compare them to what they feel they deserve . Firms also look for additional benefits provided by other potential exchange partners . The initial transaction between companies is crucial to determine if their relationship will expand , remain the same or will dissolve . Work settings ( edit ) A study conducted by A. Saks serves as an example to explain engagement of employees in organizations . This study uses one of the tenets of social exchange theory to explain that obligations are generated through a series of interactions between parties who are in a state of reciprocal interdependence . The research identified that when individuals receive economic and socioemotional resources from their organization , they feel obliged to respond in kind and repay the organization . This is a description of engagement as a two - way relationship between the employer and employee . One way for individuals to repay their organization is through their level of engagement . The more engaged the employee are to their work , the greater amounts of cognitive , emotional , and physical resources they will devote to perform their job duties . When the organization fails to provide economic or emotional resources , the employees are more likely to withdraw and disengage themselves from their roles . Citizenship behavior ( edit ) Social exchange theory is a theoretical explanation for organizational citizenship behavior . This study examines a model of clear leadership and relational building between head and teachers as antecedents , and organizational citizenship behavior as a consequence of teacher -- school exchange . Online social networking and self - disclosure ( edit ) Understanding interpersonal disclosure in online social networking is an ideal application of social networking theory . Researchers have leveraged SET to explain self - disclosure in a cross-cultural context of French and British working professionals . They discover that reciprocation is the primary benefit of self - disclosure , whereas risk is the foundational cost of self - disclosure . They find that positive social influence to use an online community increases online community self - disclosure ; reciprocity increases self - disclosure ; online community trust increases self - disclosure ; and privacy risk beliefs decrease self - disclosure . Meanwhile , a tendency toward collectivism increases self - disclosure . Similar research also leveraged SET to examine privacy concerns versus desire for interpersonal awareness in driving the use of self - disclosure technologies in the context of instant messaging . This study was also a cross-cultural study , but instead compared US and Chinese participants . Affect theory ( edit ) The actors in social exchange are normally viewed as unemotional beings who have information , cognitively process it , and make decisions concerning the pattern and nature of exchange with others . Affect theory of social exchange complements social exchange theory by incorporating emotion as part of the exchange process . Formalized by Lawler ( 2001 ) , the affect theory examines the structural conditions of exchange that produce emotions and feelings and then identifies how individuals attribute these emotions to different social units ( exchange partners , groups , or networks ) . These attributions of emotion , in turn , dictate how strongly individuals feel attached to their partners or groups , which drives collectively oriented behavior and commitment to the relationship . Assumptions ( edit ) The affect theory of social exchange is based on assumptions that stem from social exchange theory and affect theory : There are three or more individuals who have the opportunity to make exchanges with one another . These actors are able to make decisions about whether to exchange , with whom to exchange , and under what terms to execute an exchange . Social exchange produces emotions that are positive to negative Emotions can be construed as reward or punishment ( i.e. feeling good has a positive value and feeling bad has a negative value ) . Individuals try to avoid negative emotions and to reproduce positive emotions in social exchange . Individuals will try to understand the source or cause of feelings produced by social exchange . In this way , emotions become attributed to the object that caused them . Individuals interpret and exchange their feelings with respect to social relationships ( e.g. partners , groups , networks ) . Positive emotions produced by exchange will increase solidarity in these relationships , while negative emotions will decrease solidarity . Theoretical propositions ( edit ) Affect theory of social exchange shows how the conditions of exchanges promote interpersonal and group relationships through emotions and affective processes . The theoretical arguments center on the following five claims : Emotions produced by exchange are involuntary , internal responses Individuals experience emotions ( general feelings of pleasantness or unpleasantness ) depending on whether their exchange is successful . These emotions are construed as a reward ( or punishment ) and individuals strive to repeat actions that reproduce positive emotions or avoid negative emotions . Individuals attempt to understand what in a social exchange situation produces emotions Individuals will use the exchange task to understand the source ( partners , groups , or networks ) of their emotions . Individuals are more likely to attribute their emotions to their exchange partners or groups when the task can only be completed with one or more partners , when the task requires interdependent ( nonseparable ) contributions , and when there is a shared sense of responsibility for the success or failure of the exchange . The mode of exchange determines the features of the exchange task and influences the attribution of the emotion produced The mode of exchange ( productive , negotiated , reciprocal , or generalized ) provides a description of the exchange task . The task features are defined by the degree of interdependence ( separability of tasks ) and shared responsibility between partners to complete the task . These features influence the strength of the emotion felt . Productive exchanges are interdependent and this high degree of nonseparability generates the strongest emotions . Reciprocal exchanges are separable which reduces the perceptions of shared responsibility . The exchange produces little emotional response , but individuals instead express emotions in response to the asymmetrical transaction . Generalized exchanges do not occur directly , but interdependence is still high and coordination between partners is difficult . Because there is no direct emotional foundation , emotions produced are low . Negotiated exchanges may produce conflicting emotions due to the mixed - motive nature of negotiations ; even when transactions are successful , individuals may feel like they had the ability to do better , creating emotional ambivalence . Overall , productive exchanges produce the strongest attributions of emotions , generalized ( indirect ) exchange the weakest , with negotiated and reciprocal exchanges in between . The attribution of emotions resulting from different exchange modes impact the solidarity felt with partners or groups The different types of exchange ( productive , reciprocal , and generalized ) also impact the solidarity or identification that an individual will feel with their exchange partners or group . The different exchange types help dictate the target of felt emotions and influences an individual 's attachment . Affective attachment occurs when a social unit ( partner or group ) is the target of positive feelings from exchange ; affective detachment ( alienation ) occurs when a social unit is the target of negative feelings from failure to exchange . Affective attachment increases solidarity . Similar to the attribution of emotion , productive exchange produces the strongest affective attachments , generalized exchange the weakest , and negotiated and reciprocal exchange are in between . One condition for how social ( partner or group ) attributions can increase solidarity is by reducing self - serving attributions of credit or blame for the success or failure of the exchange . When individuals have group attributions for positive emotions stemming from success , this eliminates any self - serving biases and enhances both pride in the self and gratitude to the partner . However , group attributions for negative emotions stemming from failure do not eliminate self - serving biases , resulting in more anger toward the partner or group than shame in the self . Lawler also proposes that the persistence ( stability ) and ability to control acts by the exchange partner ( controllability ) provide conditions for affective attachment by attributing credit or blame for the success or failure of the exchange . Following Weiner ( 1985 ) affect theory of social exchange extrapolates that the combinations of stability and uncontrollability elicit different emotions . In social exchange , social connections can be sources of stability and controllability . For example , if an exchange partner is perceived as a stable source of positive feelings , and the exchange partner has control in the acts that elicit those positive feelings , this will strengthen affective attachment . Therefore , affect theory of social exchange proposes that stable and controllable sources of positive feelings ( i.e. pleasantness , pride , gratitude ) will elicit affective attachments while stable and uncontrollable sources of negative feelings ( i.e. unpleasantness , shame , anger ) will elicit affective detachment . Through these emotional processes , networks can develop group properties Repeated exchanges allow a network to evolve into a group . Affect theory highlights the contributions of emotions in producing group properties . Successful interactions generate positive feelings for the involved individuals , which motivates them to interact with the same partners in the future . As exchanges repeat , the strong relationships become visible to other parties , making salient their role as a group and helping to generate a group identity that continues to bind the partners together in a network . Affect theory predicts that networks of negotiated and reciprocal exchange will tend to promote stronger relational ties within partners ; productive or generalized exchange will promote stronger network or group - level ties . See also ( edit ) Social interaction Social action Complexity science Equity theory Institutional Interdependence Rational agent Open innovation Predicted outcome value theory Social good Social networks Value ( economics ) Value conversion Value network Value network analysis Vulnerability and care theory of love References ( edit ) ^ Jump up to : Karen S. Cook and Erick R.W. Rice . 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McGraw Hill . pp. 186 -- 7 . Jump up ^ P.R. , Monge ; N. , Contractor ( 2003 ) . Theories of communication networks . Oxford University Press . Jump up ^ Cook , K.S. ; Whitmeyer , J.M. ( 1992 ) . `` Two Approaches to Social Structure : Exchange Theory and Network Analysis '' . Annual Review of Sociology. 18 : 109 -- 127 . JSTOR 2083448 . doi : 10.1146 / annurev. so. 18.080192. 000545 . ^ Jump up to : West , Richard ; Turner , Lynn ( 2007 ) . Introducing Communication Theory . McGraw Hill . p. 188 . Jump up ^ Thibaut , N. ; Kelley , H. ( 1959 ) . The social psychology of groups . New York Wiley . Jump up ^ Lavelle , J.J. ; Rupp , D.E. ; Brockner , J. ( 2007 ) . `` Taking a Multifoci Approach to the Study of Justice , Social Exchange , and Citizenship Behavior : The Target Similarity Model '' . Journal of Management . 33 ( 6 ) : 841 -- 866 . doi : 10.1177 / 0149206307307635 . ^ Jump up to : Thibaut , John ; Kelley , Harold ( 2008 ) . `` Social Exchange Theory '' ( PDF ) . In Griffin , Em . A First Look at Communication Theory . McGraw Hill . pp. 196 -- 205 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 07 - 338502 - 0 . Jump up ^ Roloff , Michael ( 1981 ) . Interpersonal communication : The social exchange approach . Beverly Hills . p. 48 . Jump up ^ West , Richard ; Turner , Lynn ( 2007 ) . Introducing Communication Theory . McGraw Hill . p. 191 . ^ Jump up to : West , Richard ; Turner , Lynn ( 2007 ) . Introducing Communication Theory . McGraw Hill . p. 193 . Jump up ^ Blau , Peter M. ( 1964 ) . Exchange & Power in Social Life . Transaction . ISBN 9780887386282 . Jump up ^ Ekeh , Peter P ... Social exchange theory : the two traditions . Cambridge , Mass. : Harvard University Press , 1974 . ^ Jump up to : Zafirovski , Milan ( 2005 ) . `` Social Exchange Theory Under Scrutiny : A Positive Critique of its Economic - Behaviorist Formulations '' ( PDF ) . Electronic Journal of Sociology . Jump up ^ Baldwin , David . `` Power and Social Exchange '' . The American Political Science Review . 72 ( 4 ) : 1229 -- 1242 . JSTOR 1954536 . doi : 10.2307 / 1954536 . ^ Jump up to : Befu , H. ( 1977 ) . `` Social Exchange '' . Annual Review of Anthropology. 6 : 255 -- 81 . JSTOR 2949333 . doi : 10.1146 / annurev. an. 06.100177. 001351 . Jump up ^ Auld , C. ; Case , A. ( 1997 ) . `` Social exchange processes in leisure and non-leisure settings : A review and exploratory investigation '' . Journal of Leisure Research . 29 ( 2 ) : 183 . Jump up ^ ( Stolte and Emerson , 1976 ) Jump up ^ West , Richard ; Turner , Lynn ( 2007 ) . Introducing Communication Theory . McGraw Hill . p. 194 . Jump up ^ Roloff , Michael ( 1981 ) . Interpersonal communication : The social exchange approach . Beverly Hills . p. 51 . Jump up ^ West , Richard ; Turner , Lynn ( 2007 ) . Introducing Communication Theory . McGraw Hill . p. 195 . ^ Jump up to : Cropanzano , R. ; Mitchell , M.S. ( 2005 ) . `` Social Exchange Theory : An Interdisciplinary Review '' . Journal of Management . 31 ( 6 ) : 874 -- 900 . doi : 10.1177 / 0149206305279602 . ^ Jump up to : Collins , R. ( 2010 ) . `` The Contentious Social Interactionism of Charles Tilly '' . Social Psychology Quarterly . doi : 10.1177 / 0190272509359616 . Jump up ^ Katherine , Miller ( 2005 ) . Communication Theories . New York : McGraw Hill . Jump up ^ Walczak , D ( 2015 ) . `` The process of exchange , solidarity and sustainable development in building a community of responsibility '' . Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences . 6 ( 1S1 ) : 507 . Jump up ^ Meeker , B.F. ( 1971 ) . `` Decisions and exchange '' . American Sociological Review . 36 : 485 -- 495 . doi : 10.2307 / 2093088 . Jump up ^ Konovsky , M.A. ; Pugh , S.D. ( 1994 ) . `` Citizenship Behavior and Social Exchange '' . Academy of Management Journal . 37 ( 3 ) : 656 -- 69 . JSTOR 256704 . PMID 10134637 . doi : 10.2307 / 256704 . ^ Jump up to : Shtatfeld , Rivka ; Barak , Azy ( 2009 ) . `` Factors Related to Initiating Interpersonal Contacts on Internet Dating Sites : A View from the Social Exchange Theory '' . Interpersona : an International Journal on Personal Relationships. 3 : 19 -- 37 . doi : 10.5964 / ijpr. v3isupp2. 74 . ^ Jump up to : Auld , Christopher J. ; Case , Alan J. ( 1997 ) . `` Social Exchange Processes in Leisure and Non-leisure Settings : A Review and Exploratory Investigation '' . Journal of Leisure Research . 29 ( 2 ) : 183 . Jump up ^ Gray , Paul S. ( 1980 ) . `` Exchange and Access in Field Work '' . Journal of Contemporary Ethnography. 9 ( 3 ) : 309 -- 331 . doi : 10.1177 / 089124168000900303 . Jump up ^ Kalmijn , M. ( 1993 ) . `` Trends in Black / White Intermarriage '' . Social Forces . 72 : 119 -- 146 . JSTOR 2580162 . doi : 10.1093 / sf / 72.1. 119 . Jump up ^ Lewis , Michael B. ( 2012 ) . `` A Facial Attractiveness Account of Gender Asymmetries in Interracial Marriage '' . PLoS ONE . 7 ( 2 ) : 31703 . Bibcode : 2012PLoSO ... 731703L . PMC 3276508 . PMID 22347504 . doi : 10.1371 / journal. pone. 0031703 . Jump up ^ Saks , A.M. ( 2006 ) . `` ' Antecedents and consequences of employee engagement ' '' . Journal of Managerial Psychology . 21 ( 7 ) : 600 -- 19 . Jump up ^ Elstad , Eyvind ; Christophersen , Knut Andreas ; Turmo , Are ( 2011 ) . `` Social exchange theory as an explanation of organizational citizenship behaviour among teachers '' . International Journal of Leadership in Education . 14 ( 4 ) : 405 -- 421 . doi : 10.1080 / 13603124.2010. 524250 . Jump up ^ Posey , Clay ; Benjamin Lowry , Paul ; Roberts , Tom L. ; Ellis , Selwyn ( 2010 ) . `` Proposing the online community self - disclosure model : The case of working professionals in France and the UK who use online communities '' . European Journal of Information Systems . 19 ( 2 ) : 181 -- 195 . SSRN 1501447 . doi : 10.1057 / ejis. 2010.15 . Jump up ^ Benjamin Lowry , Paul ; Cao , Jinwei ; Everard , Andrea ( 2011 ) . `` Privacy concerns versus desire for interpersonal awareness in driving the use of self - disclosure technologies : The case of instant messaging in two cultures '' . Journal of Management Information Systems . 27 ( 4 ) : 163 -- 200 . SSRN 1668113 . doi : 10.2753 / MIS0742 - 1222270406 . Jump up ^ Weiner , Bernard ( 1985 ) . `` An attributional theory of achievement motivation and emotion '' . Psychological Review . 92 ( 4 ) : 548 -- 73 . PMID 3903815 . doi : 10.1037 / 0033 - 295X. 92.4. 548 . Jump up ^ Stolte , John F. and Emerson , Richard M. ( 1977 ) `` Structural Inequality : Position and Power in Network Structures . '' Pp. 117 - 138 in Robert Hamblin and John Kunkel ( eds . ) Behavioral Theory in Sociology . New Brunswick , N.J. : Transaction Press . Further reading ( edit ) Blau , Peter ( 1964 ) . Exchange and power in social life . New York : Wiley . ISBN 978 - 0 - 88738 - 628 - 2 . Cook , K.S. ; Emerson , R.M. ( 1978 ) . `` Power , Equity and Commitment in Exchange Networks '' . American Sociological Review . 43 ( 5 ) : 721 -- 739 . JSTOR 2094546 . doi : 10.2307 / 2094546 . Ekeh , Peter Palmer . ( 1974 ) . Social Exchange Theory : the two Traditions . London : Heinemann Educational . Settoon , Randall P. ; Bennett , Nathan ; Liden , Robert C. ( 1996 ) . `` Social exchange in organizations : Perceived organizational support , leader - member exchange , and employee reciprocity '' . Journal of Applied Psychology . 81 ( 3 ) : 219 -- 227 . SSRN 2406773 . doi : 10.1037 / 0021 - 9010.81. 3.219 . Gouldner , Alvin Ward ( 1960 ) . `` The norm of reciprocity : A preliminary statement '' . American Sociological Review . 25 ( 2 ) : 161 -- 178 . JSTOR 2092623 . doi : 10.2307 / 2092623 . Homans , George C. ( 1958 ) . `` Social Behavior as Exchange '' . American Journal of Sociology. 63 ( 6 ) : 597 -- 606 . doi : 10.1086 / 222355 . Knapp , Mark L. ( 1978 ) . Social intercourse : from greeting to goodbye . Allyn and Bacon . ISBN 978 - 0 - 205 - 05961 - 4 . Miller , Katherine ( 2005 ) . Communication Theories . New York : McGraw Hill . Miller , Gerald R. ; Steinberg , Mark ( 1975 ) . Between people : A new analysis of interpersonal communication . Science Research Associates . ISBN 0 - 574 - 17501 - 6 . Murstein , B.I. ; Cerreto , M.G. ; MacDonald , Marcia G. Mac ( 1977 ) . `` A theory and investigation of the effect of exchange - orientation on marriage and friendship '' . Journal of Marriage and the Family . 39 ( 3 ) : 543 -- 548 . JSTOR 350908 . doi : 10.2307 / 350908 . Thibaut , J.W. ; Kelley , H.H. ( 1959 ) . The social psychology of groups . New York : Wiley . ISBN 978 - 0 - 88738 - 633 - 6 . Thomas Bradbury . `` Theories of Intimate Relationships , Part 2 '' . AcademicEarth.org . Edward J. Lawler ( 2001 ) . `` An Affect Theory of Social Exchange '' . American Journal of Sociology . Serenko , Alexander ; Bontis , Nick ( 2016 ) . `` Negotiate , reciprocate , or cooperate ? The impact of exchange modes on inter-employee knowledge sharing '' ( PDF ) . Journal of Knowledge Management . 20 : 687 -- 712 . Shtatfeld , Rivka ; Barak , Azy ( 2009 ) . `` Factors Related to Initiating Interpersonal Contacts on Internet Dating Sites : A View from the Social Exchange Theory '' . Interpersona : an International Journal on Personal Relationships. 3 : 19 -- 37 . doi : 10.5964 / ijpr. v3isupp2. 74 . External links ( edit ) `` Theories Used in Research '' ( hide ) Social networks and social media Types City Personal Professional Sexual Value Networks Distributed social network ( list ) Enterprise social networking Mobile social network Personal knowledge networking Services List of social networking websites List of virtual communities with more than 1 million users List of virtual communities with more than 100 million active users Concepts and theories Assortative mixing Interpersonal bridge Organizational network analysis Small - world experiment Social aspects of television Social capital Social data revolution Social exchange theory Social identity theory Social network analysis Social web Structural endogamy Models and processes Aggregation Change detection Collaboration graph Collaborative consumption Giant Global Graph Lateral communication Social graph Social network analysis software Social networking potential Social television Structural cohesion Economics Collaborative finance Social commerce Phenomena Community recognition Complex contagion Consequential strangers Friend of a friend Friendship paradox Six degrees of separation Social invisibility Social network game Social occultation Tribe Related topics Researchers User profile Viral messages Virtual community Jump up ^ Stolte , John ( June 1983 ) . `` The Legitimation of Structural Inequality : Reformulation and Test of the Self - Evaluation Argument '' . American Sociological Review . 48 ( 3 ) : 331 -- 342 . doi : 10.2307 / 2095226 . Jump up ^ Stolte , John ( December 1987 ) . `` The Formation of Justice Norms '' . American Sociological Review . 52 ( 6 ) : 774 -- 784 . doi : 10.2307 / 2095834 . Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Social_exchange_theory&oldid=797649934 '' Categories : Value ( ethics ) Sociological theories Interpersonal communication Sociological terminology Social status Hidden categories : Wikipedia articles needing page number citations from October 2014 Articles needing additional references from June 2010 All articles needing additional references All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from October 2014 Talk Article Talk More Contents About Wikipedia العربية Čeština Deutsch Español Bahasa Indonesia 日本 語 Polski 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 28 August 2017 , at 12 : 31 . 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where is malaysia located on a world map

