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speech became affected as his condition worsened, until he was eventually left to communication through gestures and writing (the latter made difficult by severe tremors). He ended his public career and his direct involvement in the abolitionist movement as a result, though he kept himself informed of new developments. He died in New Jersey in 1857 in the Raritan Bay Union, a communal settlement, surrounded by abolitionist friends Theodore Weld, his wife Angelina Grimké Weld, and her sister Sarah Grimké, convinced that war would be necessary to end slavery. He was buried at the Williamsburg Cemetery in Groveland, New York

James G. Birney

, the home of his second wife's family. Honors. In 1889, an all-black school in the Hillsdale neighborhood of Washington, D.C., was named the Birney School in his honor. It later became an elementary school and in 1962 it was renamed Nichols Avenue Elementary School. Family. Birney married Agatha McDowell in 1816. Agatha was the daughter of U.S. district judge for Kentucky William McDowell and Margaret Madison, a distant relatative of James Madison. James and Agatha's marriage produced eleven children, only six of whom survived early childhood: James, William, Dion, David Bell, George, and Florence. Agatha died in

James G. Birney

October 1838. On 25 March 1841, Birney married Elizabeth Potts Fitzhugh (sister of Henry Fitzhugh and of Ann Carroll Fitzhugh, wife of Gerrit Smith). Their two children were Ann Hughes Birney (1844–1846) and Fitzhugh Birney (1842–1864). Birney's oldest son James served as the 13th Lieutenant Governor of Michigan under Governor Austin Blair and as the U.S. Minister to the Netherlands. Four of Birney's sons fought in the American Civil War. David was a Union Army major-general who died of disease in October 1864. William was a U.S. inspector-general of U.S. Colored Troops who later became a

James G. Birney

U.S. attorney for the District of Columbia. Dion was a U.S. lieutenant who died during the Peninsula campaign in 1862. Fitzhugh was a U.S. major at the time of his death by pneumonia in June 1864. Archival material. Birney's archive is at the Clements Library, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI. James G. Birney James Gillespie Birney (February 4, 1792November 18, 1857) was an American abolitionist, politician, and attorney born in Danville, Kentucky. He changed from being a planter and slave owner to abolitionism, publishing the abolitionist weekly "The Philanthropist". He twice served as the presidential nominee for the

James G. Birney

Ekron Ekron The city of Ekron (Philistine: 𐤏𐤒𐤓𐤍 "*ʿaqārān", , ), in the Hellenistic period known as Accaron () was a Philistine city, one of the five cities of the Philistine Pentapolis, located in present-day Israel. Since the discovery in 1996 of the Ekron inscription, Ekron has been positively identified with the mound of Tel Miqne (Hebrew) or Khirbet el-Muqanna (Arabic). The tell lies west of Jerusalem, and north of Tell es-Safi, the almost certain site of the Philistine city of Gath, on the grounds of Kibbutz Revadim on the eastern edge of the Israeli coastal plain. In the Bible. In

Ekron

the Hebrew Bible, Ekron is mentioned initially in : There was a noted sanctuary of Baal at Ekron. The Baal who was worshipped was called Baal Zebub, which some scholars connect with "Beelzebub", known from : The prophet Elijah repeatedly condemned Ahaziah for turning to Baal-zebub for assurance: Ekron's destruction is prophesied in : Location. Jerome wrote that Ekron was to the east of Azotus and Iamnia (consistent with the modern interpretation), however he also mentioned that some equated the city with Straton's Tower at Caesarea Maritima. This may be a reference to Rabbi Abbahu's identification of Ekron with

Ekron

Caesarea in Megillah. Robinson first identified the Arab village of Aqir as the site of Ekron in 1838, and this was accepted until it was contested by Macalister in 1913, who suggested Khirbet Dikerin, and Albright in 1922, who suggested Qatra. The identification of Ekron as Tel Miqneh was suggested by Naveh and Kallai in 1957–1958, a theory now widely accepted in light of the Ekron Royal Dedicatory Inscription found during the 1996 excavations. History. The site of Tel Miqne was lightly occupied beginning in the Chalcolithic period and up to the Early Bronze Age. After a 400-year gap

Ekron

when only the upper tel was occupied, the city underwent a major expansion "c."1600 BCE, under the Canaanites. The Canaanite city had shrunk in the years before its main public building burned in the 13th century BCE, during the Bronze Age collapse, a period of general devastation associated with the Sea Peoples. It was re-established by Philistines at the beginning of the Iron Age, "c."12th century BCE. During the Iron Age, Ekron was a border city on the frontier contested between Philistia and the kingdom of Judah. Records of the Neo-Assyrian Empire also refer to Ekron

Ekron

. The siege of Ekron in 712 BCE is depicted on one of Sargon II's wall reliefs in his palace at Khorsabad, which names the city. Ekron revolted against Sennacherib and expelled Padi, his governor, who was sent to Hezekiah, King of Judah, for safe-keeping in Jerusalem. Sennacherib marched against Ekron and the Ekronites called upon the aid of the king of Mutsri from northwest Arabia. Sennacherib turned aside to defeat this army, which he did at Eltekeh, and then returned and took the city by storm, put to death the leaders of the revolt and carried their adherents

Ekron

into captivity. This campaign led to the famous attack of Sennacherib on Hezekiah and Jerusalem, in which Sennacherib compelled Hezekiah to restore Padi, who was reinstated as governor at Ekron. Ashdod and Ekron survived to become powerful city-states dominated by the Assyrians in the 7th century BCE. The city was later destroyed by the Neo-Babylonian king Nebuchadnezzar II in 604 BCE, and although it is mentioned, as "Accaron", as late as 1 Maccabees 10:89 (2nd century BCE), it was never resettled on a large scale. An olive oil production center dating from the seventh century BCE discovered at

Ekron

Ekron has over one hundred large olive oil presses, and is the most complete olive oil production center from ancient times to be discovered. The discovery indicates that olive oil production was highly developed in the Levant and that it was a major producer of olive oil for its residents as well as for other parts of the Ancient Near East, such as Egypt and especially Mesopotamia. Archaeology. The Tel Miqne excavations were conducted for 14 seasons between 1981 and 1996, sponsored by the Albright Institute of Archaeological Research and the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, under the direction of Trude

Ekron

Dothan and Seymour Gitin. The primary research focus was an interdisciplinary investigation of the interactions between the Philistines, Israelites, Phoenicians, Assyrians, and Egyptians during the Late Bronze Age II, Iron Age I and II. Chronological development. The ceramic evidence indicates a presence at the site in the Chalcolithic period and Early Bronze Age. A continuous stratigraphic profile, however, was found only in the upper city on the Northeast Acropolis (Field I), beginning in Stratum XI of the MB IIB and extending through the end of Stratum I of the Iron IIC. In the lower city (Fields II, III, IV, V

Ekron

, X), a 400-year occupational gap followed Stratum XI of the 17th–first half of the 16th century BCE until its resettlement in Stratum VII at the beginning of the Iron I, ca. 1175 BCE. Another occupational gap of ca. 270 years followed the end of Iron I Stratum IV, ca. 975 BCE, in the lower city (Fields II, III, IV, V, X), until it was again resettled in Stratum I of the 7th century BCE. The cities at Ekron were well planned in both the Iron I and Iron II, with four distinct zones of occupation: fortifications, industrial, domestic

Ekron

, and elite. The final Iron II occupation in the 7th/6th centuries BCE was represented by a single architectural unit in Field III in the lower city. A presence in the Roman, Byzantine, and Islamic periods was attested in Fields IV Upper and V. Chronological chart. Middle Bronze Age. The tell was apparently shaped by fortifications that encompassed both the upper and lower cities in the Middle Bronze Age. Monumental platforms, part of the fortification ramparts, were excavated in Fields III and X. MB II ceramic evidence was found throughout the tell, as were fragmentary architectural remains and three infant jar

Ekron

burials excavated in Field IV Lower. Late Bronze Age. The unfortified Strata X–VIII settlement was found only in the upper city in Field I on the Northeast Acropolis. It yielded Cypriot and Mycenaean imported pottery and Anatolian Grey burnished ware, attesting to international maritime trade. Egyptian influences are also evident, inter alia, in the burial containing a 19th Dynasty seal and scarab and in the 14th century BCE scarab bearing the name of the Egyptian Pharaoh Amenhotep III and dedicated to the "Lady of the Sycamore Tree," usually associated with the foundations of Egyptian shrines, an heirloom found in

Ekron

a later Iron I phase. The last Canaanite city of Stratum VIII was destroyed in a violent conflagration, dramatically illustrated on the Summit by a severely-burnt storeroom complex that yielded jars containing carbonized grains, lentils, and figs. Iron Age I. Stratum VII is characterized by a new material culture with Aegean and Cypriot affinities introduced by the Philistines, one of the Sea Peoples featuring the locally-made Philistine 1 (previously designated Mycenaean IIIC:1) pottery. Such pottery is known as Cypriot Bichrome ware, and Philistine Bichrome ware. In the Strata VI–V Philistine 2 (Bichrome) pottery with red and black