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Malaysia&oldid=809280094

Malaysia - wikipedia Malaysia Jump to : navigation , search See also the geographical region Malesia or the former Federation of Malaya . Coordinates : 2 ° 30 ′ N 112 ° 30 ′ E  /  2.500 ° N 112.500 ° E  / 2.500 ; 112.500 Malaysia Flag Coat of arms Motto : `` Bersekutu Bertambah Mutu '' `` Unity Is Strength '' Anthem : Negaraku My Country Capital Kuala Lumpur 3 ° 8 ′ N 101 ° 41 ′ E  /  3.133 ° N 101.683 ° E  / 3.133 ; 101.683 Putrajaya ( administrative ) 2 ° 56 ′ 35 '' N 101 ° 41 ′ 58 '' E  /  2.9430952 ° N 101.699373 ° E  / 2.9430952 ; 101.699373 Largest city Kuala Lumpur 3 ° 8 ′ N 101 ° 41 ′ E  /  3.133 ° N 101.683 ° E  / 3.133 ; 101.683 Official languages Malaysian Official script Malay ( Latin ) alphabet Recognised languages English Ethnic groups ( ) 50.1 % Malay 22.6 % Chinese 11.8 % Indigenous 6.7 % Indian 8.8 % other Religion Official : 61.3 % Islam ( Sunni ) Other religions : 19.8 % Buddhist 9.2 % Christian 6.2 % Hindu 3.4 % other Demonym Malaysian Government Federal parliamentary elective constitutional monarchy Yang di - Pertuan Agong Muhammad V Prime Minister Najib Razak Chief Justice Md Raus Sharif President of the Dewan Negara S. Vigneswaran Speaker of the Dewan Rakyat Pandikar Amin Mulia Legislature Parliament Upper house Dewan Negara Lower house Dewan Rakyat Independence from the United Kingdom Independence of the Federation of Malaya 31 August 1957 Federation of Malaya , North Borneo , Sarawak , Singapore 16 September 1963 Expulsion of Singapore 9 August 1965 ASEAN Declaration 8 August 1967 Area Total 330,803 km ( 127,724 sq mi ) ( 66th ) Water ( % ) 0.3 Population 2017 estimate 31,725,000 ( 44th ) 2010 census 28,334,135 Density 92 / km ( 238.3 / sq mi ) ( 116th ) GDP ( PPP ) 2017 estimate Total $913.593 billion ( 27th ) Per capita $28,490 ( 50th ) GDP ( nominal ) 2017 estimate Total $344.848 billion ( 35th ) Per capita $10,756 ( 65th ) Gini ( 2009 ) 46.2 high 36th HDI ( 2016 ) 0.789 high 59th Currency Ringgit ( RM ) ( MYR ) Time zone MST ( UTC + 8 ) Summer ( DST ) not observed ( UTC + 8 ) Date format dd - mm - yyyy Drives on the left Calling code + 60 ISO 3166 code MY Internet TLD . my Malaysia ( / məˈleɪʒə / ( listen ) mə - LAY - zhə or / məˈleɪsiə / ( listen ) mə - LAY - see - ə ; Malaysian pronunciation : ( məlejsiə ) ) is a federal constitutional monarchy located in Southeast Asia . It consists of thirteen states and three federal territories and has a total landmass of 330,803 square kilometres ( 127,720 sq mi ) separated by the South China Sea into two similarly sized regions , Peninsular Malaysia and East Malaysia ( Malaysian Borneo ) . Peninsular Malaysia shares a land and maritime border with Thailand at the north and maritime borders with Singapore at the south , Vietnam at the northeast , and Indonesia in the west . East Malaysia shares land and maritime borders with Brunei and Indonesia and a maritime border with the Philippines and Vietnam . The capital city is Kuala Lumpur , while Putrajaya is the seat of the federal government . With a population of over 30 million , Malaysia is the 44th most populous country . The southernmost point of continental Eurasia , Tanjung Piai , is in Malaysia . Located in the tropics , Malaysia is one of 17 megadiverse countries on earth , with large numbers of endemic species . Malaysia has its origins in the Malay kingdoms present in the area which , from the 18th century , became subject to the British Empire . The first British territories were known as the Straits Settlements , whose establishment was followed by the Malay kingdoms becoming British protectorates . The territories on Peninsular Malaysia were first unified as the Malayan Union in 1946 . Malaya was restructured as the Federation of Malaya in 1948 , and achieved independence on 31 August 1957 . Malaya united with North Borneo , Sarawak , and Singapore on 16 September 1963 to become Malaysia . Less than two years later in 1965 , Singapore was expelled from the federation . The country is multi-ethnic and multi-cultural , which plays a large role in politics . About half the population is ethnically Malay , with large minorities of Malaysian Chinese which also form the second largest community of Overseas Chinese in the world , Malaysian Indians , and indigenous peoples . The constitution grants freedom of religion but recognised Islam as the established religion of the state . Despite being a majority Muslim country , Malaysia has been widely regarded as a rather moderate Muslim majority country . The government system is closely modelled on the Westminster parliamentary system and the legal system is based on common law . The head of state is the king , known as the Yang di - Pertuan Agong . He is an elected monarch chosen from the hereditary rulers of the nine Malay states every five years . The head of government is the prime minister . The country official language is Bahasa Malaysia or commonly known as Malay language . English remains as an active second language . English proficiency in Malaysia has been highly ranked as the second best in Asia after Singapore and 12th best in the world as of 2016 . Since its independence , Malaysia has had one of the best economic records in Asia , with its GDP growing at an average of 6.5 % per annum for almost 50 years . The economy has traditionally been fuelled by its natural resources , but is expanding in the sectors of science , tourism , commerce and medical tourism . It is also one of the few developing countries to subsidise heavily on education and healthcare . Its citizens are entitled to free public education up to secondary education level and public tertiary education fees are subsidised as much as 90 % . Basic healthcare services at government run clinics with prescription cost RM 1 . Disabled , senior citizens and public school students are entitled to free healthcare . Its healthcare services have been highly regarded as one the best in the world and the UN Development Programme has called Malaysia healthcare system `` a model to other developing countries '' Malaysia 's unprecedented and recent rapid development has attracted millions of migrant workers from across Asia in the recent years . The majority of whom are undocumented , which the Malaysian government is struggling to combat . Its treatment and crackdown on migrant workers has often been criticised by international human rights watchdogs . Today , Malaysia has a newly industrialised market economy , ranked 4th largest in Southeast Asia and 38th largest in the world . With a GDP per capita of $9,766 and an HDI of 0.78 currently , Malaysia is classified as an emerging economy by the World Bank . The International Monetary Fund ( IMF ) also classifies Malaysia as an emerging and developing country . It is a founding member of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations , the East Asia Summit , and the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation . Malaysia is also a member of the Asia - Pacific Economic Cooperation , the Commonwealth of Nations , and the Non-Aligned Movement . In 2017 , Malaysian citizens had visa - free or visa - on - arrival access to 164 countries and territories , ranking the Malaysian passport 5th most powerful in the world . Contents ( hide ) 1 Etymology 2 History 3 Government and politics 3.1 Political divisions 3.1. 1 States 3.1. 2 Federal Territories 4 Foreign relations and military 5 Geography 6 Biodiversity 6.1 Conservation issues 7 Economy 7.1 Infrastructure 7.1. 1 Energy 7.1. 2 Transportation 8 Demographics 8.1 Religion 8.2 Language 9 Culture 9.1 Fine arts 9.2 Cuisine 9.3 Media 9.4 Holidays and festivals 9.5 Sports 10 See also 11 References 12 External links Etymology Main article : Malay people `` Malaysia '' used as a label for the Malay Archipelago on a 1914 map from a United States atlas The name `` Malaysia '' is a combination of the word `` Malay '' and the Latin - Greek suffix `` - sia '' / - σία . The word `` melayu '' in Malay may derive from the Tamil words `` malai '' and `` ur '' meaning `` mountain '' and `` city , land '' , respectively . `` Malayadvipa '' was the word used by ancient Indian traders when referring to the Malay Peninsula . Whether or not it originated from these roots , the word `` melayu '' or `` mlayu '' may have been used in early Malay / Javanese to mean to steadily accelerate or run . This term was applied to describe the strong current of the river Melayu in Sumatra . The name was later adopted by the Melayu Kingdom that existed in the seventh century on Sumatra . Before the onset of European colonisation , the Malay Peninsula was known natively as `` Tanah Melayu '' ( `` Malay Land '' ) . Under a racial classification created by a German scholar Johann Friedrich Blumenbach , the natives of maritime Southeast Asia were grouped into a single category , the Malay race . Following the expedition of French navigator Jules Dumont d'Urville to Oceania in 1826 , he later proposed the terms of `` Malaysia '' , `` Micronesia '' and `` Melanesia '' to the Société de Géographie in 1831 , distinguishing these Pacific cultures and island groups from the existing term `` Polynesia '' . Dumont d'Urville described Malaysia as `` an area commonly known as the East Indies '' . In 1850 , the English ethnologist George Samuel Windsor Earl , writing in the Journal of the Indian Archipelago and Eastern Asia , proposed naming the islands of Southeast Asia as `` Melayunesia '' or `` Indunesia '' , favouring the former . In modern terminology , `` Malay '' remains the name of an ethnoreligious group of Austronesian people predominantly inhabiting the Malay Peninsula and portions of the adjacent islands of Southeast Asia , including the east coast of Sumatra , the coast of Borneo , and smaller islands that lie between these areas . The state that gained independence from the United Kingdom in 1957 took the name the `` Federation of Malaya '' , chosen in preference to other potential names such as `` Langkasuka '' , after the historic kingdom located at the upper section of the Malay Peninsula in the first millennium CE . The name `` Malaysia '' was adopted in 1963 when the existing states of the Federation of Malaya , plus Singapore , North Borneo and Sarawak formed a new federation . One theory posits the name was chosen so that `` si '' represented the inclusion of Singapore , North Borneo , and Sarawak to Malaya in 1963 . Politicians in the Philippines contemplated renaming their state `` Malaysia '' before the modern country took the name . History Main article : History of Malaysia Fort A Famosa in Melaka built by the Portuguese in the 16th century . In the 15th century the Malacca Sultanate played a major role in spreading Islam throughout the Malay Archipelago . Evidence of modern human habitation in Malaysia dates back 40,000 years . In the Malay Peninsula , the first inhabitants are thought to be Negritos . Traders and settlers from India and China arrived as early as the first century AD , establishing trading ports and coastal towns in the second and third centuries . Their presence resulted in strong Indian and Chinese influences on the local cultures , and the people of the Malay Peninsula adopted the religions of Hinduism and Buddhism . Sanskrit inscriptions appear as early as the fourth or fifth century . The Kingdom of Langkasuka arose around the second century in the northern area of the Malay Peninsula , lasting until about the 15th century . Between the 7th and 13th centuries , much of the southern Malay Peninsula was part of the maritime Srivijayan empire . By the 13th and the 14th century , the Majapahit empire had successfully wrested control over most of the peninsula and the Malay Archipelago from Srivijaya . Islam began to spread among Malays in the 14th century . In the early 15th century , Parameswara , a runaway king of the former Kingdom of Singapura linked to the old Srivijayan court , founded the Malacca Sultanate . Melaka was an important commercial centre during this time , attracting trade from around the region . The Dutch fleet battling with the Portuguese armada as part of the Dutch -- Portuguese War in 1606 to gain control of Melaka . In 1511 , Melaka was conquered by Portugal , after which it was taken by the Dutch in 1641 . In 1786 , the British Empire established a presence in Malaya , when the Sultan of Kedah leased Penang Island to the British East India Company . The British obtained the town of Singapore in 1819 , and in 1824 took control of Melaka following the Anglo - Dutch Treaty . By 1826 , the British directly controlled Penang , Melaka , Singapore , and the island of Labuan , which they established as the crown colony of the Straits Settlements . By the 20th century , the states of Pahang , Selangor , Perak , and Negeri Sembilan , known together as the Federated Malay States , had British residents appointed to advise the Malay rulers , to whom the rulers were bound to defer to by treaty . The remaining five states in the peninsula , known as the Unfederated Malay States , while not directly under British rule , also accepted British advisers around the turn of the 20th century . Development on the peninsula and Borneo were generally separate until the 19th century . Under British rule the immigration of Chinese and Indians to serve as labourers was encouraged . The area that is now Sabah came under British control as North Borneo when both the Sultan of Brunei and the Sultan of Sulu transferred their respective territorial rights of ownership , between 1877 and 1878 . In 1842 , Sarawak was ceded by the Sultan of Brunei to James Brooke , whose successors ruled as the White Rajahs over an independent kingdom until 1946 , when it became a crown colony . Statue of Francis Light in the Fort Cornwallis of Penang , the first British colony in what was to become Malaysia . In the Second World War , the Japanese Army invaded and occupied Malaya , North Borneo , Sarawak , and Singapore for over three years . During this time , ethnic tensions were raised and nationalism grew . Popular support for independence increased after Malaya was reconquered by Allied forces . Post-war British plans to unite the administration of Malaya under a single crown colony called the `` Malayan Union '' met with strong opposition from the Malays , who opposed the weakening of the Malay rulers and the granting of citizenship to the ethnic Chinese . The Malayan Union , established in 1946 , and consisting of all the British possessions in the Malay Peninsula with the exception of Singapore , was quickly dissolved and replaced on 1 February 1948 by the Federation of Malaya , which restored the autonomy of the rulers of the Malay states under British protection . During this time , mostly Chinese rebels under the leadership of the Malayan Communist Party launched guerrilla operations designed to force the British out of Malaya . The Malayan Emergency lasted from 1948 to 1960 , and involved a long anti-insurgency campaign by Commonwealth troops in Malaya . On 31 August 1957 , Malaya became an independent member of the Commonwealth of Nations . After this a plan was put in place to federate Malaya with the crown colonies of North Borneo ( which joined as Sabah ) , Sarawak , and Singapore . The date of federation was planned to be 31 August 1963 so as to coincide with the anniversary of Malayan independence ; however , federation was delayed until 16 September 1963 in order for a United Nations survey of support for federation in Sabah and Sarawak , called for by parties opposed to federation including Indonesia 's Sukarno and the Sarawak United Peoples ' Party , to be completed . Federation brought heightened tensions including a conflict with Indonesia as well continuous conflicts against the Communists in Borneo and the Malayan Peninsula which escalates to the Sarawak Communist Insurgency and Second Malayan Emergency together with several other issues such as the cross border attacks into North Borneo by Moro pirates from the southern islands of the Philippines , Singapore being expelled from the Federation in 1965 , and racial strife . This strife culminated in the 13 May race riots in 1969 . After the riots , the controversial New Economic Policy was launched by Prime Minister Tun Abdul Razak , trying to increase the share of the economy held by the bumiputera . Under Prime Minister Mahathir Mohamad there was a period of rapid economic growth and urbanisation beginning in the 1980s . The economy shifted from being agriculturally based to one based on manufacturing and industry . Numerous mega-projects were completed , such as the Petronas Towers , the North -- South Expressway , the Multimedia Super Corridor , and the new federal administrative capital of Putrajaya . However , in the late 1990s the Asian financial crisis almost caused the collapse of the currency and the stock and property markets . Dataran Merdeka in front of the Sultan Abdul Samad building became the site of Malaysia Day on 16 September every year . Government and Politics Main articles : Politics of Malaysia and Government of Malaysia See also : Censorship in Malaysia and Human rights in Malaysia The Parliament of Malaysia , the building that houses the members of the Dewan Rakyat Perdana Putra houses the office complex of the Prime Minister of Malaysia . Malaysia is a federal constitutional elective monarchy , and the only federation in Southeast Asia . The system of government is closely modelled on that of the Westminster parliamentary system , a legacy of British colonial rule . The head of state is the Yang di - Pertuan Agong , commonly referred to as the King . The King is elected to a five - year term by and from among the nine hereditary rulers of the Malay states ; the other four states , which have titular Governors , do not participate in the selection . By informal agreement the position is systematically rotated among the nine , and has been held by Muhammad V of Kelantan since December 2016 . The King 's role has been largely ceremonial since changes to the constitution in 1994 , picking ministers and members of the upper house . Legislative power is divided between federal and state legislatures . The bicameral federal parliament consists of the lower house , the House of Representatives and the upper house , the Senate . The 222 - member House of Representatives is elected for a maximum term of five years from single - member constituencies . All 70 senators sit for three - year terms ; 26 are elected by the 13 state assemblies , and the remaining 44 are appointed by the King upon the Prime Minister 's recommendation . The parliament follows a multi-party system and the government is elected through a first - past - the - post system . Since independence Malaysia has been governed by a 13 - party coalition known as the Barisan Nasional . Each state has a unicameral State Legislative Assembly whose members are elected from single - member constituencies . State governments are led by Chief Ministers , who are state assembly members from the majority party in the assembly . In each of the states with a hereditary ruler , the Chief Minister is normally required to be a Malay , appointed by the ruler upon the recommendation of the Prime Minister . Parliamentary elections are held at least once every five years , the most recent of which took place in May 2013 . Registered voters of age 21 and above may vote for the members of the House of Representatives and , in most of the states , for the state legislative chamber . Voting is not mandatory . Except for state elections in Sarawak , by convention state elections are held concurrently with the federal election . Najib Razak , Prime Minister since 2009 . Executive power is vested in the Cabinet , led by the Prime Minister . The prime minister must be a member of the house of representatives , who in the opinion of the King , commands a majority in parliament . The cabinet is chosen from members of both houses of Parliament . The Prime Minister is both the head of cabinet and the head of government . The incumbent , Najib Razak , appointed in 2009 , is the sixth prime minister . Malaysia 's legal system is based on English Common Law . Although the judiciary is theoretically independent , its independence has been called into question and the appointment of judges lacks accountability and transparency . The highest court in the judicial system is the Federal Court , followed by the Court of Appeal and two high courts , one for Peninsular Malaysia and one for East Malaysia . Malaysia also has a special court to hear cases brought by or against royalty . The death penalty is in use for serious crimes such as murder , terrorism , drug trafficking , and kidnapping . Separate from and running parallel to the civil courts are the Syariah Courts , which apply Shariah law to Muslims in the areas of family law and religious observances . Homosexuality is illegal in Malaysia . Race is a significant force in politics , and many political parties are ethnically based . Affirmative actions such as the New Economic Policy and the National Development Policy which superseded it , were implemented to advance the standing of the bumiputera , consisting of Malays and the indigenous tribes who are considered the original inhabitants of Malaysia , over non-bumiputera such as Malaysian Chinese and Malaysian Indians . These policies provide preferential treatment to bumiputera in employment , education , scholarships , business , and access to cheaper housing and assisted savings . However , it has generated greater interethnic resentment . There is ongoing debate over whether the laws and society of Malaysia should reflect secular or Islamic principles . Islamic criminal laws passed by the Pan-Malaysian Islamic Party with the support of UMNO state assemblymen in the state legislative assembly of Kelantan have been blocked by the federal government on the basis that criminal laws are the responsibility of the federal government . Political divisions Main articles : States and federal territories of Malaysia , Divisions of Malaysia , and Districts of Malaysia Perlis Kedah Penang Kelantan Terengganu Perak Selangor Negeri Sembilan Melaka Johor Pahang Sarawak Sabah Labuan Kuala Lumpur Putrajaya West Malaysia East Malaysia ( Blue ) States ( Red ) Federal Territories South China Sea Strait of Malacca Gulf of Thailand Sulu Sea Celebes Sea Brunei Indonesia Indonesia Indonesia Singapore Thailand Malaysia is a federation of 13 states and three federal territories . These are divided between two regions , with 11 states and two federal territories on Peninsular Malaysia and the other two states and one federal territory in East Malaysia . Each state is divided into districts , which are then divided into mukim . In Sabah and Sarawak districts are grouped into divisions . Governance of the states is divided between the federal and the state governments , with different powers reserved for each , and the Federal government has direct administration of the federal territories . Lower - level administration is carried out by local authorities , which include city councils , district councils , and municipal councils , although autonomous statutory bodies can be created by the federal and state governments to deal with certain tasks . The federal constitution puts local authorities outside of the federal territories under the exclusive jurisdictions of the state government , although in practice the federal government has intervened in the affairs of state local governments . There are 144 local authorities , consisting of 11 city councils , 33 municipal councils , and 97 district councils . The 13 states are based on historical Malay kingdoms , and 9 of the 11 Peninsular states , known as the Malay states , retain their royal families . The King is elected by and from the nine rulers to serve a five - year term . This King appoints governors serving a four - year term for the states without monarchies , after consultations with the chief minister of that state . Each state has a unicameral legislature known as the State Legislative Assembly , and its own written constitution . Sabah and Sarawak have considerably more autonomy than the other states , most notably having separate immigration policies and controls , and a unique residency status . Federal intervention in state affairs , lack of development , and disputes over oil royalties have occasionally led to statements about secession from leaders in several states such as Johor , Kelantan , Sabah and Sarawak , although these have not been followed up and no serious independence movements exist . States Here are thirteen states and each state capital ( in brackets ) : Johor Darul Takzim ( Johor Bahru ) Kedah Darul Aman ( Alor Setar ) Kelantan Darul Naim ( Kota Bharu ) Melaka Bandaraya Bersejarah ( Melaka City ) Negeri Sembilan Darul Khusus ( Seremban ) Pahang Darul Makmur ( Kuantan ) Perak Darul Ridzuan ( Ipoh ) Perlis Indera Kayangan ( Kangar ) Pulau Pinang Pulau Mutiara ( George Town ) Sabah Di Bawah Bayu ( Kota Kinabalu ) Sarawak Bumi Kenyalang ( Kuching ) Selangor Darul Ehsan ( Shah Alam ) Terengganu Darul Iman ( Kuala Terengganu ) Federal Territories Federal Territory of Kuala Lumpur Federal Territory of Labuan Federal Territory of Putrajaya Foreign relations and military Main articles : Foreign relations of Malaysia and Malaysian Armed Forces Najib meeting with Putin at the Asia - Pacific Economic Co-operation in Russia , 2012 . A founding member of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations ( ASEAN ) and the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation ( OIC ) , the country participates in many international organisations such as the United Nations , the Asia - Pacific Economic Cooperation , the Developing 8 Countries , and the Non-Aligned Movement ( NAM ) . It has chaired ASEAN , the OIC , and the NAM in the past . A former British colony , it is also a member of the Commonwealth of Nations . Kuala Lumpur was the site of the first East Asia Summit in 2005 . Malaysia 's foreign policy is officially based on the principle of neutrality and maintaining peaceful relations with all countries , regardless of their political system . The government attaches a high priority to the security and stability of Southeast Asia , and seeks to further develop relations with other countries in the region . Historically the government has tried to portray Malaysia as a progressive Islamic nation while strengthening relations with other Islamic states . A strong tenet of Malaysia 's policy is national sovereignty and the right of a country to control its domestic affairs . The Spratly Islands are disputed by many states in the area , and a large portion of the South China Sea is claimed by China . Unlike its neighbours of Vietnam and the Philippines , Malaysia historically avoided conflicts with China . However , after the enroachment of Chinese ships in Malaysian territorial waters , Malaysia has become active in condemning China . Brunei and Malaysia in 2009 announced an end to claims of each other 's land , and committed to resolve issues related to their maritime borders . The Philippines has a dormant claim to the eastern part of Sabah . Singapore 's land reclamation has caused tensions , and minor maritime and land border disputes exist with Indonesia . Examples of the Malaysian Armed Forces weaponry assets . Clockwise from top right : Scorpène class submarine , PT - 91M MBT tank , Malaysian Army paratrooper with M4 , and Su - 30MKM fighter aircraft . Malaysia has never recognised Israel and has no diplomatic ties with it , and has called for the International Criminal Court to take action against Israel over their Gaza flotilla raid . Malaysia has stated it will only establish official relations with Israel once a peace agreement with the State of Palestine has been reached and called for both parties to find a quick resolution . Malaysian peacekeeping forces have contributed to many UN peacekeeping missions , such as in Congo , Iran -- Iraq , Namibia , Cambodia , Bosnia and Herzegovina , Somalia , East Timor and Lebanon . The Malaysian Armed Forces have three branches , the Royal Malaysian Navy , the Malaysian Army , and the Royal Malaysian Air Force . There is no conscription , and the required age for voluntary military service is 18 . The military uses 1.5 % of the country 's GDP , and employs 1.23 % of Malaysia 's manpower . The Five Power Defence Arrangements is a regional security initiative which has been in place for almost 40 years . It involves joint military exercises held among Malaysia , Singapore , Australia , New Zealand , and the United Kingdom . Joint exercises and war games also been held with Brunei , China , Indonesia and the United States . Malaysia , Philippines , Thailand and Vietnam have agreed to host joint security force exercises to secure their maritime border and tackle issues such as illegal immigration , piracy and smuggling . Previously there are fears that extremist militants activities in the Muslim areas of the southern Philippines and southern Thailand would spill over into Malaysia . Due to this , Malaysia began to increase its border security . Geography Main article : Geography of Malaysia Malaysia is within the equatorial region , where a tropical rainforest climate is apparent all year round . Malaysia is the 66th largest country by total land area , with a land area of 329,613 km ( 127,264 sq mi ) . It has land borders with Thailand in West Malaysia , and Indonesia and Brunei in East Malaysia . It is linked to Singapore by a narrow causeway and a bridge . The country also has maritime boundaries with Vietnam and the Philippines . The land borders are defined in large part by geological features such as the Perlis River , the Golok River and the Pagalayan Canal , whilst some of the maritime boundaries are the subject of ongoing contention . Brunei forms what is almost an enclave in Malaysia , with the state of Sarawak dividing it into two parts . Malaysia is the only country with territory on both the Asian mainland and the Malay archipelago . Tanjung Piai , located in the southern state of Johor , is the southernmost tip of continental Asia . The Strait of Malacca , lying between Sumatra and Peninsular Malaysia , is one of the most important thoroughfares in global commerce , carrying 40 per cent of the world 's trade . The two parts of Malaysia , separated from each other by the South China Sea , share a largely similar landscape in that both Peninsular and East Malaysia feature coastal plains rising to hills and mountains . Peninsular Malaysia , containing 40 per cent of Malaysia 's land area , extends 740 km ( 460 mi ) from north to south , and its maximum width is 322 km ( 200 mi ) . It is divided between its east and west coasts by the Titiwangsa Mountains , rising to a peak elevation of 2,183 metres ( 7,162 ft ) at Mount Korbu , part of a series of mountain ranges running down the centre of the peninsula . These mountains are heavily forested , and mainly composed of granite and other igneous rocks . Much of it has been eroded , creating a karst landscape . The range is the origin of some of Peninsular Malaysia 's river systems . The coastal plains surrounding the peninsula reach a maximum width of 50 kilometres ( 31 mi ) , and the peninsula 's coastline is nearly 1,931 km ( 1,200 mi ) long , although harbours are only available on the western side . Mount Kinabalu , the highest summit in the country . East Malaysia , on the island of Borneo , has a coastline of 2,607 km ( 1,620 mi ) . It is divided between coastal regions , hills and valleys , and a mountainous interior . The Crocker Range extends northwards from Sarawak , dividing the state of Sabah . It is the location of the 4,095 m ( 13,435 ft ) high Mount Kinabalu , the tallest mountain in Malaysia . Mount Kinabalu is located in the Kinabalu National Park , which is protected as one of the four UNESCO World Heritage Sites in Malaysia . The highest mountain ranges form the border between Malaysia and Indonesia . Sarawak contains the Mulu Caves , the largest cave system in the world , in the Gunung Mulu National Park which is also a World Heritage Site . Around these two halves of Malaysia are numerous islands , the largest of which is Banggi . The local climate is equatorial and characterised by the annual southwest ( April to October ) and northeast ( October to February ) monsoons . The temperature is moderated by the presence of the surrounding oceans . Humidity is usually high , and the average annual rainfall is 250 cm ( 98 in ) . The climates of the Peninsula and the East differ , as the climate on the peninsula is directly affected by wind from the mainland , as opposed to the more maritime weather of the East . Local climates can be divided into three regions , highland , lowland , and coastal . Climate change is likely to affect sea levels and rainfall , increasing flood risks and leading to droughts . Biodiversity Main article : Wildlife of Malaysia Native species in Malaysia , clockwise from top - right : oriental pied hornbills , hawksbill sea turtle , proboscis monkey , Malayan tiger . Malaysia signed the Rio Convention on Biological Diversity on 12 June 1993 , and became a party to the convention on 24 June 1994 . It has subsequently produced a National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan , which was received by the convention on 16 April 1998 . The country is megadiverse with a high number of species and high levels of endemism . It is estimated to contain 20 per cent of the world 's animal species . High levels of endemism are found on the diverse forests of Borneo 's mountains , as species are isolated from each other by lowland forest . There are about 210 mammal species in the country . Over 620 species of birds have been recorded in Peninsular Malaysia , with many endemic to the mountains there . A high number of endemic bird species are also found in Malaysian Borneo. 250 reptile species have been recorded in the country , with about 150 species of snakes and 80 species of lizards . There are about 150 species of frogs , and thousands of insect species . Malaysia 's exclusive economic zone is 1.5 times larger than its land area , and some of its waters are in the Coral Triangle , a biodiversity hotspot . The waters around Sipadan island are the most biodiverse in the world . Bordering East Malaysia , the Sulu Sea is a biodiversity hotspot , with around 600 coral species and 1200 fish species . The unique biodiversity of Malaysian Caves always attracts lovers of ecotourism from all over the world . Nearly 4,000 species of fungi , including lichen - forming species have been recorded from Malaysia . Of the two fungal groups with the largest number of species in Malaysia , the Ascomycota and their asexual states have been surveyed in some habitats ( decaying wood , marine and freshwater ecosystems , as parasites of some plants , and as agents of biodegradation ) , but have not been or have been only poorly surveyed in other habitats ( as endobionts , in soils , on dung , as human and animal pathogens ) ; the Basidiomycota are only partly surveyed : bracket fungi , and mushrooms and toadstools have been studied , but Malaysian rust and smut fungi remain very poorly known . Without doubt , many more fungal species in Malaysia have not yet been recorded , and it is likely that many of those , when found , will be new to science . Some species of Rafflesia can grow up to 1 m ( 3 ft 3 in ) in diameter , making them the largest flowers in the world . About two thirds of Malaysia was covered in forest as of 2007 , with some forests believed to be 130 million years old . The forests are dominated by dipterocarps . Lowland forest covers areas below 760 m ( 2,490 ft ) , and formerly East Malaysia was covered in such rainforest , which is supported by its hot wet climate . There are around 14,500 species of flowering plants and trees . Besides rainforests , there are over 1,425 km ( 550 sq mi ) of mangroves in Malaysia , and a large amount of peat forest . At higher altitudes , oaks , chestnuts , and rhododendrons replace dipterocarps . There are an estimated 8,500 species of vascular plants in Peninsular Malaysia , with another 15,000 in the East . The forests of East Malaysia are estimated to be the habitat of around 2,000 tree species , and are one of the most biodiverse areas in the world , with 240 different species of trees every hectare . These forests host many members of the Rafflesia genus , the largest flowers in the world , with a maximum diameter of 1 m ( 3 ft 3 in ) . Conservation issues Main article : Environmental issues in Malaysia Logging , along with cultivation practices has devastated tree cover , causing severe environmental degradation in the country . Over 80 per cent of Sarawak 's rainforest has been cleared . Floods in East Malaysia have been worsened by the loss of trees , and over 60 per cent of the Peninsular 's forest have been cleared . With current rates of deforestation , the forests are predicted to be extinct by 2020 . Deforestation is a major problem for animals , fungi and plants , as the forest is cut to make room for plantations . Most remaining forest is found inside national parks . Habitat destruction has proved a threat for marine life . Illegal fishing is another major threat , with fishing methods such as dynamite fishing and poisoning depleting marine ecosystems . Leatherback turtle numbers have dropped 98 per cent since the 1950s . Hunting has also been an issue for some animals , with overconsumption and the use of animal parts for profit endangering many animals , from marine life to tigers . Marine life is also detrimentally affected by uncontrolled tourism . The Malaysian government aims to balance economic growth with environmental protection , but has been accused of favouring big business over the environment . Some state governments are now trying to counter the environmental impact and pollution created by deforestation ; and the federal government is trying to cut logging by 10 per cent each year . 28 national parks have been established ; 23 in East Malaysia and five in the Peninsular . Tourism has been limited in biodiverse areas such as Sipadan island . Animal trafficking is a large issue , and the Malaysian government is holding talks with the governments of Brunei and Indonesia to standardise anti-trafficking laws . Economy Main article : Economy of Malaysia The Proton company is a Malaysian car manufacturer . Malaysia is a relatively open state - oriented and newly industrialised market economy . The state plays a significant but declining role in guiding economic activity through macroeconomic plans . Malaysia has had one of the best economic records in Asia , with GDP growing an average 6.5 per cent annually from 1957 to 2005 . Malaysia 's economy in 2014 -- 2015 was one of the most competitive in Asia , ranking 6th in Asia and 20th in the world , higher than countries like Australia , France and South Korea . In 2014 , Malaysia 's economy grew 6 % , the second highest growth in ASEAN behind the Philippines ' growth of 6.1 % . The economy of Malaysia in terms of gross domestic product ( GDP ) at purchasing power parity ( PPP ) in 2014 was $746.821 billion , the third largest in ASEAN behind more populous Indonesia and Thailand and the 28th largest in the world . In 1991 , former Prime Minister of Malaysia , Mahathir Mohamad outlined his ideal in Vision 2020 , in which Malaysia would become a self - sufficient industrialised nation by 2020 . It will need to develop an endogeous capacity in innovation , however , to reach its goal of becoming a high - income country by 2020 . Najib Razak has said Malaysia could attain developed country status much earlier from the actual target in 2020 , adding the country has two program concept such as Government Transformation Programme and the Economic Transformation Programme . According to a HSBC report , Malaysia will become the world 's 21st largest economy by 2050 , with a GDP of $1.2 trillion ( Year 2000 dollars ) and a GDP per capita of $29,247 ( Year 2000 dollars ) . The report also says `` The electronic equipment , petroleum , and liquefied natural gas producer will see a substantial increase in income per capita . Malaysian life expectancy , relatively high level of schooling , and above average fertility rate will help in its rapid expansion '' . Viktor Shvets , the managing director of Credit Suisse , has said `` Malaysia has all the right ingredients to become a developed nation '' . Port Klang in Selangor , the biggest and busiest port in Malaysia . In the 1970s , the predominantly mining and agricultural - based economy began a transition towards a more multi-sector economy . Since the 1980s , the industrial sector , with a high level of investment , has led the country 's growth . The economy recovered from the 1997 Asian Financial Crisis earlier than neighbouring countries did , and has since recovered to the levels of the pre-crisis era with a GDP per capita of $14,800 . Economic inequalities exist between different ethnic groups . The Chinese make up about one - quarter of the population , but accounts for 70 per cent of the country 's market capitalisation . Chinese businesses in Malaysia are part of the larger bamboo network , a network of overseas Chinese businesses in the Southeast Asian market sharing common family and cultural ties . International trade , facilitated by the shipping route in adjacent Strait of Malacca , and manufacturing are the key sectors . Malaysia is an exporter of natural and agricultural resources , and petroleum is a major export . Malaysia has once been the largest producer of tin , rubber and palm oil in the world . Manufacturing has a large influence in the country 's economy , although Malaysia 's economic structure has been moving away from it . Malaysia remains one of the world 's largest producers of palm oil . The Petronas Towers house the headquarters of the national oil company Petronas and are the tallest twin - towers in the world . In an effort to diversify the economy and make it less dependent on export goods , the government has pushed to increase tourism to Malaysia . As a result , tourism has become Malaysia 's third largest source of foreign exchange , although it is threatened by the negative effects of the growing industrial economy , with large amounts of air and water pollution along with deforestation affecting tourism . The tourism sector came under some pressure in 2014 when the national carrier Malaysia Airlines had one of its planes disappear in March , while another was brought down by a missile over Ukraine in July , resulting in the loss of a total 537 passengers and crew . The state of the airline , which had been unprofitable for 3 years , prompted the government in August 2014 to nationalise the airline by buying up the 30 per cent it did not already own . Between 2013 and 2014 , Malaysia has been listed as one of the best places to retire to in the world , with the country in third position on the Global Retirement Index . This in part was the result of the Malaysia My Second Home programme to allow foreigners to live in the country on a long - stay visa for up to 10 years . In 2016 , Malaysia ranked the fifth position on The World 's Best Retirement Havens while getting in the first place as the best place in Asia to retire . Warm climate with British colonial background made foreigners easy to interact with the locals . The country has developed into a centre of Islamic banking , and is the country with the highest numbers of female workers in that industry . Knowledge - based services are also expanding . To create a self - reliant defensive ability and support national development , Malaysia privatised some of its military facilities in the 1970s . The privatisation has created defence industry , which in 1999 was brought under the Malaysia Defence Industry Council . The government continues to promote this sector and its competitiveness , actively marketing the defence industry . Science policies in Malaysia are regulated by the Ministry of Science , Technology , and Innovation . The country is one of the world 's largest exporters of semiconductor devices , electrical devices , and IT and communication products . Malaysia began developing its own space programme in 2002 , and in 2006 , Russia agreed to transport one Malaysian to the International Space Station as part of a multibillion - dollar purchase of 18 Russian Sukhoi Su - 30MKM fighter jets by the Royal Malaysian Air Force . The government has invested in building satellites in through the RazakSAT programme . Infrastructure The overall infrastructure of Malaysia is one of the most developed in Asia and ranked 8th in Asia and 25th in the world . Malaysia is ranked 19th in the world for its quality roads , quality of port infrastructure and quality of air transport infrastructure but ranked 39th in quality of electricity supply . Its telecommunications network is second only to Singapore 's in Southeast Asia , with 4.7 million fixed - line subscribers and more than 30 million cellular subscribers . The country has seven international ports , the major one being the Port Klang . There are 200 industrial parks along with specialised parks such as Technology Park Malaysia and Kulim Hi - Tech Park . Fresh water is available to over 95 per cent of the population . During the colonial period , development was mainly concentrated in economically powerful cities and in areas forming security concerns . Although rural areas have been the focus of great development , they still lag behind areas such as the West Coast of Peninsular Malaysia . The telecommunication network , although strong in urban areas , is less available to the rural population . Energy Main articles : Energy policy of Malaysia and List of power stations in Malaysia Malaysia 's energy infrastructure sector is largely dominated by Tenaga Nasional , the largest electric utility company in Southeast Asia , with over RM99. 03 billion of assets . Customers are connected to electricity through the National Grid , with more than 420 transmission substations in the Peninsular linked together by approximately 11,000 km of transmission lines operating at 132 , 275 and 500 kilovolts . In 2013 , Malaysia 's total power generation capacity was over 29,728 megawatts . Total electricity generation was 140,985.01 GWh and total electricity consumption was 116,087.51 GWh . Energy production in Malaysia is largely based on oil and natural gas , owing to Malaysia 's oil reserves and natural gas reserves , which is the fourth largest in Asia - Pacific after China , India and Vietnam . Transportation Main articles : Transport in Malaysia , Rail transport in Malaysia , and List of airports in Malaysia Transportation in Malaysia . Clockwise from top : North -- South Expressway , KTM ETS Class 91 ( left ) and KTM Komuter Class 92 ( right ) and the Kuala Lumpur International Airport . Malaysia 's road network is one of the most comprehensive in Asia and covers a total of 144,403 kilometres ( 89,728 mi ) . The main national road network is the Malaysian Federal Roads System , which span over 49,935 km ( 31,028 mi ) . Most of the federal roads in Malaysia are 2 - lane roads . In town areas , federal roads may become 4 - lane roads to increase traffic capacity . Nearly all federal roads are paved with tarmac except parts of the Skudai -- Pontian Highway which is paved with concrete , while parts of the Federal Highway linking Klang to Kuala Lumpur , is paved with asphalt . Malaysia has over 1,798 kilometres ( 1,117 mi ) of highways and the longest highway , the North -- South Expressway , extends over 800 kilometres ( 497 mi ) on the West Coast of Peninsular Malaysia , connecting major urban centres like Kuala Lumpur , Penang and Johor Bahru . In 2015 , the government announced a RM27 billion ( US $8.23 billion ) Pan-Borneo Highway project to upgrade all trunk roads to dual carriage expressways , bringing the standard of East Malaysian highways to the same level of quality of Peninsular highways . There is currently 1,833 kilometres ( 1,139 mi ) of railways in Malaysia , 767 km ( 477 mi ) are double tracked and electrified . Rail transport in Malaysia comprises heavy rail ( KTM ) , light rapid transit and monorail ( Rapid Rail ) , and a funicular railway line ( Penang Hill Railway ) . Heavy rail is mostly used for intercity passenger and freight transport as well as some urban public transport , while LRTs are used for intra-city urban public transport . There are two commuter rail services linking Kuala Lumpur with the Kuala Lumpur International Airport . The sole monorail line in the country is also used for public transport in Kuala Lumpur , while the only funicular railway line is in Penang . A rapid transit project , the KVMRT , is currently under construction to improve Kuala Lumpur 's public transport system . The railway network covers most of the 11 states in Peninsular Malaysia . In East Malaysia , only the state of Sabah has railways . The network is also connected to the Thai railway 1,000 mm ( 3 ft 3 ⁄ in ) network in the north . If the Burma Railway is rebuilt , services to Myanmar , India , and China could be initiated . Malaysia has 118 airports , of which 38 are paved . The national airline is Malaysia Airlines , providing international and domestic air services . Major international routes and domestic routes crossing between West Malaysia and East Malaysia are served by Malaysia Airlines , AirAsia and Malindo Air while smaller domestic routes are supplemented by smaller airlines like MASwings , Firefly and Berjaya Air . Major cargo airlines include MASkargo and Transmile Air Services . Kuala Lumpur International Airport is the main and busiest airport of Malaysia . In 2014 , it was the world 's 13th busiest airport by international passenger traffic , recording over 25.4 million international passenger traffic . It was also the world 's 20th busiest airport by passenger traffic , recording over 48.9 million passengers . Other major airports include Kota Kinabalu International Airport , which is also Malaysia 's second busiest airport and busiest airport in East Malaysia with over 6.9 million passengers in 2013 , and Penang International Airport , which serves Malaysia 's second largest urban area , with over 5.4 million passengers in 2013 . Malaysia is strategically located on the Strait of Malacca , one of the most important shipping lanes in the world . Malaysia has two ports that are listed in the top 20 busiest ports in the world , Port Klang and Port of Tanjung Pelepas , which are respectively the 2nd and 3rd busiest ports in Southeast Asia after the Port of Singapore . Port Klang is Malaysia 's busiest port , and the 13th busiest port in the world in 2013 , handling over 10.3 million TEUs. Port of Tanjung Pelepas is Malaysia 's second busiest port , and the 19th busiest port in the world in 2013 , handling over 7.6 million TEUs . Demographics Main article : Demographics of Malaysia The percentage distribution of Malaysian population by ethnic group based on 2010 census . According to the Malaysian Department of Statistics , the country 's population was 28,334,135 in 2010 , making it the 42nd most populated country . According to a 2012 estimate , the population is increasing by 1.54 percent per year . Malaysia has an average population density of 96 people per km2 , ranking it 116th in the world for population density . People within the 15 -- 64 age group constitute 69.5 percent of the total population ; the 0 -- 14 age group corresponds to 24.5 percent ; while senior citizens aged 65 years or older make up 6.0 percent . In 1960 , when the first official census was recorded in Malaysia , the population was 8.11 million . 91.8 per cent of the population are Malaysian citizens . Malaysian citizens are divided along ethnic lines , with 67.4 per cent considered bumiputera The largest group of bumiputera are Malays , who are defined in the constitution as Muslims who practice Malay customs and culture . They play a dominant role politically . Bumiputera status is also accorded to certain non-Malay indigenous peoples , including ethnic Thais , Khmers , Chams and the natives of Sabah and Sarawak . Non-Malay bumiputera make up more than half of Sarawak 's population and over two thirds of Sabah 's population . There also exist aboriginal groups in much smaller numbers on the peninsula , where they are collectively known as the Orang Asli . Laws over who gets bumiputera status vary between states . Other minorities lack bumiputera status . 24.6 per cent of the population are of Chinese descent , while those of Indian descent comprise 7.3 per cent of the population . The Chinese have historically been dominant in the business and commerce community , and form a plurality of the population of Penang . Immigrants from India , the majority of them Tamils , began arriving in Malaysia early in the 19th century . Malaysian citizenship is not automatically granted to those born in Malaysia , but is granted to a child born of two Malaysian parents outside Malaysia . Dual citizenship is not permitted . Citizenship in the states of Sabah and Sarawak in Malaysian Borneo are distinct from citizenship in Peninsular Malaysia for immigration purposes . Every citizen is issued a biometric smart chip identity card known as MyKad at the age of 12 , and must carry the card at all times . Population density ( person per km ) in 2010 . The education system features a non-compulsory kindergarten education followed by six years of compulsory primary education , and five years of optional secondary education . Schools in the primary education system are divided into two categories : national primary schools , which teach in Malay , and vernacular schools , which teach in Chinese or Tamil . Secondary education is conducted for five years . In the final year of secondary education , students sit for the Malaysian Certificate of Education examination . Since the introduction of the matriculation programme in 1999 , students who completed the 12 - month programme in matriculation colleges can enroll in local universities . However , in the matriculation system , only 10 per cent of places are open to non-bumiputera students . Putra Mosque in Putrajaya The infant mortality rate in 2009 was 6 deaths per 1000 births , and life expectancy at birth in 2009 was 75 years . With the aim of developing Malaysia into a medical tourism destination , 5 per cent of the government social sector development budget is spent on health care . The population in concentrated on Peninsular Malaysia where 20 million of approximately 28 million Malaysians live . 70 per cent of the population is urban . Kuala Lumpur is the capital and the largest city in Malaysia , as well as its main commercial and financial centre . Putrajaya , a purpose - built city constructed from 1999 , is the seat of government , as many executive and judicial branches of the federal government were moved there to ease growing congestion within Kuala Lumpur . Due to the rise in labour - intensive industries , the country is estimated to have over 3 million migrant workers ; about 10 per cent of the population . Sabah - based NGOs estimate that out of the 3 million that make up the population of Sabah , 2 million are illegal immigrants . Malaysia hosts a population of refugees and asylum seekers numbering approximately 171,500 . Of this population , approximately 79,000 are from Burma , 72,400 from the Philippines , and 17,700 from Indonesia . Malaysian officials are reported to have turned deportees directly over to human smugglers in 2007 , and Malaysia employs RELA , a volunteer militia with a history of controversies , to enforce its immigration law . Largest cities of Malaysia ( 2010 ) Kuala Lumpur George Town Rank City State Population view talk Ipoh Petaling Jaya Kuala Lumpur Federal Territories 1,588,750 George Town Penang 708,127 Ipoh Perak 657,892 Petaling Jaya Selangor 613,977 5 Shah Alam Selangor 541,306 6 Johor Bahru Johor 497,067 7 Melaka Melaka 484,885 8 Kota Kinabalu Sabah 452,058 9 Alor Setar Kedah 405,523 10 Kuala Terengganu Terengganu 337,553 Religion Main article : Religion in Malaysia The percentage distribution of Malaysian population by religion based on 2010 census . The constitution grants freedom of religion and makes Malaysia an officially secular state , while establishing Islam as the `` religion of the Federation '' . According to the Population and Housing Census 2010 figures , ethnicity and religious beliefs correlate highly . Approximately 61.3 % of the population practice Islam , 19.8 % practice Buddhism , 9.2 % Christianity , 6.3 % Hinduism and 1.3 % practice Confucianism , Taoism and other traditional Chinese religions . 0.7 % declared no religion and the remaining 1.4 % practised other religions or did not provide any information . Sunni Islam of Shafi'i school of jurisprudence is the dominant branch of Islam in Malaysia , while 18 % are nondenominational Muslims . The Malaysian constitution strictly defines what makes a `` Malay '' , considering Malays those who are Muslim , speak Malay regularly , practise Malay customs , and lived in or have ancestors from Brunei , Malaysia and Singapore . Statistics from the 2010 Census indicate that 83.6 % of the Chinese population identify as Buddhist , with significant numbers of adherents following Taoism ( 3.4 % ) and Christianity ( 11.1 % ) , along with small Hui - Muslim populations in areas like Penang . The majority of the Indian population follow Hinduism ( 86.2 % ) , with a significant minority identifying as Christians ( 6.0 % ) or Muslims ( 4.1 % ) . Christianity is the predominant religion of the non-Malay bumiputera community ( 46.5 % ) with an additional 40.4 % identifying as Muslims . Muslims are obliged to follow the decisions of Syariah courts in matters concerning their religion . The Islamic judges are expected to follow the Shafi'i legal school of Islam , which is the main madh'hab of Malaysia . The jurisdiction of Syariah courts is limited to Muslims in matters such as marriage , inheritance , divorce , apostasy , religious conversion , and custody among others . No other criminal or civil offences are under the jurisdiction of the Shariah courts , which have a similar hierarchy to the Civil Courts . Despite being the supreme courts of the land , the Civil Courts do not hear matters related to Islamic practices . Language Main article : Languages of Malaysia The distribution of language families of Malaysia shown by colours : ( click image to enlarge ) Malayic Bornean Aslian Land Dayak Sama -- Bajaw Philippine Creole Areas with multiple languages The official and national language of Malaysia is Malaysian , a standardised form of the Malay language . The terminology as per government policy is Bahasa Malaysia ( literally `` Malaysian language '' ) but legislation continues to refer to the official language as Bahasa Melayu ( literally `` Malay language '' ) . The National Language Act 1967 specifies the Latin ( Rumi ) script as the official script of the national language , but does not prohibit the use of the traditional Jawi script . English remains an active second language , with its use allowed for some official purposes under the National Language Act of 1967 . In Sarawak , English is an official state language alongside Malaysian . Historically , English was the de facto administrative language , with Malay becoming predominant after the 1969 race riots ( 13 May Incident ) . Malaysian English , also known as Malaysian Standard English , is a form of English derived from British English . Malaysian English is widely used in business , along with Manglish , which is a colloquial form of English with heavy Malay , Chinese , and Tamil influences . The government discourages the use of non-standard Malay but has no power to issue compounds or fines to those who use improper Malay on their advertisements . Many other languages are used in Malaysia , which contains speakers of 137 living languages . Peninsular Malaysia contains speakers of 41 of these languages . The native tribes of East Malaysia have their own languages which are related to , but easily distinguishable from , Malay . Iban is the main tribal language in Sarawak while Dusunic and Kadazan languages are spoken by the natives in Sabah . Chinese Malaysians predominantly speak Chinese dialects from the southern provinces of China . The more common Chinese varieties in the country are Cantonese , Mandarin , Hokkien , Hakka , Hainanese , and Fuzhou . Tamil is used predominantly by Tamils , who form a majority of Malaysian Indians . Other South Asian languages are also widely spoken in Malaysia , as well as Thai . A small number of Malaysians have Caucasian ancestry and speak creole languages , such as the Portuguese - based Malaccan Creoles , and the Spanish - based Chavacano language . Culture Main article : Culture of Malaysia A cook making murtabak , a type of pancake mixed with eggs , small pieces of meat and onions , in Kuala Lumpur . Malaysia has a multi-ethnic , multicultural , and multilingual society . The original culture of the area stemmed from indigenous tribes that inhabited it , along with the Malays who later moved there . Substantial influence exists from Chinese and Indian culture , dating back to when foreign trade began . Other cultural influences include the Persian , Arabic , and British cultures . Due to the structure of the government , coupled with the social contract theory , there has been minimal cultural assimilation of ethnic minorities . In 1971 , the government created a `` National Cultural Policy '' , defining Malaysian culture . It stated that Malaysian culture must be based on the culture of the indigenous peoples of Malaysia , that it may incorporate suitable elements from other cultures , and that Islam must play a part in it . It also promoted the Malay language above others . This government intervention into culture has caused resentment among non-Malays who feel their cultural freedom was lessened . Both Chinese and Indian associations have submitted memorandums to the government , accusing it of formulating an undemocratic culture policy . Some cultural disputes exist between Malaysia and neighbouring countries , notably Indonesia . The two countries have a similar cultural heritage , sharing many traditions and items . However , disputes have arisen over things ranging from culinary dishes to Malaysia 's national anthem . Strong feelings exist in Indonesia about protecting their national heritage . The Malaysian government and the Indonesian government have met to defuse some of the tensions resulting from the overlaps in culture . Feelings are not as strong in Malaysia , where most recognise that many cultural values are shared . Fine arts See also : Music of Malaysia and Malaysian literature A craftsman making batik . Malaysian batik is usually patterned with floral motifs with light colouring . Traditional Malaysian art was mainly centred on the areas of carving , weaving , and silversmithing . Traditional art ranges from handwoven baskets from rural areas to the silverwork of the Malay courts . Common artworks included ornamental kris , beetle nut sets , and woven batik and songket fabrics . Indigenous East Malaysians are known for their wooden masks . Each ethnic group have distinct performing arts , with little overlap between them . However , Malay art does show some North Indian influence due to the historical influence of India . Traditional Malay music and performing arts appear to have originated in the Kelantan - Pattani region with influences from India , China , Thailand and Indonesia . The music is based around percussion instruments , the most important of which is the gendang ( drum ) . There are at least 14 types of traditional drums . Drums and other traditional percussion instruments and are often made from natural materials . Music is traditionally used for storytelling , celebrating life - cycle events , and occasions such as a harvest . It was once used as a form of long - distance communication . In East Malaysia , gong - based musical ensembles such as agung and kulintang are commonly used in ceremonies such as funerals and weddings . These ensembles are also common in neighbouring regions such as in Mindanao in the Philippines , Kalimantan in Indonesia , and Brunei . Wau bulan , originated from Kelantan , is one of Malaysia 's fine arts . Malaysia has a strong oral tradition that has existed since before the arrival of writing , and continues today . Each of the Malay Sultanates created their own literary tradition , influenced by pre-existing oral stories and by the stories that came with Islam . The first Malay literature was in the Arabic script . The earliest known Malay writing is on the Terengganu stone , made in 1303 . Chinese and Indian literature became common as the numbers of speakers increased in Malaysia , and locally produced works based in languages from those areas began to be produced in the 19th century . English has also become a common literary language . In 1971 , the government took the step of defining the literature of different languages . Literature written in Malay was called `` the national literature of Malaysia '' , literature in other bumiputera languages was called `` regional literature '' , while literature in other languages was called `` sectional literature '' . Malay poetry is highly developed , and uses many forms . The Hikayat form is popular , and the pantun has spread from Malay to other languages . Cuisine Main article : Malaysian cuisine Teh tarik . Nasi lemak . The national drink and national dish of the country . Malaysia 's cuisine reflects the multi-ethnic makeup of its population . Many cultures from within the country and from surrounding regions have greatly influenced the cuisine . Much of the influence comes from the Malay , Chinese , Indian , Thai , Javanese , and Sumatran cultures , largely due to the country being part of the ancient spice route . The cuisine is very similar to that of Singapore and Brunei , and also bears resemblance to Filipino cuisine . The different states have varied dishes , and often the food in Malaysia is different from the original dishes . Sometimes food not found in its original culture is assimilated into another ; for example , Chinese restaurants in Malaysia often serve Malay dishes . Food from one culture is sometimes also cooked using styles taken from another culture , For example , sambal belacan ( shrimp paste ) are commonly used as ingredients by Chinese restaurants to create the stir fried water spinach ( kangkung belacan ) . This means that although much of Malaysian food can be traced back to a certain culture , they have their own identity . Rice is popular in many dishes . Chili is commonly found in local cuisine , although this does not necessarily make them spicy . Media Main article : Media of Malaysia Malaysia 's main newspapers are owned by the government and political parties in the ruling coalition , although some major opposition parties also have their own , which are openly sold alongside regular newspapers . A divide exists between the media in the two halves of the country . Peninsular - based media gives low priority to news from the East , and often treats the eastern states as colonies of the Peninsula . The media have been blamed for increasing tension between Indonesia and Malaysia , and giving Malaysians a bad image of Indonesians . The country has Malay , English , Chinese , and Tamil dailies . Freedom of the press is limited , with numerous restrictions on publishing rights and information dissemination . The government has previously tried to crack down on opposition papers before elections . In 2007 , a government agency issued a directive to all private television and radio stations to refrain from broadcasting speeches made by opposition leaders , a move condemned by politicians from the opposition Democratic Action Party . Sabah , where all tabloids but one are independent of government control , has the freest press in Malaysia . Laws such as the Printing Presses and Publications Act have also been cited as curtailing freedom of expression . Holidays and festivals Main article : Public holidays in Malaysia Southeast Asia 's largest Buddhist temple -- Kek Lok Si in Penang -- illuminated in preparation for the Lunar New Year . Malaysians observe a number of holidays and festivities throughout the year . Some are federally gazetted public holidays and some are observed by individual states . Other festivals are observed by particular ethnic or religion groups , and the main holiday of each major group has been declared a public holiday . The most observed national holiday is Hari Merdeka ( Independence Day ) on 31 August , commemorating the independence of the Federation of Malaya in 1957 . Malaysia Day on 16 September commemorates federation in 1963 . Other notable national holidays are Labour Day ( 1 May ) and the King 's birthday ( first week of June ) . Muslim holidays are prominent as Islam is the state religion ; Hari Raya Puasa ( also called Hari Raya Aidilfitri , Malay for Eid al - Fitr ) , Hari Raya Haji ( also called Hari Raya Aidiladha , Malay for Eid ul - Adha ) , Maulidur Rasul ( birthday of the Prophet ) , and others being observed . Malaysian Chinese celebrate festivals such as Chinese New Year and others relating to traditional Chinese beliefs . Hindus in Malaysia celebrate Deepavali , the festival of lights , while Thaipusam is a religious rite which sees pilgrims from all over the country converge at the Batu Caves . Malaysia 's Christian community celebrates most of the holidays observed by Christians elsewhere , most notably Christmas and Easter . East Malaysians also celebrate a harvest festival known as Gawai , and another one known as Kaamatan . Despite most festivals being identified with a particular ethnic or religious group , celebrations are universal . In a custom known as `` open house '' Malaysians participate in the celebrations of others , often visiting the houses of those who identify with the festival . Sports Main article : Sport in Malaysia Logo of the XVI Commonwealth Games held in Kuala Lumpur in 1998 Traditional sports such as the martial art style Silat Melayu persist alongside modern sports . Popular sports in Malaysia include association football , badminton , field hockey , bowls , tennis , squash , martial arts , horse riding , sailing , and skate boarding . Football is the most popular sport in Malaysia and the country is currently studying the possibility of bidding as a joint host for 2034 FIFA World Cup . Badminton matches attract thousands of spectators , and since 1948 Malaysia has been one of four countries to hold the Thomas Cup , the world team championship trophy of men 's badminton . The Malaysian Lawn Bowls Federation was registered in 1997 . Squash was brought to the country by members of the British army , with the first competition being held in 1939 . The Squash Racquets Association Of Malaysia was created on 25 June 1972 . Malaysia has proposed a Southeast Asian football league . The men 's national field hockey team ranked 13th in the world as of December 2015 . The 3rd Hockey World Cup was hosted at Merdeka Stadium in Kuala Lumpur , as well as the 10th cup . The country also has its own Formula One track -- the Sepang International Circuit . It runs for 310.408 kilometres ( 192.88 mi ) , and held its first Grand Prix in 1999 . Traditional sports include Silat Melayu , the most common style of martial arts practised by ethnic Malays in Malaysia , Brunei , and Singapore . The Federation of Malaya Olympic Council was formed in 1953 , and received recognition by the IOC in 1954 . It first participated in the 1956 Melbourne Olympic Games . The council was renamed the Olympic Council of Malaysia in 1964 , and has participated in all but one Olympic games since its inception . The largest number of athletes ever sent to the Olympics was 57 to the 1972 Munich Olympic Games . Malaysian athletes have won a total of six Olympic medals , five in Badminton , one in Platform diving . 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American University . Archived from the original on 4 May 2011 . Retrieved 25 May 2011 . Jump up ^ `` Telephones -- mobile celluar '' . The World Factbook . Retrieved 25 May 2011 . ^ Jump up to : Guidebook on Expatriate Living in Malaysia ( PDF ) . Malaysia Industrial Development Authority . May 2009 . pp. 8 -- 9 , 69 . Jump up ^ `` Infrastructure and Rural Development in Malaysia '' ( PDF ) . Centre on Integrated Rural Development for Asia and the Pacific . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on 6 June 2011 . Retrieved 25 May 2011 . Jump up ^ `` Tenaga Nasional Berhad 500kV Transmission System , Phase 1 '' . Ranhill Berhad . Archived from the original on 27 February 2009 . Retrieved 23 May 2009 . Jump up ^ `` Energy Commission '' . Archived from the original on 9 May 2015 . Retrieved 11 April 2015 . Jump up ^ Selamat , Salsuwanda & Abidin , Che Zulzikrami Azner . `` Renewable Energy and Kyoto Protocol : Adoption in Malaysia '' . Universiti Malaysia Perlis . 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The Star . 4 November 2009 . Archived from the original on 7 November 2009 . Retrieved 26 October 2010 . Jump up ^ Kuppusamy , Baradan ( 24 March 2006 ) . `` Racism alive and well in Malaysia '' . Asia Times . Retrieved 27 October 2010 . ^ Jump up to : West , Barbara A. ( 2009 ) . Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Asia and Oceania , Volume 1 . Facts on File inc . p. 486 . ISBN 0 - 8160 - 7109 - 8 . Jump up ^ `` Malaysia : Citizenship laws , including methods by which a person may obtain citizenship ; whether dual citizenship is recognized and if so , how it is acquired ; process for renouncing citizenship and related documentation ; grounds for revoking citizenship '' . Immigration and Refugee Board of Canada . 16 November 2007 . Archived from the original on 24 November 2011 . Retrieved 25 July 2011 . Jump up ^ May , Leow Yong ( 30 August 2007 ) . `` More than just a card '' . The Star . Archived from the original on 5 January 2009 . Retrieved 27 October 2010 . 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Pew Research Center . 9 August 2012 . Retrieved 4 September 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Chapter 1 : Religious Affiliation '' . 9 August 2012 . Retrieved 5 October 2016 . Jump up ^ Mahathir , Marina ( 17 August 2010 ) . `` Malaysia moving forward in matters of Islam and women by Marina Mahathir '' . Common Ground News Service . Retrieved 14 September 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Malay , Standard '' . Ethnologue. 2009 . Retrieved 25 July 2011 . Jump up ^ `` Mahathir regrets govt focussing too much on Bahasa '' . Daily Express . 2 October 2013 . Archived from the original on 12 July 2014 . Retrieved 16 October 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Federal Constitution '' ( PDF ) . Judicial Appointments Commission . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on 24 April 2012 . Retrieved 29 November 2011 . ^ Jump up to : `` National Language Act 1967 '' ( PDF ) . Malaysian Attorney General Chambers . 2006 . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on 6 August 2015 . Retrieved 20 October 2015 . 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Royal Netherlands Institute of Southeast Asian and Caribbean Studies . 133 ( 4 ) : 438 -- 458 . doi : 10.1163 / 22134379 - 90002605 . Retrieved 7 October 2010 . ^ Jump up to : `` Cultural Tourism Promotion and policy in Malaysia '' . School of Housing , Building and Planning . 22 October 1992 . Archived from the original on 29 May 2010 . Retrieved 6 November 2010 . ^ Jump up to : Van der Heide , William ( 2002 ) . Malaysian cinema , Asian film : border crossings and national cultures . Amsterdam University Press . pp. 98 -- 99 . ISBN 90 - 5356 - 580 - 9 . ^ Jump up to : Schonhardt , Sara ( 3 October 2009 ) . `` Indonesia cut from a different cloth '' . Asia Times . Retrieved 6 November 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Indonesia , Malaysia agree to cool tension on cultural heritage dispute '' . People Daily . 17 September 2009 . Retrieved 6 November 2010 . Jump up ^ Dunford , George ( 2006 ) . Southeast Asia on a Shoestring . Lonely Planet . pp. 419 -- . 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Archived from the original on 2 July 2014 . Retrieved 6 November 2013 . Jump up ^ Rules , Dwayne A. ( 7 April 2011 ) . `` Nasi lemak , our ' national dish ' '' . The Star . Retrieved 6 November 2013 . ^ Jump up to : Eckhardt , Robyn ( 1 June 2008 ) . Kuala Lumpur Melaka & Penang . Lonely Planet . p. 42 . ISBN 978 - 1 - 74104 - 485 - 0 . ^ Jump up to : Jarvis , Alice - Azania ( 13 October 2010 ) . `` Far Eastern cuisine : Fancy a Malaysian ? -- Features , Food & Drink '' . The Independent . Retrieved 3 November 2010 . Jump up ^ Wu , David Y.H. ; Tan , Chee Beng ( 2001 ) . Changing Chinese foodways in Asia . The Chinese University of Hong Kong . p. 128 . ISBN 962 - 201 - 914 - 5 . Jump up ^ Yulia Sapthiani ( 30 January 2011 ) . `` Menikmati Kuliner Peranakan '' ( in Indonesian ) . Kompas . Archived from the original on 24 June 2016 . Retrieved 24 June 2016 . Jump up ^ Ahmad , Razak ( 5 February 2010 ) . `` Malaysian media shapes battleground in Anwar trial '' . Reuters . 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who was supposed to be in blazing saddles

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Blazing_Saddles&oldid=857007246