Ekron

decoration on white slip is a major part of the ceramic assemblage. The material culture of Stratum IV is characterized by Philistine 3 (debased) pottery and the influence of a ceramic tradition of predominantly red-slipped and burnished ware. In the upper city features in Stratum VII, include a mudbrick city wall, megaron-type buildings, hearts, a limestone bathtub, and an industrial kiln area. In Strata VI–V, a major feature was the mudbrick glacis, a cultic room with an incised scapula similar to those found in the 12th and 11th century BCE shrines at Enkomi and Kition on Cyprus

Ekron

. In the lower city, along the ridge of the southern slope of the tell, behind the Iron I mudbrick city wall of Stratum VI, were a number of architectural units and finds, which included a bull-shaped zoomorphic vessel, an incised ivory tube, and a bronze pin and needle. Stratum V monumental building was constructed on a similar scale as the one in the elite zone. The artifacts, many representing a continuation of Aegean traditions, include a rectangular bone plaque painted in blue and incised with the depiction of the rear of a horse, a Mycenaean-type female figurine, a

Ekron

gold spiral hair-ring, a conical stamp seal depicting two prancing gazelles, an iron knife with an ivory handle, two small pebbled hearths, and two goat skulls. The domestic buildings continued in use in Stratum IV with no substantial change, and special finds included an incised scapula, similar to those found in the upper city. Also in the lower city, in the elite zone, Stratum VII was represented by a number of installations, including rectangular hearths. In Stratum VI circular hearts were found in a large public structure, which also produced a round ivory pyxis lid decorated with scenes of

Ekron

animals in battle. In Stratum V, a megaron-type building contained superimposed pebbled hearths, three rooms with benches and bamot, and a monumental entrance hall with two mushroom-shaped stone pillar bases. One room yielded 20 spherical loom weights in the Aegean tradition. This building also produced three miniature bronze wheels from a cultic stand of a type known from Cyprus and reminiscent of the biblical description of the mechonot (laver stands) and a bronze Janus-faced linchpin from a chariot wheel. Another special find was an iron knife with a pierced spool-shaped ivory handle attached with three bronze

Ekron

nails. In Strata VI and V, the building complex contained a large stone bath, a monolith, two stone pillar bases, and several hearths. In Stratum IV the plan of the building complex was reused and its cultic function continued, as attested by the finds, including a cache of ivory, faience, and stone objects, among them decorated earplugs and a ring depicting the Egyptian goddess Sekhmet. The destruction and abandonment of the Stratum IV lower city during the first quarter of the 10th century marked the end of both the early Philistine city and of the Iron I in general at

Ekron

Ekron. Iron Age II. Following the destruction of the Iron I Stratum IV city during the first quarter of the 10th century, the lower city was abandoned. Only the upper city was occupied in Strata III–II fortified with a mudbrick city wall and a 7 m wide mudbrick tower faced with Phoenician –type ashlar masonry in header-and-stretcher construction. Stratum III was continued in the monumental architecture of Stratum IIA–B, with the addition of a series of rooms, probably shops or market stalls, that opened onto the re-paved street, to which a stone-lined central drainage

Ekron

system was added in Stratum IIB. Both the lower city and the upper city were reoccupied. In the lower city, new fortifications included a city wall and a three-entryway gate protected by a gatehouse, similar to those excavated at Timnah (Tel Batash), Gezer, Lachish, and Ashdod. To the east of the gate, an 80 m long row of stables or storehouses associated with a large public building was built between the city wall and an outer screening wall. The outstanding feature was the olive oil industrial zone, laid out in a belt extending throughout the lower city along the

Ekron

inner face of the city wall. Special finds include a cache of seven well-preserved large iron agricultural tools and nine four-horned limestone altars. The 115 oil presses found at Ekron have a production capacity of 500–1,000 tons, making it the largest ancient industrial center for the production of olive oil thus far excavated. In Stratum IB of the last third of the 7th century, the diminution in olive oil production is associated with the end of Assyrian domination in Stratum IC and the expansion of the Egyptian sphere of influence to Philistia ca. 630 BCE. In the elite

Ekron

zone of the lower city, in Stratum I, the Ekron Royal Dedicatory Inscription, one of the most important finds of the 20th century in Israel, was found in the holy of holies, or cella, a room in the sanctuary of the Temple Complex 650. The inscription mentions Ekron, thus confirming the identification of the site, as well as five of its rulers, including Ikausu (Achish), son of Padi, who built the sanctuary. The sanctuary reflects a Phoenician design, paralleled in Astarte Temple 1 at Kition on Cyprus. The Ekron Royal Dedicatory Inscription incised on a rectangular-shaped limestone block has

Ekron

five-lines and mentions Ekron, thus confirming the identification of the site, as well as five of its rulers, including Ikausu (Achish), son of Padi, who built the sanctuary to Ptgyh, his lady. Padi and Ikausu are known as kings of Ekron from the 7th century Neo-Assyrian Royal Annals. The language and form of writing of the Ekron inscription show a significant Phoenician influence, and the name Ikausu is understood as "the Achaean" or "the Greek" and Ptgyh has been interpreted as a Greek goddess. Other special finds come from the side-rooms of the sanctuary, which yielded a

Ekron

treasure trove of gold, silver, and bronze objects, including a gold cobra (a uraeus), and a unique assemblage of ivories with cultic connotations. The ivories include a depiction of a woman, perhaps a royal personage; a knob bearing the cartouche of the 12th century Pharaoh Ramses VIII; a large head, probably from the top of a harp; and a large object with a male figure on the front, the image of a royal female personage on the side, and a cartouche of the 13th century Pharaoh Merneptah on the back. The buildings of the elite zone also produced 16 short

Ekron

inscriptions including kdš l’šrt ("dedicated to [the goddess] Asherat"), lmqm ("for the shrine"), and the letter tet with three horizontal lines below it (probably indicating 30 units of produce set aside for tithing), and silver hoards. The entire Iron II city was destroyed in a violent conflagration during the 604 BCE campaign of the Neo-Babylonian King Nebuchadnezzar II, after which the site was only partially and briefly resettled in the first quarter of the 6th century. A well-preserved Assyrian courtyard-type building was the only remaining architectural evidence for Stratum IA. Thereafter, Ekron was abandoned until the Roman

Ekron

period. Roman to Islamic periods. There is but fragmentary evidence from the Roman, Byzantine and Islamic periods found only in Fields IV Upper and V. References. 21. Eitam, D. 1996. The Olive Oil Industry at Tell Miqne–Ekron in the Late Iron Age. In: Eitam, D. and Heltzer, M. (eds.) Olive Oil in Antiquity, Israel and Neighboring Countries, from the Neolithic to the Early Arab Period. Studies VII, Sargon srl: 166-196. Ekron The city of Ekron (Philistine: 𐤏𐤒𐤓𐤍 "*ʿaqārān", , ), in the Hellenistic period known as Accaron () was a Philistine city, one of the five cities of the Philistine Pentapolis

Ekron

President of Algeria President of Algeria The president of the People's Democratic Republic of Algeria is the head of state and chief executive of Algeria, as well as the commander-in-chief of the Algerian People's National Armed Forces. History of the office. The Tripoli Program, which served as Algeria's constitution when it won its war for independence from France in 1962, established the president as the head of state with a prime minister assisting in the operation of government. Internal political maneuvering resulted in a new constitution in 1963 that abolished the prime minister position and devolved all executive

President of Algeria

power upon the office of the president. For the first four decades of independence government was controlled as a one-party state by the National Liberation Front. The presidency was held by a succession of FLN members; Ahmed Ben Bella, Houari Boumédienne and Chadli Bendjedid. The constitution written in 1976 maintained the executive power of the Presidency, but the modifications of 1979 stripped the head of government status from the office. Towards the end of the 1980s there was a liberalization of the FLN regime. However, when the Islamic Salvation Front won parliamentary elections in 1991, the military forced Chadli

President of Algeria

Bendjedid to dissolve the parliament and resign on 11 January 1992. The military declared a state of emergency and took over government of the country, establishing a five-member High Council of State. The council appointed a president, Muhammad Boudiaf, to take office for a three-year term to facilitate a transfer back to normal elections for the office. However Boudiaf was assassinated, and succeeded by Ali Kafi. Meanwhile, the country descended into a period of civil war, between the military government and Islamic guerrillas. Kafi was replaced in 1994 by Liamine Zéroual, who called the first of these elections

President of Algeria

in 1995, winning the full five-year term easily in disputed in election as the civil war was continuing. He called another early election in 1999, with the Islamic insurgency mostly suppressed. Abdelaziz Bouteflika won this election after all other candidates dropped out. He won re-election on 8 April 2004, in elections that were also disputed, won again in 2009, relatively unchallenged, and 2014; he declared his candidacy for a 5th term in the election scheduled for 18 April 2019, but, on 2 April 2019, he resigned before his 4th term ended, due to pressure from the military after

President of Algeria

protests. As provided for under Article 102 of the Algerian Constitution, Abdelkader Bensalah, President of the Council of the Nation, became acting president of the country upon the resignation of Abdelaziz Bouteflika on 2 April 2019. His term could last for a maximum of 90 days, until elections, in which he could not participate, were held. The current president is Abdelmadjid Tebboune, who won the 2019 Algerian presidential election on 12 December and assumed the office on 19 December 2019. President of Algeria The president of the People's Democratic Republic of Algeria is the head of state and chief