Blazing Saddles - wikipedia Blazing Saddles Blazing Saddles Theatrical release poster by John Alvin Directed by Mel Brooks Produced by Michael Hertzberg Screenplay by Andrew Bergman Mel Brooks Richard Pryor Norman Steinberg Al Uger Story by Andrew Bergman Starring Cleavon Little Gene Wilder Harvey Korman Slim Pickens Madeline Kahn Mel Brooks Dom DeLuise Music by John Morris Songs : Mel Brooks Cinematography Joseph Biroc Edited by Danford Greene John C. Howard Distributed by Warner Bros . Release date February 7 , 1974 ( 1974 - 02 - 07 ) Running time 93 minutes Country United States Language English Budget $2.6 million Box office $119.6 million Blazing Saddles is a 1974 American satirical Western film directed by Mel Brooks . Starring Cleavon Little and Gene Wilder , the film was written by Brooks , Andrew Bergman , Richard Pryor , Norman Steinberg , and Al Uger , and was based on Bergman 's story and draft . The film received generally positive reviews from critics and audiences , was nominated for three Academy Awards , and is ranked No. 6 on the American Film Institute 's 100 Years ... 100 Laughs list . Brooks appears in three supporting roles , Governor William J. Le Petomane a Yiddish - speaking Indian chief and `` a director '' in line to help invade Rockridge ( a nod to Hitchcock ) ; he also dubs lines for one of Lili von Shtupp 's backing troupe . The supporting cast includes Slim Pickens , Alex Karras , and David Huddleston , as well as Brooks regulars Dom DeLuise , Madeline Kahn , and Harvey Korman . Bandleader Count Basie has a cameo as himself . The film satirizes the racism obscured by myth - making Hollywood accounts of the American West , with the hero being a black sheriff in an all - white town . The film is full of deliberate anachronisms , from the Count Basie Orchestra playing `` April in Paris '' in the Wild West , to Slim Pickens referring to the Wide World of Sports , to the German army of World War II . Contents 1 Plot 2 Cast 3 Production 4 Reception 5 Accolades 6 Legacy 6.1 TV pilot 6.2 Soundtrack 6.3 In popular culture 7 Home media 8 Possible stage production 9 See also 10 References 11 External links Plot ( edit ) On the American frontier of 1874 , a new railroad will soon be rerouted through Rock Ridge , in order to avoid running through quicksand . The conniving attorney general Hedley Lamarr ( Hedley , not Hedy ) wants to force Rock Ridge 's residents to abandon their town , and sends a gang of thugs , led by his flunky Taggart , to shoot the sheriff and trash the town . The townspeople demand that Governor William J. Le Petomane appoint a new sheriff to protect them . Lamarr persuades the dim - witted Le Petomane to appoint Bart , a black railroad worker , who was about to be executed for assaulting a white foreman . A black sheriff , he reasons , will offend the townspeople , create chaos , and leave the town at his mercy . After an initial hostile reception ( where Sheriff Bart has to take himself hostage to escape ) , he relies on his quick wits and the assistance of Jim , an alcoholic gunslinger known as the `` Waco Kid '' , to overcome the townspeople 's hostility . He subdues Mongo , an immensely strong , dim - witted , but philosophical henchman sent to kill him ; when he visits the railroad work site and discovers their interest in the land , the Waco Kid outshoots Taggart and his thugs ; finally , Bart outmaneuvers German seductress - for - hire Lili von Shtupp at her own game , with Lili falling in love with him . Lamarr , furious that his schemes have backfired , hatches a larger plan involving a recruited army of thugs , including common criminals , Ku Klux Klansmen , Nazis , and Methodists . Three miles east of Rock Ridge , Bart introduces the white townspeople to the black , Chinese , and Irish railroad workers , who have agreed to help in exchange for acceptance by the community , and explains his plan to defeat Lamarr 's army . They labor all night to build a perfect replica of their town , as a diversion ; with no people in it , though , Bart realizes it will not fool the villains . While the townspeople construct replicas of themselves , Bart , Jim , and Mongo buy time by constructing the `` Gov. William J. Le Petomane Throughway '' , forcing the raiding party to turn back for `` a shitload of dimes '' to pay the toll . Once through the tollbooth , the raiders attack the fake town populated with dummies , which are boobytrapped with dynamite bombs . After Jim detonates the bombs with his sharpshooting , launching bad guys and horses skyward , the Rock Ridgers storm the villains . The resulting brawl between townsfolk , railroad workers , and Lamarr 's thugs breaks the fourth wall , spilling onto a neighboring set , where director Buddy Bizarre is directing a Busby Berkeley - style top - hat - and - tails musical number ; then into the studio commissary for a food fight ; and then out of the Warner Bros. film lot into the streets of Burbank . Lamarr , realizing he has been beaten , hails a taxi and orders the driver to `` drive me off this picture '' . He ducks into Grauman 's Chinese Theatre , which is playing the premiere of Blazing Saddles . As he settles into his seat , he sees Bart arriving on horseback outside the theatre . Bart blocks Lamarr 's escape , and then shoots him in the groin . Bart and Jim then go into Grauman 's to watch the end of the film , in which Bart announces to the townspeople that he is moving on . Riding out of town , he finds Jim , and invites him along to `` nowhere special '' . They ride off into the sunset on horseback , but stop at a chauffeured stretch limousine and continue outward in the vehicle . Cast ( edit ) Cleavon Little as Sheriff Bart Gene Wilder as Jim , the `` Waco Kid '' Harvey Korman as Hedley Lamarr Madeline Kahn as Lili von Shtupp , the `` Teutonic Titwillow '' Slim Pickens as Taggart Dom DeLuise as Buddy Bizarre Mel Brooks as Gov. William J. Le Petomane / Indian Chief Liam Dunn as Reverend Johnson George Furth as Van Johnson Burton Gilliam as Lyle John Hillerman as Howard Johnson David Huddleston as Olson Johnson Richard Collier as Dr. Samuel Johnson Alex Karras as Mongo Jack Starrett as Gabby Johnson Robyn Hilton as Miss Stein , the governor 's secretary Rodney Allen Rippy as Young Bart Charles McGregor as Charlie Robert Ridgely as Boris , the hangman Carol Arthur as Harriet Johnson Anne Bancroft as extra in church congregation Ralph Manza as man in commissary playing Hitler Cast notes Count Basie and his orchestra make a cameo appearance , playing `` April in Paris '' in the middle of the desert as Bart rides toward Rock Ridge to assume the post of sheriff . Brooks appears in three on - screen roles : Governor Le Petomane , the Yiddish - speaking Indian chief , and an applicant for Hedley Lamarr 's thug army ( an aviator wearing sunglasses and a flight jacket ) . He also has two off - screen voice roles , as one of Lili 's German chorus boys during `` I 'm Tired '' , and a grouchy moviegoer . Production ( edit ) The idea for the film came from a story outline written by Andrew Bergman that he originally intended to develop and produce himself . `` I wrote a first draft called Tex - X '' ( a play on Malcolm X 's name ) , he said . `` Alan Arkin was hired to direct and James Earl Jones was going to play the sheriff . That fell apart , as things often do . '' Brooks was taken with the story , which he described as `` hip talk -- 1974 talk and expressions -- happening in 1874 in the Old West '' , and purchased the film rights from Bergman . Though he had not worked with a writing team since Your Show of Shows , he hired a group of writers ( including Bergman ) to expand the outline , and posted a large sign : `` Please do not write a polite script . '' Brooks described the writing process as chaotic : `` Blazing Saddles was more or less written in the middle of a drunken fistfight . There were five of us all yelling loudly for our ideas to be put into the movie . Not only was I the loudest , but luckily I also had the right as director to decide what was in or out . '' Bergman remembers the room being just as chaotic , telling Creative Screenwriting , `` In the beginning , we had five people . One guy left after a couple of weeks . Then , it was basically me , Mel , Richie Pryor and Norman Steinberg . Richie left after the first draft and then Norman , Mel and I wrote the next three or four drafts . It was a riot . It was a rioter 's room ! '' The original title , Tex X , was rejected , as were Black Bart and Purple Sage . Brooks said he finally conceived Blazing Saddles one morning while taking a shower . For the movie 's title song , Brooks advertised in the trade papers for a `` Frankie Laine - type '' singer ; to his surprise , Laine himself offered his services . `` Frankie sang his heart out ... and we did n't have the heart to tell him it was a spoof . He never heard the whip cracks ; we put those in later . We got so lucky with his serious interpretation of the song . '' Casting was problematic . Richard Pryor was Brooks ' original choice to play the Sheriff Bart , but the studio , claiming his history of drug arrests made him uninsurable , refused to approve financing with Pryor as the star . Cleavon Little was cast in the role , and Pryor remained as a writer . Brooks offered the other leading role , the Waco Kid , to John Wayne ; he declined , deeming the film `` too blue '' for his family - oriented image , but assured Brooks that `` he would be the first one in line to see it . '' Gig Young was cast , but he collapsed during his first scene from what was later determined to be alcohol withdrawal syndrome , and Gene Wilder was flown in to replace him . Johnny Carson and Wilder both turned down the Hedley Lamarr role before Harvey Korman was cast . Madeline Kahn objected when Brooks asked to see her legs during her audition . `` She said , ' So it 's THAT kind of an audition ? ' '' Brooks recalled . `` I explained that I was a happily married man and that I needed someone who could straddle a chair with her legs like Marlene Dietrich in Destry Rides Again . So she lifted her skirt and said , ' No touching . ' '' Brooks had numerous conflicts over content with Warner Bros. executives , including frequent use of the word `` nigger '' , Lili Von Shtupp 's seduction scene , the cacophony of flatulence around the campfire , and Mongo punching out a horse . Brooks , whose contract gave him final content control , declined to make any substantive changes , with the exception of cutting Bart 's final line during Lili 's seduction : `` I hate to disappoint you , ma'am , but you 're sucking my arm . '' When asked later about the many `` nigger '' references , Brooks said he received consistent support from Pryor and Little . He added , `` If they did a remake of Blazing Saddles today ( 2012 ) , they would leave out the N - word . And then , you 've got no movie . '' Brooks said he received many letters of complaint after the film 's release , `` ... but of course , most of them were from white people . '' The film was almost not released . `` When we screened it for executives , there were few laughs '' , said Brooks . `` The head of distribution said , ' Let 's dump it and take a loss . ' But ( studio president John ) Calley insisted they open it in New York , Los Angeles and Chicago as a test . It became the studio 's top moneymaker that summer . '' The world premiere took place on February 7 , 1974 , at the Pickwick Drive - In Theater in Burbank ; 250 invited guests -- including Little and Wilder -- watched the film on horseback . The film 's subtitle on the poster , `` or never give a saga an even break ! refers to W.C. Fields ' film ( and motto ) `` Never Give a Sucker an Even Break '' . Reception ( edit ) This section needs expansion . You can help by adding to it . ( November 2016 ) While the film is now considered a classic comedy , critical reaction was mixed when the film was released . Vincent Canby wrote : Blazing Saddles has no dominant personality , and it looks as if it includes every gag thought up in every story conference . Whether good , bad or mild , nothing was thrown out . Woody Allen 's comedy , though very much a product of our Age of Analysis , recalls the wonder and discipline of people like Keaton and Laurel and Hardy . Mr. Brooks 's sights are lower . His brashness is rare , but his use of anachronism and anarchy recalls not the great film comedies of the past , but the middling ones like the Hope - Crosby `` Road '' pictures . With his talent he should do much better than that . Roger Ebert gave the film four stars and called it a `` crazed grabbag of a movie that does everything to keep us laughing except hit us over the head with a rubber chicken . Mostly , it succeeds . It 's an audience picture ; it does n't have a lot of classy polish and its structure is a total mess . But of course ! What does that matter while Alex Karras is knocking a horse cold with a right cross to the jaw ? '' The film grossed $119.5 million at the box office , becoming only the tenth film up to that time to pass the $100 million mark . On the film - critics aggregator Rotten Tomatoes , the film has 90 % positive reviews , saying , `` Daring , provocative , and laugh - out - loud funny , Blazing Saddles is a gleefully vulgar spoof of Westerns that marks a high point in Mel Brooks ' storied career . '' Hedy Lamarr sued Warner Bros. , charging that the film 's running parody of her name infringed on her right to privacy . Brooks said he was flattered ; the studio settled out of court for a small sum and an apology for `` almost using her name . '' Brooks said that Lamarr `` never got the joke . '' Accolades ( edit ) The film received three Academy Award nominations in 1974 : Best Actress in a Supporting Role ( Madeline Kahn ) , Best Film Editing , and Best Music , Original Song ( the title song ) . The film also earned two BAFTA awards nominations , for Best Newcomer ( Cleavon Little ) and Best Screenplay . The film won the Writers Guild of America Award for `` Best Comedy Written Directly for the Screen '' for writers Mel Brooks , Norman Steinberg , Andrew Bergman , Richard Pryor , and Alan Uger . In 2006 , Blazing Saddles was deemed `` culturally , historically , or aesthetically significant '' by the Library of Congress and was selected for preservation in the National Film Registry . The film is recognized by American Film Institute in these lists : 2000 : AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Laughs - # 6 Legacy ( edit ) TV pilot ( edit ) This section does not cite any sources . Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . ( August 2016 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) A television series titled Black Bart was produced for CBS based on Bergman 's original story . It featured Louis Gossett , Jr. as Bart and Steve Landesberg as his drunkard sidekick , a former Confederate officer named `` Reb Jordan '' . Other cast members included Millie Slavin and Noble Willingham . Bergman is listed as the sole creator . CBS aired the pilot once on April 4 , 1975 . The pilot episode featured guest appearances by Gerrit Graham and Brooke Adams and was written by Michael Elias and Rich Eustis . Elias and Eutis later created and executive produced the ABC sitcom Head of the Class ( 1986 - 1991 ) . Interviewed in 1996 , Steve Landesberg said Black Bart `` was like a joke ... We did the pilot , and CBS dumped it at the end of the 1975 season in April or May on a Friday . We thought it was done , then CBS tells us to come back and film six more episodes . And then another six . Six episodes each season , when an order was usually for 24 or 26 . I was on Barney Miller by that point , and we 'd film during the winter break when all other TV shows were on hiatus . And they never aired any of them . It was like a sick joke . If I was n't under contract I would have walked , but they were paying me so I ca n't complain . '' In 1989 , Louis Gossett , Jr. told Entertainment Tonight , `` CBS and Warner Bros. made a deal ... The deal was that CBS would get to air Blazing Saddles , and any sequels from the movie , in exchange for co-producing a TV show . At the time Warners wanted to make Blazing Saddles into a comedy series of films , a new one coming out every year or so . They wanted to use the model that the Brits had for the Carry On films . But ( Mel ) Brooks had a clause in his contract that said Warner had to keep producing Blazing Saddles stories , in the movies or TV , or they 'd lose the rights to make sequels . The TV show was a way to keep the rights . They did n't have to air it , just keep producing it . So for four years I spent my winter on a soundstage being paid to be in show that would never see the light of day , just so Warners could keep the sequel rights to Blazing Saddles . By 1979 they finally figured out the market had changed and they were n't going to make any sequels , so we were cancelled , if a show that never was supposed to air can be cancelled . '' Mel Brooks addressed the existence of the Black Bart series in 2005 : `` My lawyers , bless their souls , came to me and said , ' Warner Bros. is going to try and take away your control of the movie . Let 's put in a crazy condition that says they ca n't do any sequels unless they make it right away or make a TV show out of it within six months . ' Which is brilliant . They could n't make a sequel in six months , and the movie was too vulgar to be a TV show . Now it would air in family hour if that was still a thing . So the lawyers put that in , never thinking they 'd make a TV show ... In 1977 , three years later , Warner Bros comes to me and says they want to make another Blazing Saddles , and I say , ' No . You do n't have the right to do that . ' They say , ' Yes we do , we 've been making a TV series and still control the rights . ' What TV series ? I have n't seen a TV show . They take me onto the lot , into a projection booth , and show me three episodes . My lawyers never thought to put in language that said they had to air the damn thing , only that they had to make it . Oy gevalt ! Well , management changed and they never did Blazing Saddles 2 , and as far as I know they 're still making that stupid show to this day . '' The pilot episode of Black Bart was later included as a bonus feature on the Blazing Saddles 30th Anniversary DVD and the Blu - ray disc . Soundtrack ( edit ) The first studio - licensed release of the full music soundtrack to Blazing Saddles was on La - La Land Records on August 26 , 2008 . Remastered from original studio vault elements , the limited edition CD ( a run of 3000 ) features the songs from the film as well as composer John Morris 's score . Instrumental versions of all the songs are bonus tracks on the disc . The disc features exclusive liner notes featuring comments from Mel Brooks and John Morris . In popular culture ( edit ) The 2017 animated film Blazing Samurai , starring Michael Cera , Samuel L. Jackson , Michelle Yeoh , and Ricky Gervais , has been characterized by its creators as `` equally inspired by and an homage to Blazing Saddles . '' Brooks served as an executive producer for the production , and voiced one of the characters . Home Media ( edit ) The film was first released on DVD in 1997 . In 2006 , the film was released on Blu - ray . A 40th Anniversary Blu - Ray set was released in 2014 . Possible stage production ( edit ) In September 2017 , Mel Brooks indicated his desire to do a stage play version of Blazing Saddles in the future . See also ( edit ) List of American films of 1974 References ( edit ) Jump up ^ Stewart , Jocelyn ( February 10 , 2008 ) . `` John Alvin , 59 ; created movie posters for such films as ' Blazing Saddles ' and ' E.T. ' '' . Los Angeles Times . Retrieved February 10 , 2008 . Jump up ^ `` Blazing Saddles ( AA ) '' . British Board of Film Classification . May 3 , 1974 . Retrieved August 31 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Blazing Saddles ( 1974 ) '' . Box Office Mojo . Retrieved January 17 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Director and Leading Actors '' . Getback.com . Archived from the original on 2008 - 10 - 04 . Retrieved 2012 - 11 - 01 . Jump up ^ Crick , Robert Alan . The Big Screen Comedies of Mel Brooks McFarland , 2002 . ISBN 9780786443260 . pp. 65 - 66 . Quote : `` As for Mel Brooks himself , his aviator and voice - overs as a German dancer and cranky film - goer provide funny cameos ... '' . The book credits him as playing `` William J. LePetomane / Indian Chief / Aviator / Voice of German Dancer / Voice of Moviegoer . '' ^ Jump up to : Swinson , Brock ( June 24 , 2016 ) . `` ' It 's a Good - Natured Insanity . ' Andrew Bergman on Screenwriting '' . Creative Screenwriting . Retrieved June 24 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Pockross , Andrew ( 2014 - 05 - 09 ) . `` Mel Brooks on Blazing New Comedic Trails in ' Blazing Saddles ' '' . Yahoo ! Movies . Retrieved 2014 - 05 - 09 . Jump up ^ Swinson , Brock ( January 14 , 2016 ) . `` Mel Brooks on Screenwriting '' . Creative Screenwriting . Retrieved January 21 , 2016 . ^ Jump up to : `` Salon : in - depth news , politics , business , technology & culture '' . archive.salon.com . Retrieved November 9 , 2017 . Jump up ^ From the libretto of the La - LaLand Records soundtrack album Jump up ^ Staff ( May 20 , 2016 ) `` Mel Brooks on John Wayne , Improv and the Presidential Race '' Metro Philadelphia Jump up ^ Donnelly , Paul ( 2005 ) . Fade To Black : A Book of Movie Obituaries ( 3 ed . ) . Omnibus . p. 746 . ISBN 1 - 84449 - 430 - 6 . Jump up ^ Parish , James Robert ( 2008 ) . It 's Good to Be the King : The Seriously Funny Life of Mel Brooks . John Wiley and Sons . p. 9 . ISBN 0 - 470 - 22526 - 2 . Jump up ^ White , Timothy ( March 22 , 1979 ) `` Johnny Carson : The Rolling Stone Interview '' in Wenner , Jan S. ed. ( 2007 ) The Rolling Stone Interviews New York : Little , Brown . ISBN 978 - 0 - 316 - 02313 - 9 . Retrieved May 24 , 2016 . ^ Jump up to : Lumenick , L. ( May 3 , 2014 ) . Mel Brooks : 10 things you never knew about Blazing Saddles . nypost.com , retrieved May 24 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Madison , William V. ( 1 May 2015 ) . Madeline Kahn : Being the Music , A Life . University Press of Mississippi . pp. 119 -- . ISBN 978 - 1 - 61703 - 762 - 7 . Jump up ^ Weide , Robert ( Summer 2012 ) . `` Quiet on the Set ! Mel Brooks : the DGA Interview '' . DGA Quarterly . Los Angeles , California : Directors Guild of America , Inc. : 30 -- 37 . OCLC 68905662 . Page 36 : Q : Blazing Saddles also makes frequent use of the `` N - word . '' Could you get away with that today ? A : Never . If they did a remake of Blazing Saddles today , they would leave out the N - word . And then , you 've got no movie . And I would n't have used it so much if I did n't have Richard Pryor with me on the set as one of my writers . And Cleavon Little ( as Sheriff Bart ) was great . Even though it was allowed , I kept asking Cleavon , `` Is that all right there ? Is that too much there ? Am I pushing this ? '' and he 'd say , `` no , no , no , it 's perfect there . '' ^ Jump up to : Interview : Mel Brooks . Blazing Saddles ( DVD ) . Burbank , California : Warner Brothers Pictures / Warner Home Video , 2004 . ISBN 0 - 7907 - 5735 - 4 . Jump up ^ Lozano , C ( October 8 , 1989 ) . Death of a Drive - In : Pickwick Theater Shuts Down , Ending an Era for Burbank Moviegoers and Film Makers . LATimes.com , retrieved May 31 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Harries , Dan ( 2000 ) . Film Parody . London : British Film Institute . p. 115 . ISBN 9780851708027 . Jump up ^ Canby , Vincent ( February 8 , 1974 ) . `` Screen : ' Blazing Saddles ' , a Western in Burlesque '' . The New York Times . Jump up ^ Ebert , Roger ( February 7 , 1974 ) . `` Blazing Saddles '' . The Chicago Sun - Times . Jump up ^ `` Blazing Saddles ( 1974 ) '' . Box Office Mojo. 1982 - 01 - 01 . Retrieved 2012 - 11 - 01 . Jump up ^ `` Blazing Saddles on Rotten Tomatoes '' . Rotten Tomatoes . Retrieved 2012 - 10 - 05 . Jump up ^ `` Film Most Promising Newcomer To Leading Film Roles in 1975 '' BAFTA Jump up ^ `` Film Screenplay in 1975 '' BAFTA ^ Jump up to : `` Blazing Saddles '' . IMDb.com . Retrieved November 9 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Laughs '' ( PDF ) . American Film Institute . Retrieved 2016 - 07 - 17 . Jump up ^ Black Bart on IMDb Jump up ^ `` Blazing Saddles press release at La - La Land Records '' . Lalalandrecords.com . Archived from the original on November 13 , 2012 . Retrieved 2012 - 11 - 01 . Jump up ^ Busch , Anita ( November 3 , 2015 ) . `` ' Blazing Samurai ' Lands A-List Voice Talent Led By Samuel L. Jackson '' . Deadline Hollywood . Retrieved September 7 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Blazing Saddles DVD '' . Blu-ray.com. 1997 - 06 - 25 . Retrieved 2016 - 09 - 07 . Jump up ^ `` Blazing Saddles Blu - ray '' . Blu-ray.com . Retrieved 2016 - 09 - 07 . Jump up ^ `` Blazing Saddles Blu - ray '' . Blu-ray.com . Retrieved 2016 - 09 - 07 . Jump up ^ Sabur , Rozina ( September 21 , 2017 ) . `` ' Stupidly politically correct society is the death of comedy ' , warns veteran comedian Mel Brooks '' . telegraph.co.uk . Telegraph Media Group Limited . Retrieved September 22 , 2017 . The director said he hopes he is able to recreate Blazing Saddles on the stage in the future . External links ( edit ) Wikiquote has quotations related to : Blazing Saddles Blazing Saddles on IMDb Blazing Saddles at the TCM Movie Database Blazing Saddles at AllMovie Blazing Saddles at the American Film Institute Catalog Blazing Saddles at Box Office Mojo Blazing Saddles at Rotten Tomatoes Mel Brooks Awards and nominations Films directed The Producers ( 1967 ) The Twelve Chairs ( 1970 ) Blazing Saddles ( 1974 ) Young Frankenstein ( 1974 ) Silent Movie ( 1976 ) High Anxiety ( 1977 ) History of the World , Part I ( 1981 ) Spaceballs ( 1987 ) Life Stinks ( 1991 ) Robin Hood : Men in Tights ( 1993 ) Dracula : Dead and Loving It ( 1995 ) Films produced To Be or Not to Be ( 1983 ) 84 Charing Cross Road ( 1987 ) Spaceballs ( 1987 ) The Producers ( 2005 ) Television series created Get Smart ( 1965 -- 1970 ) When Things Were Rotten ( 1975 ) The Nutt House ( 1989 ) Spaceballs : The Animated Series ( 2008 -- 2009 ) Musicals written for the stage Shinbone Alley ( 1957 ) All - American ( 1962 ) The Producers ( 2001 ) Young Frankenstein ( 2007 ) Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Blazing_Saddles&oldid=857007246 '' Categories : 1974 films English - language films 1970s parody films 1970s Western ( genre ) films American films American buddy films American comedy films American parody films American Western ( genre ) films Films scored by John Morris Films about racism Films directed by Mel Brooks Films shot in California Self - reflexive films Screenplays by Mel Brooks Warner Bros. films Western ( genre ) comedy films United States National Film Registry films Films set in 1856 Films set in 1874 Hidden categories : Use mdy dates from August 2016 Film articles using image size parameter Articles to be expanded from November 2016 All articles to be expanded Articles using small message boxes Articles needing additional references from August 2016 All articles needing additional references Talk Contents About Wikipedia Wikiquote Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Español Euskara فارسی Français Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית Nederlands 日本 語 Norsk Polski Português Română Русский Simple English Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska 中文 15 more Edit links This page was last edited on 28 August 2018 , at 23 : 39 ( UTC ) . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply . By using this site , you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia ® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation , Inc. , a non-profit organization . About Wikipedia

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how does the mls all star game work

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Major_League_Soccer_All-Star_Game&oldid=832021719

Major League Soccer All - star game - wikipedia Major League Soccer All - star game Jump to : navigation , search This article needs additional citations for verification . Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . ( July 2007 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) MLS All - Star Game Founded Region Major League Soccer ( CONCACAF ) Number of teams Current champions Real Madrid ( 1st title ) Most successful club ( s ) MLS All - Stars ( 9 times ) Television broadcasters FS1 , UniMás , TSN , TVA Sports 2017 MLS All - Star Game The Major League Soccer All - Star Game is an annual soccer game held by Major League Soccer featuring select players from the league against an international club . MLS initially adopted a traditional all - star game format used by other North American sports leagues where the Eastern Conference squared off against the Western Conference . This eventually evolved into the current system where the league annually invites a club from abroad to play against a league all - star team . The MLS All - Stars hold an 8 -- 4 record in the competition marking the season 's midpoint . Players are awarded rosters spots through a combination of fan voting and selections by the appointed manager and league commissioner . In case of a tie after full - time , the game does not use a 30 - minute extra time period ; instead it goes straight to a penalty shoot - out . Contents ( hide ) 1 History 2 Roster 3 Results by team 4 Results by year 4.1 `` East vs. West '' ( 1996 -- 1997 ) 4.2 `` MLS USA vs. MLS World '' ( 1998 ) 4.3 `` East vs. West '' ( 1999 -- 2001 ) 4.4 `` All - Stars vs. Guest '' ( 2002 -- 2003 ) 4.5 `` East vs. West '' ( 2004 ) 4.6 `` All - Stars vs. Guest '' ( 2005 -- present ) 5 References History ( edit ) This section needs expansion . You can help by adding to it . ( March 2012 ) Major League Soccer 's first all - star game was played at Giants Stadium in the summer of 1996 . The game , using the traditional East -- West format with players handpicked by the coaching staffs , was the first game of a doubleheader with the Brazilian national team defeating a team of FIFA World All - Stars . The matchup between divisions would only be used for six seasons as MLS tried experimenting with different formats . The 1998 All - Star Game placed a team of American MLS players against MLS players from abroad . The 2002 game , the first to use a league - wide all - star team , is the only game to feature a national team opponent . Since then ( except in 2004 ) , every opponent has been a professional club invited by the league . The MLS All - Stars won their first six games before falling to Everton in penalties in 2009 . All games since 2005 have been against teams from Europe , the majority of which have been from England 's Premier League . This is a feasible format because unlike MLS ( which runs a spring - summer - fall schedule ) the major European leagues all run a fall - winter - spring schedule , meaning the middle of the MLS season coincides with the pre-seasons of most European leagues . From a European perspective , the match is considered to be a pre-season friendly against an MLS XI . Roster ( edit ) For 2014 , ten players were chosen by All - Star Game coach Caleb Porter , eleven players were chosen by fan voting ( subject to Porter 's approval ) , and two were selected by MLS commissioner Don Garber . Results by team ( edit ) Team Winner Runner - up Total MLS All - Stars 9 6 15 MLS East 5 6 Manchester United & -- MLS West 6 Arsenal & -- Everton & -- Roma & -- Real Madrid & -- MLS USA & -- Chelsea & -- Bayern Munich & -- Celtic & -- Fulham & -- Guadalajara & -- MLS World & -- Tottenham Hotspur & -- United States & -- West Ham United & -- Results by year ( edit ) `` East vs. West '' ( 1996 -- 1997 ) ( edit ) East v West 1996 MLS All - Star Game July 14 , 1996 East 3 -- 2 West ( show ) Giants Stadium , East Rutherford , New Jersey Ramos 13 ' Savarese 69 ' Pittman 88 ' Report Preki 33 ' Kreis 37 ' Attendance : 78,416 Referee : Kevin Stott MVP : Carlos Valderrama East v West 1997 MLS All - Star Game July 9 , 1997 East 5 -- 4 West ( show ) Giants Stadium , East Rutherford , New Jersey Valderrama 50 ' Galderisi 63 ' Warzycha 66 ' Williams 70 ' McBride 88 ' Report Washington 11 ' Campos 44 ' Takawira 80 ' Jones 86 ' Attendance : 24,816 Referee : Arturo Angeles MVP : Carlos Valderrama `` MLS USA vs. MLS World '' ( 1998 ) ( edit ) MLS USA v MLS World 1998 MLS All - Star Game August 2 , 1998 MLS USA 6 -- 1 MLS World ( show ) Citrus Bowl , Orlando , Florida T. Ramos 5 ' Lalas 15 ' McBride 16 ' Preki 40 ' Lassiter 78 ' Jones 83 ' Report M. Ramos 89 ' Attendance : 34,416 Referee : Esse Baharmast MVP : Brian McBride `` East vs. West '' ( 1999 -- 2001 ) ( edit ) East v West 1999 MLS All - Star Game July 17 , 1999 East 4 -- 6 West ( show ) Qualcomm Stadium , San Diego Lassiter 1 ' Moore 62 ' ( pen . ) Valderrama 73 ' John 83 ' Report Preki 13 ' , 38 ' Kosecki 32 ' Jones 36 ' Wright 84 ' Cerritos 89 ' Attendance : 23,227 Referee : Sandra Hunt MVP : Preki East v West 2000 MLS All - Star Game July 29 , 2000 East 9 -- 4 West ( show ) Columbus Crew Stadium , Columbus , Ohio Mathis 2 ' Moreno 36 ' Valencia 39 ' Chung 51 ' Diallo 59 ' , 61 ' Heaps 65 ' Washington 67 ' McBride 76 ' Report Razov 17 ' , 22 ' Cienfuegos 19 ' Nowak 44 ' Attendance : 23,495 Referee : Paul Tamberino MVP : Mamadou Diallo East v West 2001 MLS All - Star Game July 28 , 2001 East 6 -- 6 West ( show ) Spartan Stadium , San Jose , California Chacón 28 ' McBride 34 ' , 39 ' Diallo 53 ' Rooney 84 ' Catê 87 ' Report Donovan 3 ' , 7 ' , 19 ' , 90 + 2 ' Graziani 26 ' Kovalenko 69 ' Attendance : 23,512 Referee : Noel Kenney MVP : Landon Donovan `` All - Stars vs. Guest '' ( 2002 -- 2003 ) ( edit ) MLS All - Stars v United States 2002 MLS All - Star Game August 3 , 2002 MLS All - Stars 3 -- 2 United States ( show ) RFK Stadium , Washington , D.C. Kreis 59 ' Etcheverry 72 ' Ralston 81 ' Report Donovan 58 ' Jones 76 ' Attendance : 31,096 Referee : Brian Hall MVP : Marco Etcheverry MLS All - Stars v Guadalajara 2003 MLS All - Star Game August 2 , 2003 MLS All - Stars 3 -- 1 Guadalajara ( show ) Home Depot Center , Carson , California Razov 57 ' Ruiz 68 ' Beasley 83 ' Report Garcia 66 ' Attendance : 27,000 Referee : Kevin Terry MVP : Carlos Ruiz `` East vs. West '' ( 2004 ) ( edit ) East v West 2004 MLS All - Star Game July 31 , 2004 East 3 -- 2 West ( show ) RFK Stadium , Washington , D.C. Guevara 20 ' , 22 ' ( pen . ) Eskandarian 74 ' Report Ching 43 ' Kreis 89 ' Attendance : 21,378 Referee : Michael Kennedy MVP : Amado Guevara `` All - Stars vs. Guest '' ( 2005 -- present ) ( edit ) MLS All - Stars v Fulham 2005 MLS All - Star Game July 30 , 2005 MLS All - Stars 4 -- 1 Fulham ( show ) Columbus Crew Stadium , Columbus , Ohio Twellman 23 ' O'Brien 56 ' Cunningham 85 ' , 89 ' Report Jensen 66 ' ( pen . ) Attendance : 23,309 Referee : Ricardo Valenzuela MVP : Taylor Twellman MLS All - Stars v Chelsea 2006 MLS All - Star Game August 5 , 2006 MLS All - Stars 1 -- 0 Chelsea ( show ) Toyota Park , Bridgeview , Illinois De Rosario 70 ' Report Attendance : 21,210 Referee : Abbey Okulaja MVP : Dwayne De Rosario MLS All - Stars v Celtic 2007 MLS All - Star Game July 19 , 2007 MLS All - Stars 2 -- 0 Celtic ( show ) Dick 's Sporting Goods Park , Commerce City , Colorado Ángel 36 ' Toja 44 ' Report Attendance : 18,661 Referee : Baldomero Toledo MVP : Juan Pablo Ángel MLS All - Stars v West Ham United 2008 MLS All - Star Game July 24 , 2008 MLS All - Stars 3 -- 2 West Ham United ( show ) BMO Field , Toronto Gómez 27 ' Blanco 45 ' De Rosario 70 ' ( pen . ) Report Ashton 26 ' , 67 ' Attendance : 20,844 Referee : Mauricio Navarro MVP : Cuauhtémoc Blanco MLS All - Stars v Everton 2009 MLS All - Star Game July 29 , 2009 MLS All - Stars 1 -- 1 ( 3 -- 4 p ) Everton ( show ) Rio Tinto Stadium , Sandy , Utah Davis 26 ' Report Saha 12 ' Attendance : 20,124 Referee : Ricardo Salazar MVP : Tim Howard Penalties Donovan Davis Arnaud Johnson Casey Ljungberg Vaughan Jô Baines Neville Lescott Rodwell MLS All - Stars v Manchester United 2010 MLS All - Star Game July 28 , 2010 MLS All - Stars 2 -- 5 Manchester United ( show ) Reliant Stadium , Houston Ching 64 ' De Rosario 90 ' Report Macheda 1 ' , 13 ' Gibson 70 ' Cleverley 73 ' Hernández 84 ' Attendance : 70,728 Referee : Jorge Gonzalez MVP : Federico Macheda MLS All - Stars v Manchester United 2011 MLS All - Star Game July 27 , 2011 MLS All - Stars 0 -- 4 Manchester United ( show ) Red Bull Arena , Harrison , New Jersey Report Anderson 20 ' Park 45 ' Berbatov 52 ' Welbeck 68 ' Attendance : 26,760 Referee : Jair Marrufo MVP : Park Ji - sung MLS All - Stars v Chelsea 2012 MLS All - Star Game July 25 , 2012 MLS All - Stars 3 -- 2 Chelsea ( show ) PPL Park , Chester , Pennsylvania Wondolowski 21 ' Pontius 73 ' Johnson 90 + 1 ' Report Terry 32 ' Lampard 58 ' Attendance : 19,236 Referee : Baldomero Toledo MVP : Chris Pontius MLS All - Stars v Roma 2013 MLS All - Star Game July 31 , 2013 MLS All - Stars 1 -- 3 Roma ( show ) Sporting Park , Kansas City , Kansas 20 : 30 Gonzalez 90 + 1 ' Report Strootman 4 ' Florenzi 47 ' Tallo 68 ' Attendance : 21,175 Referee : Hilario Grajeda MVP : Alessandro Florenzi MLS All - Stars v Bayern Munich 2014 MLS All - Star Game August 6 , 2014 MLS All - Stars 2 -- 1 Bayern Munich ( show ) Providence Park , Portland , Oregon Wright - Phillips 51 ' Donovan 70 ' Report Lewandowski 8 ' Attendance : 21,733 Referee : Jair Marrufo MVP : Landon Donovan MLS All - Stars v Tottenham Hotspur 2015 MLS All - Star Game July 29 , 2015 MLS All - Stars 2 -- 1 Tottenham Hotspur ( show ) Dick 's Sporting Goods Park , Commerce City , Colorado Kaká 20 ' ( pen . ) Villa 23 ' Report Kane 37 ' Attendance : 18,671 Referee : Ismail Elfath MVP : Kaká MLS All - Stars v Arsenal 2016 MLS All - Star Game July 28 , 2016 MLS All - Stars 1 -- 2 Arsenal ( show ) Avaya Stadium , San Jose , California Drogba 45 + 2 ' Report Campbell 10 ' ( pen . ) Akpom 87 ' Attendance : 18,000 Referee : Chris Penso MVP : Chuba Akpom MLS All - Stars v Real Madrid 2017 MLS All - Star Game August 2 , 2017 MLS All - Stars 1 -- 1 ( 2 -- 4 p ) Real Madrid ( show ) Soldier Field , Chicago Dwyer 87 ' Report Mayoral 59 ' Attendance : 61,428 Referee : Allen Chapman MVP : Borja Mayoral Penalties Dwyer Dos Santos Valeri Almirón Benzema Bale Kovačić Marcelo MLS All - Stars v Juventus 2018 MLS All - Star Game August 1 , 2018 MLS All - Stars Juventus ( show ) Mercedes - Benz Stadium , Atlanta References ( edit ) Jump up ^ Stephenson , Colinwas ( July 14 , 1996 ) . `` Soccer Fans Get Their Kicks With 2 All - star Games Today '' . NY Daily News . Retrieved July 15 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Yannis , Alex ( July 16 , 1996 ) . `` SOCCER REPORT '' . The New York Times . Retrieved July 15 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` MLS announces 2014 MLS All - Star Game roster '' . US Soccer Players . July 21 , 2014 . Retrieved August 7 , 2014 . Jump up ^ Matthews , David ( January 31 , 2017 ) . `` Major League Soccer All - Star Game To Be Held At Soldier Field '' . dnainfo.com . DNAinfo.com . Archived from the original on February 2 , 2017 . Retrieved January 31 , 2016 . Major League Soccer All - Star Game 1990s 2000s 2010s 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 Major League Soccer Seasons 2018 season Records and statistics ( Hat - tricks ) Players Union Rivalry cups History USSF CSA Eastern Conference Western Conference Atlanta United FC Chicago Fire Columbus Crew SC D.C. United Montreal Impact New England Revolution New York City FC New York Red Bulls Orlando City SC Philadelphia Union Toronto FC Colorado Rapids FC Dallas Houston Dynamo LA Galaxy Los Angeles FC Minnesota United FC Portland Timbers Real Salt Lake San Jose Earthquakes Seattle Sounders FC Sporting Kansas City Vancouver Whitecaps FC Future teams Miami ( 2020 ) Nashville ( 2019 or 2020 ) Former teams Tampa Bay Mutiny ( 1996 -- 2001 ) Miami Fusion ( 1998 -- 2001 ) Chivas USA ( 2005 -- 2014 ) Personnel Foreign Capped Designated Player Homegrown Player Generation Adidas Cup Transfers Coaches Competition MLS Cup Playoffs Champions SuperDraft Stadiums Attendance Television Broadcasters MLS Cup Associated competitions Supporters ' Shield All - Star Game ( Homegrown Game ) CONCACAF Champions League U.S. Open Cup Canadian Championship Reserve League eMLS Cup Other MLS performance in the CONCACAF Champions League Portal Multimedia Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Major_League_Soccer_All-Star_Game&oldid=832021719 '' Categories : All - star games Major League Soccer matches Major League Soccer All - Star Game Recurring sporting events established in 1996 1996 establishments in the United States Hidden categories : Use mdy dates from June 2017 Articles needing additional references from July 2007 All articles needing additional references Articles to be expanded from March 2012 All articles to be expanded Articles using small message boxes Talk Contents About Wikipedia Deutsch Español فارسی Français 한국어 Italiano עברית Nederlands 日本 語 Português Русский Suomi Українська 中文 5 more Edit links This page was last edited on 23 March 2018 , at 10 : 41 . 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5169855379632457446

is wellington in the north or south island

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Wellington&oldid=816104753

Wellington - wikipedia Wellington Jump to : navigation , search This article is about the city in New Zealand . For the British general , see Arthur Wellesley , 1st Duke of Wellington . For other uses , see Wellington ( disambiguation ) . Wellington Te Whanganui - a-Tara ( Māori ) Capital city Clockwise from top : Waterfront along Wellington Harbour , Parliament Buildings , The Bucket Fountain , National Library , Wellington Cable Car Flag Coat of arms Logo Nickname ( s ) : Windy Wellington Wellington Wellington Show map of New Zealand Show map of Pacific Ocean Show all Location in New Zealand & Pacific Ocean Coordinates : 41 ° 17 ′ 20 '' S 174 ° 46 ′ 38 '' E  /  41.28889 ° S 174.77722 ° E  / - 41.28889 ; 174.77722 Country New Zealand Region Wellington Territorial authorities Wellington City Lower Hutt City Upper Hutt City Porirua City Settled by Europeans 1839 Named for A. Wellesley , 1st Duke of Wellington Government Mayor Justin Lester ( Labour ) Area Urban 442 km ( 171 sq mi ) Metro 1,388 km ( 536 sq mi ) Highest elevation 495 m ( 1,624 ft ) Lowest elevation 0 m ( 0 ft ) Population ( June 2017 ) Urban 412,500 Urban density 930 / km ( 2,400 / sq mi ) Metro 416,700 Metro density 300 / km ( 780 / sq mi ) Demonym Wellingtonian Time zone NZST ( UTC + 12 ) Summer ( DST ) NZDT ( UTC + 13 ) Postcode ( s ) 5010 , 5011 , 5012 , 5013 , 5014 , 5016 , 5018 , 5019 , 5022 , 5024 , 5026 , 5028 , 6011 , 6012 , 6021 , 6022 , 6023 , 6035 , 6037 Area code ( s ) 04 Local iwi Ngāti Toa Rangatira , Ngāti Raukawa , Te Āti Awa Website www.wellingtonnz.com Wellington / ˈwɛlɪŋtən / ( Māori : Te Whanganui - a-Tara ) is the capital city and second most populous urban area of New Zealand , with 412,500 residents . It is at the south - western tip of the North Island , between Cook Strait and the Rimutaka Range . Wellington is the major population centre of the southern North Island and is the administrative centre of the Wellington Region , which also includes the Kapiti Coast and Wairarapa . It is the world 's windiest city , with an average wind speed of over 26 km / h , and the world 's southernmost capital of a sovereign state . The Wellington urban area comprises four local authorities : Wellington City , on the peninsula between Cook Strait and Wellington Harbour , contains the central business district and about half the population ; Porirua on Porirua Harbour to the north is notable for its large Māori and Pacific Island communities ; Lower Hutt and Upper Hutt are largely suburban areas to the northeast , together known as the Hutt Valley . Situated near the geographic centre of the country , Wellington was well placed for trade . In 1839 it was chosen as the first major planned settlement for British immigrants coming to New Zealand . The settlement was named in honour of Arthur Wellesley , the first Duke of Wellington and victor of the Battle of Waterloo . As the nation 's capital since 1865 , the New Zealand Government and Parliament , Supreme Court and most of the civil service are based in the city . Despite being much smaller than Auckland , Wellington is also referred to as New Zealand 's cultural capital . The city is home to the National Archives , the National Library , the Museum of New Zealand Te Papa Tongarewa , numerous theatres , and two universities . Architectural sights include the Government Building -- one of the largest wooden buildings in the world -- as well as the iconic Beehive . Wellington plays host to many artistic and cultural organisations , including the New Zealand Symphony Orchestra and Royal New Zealand Ballet . It has a lively urban culture , with many cafés , restaurants , and performance venues . One of the world 's most liveable cities , the 2014 Mercer Quality of Living Survey ranked Wellington 12th in the world . Wellington 's economy is primarily service - based , with an emphasis on finance , business services , and government . It is the centre of New Zealand 's film and special effects industries , and increasingly a hub for information technology and innovation . Wellington is one of New Zealand 's chief seaports and serves both domestic and international shipping . The city is served by Wellington International Airport , the third busiest airport in the country . Wellington 's transport network includes train and bus lines which reach as far as the Kapiti Coast and Wairarapa , and ferries connect the city to the South Island . Contents ( hide ) 1 Etymology 2 History 2.1 Settlement 2.2 National capital 2.3 Importance 3 Geography 3.1 Suburbs 3.2 Relief 3.3 Climate 3.4 Earthquakes 4 Demographics 4.1 Age distribution 5 Architecture 6 Housing and real estate 7 Economy 7.1 Tourism 8 Arts and culture 8.1 Museums and cultural institutions 8.2 Festivals 8.3 Film 8.4 Music 8.5 Theatre and the dramatic arts 8.6 Dance 8.7 Comedy 8.8 Visual arts 9 Cuisine 10 Sport 11 Education 12 Transport 13 Infrastructure 13.1 Electric power 13.2 Natural gas 13.3 Water 14 Gallery 15 See also 16 References 17 Further reading 18 External links Etymology ( edit ) Wellington takes its name from Arthur Wellesley ( 1769 -- 1852 ) , the first Duke of Wellington and victor of the Battle of Waterloo ( 1815 ) : his title comes from the town of Wellington in the English county of Somerset . It was named in November 1840 by the original settlers of the New Zealand Company on the suggestion of the directors of the same , in recognition of the Duke 's strong support for the company 's principles of colonisation and his `` strenuous and successful defence against its enemies of the measure for colonising South Australia '' . One of the founders of the settlement , Edward Jerningham Wakefield , reported that the settlers `` took up the views of the directors with great cordiality and the new name was at once adopted '' . In Māori , Wellington has three names . Te Whanga - nui - a-Tara refers to Wellington Harbour and means `` the great harbour of Tara '' ; Pōneke is a transliteration of Port Nick , short for Port Nicholson ( the city 's central marae , the community supporting it and its kapa haka have the pseudo-tribal name of Ngāti Pōneke ) ; Te Upoko - o - te - Ika - a-Māui , meaning ' The Head of the Fish of Māui ' ( often shortened to Te Upoko - o - te - Ika ) , a traditional name for the southernmost part of the North Island , deriving from the legend of the fishing up of the island by the demi - god Māui . In New Zealand Sign Language , the name is signed by raising the index , middle and ring fingers of one hand , palm forward , to form a `` W '' , and shaking it slightly from side to side twice . The city 's location close to the mouth of the narrow Cook Strait leads to its vulnerability to strong gales , leading to the city 's nickname of `` Windy Wellington '' . History ( edit ) `` The Old Shebang '' on Cuba Street , c. 1883 The Old High Court , since restored as the Supreme Court of New Zealand Old Government Buildings Settlement ( edit ) See also : New Zealand Company Legends recount that Kupe discovered and explored the district in about the 10th century . The earliest date with hard evidence for Maori living in New Zealand is about 1280 . European settlement began with the arrival of an advance party of the New Zealand Company on the ship Tory on 20 September 1839 , followed by 150 settlers on the Aurora on 22 January 1840 . The settlers constructed their first homes at Petone ( which they called Britannia for a time ) on the flat area at the mouth of the Hutt River . When that proved swampy and flood - prone they transplanted the plans , which had been drawn without regard for the hilly terrain . National capital ( edit ) Main article : Capital of New Zealand In 1865 , Wellington became the capital city in place of Auckland , which William Hobson had made the capital in 1841 . The New Zealand Parliament had first met in Wellington on 7 July 1862 , on a temporary basis ; in November 1863 , the Prime Minister of New Zealand , Alfred Domett , placed a resolution before Parliament in Auckland that `` ... it has become necessary that the seat of government ... should be transferred to some suitable locality in Cook Strait ( region ) . '' Apparently , there had been some concerns that the more populous South Island ( where the goldfields were located ) would choose to form a separate colony in the British Empire . Several Commissioners invited from Australia , chosen for their neutral status , declared that Wellington was a suitable location because of its central location in New Zealand and good harbour . Parliament officially met in Wellington for the first time on 26 July 1865 . At that time , the population of Wellington was just 4,900 . Wellington 's status as capital is by constitutional convention rather than statute . Wellington is the location of the highest court , the Supreme Court of New Zealand , and the historic former High Court building has been enlarged and restored for its use . Government House , the official residence of the Governor - General , is in Newtown , opposite the Basin Reserve . Premier House , the official residence of the Prime Minister , is in Thorndon on Tinakori Road . Importance ( edit ) Wellington is New Zealand 's political centre , housing Parliament , the head offices of all Government Ministries and Departments and the bulk of the foreign diplomatic missions . It is an important centre of the film and theatre industry , and second to Auckland in terms of numbers of screen industry businesses . Te Papa Tongarewa ( the Museum of New Zealand ) , the New Zealand Symphony Orchestra , the Royal New Zealand Ballet , Wellington Museum and the biennial New Zealand International Arts Festival are all sited there . New Zealand government `` Beehive '' and the Parliament Buildings Wellington had the 12th best quality of living in the world in 2014 , a ranking up from 13th place in 2012 , according to a 2014 study by consulting company Mercer . Of cities in the Asia Pacific region , it ranked third ( 2014 ) behind Auckland and Sydney . It became much more affordable in terms of cost of living relative to cities worldwide , with its ranking moving from 93rd ( more expensive ) to 139th ( less expensive ) in 2009 , probably as a result of currency fluctuations during the global economic downturn from March 2008 to March 2009 . `` Foreigners get more bang for their buck in Wellington , which is among the cheapest cities in the world to live '' , according to a 2009 article , which reported that currency fluctuations make New Zealand cities affordable for multinational firms to do business : `` New Zealand cities were now more affordable for expatriates and were competitive places for overseas companies to develop business links and send employees '' . Lonely Planet named Wellington ' the coolest little capital in the world ' in its ' Best in Travel 2011 ' guide book . It is home to Weta Workshop , associated with director Peter Jackson . Geography ( edit ) Satellite view of the Wellington area Wellington is at the south - western tip of the North Island on Cook Strait , separating the North and South Islands . On a clear day the snowcapped Kaikoura Ranges are visible to the south across the strait . To the north stretch the golden beaches of the Kapiti Coast . On the east the Rimutaka Range divides Wellington from the broad plains of the Wairarapa , a wine region of national notability . With a latitude of 41 ° 17 ' South , Wellington is the southernmost capital city in the world . It is also the most remote capital city , the farthest away from any other capital . It is more densely populated than most other cities in New Zealand due to the restricted amount of land that is available between its harbour and the surrounding hills . It has very few open areas in which to expand , and this has brought about the development of the suburban towns . Because of its location in the Roaring Forties and its exposure to the winds blowing through Cook Strait , Wellington is the world 's windiest city , with an average wind speed of 27 km / h ( 17 mph ) , and so is known by the nickname `` Windy Wellington '' . The Wellington Urban Area ( pink ) is administered by four city councils Wellington 's scenic natural harbour and green hillsides adorned with tiered suburbs of colonial villas are popular with tourists . The CBD is close to Lambton Harbour , an arm of Wellington Harbour , which lies along an active geological fault , clearly evident on its straight western shore . The land to the west of this rises abruptly , meaning that many suburbs sit high above the centre of the city . There is a network of bush walks and reserves maintained by the Wellington City Council and local volunteers . These include Otari - Wilton 's Bush , dedicated to the protection and propagation of native plants . The Wellington region has 500 square kilometres ( 190 sq mi ) of regional parks and forests . In the east is the Miramar Peninsula , connected to the rest of the city by a low - lying isthmus at Rongotai , the site of Wellington International Airport . The narrow entrance to the harbour is to the east of the Miramar Peninsula , and contains the dangerous shallows of Barrett Reef , where many ships have been wrecked ( notably the inter-island ferry TEV Wahine in 1968 ) . The harbour has three islands : Matiu / Somes Island , Makaro / Ward Island and Mokopuna Island . Only Matiu / Somes Island is large enough for habitation . It has been used as a quarantine station for people and animals , and was an internment camp during World War I and World War II . It is a conservation island , providing refuge for endangered species , much like Kapiti Island farther up the coast . There is access during daylight hours by the Dominion Post Ferry . Wellington is primarily surrounded by water , but some of the nearby locations are listed below . Neighbouring cities , towns and places . Kapiti , Tararua Forest Park and Masterton Wellington Rimutaka Forest Park Suburbs ( edit ) Main articles : Wellington City Council and Lower Hutt Wellington Botanical Gardens The urban area stretches across the areas administered by the city councils of Wellington , Lower Hutt , Upper Hutt and Porirua . Relief ( edit ) This section needs expansion . You can help by adding to it . ( August 2016 ) Steep landforms shape and constrain much of Wellington city . Notable hills in and around Wellington include : Mount Victoria -- 196 m Mount Albert -- 178m Mount Cook Mount Alfred ( west of Evans Bay ) -- 122m Mount Kaukau -- 445 m Mount Crawford Brooklyn Hill -- 299m Wrights Hill Makara Hill Te Ahumairangi ( Tinakori ) Hill Climate ( edit ) Averaging 2,059 hours of sunshine per year , the climate of Wellington is temperate marine , ( Köppen : Cfb ) , generally moderate all year round , and rarely sees temperatures above 25 ° C ( 77 ° F ) or below 4 ° C ( 39 ° F ) . The hottest recorded temperature is 31.1 ° C ( 88 ° F ) , while − 1.1 ° C ( 30 ° F ) is the coldest . The city is notorious for its southerly blasts in winter , which may make the temperature feel much colder . It is generally very windy all year round with high rainfall ; average annual rainfall is 1,244 mm ( 49 in ) , June and July being the wettest months . Frosts are quite common in the hill suburbs and the Hutt Valley between May and September . Snow is very rare at low altitudes , although snow fell on the city and many other parts of the Wellington region during separate events in July and August 2011 . ( hide ) Climate data for Kelburn ( 1928 -- 2015 , Humidity 1961 -- 2015 ) Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year Record high ° C ( ° F ) 30.1 ( 86.2 ) 30.1 ( 86.2 ) 28.3 ( 82.9 ) 27.3 ( 81.1 ) 22.0 ( 71.6 ) 18.3 ( 64.9 ) 17.6 ( 63.7 ) 19.3 ( 66.7 ) 21.9 ( 71.4 ) 25.1 ( 77.2 ) 26.9 ( 80.4 ) 29.1 ( 84.4 ) 30.1 ( 86.2 ) Average high ° C ( ° F ) 20.1 ( 68.2 ) 20.3 ( 68.5 ) 19.0 ( 66.2 ) 16.6 ( 61.9 ) 14.0 ( 57.2 ) 11.9 ( 53.4 ) 11.1 ( 52 ) 11.9 ( 53.4 ) 13.4 ( 56.1 ) 15.0 ( 59 ) 16.7 ( 62.1 ) 18.6 ( 65.5 ) 15.7 ( 60.3 ) Daily mean ° C ( ° F ) 16.6 ( 61.9 ) 16.8 ( 62.2 ) 15.7 ( 60.3 ) 13.6 ( 56.5 ) 11.3 ( 52.3 ) 9.3 ( 48.7 ) 8.5 ( 47.3 ) 9.1 ( 48.4 ) 10.5 ( 50.9 ) 11.9 ( 53.4 ) 13.4 ( 56.1 ) 15.3 ( 59.5 ) 12.7 ( 54.9 ) Average low ° C ( ° F ) 13.1 ( 55.6 ) 13.3 ( 55.9 ) 12.4 ( 54.3 ) 10.7 ( 51.3 ) 8.6 ( 47.5 ) 6.7 ( 44.1 ) 5.9 ( 42.6 ) 6.4 ( 43.5 ) 7.5 ( 45.5 ) 8.8 ( 47.8 ) 10.1 ( 50.2 ) 12.0 ( 53.6 ) 9.6 ( 49.3 ) Record low ° C ( ° F ) 4.1 ( 39.4 ) 5.2 ( 41.4 ) 4.6 ( 40.3 ) 2.6 ( 36.7 ) 1.0 ( 33.8 ) − 0.1 ( 31.8 ) 0.0 ( 32 ) − 0.1 ( 31.8 ) 0.2 ( 32.4 ) 1.2 ( 34.2 ) 1.7 ( 35.1 ) 3.4 ( 38.1 ) − 0.1 ( 31.8 ) Average rainfall mm ( inches ) 77.8 ( 3.063 ) 76.9 ( 3.028 ) 86.1 ( 3.39 ) 98.2 ( 3.866 ) 120.3 ( 4.736 ) 131.2 ( 5.165 ) 136.4 ( 5.37 ) 124.5 ( 4.902 ) 99.6 ( 3.921 ) 110.7 ( 4.358 ) 88.4 ( 3.48 ) 93.5 ( 3.681 ) 1,243.6 ( 48.961 ) Average rainy days ( ≥ 1.0 mm ) 7.2 7.0 8.3 9.4 11.6 13.3 13.3 13.0 11.0 11.5 9.4 9.0 124.0 Average relative humidity ( % ) ( at 9am ) 79.5 81.6 82.2 82.8 84.6 85.9 86.1 84.6 80.6 80.4 78.9 79.7 82.2 Mean monthly sunshine hours 240.3 205.0 194.7 153.8 126.0 102.3 111.4 137.2 163.2 191.1 210.8 222.9 2,058.7 Source : CliFlo ( show ) Climate data for Wellington International Airport ( 1960 -- 2015 , Temperature 1962 -- 2015 ) Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year Record high ° C ( ° F ) 29.4 ( 84.9 ) 30.6 ( 87.1 ) 28.3 ( 82.9 ) 25.2 ( 77.4 ) 22.0 ( 71.6 ) 19.2 ( 66.6 ) 18.8 ( 65.8 ) 18.3 ( 64.9 ) 22.6 ( 72.7 ) 23.9 ( 75 ) 26.8 ( 80.2 ) 29.6 ( 85.3 ) 30.6 ( 87.1 ) Average high ° C ( ° F ) 21.1 ( 70 ) 21.1 ( 70 ) 19.7 ( 67.5 ) 17.3 ( 63.1 ) 15.0 ( 59 ) 13.0 ( 55.4 ) 12.2 ( 54 ) 12.8 ( 55 ) 14.3 ( 57.7 ) 15.8 ( 60.4 ) 17.6 ( 63.7 ) 19.6 ( 67.3 ) 16.6 ( 61.9 ) Daily mean ° C ( ° F ) 17.7 ( 63.9 ) 17.8 ( 64 ) 16.6 ( 61.9 ) 14.4 ( 57.9 ) 12.3 ( 54.1 ) 10.3 ( 50.5 ) 9.4 ( 48.9 ) 10.0 ( 50 ) 11.4 ( 52.5 ) 12.8 ( 55 ) 14.5 ( 58.1 ) 16.4 ( 61.5 ) 13.6 ( 56.5 ) Average low ° C ( ° F ) 14.4 ( 57.9 ) 14.5 ( 58.1 ) 13.5 ( 56.3 ) 11.5 ( 52.7 ) 9.5 ( 49.1 ) 7.6 ( 45.7 ) 6.6 ( 43.9 ) 7.2 ( 45 ) 8.6 ( 47.5 ) 9.8 ( 49.6 ) 11.3 ( 52.3 ) 13.3 ( 55.9 ) 10.7 ( 51.3 ) Record low ° C ( ° F ) 4.3 ( 39.7 ) 4.5 ( 40.1 ) 4.3 ( 39.7 ) 2.3 ( 36.1 ) 0.6 ( 33.1 ) − 0.6 ( 30.9 ) − 1.1 ( 30 ) − 0.2 ( 31.6 ) − 1.0 ( 30.2 ) 1.2 ( 34.2 ) 2.1 ( 35.8 ) 3.8 ( 38.8 ) − 1.1 ( 30 ) Average rainfall mm ( inches ) 63.9 ( 2.516 ) 54.5 ( 2.146 ) 71.4 ( 2.811 ) 79.1 ( 3.114 ) 92.7 ( 3.65 ) 108.2 ( 4.26 ) 111.4 ( 4.386 ) 102.6 ( 4.039 ) 81.0 ( 3.189 ) 87.0 ( 3.425 ) 70.9 ( 2.791 ) 71.1 ( 2.799 ) 993.8 ( 39.126 ) Average rainy days ( ≥ 1.0 mm ) 6.5 6.3 7.7 8.2 10.0 12.4 12.1 12.4 10.6 10.4 8.5 8.2 113.3 Average relative humidity ( % ) ( at 9am ) 75.0 76.8 77.5 78.1 80.0 81.6 81.3 80.1 76.5 75.3 73.5 74.9 77.6 Source : CliFlo Earthquakes ( edit ) See also : List of earthquakes in New Zealand Wellington City from Mount Victoria Wellington suffered serious damage in a series of earthquakes in 1848 and from another earthquake in 1855 . The 1855 Wairarapa earthquake occurred on the Wairarapa Fault to the north and east of Wellington . It was probably the most powerful earthquake in recorded New Zealand history , with an estimated magnitude of at least 8.2 on the Moment magnitude scale . It caused vertical movements of two to three metres over a large area , including raising land out of the harbour and turning it into a tidal swamp . Much of this land was subsequently reclaimed and is now part of the central business district . For this reason , the street named Lambton Quay is 100 to 200 metres ( 325 to 650 ft ) from the harbour -- plaques set into the footpath mark the shoreline in 1840 , indicating the extent of reclamation . The area has high seismic activity even by New Zealand standards , with a major fault line running through the centre of the city , and several others nearby . Several hundred minor fault lines have been identified within the urban area . Inhabitants , particularly in high - rise buildings , typically notice several earthquakes every year . For many years after the 1855 earthquake , the majority of buildings were made entirely from wood . The 1996 - restored Government Buildings near Parliament is the largest wooden building in the Southern Hemisphere . While masonry and structural steel have subsequently been used in building construction , especially for office buildings , timber framing remains the primary structural component of almost all residential construction . Residents place their confidence in good building regulations , which became more stringent in the 20th century . Since the Canterbury earthquakes of 2010 and 2011 , earthquake readiness has become even more of an issue , with buildings declared by Wellington City Council to be earthquake - prone , and the costs of meeting new standards . Every five years a year - long slow quake occurs beneath Wellington , stretching from Kapiti to the Marlborough Sounds . It was first measured in 2003 , and reappeared in 2008 and 2013 . It releases as much energy as a magnitude 7 quake , but as it happens slowly there is no damage . During July and August 2013 there were many earthquakes , mostly in Cook Strait near Seddon . The sequence started at 5 : 09 pm on Sunday 21 July 2013 when the magnitude 6.5 Seddon earthquake hit the city , but no tsunami report was confirmed nor any major damage . At 2 : 31 pm on Friday 16 August 2013 the Lake Grassmere earthquake struck , this time magnitude 6.6 , but again no major damage occurred , though many buildings were evacuated . On Monday 20 January 2014 at 3 : 52 pm a rolling 6.2 magnitude earthquake struck the lower North Island 15 km east of Eketahuna and was felt in Wellington , but little damage was reported initially , except at Wellington Airport where one of the two giant eagle sculptures commemorating The Hobbit became detached from the ceiling . At two minutes after midnight on the morning of Monday 14 November 2016 , a 7.8 earthquake centred between Culverden and Kaikoura in the South Island caused most of Wellington CBD , Victoria University of Wellington , and the Wellington suburban rail network to be largely closed for the day to allow inspections . The earthquake caused damage to a small number of buildings . Demographics ( edit ) Wellingtonians gathered for the Anzac Day dawn service The four cities comprising Wellington have a total population of 416,700 ( June 2017 ) , with the urban area containing 99.0 % of that population . The remaining areas are largely mountainous and sparsely farmed or parkland and are outside the urban area boundary . More than most cities , life is dominated by its central business district ( CBD ) . Approximately 62,000 people work in the CBD , only 4,000 fewer than work in Auckland 's CBD , despite that city having four times the population . Counts from the 2013 census gave totals by area , gender , and age . Wellington City had the largest population of the four cities with 190,956 people , followed by Lower Hutt , Porirua and Upper Hutt . Women outnumbered men in all four areas . Population density in Wellington region ( 2008 ) based on census data Wellington Region population by city and gender City Total Men Women Wellington 190,956 92,481 98,478 Lower Hutt 98,238 47,556 50,682 Porirua 51,717 24,906 26,811 Upper Hutt 40,179 19,770 20,409 Total four cities 381,090 184,713 196,380 Source : Statistics New Zealand ( 2013 Census ) An increasing number of Wellingtonians profess no religious belief , with the most recent census in 2013 showing 44 % in that category . The largest religious group was Christians at 39 % . The latter figure represented a significant decline from seven years earlier at the previous census , when over 50 % of the population identified as Christian . At the 2013 Census , just over 27 % of Wellington 's population was born overseas . The most common overseas birthplace is the United Kingdom , place of origin of 7.1 % of the urban area 's population . The next most - common countries of origin were Samoa ( 2.0 % ) , India ( 1.8 % ) , China ( 1.7 % ) , Australia ( 1.6 % ) , the Philippines ( 1.2 % ) , South Africa ( 1.1 % ) , Fiji ( 1.0 % ) , the United States ( 0.8 % ) and Malaysia ( 0.6 % ) . Age distribution ( edit ) Age distributions for the four cities are given ( see table below ) . The age structure closely matches the national distribution . The relative lack of older people in Wellington is less marked when Kapiti Coast District is included -- nearly 7 % of Kapiti Coast residents are over 80 . Wellington Region age distribution by city City Under 20 20 -- 39 40 -- 59 60 -- 79 80 and over Wellington 47,310 ( 25 % ) 65,823 ( 34 % ) 51,201 ( 27 % ) 22,152 ( 12 % ) 4,470 ( 2 % ) Lower Hutt 27,612 ( 28 % ) 25,344 ( 26 % ) 27,531 ( 28 % ) 14,646 ( 15 % ) 3,108 ( 3 % ) Upper Hutt 10,911 ( 27 % ) 25,344 ( 23 % ) 11,982 ( 30 % ) 6,297 ( 16 % ) 1,608 ( 4 % ) Porirua 16,506 ( 32 % ) 12,873 ( 25 % ) 14,364 ( 28 % ) 6,975 ( 13 % ) 999 ( 2 % ) New Zealand 1,161,384 ( 27 % ) 1,072,893 ( 25 % ) 1,167,570 ( 27 % ) 685,854 ( 16 % ) 154,344 ( 4 % ) Source : Statistics New Zealand ( 2013 Census ) Architecture ( edit ) The old Public Trust Building in Lambton Quay is an example of Edwardian architecture in Wellington , built entirely from granite . Wellington showcases a variety of architectural styles from the past 150 years -- 19th - century wooden cottages , such as the Italianate Katherine Mansfield Birthplace in Thorndon ; streamlined Art Deco structures such as the old Wellington Free Ambulance headquarters , the Central Fire Station , Fountain Court Apartments , the City Gallery , and the former Post and Telegraph Building ; and the curves and vibrant colours of post-modern architecture in the CBD . The oldest building is the 1858 Colonial Cottage in Mount Cook . The tallest building is the Majestic Centre on Willis Street at 116 metres high , the second tallest being the structural expressionist State Insurance Building at 103 metres . For a full list see : List of tallest buildings in Wellington . Futuna Chapel in Karori was the first bicultural building in New Zealand , and is considered one of the most significant New Zealand buildings of the 20th century . Old St Paul 's is an example of 19th - century Gothic Revival architecture adapted to colonial conditions and materials , as is St Mary of the Angels . Sacred Heart Cathedral is a Palladian Revival Basilica with the Portico of a Roman or Greek temple . The Museum of Wellington City & Sea in the Bond Store is in the Second French Empire style , and the Wellington Harbour Board Wharf Office Building is in a late English Classical style . There are several restored theatre buildings : the St James Theatre , the Opera House and the Embassy Theatre . Civic Square is surrounded by the Town Hall and council offices , the Michael Fowler Centre , the Wellington Central Library , Capital E ( home of the National Theatre for Children ) , the City - to - Sea Bridge , and the City Gallery . As it is the capital city , there are many notable government buildings . The Executive Wing of New Zealand Parliament Buildings , on the corner of Lambton Quay and Molesworth Street , was constructed between 1969 and 1981 and is commonly referred to as the Beehive . Across the road is the largest wooden building in the Southern Hemisphere , part of the old Government Buildings which now houses part of Victoria University of Wellington 's Law Faculty . A row of classic weatherboard houses in the Mount Victoria neighbourhood A modernist building housing the Museum of New Zealand Te Papa Tongarewa lies on the waterfront , on Cable Street . It is strengthened using base isolation -- essentially seating the entire building on supports made from lead , steel and rubber that slow down the effect of an earthquake . Other notable buildings include Wellington Town Hall , Wellington Railway Station , Dominion Museum ( now Massey University ) , State Insurance Building , Westpac Stadium , and Wellington Airport at Rongotai . Leading architects include Frederick Thatcher , Frederick de Jersey Clere , W. Gray Young , Bill Alington , Ian Athfield , Roger Walker and Pynenburg and Collins . Wellington contains many iconic sculptures and structures , such as the Bucket Fountain in Cuba Street and Invisible City by Anton Parsons on Lambton Quay . Kinetic sculptures have been commissioned , such as the Zephyrometer . This 26 - metre orange spike built for movement by artist Phil Price has been described as `` tall , soaring and elegantly simple '' , which `` reflects the swaying of the yacht masts in the Evans Bay Marina behind it '' and `` moves like the needle on the dial of a nautical instrument , measuring the speed of the sea or wind or vessel . '' Housing and real Estate ( edit ) Apartments at Oriental Bay Wellington experienced a real estate boom in the early 2000s and the effects of the international property bust at the start of 2007 . In 2005 , the market was described as `` robust '' . By 2008 , property values had declined by about 9.3 % over a 12 - month period , according to one estimate . More expensive properties declined more steeply , sometimes by as much as 20 % . `` From 2004 to early 2007 , rental yields were eroded and positive cash flow property investments disappeared as house values climbed faster than rents . Then that trend reversed and yields slowly began improving , '' according to two The New Zealand Herald reporters writing in May 2009 . In the middle of 2009 house prices had dropped , interest rates were low , and buy - to - let property investment was again looking attractive , particularly in the Lambton precinct , according to these two reporters . A Wellington City Council survey conducted in March 2009 found the typical central city apartment dweller was a New Zealand native aged 24 to 35 with a professional job in the downtown area , with household income higher than surrounding areas . Three - quarters ( 73 % ) walked to work or university , 13 % travelled by car , 6 % by bus , 2 % bicycled ( although 31 % own bicycles ) , and did not travel very far since 73 % worked or studied in the central city . The large majority ( 88 % ) did not have children in their apartments ; 39 % were couples without children ; 32 % were single - person households ; 15 % were groups of people flatting together . Most ( 56 % ) owned their apartment ; 42 % rented ( of renters , 16 % paid NZ $ 351 to NZ $450 per week , 13 % paid less and 15 % paid more -- only 3 % paid more than NZ $651 per week ) . The report continued : `` The four most important reasons for living in an apartment were given as lifestyle and city living ( 23 % ) , close to work ( 20 % ) , close to shops and cafes ( 11 % ) and low maintenance ( 11 % ) ... City noise and noise from neighbours were the main turnoffs for apartment dwellers ( 27 % ) , followed by a lack of outdoor space ( 17 % ) , living close to neighbours ( 9 % ) and apartment size and a lack of storage space ( 8 % ) . '' Households are primarily one - family , making up 66.9 % of households , followed by single - person households ( 24.7 % ) ; there were fewer multiperson households and even fewer households containing two or more families . These counts are from the 2013 census for the Wellington region ( which includes the surrounding area in addition to the four cities ) . Wellington in September 2016 overtook Auckland as the area with the fastest - rising house prices in the NZ . Economy ( edit ) Wellington Harbour , November 2009 Wellington Harbour ranks as one of New Zealand 's chief seaports and serves both domestic and international shipping . The port handles approximately 10.5 million tonnes of cargo on an annual basis , importing petroleum products , motor vehicles , minerals and exporting meats , wood products , dairy products , wool , and fruit . Many cruise ships also use the port . The Government sector has long been a mainstay of the economy , which has typically risen and fallen with it . Traditionally , its central location meant it was the location of many head offices of various sectors -- particularly finance , technology and heavy industry -- many of which have since relocated to Auckland following economic deregulation and privatisation . In recent years , tourism , arts and culture , film , and ICT have played a bigger role in the economy . Wellington 's median income is well above the average in New Zealand , and the highest of all New Zealand cities . It has a much higher proportion of people with tertiary qualifications than the national average . Major companies with their headquarters in Wellington include : Centreport Chorus Networks Contact Energy The Cooperative Bank Datacom Group Infratil Kiwibank Meridian Energy NZ Post NZX Todd Corporation Trade Me Weta Digital Wellington International Airport Xero Z Energy At the 2013 census , the largest employment industries for Wellington residents were professional , scientific and technical services ( 25,836 people ) , public administration and safety ( 24,336 people ) , health care and social assistance ( 17,446 people ) , education and training ( 16,550 people ) and retail trade ( 16,203 people ) . Tourism ( edit ) See also : Tourism in New Zealand Elephant House at Wellington Zoo Wellington Cable Car , view from Kelburn Tourism is a major contributor to the city 's economy , injecting approximately NZ $1.3 billion into the region annually and accounting for 9 % of total FTE employment . The city is consistently named as New Zealanders ' favourite destination in the quarterly FlyBuys Colmar Brunton Mood of the Traveller survey and it was ranked fourth in Lonely Planet Best in Travel 2011 's Top 10 Cities to Visit in 2011 . New Zealanders make up the largest visitor market , with 3.6 million visits each year ; New Zealand visitors spend on average NZ $2.4 million a day . There are approximately 540,000 international visitors each year , who spend 3.7 million nights and NZ $436 million . The largest international visitor market is Australia , with over 210,000 visitors spending approximately NZ $334 million annually . Wellington is marketed as the ' coolest little capital in the world ' by Positively Wellington Tourism , an award - winning regional tourism organisation set up as a council controlled organisation by Wellington City Council in 1997 . The organisation 's council funding comes through the Downtown Levy commercial rate . In the decade to 2010 , the city saw growth of over 60 % in commercial guest nights . It has been promoted through a variety of campaigns and taglines , starting with the iconic Absolutely Positively Wellington advertisements . The long - term domestic marketing strategy was a finalist in the 2011 CAANZ Media Awards . Popular tourist attractions include Wellington Museum , Wellington Zoo , Zealandia and Wellington Cable Car . Cruise tourism is experiencing a major boom in line with nationwide development . The 2010 / 11 season saw 125,000 passengers and crew visit on 60 liners . There were 80 vessels booked for visits in the 2011 / 12 season -- estimated to inject more than NZ $31 million into the economy and representing a 74 % increase in the space of two years . Wellington is a popular conference tourism destination due to its compact nature , cultural attractions , award - winning restaurants and access to government agencies . In the year ending March 2011 , there were 6495 conference events involving nearly 800,000 delegate days ; this injected approximately NZ $100 million into the economy . Arts and culture ( edit ) Museums and cultural institutions ( edit ) Te Papa ( `` Our Place '' ) , the Museum of New Zealand . Wellington is home to Te Papa ( the Museum of New Zealand ) , The Great War Exhibition , the National Library of New Zealand , Archives New Zealand , Wellington Museum , the Katherine Mansfield Birthplace Museum , Colonial Cottage , the New Zealand Cricket Museum , the Cable Car Museum , the Reserve Bank Museum , Old St Paul 's , and the Wellington City Art Gallery . Festivals ( edit ) Wellington is home to many high - profile events and cultural celebrations , including the biennial New Zealand International Arts Festival , biennial Wellington Jazz Festival , biennial Capital E National Arts Festival for Children and major events such as Brancott Estate World of Wearable Art , TEDxWellington , Cuba Street Carnival , Visa Wellington on a Plate , New Zealand Fringe Festival , New Zealand International Comedy Festival ( also hosted in Auckland ) , Summer City , The Wellington Folk Festival ( in Wainuiomata ) , New Zealand Affordable Art Show , the New Zealand Sevens Weekend and Parade , Out In The Square , Vodafone Homegrown , the Couch Soup theatre festival , Camp A Low Hum and numerous film festivals . The annual children 's Artsplash Festival brings together hundreds of students from across the region . The week - long festival includes music and dance performances and the presentation of visual arts . Film ( edit ) Filmmakers Sir Peter Jackson , Sir Richard Taylor and a growing team of creative professionals have turned the eastern suburb of Miramar into a film - making , post-production and special effects infrastructure centre , giving rise to the moniker ' Wellywood ' . Jackson 's companies include Weta Workshop , Weta Digital , Camperdown Studios , post-production house Park Road Post , and Stone Street Studios near Wellington Airport . Recent films shot partly or wholly in Wellington include the Lord of The Rings trilogy , King Kong and Avatar. Jackson described Wellington : `` Well , it 's windy . But it 's actually a lovely place , where you 're pretty much surrounded by water and the bay . The city itself is quite small , but the surrounding areas are very reminiscent of the hills up in northern California , like Marin County near San Francisco and the Bay Area climate and some of the architecture . Kind of a cross between that and Hawaii . '' Sometime Wellington directors Jane Campion and Geoff Murphy have reached the world 's screens with their independent spirit . Emerging Kiwi film - makers , like Robert Sarkies , Taika Waititi , Costa Botes and Jennifer Bush - Daumec , are extending the Wellington - based lineage and cinematic scope . There are agencies to assist film - makers with tasks such as securing permits and scouting locations . Wellington has a large number of independent cinemas , including The Embassy , Paramount , Penthouse , the Roxy and Light House , which participate in film festivals throughout the year . Wellington has one of the country 's highest turn - outs for the annual New Zealand International Film Festival . Music ( edit ) The music scene has produced bands such as The Warratahs , The Mockers , The Phoenix Foundation , Shihad , Beastwars , Fly My Pretties , Rhian Sheehan , Birchville Cat Motel , Black Boned Angel , Fat Freddy 's Drop , The Black Seeds , Fur Patrol , Flight of the Conchords , Connan Mockasin , Rhombus and Module , Weta , Demoniac . The New Zealand School of Music was established in 2005 through a merger of the conservatory and theory programmes at Massey University and Victoria University of Wellington . New Zealand Symphony Orchestra , Nevine String Quartet and Chamber music New Zealand are based in Wellington . The city is also home to the New Zealand Symphony Orchestra , Rodger Fox Big Band and the Internationally renowned men 's A Cappella chorus Vocal FX . Theatre and the dramatic Arts ( edit ) St. James Theatre on Courtenay Place , the main street of Wellington 's entertainment district Wellington is home to BATS Theatre , Circa Theatre , the National Maori Theatre company Taki Rua , Whitireia Performance Centre , National Dance & Drama School Toi Whakaari and the National Theatre for Children at Capital E in Civic Square . St James ' Theatre on Courtenay Place is a popular venue for artistic performances . Wellington is home to groups that perform Improvised Theatre and Improvisational comedy , including Wellington Improvisation Troupe ( WIT ) an Improvisors and youth group , Joe Improv . Te Whaea National Dance & Drama Centre , houses New Zealand 's University - level school of Dance and Drama , Toi Whakaari : NZ Drama School & New Zealand School of Dance , and Whitireia Performing Arts Centre . These are separate entities that share the building 's facilities . Dance ( edit ) Wellington is the home for the Royal New Zealand Ballet , the New Zealand School of Dance and contemporary dance company Footnote . Comedy ( edit ) Many of New Zealand 's prominent comedians have either come from Wellington or got their start there , such as Ginette McDonald ( `` Lyn of Tawa '' ) , Raybon Kan , Dai Henwood , Ben Hurley , Steve Wrigley , Guy Williams , the Flight of the Conchords and the satirist John Clarke ( `` Fred Dagg '' ) . The comedy group Breaking the 5th Wall operated out of Wellington and regularly did shows around the city , performing a mix of sketch comedy and semi-improvised theatre . In 2012 the group disbanded when some of its members moved to Australia . Wellington is home to groups that perform improvised theatre and improvisational comedy , including Wellington Improvisation Troupe ( WIT ) , The Improvisors and youth group Joe Improv . Wellington hosts shows in the annual New Zealand International Comedy Festival . The NZ International Comedy Fest 2010 featured over 250 local and international comedy acts and was a first in incorporating an iPhone application for the Festival . Visual Arts ( edit ) Art Ferns and Civic Square From 1936 to 1992 Wellington was home to the National Art Gallery of New Zealand , when it was amalgamated into Museum of New Zealand Te Papa Tongarewa . Wellington is home to the New Zealand Academy of Fine Arts and the Arts Foundation of New Zealand . The city 's arts centre , Toi Poneke , is a nexus of creative projects , collaborations , and multi-disciplinary production . Arts Programmes and Services Manager Eric Vaughn Holowacz and a small team based in the Abel Smith Street facility have produced ambitious initiatives such as Opening Notes , Drive by Art , and public art projects . The city is home to experimental arts publication White Fungus . The Learning Connexion provides art classes . Other visual art galleries include the City Gallery . Cuisine ( edit ) Wellington is characterised by small dining establishments and independent coffeehouses , and the city is noted for its `` café culture '' . The city 's restaurants are either licensed to sell alcohol , BYO ( bring your own ) , or unlicensed . Restaurants offer cuisines including from Europe , Asia and Polynesia ; for dishes that have a distinctly New Zealand style , there are lamb , pork and cervena ( venison ) , salmon , crayfish ( lobster ) , Bluff oysters , pāua ( abalone ) , mussels , scallops , pipis and tuatua ( both New Zealand shellfish ) ; kumara ( sweet potato ) ; kiwifruit and tamarillo ; and pavlova , the national dessert . Sport ( edit ) Westpac Stadium Wellington is the home to : The Hurricanes -- Super Rugby team representing the Lower North Island , primarily based in Wellington Wellington Lions -- ITM Cup rugby team Wellington Phoenix FC -- football ( soccer ) club playing in the Australasian A-League , the only fully professional football club in New Zealand Team Wellington -- in the semi-professional New Zealand Football Championship Central Pulse -- netball team representing the Lower North Island in the ANZ Championship , primarily based in Wellington Wellington Firebirds and Wellington Blaze -- men 's and women 's cricket teams Wellington Saints -- basketball team in the National Basketball League Sporting events include : six pool games and two quarter - final games at the 2011 Rugby World Cup the Wellington Sevens -- a round of the IRB Sevens World Series held at the Westpac Stadium over several days every February . the 2011 Tae Kwon Do World Champs The 2014 World Field Target Championships the World Mountain Running Championships in 2005 the Wellington 500 street race for touring cars , between 1985 and 1996 the McEvedy Shield -- annual athletics meet for college students from Rongotai College , St Patrick 's College ( Silverstream ) , St Patrick 's College ( Wellington ) , and Wellington College Education ( edit ) Main article : List of schools in the Wellington Region Wellington offers a variety of college and university programs for tertiary students : Victoria University 's Kelburn campus , one of four in Wellington Victoria University of Wellington has four campuses and works with a three - trimester system ( beginning March , July , and November ) . It enrolled 21,380 students in 2008 ; of these , 16,609 were full - time students . Of all students , 56 % were female and 44 % male . While the student body was primarily New Zealanders of European descent , 1,713 were Maori , 1,024 were Pacific students , 2,765 were international students . 5,751 degrees , diplomas and certificates were awarded . The university has 1,930 full - time employees . Massey University has a Wellington campus known as the `` creative campus '' and offers courses in communication and business , engineering and technology , health and well - being , and creative arts . Its school of design was established in 1886 and has research centres for studying public health , sleep , Maori health , small & medium enterprises , disasters , and tertiary teaching excellence . It combined with Victoria University to create the New Zealand School of Music . The University of Otago has a Wellington branch with its Wellington School of Medicine and Health . Whitireia New Zealand has large campuses in Porirua , Wellington and Kapiti ; the Wellington Institute of Technology and New Zealand 's National Drama school , Toi Whakaari . For further information , see List of universities in New Zealand . The Wellington area has numerous primary and secondary schools . Transport ( edit ) See also : Public transport in the Wellington Region and List of bus routes in the Wellington Region Commuting patterns in the Wellington region during 2006 ; darker red lines indicate greater traffic . Source : Statistics New Zealand . Wellington is served by State Highway 1 in the west and State Highway 2 in the east , meeting at the Ngauranga Interchange north of the city centre , where SH 1 runs through the city to the airport . Road access into the capital is constrained by the mountainous terrain -- between Wellington and the Kapiti Coast , SH 1 travels along the Centennial Highway , a narrow section of road , and between Wellington and Wairarapa SH 2 transverses the Rimutaka Ranges on a similar narrow winding road . Wellington has two motorways , both part of SH 1 : the Johnsonville -- Porirua Motorway and the Wellington Urban Motorway , which in combination with a small non-motorway section in the Ngauranga Gorge connect Porirua with Wellington city . Bus transport in Wellington is supplied by several different operators under the banner of Metlink . Buses serve almost every part of Wellington city , with most of them running along the `` Golden Mile '' from Wellington Railway Station to Courtenay Place . As of 2017 the buses run on diesel , but nine routes used trolleybuses . The trolleybus network was the last public system of its kind in the southern hemisphere , until it was shut down in October 2017 . Two of Tranz Metro 's EM class electric multiple units working a southbound morning service on the Hutt Valley Line . Wellington lies at the southern end of the North Island Main Trunk railway ( NIMT ) and the Wairarapa Line , converging on Wellington Railway Station at the northern end of central Wellington . Two long - distance services leave from Wellington : the Capital Connection , for commuters from Palmerston North , and the Northern Explorer to Auckland . Four electrified suburban lines radiate from Wellington Railway Station to the outer suburbs -- the Johnsonville Line through the hillside suburbs north of central Wellington ; the Kapiti Line along the NIMT to Waikanae on the Kapiti Coast via Porirua and Paraparaumu ; the Melling Line to Lower Hutt via Petone ; and the Hutt Valley Line along the Wairarapa Line via Waterloo and Taita to Upper Hutt . A diesel - hauled carriage service , the Wairarapa Connection , connects several times daily to Masterton in the Wairarapa via the 8.8 - kilometre - long ( 5.5 mi ) Rimutaka Tunnel . Combined , these five services carry 11.64 million passengers per year . New Matangi electric multiple unit Wellington is the North Island port for Cook Strait ferries to Picton in the South Island , provided by state - owned Interislander and private Bluebridge . Local ferries connect Wellington city centre with Eastbourne , Seatoun and Petone . Wellington International Airport is 6 kilometres ( 3.7 mi ) south - east of the city centre . It is serviced by flights from across New Zealand , Australia , Singapore and Fiji . Flights to other international destinations require a transfer at another airport , as larger aircraft can not use Wellington 's short ( 2,081 - metre or 6,827 - foot ) runway , which has become an issue in recent years in regards to the Wellington region 's economic performance . Infrastructure ( edit ) Electric power ( edit ) The maximum electricity demand is forecast to grow on average by 1.4 % annually over the next 15 years , from 756 MW in 2012 to 934 MW by 2027 , slightly lower than the national average demand growth of 1.7 % per annum . The largest source of generation in the region is Meridian Energy 's West Wind wind farm , with a maximum output of 143 MW . It is a few kilometres west of Wellington 's central business district , on Quartz Hill and Terawhiti Station . There are some other small generators in the region , but the total peak generation is only 165 MW . Peak demand greatly exceeds local generation , and power supply is highly dependent on the National Grid operated by Transpower . Four 220 kV transmission circuits from Bunnythorpe , near Palmerston North , provide the main connections with the national grid . The region is also supplied by the North Island terminal of the HVDC link at Haywards substation , on State Highway 58 above the Hutt Valley . A major upgrade of the HVDC link commissioned in 2013 increased the capacity of the link from 700 MW to 1,000 MW from 2012 , and 1,200 MW from 2014 . Further information : HVDC Inter-Island The local power distribution network is owned and managed by Wellington Electricity . The main power supplies to the central business district come from Transpower grid exit point substations at Central Park and Wilton . The Central Park substation is the largest grid exit point in the region , with a peak demand of over 170 MW ( forecast to grow to 200 MW by 2020 ) . There are constraints and limitations with this substation , and alternative investment solutions are being developed to improve security of supply . Strong winds , advantageous for wind farms , have been known to damage power lines . In May 2009 , one windstorm left about 2500 residents without power for several hours . Lightning strikes and occasional faults in the electric power system sometimes cause power outages . Natural gas ( edit ) Wellington and the Hutt Valley were two of the original nine towns and cities in New Zealand to be supplied with natural gas when the Kapuni gas field entered production in 1970 , and a 260 - kilometre - long ( 160 mi ) high - pressure pipeline from the field in Taranaki to the city was completed . The high - pressure transmission pipelines supplying Wellington are now owned and operated by First Gas , with Powerco owning and operating the medium - and low - pressure distribution pipelines within the urban area . Water ( edit ) Wellington 's first piped water supply came from a spring in 1867 . Greater Wellington Regional Council now supplies Lower Hutt , Porirua , Upper Hutt and Wellington with up to 220 million litres a day . The water comes from Wainuiomata River ( since 1884 ) , Hutt River ( 1914 ) , Orongorongo River ( 1926 ) and the Lower Hutt aquifer . Gallery ( edit ) Panorama from Victoria University of Wellington , Kelburn Wellington Harbour and Whairepo Lagoon Night panorama of the city centre from Mount Victoria See also ( edit ) List of people from Wellington References ( edit ) Jump up ^ `` About Wellington -- Facts & Figures '' . Wellington City Council . Archived from the original on 23 August 2011 . Retrieved 5 August 2008 . Jump up ^ `` Wellington City Council Annual Plan 2007 -- 2008 '' ( PDF ) . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on 9 February 2013 . Retrieved 5 August 2008 . ^ Jump up to : `` Subnational Population Estimates : At 30 June 2017 ( provisional ) '' . Statistics New Zealand . 24 October 2017 . Retrieved 24 October 2017 . For urban areas , `` Subnational population estimates ( UA , AU ) , by age and sex , at 30 June 1996 , 2001 , 2006 - 16 ( 2017 boundary ) '' . Statistics New Zealand . 24 October 2017 . Retrieved 24 October 2017 . Jump up ^ Karl Mathiesen ( 15 October 2015 ) . `` Where is the world 's windiest city ? Spoiler alert : it 's not Chicago '' . The Guardian . ^ Jump up to : Guinness World Records 2009 . London , United Kingdom : Guinness World Records Ltd. 2008 . p. 277 . ISBN 978 - 1 - 904994 - 36 - 7 . ^ Jump up to : `` 2014 Quality of Living Worldwide City Rankings -- Mercer Survey '' . www.mercer.com. 19 February 2014 . Retrieved 11 April 2014 . Jump up ^ Lim , Jason ( 29 November 2015 ) . `` Wellington Is Bigger On Tech And Innovation Than You Think '' . Forbes . Retrieved 15 November 2016 . Jump up ^ Edward Jerningham Wakefield , `` Adventure in New Zealand '' , Vol. 1 , pub . John Murray , 1845 . Jump up ^ `` Te Āti Awa of Wellington -- Te Ara : The Encyclopedia of New Zealand '' . www.teara.govt.nz . Te Ara : The Encyclopedia of New Zealand . Retrieved 19 June 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Orthographic Conventions -- Te Taura Whiri i te Reo Māori -- Māori Language Commission '' . 16 July 2012 . Archived from the original on 16 July 2012 . Retrieved 19 June 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Poneke : Wellington places to visit '' . Department of Conservation. 20 February 2007 . Archived from the original on 20 February 2007 . Retrieved 19 June 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Wellington -- New Zealand Sign Language Online '' . Deaf Studies Research Unit , Victoria University of Wellington . 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Emporis.com. 11 November 2006 . Retrieved 6 February 2009 . Jump up ^ `` Department of Conservation '' . Doc.govt.nz. 29 August 2006 . Retrieved 6 February 2009 . Jump up ^ `` Base Isolation '' ( PDF ) . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on 19 March 2013 . Retrieved 10 April 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Kinetic Sculpture by Tony Nicholls -- Enjoy Public Art Gallery '' . Texture -- Wellington , New Zealand . 23 September 2008 . Retrieved 28 July 2009 . Jump up ^ `` Zephyrometer -- The second of the Meridian Energy wind sculptures '' . Wellington Sculpture Trust . 1 August 2014 . Archived from the original on 1 August 2014 . Retrieved 20 June 2015 . Jump up ^ Anne Gibson ( 3 August 2005 ) . `` Robust market sprouts apartments '' . The New Zealand Herald . Retrieved 29 July 2009 . Jump up ^ Andrea Milner ( 21 June 2009 ) . `` Post properties get biggest pounding '' . The New Zealand Herald . 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Careers New Zealand . 19 December 2008 . Archived from the original on 19 December 2008 . Retrieved 19 June 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Comparison of New Zealand cities '' . Emigrate New Zealand . 2006 . Jump up ^ `` Wellington Facts & Figures -- Census Summaries -- 2006 -- Occupation & Qualifications -- New Zealand '' . Statistics New Zealand . 10 February 2013 . Archived from the original on 10 February 2013 . Retrieved 19 June 2015 . Jump up ^ `` 2013 Census QuickStats about work and unpaid activities '' . Statistics New Zealand . 31 March 2015 . Retrieved 21 May 2017 . Jump up ^ BERL Economics , 2011 Jump up ^ `` Mood of the Traveller '' . www.tianz.org.nz . Jump up ^ `` Lonely Planet Names Wellington One of 2011 's Top 10 Cities '' . Lonely Planet . 1 November 2010 . Retrieved 30 July 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Wellington RTO Tourism Forecasts '' . www.tourism.govt.nz . Jump up ^ `` International Visitor Survey '' . www.tourismresearch.govt.nz . 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Retrieved 29 July 2009 . Jump up ^ `` The New Zealand Gas Story '' . Gas Industry Company . December 2016 . Retrieved 13 February 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Our water history -- on tap Water supply in the Wellington region 1867 -- 2006 '' ( PDF ) . WRC . Jump up ^ `` Bulk water supply -- live Greater Wellington Regional Council '' . www.gw.govt.nz . Retrieved 20 May 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Watermap Greater Wellington Regional Council '' . www.gw.govt.nz . Retrieved 20 May 2016 . Further reading ( edit ) Published in the 19th century `` Wellington '' , New Zealand Handbook ( 14th ed . ) , London : E. Stanford , 1879 `` Wellington and its Surroundings '' , Pictorial New Zealand , London : Cassell and Co. , 1895 , OCLC 8587586 Published in the 20th century `` Wellington '' , New Zealand as a Tourist and Health Resort , Auckland : Thomas Cook & Son , 1902 , OCLC 18158487 `` Wellington '' , The Encyclopædia Britannica ( 11th ed . ) , New York : Encyclopædia Britannica , 1910 , OCLC 14782424 C.N. Baeyertz ( 1912 ) , `` Wellington '' , Guide to New Zealand , Wellington : New Zealand Times Co. , OCLC 5747830 `` Wellington City Annual Economic Profile 2013 '' , by Infometrics for Grow Wellington Ltd . External links ( edit ) Wikivoyage has a travel guide for Wellington . Wikimedia Commons has media related to Wellington . 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what are the two main forms of general-purpose local government in the united states