President of Algeria

President of Burundi President of Burundi The president of Burundi, officially the President of the Republic (French: "Président de la République"), is the head of state and head of government of the Republic of Burundi. The president is also commander-in-chief of the National Defence Force. The office of the presidency was established when Michel Micombero declared Burundi a republic on 28 November 1966. The first constitution to specify the powers and duties of the president was the constitution of 1974 adopted in 1976. The constitution, written by Micombero, affirmed Micombero's position as the first president of Burundi. The powers of

President of Burundi

the president currently derive from the 2005 constitution implemented as a result of the 2000 Arusha Accords after the Burundian Civil War. The current president since 18 June 2020 is Évariste Ndayishimiye. The president's stated role is to represent Burundi's national unity and ensure that the laws and functions of the state are created and executed with full compliance in the constitution. The president is granted a variety of powers throughout the constitution. Title V establishes the executive powers granted to the president and Title VI establishes legislative powers granted to the president. The president has the power

President of Burundi

to appoint military commanders, ambassadors, magistrates, provincial governors and members of various national councils. The president also appoints all judges, including those of the Supreme Court and Constitutional Court. The president can organize government and can call for parliamentary sessions under extraordinary circumstances. In addition to promulgating legislation, the president has the power to propose and amend laws and can veto laws that parliament is unable to agree upon. The president can also amend the constitution. The president represents Burundi in international affairs by signing and ratifying its treaties. The president is the sole office to manage war, but needs

President of Burundi

approval from parliament and the National Council of Security to start wars. The president is the sole post that can authorize military action. The president is also the sole post to grant civil and military awards. A presidential term is seven years, and a president can serve two terms. The president is assisted by two presidentially appointed vice-presidents; however, the 2018 Burundian constitutional referendum passed to eventually reduce the number of vice-presidents to one. The president is entitled to a pension after the end of his or her final term of office. Origin. In 1966, Michel Micombero became

President of Burundi

a rallying force for opposition to king Ntare V of Burundi. When Ntare V promoted Micombero to the post of Prime Minister of Burundi, Micombero launched the November 1966 Burundian coup d'état. Micombero overthrew Ntare V and declared Burundi a republic and himself its president. Micombero formalized his role as president in his 1974 constitution formally adopted in 1976. The constitution guaranteed Micombero's presidency and established a one-party state led by the Union for National Progress (UPRONA). Political instability continued in Burundi. After the 1987 Burundian coup d'état, Pierre Buyoya seized the post of the presidency and implemented

President of Burundi

the 1992 constitution. The new constitution instituted multiparty elections in Burundi. Opposition to the change started the Burundian Civil War in 1993. In 1996, Buyoya returned to power and sought reconciliation and transition to democracy. In 2000, the Arusha Accords were signed by all three sides of the conflict, and between 2000 and 2005, Buyoya and Domitien Ndayizeye worked under the 2001 and 2004 transitional constitutions to transition Burundi to democracy. The 2005 constitution is a final product of the transition. The powers and duties of the presidency are enshrined within the 2005 constitution, which does not feature a prime

President of Burundi

minister. Powers and duties. Executive powers. The president is both head of state and head of government. The president is tasked with representing the republic of Burundi, ensuring the integrity of the constitution, and executing the functions of the state and its laws. The president is assisted by two vice-presidents. The president shares many powers and duties with the two-vice presidents and can delegate powers, with exceptions, to them. The president arranges the government with approval from the vice-presidents. The president has the power to direct the agenda of the government and provides executive instructions for the

President of Burundi

two vice-presidents through presidential decree. The president appoints military commanders and ambassadors with approval from the Senate. The president dictates the agenda of the ambassadors and can recall them. The president also appoints provincial governors after approval from the two vice-presidents and confirmation from the Senate. The president has the power to declare a state of emergency after approval from the cabinet, the National Assembly, the Senate, the National Council of Security and the Constitutional Court. The president serves as the commander-in-chief of the military. The president has the sole power to authorize use of the

President of Burundi

military and has the power to declare and end wars with approval of the National Assembly, Senate and National Council of Security. The president has the power of pardon with approval from the two vice-presidents and the Superior Council of the Magistracy. The president grants civil and military decorations. The president serves as the figure to whom all members of government are responsible. Legislative powers. The president has the power to propose law and can amend laws related to the domain of law with approval from the Constitutional Court. The president promulgates law and validates law in accordance with