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Local government in the United states - wikipedia Local government in the United states Jump to : navigation , search This article is part of a series on the Politics of the United States of America Federal Government ( show ) Constitution of the United States Law Taxation Legislature ( show ) United States Congress House of Representatives Speaker Paul Ryan ( R ) Majority Leader Kevin McCarthy ( R ) Minority Leader Nancy Pelosi ( D ) Congressional districts United States Senate President Mike Pence ( R ) President Pro Tempore Orrin Hatch ( R ) President Pro Tempore Emeritus Patrick Leahy ( D ) Majority Leader Mitch McConnell ( R ) Minority Leader Chuck Schumer ( D ) Executive ( show ) President of the United States Donald Trump ( R ) Vice President of the United States Mike Pence ( R ) Cabinet Federal agencies Executive Office Judiciary ( show ) Supreme Court of the United States Chief Justice John Roberts Kennedy Thomas Ginsburg Breyer Alito Sotomayor Kagan Gorsuch Courts of Appeals District Courts ( list ) Other tribunals Elections ( show ) Presidential elections Midterm elections Off - year elections Political parties ( show ) Democratic Republican Third parties Federalism ( show ) State Government Governors Legislatures ( List ) State courts Local government Other countries Atlas Local government in the United States refers to governmental jurisdictions below the level of the state . Most states have at least two tiers of local government : counties and municipalities . In some states , counties are divided into townships . There are several different types of jurisdictions at the municipal level , including the city , town , borough , and village . The types and nature of these municipal entities varies from state to state . Many rural areas and even some suburban areas of many states have no municipal government below the county level . In other places consolidated city - county jurisdictions exist , in which city and county functions are managed by a single municipal government . In places like New England , towns are the primary unit of local government and counties have no governmental function but exist in a purely perfunctory capacity ( e.g. for census data ) . In addition to general - purpose local governments , there may be local or regional special - purpose local governments , such as school districts and districts for fire protection , sanitary sewer service , public transportation , public libraries , or water resource management . Such special purpose districts often encompass areas in multiple municipalities . According to the US Census Bureau 's data collected in 2012 , there were 89,004 local government units in the United States . This data shows a decline from 89,476 units since the last census of local governments performed in 2007 . Contents ( hide ) 1 History 2 Types 2.1 County governments 2.2 Town or township governments 2.3 Municipal governments 2.4 Special - purpose local governments 2.4. 1 School districts 2.4. 2 Special districts 3 Councils or associations of governments 4 Dillon 's Rule 5 Governing bodies 6 Indian reservations 7 Census of local government 8 Examples in individual states 8.1 Alaska 8.2 California 8.3 District of Columbia 8.4 Georgia 8.5 Hawaii 8.6 Louisiana 8.7 Maryland 8.8 North Carolina 8.9 Pennsylvania 8.10 Texas 8.11 Virginia 8.12 Other states 9 See also 10 References 11 Further reading 12 External links History ( edit ) When North America was settled by Europeans from the 17th century onward , there was initially little control from governments back in Europe . Many settlements began as shareholder or stockholder business enterprises , and while the king of Britain had technical sovereignty , in most instances `` full governmental authority was vested in the company itself . '' Settlers had to fend for themselves ; compact towns sprung up based as legal corporations in what has been described as `` pure democracy '' : `` The people , owing to the necessity of guarding against the Indians and wild animals , and to their desire to attend the same church , settled in small , compact communities , or townships , which they called towns . The town was a legal corporation , was the political unit , and was represented in the General Court . It was a democracy of the purest type . Several times a year the adult males met in town meeting to discuss public questions , to lay taxes , to make local laws , and to elect officers . The chief officers were the `` selectmen , '' from three to nine in number , who should have the general management of the public business ; the town clerk , treasurer , constables , assessors , and overseers of the poor . To this day the town government continues in a large measure in some parts of New England. -- -- historian Henry William Elson writing in 1904 . '' Propertied men voted ; in no colonies was there universal suffrage . The founding of the Massachusetts Bay Colony in 1629 by a group of Puritans led by John Winthrop came with the understanding that the enterprise was to be `` based in the new world rather than in London . '' Small towns in Massachusetts were compared to city - states in a somewhat oligarchic form , but an oligarchy based on `` perceived virtue '' rather than wealth or birth . The notion of self - government became accepted in the colonies , although it was n't totally free from challenges ; in the 1670s , the Lords of Trade and Plantations ( a royal committee regulating mercantile trade in the colonies ) tried to annul the Massachusetts Bay charter , but by 1691 , the New England colonies had reinstalled their previous governments . Voting was established as a precedent early on ; in fact , one of the first things that Jamestown settlers did was conduct an election . Typically , voters were white males described as `` property owners '' aged twenty - one and older , but sometimes the restrictions were greater , and in practice , persons able to participate in elections were few . Women were prevented from voting ( although there were a few exceptions ) and African - Americans were excluded . The colonists never thought of themselves as subservient but rather as having a loose association with authorities in London . Representative government sprung up spontaneously in various colonies , and during the colonial years , it was recognized and ratified by later charters . But the colonial assemblies passed few bills and did not conduct much business , but dealt with a narrow range of issues , and legislative sessions lasted weeks ( occasionally longer ) , and most legislators could not afford to neglect work for extended periods ; so wealthier people tended to predominate in local legislatures . Office holders tended to serve from a sense of duty and prestige , and not for financial benefit . `` Campaigning by candidates was different from today 's . There were no mass media or advertising . Candidates talked with voters in person , walking a line between undue familiarity and aloofness . Prospective officeholders were expected to be at the polls on election day and made a point to greet all voters . Failure to appear or to be civil to all could be disastrous . In some areas , candidates offered voters food and drink , evenhandedly giving `` treats '' to opponents as well as supporters. -- -- Ed Crews . '' Rules and orders for the regulation of the corporation when met in Common Council , Philadelphia , circa 1800 -- 1809 Taxes were generally based on real estate since it was fixed in place , plainly visible , and its value was generally well known , and revenue could be allocated to the government unit where the property was located . After the American Revolution , the electorate chose the governing councils in almost every American municipality , and state governments began issuing municipal charters . During the 19th century , many municipalities were granted charters by the state governments and became technically municipal corporations . Townships and county governments and city councils shared much of the responsibility for decision - making which varied from state to state . As the United States grew in size and complexity , decision - making authority for issues such as business regulation , taxation , environmental regulation moved to state governments and the national government , while local governments retained control over such matters as zoning issues , property taxes , and public parks . The concept of `` zoning '' originated in the U.S. during the 1920s , according to one source , in which state law gave certain townships or other local governing bodies authority to decide how land was used ; a typical zoning ordinance has a map of a parcel of land attached with a statement specifying how that land can be used , how buildings can be laid out , and so forth . Zoning legitimacy was upheld by the Supreme Court in its Euclid v. Ambler decision . Types ( edit ) The Tenth Amendment to the United States Constitution makes local government a matter of state rather than federal law , with special cases for territories and the District of Columbia . As a result , the states have adopted a wide variety of systems of local government . The United States Census Bureau conducts the Census of Governments every five years to compile statistics on government organization , public employment , and government finances . The categories of local government established in this Census of Governments is a convenient basis for understanding local government in the United States . The categories are as follows : County Governments Town or Township Governments Municipal Governments Special - Purpose Local Governments County governments ( edit ) Main article : County ( United States ) County governments are organized local governments authorized in state constitutions and statutes . Counties and county - equivalents form the first - tier administrative division of the states . All the states are divided into counties or county - equivalents for administrative purposes , although not all counties or county - equivalents have an organized county government . County government has been eliminated throughout Connecticut and Rhode Island , as well as in parts of Massachusetts . The Unorganized Borough in Alaska also does not operate under a county level government . Additionally , a number of independent cities and consolidated city - counties operate under municipal governments that serve the functions of both city and county . In areas lacking a county government , services are provided either by lower level townships or municipalities , or the state . Town or township governments ( edit ) Main article : Civil township Town or township governments are organized local governments authorized in the state constitutions and statutes of 20 Northeastern and Midwestern states , established to provide general government for a defined area , generally based on the geographic subdivision of a county . Depending on state law and local circumstance , a township may or may not be incorporated , and the degree of authority over local government services may vary greatly . Towns in the six New England states and townships in New Jersey and Pennsylvania are included in this category by the Census Bureau , despite the fact that they are legally municipal corporations , since their structure has no necessary relation to concentration of population , which is typical of municipalities elsewhere in the United States . In particular , towns in New England have considerably more power than most townships elsewhere and often function as legally equivalent to cities , typically exercising the full range of powers that are divided between counties , townships , and cities in other states . An additional dimension that distinguishes township governments from municipalities is the historical circumstance surrounding their formation . For example , towns in New England are also defined by a tradition of local government presided over by town meetings -- assemblies open to all voters to express their opinions on public policy . The term `` town '' is also used for a local level of government in New York and Wisconsin . The terms `` town '' and `` township '' are used interchangeably in Minnesota . Municipal governments ( edit ) Main articles : Municipality , City , Town , Village ( United States ) , and Borough ( United States ) Municipal governments are organized local governments authorized in state constitutions and statutes , established to provide general government for a defined area , generally corresponding to a population center rather than one of a set of areas into which a county is divided . The category includes those governments designated as cities , boroughs ( except in Alaska ) , towns ( except in Minnesota and Wisconsin ) , and villages . This concept corresponds roughly to the `` incorporated places '' that are recognized in Census Bureau reporting of population and housing statistics , although the Census Bureau excludes New England towns from their statistics for this category , and the count of municipal governments excludes places that are governmentally inactive . Municipalities range in size from the very small ( e.g. , the village of Monowi , Nebraska , with only 1 resident ) , to the very large ( e.g. , New York City , with about 8.5 million people ) , and this is reflected in the range of types of municipal governments that exist in different areas . In most states , county and municipal governments exist side - by - side . There are exceptions to this , however . In some states , a city can , either by separating from its county or counties or by merging with one or more counties , become independent of any separately functioning county government and function both as a county and as a city . Depending on the state , such a city is known as either an independent city or a consolidated city - county . Such a jurisdiction constitutes a county - equivalent and is analogous to a unitary authority in other countries . In Connecticut , Rhode Island , and parts of Massachusetts , counties exist only to designate boundaries for such state - level functions as park districts or judicial offices ( Massachusetts ) . Municipal governments are usually administratively divided into several departments , depending on the size of the city . Special - purpose local governments ( edit ) School districts ( edit ) Main article : School district School districts are organized local entities providing public elementary and secondary education which , under state law , have sufficient administrative and fiscal autonomy to qualify as separate governments . The category excludes dependent public school systems of county , municipal , township , or state governments ( e.g. , school divisions ) . Special districts ( edit ) Main article : Special district ( United States ) Special districts are all organized local entities other than the four categories listed above , authorized by state law to provide designated functions as established in the district 's charter or other founding document , and with sufficient administrative and fiscal autonomy to qualify as separate governments ; known by a variety of titles , including districts , authorities , boards , commissions , etc. , as specified in the enabling state legislation . A special district may serve areas of multiple states if established by an interstate compact . Special districts are widely popular , have enjoyed `` phenomenal growth '' and `` nearly tripled in number '' from 1957 to 2007 . Councils or associations of governments ( edit ) Main article : Council of governments It is common for residents of major U.S. metropolitan areas to live under six or more layers of special districts as well as a town or city , and a county or township . In turn , a typical metro area often consists of several counties , several dozen towns or cities , and a hundred ( or more ) special districts . In one state , California , the fragmentation problem became so bad that in 1963 the California Legislature created Local Agency Formation Commissions in 57 of the state 's 58 counties ; that is , government agencies to supervise the orderly formation and development of other government agencies . One effect of all this complexity is that victims of government negligence occasionally sue the wrong entity and do not realize their error until the statute of limitations has run against them . Because efforts at direct consolidation have proven futile , U.S. local government entities often form `` councils of governments '' , `` metropolitan regional councils '' , or `` associations of governments '' . These organizations serve as regional planning agencies and as forums for debating issues of regional importance , but are generally powerless relative to their individual members . Since the late 1990s , `` a movement , frequently called ' New Regionalism ' , accepts the futility of seeking consolidated regional governments and aims instead for regional structures that do not supplant local governments . '' Dillon 's rule ( edit ) Unlike the relationship of federalism that exists between the U.S. government and the states ( in which power is shared ) , municipal governments have no power except what is granted to them by their states . This legal doctrine , called Dillon 's Rule , was established by Judge John Forrest Dillon in 1872 and upheld by the U.S. Supreme Court in Hunter v. Pittsburgh , 207 U.S. 161 ( 1907 ) , which upheld the power of Pennsylvania to consolidate the city of Allegheny into the city of Pittsburgh , despite the wishes of the majority of Allegheny residents . In effect , state governments can place whatever restrictions they choose on their municipalities ( including merging municipalities , controlling them directly , or abolishing them outright ) , as long as such rules do n't violate the state 's constitution . However , Dillon 's Rule does not apply in all states of the United States , because some state constitutions provide specific rights for municipalities and counties . State constitutions which allow counties or municipalities to enact ordinances without the legislature 's permission are said to provide home rule authority . New Jersey , for example , provides for home rule . A state which is both a home rule state and a Dillon 's Rule state applies Dillon 's Rule to matters or governmental units not accounted for in the constitutional amendment or statutes which grant home rule . Governing bodies ( edit ) The nature of both county and municipal government varies not only between states , but also between different counties and municipalities within them . Local voters are generally free to choose the basic framework of government from a selection established by state law . In most cases both counties and municipalities have a governing council , governing in conjunction with a mayor or president . Alternatively , the institution may be of the council -- manager government form , run by a city manager under direction of the city council . In the past the municipal commission was also common . The ICMA has classified local governments into five common forms : mayor -- council , council -- manager , commission , town meeting , and representative town meeting . In addition to elections for a council or mayor , elections are often also held for positions such as local judges , the sheriff , prosecutors , and other offices . Indian reservations ( edit ) While their territory nominally falls within the boundaries of individual states , Indian reservations actually function outside of state control . The reservation is usually controlled by an elected tribal council which provides local services . Census of local government ( edit ) A census of all local governments in the country is performed every 5 years by the United States Census Bureau , in accordance with 13 USC 161 . Governments in the United States ( not including insular areas ) Type Number Federal State and Federal District 51 County 3,034 Municipal ( city , town , village ... ) * 19,429 Township ( in some states called Town ) * * 16,504 School district 13,506 Special purpose ( utility , fire , police , library , etc . ) 35,052 Total 87,576 ) * note : Municipalities are any incorporated places , such as cities , towns , villages , boroughs , etc . ) * * note : New England towns and towns in New York and Wisconsin are classified as civil townships for census purposes . Examples in individual states ( edit ) The following sections provide details of the operation of local government in a selection of states , by way of example of the variety that exists across the country . Alaska ( edit ) Main article : Administrative divisions of Alaska Alaska calls its county equivalents `` boroughs '' , functioning similar to counties in the Lower 48 ; however , unlike any other state , not all of Alaska is subdivided into county - equivalent boroughs . Owing to the state 's low population density , most of the land is contained in what the state terms the Unorganized Borough which , as the name implies , has no intermediate borough government of its own , but is administered directly by the state government . Many of Alaska 's boroughs are consolidated city - borough governments ; other cities exist both within organized boroughs and the Unorganized Borough . California ( edit ) Main article : Local government in California California has several different and overlapping forms of local government . Cities , counties , and the one consolidated city - county can make ordinances ( local laws ) , including the establishment and enforcement of civil and criminal penalties . A city council meeting in Fullerton , California The entire state is subdivided into 58 counties ( e.g. , Los Angeles County ) . The only type of municipal entity is the city ( e.g. , Los Angeles ) , although cities may either operate under `` general law '' or a custom - drafted charter . California has never had villages , never really used townships ( they were for surveying and judicial purposes only ) , and allows cities to call themselves `` towns '' if they wish , but the name `` town '' is purely cosmetic with no legal effect . As a result , California has several towns with large populations in the tens of thousands and several cities that are home to only a few hundred people . California cities are granted broad plenary powers under the California Constitution to assert jurisdiction over just about anything , and they can not be abolished or merged without the consent of a majority of their inhabitants . For example , Los Angeles runs its own water and power utilities and its own elevator inspection department , while practically all other cities rely upon private utilities and the state elevator inspectors . San Francisco is unique in that it is the only consolidated city - county in the state . The city of Lakewood pioneered the Lakewood Plan , a contract under which a city reimburses a county for performing services which are more efficiently performed on a countywide basis . Such contracts have become very popular throughout California and many other states , as they enable city governments to concentrate on particular local concerns like zoning . A city which contracts out most of its services , particularly law enforcement , is known as a contract city . There are also thousands of `` special districts '' , which are areas with a defined territory in which a specific service is provided , such as schools or fire stations . These entities lack plenary power to enact laws , but do have the power to promulgate administrative regulations that often carry the force of law within land directly controlled by such districts . Many special districts , particularly those created to provide public transportation or education , have their own police departments ( e.g. Bay Area Rapid Transit District / BART Police and Los Angeles Unified School District / Los Angeles School Police Department ) . District of Columbia ( edit ) Main article : District of Columbia home rule The District of Columbia is unique within the United States in that it is under the direct authority of the U.S. Congress , rather than forming part of any state . Actual government has been delegated under the District of Columbia Home Rule Act to a city council which effectively also has the powers given to county or state governments in other areas . Under the act , the Council of the District of Columbia has the power to write laws , as a state 's legislature would , moving the bill to the mayor to sign into law . Following this , the United States Congress has the power to overturn the law . Georgia ( edit ) The state of Georgia is divided into 159 counties ( the largest number of any state other than Texas ) , each of which has had home rule since at least 1980 . This means that Georgia 's counties not only act as units of state government , but also in much the same way as municipalities . All municipalities are classed as a `` city '' , regardless of population size . For an area to be incorporated as a city , special legislation has to be passed by the General Assembly ( state legislature ) ; typically the legislation requires a referendum amongst local voters to approve incorporation , to be passed by a simple majority . This most recently happened in 2005 and 2006 in several communities near Atlanta . Sandy Springs , a city of 85,000 bordering the north side of Atlanta , incorporated in December 2005 . One year later , Johns Creek ( 62,000 ) and Milton ( 20,000 ) incorporated , which meant that the entirety of north Fulton County was now municipalized . The General Assembly also approved a plan that would potentially establish two new cities in the remaining unincorporated portions of Fulton County south of Atlanta : South Fulton and Chattahoochee Hills . Chattahoochee Hills voted to incorporate in December 2007 ; South Fulton voted against incorporation , and is the only remaining unincorporated portion of Fulton County . City charters may be revoked either by the legislature or by a simple majority referendum of the city 's residents ; the latter last happened in 2004 , in Lithia Springs . Revocation by the legislature last occurred in 1995 , when dozens of cities were eliminated en masse for not having active governments , or even for not offering at least three municipal services required of all cities . New cities may not incorporate land less than 3 miles ( 4.8 km ) from an existing city without approval from the General Assembly . The body approved all of the recent and upcoming creations of new cities in Fulton County . Four areas have a `` consolidated city - county '' government : Columbus , since 1971 ; Athens , since 1991 ; Augusta , since 1996 ; and Macon , which was approved by voters in 2012 . Hawaii ( edit ) Hawaii is the only U.S. state that has no incorporated municipalities . Instead it has four counties and the `` consolidated city - county '' of Honolulu . All communities are considered to be census - designated places , with the exact boundaries being decided upon by co-operative agreement between the Governor 's office and the U.S. Census Bureau . Kalawao County is the second smallest county in the United States , and is often considered part of Maui County . Louisiana ( edit ) In Louisiana , counties are called parishes ; likewise , the county seat is known as the parish seat . The difference in nomenclature does not reflect a fundamental difference in the nature of government , but is rather a reflection of the state 's unique status as a former French and Spanish colony ( although a small number of other states once had parishes too ) . Maryland ( edit ) Maryland has 23 counties . The State Constitution charters the City of Baltimore as an independent city , which is the functional equivalent of a county , and is separate from any county -- e.g. , there is also a Baltimore County , but its county seat is in Towson , not in the City of Baltimore . Other than Baltimore , all cities are the same , and there is no difference between a municipality called a city or a town . Cities and towns are chartered by the legislature . North Carolina ( edit ) Main article : North Carolina Councils of Government North Carolina has 100 counties , the seventh highest number in the country , The North Carolina Councils of Government ( or the Regional Councils of Government ) are voluntary associations of county and municipal governments , established by the North Carolina General Assembly in 1972 that serve as an avenue for local governments across North Carolina to discuss issues that are particular to their region . In banding together at the regional level , the voice of one community becomes the voice of many , thus providing a better opportunity for those issues to be addressed . Today the majority of citizens and local governments in North Carolina are represented by regional councils , making them an increasingly important facet of local government operations . Today North Carolina calls itself home to 16 regional councils of government . Regional councils in North Carolina are committed to working together . In 2010 the seventeen regional councils existing at that time signed an inter-regional cooperative agreement that established a policy to enhance their value by sharing member resources and capacity to deliver services to the state of North Carolina . This agreement also endorses regional councils , to carry out activities in regions outside their boundaries with consent when those services are to benefit the region and the state . Regional boundaries correspond to county borders , with each council being made up of both county and municipal governments . Although the number of regional councils in North Carolina has decreased over the years , the number of citizens served by the councils continues to rise . As of 2007 , it is reported that the number of local governments served by regional councils in North Carolina has increased by 16 % since 1994 . Throughout this same time period the number of citizens served by regional councils has increased by 35 % or approximately 2.3 million . This equates to 92 % of local governments and 97 % of all North Carolina citizens being represented by regional councils as of July 1 , 2007 . Pennsylvania ( edit ) Main article : Local government in Pennsylvania Pennsylvania has 67 counties . With the exception of Philadelphia and Allegheny County , counties are governed by three to seven county commissioners who are elected every four years ; the district attorney , county treasurer , sheriff , and certain classes of judge ( `` judges of election '' ) are also elected separately . Philadelphia has been a consolidated city - county since 1854 and has had a consolidated city - county government since 1952 . Allegheny County has had a council / chief executive government since 2001 , while still retaining its townships , boroughs and cities . Each county is divided into municipal corporations , which can be one of four types : cities , boroughs , townships , and incorporated towns . The Commonwealth does not contain any unincorporated land that is not served by a local government . However , the US Postal Service has given names to places within townships that are not incorporated separately . For instance King of Prussia is a census - designated place , having no local government of its own . It is rather contained within Upper Merion Township , governed by Upper Merion 's supervisors , and considered to be a part of the township . Townships are divided into two classes , depending on their population size and density . Townships of the `` First Class '' have a board made up of five to fifteen commissioners who are elected either at - large or for a particular ward to four - year terms , while those of the `` Second Class '' have a board of three to five supervisors who are elected at - large to six - year terms . Some townships have adopted a home rule charter which allows them to choose their form of government . One example is Upper Darby Township , in Delaware County , which has chosen to have a `` mayor - council '' system similar to that of a borough . Boroughs in Pennsylvania are governed by a `` mayor - council '' system in which the mayor has only a few powers ( usually that of overseeing the municipal police department , if the borough has one ) , while the borough council has very broad appointment and oversight . The council president , who is elected by the majority party every two years , is equivalent to the leader of a council in the United Kingdom ; his or her powers operate within boundaries set by the state constitution and the borough 's charter . A small minority of the boroughs have dropped the mayor - council system in favor of the council - manager system , in which the council appoints a borough manager to oversee the day - to - day operations of the borough . As in the case of townships , a number of boroughs have adopted home rule charters ; one example is State College , which retains the mayor - council system that it had as a borough . Bloomsburg is the Commonwealth 's only incorporated town ; McCandless Township in Allegheny County calls itself a town , but it officially remains a township with a home rule charter . Cities in Pennsylvania are divided into four classes : Class 1 , Class 2 , Class 2A , and Class 3 . Class 3 cities , which are the smallest , have either a mayor - council system or a council - manager system like that of a borough , although the mayor or city manager has more oversight and duties compared to their borough counterparts . Pittsburgh and Scranton are the state 's only Class 2 and Class 2A cities respectively , and have mayors with some veto power , but are otherwise still governed mostly by their city councils . Philadelphia is the Commonwealth 's only Class 1 city . It has a government similar to that of the Commonwealth itself , with a mayor with strong appointment and veto powers and a 17 - member city council that has both law - making and confirmation powers . Certain types of legislation that can be passed by the city government require state legislation before coming into force . Unlike the other cities in Pennsylvania , the Philadelphia city government also has oversight of county government , and as such controls the budget for the district attorney , sheriff , and other county offices that have been retained from the county 's one - time separate existence ; these offices are elected for separately than those for the city government proper . Texas ( edit ) Main article : Administrative divisions of Texas Texas has 254 counties , the most of any state . Each county is governed by a five - member Commissioners Court , which consists of a county judge ( elected at - large ) and four commissioners ( elected from single - member precincts ) . The county judge has no veto authority over the decisions of the court ; s / he has one vote along with the other commissioners . In smaller counties , the county judge also performs judicial functions , while in larger counties his / her role is limited to the court . Elections are held on a partisan basis . Counties have no home rule authority ; their authority is strictly limited by the State . They operate in areas which are considered `` unincorporated '' ( those parts not within the territory of a city ; Texas does not have townships ) unless the city has contracted with the county for essential services . In plain English , Texas counties merely exist to deliver specific types of services at the local level as prescribed by state law , but can not enact or enforce local ordinances . As one textbook produced for use in Texas schools has openly acknowledged , Texas counties are prone to inefficient operations and are vulnerable to corruption , for several reasons . First , most of them do not have a merit system but operate on a spoils system , so that many county employees obtain their positions through loyalty to a particular political party and commissioner rather than whether they actually have the skills and experience appropriate to their positions . Second , most counties have not centralized purchasing into a single procurement department which would be able to seek quantity discounts and carefully scrutinize bids and contract awards for unusual patterns . Third , in 90 percent of Texas counties , each commissioner is individually responsible for planning and executing their own road construction and maintenance program for their own precinct , which results in poor coordination and duplicate construction machinery . Cities may be either general law or home rule . Once a city reaches 5,000 in population , it may submit a ballot petition to create a `` city charter '' and operate under home rule status ( they will maintain that status even if the population falls under 5,000 ) and may choose its own form of government ( weak or strong mayor - council , commission , council - manager ) . Cities under general law status have only those powers authorized by the State . Annexation policies are highly dependent on whether the city is general law ( annexation can only occur with the consent of the landowners ) or home rule ( no consent is required , but if the city fails to provide essential services , the landowners can petition for de-annexation ) , and city boundaries can cross county ones . The city council can be elected either at - large or from single - member districts . Ballots are on a nonpartisan basis ( though , generally , the political affiliation of the candidates is commonly known ) . With the exception of the Stafford Municipal School District , all 1,000 + school districts in Texas are `` independent '' school districts . State law requires seven trustees , which can be elected either at - large or from single - member districts . Ballots are non-partisan . The Texas Education Agency has state authority to order consolidation of school districts , generally for repeated failing performance , as was the case with the Wilmer - Hutchins Independent School District . In addition , state law allows the creation of special districts , such as hospital districts or water supply districts . Texas does not provide for independent cities nor for consolidated city - county governments . However , local governments are free to enter into `` interlocal agreements '' with other ones , primarily for efficiency purposes . ( A common example is for cities and school districts in a county to contract with the county for property tax collection ; thus , each resident receives only one property bill . ) Virginia ( edit ) Main article : Administrative divisions of Virginia Virginia is divided into 95 counties and 38 cities . All cities are independent cities , which mean that they are separate from , and independent of , any county they may be near or within . Cities in Virginia thus are the equivalent of counties , as they have no higher local government intervening between them and the state government . The equivalent in Virginia to what would normally be an incorporated city in any other state , e.g. a municipality subordinate to a county , is a town . For example , there is a County of Fairfax as well as a totally independent City of Fairfax , which technically is not part of Fairfax County even though the City of Fairfax is the county seat of Fairfax County . Within Fairfax County , however , is the incorporated town of Vienna , which is part of Fairfax County . Similar names do not necessarily reflect relationships ; Franklin County is far from the city of Franklin , while Charles City is an unincorporated community in Charles City County , and there is no city of Charles . Other states ( edit ) Local government in Connecticut Administrative divisions of Massachusetts Local government in New Hampshire Local government in New Jersey Local government in New Mexico Administrative divisions of New York Administrative divisions of Wisconsin See also ( edit ) Home rule Urban politics in the United States References ( edit ) ^ Jump up to : `` HISTORY OF BRITISH COLONIAL AMERICA '' . History World . 2010 - 06 - 16 . Retrieved 2010 - 06 - 16 . In 1629 a Puritan group secures from the king a charter to trade with America , as the Massachusetts Bay Company . Led by John Winthrop , a fleet of eleven vessels sets sail for Massachusetts in 1630 . The ships carry 700 settlers , 240 cows and 60 horses . Winthrop also has on board the royal charter of the company . The enterprise is to be based in the new world rather than in London . This device is used to justify a claim later passionately maintained by the new colony - that it is an independent political entity , entirely responsible for its own affairs . In 1630 Winthrop selects Boston as the site of the first settlement , and two years later the town is formally declared to be the capital of the colony . ^ Jump up to : U.S. Census Bureau . 2012 Census of Governments ^ Jump up to : `` Emergence of Colonial Government '' . United States History . 2010 - 06 - 16 . Retrieved 2010 - 06 - 16 . In all phases of colonial development , a striking feature was the lack of controlling influence by the English government . All colonies except Georgia emerged as companies of shareholders , or as feudal proprietorships stemming from charters granted by the Crown . The fact that the king had transferred his immediate sovereignty over the New World settlements to stock companies and proprietors did not , of course , mean that the colonists in America were necessarily free of outside control . Under the terms of the Virginia Company charter , for example , full governmental authority was vested in the company itself . Nevertheless , the crown expected that the company would be resident in England . Inhabitants of Virginia , then , would have no more voice in their government than if the king himself had retained absolute rule . Jump up ^ Henry William Elson ( 1904 ) . `` Colonial Government '' . MacMillan Company . Retrieved 2010 - 06 - 16 . In methods of local government the colonies were much less uniform than in the general government . As stated in our account of Massachusetts , the old parish of England became the town in New England ... Jump up ^ Henry William Elson ( 1904 ) . `` Colonial Government '' . MacMillan Company . Retrieved 2010 - 06 - 16 . In no colony was universal suffrage to be found . ^ Jump up to : `` Emergence of Colonial Government '' . United States History . 2010 - 06 - 16 . Retrieved 2010 - 06 - 16 . For their part , the colonies had never thought of themselves as subservient . Rather , they considered themselves chiefly as commonwealths or states , much like England itself , having only a loose association with the authorities in London . In one way or another , exclusive rule from the outside withered away . ^ Jump up to : Ed Crews ( Spring 2007 ) . `` Voting in Early America '' . history.org . Retrieved 2010 - 06 - 16 . Among the first things the Jamestown voyagers did when they set up English America 's first permanent settlement was conduct an election . Nearly as soon as they landed -- April 26 , 1607 , by their calendar -- the commanders of the 105 colonists unsealed a box containing a secret list of seven men picked in England to be the colony 's council and from among whom the councilors were to pick a president . Jump up ^ Henry William Elson ( 1904 ) . `` Colonial Government '' . MacMillan Company . Retrieved 2010 - 06 - 16 . The system of representative government was allowed , but not required , by the early charters . But after it had sprung up spontaneously in various colonies , it was recognized and ratified by the later charters , as in those of Connecticut and Rhode Island , and the second charter of Massachusetts , though it was not mentioned in the New York grant . The franchise came to be restricted by some property qualifications in all the colonies , in most by their own act , as by Virginia in 1670 , or by charter , as in Massachusetts , 1691 . Jump up ^ Glenn W. Fisher ( 2010 - 02 - 01 ) . `` History of Property Taxes in the United States '' . EH.net ( Economic History Association ) . Retrieved 2010 - 06 - 16 . The property tax , especially the real estate tax , was ideally suited to such a situation . Real estate had a fixed location , it was visible , and its value was generally well known . Revenue could easily be allocated to the governmental unit in which the property was located . ^ Jump up to : `` Political Dictionary : local government '' . answers.com. 2010 - 06 - 16 . Retrieved 2010 - 06 - 16 . Both county governments and towns were significant , sharing responsibility for local rule . In the middle colonies and in Maryland and Virginia as well , the colonial governors granted municipal charters to the most prominent communities , endowing them with the powers and privileges of a municipal corporation . Although in some of these municipalities the governing council was elected ... By the 1790s the electorate chose the governing council in every American municipality . Moreover , the state legislatures succeeded to the sovereign prerogative of the royal governors and thenceforth granted municipal charters . During the nineteenth century , thousands of communities became municipal corporations . Irritated by the many petitions for incorporation burdening each legislative session , nineteenth - century state legislatures enacted general municipal incorporation laws that permitted communities to incorporate simply by petitioning the county authorities . ^ Jump up to : `` Getting a Grip on Zoning Regulations '' . useful-community-development.org. 2010 - 06 - 16 . Retrieved 2010 - 06 - 16 . Zoning is a concept that originated in the United States in the 1920s . State law often gives certain townships , municipal governments , county governments , or groups of governments acting together the power to zone . Jump up ^ Osborne M. Reynolds , Jr. , Local Government Law , 3rd ed . ( St. Paul : West , 2009 ) , 30 . Jump up ^ Reynolds , 24 . Jump up ^ Reynolds , 31 . Jump up ^ Reynolds , 31 - 32 . Jump up ^ Reynolds , 33 . Jump up ^ Spencer v. Merced County Office of Education , 59 Cal . App . 4th 1429 ( 1997 ) . Jump up ^ Reynolds , 53 . Jump up ^ Reynolds , 55 . Jump up ^ Adrian , Charles R. and Fine , Michael R. ( 1991 ) State and Local Politics Lyceum Books / Nelson Hall Publishers , Chicago , page 83 , ISBN 0 - 8304 - 1285 - 9 Jump up ^ Allen , J. Michael , III and Hinds , Jamison W. ( 2001 ) `` Alabama Constitutional Reform '' . Alabama Law Review 53 : pp. 1 - 30 , pages 7 - 8 Jump up ^ `` The provisions of this Constitution and of any law concerning municipal corporations formed for local government , or concerning counties , shall be liberally construed in their favor . The powers of counties and such municipal corporations shall include not only those granted in express terms but also those of necessary or fair implication , or incident to the powers expressly conferred , or essential thereto , and not inconsistent with or prohibited by this Constitution or by law . '' Constitution of the State of New Jersey Archived 2009 - 06 - 30 at the Wayback Machine. , Article IV , Section VII ( 11 ) . Jump up ^ ICMA ^ Jump up to : Charldean Newell , David Forrest Prindle , and James W. Riddlesperger , Jr. , Texas Politics , 11th ed . ( Boston : Cengage Learning , 2011 ) , 376 - 381 . Further reading ( edit ) Jon C. Teaford ( 2009 ) . `` Local Government '' . In Michael Kazin . Princeton Encyclopedia of American Political History . Princeton University Press . pp. 488 ? -- 491 . ISBN 1 - 4008 - 3356 - 6 . Check list of books and pamphlets on municipal government . Chicago Public Library . 1911 . External links ( edit ) National Association of Counties National League of Cities National Association of Towns and Townships International City / County Management Association ( ICMA ) U.S. Census Bureau page for local government American Public Works Association National Association of County Engineers National Association of Development Organizations National Center for Small Communities Municipal Research & Services Center of Washington ( MRSC ) U.S. Advisory Commission on Intergovernmental Relations . 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how do you become the governor general of canada