President of Burundi

the constitution and the Constitutional Court. The president has the power to organize special sessions and may assemble the government yearly to discuss Burundi's budget. If the government is unable to agree upon the passage of a bill, the president has the power to either veto the bill or request the National Assembly to make a final decision. Judicial powers. The president ensures the independence of the judiciary. The president leads the Superior Council of the Magistracy and appoints magistrates with approval from the Senate. The president has the power to appoint all judges, including those of the Supreme

President of Burundi

Court and Constitutional Court. The president requires approval from the Supreme Council of the Magistracy and Senate to appoint judges to the Supreme Court and requires approval from the Senate to appoint judges to the Constitutional Court. Matters of defense. The president has the duty of informing the National Assembly and Senate if use of the military is authorized and must organize a special session for this purpose if the government is not already meeting. The president is explicitly bound by the constitution to follow international military law. The president has the sole power to allow foreign soldiers into Burundi

President of Burundi

. Matters of council. The president appoints the members of truth and reconciliation councils, which the president also oversees. The president also appoints the members of the National Council of Security, the Economic and Social Council, and the National Council of Communication. Matters of diplomacy. The president represents Burundi internationally. The president negotiates, signs and ratifies treaties in accordance with the constitution and the Constitutional Court. Amending the Constitution. The president has the power to amend the constitution. Selection. The first president post-transition. The 2005 constitution distinguishes between a first president and subsequent presidents. The first president is elected by

President of Burundi

a two-thirds majority vote by the National Assembly and Senate. If the first president is absent for any reason, another person is elected as first president through the same means. Eligibility. To be eligible for the presidency, a candidate is required to be a national of Burundi by descent. Candidates must reside within Burundi when their candidacies are announced, and the candidates must be at least 40 years old upon conclusion of the election. Additionally, candidates must be valid voters and must not be facing penalty according to electoral law. Each candidate also requires 200 supporters, all of whom

President of Burundi

must also be valid voters. The first president is not eligible for election. Election process. Candidates for the presidency must either announce themselves as independents or be sponsored by specific political parties. Burundi's population, endowed with universal suffrage, elects the president by an absolute majority vote in two rounds. If there is no candidate that wins an absolute majority in the first round, then a second round with the top two candidates from the first rounds is held. The election is held between one and two months before the end of the incumbent's tenure. Post-election. The president

President of Burundi

is not allowed to hold other occupations during presidential tenure. If a candidate occupies another public office, their tenure in that office ends immediately upon declaration of the election results. If a candidate occupies a private sector office, they are barred from further business action immediately upon declaration of the election results. Succession in absence. If the president is temporarily unable to carry out their duties, then the first vice-president assumes the duties of the president until the president is again able to perform their role. If neither the president nor the first vice-president are present, then the

President of Burundi

second vice-president assumes the duties of the president. If the president dies, resigns, or is otherwise made permanently unable to carry out their duties, then the duties of the president are carried out by the president of the National Assembly. If the president of the National Assembly is not able to act as president, then the vice-presidents, with assistance from the rest of the government, act jointly as president. A new election for president is immediately conducted unless an emergency has been declared by the Constitutional Court. Removal. The president can be impeached if two-thirds of both

President of Burundi

the National Assembly and Senate agree on impeachment. Grounds for impeachment include "grave fault, abuse of power, corruption" and high treason. The president is removed from office if the High Court of Justice convicts the president of a crime. President of Burundi The president of Burundi, officially the President of the Republic (French: "Président de la République"), is the head of state and head of government of the Republic of Burundi. The president is also commander-in-chief of the National Defence Force. The office of the presidency was established when Michel Micombero declared Burundi a republic on 28 November

President of Burundi

President of Cameroon President of Cameroon The president of Cameroon is the executive head of state and de facto head of government of Cameroon and is the commander in chief of the Cameroon Armed Forces. The authority of the State is exercised both by the President and by the Parliament. History. The office of President of Cameroon was established in 1960, following the country's independence from France. The office was held by Ahmadou Ahidjo from 5 May 1960 to 6 November 1982 and then by Paul Biya since 6 November 1982. President of Cameroon The president of Cameroon is the executive head

President of Cameroon

Alexander McNutt (governor) Alexander McNutt (governor) Alexander Gallatin McNutt (January 3, 1802 – October 22, 1848) was a Mississippi attorney and politician who served as Governor from 1838 to 1842. Early life. Alexander G. McNutt was born into an aristocratic landowning family in Rockbridge County, Virginia on January 3, 1802. He graduated from Washington College (now Washington and Lee University) in 1821, studied law, and moved to Jackson, Mississippi in the early 1820s. He subsequently relocated to Vicksburg, where he practiced in partnership with Joel Cameron. When Cameron was murdered by his slaves in 1833, McNutt subsequently married Cameron's widow, Elizabeth Lewis Cameron

Alexander McNutt (governor)

. (Before the slaves were executed, a free black man who was also implicated blamed McNutt for the murder, stating that McNutt had instigated it in order to profit by Cameron's death.) Political career. A Democrat, in 1829 he served as a Selectman in Vicksburg. In 1835 McNutt was elected to the Mississippi State Senate. In 1837 he was elected President of the Senate. McNutt ran successfully for governor in 1837 and served two terms, 1838 to 1842. During his term Mississippi founded its state library and procured land for construction of a state university, and construction was completed on

Alexander McNutt (governor)

the state penitentiary. During his governorship, McNutt opposed central banking, including Mississippi's Planters and Union Banks, in which the state had large ownership stakes, arguing that the stockholders and managers were corrupt. The banks sold bonds in an effort to raise revenue, which the state repudiated under McNutt's influence, leaving the state with a large debt. After leaving office he resumed practicing law. In 1847 he ran unsuccessfully for the United States Senate, losing to Henry S. Foote. In 1848, McNutt campaigned for the presidential ticket headed by Lewis Cass and was a candidate for presidential elector. While

Alexander McNutt (governor)

in Desoto County, he became ill and died on October 22, 1848. He was buried in Greenwood Cemetery in Jackson, Section 6, Lot 57. Legacy. McNutt's home is a Vicksburg landmark and listed on the National Register of Historic Places. A town just west of Schlater, Mississippi was named for McNutt. It was the county seat of Sunflower County, 1850-71. Alexander McNutt (governor) Alexander Gallatin McNutt (January 3, 1802 – October 22, 1848) was a Mississippi attorney and politician who served as Governor from 1838 to 1842. Early life. Alexander G. McNutt was born into an aristocratic landowning family

Alexander McNutt (governor)

Professor Farnsworth Professor Farnsworth Professor Hubert J. Farnsworth, commonly referred in show to as either Professor Farnsworth or simply Professor, is a fictional character in the American animated television series "Futurama". The mad scientist proprietor of the Planet Express delivery service for whom the main characters work, he is the great (×30) grandnephew and the great (×31) grandson of series protagonist Philip J. Fry because of a time paradox. He alternates between intelligence and amoral senility due to his greatly advanced age. He demonstrates a mastery of any field of science necessary for the series' plots and is suggested to be one

Professor Farnsworth

of the most brilliant inventors on Earth. However, he falls asleep constantly, and he is implied to have routinely sent his former crews on suicide missions. Character. A self-described mad scientist, the Professor is a senile, amoral, deranged, and unpredictable old man (160 years old as of "A Clone of My Own") with very thick glasses and a gift for creating doomsday devices and atomic supermen. He has put at least one parallel universe in peril with his inventions and visited dozens more (see "The Farnsworth Parabox"). The Professor teaches at Mars University and has worked for Momcorp on

Professor Farnsworth

several occasions but spends most of his time inventing ridiculous devices and sending the Planet Express delivery crew on suicide missions. While at Momcorp, he fell in love with the CEO, Mom, only to leave her and Momcorp when she decided to weaponize his "Q.T. McWhiskers" toy. What he is a professor "of" is never explicitly stated. In the episode "Mars University", when asked what he is teaching, he responds: "The same thing I teach every semester, the mathematics of quantum neutrino fields. I made up the title so no student would dare take it"; however, this declaration has not

Professor Farnsworth

precluded the professor from demonstrating mastery of whatever field of science is convenient for a given episode's plot, as shown in "Bender's Big Score" when he proclaims, "I can wire anything directly into anything! I am the Professor!", proceeding to link Hermes' disembodied head to the ship's computer. Approximately 100 years before the series' timeline, he taught a young (not yet Professor) Wernstrom, whom Farnsworth regarded as a prized student. After he returned a pop quiz to Wernstrom with a grade of A-minus (for poor penmanship), the two became bitter rivals (established in "A Big Piece

Professor Farnsworth

of Garbage"). As Philip J. Fry's great (x30) nephew, it is likely that he is the great (x29) grandson of Yancy Fry, Fry's older brother from the 20th century. This would also make him the great (x28) grandson of Philip J. Fry II, Yancy's son, although his exact shared family members with Fry have not been stated. However, since Fry has become his own grandfather, he is also Fry's direct descendant, specifically his great (x31) grandson. In "All the Presidents' Heads", he reveals that he is descended from Philo Farnsworth (widely credited as the original inventor