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Governor general of Canada - Wikipedia Governor general of Canada Jump to : navigation , search For a list , see List of Governors General of Canada . Governor General of Canada Badge Flag of the Governor General Incumbent Julie Payette CC CMM COM CQ CD since 2 October 2017 Viceroy Style Her Excellency the Right Honourable Residence Rideau Hall , Ottawa ; La Citadelle , Quebec City Appointer Monarch of Canada Term length At Her Majesty 's pleasure Formation 1 July 1867 First holder The Viscount Monck Salary $288,900 ( CAD ) Website www.gg.ca Canada This article is part of a series on the politics and government of Canada Government The Crown ( show ) Monarch ( Elizabeth II ) Governor General ( Julie Payette ) Monarchy in the provinces Lieutenant governors Executive ( Queen - in - Council ) ( show ) Queen 's Privy Council Prime minister ( Justin Trudeau ) Cabinet ( 29th ministry ) Ministries President of the Privy Council Clerk of the Privy Council Privy Council Office Civil Service Provincial and territorial executive councils Premiers Legislative ( Queen - in - Parliament ) ( show ) Federal parliament Senate Speaker of the Senate Government Leader in the Senate Opposition Leader in the Senate Senate divisions House of Commons Speaker of the house Government Leader in the house Opposition Leader in the house Her Majesty 's Loyal Opposition Leader of the Opposition Shadow cabinet Provincial and territorial parliaments Judicial ( Queen - on - the - Bench ) ( show ) Court system Supreme court Federal chief justice ( Richard Wagner ) Provincial and territorial courts Provincial chief justices Constitution British North America Acts Peace , order , and good government Charter of Rights and Freedoms Elections ( show ) Federal electoral districts Federal electoral system 42nd federal election ( 2015 ) Provincial electoral districts Politics of the provinces Local government ( show ) Municipal government Related topics ( show ) Federalism Structure of the federal government Constitutional law Royal prerogative Regions Political culture Foreign relations Office - holders Political movements Aboriginal self - government First Nations bands Other countries Atlas The Governor General of Canada ( French : Gouverneure générale du Canada ) is the federal viceregal representative of the Canadian monarch , currently Queen Elizabeth II . The person of the sovereign is shared equally both with the 15 other Commonwealth realms and the 10 provinces of Canada , but resides predominantly in her oldest realm , the United Kingdom . The Queen , on the advice of her Canadian prime minister , appoints a governor general to carry out most of her constitutional and ceremonial duties . The commission is for an unfixed period of time -- known as serving at Her Majesty 's pleasure -- though five years is the normal convention . Beginning in 1959 , it has also been traditional to rotate between anglophone and francophone incumbents -- although many recent governors general have been bilingual . Once in office , the governor general maintains direct contact with the Queen , wherever she may be at the time . The office began in the 16th and 17th centuries with the Crown - appointed governors of the French colony of Canada followed by the British governors of Canada in the 18th and 19th centuries . Subsequently , the office is , along with the Crown , the oldest continuous institution in Canada . The present incarnation of the office emerged with Canadian Confederation and the passing of the British North America Act , 1867 , which defines the role of the governor general as `` carrying on the Government of Canada on behalf and in the Name of the Queen , by whatever Title he is designated '' . Although the post initially still represented the government of the United Kingdom ( that is , the monarch in his British council ) , the office was gradually Canadianized until , with the passage of the Statute of Westminster in 1931 and the establishment of a separate and uniquely Canadian monarchy , the governor general become the direct personal representative of the independently and uniquely Canadian sovereign , the monarch in his Canadian council . Throughout this process of gradually increasing Canadian independence , the role of governor general took on additional responsibilities . For example , in 1904 , the Militia Act granted permission for the governor general to use the title of Commander - in - Chief of the Canadian militia , in the name of the sovereign and actual Commander - in - Chief , and in 1927 the first official international visit by a governor general was made . Finally , in 1947 , King George VI issued letters patent allowing the viceroy to carry out almost all of the monarch 's powers on his or her behalf . As a result , the day - to - day duties of the monarch are carried out by the governor general , although , as a matter of law , the governor general is not in the same constitutional position as the sovereign ; the office itself does not independently possess any powers of the Royal Prerogative . In accordance with the Constitution Act , 1982 , any constitutional amendment that affects the Crown , including the office of the Governor General , requires the unanimous consent of each provincial legislature as well as the federal parliament . The current governor general is Julie Payette , who has served since 2 October 2017 ; Prime Minister Justin Trudeau recommended her to succeed David Johnston . Contents ( hide ) 1 Spelling of title 2 Appointment 2.1 Selection 3 Role 3.1 Constitutional role 3.2 Ceremonial role 4 Residences and household 5 Symbols and protocol 6 History 6.1 French and British colonies 6.2 Responsible government 6.3 Emerging nationality to an independent kingdom 6.4 Quebec nationalism and constitutional patriation 6.5 Withering and renaissance 7 Activities post-commission 7.1 Canadian institutions established by Governors General 8 See also 9 Notes 10 References 11 Further reading 12 External links Spelling of title ( edit ) The Government of Canada spells the title governor general without a hyphen . The Canadian media still often use the governor - general spelling . As governor is the noun in the title , it is pluralized ; thus , governors general , rather than governor generals . Moreover , both terms are capitalized when used in the formal title preceding an incumbent 's name . Appointment ( edit ) The text of the Letters Patent , 1947 Constituting the Office of Governor General and Commander - in - Chief of Canada printed in the Canada Gazette , 1 October 1947 The position of governor general is mandated by both the Constitution Act , 1867 ( previously the British North America Act , 1867 ) and the letters patent issued in 1947 by King George VI . As such , on the recommendation of his or her Canadian prime minister , the Canadian monarch appoints the governor general by commission issued under the royal sign - manual and Great Seal of Canada . That individual is , from then until being sworn - in , referred to as the governor general - designate . Besides the administration of the oaths of office , there is no set formula for the swearing - in of a governor general - designate . Though there may therefore be variations to the following , the appointee will generally travel to Ottawa , there receiving an official welcome and taking up residence at 7 Rideau Gate , and will begin preparations for their upcoming role , meeting with various high level officials to ensure a smooth transition between governors general . The sovereign will also hold an audience with the appointee and will at that time induct both the governor general - designate and his or her spouse into the Order of Canada as Companions , as well as appointing the former as a Commander of both the Order of Military Merit and the Order of Merit of the Police Forces ( should either person not have already received either of those honours ) . Vincent Massey ( far left ) , the first Canadian - born person appointed to the viceregal post since Confederation . Michaëlle Jean reciting the oaths of office as administered by Puisne Justice Michel Bastarache , 27 September 2005 The swearing - in ceremony begins with the arrival at 7 Rideau Gate of one of the ministers of the Crown , who then accompanies the governor general - designate to Parliament Hill , where a Canadian Forces Guard of Honour ( consisting of the Army Guard , Royal Canadian Air Force Guard , and Flag Party of the Royal Canadian Navy ) awaits to give a general salute . From there , the party is led by the Queen 's parliamentary messenger -- the Usher of the Black Rod -- to the Senate chamber , wherein all justices of the Supreme Court , senators , members of parliament , and other guests are assembled . The Queen 's commission for the governor general - designate is then read aloud by the Secretary to the Governor General and the required oaths are administered to the appointee by either the chief justice or one of the puisne justices of the Supreme Court ; the three oaths are : the Oath of Allegiance , the Oath of Office as Governor General and Commander - in - Chief , and the Oath as Keeper of the Great Seal of Canada . With the affixing of their signature to these three solemn promises , the individual is officially the governor general , and at that moment the Flag of the Governor General of Canada is raised on the Peace Tower , the Viceregal Salute is played by the Central Band of the Canadian Forces , and a 21 - gun salute is conducted by the Royal Regiment of Canadian Artillery . The governor general is seated on the throne while a prayer is read , and then receives the Great Seal of Canada ( which is passed to the registrar general for protection ) , as well as the chains of both the Chancellor of the Order of Canada and of the Order of Military Merit . The governor general will then give a speech , outlining whichever cause or causes he or she will champion during his or her time as viceroy . The incumbent will generally serve for at least five years , though this is only a developed convention , and the governor general still technically acts at Her Majesty 's pleasure ( or the Royal Pleasure ) . The prime minister may therefore recommend to the Queen that the viceroy remain in her service for a longer period of time , sometimes upwards of more than seven years . A governor general may also resign , and two have died in office . In such a circumstance , or if the governor general leaves the country for longer than one month , the Chief Justice of Canada ( or , if that position is vacant or unavailable , the senior puisne justice of the Supreme Court ) serves as Administrator of the Government and exercises all powers of the governor general . Selection ( edit ) In a speech on the subject of confederation , made in 1866 to the Legislative Assembly of the Province of Canada , John A. Macdonald said of the planned governor : `` We place no restriction on Her Majesty 's prerogative in the selection of her representative ... The sovereign has unrestricted freedom of choice ... We leave that to Her Majesty in all confidence . '' However , between 1867 and 1931 , governors general were appointed by the monarch on the advice of the British Cabinet . Thereafter , in accordance with the Statute of Westminster 1931 , the appointment was made by the sovereign with the direction of his or her Canadian ministers only . Until 1952 , all governors general were also either members of the Peerage or sons of peers , and were born beyond Canada 's borders . These viceroys spent a relatively limited time in Canada , but their travel schedules were so extensive that they could `` learn more about Canada in five years than many Canadians in a lifetime . '' Still , though all Canadian nationals were as equally British subjects as their British counterparts prior to the implementation of the Canadian Citizenship Act in 1947 , the idea of Canadian - born persons being appointed governor general was raised as early as 1919 , when , at the Paris Peace Conference , Canadian prime minister Robert Borden consulted with Prime Minister of South Africa Louis Botha and the two agreed that the viceregal appointees should be long - term residents of their respective Dominions . Calls for just such an individual to be made viceroy came again in the late 1930s , but it was not until Vincent Massey 's appointment by King George VI in 1952 that the position was filled by a Canadian - born individual . Massey stated of this that `` a Canadian ( as governor general ) makes it far easier to look on the Crown as our own and on the Sovereign as Queen of Canada . '' This practice continued until 1999 , when Queen Elizabeth II commissioned as her representative Adrienne Clarkson , a Hong Kong - born refugee to Canada . Moreover , the practice of alternating between anglophone and francophone Canadians was instituted with the appointment of Georges Vanier , a francophone who succeeded the anglophone Massey . All persons whose names are put forward to the Queen for approval must first undergo background checks by the Royal Canadian Mounted Police and the Canadian Security Intelligence Service . Georges Vanier , Canada 's first Francophone governor general Although required by the tenets of constitutional monarchy to be nonpartisan while in office , governors general were frequently former politicians ; a number held seats in the House of Lords by virtue of their inclusion in the peerage . Appointments of former ministers of the Crown in the 1980s and 1990s were criticized by Peter H. Russell , who stated in 2009 : `` much of ( the ) advantage of the monarchical system is lost in Canada when prime ministers recommend partisan colleagues to be appointed governor general and represent ( the Queen ) . '' Clarkson was the first governor general in Canadian history without either a political or military background , as well as the first Asian - Canadian and the second woman , following on Jeanne Sauvé . The third woman to hold this position was also the first Caribbean - Canadian governor general , Michaëlle Jean . There have been , from time to time , proposals put forward for modifications to the selection process of the governor general . Most recently , the group Citizens for a Canadian Republic has advocated the election of the nominee to the Queen , either by popular or parliamentary vote ; a proposal echoed by Adrienne Clarkson , who called for the prime minister 's choice to not only be vetted by a parliamentary committee , but also submit to a televised quiz on Canadiana . Constitutional scholars , editorial boards , and the Monarchist League of Canada have argued against any such constitutional tinkering with the viceregal appointment process , stating that the position being `` not elected is an asset , not a handicap , '' and that an election would politicize the office , thereby undermining the impartiality necessary to the proper functioning of the governor general . A new approach was used in 2010 for the selection of David Johnston as governor general - designate . For the task , Prime Minister Stephen Harper convened a special search group -- the Governor General Consultation Committee -- was instructed to find a non-partisan candidate who would respect the monarchical aspects of the viceregal office and conducted extensive consultations with more than 200 people across the country . In 2012 , the committee was made permanent and renamed as the Advisory Committee on Vice-Regal Appointments , with a modified membership and its scope broadened to include the appointment of provincial lieutenant governors and territorial commissioners ( though the latter are not personal representatives of the monarch ) . However , Justin Trudeau did not make use of a selection committee when he chose Julie Payette as Johnston 's successor in 2017 . Role ( edit ) Further information : Monarchy of Canada § International and domestic aspects The Lord Tweedsmuir gives the Throne Speech at the opening of the third session of the 18th Canadian Parliament , 27 January 1938 Governor General Adrienne Clarkson ( right ) meets with Russian president Vladimir Putin ( left ) in the governor general 's study of Rideau Hall , 18 December 2000 If , and because your Governor - General is in the service of the Crown , he is , therefore ... in the service of Canada ... ( A ) loof though he be from actual executive responsibility , his attitude must be that of ceaseless and watchful readiness to take part ... in the fostering of every influence that will sweeten and elevate public life ; to ... join in making known the resources and developments of the country ; to vindicate , if required , the rights of the people and the ordinariness and Constitution , and lastly , to promote by all means in his power , without reference to class or creed , every movement and every institution calculated to forward the social , moral , and religious welfare of the inhabitants of the Dominion . Governor General the Marquess of Aberdeen , 1893 Canada shares the person of the sovereign equally with 15 other countries in the Commonwealth of Nations and that individual , in his or her capacity as the Canadian sovereign , has 10 other legal personas within the Canadian federation . As the sovereign works and resides predominantly outside of Canada 's borders , the governor general 's primary task is to perform the monarch 's federal constitutional duties on his or her behalf . As such , the governor general carries `` on the Government of Canada on behalf and in the name of the Sovereign '' . The governor general acts within the principles of parliamentary democracy and responsible government as a guarantor of continuous and stable governance and as a nonpartisan safeguard against the abuse of power . For the most part , however , the powers of the Crown are exercised on a day - to - day basis by elected and appointed individuals , leaving the governor general to perform the various ceremonial duties the sovereign otherwise carries out when in the country ; at such a moment , the governor general removes him or herself from public , though the presence of the monarch does not affect the governor general 's ability to perform governmental roles . Past governor general the Marquess of Lorne said of the job : `` It is no easy thing to be a governor general of Canada . You must have the patience of a saint , the smile of a cherub , the generosity of an Indian prince , and the back of a camel , '' and the Earl of Dufferin stated that the governor general is `` A representative of all that is august , stable , and sedate in the government , the history , and the traditions of the country ; incapable of partizanship , and lifted far above the atmosphere of faction ; without adherents to reward or opponents to oust from office ; docile to the suggestions of his Ministers , and yet securing to the people the certainty of being able to get rid of an Administration or Parliament the moment either had forfeited their confidence . '' Constitutional role ( edit ) Further information : Monarchy of Canada § Federal constitutional role Though the monarch retains all executive , legislative , and judicial power in and over Canada , the governor general is permitted to exercise most of this , including the Royal Prerogative , in the sovereign 's name ; some as outlined in the Constitution Act , 1867 , and some through various letters patent issued over the decades , particularly those from 1947 that constitute the Office of Governor General of Canada ; they state : `` And We do hereby authorize and empower Our Governor General , with the advice of Our Privy Council for Canada or of any members thereof or individually , as the case requires , to exercise all powers and authorities lawfully belonging to Us in respect of Canada . '' The office itself does not , however , independently possess any powers of the Royal Prerogative , only exercising the Crown 's powers with its permission ; a fact the Constitution Act , 1867 left unchanged . Among other duties , the monarch retains the sole right to appoint the governor general . It is also stipulated that the governor general may appoint deputies -- usually Supreme Court justices and the Secretary to the Governor General -- who can perform some of the viceroy 's constitutional duties in his or her stead , and the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court ( or a puisne justice in the chief justice 's absence ) will act as the Administrator of the Government upon the death or removal , as well as the incapacitation , or absence of the governor general for more than one month . It is the governor general who is required by the Constitution Act , 1867 , to appoint for life persons to the Queen 's Privy Council for Canada , who are all theoretically tasked with tendering to the monarch and viceroy guidance on the exercise of the Royal Prerogative . Convention dictates , though , that the governor general must draw from the privy council an individual to act as prime minister -- in almost all cases the Member of Parliament who commands the confidence of the House of Commons . The prime minister then directs the governor general to appoint other members of parliament to a committee of the privy council known as the Cabinet , and it is in practice only from this group of ministers of the Crown that the Queen and governor general will take direction on the use of executive power ; an arrangement called the Queen - in - Council or , more specifically , the Governor - in - Council . In this capacity , the governor general will issue royal proclamations and sign orders in council . The Governor - in - Council is also specifically tasked by the Constitution Act , 1867 , to appoint in the Queen 's name the lieutenant governors of the provinces ( with the Advisory Committee on Vice-Regal Appointments and the premiers of the provinces concerned playing an advisory role ) , senators , the Speaker of the Senate , supreme court justices , and superior and county court judges in each province , except those of the Courts of Probate in Nova Scotia and New Brunswick . The advice given by the Cabinet is , in order to ensure the stability of government , by political convention typically binding ; both the Queen and her viceroy , however , may in exceptional circumstances invoke the reserve powers , which remain the Crown 's final check against a ministry 's abuse of power . The governor general , as the representative of the Canadian sovereign , carries out the parliamentary duties of the sovereign in their absence , such as summoning parliament , reading the Speech From the Throne , and proroguing and dissolving parliament . The governor general also grants Royal Assent in the Queen 's name ; legally , he or she has three options : grant Royal Assent ( making the bill law ) , withhold Royal Assent ( vetoing the bill ) , or reserve the bill for the signification of the Queen 's pleasure ( allowing the sovereign to personally grant or withhold assent ) . If the governor general withholds the Queen 's assent , the sovereign may within two years disallow the bill , thereby annulling the law in question . No modern Canadian viceroy has denied Royal Assent to a bill . Provincial viceroys , however , are able to reserve Royal Assent to provincial bills for the governor general ; this clause was last invoked in 1961 by the Lieutenant Governor of Saskatchewan . Ceremonial role ( edit ) Further information : Monarchy of Canada § Cultural role With most constitutional functions lent to Cabinet , the governor general acts in a primarily ceremonial fashion . He or she will host members of Canada 's royal family , as well as foreign royalty and heads of state , and will represent the Queen and country abroad on state visits to other nations , though the monarch 's permission is necessary , via the prime minister , for the viceroy to leave Canada . Also as part of international relations , the governor general issues letters of credence and of recall for Canadian ambassadors and receives the same from foreign ambassadors appointed to Canada . Governor General Roland Michener attends graduation ceremonies at Alma College in 1972 The governor general is also tasked with fostering national unity and pride . Queen Elizabeth II stated in 1959 to then Governor General Vincent Massey `` maintain ( ing ) the right relationship between the Crown and the people of Canada ( is ) the most important function among the many duties of the appointment which you have held with such distinction . '' One way in which this is carried out is travelling the country and meeting with Canadians from all regions and ethnic groups in Canada , continuing the tradition begun in 1869 by Governor General the Lord Lisgar . He or she will also induct individuals into the various national orders and present national medals and decorations . Similarly , the viceroy administers and distributes the Governor General 's Awards , and will also give out awards associated with private organizations , some of which are named for past governors general . During a federal election , the governor general will curtail these public duties , so as not to appear as though they are involving themselves in political affairs . Although the constitution of Canada states that the `` Command - in - Chief of the Land and Naval Militia , and of all Naval and Military Forces , of and in Canada , is hereby declared to continue and be vested in the Queen , '' the governor general acts in her place as Commander - in - Chief of the Canadian Forces and is permitted through the 1947 Letters Patent to use the title Commander - in - Chief in and over Canada . The position technically involves issuing commands for Canadian troops , airmen , and sailors , but is predominantly a ceremonial role in which the viceroy will visit Canadian Forces bases across Canada and abroad to take part in military ceremonies , see troops off to and return from active duty , and encourage excellence and morale amongst the forces . The governor general also serves as honorary Colonel of three household regiments : the Governor General 's Horse Guards , Governor General 's Foot Guards and Canadian Grenadier Guards . This ceremonial position is directly under that of Colonel - in - Chief , which is held by the Queen . Since 1910 , the governor general was also always made the Chief Scout for Canada , which was renamed Chief Scout of Canada after 1946 and again in 2011 as Patron Scout . Residences and household ( edit ) Rideau Hall , the official residence in Ottawa of the governor general The present flag of the governor general , adopted in 1981 Rideau Hall , located in Ottawa , is the official residence of the Canadian monarch and of the governor general and is thus the location of the viceregal household and the Chancellery of Honours . For a part of each year since 1872 , governors general have also resided at the Citadel ( La Citadelle ) in Quebec City , Quebec . A governor general 's wife is known as the chatelaine of Rideau Hall , though there is no equivalent term for a governor general 's husband . The viceregal household aids the governor general in the execution of the royal constitutional and ceremonial duties and is managed by the Office of the Secretary to the Governor General . The Chancellery of Honours centres around the Queen and is thus also located at Rideau Hall and administered by the governor general . As such , the viceroy 's secretary ex officio holds the position of Herald Chancellor of Canada , overseeing the Canadian Heraldic Authority -- the mechanism of the Canadian honours system by which armorial bearings are granted to Canadians by the governor general in the name of the sovereign . These organized offices and support systems include aides - de-camp , press officers , financial managers , speech writers , trip organizers , event planners , protocol officers , chefs and other kitchen employees , waiters , and various cleaning staff , as well as visitors ' centre staff and tour guides at both official residences . In this official and bureaucratic capacity , the entire household is often referred to as Government House and its departments are funded through the normal federal budgetary process , as is the governor general 's salary of CAD $ 288,900 , which has been taxed since 2013 . Additional costs are incurred from separate ministries and organizations such as the National Capital Commission , the Department of National Defence , and the Royal Canadian Mounted Police . The governor general 's air transportation is assigned to 412 Transport Squadron of the Royal Canadian Air Force . The squadron uses Bombardier Challenger 600 VIP jets to transport the governor general to locations within and outside of Canada . Symbols and protocol ( edit ) As the personal representative of the monarch , the governor general follows only the sovereign in the Canadian order of precedence , preceding even other members of the Royal Family . Though the federal viceroy is considered primus inter pares amongst his or her provincial counterparts , the governor general also outranks the lieutenant governors in the federal sphere ; at provincial functions , however , the relevant lieutenant governor , as the Queen 's representative in the province , precedes the governor general . The incumbent governor general and his or her spouse are also the only people in Canada , other than serving Canadian ambassadors and high commissioners , entitled to the use of the style His or Her Excellency and the governor general is granted the additional honorific of The Right Honourable for their time in office and for life afterwards . Michaëlle Jean wearing the insignia of the Order of Canada and Order of Military Merit along with the Canadian Forces Decoration Prior to 1952 , all Governors General of Canada were members of the peerage . Typically , individuals appointed as federal viceroy were already a peer , either by inheriting the title , such as the Duke of Devonshire , or by prior elevation by the sovereign in their own right , as was the case with the Viscount Alexander of Tunis . None were life peers , the Life Peerages Act 1958 postdating the beginning of the tradition of appointing Canadian citizens as governor general . John Buchan was , in preparation for his appointment as governor general , made the Baron Tweedsmuir of Elsfield in the County of Oxford by King George V , six months before Buchan was sworn in as viceroy . The Leader of His Majesty 's Loyal Opposition at the time , William Lyon Mackenzie King , felt Buchan should serve as governor general as a commoner ; however , George V insisted he be represented by a peer . With the appointment of Vincent Massey as governor general in 1952 , governors general ceased to be members of the peerage ; successive governments since that date have held to the non-binding and defeated ( in 1934 ) principles of the 1919 Nickle Resolution . Under the orders ' constitutions , the governor general serves as the Chancellor and Principal Companion of the Order of Canada , the Chancellor of the Order of Military Merit , and the Chancellor of the Order of Merit of the Police Forces . He or she also upon installation automatically becomes a Knight or Dame of Justice and the Prior and Chief Officer in Canada of the Most Venerable Order of the Hospital of Saint John of Jerusalem . As acting commander - in - chief , the governor general is further routinely granted the Canadian Forces Decoration by the Chief of the Defence Staff on behalf of the monarch . All of these honours are retained following an incumbent 's departure from office , with the individual remaining in the highest categories of the orders , and they may also be further distinguished with induction into other orders or the receipt of other awards . The Viceregal Salute -- composed of the first six bars of the Royal Anthem ( `` God Save the Queen '' ) followed by the first and last four bars of the national anthem ( `` O Canada '' ) -- is the salute used to greet the governor general upon arrival at , and mark his or her departure from most official events . To mark the viceroy 's presence at any building , ship , airplane , or car in Canada , the governor general 's flag is employed . The present form was adopted on 23 February 1981 and , in the federal jurisdiction , takes precedence over all other flags save the Queen 's personal Canadian standard . When the governor general undertakes a state visit , however , the national flag is generally employed to mark his or her presence . This flag is also , along with all flags on Canadian Forces property , flown at half - mast upon the death of an incumbent or former governor general . The crest of the Royal Arms of Canada is employed as the badge of the governor general , appearing on the viceroy 's flag and on other objects associated with the person or the office . This is the fourth such incarnation of the governor general 's mark since confederation . 1901 1921 1931 1953 1981 History ( edit ) Further information : List of Governors General of Canada The Marquis de Vaudreuil - Cavagnal , Governor General of New France from 1755 to 1760 French and British colonies ( edit ) French colonization of North America began in the 1580s and Aymar de Chaste was appointed in 1602 by King Henry IV as Viceroy of Canada . The explorer Samuel de Champlain became the first unofficial Governor of New France in the early 17th century , serving until Charles Huault de Montmagny was in 1636 formally appointed to the post by King Louis XIII . The French Company of One Hundred Associates then administered New France until King Louis XIV took control of the colony and appointed Augustin de Saffray de Mésy as the first governor general in 1663 , after whom 12 more people served in the post . With the signing of the Treaty of Paris in 1763 , France relinquished most of its North American territories , including Canada , to Great Britain . King George III then issued in that same year a royal proclamation establishing , amongst other regulations , the Office of the Governor of Quebec to preside over the new Province of Quebec . Nova Scotia and New Brunswick remained completely separate colonies , each with their own governor , until the cabinet of William Pitt adopted in the 1780s the idea that they , along with Quebec and Prince Edward Island , should have as their respective governors a single individual styled as Governor - in - Chief . The post was created in 1786 , with The Lord Dorchester as its first occupant . However , the governor - in - chief directly governed only Quebec . It was not until the splitting in 1791 of the Province of Quebec , to accommodate the influx of United Empire Loyalists fleeing the American revolutionary war , that the king 's representative , with a change in title to Governor General , directly governed Lower Canada , while the other three colonies were each administered by a lieutenant governor in his stead . Responsible Government ( edit ) The Rebellions of 1837 brought about great changes to the role of the governor general , prompting , as they did , the British government to grant responsible government to the Canadian provinces . As a result , the viceroys became largely nominal heads , while the democratically elected legislatures and the premiers they supported exercised the authority belonging to the Crown ; a concept first put to the test when , in 1849 , Governor - General of the Province of Canada and Lieutenant - Governor of Canada East the Earl of Elgin granted Royal Assent to the Rebellion Losses Bill , despite his personal misgivings towards the legislation . This arrangement continued after the reunification in 1840 of Upper and Lower Canada into the Province of Canada , and the establishment of the Dominion of Canada in 1867 . The governor general carried out in Canada all the parliamentary and ceremonial functions of a constitutional monarch -- amongst other things , granting Royal Assent , issuing Orders - in - Council , and taking advice from the Canadian privy council . However , the governor still remained not a viceroy , in the true sense of the word , being still a representative of and liaison to the British government -- the Queen in her British council of ministers -- who answered to the Secretary of State for the Colonies in London and who , as a British observer of Canadian politics , held well into the First World War a suite of offices in the East Block of Parliament Hill . But , the new position of Canadian high commissioner to the United Kingdom , created in 1880 , began to take over the governor general 's role as a link between the Canadian and British governments , leaving the viceroy increasingly as a personal representative of the monarch . As such , the governor general had to retain a sense of political neutrality ; a skill that was put to the test when the Marquess of Lorne disagreed with his Canadian prime minister , John A. Macdonald , over the dismissal of Lieutenant Governor of Quebec Luc Letellier de St - Just . On the advice of the Colonial Secretary , and to avoid conflict with the cabinet of Canada , the Marquess did eventually concede , and released St - Just from duty . The Governor General of Canada was then in May 1891 called upon to resolve the Dominion 's first cabinet crisis , wherein Prime Minister Macdonald died , leaving the Lord Stanley of Preston to select a new prime minister . As early as 1880 , the viceregal family and court attracted minor ridicule from the Queen 's subjects : in July of that year , someone under the pseudonym Captain Mac included in a pamphlet called Canada : from the Lakes to the Gulf , a coarse satire of an investiture ceremony at Rideau Hall , in which a retired inn - keeper and his wife undergo the rigorous protocol of the royal household and sprawl on the floor before the Duke of Argyll so as to be granted the knighthood for which they had `` paid in cold , hard cash . '' Later , prior to the arrival of Prince Arthur , Duke of Connaught and Strathearn ( the uncle of King George V ) , to take up the post of governor general , there was a `` feeble undercurrent of criticism '' centring on worries about a rigid court at Rideau Hall ; worries that turned out to be unfounded as the royal couple was actually more relaxed than their predecessors . Emerging nationality to an independent Kingdom ( edit ) The Lord Byng of Vimy , Governor General of Canada , 1921 -- 1926 During the First World War , into which Canada was drawn due to its association with the United Kingdom , the governor general 's role turned from one of cultural patron and state ceremony to one of military inspector and morale booster . Starting in 1914 , Governor General Prince Arthur donned his Field Marshal 's uniform and put his efforts into raising contingents , inspecting army camps , and seeing troops off before their voyage to Europe . These actions , however , led to conflict with the Prince 's prime minister at the time , Robert Borden ; though the latter placed blame on the Military Secretary Edward Stanton , he also opined that the Duke `` laboured under the handicap of his position as a member of the Royal Family and never realized his limitations as Governor General . '' Prince Arthur 's successor , the Duke of Devonshire , faced the Conscription Crisis of 1917 and held discussions with his Canadian prime minister , as well as His Majesty 's Loyal Opposition members , on the matter . Once the government implemented conscription , Devonshire , after consulting on the pulse of the nation with Sir Wilfrid Laurier , Vincent Massey , Henri Bourassa , Archbishop of Montreal Paul Bruchési , Duncan Campbell Scott , Vilhjalmur Stefansson , and Stephen Leacock , made efforts to conciliate Quebec , though he had little real success . Canada 's national sentiment had gained fortitude through the country 's sacrifices on the battlefields of the First World War and , by war 's end , the interference of the British government in Canadian affairs was causing ever - increasing discontent amongst Canadian officials ; in 1918 , the Toronto Star was even advocating the end of the office . The governor general 's role was also morphing to focus less on the larger Empire and more on uniquely Canadian affairs , including the undertaking of official international visits on behalf of Canada , the first being that of the Marquess of Willingdon to the United States , where he was accorded by President Calvin Coolidge the full honours of representative of a head of state . It would be another decade , however , before the King - Byng Affair : another catalyst for change in the relationship between Canada -- indeed , all the Dominions -- and the United Kingdom , and thus the purpose of the governor general . In 1926 , Liberal prime minister William Lyon Mackenzie King , facing a non-confidence vote in the House of Commons over a scandal in his party , requested that Governor General the Lord Byng of Vimy dissolve parliament and call an election . Byng , however , refused his Canadian prime minister 's advice , citing both the facts that King held the minority of seats in the house and that a general election had been held only months earlier ; he thus called on Arthur Meighen to form a government . Within a week however , Meighen 's Conservative government lost its own non-confidence vote , forcing the Governor General to dissolve parliament and call elections that saw Mackenzie King returned to power . King then went on to the Imperial Conference that same year and there pushed for reorganizations that resulted in the Balfour Declaration , which declared formally the practical reality that had existed for some years : namely , that the Dominions were fully autonomous and equal in status to the United Kingdom . These new developments were codified in the Statute of Westminster , through the enactment of which on 11 December 1931 , Canada , along with the Union of South Africa and the Irish Free State , immediately obtained formal legislative independence from the UK . In addition , the Balfour Declaration also held that the governor general would cease to act as the representative of the British government . Accordingly , in 1928 , the United Kingdom appointed its first High Commissioner to Canada thus effectively ending the governor general 's diplomatic role as the British government 's envoy . The governor general thus became solely the representative of the King within Canadian jurisdiction , ceasing completely to be an agent of the British Cabinet , and as such would be appointed by the monarch granting his royal sign - manual under the Great Seal of Canada only on the advice of his Canadian prime minister . Governor General the Earl of Athlone ( seated right ) with ( l to r ) Canadian prime minister Mackenzie King , US president Roosevelt , and UK prime minister Churchill , at La Citadelle , August 1943 The Canadian Cabinet 's first recommendation under this new system was still , however , a British subject born outside of Canada : the Lord Tweedsmuir . His birthplace aside , though , the professional author took further than any of his predecessors the idea of a distinct Canadian identity , travelling the length and breadth of the country , including , for the first time for a governor general , the Arctic regions . Not all Canadians , however , shared Tweedsmuir 's views ; the Baron raised the ire of imperialists when he said in Montreal in 1937 : `` a Canadian 's first loyalty is not to the British Commonwealth of Nations , but to Canada and Canada 's King , '' a statement the Montreal Gazette dubbed as `` disloyal . '' During Tweedsmuir 's time as viceroy , which started in 1935 , calls began to emerge for a Canadian - born individual to be appointed as governor general ; but Tweedsmuir died suddenly in office in 1940 , while Canada was in the midst of the Second World War , and Prime Minister Mackenzie King did not feel it was the right time to search for a suitable Canadian . The Earl of Athlone was instead appointed by King George VI , Athlone 's nephew , to be his viceroy for the duration of the war . Quebec nationalism and constitutional patriation ( edit ) It was in 1952 , a mere five days before King George VI 's death , that Vincent Massey became the first Canadian - born person to be appointed as a governor general in Canada since the Marquis de Vaudreuil - Cavagnal was made Governor General of New France on 1 January 1755 , as well as the first not to be elevated to the peerage since Sir Edmund Walker Head in 1854 . There was some trepidation about this departure from tradition and Massey was intended to be a compromise : he was known to embody loyalty , dignity , and formality , as expected from a viceroy . As his viceregal tenure neared an end , it was thought that Massey , an anglophone , should be followed by a francophone Canadian ; and so , in spite of his Liberal Party attachments , Georges Vanier was chosen by Conservative prime minister John Diefenbaker as the next governor general . Vanier was subsequently appointed by Queen Elizabeth II in person at a meeting of her Canadian Cabinet , thus initiating the convention of alternating between individuals from Canada 's two main linguistic groups . This move did not , however , placate those who were fostering the new Quebec nationalist movement , for whom the monarchy and other federal institutions were a target for attack . Though Vanier was a native of Quebec and fostered biculturalism , he was not immune to the barbs of the province 's sovereigntists and , when he attended la Fête St - Jean - Baptiste in Montreal in 1964 , a group of separatists held placards reading `` Vanier vendu '' ( `` Vanier sold out '' ) and `` Vanier fou de la Reine '' ( `` Vanier Queen 's jester '' ) . Jeanne Sauvé ( left ) , Canada 's first female governor general In light of this regional nationalism and a resultant change in attitudes towards Canadian identity , images and the role of the monarchy were cautiously downplayed , and Vanier 's successor , Roland Michener , was the last viceroy to practice many of the office 's ancient traditions , such as the wearing of the Windsor uniform , the requirement of court dress for state occasions , and expecting women to curtsey before the governor general . At the same time , he initiated new practices for the viceroy , including regular conferences with the lieutenant governors and the undertaking of state visits . He presided over Canada 's centennial celebrations and the coincidental Expo 67 , to which French president Charles de Gaulle was invited . Michener was with de Gaulle when he made his infamous `` Vive le Québec libre '' speech in Montreal and was cheered wildly by the gathered crowd while they booed and jeered Michener . With the additional recognition of the monarchy as a Canadian institution , the establishment of a distinct Canadian honours system , an increase of state visits coming with Canada 's growing role on the world stage , and the more prevalent use of television to visually broadcast ceremonial state affairs , the governor general became more publicly active in national life . The Cabinet in June 1978 put forward the constitutional amendment Bill C - 60 , that , amongst other changes , vested executive authority directly in the governor general and renamed the position as First Canadian , but the proposal was thwarted by the provincial premiers . When the constitution was patriated four years later , the new amending formula for the documents outlined that any changes to the Crown , including the Office of the Governor General , would require the consent of all the provincial legislatures plus the federal parliament . By 1984 , Canada 's first female governor general -- Jeanne Sauvé -- was appointed . While it was she who created the Canadian Heraldic Authority , as permitted by letters patent from Queen Elizabeth II , and who championed youth and world peace , Sauvé proved to be a controversial vicereine , closing to the public the grounds of the Queen 's residence and self - aggrandizingly breaching protocol on a number of occasions . Withering and renaissance ( edit ) Sarah , Duchess of York , said in 2009 that sometime during her marriage to Prince Andrew , Duke of York , her husband was offered the position of Governor General of Canada , and she speculated in hindsight that their agreement to refuse the commission may have been a contributing factor in their eventual break - up . Instead , Sauvé 's tenure as governor general was book - ended by a series of appointments -- Edward Schreyer , Ray Hnatyshyn , and Roméo LeBlanc -- that have been generally regarded as mere patronage postings for former politicians and friends of the incumbent prime minister at the time , and despite the duties they carried out , their combined time in the viceregal office is generally viewed as unremarkable , at best , damaging to the office , at worst ; as David Smith described it : `` Notwithstanding the personal qualities of the appointees , which have often been extraordinary , the Canadian governor general has become a hermetic head of state -- ignored by press , politicians and public . '' It was theorized by Peter Boyce that this was due , in part , to widespread misunderstanding about the governor general 's role coupled with a lack of public presence compared to the media coverage dedicated to the increasingly presidentialized prime minister . Governor General Adrienne Clarkson ( right ) toasts Russian president Vladimir Putin in the ballroom of Rideau Hall , 18 December 2000 It was with the Queen 's appointment of Adrienne Clarkson , on the advice of then Prime Minister Jean Chrétien , that a shift in the office took place . Clarkson was the first Canadian viceroy to have not previously held any political or military position -- coming as she did from a background of television journalism with the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation -- was the first since 1952 to have been born outside of Canada , the first from a visible minority ( she is of Chinese ancestry ) , and , by her being accompanied to Rideau Hall by her husband , author and philosopher John Ralston Saul , the official appointment brought an unofficial pair to the viceregal placement , in that the governor general would not be the only person actively exploring Canadian theory and culture . Clarkson managed to bring the viceregal office back into the collective consciousness of Canadians , winning praise for touring the country more than any of her predecessors , her inspiring speeches , and her dedication to the military in her role as the Commander - in - Chief 's representative . This did not come without a cost , however , as the attention also drew widespread criticism of the Governor General 's increased spending on state affairs , for which the office was symbolically rebuked by parliament when it voted in favour of cutting by 10 % the viceregal budget it had earlier supported , as well as for fostering the notion , through various demonstrations , that the governor general was ultimately the Canadian head of state above the Queen herself , an approach that was said by Jack Granatstein to have caused `` a fury '' with the Queen on one occasion in 2004 . This attitude was not unique to Clarkson , though ; it had been observed that , for some decades , staff at Rideau Hall and various government departments in Ottawa had been pushing to present the governor general as head of state , part of a wider Liberal policy on the monarchy that had been in effect at least since the proposed constitutional changes in the 1970s , if not the 1964 Truncheon Saturday riot in Quebec City . Indeed , international observers opined that the viceroys had been , over the years , making deliberate attempts to distance themselves from the sovereign , for fear of being too closely associated with any `` Britishness '' the monarch embodied . As the representative of Canada 's head of state , the governor general , Michaëlle Jean , welcomes US President Barack Obama to Canada , 19 February 2009 Prime Minister Paul Martin followed Chrétien 's example and , for Clarkson 's successor , put forward to the Queen the name of Michaëlle Jean , who was , like Clarkson , a woman , a refugee , a member of a visible minority , a CBC career journalist , and married to an intellectual husband who worked in the arts . Her appointment initially sparked accusations that she was a supporter of Quebec sovereignty , and it was observed that she had on a few occasions trodden into political matters , as well as continuing to foster the notion that the governor general had replaced the Queen as head of state , thereby `` unbalancing ... the federalist symmetry . '' But Jean ultimately won plaudits , particularly for her solidarity with the Canadian Forces and Canada 's Aboriginal peoples , as well as her role in the parliamentary dispute that took place between December 2008 and January 2009 . Governor General David Johnston and Sharon Johnston with Jason Kenney and Cardinal Marc Ouellet in Rome for the Papal inauguration of Pope Francis With the appointment of academic David Johnston , former principal of McGill University and subsequently president of the University of Waterloo , there was a signalled emphasis for the Governor General to vigorously promote learning and innovation . Johnston stated in his inaugural address : `` ( We want to be ) a society that innovates , embraces its talent and uses the knowledge of each of its citizens to improve the human condition for all . '' There was also a recognition of Johnston 's expertise in constitutional law , following the controversial prorogations of parliament in 2008 and 2009 , which initiated some debate about the governor general 's role as the representative of Canada 's head of state . Activities post-commission ( edit ) Retired governors general usually either withdraw from public life or go on to hold other public offices . Edward Schreyer , for instance , was appointed Canadian High Commissioner to Australia upon his departure from the viceregal role in 1984 , and Michaëlle Jean became the UNESCO special envoy to Haiti and , later , the Secretary - General of the Francophonie . Schreyer also become the first former governor general to run for elected office in Canada when he unsuccessfully vied for a seat in the House of Commons as a New Democratic Party candidate . Prior to 1952 , several former viceroys returned to political careers in the United Kingdom , sitting with party affiliations in the House of Lords and , in some cases , taking a position in the British Cabinet . The Marquess of Lorne was elected a Member of Parliament in the United Kingdom in 1895 , and remained so until he became the Duke of Argyll and took his seat in the House of Lords . Others were made governors in other countries or territories : the Viscount Monck was appointed Lord Lieutenant of Dublin , the Earl of Aberdeen was appointed Lord Lieutenant of Ireland , and the Earl of Dufferin , the Marquess of Lansdowne , The Earl of Minto , and The Earl of Willingdon all subsequently served as Viceroy of India . An outgoing governor general may leave an eponymous award as a legacy , such as the Stanley Cup , the Clarkson Cup , the Vanier Cup , or the Grey Cup . They may found an institution , as Georges Vanier did with the Vanier Institute of the Family and Adrienne Clarkson with the Institute for Canadian Citizenship . Three former governors general have released memoirs : the Lord Tweedsmuir ( Memory Hold - the - Door ) , Vincent Massey ( On Being Canadian and What 's Past is Prologue ) , and Adrienne Clarkson ( Heart Matters ) . Canadian institutions established by Governors General ( edit ) Royal Society of Canada -- The Marquess of Lorne Canada 's first anti-tuberculosis association -- The Earl of Minto The Battlefields Park -- The Lord Grey King 's Jubilee Cancer Fund -- The Earl of Bessborough Vanier Institute of the Family -- Georges Vanier Sauvé Foundation -- Jeanne Sauvé Governor General Ramon John Hnatyshyn Education Fund -- Ray Hnatyshyn International Council for Canadian Studies -- Ray Hnatyshyn The Hnatyshyn Foundation -- Ray Hnatyshyn Institute for Canadian Citizenship -- Adrienne Clarkson Michaëlle Jean Foundation -- Michaëlle Jean See also ( edit ) Canadian politics portal Governor General 's Awards List of awards presented by the Governor General of Canada Royal Canadian Air Force VIP aircraft Governor - General Notes ( edit ) Jump up ^ When the position is held by a male , the French title is Gouverneur général du Canada . Jump up ^ Georges Vanier acted as governor general between 15 September 1959 and 5 March 1967 , and Roland Michener served for just under seven years , from 17 April 1967 to 14 January 1974 . Jump up ^ Roméo LeBlanc resigned the viceregal post in 1999 due to health concerns . Jump up ^ The Lord Tweedsmuir died at the Montreal Neurological Institute and Hospital on 11 February 1940 , and Georges Vanier died at Rideau Hall on 5 March 1967 . Jump up ^ The only individuals to serve as administrators due to the deaths of governors general were Chief Justice Sir Lyman Poore Duff in 1940 and Chief Justice Robert Taschereau in 1967 . Jump up ^ Governor General the Lord Tweedsmuir said of King George VI being in the Senate in 1939 to grant Royal Assent to bills : `` ( When the King of Canada is present ) I cease to exist as Viceroy , and retain only a shadowy legal existence as Governor General in Council . '' Jump up ^ See Note 1 at Queen 's Privy Council for Canada . Jump up ^ Some seven years after he left office , the Earl Alexander of Tunis was appointed as a Member of the Order of Merit . Similarly , Vincent Massey was awarded the Royal Victorian Chain by Queen Elizabeth II approximately six months after leaving the viceregal post and was in 1967 invested into the Order of Canada . Roland Michener was presented with the Royal Victorian Chain a few months before he retired as governor general . Jump up ^ Kevin MacLeod , in his book A Crown of Maples , pegs the start date of Champlain 's governorship at 1627 , whereas the official website of the Governor General of Canada puts it at 1608 . Jump up ^ The offices were subsequently incorporated into the Prime Minister 's Office ( PMO ) , but have been restored to their 19th century appearance after the PMO moved to the Langevin Block in the 1970s , and are now preserved as a tourist attraction along with other historic offices in the East Block . Jump up ^ The appointment in 1916 of the Duke of Devonshire as governor general caused political problems , as Canadian prime minister Robert Borden had , counter to established common practice , not been consulted on the matter by his British counterpart , H.H. Asquith . Jump up ^ During the Great Depression , the Earl of Bessborough voluntarily cut his salary by ten percent as a sign of his solidarity with the Canadian people . Jump up ^ Governors general had been venturing to Washington to meet informally with the President of the United States since the time of the Viscount Monck . Jump up ^ The ministers in attendance at the Imperial Conference agreed that : `` In our opinion it is an essential consequence of the equality of status existing among the members of the British Commonwealth of Nations that the Governor General of a Dominion is the representative of the Crown , holding in all essential respects the same position in relation to the administration of public affairs in the Dominion as is held by His Majesty the King in great Britain , and that he is not the representative or agent of His Majesty 's Government in Great Britain or of any Department of that Government . '' Jump up ^ LeBlanc 's strong ties to the Liberal Party led other party leaders to protest his appointment by boycotting his installation ceremony . Jump up ^ In 1952 , the Earl Alexander of Tunis resigned as Governor General of Canada to accept an appointment as Minister of Defence in the Cabinet of Winston Churchill . The Marquess of Lansdowne and the Duke of Devonshire both also served in the British Cabinet following their viceregal careers , and Lansdowne went on to serve as leader of the Conservative Party in the House of Lords for over a decade . References ( edit ) Jump up ^ The Royal Household . `` The Queen and the Commonwealth > Queen and Canada > The Queen 's role in Canada '' . Queen 's Printer . Retrieved 2 June 2009 . Jump up ^ The Royal Household . `` Queen and Canada : The role of the Governor - General '' . Queen 's Printer . Retrieved 28 May 2009 . ^ Jump up to : MacLeod , Kevin S. ( 2008 ) . A Crown of Maples ( PDF ) ( 1 ed . ) . Ottawa : Queen 's Printer for Canada . p. 34 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 662 - 46012 - 1 . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on 27 March 2009 . Jump up ^ Victoria ( 1867 ) , Constitution Act , 1867 , III. 10 , Westminster : Queen 's Printer ( published 29 March 1867 ) , retrieved 15 January 2009 Jump up ^ MacLeod 2008 , pp. 34 -- 35 ^ Jump up to : Public Works and Government Services Canada . `` Parliament Hill > The History of Parliament Hill > East Block > Office of the Governor General '' . Queen 's Printer for Canada . Archived from the original on 6 July 2011 . Retrieved 3 June 2009 . ^ Jump up to : MacLeod 2008 , p. 35 ^ Jump up to : Department of Canadian Heritage ( 2008 ) . Canada : Symbols of Canada . Ottawa : Queen 's Printer for Canada . p. 3 . Archived from the original on 17 February 2015 . ^ Jump up to : Office of the Governor General of Canada . `` Commander in Chief '' . Queen 's Printer for Canada . Archived from the original on 9 October 2006 . Retrieved 5 November 2007 . ^ Jump up to : Victoria 1867 , III. 15 ^ Jump up to : Hubbard , R.H. ( 1977 ) . Rideau Hall . Montreal and London : McGill - Queen 's University Press . p. 166 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 7735 - 0310 - 6 . Jump up ^ Office of the Governor General of Canada . `` Governor General > Former Governors General > The Marquess of Willingdon '' . Queen 's Printer for Canada . Retrieved 28 May 2009 . Jump up ^ Walters , Mark D. ( 2011 ) . `` The Law behind the Conventions of the Constitution : Reassessing the Prorogation Debate '' ( PDF ) . Journal of Parliamentary and Political Law . 5 : 131 -- 154 . Jump up ^ `` Prime Minister Trudeau announces The Queen 's approval of Canada 's next Governor General '' . pm.gc.ca . Government of Canada . July 13 , 2017 . 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'' -- The curious tale of the office of High Commissioner `` . Archived from the original on 18 May 2008 . Jump up ^ Balfour , Arthur ( November 1926 ) . `` Imperial Conference 1926 '' ( PDF ) . Balfour Declaration . London : King 's Printer . p. 4 . E ( I.R. / 26 ) Series . Retrieved 6 May 2009 . Jump up ^ Judd , Denis ( 9 July 1998 ) . Empire : The British Imperial Experience from 1765 to the Present . New York : Basic Books . p. 287 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 465 - 01954 - 0 . Jump up ^ Hillmer , Norman . `` History > Constitution > Constitutional History > The Federal System '' . In Marsh , James H. The Canadian Encyclopedia . Toronto : Historica Foundation of Canada . Archived from the original on 8 June 2011 . Retrieved 4 June 2009 . Jump up ^ Office of the Governor General of Canada . `` Governor General > Former Governors General > Lord Tweedsmuir of Elsfield '' . Queen 's Printer for Canada . Retrieved 26 March 2009 . 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Jump up ^ Smith 1999 , p. 11 Jump up ^ Phillips , Stephen . `` Republicanism in Canada in the reign of Elizabeth II : the dog that did n't bark '' ( PDF ) . Canadian Monarchist News . Toronto : Monarchist League of Canada . Summer 2004 ( 22 ) : 19 -- 20 . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on 17 December 2009 . Retrieved 10 February 2009 . Jump up ^ Elizabeth II ( 17 April 1982 ) . Constitution Act , 1982 . V. 41. a . Ottawa : Queen 's Printer for Canada . Archived from the original on 20 March 2007 . Retrieved 5 June 2009 . Jump up ^ Jackson , Michael ( 2002 ) . `` Political Paradox : The Lieutenant Governor in Saskatchewan '' . In Leeson , Howard A. Saskatchewan Politics Into the 21st Century . Regina : Canadian Plains Research Center . Jump up ^ Gardner , Dan ( 17 February 2009 ) . `` A stealth campaign against the Queen '' . Calgary Herald . Archived from the original on 17 June 2009 . Retrieved 26 February 2009 . 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Toronto : Monarchist League of Canada ( published 2007 ) . p. 12 . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on 8 July 2009 . Retrieved 26 July 2009 . CS1 maint : Multiple names : authors list ( link ) Jump up ^ Janigan , Mary ; Nicol , John ( 20 September 1999 ) . `` Clarkson Appointed Governor General '' . Maclean 's . Toronto : Kenneth Whyte . ISSN 0024 - 9262 . Archived from the original on 8 June 2011 . Retrieved 2 March 2009 . Jump up ^ Walker , William ( 9 September 1999 ) . `` PM names Clarkson '' . Toronto Star . Retrieved 2 March 2009 . Jump up ^ Fraser , John ( 1 February 2003 ) . `` Excellency '' . National Post . Archived from the original on 6 July 2011 . Retrieved 1 March 2009 . Jump up ^ Editorial ( 2005 ) . `` Our Governor General '' ( PDF ) . Canadian Monarchist News . Toronto : Monarchist League of Canada . Spring 2005 ( 23 ) : 6 . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on 26 February 2009 . Retrieved 28 February 2009 . Jump up ^ `` Clarkson out of hospital after pacemaker surgery '' . CTV. 11 July 2005 . Archived from the original on 20 November 2007 . Retrieved 1 March 2009 . Jump up ^ Black , Dan ( 1 September 2000 ) . `` The Tomb of the Unknown Soldier '' . Legion Magazine . Kanata : Canvet Publications Ltd . September 2000 . Retrieved 1 March 2009 . Jump up ^ Graham , Bill ( 9 December 2004 ) . `` Debate Extracts : Commons Cuts the GG 's Budget '' ( PDF ) . Canadian Monarchist News . Spring 2005 ( 23 ) . Toronto : Monarchist League of Canada . p. 9 . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on 26 February 2009 . Retrieved 1 March 2009 . Jump up ^ Greenway , Norma ( 27 September 2005 ) . `` Jean puts imprint on swearing - in '' . CanWest News Service . Archived from the original on 3 June 2012 . Retrieved 1 March 2009 . Jump up ^ McWhinney , Edward ( 2005 ) . The Governor General and the Prime Ministers . Vancouver : Ronsdale Press . p. 46 . ISBN 1 - 55380 - 031 - 1 . Jump up ^ MacKay , Peter ( 9 December 2004 ) . `` Debate Extracts : Commons Cuts the GG 's Budget '' ( PDF ) . Canadian Monarchist News . Spring 2005 ( 23 ) . Toronto : Monarchist League of Canada . p. 9 . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on 26 February 2009 . Retrieved 1 March 2009 . Jump up ^ Fidelis ( 2005 ) . `` A Very Alarming Situation : the New Threat to the Canadian Monarchy -- What Next ? '' ( PDF ) . Canadian Monarchist News . Toronto : Monarchist League of Canada . Spring 2005 ( 23 ) : 2 . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on 26 February 2009 . Retrieved 28 February 2009 . Jump up ^ Editorial ( 2005 ) . `` Hope for the Monarchy in Canada : The Provincial Crown '' ( PDF ) . Canadian Monarchist News . Toronto : Monarchist League of Canada . Spring 2005 ( 23 ) : 12 . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on 26 February 2009 . Retrieved 1 March 2009 . ^ Jump up to : Fraser , John ( 28 April 2012 ) , `` John Fraser : When Quebecers loved the Crown ( and why they stopped ) '' , National Post , archived from the original on 29 April 2012 , retrieved 29 April 2012 Jump up ^ Galloway , Gloria ( 7 June 2010 ) , `` Jean to squeeze in trip to China between royal tour hello and goodbye '' , The Globe and Mail , Toronto , retrieved 7 June 2010 Jump up ^ Boswell , Randy ( 7 October 2009 ) . `` Governor General calling herself ' head of state ' riles monarchists '' . Ottawa Citizen . Archived from the original on 10 October 2009 . Retrieved 7 October 2009 . Jump up ^ Ibbitson , John ( 28 September 2005 ) . `` The remarkable new Governor - General '' . The Globe and Mail . Toronto . Archived from the original on 16 January 2009 . Retrieved 7 June 2009 . Jump up ^ `` Governor General proposes two new options to recognize Constable Garrett '' ( Press release ) . Office of the Governor General of Canada . 27 November 2007 . Retrieved 12 December 2007 . Jump up ^ Hébert , Chantal ( 27 September 2006 ) . `` Will Jean thwart election call ? ; '' . Toronto Star . Archived from the original on 29 September 2007 . Retrieved 28 September 2006 . Jump up ^ Valpy , Michael ( 24 April 2007 ) . `` ' Your biggest problem is Rideau Hall , ' top bureaucrat warned Harper '' . Globe and Mail . Toronto . Retrieved 1 May 2007 . Jump up ^ Gardner , Dan ( 13 February 2009 ) . `` Governor General to Dan Gardner : you 're right '' . Ottawa Citizen . Archived from the original on 7 July 2012 . Retrieved 26 July 2009 . Jump up ^ Taylor , Nathan ( 6 December 2008 ) . `` Stanton defends Harper '' . Packet & Times . Retrieved 8 December 2008 . Jump up ^ Dreschel , Andrew ( 5 December 2008 ) . `` Jean was right to stave off Bloc coalition '' . Hamilton Spectator . Retrieved 8 December 2008 . Jump up ^ Wente , Margaret ( 5 December 2008 ) . `` That was the weird week that was '' . The Globe and Mail . Toronto . Archived from the original on 7 December 2008 . Retrieved 8 December 2008 . Jump up ^ `` GG David Johnston sworn in '' . CBC. 1 October 2010 . Archived from the original on 4 October 2010 . Retrieved 3 November 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Johnston named Canada 's next governor general '' . CBC. 8 July 2010 . Archived from the original on 11 July 2010 . Retrieved 3 November 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Michaëlle Jean begins UN job for Haiti '' . CBC. 8 November 2010 . Retrieved 9 November 2010 . Jump up ^ Unless noted otherwise , the source for information in this section is found in : Hubbard 1977 ^ Jump up to : Office of the Governor General of Canada , Role and Responsibilities > Former Governors General > The Right Honourable Ramon John Hnatyshyn , Queen 's Printer for Canada , retrieved February 4 , 2010 Jump up ^ `` Who We Are > Our Founder '' . The Hnatyshyn Foundation . Archived from the original on 1 February 2013 . Retrieved 3 February 2010 . Further reading ( edit ) Coucill , Irma ( 2005 ) . Canada 's Prime Ministers , Governors General and Fathers of Confederation . Pembroke Publishers . ISBN 1 - 55138 - 185 - 0 . External links ( edit ) Wikimedia Commons has media related to Governors General of Canada . 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what did the committee of public safety do during the french revolution

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Committee_of_Public_Safety&oldid=856261503

Committee of Public Safety - wikipedia Committee of Public Safety For other uses , see Committee of Public Safety ( disambiguation ) . The Committee of Public Safety ( French : Comité de salut public ) -- created in April 1793 by the National Convention and then restructured in July 1793 -- formed the de facto executive government in France during the Reign of Terror ( 1793 -- 94 ) , a stage of the French Revolution . The Committee of Public Safety succeeded the previous Committee of General Defence ( established in January 1793 ) and assumed its role of protecting the newly established republic against foreign attacks and internal rebellion . As a wartime measure , the Committee -- composed at first of nine , and later of twelve , members -- was given broad supervisory powers over military , judicial , and legislative efforts . It was formed as an administrative body to supervise and expedite the work of the executive bodies of the Convention and of the government ministers appointed by the Convention . As the Committee tried to meet the dangers of a coalition of European nations and counter-revolutionary forces within the country , it became more and more powerful . In July 1793 , following the defeat at the Convention of the Girondins , the prominent leader of the radical Jacobin , Maximilien Robespierre , was added to the Committee . The power of the Committee peaked between August 1793 and July 1794 . In December 1793 , the Convention formally conferred executive power upon the Committee . The execution of Robespierre in July 1794 represented a reactionary period against the Committee of Public Safety . This is known as the Thermidorian Reaction , as Robespierre 's fall from power occurred during the Revolutionary calendar month of Thermidor . The Committee 's influence diminished , and it was disestablished in 1795 . Contents 1 Origins and evolution 1.1 Committee of discussion 1.1. 1 Execution of the Hébertists and Dantonists 1.2 Committee of rule 1.3 Fall of the Committee , and aftermath 2 Composition 3 Use of the term during the Algerian War 4 See also 5 Notes 6 References Origins and evolution ( edit ) Committee of discussion ( edit ) Lettre anglaise ( English Letter ) dated 29 June 1793 as published by the French National convention during the Revolution ( 1793 ) . This document was used to prove English spying and conspiracy . On 5 April 1793 , the French military commander and former minister of war General Charles François Dumouriez defected to Austria , following the publication of an incendiary letter in which he threatened to march his army on the city of Paris if the National Convention did not accede to his leadership . News of his defection caused alarm in Paris , where imminent defeat by the Austrians and their allies was feared . A widespread belief held that revolutionary France was in immediate peril , threatened not only by foreign armies and by recent anti-revolutionary revolts in the Vendée , but also by foreign agents who plotted the destruction of the nation from within . The betrayal of the revolutionary government by Dumouriez lent greater credence to this belief . In light of this threat , the Girondin leader Maximin Isnard proposed the creation of a nine - member Committee of Public Safety . Isnard was supported in this effort by Georges Danton , who declared , `` This Committee is precisely what we want , a hand to grasp the weapon of the Revolutionary Tribunal . '' The Committee was formally created on 6 April 1793 . Closely associated with the leadership of Danton , it was initially known as `` the Danton Committee '' . Danton steered the Committee through the 31 May and 2 June 1793 journées that resulted in the fall of the Girondins , and through the intensifying war in the Vendée . However , when the Committee was recomposed on 10 July , Danton was not included . Nevertheless , he continued to support the centralization of power by the Committee . On 27 July 1793 , Maximilien Robespierre was elected to the Committee . At this time , the Committee was entering a more powerful and active phase , which would see it become a de facto dictatorship alongside its powerful partner , the Committee of General Security . The role of the Committee of Public Safety included the governance of the war ( including the appointment of generals ) , the appointing of judges and juries for the Revolutionary Tribunal , the provisioning of the armies and the public , the maintenance of public order , and oversight of the state bureaucracy . The Committee was also responsible for interpreting and applying the decrees of the National Convention , and thus for implementing some of the most stringent policies of the Terror -- for instance , the levée en masse , passed on 23 August 1793 , the Law of Suspects , passed on 17 September 1793 , and the Law of the Maximum , passed on 29 September 1793 . The broad and centralized powers of the Committee were codified by the Law of 14 Frimaire ( also known as the Law of Revolutionary Government ) on 4 December 1793 . Execution of the Hébertists and Dantonists ( edit ) On 5 December 1793 , journalist Camille Desmoulins began publishing Le Vieux Cordelier , a newspaper initially aimed -- with the approval of Robespierre and the Committee of Public Safety -- at the ultra-revolutionary Hébertist faction , whose extremist demands , anti-religious fervor , and propensity for sudden insurrections were problematic for the Committee . However , Desmoulins quickly turned his pen against the Committee of Public Safety and the Committee of General Security , comparing their reign to that of the Roman tyrants chronicled by Tacitus , and expounding the `` indulgent '' views of the Dantonist faction . Consequently , though the Hébertists were arrested and executed in March 1794 , the Committee of Public Safety and the Committee of General Security ensured that Desmoulins and Danton were also arrested . Hérault de Séchelles -- a friend and ally of Danton -- was expelled from the Committee of Public Safety , arrested , and tried alongside them . On 5 April 1794 , the Dantonists went to the guillotine . Committee of rule ( edit ) Maximilien Robespierre , member of the Committee of Public Safety The elimination of the Hébertists and the Dantonists made evident the strength of the committees , as had their ability to control and silence opposition . The creation , in March 1794 , of a `` General Police Bureau '' -- reporting nominally to the Committee of Public Safety , but more often directly to Robespierre and his closest ally , Louis Antoine de Saint - Just -- served to increase the power of the Committee of Public Safety , and of Robespierre himself . The Law of 22 Prairial , proposed by the Committee of Public Safety and enacted on 10 June 1794 , went further in establishing the iron control of the Revolutionary Tribunal and , above it , the Committees of Public Safety and General Security . The law enumerated various forms of public enemies , made mandatory their denunciation , and severely limited the legal recourse available to those accused . The punishment for all crimes under the Law of 22 Prairal was death . From the initiation of this law to the fall of Robespierre on 27 July , more people were condemned to death than in the entire previous history of the Revolutionary Tribunal . However , even as the Terror reached its height , and with it the Committee 's political power , discord was growing within the revolutionary government . Members of the Committee of General Security resented the autocratic behavior of the Committee of Public Safety , and particularly the encroachment of the General Police Bureau upon their own brief . Arguments within the Committee of Public Safety itself had grown so violent that it relocated its meetings to a more private room to preserve the illusion of agreement . Robespierre , a fervent supporter of the theistic Cult of the Supreme Being , found himself frequently in conflict with anti-religious Committee members Collot d'Herbois and Billaud - Varenne . Moreover , Robespierre 's increasingly extensive absences from the Committee due to illness ( he all but ceased to attend meetings in June 1794 ) created the impression that he was isolated and out of touch . Fall of the Committee , and aftermath ( edit ) When it became evident , in mid-July 1794 , that Robespierre and Saint - Just were planning to strike against their political opponents Joseph Fouché , Jean - Lambert Tallien , and Marc - Guillaume Alexis Vadier ( the latter two of whom were members of the Committee of General Security ) , the fragile truce within the government was dissolved . Saint - Just and his fellow Committee of Public Safety member Barère attempted to keep the peace between the Committees of Public Safety and General Security ; however , on 26 July , Robespierre delivered a speech to the National Convention in which he emphasized the need to `` purify '' the Committees and `` crush all factions . '' In a speech to the Jacobin Club that night , he attacked Collot d'Herbois and Billaud - Varenne , who had refused to allow the printing and distribution of his speech to the Convention . On the following day , 27 July 1794 ( or 9 Thermidor according to the Revolutionary calendar ) , Saint - Just began to deliver a speech to the Convention in which he had planned to denounce Collot d'Herbois , Billaud - Varenne , and other members of the Committee of Public Safety . However , he was almost immediately interrupted by Tallien and by Billaud - Varenne , who accused Saint - Just of intending to `` murder the Convention . '' Barère , Vadier , and Stanislas Fréron joined the accusations against Saint - Just and Robespierre . The arrest of Robespierre , his brother Augustin , and Saint - Just was ordered , along with that of their supporters , Philippe Le Bas and Georges Couthon . A period of intense civil unrest ensued , during which the members of the Committees of Public Safety and General Security were forced to seek refuge in the Convention . The Robespierre brothers , Saint - Just , Le Bas , and Couthon ensconced themselves in the Hôtel de Ville , attempting to incite an insurrection . Ultimately , faced with defeat and arrest , Le Bas committed suicide . Saint - Just , Couthon , and Maximilien and Augustin Robespierre were arrested and guillotined on 28 July . The ensuing period of upheaval , dubbed the Thermidorian Reaction , saw the repeal of many of the Terror 's most unpopular laws and the reduction in power of the Committees of General Security and Public Safety . The Committees ceased to exist under the Constitution of the Year III ( 1795 ) , which marked the beginning of the Directory . Composition ( edit ) This section does not cite any sources . Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . ( April 2017 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) The Committee was initially composed of nine members , all selected by the National Convention for one month at a time , without term limits . Its first members , instated on 6 April 1793 , were as follows , in order of election . After Robespierre 's election to the Committee on 27 July 1793 , the Committee increased its membership to twelve . The list below represents the Committee 's membership . April 1793 -- July 1793 : Name ( Birth - Death ) Department Party Bertrand Barère ( 1755 -- 1841 ) Hautes - Pyrénées Maraisard Jean - François Delmas ( 1751 -- 1798 ) Haute - Garonne Montagnard Jean - Jacques Bréard ( 1751 -- 1840 ) Charente - Inférieure Montagnard Pierre - Joseph Cambon ( 1756 -- 1820 ) Hérault Montagnard Georges Danton ( 1759 -- 1794 ) Seine Montagnard Jean Debry ( 1760 -- 1834 ) Aisne Montagnard Jean - François Delacroix ( 1753 -- 1794 ) Eure - et - Loir Maraisard Louis - Bernard Guyton - Morveau ( 1737 -- 1816 ) Côte - d'Or Girondin Jean Baptiste Treilhard ( 1742 -- 1810 ) Seine - et - Oise Girondin July 1793 -- July 1794 : Name ( Birth - Death ) Department Party Bertrand Barère ( 1755 -- 1841 ) Hautes - Pyrénées Maraisard Jacques Nicolas Billaud - Varenne ( 1756 -- 1819 ) Seine Montagnard Lazare Carnot ( 1753 -- 1823 ) Pas - de-Calais Maraisard Georges Couthon ( 1755 -- 1794 ) Puy - de-Dôme Montagnard Claude - Antoine Prieur - Duvernois ( 1763 -- 1832 ) Côte - d'Or Montagnard Jean - Marie Collot d'Herbois ( 1749 -- 1796 ) Seine Montagnard Robert Lindet ( 1746 -- 1825 ) Eure Montagnard Pierre Louis Prieur ( 1756 -- 1827 ) Marne Montagnard Maximilien Robespierre ( 1758 -- 1794 ) Seine Montagnard Jeanbon Saint - André ( 1749 -- 1813 ) Lot Montagnard Louis Antoine de Saint - Just ( 1767 -- 1794 ) Aisne Montagnard Marie - Jean Hérault de Séchelles ( 1759 -- 1794 ) Seine - et - Oise Montagnard Use of the term during the algerian war ( edit ) During the May 1958 crisis in France , an army junta under General Jacques Massu seized power in Algiers on the night of 13 May , 1958 , and General Salan assumed leadership of a body calling itself `` Committee of Public Safety '' . See also ( edit ) Commissioners of the Committee of Public Safety Committee of General Security National Convention Historiography of the French Revolution Revolutionary Tribunal Reflections on the Revolution in France Notes ( edit ) Jump up ^ `` Committee of Public Safety '' . Encyclopedia Britannica . Retrieved 2017 - 09 - 20 . ^ Jump up to : Belloc ( 1899 ) , p. 210 . Jump up ^ Mantel ( 2009 ) . Jump up ^ Belloc ( 1899 ) , p. 235 . Jump up ^ Scurr ( 2006 ) , p. 284 . Jump up ^ Furet ( 1992 ) , p. 134 . Jump up ^ Furet ( 1992 ) , p. 141 . Jump up ^ `` Danton Versus Robespierre : The Quest for Revolutionary Power '' . www.ucumberlands.edu . Retrieved 2017 - 09 - 20 . Jump up ^ Scurr ( 2006 ) , p. 328 . Jump up ^ Scurr ( 2006 ) , p. 331 . Jump up ^ Scurr ( 2006 ) , p. 340 . Jump up ^ Madelin ( 1916 ) , p. 418 . Jump up ^ Madelin ( 1916 ) , p. 422 . Jump up ^ `` Maximilien Robespierre , Master of the Terror '' . www.loyno.edu . Retrieved 2017 - 09 - 20 . References ( edit ) Wikimedia Commons has media related to Committee of Public Safety . Belloc , Hillaire ( 1899 ) . Danton : A Study . New York : Charles Scribner 's Sons . Furet , François ( 1992 ) . Revolutionary France , 1770 -- 1880 . Oxford : Blackwell Publishing . Linton , Marisa , Choosing Terror : Virtue , Friendship and Authenticity in the French Revolution ( Oxford University Press , 2013 ) . Madelin , Louis ( 1916 ) . The French Revolution . New York : G.P. Putnam 's Sons . Mantel , Hilary ( 6 August 2009 ) . `` He Roared '' . London Review of Books . 3 ( 15 ) : 3 -- 6 . Retrieved 16 January 2010 . Palmer , R.R. ( September 1941 ) . `` Fifty Years of the Committee of Public Safety '' . Journal of Modern History . 13 ( 3 ) : 375 -- 397 . JSTOR 1871581 . -- -- -- ( 1970 ) . Twelve Who Ruled : The Year of the Terror in the French Revolution . Princeton : Princeton University Press . ISBN 0 - 691 - 05119 - 4 . Schama , Simon ( 1989 ) . Citizens : A Chronicle of the French Revolution . New York : Alfred A. Knopf . Scurr , Ruth ( 2006 ) . Fatal Purity : Robespierre and the French Revolution . New York : Owl Books . French Revolution Causes Timeline Ancien Régime Revolution Constitutional monarchy Republic Directory Consulate Glossary Museum Significant civil and political events by year 1788 Day of the Tiles ( 7 Jun 1788 ) Assembly of Vizille ( 21 Jul 1788 ) 1789 What Is the Third Estate ? ( Jan 1789 ) Réveillon riots ( 28 Apr 1789 ) Convocation of the Estates - General ( 5 May 1789 ) National Assembly ( 17 Jun -- 9 Jul 1790 ) Tennis Court Oath ( 20 Jun 1789 ) National Constituent Assembly ( 9 Jul -- 30 Sep 1791 ) Storming of the Bastille ( 14 Jul 1789 ) Great Fear ( 20 Jul -- 5 Aug 1789 ) Abolition of Feudalism ( 4 - 11 Aug 1789 ) Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen ( 27 Aug 1789 ) Women 's March on Versailles ( 5 Oct 1789 ) 1790 Abolition of the Parlements ( Feb -- Jul 1790 ) Abolition of the Nobility ( 19 Jun 1790 ) Civil Constitution of the Clergy ( 12 Jul 1790 ) Fête de la Fédération ( 14 Jul 1790 ) 1791 Flight to Varennes ( 20 -- 21 Jun 1791 ) Champ de Mars Massacre ( 17 Jul 1791 ) Declaration of Pillnitz ( 27 Aug 1791 ) The Constitution of 1791 ( 3 Sep 1791 ) Legislative Assembly ( 1 Oct 1791 -- Sep 1792 ) 1792 France declares war ( 20 Apr 1792 ) Brunswick Manifesto ( 25 Jul 1792 ) Paris Commune becomes insurrectionary ( Jun 1792 ) 10th of August ( 10 Aug 1792 ) September Massacres ( Sep 1792 ) National Convention ( 20 Sep 1792 -- 26 Oct 1795 ) First republic declared ( 22 Sep 1792 ) 1793 Execution of Louis XVI ( 21 Jan 1793 ) Revolutionary Tribunal ( 9 Mar 1793 -- 31 May 1795 ) Reign of Terror ( 27 Jun 1793 -- 27 Jul 1794 ) Committee of Public Safety Committee of General Security Fall of the Girondists ( 2 Jun 1793 ) Assassination of Marat ( 13 Jul 1793 ) Levée en masse ( 23 Aug 1793 ) The Death of Marat ( painting ) Law of Suspects ( 17 Sep 1793 ) Marie Antoinette is guillotined ( 16 Oct 1793 ) Anti-clerical laws ( throughout the year ) 1794 Danton and Desmoulins guillotined ( 5 Apr 1794 ) Law of 22 Prairial ( 10 Jun 1794 ) Thermidorian Reaction ( 27 Jul 1794 ) Robespierre guillotined ( 28 Jul 1794 ) White Terror ( Fall 1794 ) Closing of the Jacobin Club ( 11 Nov 1794 ) 1795 Constitution of the Year III ( 22 Aug 1795 ) Conspiracy of the Equals ( Nov 1795 ) Directoire ( 1795 -- 99 ) Council of Five Hundred Council of Ancients 13 Vendémiaire 5 Oct 1795 1797 Coup of 18 Fructidor ( 4 Sep 1797 ) Second Congress of Rastatt ( Dec 1797 ) 1799 Coup of 30 Prairial VII ( 18 Jun 1799 ) Coup of 18 Brumaire ( 9 Nov 1799 ) Constitution of the Year VIII ( 24 Dec 1799 ) Consulate Revolutionary campaigns 1792 Verdun Thionville Valmy Royalist Revolts Chouannerie Vendée Dauphiné Lille Siege of Mainz Jemappes Namur ( fr ) 1793 First Coalition Siege of Toulon ( 18 Sep -- 18 Dec 1793 ) War in the Vendée Battle of Neerwinden ) Battle of Famars ( 23 May 1793 ) Expédition de Sardaigne ( 21 Dec 1792 - 25 May 1793 ) Battle of Kaiserslautern Siege of Mainz Battle of Wattignies Battle of Hondschoote Siege of Bellegarde Battle of Peyrestortes ( Pyrenees ) First Battle of Wissembourg ( 13 Oct 1793 ) Battle of Truillas ( Pyrenees ) Second Battle of Wissembourg ( 26 -- 27 Dec 1793 ) 1794 Battle of Villers - en - Cauchies ( 24 Apr 1794 ) Battle of Boulou ( Pyrenees ) ( 30 Apr -- 1 May 1794 ) Battle of Tournay ( 22 May 1794 ) Battle of Fleurus ( 26 Jun 1794 ) Chouannerie Battle of Tourcoing ( 18 May 1794 ) Battle of Aldenhoven ( 2 Oct 1794 ) 1795 Peace of Basel 1796 Battle of Lonato ( 3 -- 4 Aug 1796 ) Battle of Castiglione ( 5 Aug 1796 ) Battle of Theiningen Battle of Neresheim ( 11 Aug 1796 ) Battle of Amberg ( 24 Aug 1796 ) Battle of Würzburg ( 3 Sep 1796 ) Battle of Rovereto ( 4 Sep 1796 ) First Battle of Bassano ( 8 Sep 1796 ) Battle of Emmendingen ( 19 Oct 1796 ) Battle of Schliengen ( 26 Oct 1796 ) Second Battle of Bassano ( 6 Nov 1796 ) Battle of Calliano ( 6 -- 7 Nov 1796 ) Battle of the Bridge of Arcole ( 15 -- 17 Nov 1796 ) The Ireland Expedition ( Dec 1796 ) 1797 Naval Engagement off Brittany ( 13 Jan 1797 ) Battle of Rivoli ( 14 -- 15 Jan 1797 ) Battle of the Bay of Cádiz ( 25 Jan 1797 ) Treaty of Leoben ( 17 Apr 1797 ) Battle of Neuwied ( 18 Apr 1797 ) Treaty of Campo Formio ( 17 Oct 1797 ) 1798 French invasion of Switzerland ( 28 January -- 17 May 1798 ) French Invasion of Egypt ( 1798 -- 1801 ) Irish Rebellion of 1798 ( 23 May -- 23 Sep 1798 ) Quasi-War ( 1798 -- 1800 ) Peasants ' War ( 12 Oct -- 5 Dec 1798 ) 1799 Second Coalition ( 1798 -- 1802 ) Siege of Acre ( 20 Mar -- 21 May 1799 ) Battle of Ostrach ( 20 -- 21 Mar 1799 ) Battle of Stockach ( 25 Mar 1799 ) Battle of Magnano ( 5 Apr 1799 ) Battle of Cassano ( 27 Apr 1799 ) First Battle of Zurich ( 4 -- 7 Jun 1799 ) Battle of Trebbia ( 19 Jun 1799 ) Battle of Novi ( 15 Aug 1799 ) Second Battle of Zurich ( 25 -- 26 Sep 1799 ) 1800 Battle of Marengo ( 14 Jun 1800 ) Battle of Hohenlinden ( 3 Dec 1800 ) League of Armed Neutrality ( 1800 -- 02 ) 1801 Treaty of Lunéville ( 9 Feb 1801 ) Treaty of Florence ( 18 Mar 1801 ) Algeciras Campaign ( 8 Jul 1801 ) 1802 Treaty of Amiens ( 25 Mar 1802 ) Military leaders French Army Eustache Charles d'Aoust Pierre Augereau Alexandre de Beauharnais Jean - Baptiste Bernadotte Louis - Alexandre Berthier Jean - Baptiste Bessières Guillaume - Marie - Anne Brune Jean François Carteaux Jean Étienne Championnet Chapuis de Tourville Adam Philippe , Comte de Custine Louis - Nicolas Davout Louis Desaix Jacques François Dugommier Thomas - Alexandre Dumas Charles François Dumouriez Pierre Marie Barthélemy Ferino Louis - Charles de Flers Paul Grenier Emmanuel de Grouchy Jacques Maurice Hatry Lazare Hoche Jean - Baptiste Jourdan François Christophe de Kellermann Jean - Baptiste Kléber Pierre Choderlos de Laclos Jean Lannes Charles Leclerc Claude Lecourbe François Joseph Lefebvre Jacques MacDonald Jean - Antoine Marbot Jean Baptiste de Marbot François Séverin Marceau - Desgraviers Auguste de Marmont André Masséna Bon - Adrien Jeannot de Moncey Jean Victor Marie Moreau Édouard Mortier , duc de Trévise Joachim Murat Michel Ney Pierre - Jacques Osten ( fr ) Nicolas Oudinot Catherine - Dominique de Pérignon Jean - Charles Pichegru Józef Poniatowski Laurent de Gouvion Saint - Cyr Barthélemy Louis Joseph Schérer Jean - Mathieu - Philibert Sérurier Joseph Souham Jean - de-Dieu Soult Louis - Gabriel Suchet Belgrand de Vaubois Claude Victor - Perrin , Duc de Belluno French Navy Charles - Alexandre Linois Opposition Austria József Alvinczi Archduke Charles , Duke of Teschen Count of Clerfayt ( Walloon ) Karl Aloys zu Fürstenberg Friedrich Freiherr von Hotze ( Swiss ) Friedrich Adolf , Count von Kalckreuth Pál Kray ( Hungarian ) Charles Eugene , Prince of Lambesc ( French ) Maximilian Baillet de Latour ( Walloon ) Karl Mack von Leiberich Rudolf Ritter von Otto ( Saxon ) Prince Josias of Saxe - Coburg - Saalfeld Peter Vitus von Quosdanovich Prince Heinrich XV of Reuss - Plauen Johann Mészáros von Szoboszló ( Hungarian ) Karl Philipp Sebottendorf Dagobert von Wurmser Britain Sir Ralph Abercromby Admiral Sir James Saumarez Admiral Sir Edward Pellew Prince Frederick , Duke of York and Albany Dutch Republic William V , Prince of Orange Prussia Charles William Ferdinand , Duke of Brunswick - Wolfenbüttel Frederick Louis , Prince of Hohenlohe - Ingelfingen Russia Alexander Korsakov Alexander Suvorov Spain Luis Firmin de Carvajal Antonio Ricardos Other significant figures and factions Society of 1789 Jean Sylvain Bailly Gilbert du Motier , Marquis de Lafayette François Alexandre Frédéric , duc de la Rochefoucauld - Liancourt Isaac René Guy le Chapelier Honoré Gabriel Riqueti , comte de Mirabeau Emmanuel Joseph Sieyès Charles - Maurice de Talleyrand - Périgord Nicolas de Condorcet Feuillants and monarchiens Madame de Lamballe Madame du Barry Louis de Breteuil Loménie de Brienne Charles Alexandre de Calonne de Chateaubriand Jean Chouan Grace Elliott Arnaud de La Porte Jean - Sifrein Maury Jacques Necker François - Marie , marquis de Barthélemy Guillaume - Mathieu Dumas Antoine Barnave Lafayette Alexandre - Théodore - Victor , comte de Lameth Charles Malo François Lameth André Chénier Jean - François Rewbell Camille Jordan Madame de Staël Boissy d'Anglas Jean - Charles Pichegru Pierre Paul Royer - Collard Girondists Jacques Pierre Brissot Roland de La Platière Madame Roland Father Henri Grégoire Étienne Clavière Marquis de Condorcet Charlotte Corday Marie Jean Hérault Jean Baptiste Treilhard Pierre Victurnien Vergniaud Bertrand Barère de Vieuzac Jérôme Pétion de Villeneuve Jean Debry Jean - Jacques Duval d'Eprémesnil Olympe de Gouges Jean - Baptiste Robert Lindet Louis Marie de La Révellière - Lépeaux The Plain Abbé Sieyès de Cambacérès Charles François Lebrun Lazare Nicolas Marguerite Carnot Philippe Égalité Louis Philippe I Mirabeau Antoine Christophe Merlin de Thionville Jean Joseph Mounier Pierre Samuel du Pont de Nemours François de Neufchâteau Montagnards Maximilien Robespierre Georges Danton Jean - Paul Marat Camille Desmoulins Louis Antoine de Saint - Just Paul Nicolas , vicomte de Barras Louis Philippe I Louis Michel le Peletier de Saint - Fargeau Jacques - Louis David Marquis de Sade Georges Couthon Roger Ducos Jean - Marie Collot d'Herbois Jean - Henri Voulland Philippe - Antoine Merlin de Douai Antoine Quentin Fouquier - Tinville Philippe - François - Joseph Le Bas Marc - Guillaume Alexis Vadier Jean - Pierre - André Amar Prieur de la Côte - d'Or Prieur de la Marne Gilbert Romme Jean Bon Saint - André Jean - Lambert Tallien Pierre Louis Prieur Bertrand Barère de Vieuzac Antoine Christophe Saliceti Hébertists and Enragés Jacques Hébert Jacques Nicolas Billaud - Varenne Pierre Gaspard Chaumette Charles - Philippe Ronsin Antoine - François Momoro François - Nicolas Vincent François Chabot Jean Baptiste Noël Bouchotte Jean - Baptiste - Joseph Gobel François Hanriot Jacques Roux Stanislas - Marie Maillard Charles - Philippe Ronsin Jean - François Varlet Theophile Leclerc Claire Lacombe Pauline Léon Gracchus Babeuf Sylvain Maréchal Others Charles X Louis XVI Louis XVII Louis XVIII Louis Antoine , Duke of Enghien Louis Henri , Prince of Condé Louis Joseph , Prince of Condé Marie Antoinette Napoléon Bonaparte Lucien Bonaparte Joseph Bonaparte Joseph Fesch Joséphine de Beauharnais Joachim Murat Jean Sylvain Bailly Jacques - Donatien Le Ray Guillaume - Chrétien de Malesherbes Talleyrand Thérésa Tallien Gui - Jean - Baptiste Target Catherine Théot List of people associated with the French Revolution Influential thinkers Les Lumières Beaumarchais Edmund Burke Anacharsis Cloots Charles - Augustin de Coulomb Pierre Claude François Daunou Diderot Benjamin Franklin Thomas Jefferson Antoine Lavoisier Montesquieu Thomas Paine Jean - Jacques Rousseau Abbé Sieyès Voltaire Mary Wollstonecraft Cultural impact La Marseillaise French Tricolour Liberté , égalité , fraternité Marianne Bastille Day Panthéon French Republican Calendar Cult of the Supreme Being Cult of Reason Temple of Reason Sans - culottes Metric system Phrygian cap Women in the French Revolution Symbolism in the French Revolution Historiography of the French Revolution Influence of the French Revolution BNF : cb121555158 ( data ) GND : 502193 - 5 ISNI : 0000 0001 0611 5325 LCCN : n50070518 SUDOC : 027316947 VIAF : 159160040 Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Committee_of_Public_Safety&oldid=856261503 '' Categories : Organizations established in 1793 1795 disestablishments 1793 events of the French Revolution 1794 events of the French Revolution French National Convention Hidden categories : Use dmy dates from June 2013 Articles containing French - 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where does the delaware river start and end

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Delaware_River&oldid=852181193

Delaware River - wikipedia Delaware River This article is about the river on the Atlantic coast of the United States . For other uses , see Delaware River ( disambiguation ) . Delaware River The river looking north above Walpack Bend , where it leaves the historic Minisink region , a buried valley eroded from Marcellus Shale bedrock Country United States States New York , New Jersey , Pennsylvania , Delaware , Maryland Tributaries - left Neversink River , Musconetcong River - right Lehigh River , Schuylkill River , Christina River Cities Port Jervis , NY , Easton , PA , Trenton , NJ , Camden , NJ , Philadelphia , PA , Chester , PA , Wilmington , DE Source West Branch - location Mount Jefferson , Town of Jefferson , Schoharie County , New York , United States - elevation 2,240 ft ( 683 m ) - coordinates 42 ° 27 ′ 12 '' N 74 ° 36 ′ 26 '' W  /  42.45333 ° N 74.60722 ° W  / 42.45333 ; - 74.60722 Secondary source East Branch - location Grand Gorge , Town of Roxbury , Delaware County , New York , United States - elevation 1,560 ft ( 475 m ) - coordinates 42 ° 21 ′ 26 '' N 74 ° 30 ′ 42 '' W  /  42.35722 ° N 74.51167 ° W  / 42.35722 ; - 74.51167 Source confluence - elevation 880 ft ( 268 m ) - coordinates 41 ° 56 ′ 20 '' N 75 ° 16 ′ 46 '' W  /  41.93889 ° N 75.27944 ° W  / 41.93889 ; - 75.27944 Mouth Delaware Bay - elevation 0 ft ( 0 m ) - coordinates 39 ° 25 ′ 13 '' N 75 ° 31 ′ 11 '' W  /  39.42028 ° N 75.51972 ° W  / 39.42028 ; - 75.51972 Coordinates : 39 ° 25 ′ 13 '' N 75 ° 31 ′ 11 '' W  /  39.42028 ° N 75.51972 ° W  / 39.42028 ; - 75.51972 Length 301 mi ( 484 km ) Basin 14,119 sq mi ( 36,568 km ) Discharge for Trenton - average 13,100 cu ft / s ( 371 m / s ) - max 329,000 cu ft / s ( 9,316 m / s ) - min 4,310 cu ft / s ( 122 m / s ) Discharge elsewhere ( average ) - Port Jervis 7,900 cu ft / s ( 224 m / s ) Map of the Delaware River watershed , showing major tributaries and cities National Wild and Scenic River Type Scenic , Recerational The Delaware River is a major river on the Atlantic coast of the United States . It drains an area of 14,119 square miles ( 36,570 km ) in five U.S. states -- New York , New Jersey , Pennsylvania , Maryland and Delaware . Rising in two branches in New York state 's Catskill Mountains , the river flows 419 miles ( 674 km ) into Delaware Bay where its waters enter the Atlantic Ocean near Cape May in New Jersey and Cape Henlopen in Delaware . Not including Delaware Bay , the river 's length including its two branches is 388 miles ( 624 km ) . The Delaware River is one of nineteen `` Great Waters '' recognized by the America 's Great Waters Coalition . The Delaware River rises in two main branches that descend from the western flank of the Catskill Mountains in New York . The West Branch begins near Mount Jefferson in the Town of Jefferson in Schoharie County . The river 's East Branch begins at Grand Gorge near Roxbury in Delaware County . These two branches flow west and merge near Hancock in Delaware County , and the combined waters flow as the Delaware River south . Through its course , the Delaware River forms the boundaries between Pennsylvania and New York , the entire boundary between New Jersey and Pennsylvania , and most of the boundary between Delaware and New Jersey . The river meets tide - water at the junction of Morrisville , Pennsylvania , and Trenton , New Jersey , at the Falls of the Delaware . The river 's navigable , tidal section served as a conduit for shipping and transportation that aided the development of the industrial cities of Trenton , Camden , and Philadelphia . The mean freshwater discharge of the Delaware River into the estuary of Delaware Bay is 11,550 cubic feet per second ( 327 m / s ) . Before the arrival of European settlers , the river was the homeland of the Lenape Native Americans . They called the river Lenapewihittuk , or Lenape River , and Kithanne , meaning the largest river in this part of the country . In 1609 , the river was first visited by a Dutch East India Company expedition led by Henry Hudson . Hudson , an English navigator , was hired to find a western route to Cathay ( present - day China ) , but his discoveries set the stage for Dutch colonization of North America in the 17th century . Early Dutch and Swedish settlements were established along the lower section of river and Delaware Bay . Both colonial powers called the river the South River , compared to the Hudson River , which was known as the North River . After the English expelled the Dutch and took control of the New Netherland colony in 1664 , the river was renamed Delaware after Sir Thomas West , 3rd Baron De La Warr , an English nobleman and the Virginia colony 's first royal governor who defended the colony during the First Anglo - Powhatan War . Contents 1 Origin of the name 2 Watershed 3 Course 3.1 West Branch of the Delaware 3.2 East Branch of the Delaware 3.3 Upper Delaware Valley 3.4 The Minisink 3.5 Central Delaware Valley 3.6 The Lower Delaware and Tide - Water 4 History 4.1 Washington 's crossing of the Delaware 4.2 Canals 4.3 Delaware Water Gap National Recreation Area 5 Commerce 5.1 Wine regions 5.2 Shipping 5.3 Bridge crossings 6 Environmental issues 6.1 New York City water supply 6.2 Pollution 6.3 Flooding 6.4 Major oil spills 6.5 Atlantic sturgeon 6.6 National Wild and Scenic River 7 See also 8 Notes 9 References 10 External links Origin of the name ( edit ) Thomas West , 3rd Baron De La Warr The Delaware River is named in honor of Thomas West , 3rd Baron De La Warr ( 1577 -- 1618 ) , an English nobleman and the Virginia colony 's first royal governor who defended the colony during the First Anglo - Powhatan War . Lord de la Warr waged a punitive campaign to subdue the Powhatan after they had killed the colony 's council president , John Ratcliffe , and attacked the colony 's fledgling settlements . Lord de la Warr arrived with 150 soldiers in time to prevent colony 's original settlers at Jamestown from giving up and returning to England and is credited with saving the Virginia colony . The name of barony ( later an earldom ) is pronounced as in the current spelling form `` Delaware '' ( / ˈdɛləwɛər / ( listen ) DEL - ə - wair ) and is thought to derive from French de la Guerre . It has often been reported that the river and bay received the name `` Delaware '' after English forces under Richard Nicolls expelled the Dutch and took control of the New Netherland colony in 1664 . However , the river and bay were known by the name Delaware as early as 1641 . The state of Delaware was originally part of the William Penn 's Pennsylvania colony . In 1682 , the Duke of York granted Penn 's request for access to the sea and leased him the territory along the western shore of Delaware Bay which became known as the `` Lower Counties on the Delaware . '' In 1704 , these three lower counties were given political autonomy to form a separate provincial assembly , but shared its provincial governor with Pennsylvania until the two colonies separated on June 15 , 1776 and remained separate as states after the establishment of the United States . The name also became used as a collective name for the Lenape , a Native American people ( and their language ) who inhabited an area of the basins of the Susquehanna River , Delaware River , and lower Hudson River in the northeastern United States at the time of European settlement . As a result of disruption following the French & Indian War , American Revolutionary War and later Indian removals from the eastern United States , the name `` Delaware '' has been spread with the Lenape 's diaspora to municipalities , counties and other geographical features in the American Midwest and Canada . Watershed ( edit ) See also : List of Delaware River tributaries The Delaware River ( and Delaware Bay ) watershed The Delaware River 's drainage basin has an area of 14,119 square miles ( 36,570 km ) and encompasses 42 counties and 838 municipalities in five U.S. states -- New York , New Jersey , Pennsylvania , Maryland , and Delaware . This total area constitutes approximately 0.4 % of the land mass in the United States . In 2001 , the watershed was 18 % agricultural land , 14 % developed land , and 68 % forested land . There are 216 tributary streams and creeks -- an estimated 14,057 miles of streams and creeks -- in the watershed . While the watershed is home to 4.17 million people according to the 2000 Federal Census , these bodies of water provide drinking water to 17 million people -- roughly 6 % of the population of the United States . The waters of the Delaware River 's basin are used to sustain `` fishing , transportation , power , cooling , recreation , and other industrial and residential purposes . '' It is the 33rd largest river in the United States in terms of flow , but the nation 's most heavily used rivers in daily volume of tonnage . The average annual flow rate of the Delaware is 11,700 cubic feet per second at Trenton , New Jersey . With no dams or impediments on the river 's main stem , the Delaware is one of the few remaining large free - flowing rivers in the United States . Course ( edit ) West Branch of the Delaware ( edit ) The headwaters of the Delaware River including the river 's East and West Branches and other tributaries The West Branch of the Delaware River ( also called the Mohawk Branch ) spans approximately 90 miles ( 140 km ) from the northern Catskill Mountains to where it joins in confluence with the Delaware River 's East Branch at Hancock , New York . The last 6 miles ( 9.7 km ) forms part of the boundary between New York and Pennsylvania . The West Branch rises in Schoharie County , New York at 1,886 feet ( 575 m ) above sea level , near Mount Jefferson , and flows tortuously through the plateau in a deep trough . The branch flows generally southwest , entering Delaware County and flowing through the towns of Stamford and Delhi . In southwestern Delaware County it flows in an increasingly winding course through the mountains , generally southwest . At Stilesville the West Branch was impounded in the 1960s to form the Cannonsville Reservoir , the westernmost of the reservoirs in the New York City water system . It is the most recently constructed New York City reservoir and began serving the city in 1964 . Draining a large watershed of 455 square miles ( 1,180 km ) , the reservoir 's capacity is 95.7 billion US gallons ( 362,000,000 m ) . This water flows over halfway through the reservoir to enter the 44 - mile ( 71 km ) West Delaware Tunnel in Tompkins , New York . Then it flows through the aqueduct into the Rondout Reservoir , where the water enters the 85 miles ( 137 km ) Delaware Aqueduct , that contributes to roughly 50 % of the city 's drinking water supply . At Deposit , on the border between Broome and Delaware counties , it turns sharply to the southeast and is paralleled by New York State Route 17 . It joins the East Branch at 880 feet ( 270 m ) above sea level at Hancock to form the Delaware . East Branch of the Delaware ( edit ) The East Branch of the Delaware River near Margaretville , New York Similarly , the East Branch begins from a small pond south of Grand Gorge in the town of Roxbury in Delaware County , flowing southwest toward its impoundment by New York City to create the Pepacton Reservoir , the largest reservoir in the New York City water supply system . Its tributaries are the Beaver Kill River and the Willowemoc Creek which enter into the river ten miles ( 16 km ) before the West Branch meets the East Branch . The confluence of the two branches is just south of Hancock . Both the East Branch and West Branch of the Delaware River parallel each other , both flowing in a southwesterly direction . Upper Delaware Valley ( edit ) Canoeing on the river at Hawk 's Nest , New York From Hancock , New York , the river flows between the northern Pocono Mountains in Pennsylvania , and the lowered shale beds north of the Catskills . The river flows down a broad Appalachian valley , passing Hawk 's Nest overlook on the Upper Delaware Scenic Byway . The river flows southeast for 78 miles through rural regions along the New York - Pennsylvania border to Port Jervis and the Shawangunk Mountains . The Minisink ( edit ) See also : Minisink At Port Jervis , New York , it enters the Port Jervis trough . At this point , the Walpack Ridge deflects the Delaware into the Minisink Valley , where it follows the southwest strike of the eroded Marcellus Formation beds along the Pennsylvania -- New Jersey state line for 25 miles ( 40 km ) to the end of the ridge at Walpack Bend in the Delaware Water Gap National Recreation Area . The Minisink is a buried valley where the Delaware flows in a bed of glacial till that buried the eroded bedrock during the last glacial period . It then skirts the Kittatinny ridge , which it crosses at the Delaware Water Gap , between nearly vertical walls of sandstone , quartzite , and conglomerate , and then passes through a quiet and charming country of farm and forest , diversified with plateaus and escarpments , until it crosses the Appalachian plain and enters the hills again at Easton , Pennsylvania . From this point it is flanked at intervals by fine hills , and in places by cliffs , of which the finest are the Nockamixon Rocks , 3 miles ( 5 km ) long and above 200 feet ( 61 m ) high . The Appalachian Trail , which traverses the ridge of Kittatinny Mountain in New Jersey , and Blue Mountain in Pennsylvania , crosses the Delaware River at the Delaware Water Gap near Columbia , New Jersey . Central Delaware Valley ( edit ) The `` Falls '' at Trenton At Easton , Pennsylvania , the Lehigh River enters the Delaware . At Trenton there is a fall of 8 feet ( 2.4 m ) . The lower Delaware and tide - Water ( edit ) The lower Delaware as viewed from New Castle , Delaware Below Trenton the river flows between Philadelphia and New Jersey before becoming a broad , sluggish inlet of the sea , with many marshes along its side , widening steadily into its great estuary , Delaware Bay . The Delaware River constitutes the boundary between Delaware and New Jersey . The Delaware - New Jersey border is actually at the easternmost river shoreline within the Twelve - Mile Circle of New Castle , rather than mid-river or mid-channel borders , causing small portions of land lying west of the shoreline , but on the New Jersey side of the river , to fall under the jurisdiction of Delaware . The rest of the borders follow a mid-channel approach . History ( edit ) Benjamin West 's painting The Treaty of Penn with the Indians ' ( 1771 -- 1772 ) , depicts the 1683 peace treaty at Shackamaxon between William Penn and Tamanend , the chief of the Lenape 's `` Turtle Clan . '' Voltaire referred to it as `` the only treaty never sworn to and never broken . '' At the time of the arrival of the Europeans in the early 17th century , the area near the Delaware River was inhabited by the Native American Lenape people . They called the Delaware River `` Lenape Wihittuck '' , which means `` the rapid stream of the Lenape '' . The Delaware River played a key factor in the economic and social development of the Mid-Atlantic region . In the seventeenth century it provided the conduit for colonial settlement by the Dutch ( New Netherland ) , the Swedish ( New Sweden ) . Beginning in 1664 , the region became an English possession as settlement by Quakers established the colonies of Pennsylvania ( including present - day Delaware ) and West Jersey . In the eighteenth century , cities like Philadelphia , Camden ( then Cooper 's Ferry ) , Trenton , and Wilmington , and New Castle were established upon the Delaware and their continued commercial success into the present day has been dependent on access to the river for trade and power . The river provided the path for the settlement of northeastern Pennsylvania 's Lehigh Valley , and northwestern New Jersey by German Palatine immigrants -- a population that became key in the agricultural development of the region . Washington 's Crossing of the Delaware ( edit ) Washington Crossing the Delaware by Emanuel Leutze , 1851 . Oil on canvas . Metropolitan Museum of Art , New York . Perhaps the most famous `` Delaware Crossing '' involved the improvised boat crossing undertaken by George Washington 's army during the American Revolution 's Battle of Trenton on the night of December 25 -- 26 , 1776 , as part of a successful surprise attack on Hessian troops occupying Trenton , New Jersey . Canals ( edit ) A remaining section of the Delaware and Hudson Canal seen from U.S. 209 near Summitville , New York The magnitude of the commerce of Philadelphia has made the improvements of the river below that port of great importance . Small improvements were attempted by Pennsylvania as early as 1771 . Commerce was once important on the upper river , primarily prior to railway competition ( 1857 ) . The Delaware Division of the Pennsylvania Canal , running parallel with the river from Easton to Bristol , opened in 1830 . The Delaware and Raritan Canal , which runs along the New Jersey side of the Delaware River from Bulls Island , New Jersey to Trenton , unites the waters of the Delaware and Raritan rivers as it empties the waters of the Delaware River via the canal outlet in New Brunswick . This canal water conduit is still used as a water supply source by the State of New Jersey . The Morris Canal ( now abandoned and almost completely filled in ) and the Delaware and Hudson Canal connected the Delaware and Hudson rivers . The Chesapeake and Delaware Canal joins the waters of the Delaware with those of the Chesapeake Bay . In the `` project of 1885 '' the U.S. government undertook systematically the formation of a 26 - foot ( 7.9 m ) channel 600 feet ( 180 m ) wide from Philadelphia to deep water in Delaware Bay . The River and Harbor Act of 1899 provided for a 30 - foot ( 9.1 m ) channel 600 feet ( 180 m ) wide from Philadelphia to the deep water of the bay . Delaware Water Gap National Recreation area ( edit ) On the Delaware River , oil on canvas ( circa 1861 - 63 ) by George Inness Brooklyn Museum See also : Tocks Island Dam Controversy The Delaware Water Gap National Recreation Area came about as a result of the failure of a controversial plan to build a dam on the Delaware River at Tocks Island , just north of the Delaware Water Gap to control water levels for flood control and hydroelectric power generation . The dam would have created a 37 - mile ( 60 km ) lake in the center of present park for use as a reservoir . Starting in 1960 , the present day area of the Recreation Area was acquired for the Army Corps of Engineers through eminent domain . Between 3,000 and 5,000 dwellings were demolished , including historical sites , and about 15,000 people were displaced by the project . Because of massive environmental opposition , dwindling funds , and an unacceptable geological assessment of the dam 's safety , the government transferred the property to the National Park Service in 1978 . The National Park Service found itself as the caretaker of the previously endangered territory , and with the help of the federal government and surrounding communities , developed recreational facilities and worked to preserve the remaining historical structures . Commerce ( edit ) Wine regions ( edit ) See also : New Jersey wine and Pennsylvania wine In 1984 , the U.S. Department of the Treasury authorized the creation of a wine region or `` American Viticultural Area '' called the Central Delaware Valley AVA located in southeastern Pennsylvania and New Jersey . The wine appellation includes 96,000 acres ( 38,850 ha ) surrounding the Delaware River north of Philadelphia and Trenton , New Jersey . In Pennsylvania , it consists of the territory along the Delaware River in Bucks County ; in New Jersey , the AVA spans along the river in Hunterdon County and Mercer County from Titusville , New Jersey , just north of Trenton , northward to Musconetcong Mountain . As of 2013 , there are no New Jersey wineries in the Central Delaware Valley AVA . Shipping ( edit ) The Delaware River at Camden , New Jersey , looking toward Philadelphia Since 1941 , the Delaware River Main Channel has been maintained at a depth of 40 ft ( 12 m ) . A 102.5 - mile stretch of this federal navigation channel , from Philadelphia and Camden to the mouth of the Delaware Bay , is being deepened to 45 ft ( 14 m ). , with a 2017 projected completion date . As of 2011 , crude oil was the largest single commodity transported on the Delaware River , accounting for half of all annual cargo tonnage . Major ports and facilities along the river are the Port of Philadelphia , the Port of Camden - Gloucester , the Port of Paulsboro , the Port of Wilmington , and Delaware City Refinery . In 2015 , the ports of Philadelphia , Camden , and Wilmington handled 100 million tons of cargo from 2,243 ship arrivals , and supported 135,000 direct or indirect jobs . The biggest category of imports was fruit , carried by 490 ships , followed by petroleum , and containers , with 410 and 381 ships , respectively . The biggest category of exports was of shipping was containers , with 470 ships . Projects to dredge shipping channels to a depth of 45 feet were completed in 2016 . Bridge crossings ( edit ) The Dingman 's Ferry Bridge connecting Sandyston Township , in Sussex County , New Jersey and Delaware Township in Pike County , Pennsylvania is the last privately owned toll bridge on the Delaware River and one of the last few in the United States . Main article : List of crossings of the Delaware River The Delaware River is a major barrier to travel between New Jersey and Pennsylvania . Most of the larger bridges are tolled only westbound , and are owned by the Delaware River and Bay Authority , Delaware River Port Authority , Burlington County Bridge Commission or Delaware River Joint Toll Bridge Commission . Environmental issues ( edit ) The river within the southern portion of the Delaware Water Gap National Recreation Area , near Worthington State Forest in New Jersey A flood in Westfall , Pennsylvania in 2006 New York City Water supply ( edit ) Further information : New York City water supply system After New York City built 15 reservoirs to supply water to the city 's growing population , it was unable to obtain permission to build an additional five reservoirs along the Delaware River 's tributaries . As a result , in 1928 the city decided to draw water from the Delaware River , putting them in direct conflict with villages and towns across the river in Pennsylvania which were already using the Delaware for their water supply . The two sides eventually took their case to the U.S. Supreme Court , and in 1931 , New York City was allowed to draw 440 million US gallons ( 1,700,000 m ) of water a day from the Delaware and its upstream tributaries . Pollution ( edit ) The Delaware River has been attached to areas of high pollution . The Delaware River in 2012 was named the 5th most polluted river in the United States , explained by PennEnvrionment and Environment New Jersey . The activist groups claim that there is about 7 - 10 million pounds of toxic chemicals flowing through the waterways due to dumping by DuPont Chambers Works . PennEnviornment also claims that the pollutants in the river can cause birth defects , infertility among women , and have been linked to cancer . In 2015 , the EPA saw the Delaware River as a concern for mass pollution especially in the Greater Philadelphia and Chester , Pennsylvania area . The EPA was involved after accusations that the river met standards made illegal by the Clean Water Act . In complying with the Clean Water Act , the EPA involved the Delaware County Regional Water Authority ( DELCORA ) where they set up a plan to spend around $200 million to help rid the waterway of about 740 million gallons of sewage and pollution . DELCORA was also fined about $1.4 million for allowing the Delaware River to have so much pollution residing in the river in the first place and for not complying with the Clean Water Act . The Clean Water Act explains the importance of low pollution for human and species health . One of the sectors in the Clean Water Act explains how conditions of the river should be stable enough for human fishing and swimming . Even though the river has had success with the cleanup of pollution , the Delaware River still does not meet that standard of swimmable or fishable conditions in the Philadelphia / Chester region . Flooding ( edit ) With the failure of the dam project to come to fruition , the lack of flood control on the river left it vulnerable , and it has experienced a number of serious flooding events as the result of snow melt or rain run - off from heavy rainstorms . Record flooding occurred in August 1955 , in the aftermath of the passing of the remnants of two separate hurricanes over the area within less than a week : first Hurricane Connie and then Hurricane Diane , which was , and still is , the wettest tropical cyclone to have hit the northeastern United States . The river gauge at Riegelsville , Pennsylvania recorded an all - time record crest of 38.85 feet ( 11.84 m ) on August 19 , 1955 . More recently , moderate to severe flooding has occurred along the river . The same gauge at Riegelsville recorded a peak of 30.95 feet ( 9.43 m ) on September 23 , 2004 , 34.07 feet ( 10.38 m ) on April 4 , 2005 , and 33.62 feet ( 10.25 m ) on June 28 , 2006 , all considerably higher than the flood stage of 22 feet ( 6.7 m ) . Since the upper Delaware basin has few population centers along its banks , flooding in this area mainly affects natural unpopulated flood plains . Residents in the middle part of the Delaware basin experience flooding , including three major floods in the three years ( 2004 -- 2006 ) that have severely damaged their homes and land . The lower part of the Delaware basin from Philadelphia southward to the Delaware Bay is tidal and much wider than portions further north , and is not prone to river - related flooding ( although tidal surges can cause minor flooding in this area ) . The Delaware River Basin Commission , along with local governments , is working to try to address the issue of flooding along the river . As the past few years have seen a rise in catastrophic floods , most residents of the river basin feel that something must be done . The local governments have worked in association with FEMA to address many of these problems , however , due to insufficient federal funds , progress is slow . Major oil spills ( edit ) A number of oil spills have taken place in the Delaware over the years . Jan 31 , 1975 -- around 11,172,000 US gallons ( 42,290 m ) of crude oil spilled from the Corinthos tanker Sep 28 , 1985 -- 435,000 US gallons ( 1,650 m ) of crude oil spilled from the Grand Eagle tanker after running aground on Marcus Hook Bar Jun 24 , 1989 -- 306,000 US gallons ( 1,160 m ) of crude oil spilled from the Presidente Rivera tanker after running aground on Claymont Shoal Nov 26 , 2004 -- 265,000 US gallons ( 1,000 m ) of crude oil spilled from the Athos 1 tanker ; the tanker 's hull had been punctured by a submerged , discarded anchor at the Port of Paulsboro Atlantic Sturgeon ( edit ) The National Marine Fisheries Service is considering designating sixteen rivers as endangered habitat for the Atlantic Sturgeon which would require more attention to be given to uses of the rivers that affect the fish . National Wild and Scenic River ( edit ) The river is part of the National Wild and Scenic Rivers System . See also ( edit ) Foul Rift , rapids just south of Belvidere , New Jersey Geography of Pennsylvania List of crossings of the Delaware River List of rivers of Delaware List of rivers of New Jersey List of rivers of New York List of rivers of Pennsylvania Partnership for the Delaware Estuary Tocks Island Upper Delaware Scenic and Recreational River Washington Crossing ( disambiguation ) A 1655 Swedish nautical chart showing part of the Delaware River , from when the river was part of the Swedish colony New Sweden Notes ( edit ) Jump up ^ The main stem from Hancock , New York to the head of Delaware Bay is 301 miles ( 484 km ) . Jump up ^ U.S. Geological Survey . National Hydrography Dataset high - resolution flowline data . The National Map Archived April 5 , 2012 , at WebCite , accessed April 1 , 2011 Jump up ^ National Wildlife Federation ( August 18 , 2010 ) . `` America 's Great Waters Coalition '' . Retrieved August 18 , 2011 . Jump up ^ Heckewelder , John ; Du Ponceau , Peter S. ( 1834 ) , `` Names which the Lenni Lenape or Delaware Indians , who once inhabited this country , had given to Rivers , Streams , Places , &c . '' , Transactions of the American Philosophical Society , 4 : 351 -- 396 , JSTOR 1004837 ^ Jump up to : Pollard , Albert Frederick ( 1899 ) . `` West , Thomas ( 1577 - 1618 ) '' . In Lee , Sidney . Dictionary of National Biography. 60 . London : Smith , Elder & Co. pp. 344 -- 345 . Jump up ^ Tyler , Lyon Gardiner , ed. ( 1915 ) . Encyclopedia of Virginia Biography . I. New York : Lewis Historical Publishing Company . pp. 33 -- 34 . Jump up ^ Grenier , John ( 2005 ) . The First Way of War : The American War - Making of the Frontier , 1607 -- 1814 . New York : Cambridge University Press . pp. 24 -- 25 . ISBN 0 - 521 - 84566 - 1 . Jump up ^ Random House Dictionary Jump up ^ World Digital Library . Articles about the Transfer of New Netherland on the 27th of August , Old Style , Anno 1664 . Retrieved March 21 , 2013 Jump up ^ Versteer , Dingman ( editor ) . `` New Amsterdam Becomes New York '' in The New Netherland Register . Volume 1 No. 4 and 5 ( April / May 1911 ) : 49 - 64 . Jump up ^ Evelin , Robert . A direction for Adventurers With small stock to get two for one , and good land freely : And for Gentleman , and all Servants , Labourers , and Artificers to live plentifully , And the true Description of the healthiest , pleasantest and richest plantation of New Albion in North Virginia . ( London , s.n. , 1641 ) . Jump up ^ Munroe , John A. ( 2006 ) . `` Chapter 3 . The Lower Counties On The Delaware '' . History of Delaware . Newark , Delaware : University of Delaware Press . p. 45 . ISBN 0 - 87413 - 947 - 3 . Jump up ^ Schutt , Amy C. ( 2007 ) . Peoples of the River Valleys : The Odyssey of the Delaware Indians . Philadelphia : University of Pennsylvania Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 8122 - 3993 - 5 . Jump up ^ Weslager , Charles A. ( 1990 ) . The Delaware Indians : A History . New Brunswick , New Jersey : Rutgers University Press . ISBN 0 - 8135 - 1494 - 0 . ^ Jump up to : Philadelphia Water Department . `` Moving from Assessment to Protection ... The Delaware River Watershed Source Water Protection Plan '' ( PWSID # 1510001 ) Archived July 28 , 2013 , at the Wayback Machine . ( June 2007 ) . Retrieved July 17 , 2013 . Jump up ^ White , Ron W. ; Monteverde , Donald H. ( Feb 2006 ) . `` Karst in the Delaware Water Gap National Recreation Area '' ( pdf ) . Unearthing New Jersey Vol. 2 , No. 1 . New Jersey Geological Survey . Retrieved June 7 , 2008 . Jump up ^ White , I.C. ; Chance , H.M. ( 1882 ) . The geology of Pike and Monroe counties . Second Geol . Surv. of Penna . Rept. of Progress , G6 . Harrisburg . pp. 17 , 73 -- 80 , 114 -- 115 . Jump up ^ DELAWARE PLACE NAMES United States Geological Survey Jump up ^ One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain : Chisholm , Hugh , ed. ( 1911 ) . `` Delaware River '' . Encyclopædia Britannica. 7 ( 11th ed . ) . Cambridge University Press . p. 951 . Jump up ^ Delaware Water Gap National Recreation Area ( p. 7 - 8 ) , Obiso , Laura , 2008 . Jump up ^ Delaware Water Gap National Recreation Area , njskylands.com . Jump up ^ The Wine Institute . `` American Viticultural Areas by State '' Archived January 27 , 2008 , at the Wayback Machine . ( 2008 ) . Retrieved February 5 , 2008 . ^ Jump up to : Code of Federal Regulations . Section 9.49 Central Delaware Valley . ( 27 CFR 9.49 ) from Title 27 - Alcohol , Tobacco Products and Firearms . CHAPTER I - ALCOHOL AND TOBACCO TAX AND TRADE BUREAU , DEPARTMENT OF THE TREASURY . SUBCHAPTER A - LIQUORS . PART 9 - AMERICAN VITICULTURAL AREAS . Subpart C - Approved American Viticultural Areas . Retrieved June 30 , 2013 . Jump up ^ New Jersey Division of Alcoholic Beverage Control . `` New Jersey ABC list of wineries , breweries , and distilleries '' ( February 5 , 2013 ) . Retrieved May 2 , 2013 . An analysis was done comparing a list of wineries provided by the New Jersey Division of Alcoholic Beverage Control with the AVA 's description in the Code of Federal Regulations . Jump up ^ United States Army Corps of Engineers . Delaware River Main Channel Deepening . Retrieved July 25 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Ruch , Robert J. Ruch ( Lt. Col . ) , District Engineer , Philadelphia District . Delaware River Main Channel Deepening Project Delaware Valley Regional Planning Commission ( January 20 , 2005 ) . Retrieved July 14 , 2013 . ^ Jump up to : U.S. Army Corps of Engineers . Delaware River Main Channel Deepening Project . ( May 2012 ) . Retrieved July 14 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Delaware Riverkeeper . The Delaware River Main Channel Deepening Project : Background Archived July 16 , 2012 , at the Wayback Machine ... Retrieved July 14 , 2013 . Jump up ^ American Waterways . New Jersey A key link in the nation 's import / export economy . Retrieve July 26 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Delaware River Ports Fight For Market as Dredging Project Nears Completion - NJ Spotlight '' . www.njspotlight.com . Jump up ^ `` Epic Effort to Deepen Delaware River Shipping Channel Nears End - NJ Spotlight '' . www.njspotlight.com . Jump up ^ `` Murky Bottom : Will Deeper Delaware River Make Philly More Competitive ? - NJ Spotlight '' . www.njspotlight.com . ^ Jump up to : `` Environmental Group : Delaware River Tops List of Most Polluted Waterways . '' The Advance of Bucks County , 29 Mar. 2012 , www.buckslocalnews.com/news/environmental-group-delaware-river-tops-list-of-most-polluted-waterways/article_b94c90d5-a5c1-5c8e-b39d-2319fa2a511a.html . Jump up ^ Augenstein , Seth . `` Delaware River Is 5th Most Polluted River in U.S. , Environmental Group Says . '' NJ.com , 5 Apr. 2012 , www.nj.com/news/index.ssf/2012/04/delaware_river_is_5th_most_pol.html . Jump up ^ `` Settlement to Improve Water Quality in Delaware River , Philadelphia - Area Creeks . '' EPA , Environmental Protection Agency , 23 Aug. 2017 , www.epa.gov/pa/settlement-improve-water-quality-delaware-river-philadelphia-area-creeks . Jump up ^ USGS Archived February 13 , 2007 , at the Wayback Machine . See Also : State of New Jersey : Recent flooding events in the Delaware River basin Archived September 16 , 2008 , at the Wayback Machine . Jump up ^ Delaware River Basin Commission ( July 20 , 2005 ) . `` Delaware River Basin Commission 's Role in Flood Loss Reduction Efforts . '' Archived August 18 , 2006 , at the Wayback Machine . West Trenton , NJ . Jump up ^ `` Athos 1 Oil Spill '' . University of Delaware Sea Grant Program . November 3 , 2005 . Retrieved April 29 , 2006 . Jump up ^ `` 1985 Grand Eagle Oil Spill '' . University of Delaware Sea Grant Program . December 16 , 2004 . Retrieved April 29 , 2006 . Jump up ^ `` Presidente Rivera Spill -- June 24 , 1989 '' . University of Delaware Sea Grant Program . December 8 , 2004 . Retrieved April 29 , 2006 . Jump up ^ `` Feds Move to Protect Endangered Atlantic Sturgeon in Delaware River - NJ Spotlight '' . www.njspotlight.com . References ( edit ) Devastation on the Delaware : Stories and Images of the Deadly Flood of 1955 ( 2005 , Word Forge Books , Ferndale , PA ) The only comprehensive documentary of this weather disaster in the Delaware River Valley . External links ( edit ) Wikimedia Commons has media related to Delaware River . Delaware Riverkeeper Network Delaware River Basin Commission Delaware River Vessel Reporting System National Park Service : Delaware Water Gap National Recreation Area National Park Service : Upper Delaware Scenic & Recreational River National Park Service : Lower Delaware Wild & Scenic River U.S. Geological Survey : NJ stream gaging stations U.S. Geological Survey : NY stream gaging stations U.S. Geological Survey : PA stream gaging stations Historical content Marine Railway and Sectional Floating Dry Dock , Delaware River , Philadelphia , 1893 by D.J. Kennedy , Historical Society of Pennsylvania Winter on the River Delaware , 1856 . Shows `` U.S.S. Prowhatan '' by D.J. Kennedy , HSP `` Map of the South River in New Netherland '' from ca . 1639 via the World Digital Library Socioeconomic Value of the Delaware River Basin in Delaware , New Jersey , New York , and Pennsylvania Encyclopedias `` Delaware , a river of the United States '' . Collier 's New Encyclopedia . 1921 . `` Delaware River '' . The New Student 's Reference Work . 1914 . `` Delaware . A river of the Eastern United States '' . New International Encyclopedia . 1905 . New York City 's Water Supply System Croton reservoirs New Croton Boyds Corner Middle Branch East Branch / Bog Brook Titicus West Branch Amawalk Muscoot Cross River Croton Falls / Diverting Catskill / Delaware reservoirs Ashokan Kensico Schoharie Roundout Neversink Pepacton Cannonsville Controlled Lakes Kirk Gilead Gleneida Waterways Croton West Branch Middle Branch East Branch Titicus Muscoot Cross Esopus Neversink Rondout Delaware East Branch West Branch Aqueducts New Croton Croton Catskill Shandaken Delaware Neversink East Delaware West Delaware Storage Reservoirs Croton Distributing Highbridge Hillview Jerome Park Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis Silver Lake Ridgewood Williamsbridge Distribution Tunnels NYC No. 1 NYC No. 2 NYC No. 3 ( under construction ) Richmond Italics indicate a decommissioned site . GND : 4090977 - 3 NARA : 10046838 VIAF : 33146152997605251583 Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Delaware_River&oldid=852181193 '' Categories : Delaware River Rivers of Delaware Rivers of New Jersey Rivers of New York ( state ) Rivers of Pennsylvania Wild and Scenic Rivers of the United States Rivers of Wayne County , Pennsylvania Rivers of Pike County , Pennsylvania Rivers of Monroe County , Pennsylvania Rivers of Bucks County , Pennsylvania Rivers of Delaware County , Pennsylvania Rivers of Northampton County , Pennsylvania Rivers of Sussex County , New Jersey Rivers of Warren County , New Jersey Rivers of Hunterdon County , New Jersey Rivers of Mercer County , New Jersey Rivers of Burlington County , New Jersey Rivers of Camden County , New Jersey Rivers of Gloucester County , New Jersey Rivers of Salem County , New Jersey Rivers of Orange County , New York Rivers of Delaware County , New York Rivers of Sullivan County , New York Rivers of New Castle County , Delaware Catskill / Delaware watersheds Delaware Valley Delaware Water Gap National Recreation Area Rivers of Philadelphia Borders of New York ( state ) Borders of Delaware Borders of New Jersey Borders of Pennsylvania Hidden categories : Webarchive template webcite links Articles incorporating Cite DNB template Webarchive template wayback links Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from December 2017 Articles with permanently dead external links Use mdy dates from September 2015 Coordinates on Wikidata Geobox usage tracking for river type Articles with hAudio microformats Articles including recorded pronunciations ( English ) Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from Collier 's Encyclopedia Wikipedia articles incorporating citation to the NSRW Wikipedia articles incorporating citation to the NSRW with an wstitle parameter Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the New International Encyclopedia Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with NARA identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Talk Contents About Wikipedia Afrikaans تۆرکجه Беларуская Български Bosanski Brezhoneg Català Чӑвашла Cebuano Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Frysk 한국어 Հայերեն हिन्दी Interlingua Íslenska Italiano עברית ქართული Kiswahili Latina Lietuvių मराठी Nederlands 日本 語 Нохчийн Norsk Occitan پنجابی Piemontèis Polski Português Русский Scots Simple English Slovenščina Српски / srpski Suomi Svenska Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt 吴语 粵語 中文 46 more Edit links This page was last edited on 27 July 2018 , at 05 : 49 ( UTC ) . 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where are wild horses found in the us

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Mustang&oldid=826713020

Mustang - wikipedia Mustang Jump to : navigation , search This article is about the horse . For the automobile , see Ford Mustang and Shelby Mustang . For the military aircraft , see North American P - 51 Mustang . For other uses , see Mustang ( disambiguation ) . Mustang Mustang adopted from the BLM Free - roaming mustangs Country of origin North America Traits Distinguishing features Small , compact , good bone , very hardy Equus ferus caballus The mustang is a free - roaming horse of the American west that first descended from horses brought to the Americas by the Spanish . Mustangs are often referred to as wild horses , but because they are descended from once - domesticated horses , they are properly defined as feral horses . The original mustangs were Colonial Spanish horses , but many other breeds and types of horses contributed to the modern mustang , resulting in varying phenotypes . In the 21st century , mustang herds vary in the degree to which they can be traced to original Iberian horses . Some contain a greater genetic mixture of ranch stock and more recent breed releases , while others are relatively unchanged from the original Iberian stock , most strongly represented in the most isolated populations . In 1971 , the United States Congress recognized that `` wild free - roaming horses and burros are living symbols of the historic and pioneer spirit of the West , which continue to contribute to the diversity of life forms within the Nation and enrich the lives of the American people . '' The free - roaming mustang population is managed and protected by the Bureau of Land Management ( BLM ) . Controversy surrounds the sharing of land and resources by the free - ranging mustangs with the livestock of the ranching industry , and also with the methods with which the federal government manages the wild population numbers . A policy of rounding up excess population and offering these horses for adoption to private owners has been inadequate to address questions of population control , and many animals now live in temporary holding areas , kept in captivity but not adopted to permanent homes . Advocates for mustangs also express concerns that the animals may be sold for horse meat . Additional debate centers on the question of whether mustangs -- and horses in general -- are a native species or an introduced invasive species . Many methods of population management are used , including the adoption by private individuals of horses taken from the range . Contents ( hide ) 1 Etymology and usage 2 Characteristics and ancestry 3 History 3.1 Prehistory 3.2 Return 1493 -- 1600 3.3 17th and 18th century dispersal 3.4 19th century 3.5 20th century 3.6 Mustangs today 4 Land use controversies 5 Management and adoption 6 See also 7 Notes 8 References 9 Sources 10 Further reading Etymology and usage ( edit ) Mustangs are often referred to as wild horses , but since all free - roaming horses now in the Americas descended from horses that were once domesticated , a more proper term is feral horses . Unlike Przewalski 's horse , the only extant wild horse , the mustang descended from domesticated horses . According to the Oxford English Dictionary ( OED ) , the English word `` mustang '' comes from two essentially synonymous Spanish words , mestengo ( or mesteño ) and mostrenco . Both words referred to horses and cattle defined as `` wild , having no master . '' Mesteño was derived from mesta , associations of graziers , and one of their jobs was to deal with strayed cattle . The OED states that the origin of mostrenco is `` obscure , '' The Spanish word in turn may possibly originate from the Latin expression mixta , referring to beasts of uncertain ownership , which were distributed by ranchers ' associations called mestas in Spain in the Middle Ages . `` Mustangers '' were usually cowboys in the US and vaqueros or mesteñeros in Mexico who caught , broke and drove free - ranging horses to market in the Spanish and later Mexican , and still later American territories of what is now Northern Mexico , Texas , New Mexico and California . They caught the horses that roamed the Great Plains and the San Joaquin Valley of California , and later in the Great Basin , from the 18th century to the early 20th century . Characteristics and ancestry ( edit ) Mustang mare and foal with stallion See also : List of BLM Herd Management Areas The original mustangs were Colonial Spanish horses , but many other breeds and types of horses contributed to the modern mustang , resulting in varying phenotypes . Mustangs of all body types are described as surefooted and having good endurance . They may be of any coat color . Throughout all the Herd Management Areas managed by the Bureau of Land Management , light riding horse type predominates , though a few horses with draft horse characteristics also exist , mostly kept separate from other mustangs and confined to specific areas . Some herds show the signs of the introduction of Thoroughbred or other light racehorse - types into herds , a process that also led in part to the creation of the American Quarter Horse . The now - defunct American Mustang Association developed a breed standard for those mustangs that carry morphological traits associated with the early Spanish horses . These include a well - proportioned body with a clean , refined head with wide forehead and small muzzle . The facial profile may be straight or slightly convex . Withers are moderate in height and the shoulder is to be `` long and sloping . '' The standard considers a very short back , deep girth and muscular coupling over the loins as desirable . The croup is rounded , neither too flat nor goose - rumped . The tail is low - set . The legs are to be straight and sound . Hooves are round and dense . Dun color and primitive markings are particularly common amongst horses of Spanish type . Height varies across the west , but most are small , generally 14 to 15 hands ( 56 to 60 inches , 142 to 152 cm ) , and not taller than 16 hands ( 64 inches , 163 cm ) , even in herds with draft or Thoroughbred ancestry . The mustang of the modern west has several different breeding populations today which are genetically isolated from one another and thus have distinct traits traceable to particular herds . Genetic contributions to today 's free - roaming mustang herds include assorted ranch horses that escaped to or were turned out on the public lands , and estray horses used by the United States Cavalry . For example , in Idaho some Herd Management Areas ( HMA ) contain animals with known descent from Thoroughbred and Quarter Horse stallions turned out with feral herds . The herds located in two HMAs in central Nevada produce Curly Horses . Others , such as certain bands in Wyoming , have characteristics consistent with gaited horse breeds ... Several bands have had DNA testing and are verified to have significant Spanish ancestry . These include the Kiger Mustang , the Cerbat Mustang , and the Pryor Mountain Mustang . Horses in several other HMAs retain Spanish horse traits , such as dun coloration and primitive markings . Other genetic herd studies , such as one done in 2002 on the bands in the Challis , Idaho area , show a very mixed blend of Spanish , North American gaited horse , draft horse and pony influences . A 2010 study of the Pryor herd also showed that those mustangs shared genetic traits with other domestic horse breeds , presenting strong evidence that modern `` wild '' horses were not descended from a prehistoric subspecies that had survived in North America from prehistoric times . Mustangs in Utah Some breeders of domestic horses consider the mustang herds of the west to be inbred and of inferior quality . However , supporters of the mustang argue that the animals are merely small due to their harsh living conditions and that natural selection has eliminated many traits that lead to weakness or inferiority . In contrast , a few researchers have advanced an argument that mustangs should be legally classified as `` wild '' rather than `` feral '' . They argue that , due to the presence of Equus ferus on the North American continent until the end of the Pleistocene era , horses were once a native species and should still be considered as such , defined as `` wild '' rather than viewed as an introduced species that draws resources and attention away from true native species . History ( edit ) Prehistory ( edit ) Main article : Horses in the United States § Evolution The horse family Equidae and the genus Equus evolved in North America . Fossil evidence dating to the Eocene Studies using ancient DNA as well as DNA of recent individuals shows there once were two unrelated horse species in North America , the wild horse ( Equus ferus ) , Horses existed in Canada as recently as 12,000 years ago , and a 1992 study produced evidence that horses existed in the Americas until 8,000 -- 10,000 years ago . and Haringtonhippus francisci or the `` New World stilt - legged horse '' . Today , the only extant true `` wild horse '' is the Przewalski 's horse , native to Mongolia . The genus Equus in North America died out at the end of the last ice age , possibly due to a changing climate or the impact of newly arrived human hunters . Thus at the beginning of the Columbian Exchange , there were no equids in the Americas at all . Return 1493 -- 1600 ( edit ) Horses first returned to the Americas with the conquistadors , beginning with Columbus , who imported horses from Spain to the West Indies on his second voyage in 1493 . Domesticated horses came to the mainland with the arrival of Cortés in 1519 . By 1525 , Cortés had imported enough horses to create a nucleus of horse - breeding in Mexico . One hypothesis held that horse populations north of Mexico originated in the mid-1500s with the expeditions of Narváez , de Soto or Coronado , but it has been refuted . Horse breeding in sufficient numbers to establish a self - sustaining population developed in what today is the southwestern United States starting in 1598 when Juan de Oñate founded Santa Fe de Nuevo México . From 75 horses in his original expedition , he expanded his herd to 800 , and from there the horse population increased rapidly . Dispersal of horses , 1600 - 1775 While the Spanish also brought horses to Florida in the 16th century , the Choctaw and Chickasaw horses of what is now the southeastern United States are believed to be descended from western mustangs that moved east , and thus Spanish horses in Florida did not influence the mustang . 17th and 18th century dispersal ( edit ) Native American people readily integrated use of the horse into their cultures . They quickly adopted the horse as a primary means of transportation . Horses replaced the dog as a pack animal and changed Native cultures in terms of warfare , trade , and even diet -- the ability to run down bison allowed some people to abandon agriculture for hunting from horseback . Santa Fe became a major trading center in the 1600s . Although Spanish laws prohibited Native Americans from riding horses , the Spanish used Native people as servants , and some were tasked to care for livestock , thus learning horse - handling skills . Oñates ' colonists also lost many of their horses . Some wandered off because the Spanish generally did not keep them in fenced enclosures , and Native people in the area captured some of these estrays . Other horses were traded by Oñates ' settlers for food , women or other goods . Initially , horses obtained by Native people were simply eaten , along with any cattle that were captured or stolen . But as individuals with horse - handling skills fled Spanish control , sometimes with a few trained horses , the local tribes began using horses for riding and as pack animals . By 1659 , settlements reported being raided for horses , and in the 1660s the `` Apache '' were trading human captives for horses . The Pueblo Revolt of 1680 also resulted in large numbers of horses coming into the hands of Native people , the largest one - time influx in history . From the Pueblo people , horses were traded to the Apache , Navajo and Utes . The Comanche acquired horses and provided them to the Shoshone . The Eastern Shoshone and Southern Utes became traders who distributed horses and horse culture from New Mexico to the northern plains . West of the Continental Divide , horses distribution moved north quite rapidly along the western slopes of the Rocky Mountains , skirting desert regions such as the Great Basin and the western Colorado Plateau . Horses reached what today is southern Idaho by 1690 . The Northern Shoshone people in the Snake River valley had horses in 1700 . By 1730 , they reached the Columbia Basin and were east of the Continental divide in the northern Great Plains . The Blackfeet people of Alberta had horses by 1750 . The Nez Perce people in particular became master horse breeders , and developed one of the first distinctly American breeds , the Appaloosa . Most other tribes did not practice extensive amounts of selective breeding , though they sought out desirable horses through acquisition and quickly weeded out those with undesirable traits . By 1769 , most Plain Indians had horses . In this period , Spanish Missions were also a source of estray and stolen livestock , particularly in what today is Texas and California . The Spanish brought horses to California for use at their missions and ranches , where permanent settlements were established in 1769 . Horse numbers grew rapidly , with a population of 24,000 horses reported by 1800 . By 1805 , there were so many horses in California that people began to simply kill unwanted animals to reduce overpopulation . However , due to the barriers presented by mountain ranges and deserts , the California population did not significantly influence horse numbers elsewhere at the time . Horses in California were described as being of `` exceptional quality . '' In the upper Mississippi basin and Great Lakes regions , the French were another source of horses . Although horse trading with native people was prohibited , there were individuals willing to indulge in illegal dealing , and as early as 1675 , the Illinois people had horses . Animals identified as `` Canadian , '' `` French '' , or `` Norman '' were located in the Great Lakes region , with a 1782 census at Fort Detroit listing over 1000 animals . By 1770 , Spanish horses were found in that area , and there was a clear zone from Ontario and Saskatchewan to St. Louis where Canadian - type horses , particularly the smaller varieties , crossbred with mustangs of Spanish ancestry . French - Canadian horses were also allowed to roam freely , and moved west , particularly influencing horse herds in the northern plains and inland northwest . Comanche territory , 1850 , region roughly corresponds to the location of the greatest numbers of feral horses in 1800 Although horses were brought from Mexico to Texas as early as 1542 , a stable population did not exist until 1686 , when Alonso de León 's expedition arrived with 700 horses . From there , later groups brought up thousands more , deliberately leaving some horses and cattle to fend for themselves at various locations , while others strayed . By 1787 , these animals had multiplied to the point that a roundup gathered nearly 8,000 `` free - roaming mustangs and cattle . '' West - central Texas , between the Rio Grande River and Palo Duro Canyon , was said to have the most concentrated population of feral horses in the Americas . Throughout the west , horses escaped human control and formed feral herds , and by the late 1700s , the largest numbers were found in what today are the states of Texas , Oklahoma , Colorado , and New Mexico . 19th century ( edit ) An early 19th century reference to mustangs by American sources came from Zebulon Pike in 1808 , who noted passing herds of `` mustangs or wild horses . '' In 1821 , Stephen Austin noted in his journal that he had seen about 150 mustangs . Estimates of when the peak population of mustangs occurred and total numbers vary widely between sources . No comprehensive census of feral horse numbers was ever performed until the time of the Wild and Free - Roaming Horses and Burros Act of 1971 and any earlier estimates , particularly prior to the 20th century , are speculative . Some sources simply state that `` millions '' of mustangs once roamed western North America . In 1959 , geographer Tom L. McKnight suggested that the population peaked in the late 1700s or early 1800s , and the `` best guesses apparently lie between two and five million '' . Historian J. Frank Dobie hypothesized that the population peaked around the end of the Mexican -- American War in 1848 , stating , `` My own guess is that at no time were there more than a million mustangs in Texas and no more than a million others scattered over the remainder of the West . '' J. Edward de Steiguer questioned Dobie 's lower guess as still being too high . In 1839 , the numbers of mustangs in Texas had been augmented by animals abandoned by Mexican settlers who had been ordered to leave the Nueces Strip Ulysses Grant , in his memoir , recalled seeing in 1846 an immense herd between the Nueces and Rio Grande rivers in Texas . `` As far as the eye could reach to our right , the herd extended . To the left , it extended equally . There was no estimating the number of animals in it ; I have no idea that they could all have been corralled in the state of Rhode Island , or Delaware , at one time . '' When the area was finally ceded to the U.S. in 1848 , these horses and others in the surrounding areas were rounded up and trailed north and east , resulting in the near elimination of mustangs in that area by 1860 . Farther west , the first known sighting of a free - roaming horse in the Great Basin was by John Bidwell near the Humboldt Sinks in 1841 . Although Fremont noted thousands of horses in California , the only horse sign he spoke of in the Great Basin , which he named , was tracks around Pyramid Lake , and the natives he encountered there were horseless In 1861 , another party saw seven free - roaming horses near the Stillwater Range . For the most part , free - roaming horse herds in the interior of Nevada were established in the latter part of the 1800s from escaped settlers ' horses . 20th century ( edit ) In the early 1900s , thousands of free - roaming horses were rounded up for use in the Spanish -- American War and World War I . By 1920 , Bob Brislawn , who was working as a packer for the U.S. government , recognized that the original mustangs were disappearing , and was making an effort to preserve them , ultimately establishing the Spanish Mustang Registry . In 1934 , Dobie stated that there were just `` a few wild ( feral ) horses in Nevada , Wyoming and other Western states '' and that `` only a trace of Spanish blood is left in most of them '' remaining . Other sources agree that by that time , only `` pockets '' of mustangs that retained Colonial Spanish Horse type remained . By 1930 , the vast majority of free - roaming horses were found west of Continental Divide , with an estimated population between 50,000 -- 150,000 . They were almost completely confined to the remaining General Land Office ( GLO ) - administered public lands and National Forest rangelands in the 11 Western States . In 1934 , the Taylor Grazing Act established the United States Grazing Service to manage livestock grazing on public lands , and in 1946 , the GLO was combined with the Grazing Service to form the Bureau of Land Management ( BLM ) , which , along with the Forest Service , was committed to removing feral horses from the lands they administered . By the 1950s , the mustang population dropped to an estimated 25,000 horses . Abuses linked to certain capture methods , including hunting from airplanes and poisoning water holes , led to the first federal free - roaming horse protection law in 1959 . This statute , titled `` Use of aircraft or motor vehicles to hunt certain wild horses or burros ; pollution of watering holes '' popularly known as the `` Wild Horse Annie Act '' , prohibited the use of motor vehicles for capturing free - roaming horses and burros . Protection was increased further by the Wild and Free - Roaming Horses and Burros Act of 1971 ( WFRHABA ) . The Wild and Free - Roaming Horses and Burros Act of 1971 provided for protection of certain previously established herds of horses and burros . It mandated the BLM to oversee the protection and management of free - roaming herds on lands it administered , and gave U.S. Forest Service similar authority on National Forest lands . A few free - ranging horses are also managed by the United States Fish and Wildlife Service , and National Park Service . and the National Park Service . but for the most part they are not subject to management under the Act . A census completed in conjunction with passage of the Act found that there were approximately 17,300 horses ( 25,300 combined population of horses and burros ) on the BLM - administered lands and 2,039 on National Forests . Mustangs today ( edit ) Nevada 's State Quarter , featuring the mustang The BLM has established Herd Management Areas to determine where and how many animals will be sustained as free - roaming populations . Some populations of free - roaming horses and burros remain protected under the Act , but others have disappeared from places where there were once established populations . A few hundred free - roaming horses survive in Alberta and British Columbia . The BLM considers roughly 26,000 individuals a manageable number , but the feral mustang population in February 2010 was 33,700 horses and 4,700 burros . More than half of all mustangs in North America are found in Nevada ( which features the horses on its State Quarter ) , with other significant populations in California , Oregon , Utah , Montana , and Wyoming . Another 34,000 horses are in holding facilities . Land use controversies ( edit ) Controversy surrounds the presence of feral mustang herds , particularly on public lands . In 1982 , the National Academy of Science ( NAS ) characterized the supporters argument as that mustangs have reinhabited an ecological niche vacated when horses went extinct in North America 10,000 years ago , but refuted that claim , stating that because of the large changes that have taken place in the North American environment in the past 10,000 years : `` It can not be argued that ecological voids dating back 10 millenia exist and that introduced forms are restoring some kind of earlier integrity . '' In 2013 , the NAS found that the debate had shifted somewhat , as to whether horses should be considered a native or introduced species . As of 2018 , the American Wild Horse Campaign argues that the 10,000 year gap is `` scientifically irrelevant '' and that horses should be considered native species . The 2013 NAS report stated `` Others say that they are domestic in that U.S. free - ranging horses descend from European stock and can not be considered `` native '' because the complex of animals and vegetation has changed since horses were extirpated from North America . '' The NAS went on to say , however , `` a more pertinent set of questions is related to whether the distinctions should matter '' as opposed to the `` priority that BLM gives to free - ranging horses and burros on federal lands , relative to other uses . '' The `` other uses '' primarily in conflict with the presence of feral horses are livestock grazing and maintaining wildlife habitat . The debate as to what degree mustangs and cattle compete for forage is multifaceted . Horses are adapted by evolution to inhabit an ecological niche characterized by poor quality vegetation . Advocates assert that most current mustang herds live in arid areas which cattle can not fully utilize due to the lack of water sources . They can cover vast distances to find food and water ; advocates assert that horses range 5 - 10 times as far as cattle to find forage , finding it in more inaccessible areas . In addition , horses are `` hindgut fermenters '' , meaning that they digest nutrients by means of the cecum rather than by a multi-chambered stomach . While this means that they extract less energy from a given amount of forage , it also means that they can digest food faster and make up the difference in efficiency by increasing their consumption rate . In practical effect , by eating greater quantities , horses can obtain adequate nutrition from poorer forage than can ruminants such as cattle , surviving in areas where cattle will starve . In addition to consuming more fodder than cattle , horses ' incisors allow them to graze plants much closer to the ground . For these reasons , the number of horses has to be kept low enough to not exceed the carrying capacity of a given area . While the BLM rates horses by animal unit ( AUM ) to eat the same amount of forage as a cow - calf pair , 1.0 , multiple studies of horse grazing patterns indicate that horses probably consume forage at a rate closer to 1.5 AUM . Modern rangeland management also recommends removing all livestock during the growing season to maximize recovery of the forage . Allowing livestock to graze year - round is not good for the range , and so mismanagement of feral herds can also degrade the range for the wildlife that shares the same area . Management and adoption ( edit ) See also : Free - roaming horse management in North America The Bureau of Land Management ( BLM ) is tasked with protecting , managing , and controlling wild horses and burros under the authority of the Wild and Free - Roaming Horses and Burros Act of 1971 to ensure that healthy herds thrive on healthy rangelands and as multiple - use mission under the 1976 Federal Land Policy and Management Act . Under the 1971 act , shooting or poisoning mustangs in the wild is illegal , and doing so can be prosecuted as a criminal felony . There are virtually no predators in the modern era capable of preying on healthy adult mustangs and for the most part , predators capable of limiting the growth of feral mustang herd sizes by predation on foals are not found in the same habitat as most modern feral herds . Wolves and mountain lions are two species known to prey on vulnerable horses and in theory could control population growth . However wolves were historically rare in , and currently do not inhabit , the Great Basin , where the vast majority of mustangs roam . While they are documented to prey on feral horses in Alberta , Canada , there is no known documentation of wolf predation on free - roaming horses in the United States . However , in a study conducted in 1986 - 1991 and published in 2001 , mountain lions ( lions ) were documented to prey on feral horses in the U.S. The study , conducted on the central California - Nevada border Forest Service lands where - at its beginning - there was a high density of lions , determined lions killed up to 45 % of the foals born , and during the years with a high foal predation rate lions significantly decreased the rate of population growth in the herd . But , because predation on most feral horse herds is practically nonexistent , they can multiply rapidly , increasing up to and possibly by over 20 % every year when unmanaged , population numbers can outstrip forage available , leading to starvation . To maintain population balance , one of the BLM 's key mandates under the 1971 law and amendments is to determine an appropriate management level ( AML ) of wild horses and burros in areas of public rangelands where they are managed by the federal government . Control of the population to within AML is achieved through a capture program . There are strict guidelines for techniques used to round up mustangs . One method uses a tamed horse , called a `` Judas horse '' , which has been trained to lead wild horses into a pen or corral . Once the mustangs are herded into an area near the holding pen , the Judas horse is released . Its job is then to move to the head of the herd and lead them into a confined area . Most horses that are captured are offered for adoption to individuals or groups willing and able to provide humane , long - term care after payment of an adoption fee of at least $125 . In order to prevent the later sale of mustangs as horse meat , adopted mustangs are still protected under the Act , and can not be sold in the first year except when certain very specific criteria are met . As of 2010 , nearly 225,000 mustangs have been adopted . Because there is a much larger pool of captured horses than of prospective adoptive owners , a number of efforts have been made to reduce the number of horses in holding facilities . At present , there are about 34,000 mustangs in holding facilities and long - term grassland pastures . The BLM has publicly considered euthanasia as a possible solution to overpopulation . In January 2005 , a controversial amendment was attached to an appropriation bill before the United States Congress by former Senator Conrad Burns , dubbed the `` Burns rider . '' This modified the adoption program to allow the sale ( with the result usually being slaughter ) of captured horses that are `` more than 10 years of age '' , or that were `` offered unsuccessfully for adoption at least three times . '' In 2009 , Secretary of the Interior Ken Salazar proposed the creation of federal wild horse preserves in the midwest , where non-reproducing animals would be kept . Another approach to placing excess animals has been advanced by Madeleine A. Pickens , former wife of oil magnate T. Boone Pickens , who seeks to create a private sanctuary in northern Nevada . There are also increased efforts to assist with finding appropriate adoption homes . One example is a promotional competition , The Extreme Mustang Makeover , that gives trainers 100 days to gentle and train 100 mustangs , which are then adopted through an auction . Free - roaming mustangs are freeze branded on the left side of the neck by the BLM , using the International Alpha Angle System , a system of angles and alpha - symbols that can not be altered . The brands begin with a symbol indicating the registering organization , in this case the U.S. Government , then two stacked figures indicating the individual horse 's date of birth , then the individual registration number . Mustangs kept in sanctuaries are also marked on the left hip with four inch - high Arabic numerals that are also the last four digits of the freeze brand on the neck . See also ( edit ) Wikimedia Commons has media related to Feral horses from America . Horses portal Colonial Spanish Horse Brumby Kiger Mustang Kleppe v. New Mexico Spanish Mustang Pryor Mountain Mustang Notes ( edit ) Jump up ^ Another source defines mostrenco as `` wild , stray , ownerless '' . Jump up ^ Some horses in the Pryor range are said to be under 14 hands ( 56 inches , 142 cm ) , Horses estimated at up to 16 hands ( 64 inches , 163 cm ) are found at HMA such as Devils Garden Wild Horse Territory , California , and Challis HMA , Idaho . Jump up ^ Examples include the Herd Management Areas in California and Idaho . Jump up ^ See , e.g. High Rock and Carter Reservoir HMAs , California , Twin Peaks HMA , Ca / NV , Black Mountain HMA , ID , Jump up ^ `` Apache '' was a Pueblo word meaning `` enemy , '' and some early accounts referred to all hostile tribes generically as `` Apaches '' regardless of which tribe was involved . Jump up ^ Horses did not arrive in the Great Basin until the 1850s . Jump up ^ The Western Shoshone occupied the interior of the Great Basin , and did not have access to horses until after 1850 . Jump up ^ It was there and the southern Great Plains where Dobie stated the `` Spanish horses found vast American ranges corresponding in climate and soil to the arid lands of Spain , northern Africa and Arabia in which they originated '' . Jump up ^ The OED cites Sources Mississ . III . 273 for Pike , and `` Journal , 5 Sept . '' for Austin in Texas State Hist . Assoc Q. ( 1904 ) VII. 300 . Jump up ^ Tom L. McKnight c. 1929 -- 2004 , PhD Wisconsin 1955 , professor of geography , UCLA . Jump up ^ `` Ed '' de Steiguer PhD , professor at the University of Arizona . Jump up ^ The area was also known as the `` Wild Horse Desert '' or `` Mustang Desert '' . Jump up ^ Although for the most part , the Native Americans in the Great Basin desert did not have horses , the Bannocks were an offshoot of the Northern Paiute in southern Oregon and northwest Oregon that developed a horse culture . They may have the tribe that attacked a member of the Ogden party at the Humboldt Sinks in 1829 . Jump up ^ `` livestock '' in this context includes sheep , cattle and horses . Jump up ^ Some argue the actual purpose for limiting free - roaming horse numbers is to make room for cattle . References ( edit ) Jump up ^ `` The Wild and Free - Roaming Horses and Burros Act of 1971 , as amended '' ( PDF ) . Retrieved April 26 , 2012 . Jump up ^ The American Museum of Natural History The Nature of Horses Jump up ^ `` When Is `` Wild '' Actually `` Feral '' ? `` . The Last Wild Horse : The Return of Takhi to Mongolia Bio Feature . American Museum of Natural History . Retrieved May 25 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Corominas , J. and J.A. Pascual 1981 Diccionario crítico etimológico castellano e hispánico Madrid : Gredos s.v. `` mostrenco '' ^ Jump up to : Simpson , prepared by J.A. ( 1989 ) . `` Mustang '' - The Oxford English dictionary ( 2 . ed . ) . Oxford : Clarendon Press . p. 139 . ISBN 0198612222 . Jump up ^ `` Online Etymology Dictionary '' . etymonline.com . Retrieved 21 May 2015 . Jump up ^ C. Allan Jones , Texas Roots : Agriculture and Rural Life Before the Civil War , Texas A&M University Press , 2005 , pp. 74 -- 75 Jump up ^ Frank Forrest Latta , Joaquín Murrieta and His Horse Gangs , Bear State Books , Santa Cruz , 1980 , p. 84 ^ Jump up to : Hendricks , Bonnie L. ( 2007 ) . International encyclopedia of horse breeds ( Pbk . ed . ) . Norman : University of Oklahoma Press . pp. 18 -- 19 ; 301 -- 303 . ISBN 9780806138848 . Retrieved 29 May 2015 . ^ Jump up to : `` Breeds of Livestock - Mustang ( Horse ) '' . Department of Animal Science - Oklahoma State University . May 7 , 2002 . Retrieved 29 May 2015 . Jump up ^ Twombly , Matthew ; Baptista , Fernando G ( March 2014 ) . `` Return of a Native '' . National Geographic . Retrieved June 11 , 2015 . ^ Jump up to : Pomeranz , Lynne ; Massingham , Rhonda ( 2006 ) . Among wild horses a portrait of the Pryor Mountain mustangs . North Adams , MA : Storey Publishing . p. 26 . ISBN 9781612122137 . Jump up ^ `` Devils Garden Wild Horse Territory , Wild Horses & Burros , Bureau of Land Management California '' . blm.gov. 24 October 2013 . Archived from the original on 19 June 2015 . Retrieved 4 June 2015 . ^ Jump up to : `` Challis HMA '' . blm.gov. 12 August 2013 . Archived from the original on 11 May 2015 . Retrieved 4 June 2015 . Jump up ^ `` California -- Wild Horses & Burros '' . Bureau of Land Management . Retrieved 1 June 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Idaho 's Wild Horse Program '' . Bureau of Land Management . Archived from the original on 16 June 2015 . Retrieved 1 June 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Idaho 's Wild Horse Program '' . Bureau of Land Management . Archived from the original on 19 June 2015 . Retrieved 1 June 2015 . Jump up ^ `` ROCKY HILLS HMA '' . blm.gov. 9 January 2008 . Retrieved 14 June 2015 . Jump up ^ `` CALLAGHAN HMA '' . blm.gov. 9 January 2008 . Retrieved 14 June 2015 . Jump up ^ `` dividebasin '' . blm.gov. 5 March 2013 . Archived from the original on 19 June 2015 . Retrieved 4 June 2015 . ^ Jump up to : Cothran , E. Gus . `` Genetic Analysis of the Pryor Mountains HMA , MT '' ( PDF ) . Department of Veterinary Integrative Bioscience Texas A&M University . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on 2015 - 09 - 23 . Jump up ^ `` Colors and Conformation '' . Pryor Mountain Wild Mustang Center . Retrieved 30 May 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Archived copy '' . Archived from the original on 2016 - 03 - 04 . Retrieved 2016 - 05 - 08 . Jump up ^ `` Carter Reservoir Herd Management Area ( CA - 269 ) '' . Bureau of Land Management . Archived from the original on 16 June 2015 . Retrieved 4 June 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Archived copy '' . Archived from the original on 2016 - 03 - 04 . Retrieved 2016 - 05 - 08 . Jump up ^ `` Black Mountain HMA '' . blm.gov. 18 March 2015 . Archived from the original on 19 June 2015 . Retrieved 4 June 2015 . Jump up ^ `` The Surprising History of America 's Wild Horses '' . Livescience.com. 2008 - 07 - 24 . Retrieved 2010 - 08 - 09 . Jump up ^ `` Wild Horses '' . National Geographic . February 2009 . Retrieved 2010 - 08 - 09 . ^ Jump up to : Weinstock , J. ; et al. ( 2005 ) . `` Evolution , systematics , and phylogeography of pleistocene horses in the New World : A molecular perspective '' . PLoS Biology . 3 ( 8 ) : e241 . doi : 10.1371 / journal. pbio. 0030241 . PMC 1159165 . PMID 15974804 . Retrieved 2008 - 12 - 19 . Jump up ^ MacFadden , B.J. ( 1976 ) . `` Cladistic analysis of primitive equids with notes on other perissodactyls '' . Syst . Zool. 25 ( 1 ) : 1 -- 14 . doi : 10.2307 / 2412774 . JSTOR 2412774 . Jump up ^ Orlando , L. ; et al. ( 2008 ) . `` Ancient DNA Clarifies the Evolutionary History of American Late Pleistocene Equids '' . Journal of Molecular Evolution. 66 ( 5 ) : 533 -- 538 . doi : 10.1007 / s00239 - 008 - 9100 - x . PMID 18398561 . Jump up ^ Singer , Ben ( May 2005 ) . A brief history of the horse in America . Canadian Geographic Magazine . Archived from the original on August 19 , 2014 . Retrieved October 16 , 2009 . Jump up ^ Azzaroli , A. ( 1992 ) . `` Ascent and decline of monodactyl equids : a case for prehistoric overkill '' ( PDF ) . Ann . Zool . Finnici. 28 : 151 -- 163 . Jump up ^ Heintzman , Peter D ; Zazula , Grant D ; MacPhee , Ross DE ; Scott , Eric ; Cahill , James A ; McHorse , Brianna K ; Kapp , Joshua D ; Stiller , Mathias ; Wooller , Matthew J ; Orlando , Ludovic ; Southon , John ; Froese , Duane G ; Shapiro , Beth ( 28 November 2017 ) . `` A new genus of horse from Pleistocene North America '' . eLife. 6 . doi : 10.7554 / eLife. 29944 . access - date = requires url = ( help ) Jump up ^ `` Ice Age Horses May Have Been Killed Off by Humans '' National Geographic News , May 1 , 2006 . Jump up ^ Bennett , pp. 329 - 330 Jump up ^ Bennett , p. 14 Jump up ^ Bennett , p. 193 Jump up ^ Bennett , p. 205 Jump up ^ Haines , `` Plains Indians , '' January 1938 ^ Jump up to : Bennett , pp. 329 - 331 ^ Jump up to : Haines , `` Northward Spread '' July 1938 p 430 Jump up ^ Bennett , 345 Jump up ^ Lobell , Jarrett A. ; Powell , Eric A. ( July -- August 2015 ) . `` The Story of the Horse '' . Archaeology . p. 33 . Retrieved 26 September 2016 . ^ Jump up to : Haines , `` Plains Indians , '' January 1938 p 117 Jump up ^ De Steiguer , p 70 Jump up ^ Bennett , p 330 ^ Jump up to : `` Horses Spread Across the Land '' . A Song for the Horse Nation . Smithsonian Institution . Retrieved June 14 , 2015 . ^ Jump up to : Dobie , p. 36 Jump up ^ Haines , `` Northward Spread '' July 1938 p 431 Jump up ^ `` Horse Trading Among Nations '' . A Song for the Horse Nation . Smithsonian Institution . Retrieved June 14 , 2015 . ^ Jump up to : Kuiper , Kathleen , ed. ( 2011 ) . American Indians of California , the Great Basin , and the Southwest . Britannica Educational Publications . p. 46 . ^ Jump up to : Bennett , p 388 ^ Jump up to : McKnight , pp 511 - 13 ^ Jump up to : Dobie , p. 41 Jump up ^ De Steiguer , pp 73 - 74 Jump up ^ Bennett , p. 374 ^ Jump up to : De Steiguer , p 76 Jump up ^ Dobie , The Mustangs p. 23 ^ Jump up to : Bennett , pp 384 - 385 Jump up ^ De Steiguer , p 74 Jump up ^ De Steiguer , p 75 Jump up ^ Gorey , Tom ( August 15 , 2014 ) . `` Myths and Facts '' . Bureau of Land Management . Archived from the original on July 15 , 2014 . Retrieved February 6 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Ryden , America 's Last Wild Horses p. 129 Jump up ^ Wyman Wild Horse p. 91 Jump up ^ `` Tom McKnight obituary '' . Association of American Geographers. 2004 . Retrieved 28 June 2015 . Jump up ^ Dobie p. 108 Jump up ^ `` J. Edward de Steiguer '' . deSteiguer.com . Retrieved July 4 , 2015 . Jump up ^ de Steiguer , loc2253Chapter 7 America sweeps onto the Great Plains Jump up ^ Ford , John Salmon ( 2010 ) ( 1987 ) . Rip Ford 's Texas . University of Texas Press . pp. 143 -- 144 . ISBN 0 - 292 - 77034 - 0 . Jump up ^ Dobie , The Mustangs pp. 108 - 109 ^ Jump up to : Givens , Murphy ( November 23 , 2011 ) . `` Chasing mustangs in the Wild Horse Desert '' . Corpus Christi Caller Times . Retrieved June 29 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Dobie , p. 108 Jump up ^ Grant , Ulysses . Personal Memoirs of U.S. Grant . Dover Publications , Inc. p. 28 , 29 . ISBN 0 - 486 - 28587 - 1 . Jump up ^ Dobie , The Mustangs p. 316 ^ Jump up to : Morin , Honest Horses p. 3 '' Jump up ^ Berger , Wild Horses page 36 . Jump up ^ Wheeler , Sessions S ( 2003 ) . Nevada 's Black Rock Desert . Caxton Press . p. 98 . Jump up ^ Young and Sparks Cattle in the Cold Desert , p. 215 Jump up ^ Young and Sparks Cattle in the Cold Desert pp. 216 - 7 Jump up ^ de Steiguer , loc2595 Jump up ^ `` Mustang Country Wild Horses & Burros '' ( PDF ) . Bureau of Land Management . p. 5 . Jump up ^ Cruise , David ; Griffiths , Alison ( 2010 ) . Wild Horse Annie and the Last of the Mustangs : The Life of Annie Johnston . Simon & Schuster . p. 6 . ISBN 978 - 1 - 4165 - 5335 - 9 . Jump up ^ http://www.horseoftheamericas.com/uploads/3/1/3/7/3137829/preservation_of_the_colonial_spanish_horse_patterson.pdf Jump up ^ Dobie , The Mustangs p. 321 Jump up ^ Amaral Mustang p. 12 Jump up ^ Wyman , Wild Horse p , 161 Jump up ^ Sherrets Jump up ^ https://www.blm.gov/about/history Jump up ^ Curnutt , Jordan . Animals and the Law : A Sourcebook . ABC - CLIO . p. 142 . ISBN 9781576071472 . Jump up ^ `` History of the Program : The Wild Horse Annie Act '' . Bureau of Land Management . Retrieved January 5 , 2018 . Jump up ^ `` Use of aircraft or motor vehicles to hunt certain wild horses or burros ; pollution of watering holes '' . ^ Jump up to : Mangum , The Mustang Dilemma , p. 77 Jump up ^ `` Background Information on HR297 '' ( PDF ) . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on 30 April 2006 . Retrieved 2010 - 08 - 09 . Jump up ^ `` Myths and Facts '' . Bureau of Land Management . Archived from the original on 2014 - 07 - 15 . Retrieved 2015 - 07 - 05 . Jump up ^ http://www.fws.gov/sheldonhartmtn/sheldon/horseburro.html Jump up ^ http://www.thehorse.com/articles/35557/managing-feral-horses-on-national-park-service-lands Jump up ^ http://www.thehorse.com/articles/35557/managing-feral-horses-on-national-park-service-lands Jump up ^ http://www.nps.gov/thro/learn/nature/feral-wild-horses.htm Jump up ^ http://contentdm.library.unr.edu/cdm/ref/collection/nevagpub/id/1088 Jump up ^ `` Wild Horse and Burro Territories '' . Retrieved 2009 - 01 - 29 . ^ Jump up to : `` National Summary , FY2007 '' ( PDF ) . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on 22 July 2012 . Retrieved 2010 - 08 - 09 . Jump up ^ `` Wild and Free - Roaming Horse and Burro populations as of March 1 , 2013 '' ( PDF ) . Bureau of Land Management . March 1 , 2013 . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on 18 June 2015 . Retrieved 1 June 2015 . Jump up ^ BLM HMA Map Jump up ^ National Research Council ( 1982 ) . `` 4 '' . Wild and Free Roaming Horses and Burros : Final Report ( Report ) . Washington D.C. : The National Academies Press . pp. 11 -- 13 . ^ Jump up to : National Research Council ( 2013 ) . Using Science to Improve the BLM Wild Horse and Burro Program : A Way Forward ( Report ) . Washington D.C. : The National Academies Press . pp. 240 -- 41 . Jump up ^ `` Myths & Facts About the BLM Wild Horse and Burro Program '' . American Wild Horse Campaign . Retrieved February 20 , 2018 . Jump up ^ National Research Council ( 1982 ) . `` 5 '' . Wild and Free Roaming Horses and Burros : Final Report ( Report ) . Washington D.C. : The National Academies Press . p. 55 . ^ Jump up to : Budiansky , p. 31 Jump up ^ `` Wild Horses and the Ecosystem '' . American Wild Horse Campaign . Retrieved February 20 , 2018 . Jump up ^ Budiansky , p. 186 Jump up ^ `` FAQ '' . American Wild Horse Campaign . Retrieved February 20 , 2018 . Jump up ^ Budiansky29 > Budiansky , p. 29 Jump up ^ `` Proposed Northeast Nevada Wild Horse Eco-Sanctuary '' ( PDF ) . Bureau of Land Management , Elko District , Wells Field Office . pp. 2 -- 3 . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on 3 January 2017 . Retrieved 31 July 2015 . Jump up ^ National Research Council , Using Science , p. 207 ^ Jump up to : Davies , K.W. ; Vavra , M. ; Schultz , B. ; Rimbey , M. ( 2014 ) . `` Implications of Longer Term Rest from Grazing in the Sagebrush Steppe '' . Journal of Rangeland Applications . Retrieved July 31 , 2015 . Jump up ^ John W. Turner , Jr. ; Michael L. Morrison ( 2008 ) . `` Influence of Predation by Mountain Lions on Numbers and Survivorship of a Feral Horse Population '' . Southwestern Naturalist. 46 ( 2 ) : 183 -- 190 . Archived from the original on 2008 - 08 - 29 . Retrieved 2008 - 08 - 29 . ^ Jump up to : National Academies of Sciences , Engineering and Medicines ( 2013 ) . Using Science to Improve the BLM Wild Horse and Burro Program : A Way Forward ( Report ) . Jump up ^ Grayson , Donald K. ( 1993 ) . The Desert 's Past a Natural Prehistory of the Great Basin . Washington D.C. : Smithsonian Institution Press . Jump up ^ National Academies of Sciences , Engineering and Medicines ( 2013 ) . Using Science to Improve the BLM Wild Horse and Burro Program : A Way Forward ( Report ) . Jump up ^ Moretti , Laura . `` Mestengo . Mustang . Misfit . America 's Disappearing Wild Horses '' . Wildhorsepreservation.com . Archived from the original on March 16 , 2010 . Retrieved 2010 - 08 - 09 . Jump up ^ National Academies of Sciences , Engineering and Medicines ( 2013 ) . Using Science to Improve the BLM Wild Horse and Burro Program : A Way Forward ( Report ) . Jump up ^ French , Brett ( September 3 , 2009 ) . `` Controversial roundup of mustangs begins in Pryor Mountains '' . Billings Gazette . Retrieved 2011 - 02 - 04 . Jump up ^ `` How to Adopt a Wild Horse or Burro '' . U.S. Bureau of Land Management . Retrieved 2011 - 07 - 04 . Jump up ^ `` '' Plan to kill wild horses runs into trouble '' Associated Press , July 7 , 2008 '' ( PDF ) . Retrieved 2010 - 08 - 09 . Jump up ^ `` The Story Behind the Burns Amendment '' . Wildhorsepreservation.com . Retrieved 2010 - 08 - 09 . Jump up ^ `` Burns amendment '' . Wildhorsepreservation.com. 2004 - 12 - 06 . Retrieved 2010 - 08 - 09 . ^ Jump up to : Mangum , The Mustang Dilemma , p. 78 Jump up ^ http://www.extrememustangmakeover.com The Extreme Mustang Makeover Jump up ^ `` Freezemarks '' . blm.gov. 29 August 2012 . Retrieved 21 May 2015 . Sources ( edit ) Bennett , Deb ( 1998 ) . Conquerors : the roots of New World horsemanship ( 1st ed . ) . Solvang , Calif. : Amigo Publications . ISBN 0 - 9658533 - 0 - 6 . Budiansky , Stephen ( 1997 ) . The nature of horses : exploring equine evolution , intelligence , and behavior . New York : Free Press . ISBN 9780684827681 . De Steiguer , J. Edward ( 2011 ) . Wild Horses of the West : History and Politics of America 's Mustangs . Tucson : University of Arizona Press . ISBN 9780816528264 . Dobie , Frank ( 1952 ) . The Mustangs ( paperback , 2005 ed . ) . Boston : Little , Brown and Company . ISBN 9780803266506 . Haines , Francis ( July 1938 ) . `` The Northward Spread of Horses Among the Plains Indians '' ( PDF ) . American Anthropologist. 40 ( 3 ) : 429 -- 437 . doi : 10.1525 / aa. 1938.40. 3.02 a00060 . Retrieved June 13 , 2015 . Haines , Francis ( January 1938 ) . `` Where Did the Plains Indians Get Their Horses ? '' . American Anthropologist. 40 ( 1 ) : 112 -- 117 . doi : 10.1525 / aa. 1938.40. 1.02 a00110 . Retrieved May 19 , 2015 . McKnight , Tom L. ( October 1959 ) . `` The Feral Horse in Anglo - America '' . Geographical Review . 49 ( 4 ) : 506 -- 525 . doi : 10.2307 / 212210 . JSTOR 212210 . Mangum , A.J. ( December 2010 ) . `` The Mustang Dilemma '' . Western Horseman : 70 -- 80 . Committee to Review the Bureau of Land Management Wild Horse and Burro Management Program , Board on Agriculture and Natural Resources , Division on Earth and Life Studies , National Research Council ( 2013 ) . Using Science to Improve the BLM Wild Horse and Burro Program : : A Way Forward . National Academies Press . ISBN 9780309264976 . CS1 maint : Multiple names : authors list ( link ) Sherrets , Harold ( 1984 ) . `` The Taylor Grazing Act , 1934 - 1984 , 50 Years of Progress , Impacts of Wild Horses on Rangeland Management '' . Boise : U.S. Dept. of Interior , Bureau of Land Management Idaho State Office . Wyman , Walker D. ( 1966 ) ( 1945 . ) . The Wild Horse of the West . Lincoln : University of Nebraska Press . Further reading ( edit ) Roe , Frank Gilbert ( 1974 ) ( 1955 ) . The Indian and the Horse . Norman : University of Oklahoma Press . `` Iberian Origins Of New World Horse Breeds '' . Journal of Heredity. 2005 - 12 - 21 . Retrieved 2013 - 11 - 22 . Morin , Paula ( 2006 ) Honest Horses : Wild Horses of the Great Basin . Reno : University of Nevada Press Nimmo , D.G. and Miller , K.K. ( 2007 ) Ecological and human dimensions of management of feral horses in Australia : A review . 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