Professor Farnsworth

of television); Dean Farnsworth, who created the Farnsworth Lantern Test to check for color vision problems in military aviators and sailors; and David Farnsworth, a colonial-era counterfeiter and British agent who was eventually hanged for his crimes. Many episodes' major plot points are introduced by Farnsworth announcing, "Good news, everyone!"—either to unveil his latest invention or describe the company's latest delivery assignment, which is usually a suicide mission; he acknowledges this in "". On the very few occasions he has "actual" good news, he often opens with "Bad news, everyone!" After Fry resigns from his job in "Law & Oracle

Professor Farnsworth

, he states that he only says these phrases to make Fry feel better about his pointless job." Another is his exclamation, "Sweet zombie Jesus!" He often says "Eh Wha?" when unaware of the situation, or when someone questions a statement he has just made. The Professor often makes mutually contradictory statements just moments apart; this happens especially often when briefing his employees, with the prevailing second statement canceling a much more reassuring first sentence. The Professor rarely worries about the safety of the crew, viewing them as a means to an end, as evidenced in the first episode. After remarking

Professor Farnsworth

that he was looking for a new crew for his intergalactic space ship, he was asked "What happened to your old crew?" His response was "Oh, those poor sons of... — but that's not important! What is important is that I need a new crew!" Farnsworth's employees later discover that their predecessors died while gathering not-ordinary honey from Space Bees ("The Sting"). The Professor issues his new crew the previous crew's career chips from a manila envelope labeled "Contents Of Space Wasp's Stomach" ("Space Pilot 3000"). It was revealed in "Mobius Dick" that the first crew

Professor Farnsworth

was ingested by a four-dimensional space whale in 2961, only returning to Earth when rescued by Leela in 3011. This appears to be the only crew the Professor showed some emotion towards, given his purchasing of a monument to honor the 50th year of their disappearance. He frequently sends his crew on dangerous missions even when he has the foreknowledge that they will probably not make it back alive. His missions are typically those other delivery companies will not take, such as serving subpoenas to Mafia-controlled worlds or casual deliveries to virus-infested planets. Even the commercial that

Professor Farnsworth

he had produced for his company makes several remarks to this effect, including "When other companies aren't crazy or foolhardy enough…" and "Our crew is replaceable, your package isn't." In one episode when the crew and his ship are sent off to war, he immediately tries to hire another crew, going so far as to assign them similar character roles; he is clearly surprised to be interrupted by his old crew returning. Even his familial relationship to Fry does not dampen the glee with which he assigns dangerous delivery missions. When asked about the nature of his delivery

Professor Farnsworth

business, Farnsworth once clarified that he viewed his company more as "a source of cheap labor, like a family." He also frequently covets his employees' organs and blood; he keeps Amy Wong around because they share a blood type and in "Anthology of Interest II" retrieves a pair of plastic tongs and a box labelled "Leela's organs" when Leela is knocked unconscious. In "How Hermes Requisitioned His Groove Back", he tries to encourage a suicidal Hermes Conrad to kill himself in a way that would not damage his liver because "other people need it". It is established in the

Professor Farnsworth

episode "Mother's Day" that the Professor was once Mom's lover and employee. However, they could not maintain their relationship due to Mom's lust for power, prompting them to break up (this reportedly happened three times). When Mom takes control of all the world's robots to cause an uprising, her sons Walt, Larry, and Igner attempt to get the Professor to seduce Mom and retrieve the remote for the robots. They get back together briefly, but break up once more when Mom learns the Professor had been initially using her. It is revealed in "Bender's Game

Professor Farnsworth

that the Professor is the biological father of Mom's youngest son Igner — the one whom Mom despises the most. Some of his more significant inventions include a hat that advanced a monkey to human-level intelligence, a race of mutant atomic supermen, a wide range of doomsday devices, and a pioneer in the development of the 'modern' robots used in the 31st century. Production. Professor Farnsworth is voiced by Billy West, using a combination of impressions of Burgess Meredith and Frank Morgan. West has stated that the voice for Farnsworth is meant to be a bit shaky and that Professor Farnsworth 7903018 when developing the voice he came up with a combination of all the wizard-type characters you heard when you were a kid, Burgess Meredith and Frank Morgan in "The Wizard of Oz"." Many references to the pulp science fiction magazine "Weird Tales" indicate the Professor may be named in honour of its editor Farnsworth Wright. Another possibility is that he was named after the American inventor and television pioneer Philo Farnsworth, or after the Colonial American figure David Farnsworth, who appeared in the "Futurama" episode "All The Presidents' Heads" as an ancestor of the Professor and Philip J. Fry

Professor Farnsworth

. The Professor’s first name "Hubert" harkens back to a compound of Germanic words *"huguz" ‘mind’ and *"berhtaz" ‘shining, bright’, and may have been chosen in honor of University of California Philosophy professor Hubert Dreyfus, of whom writer and producer Eric Kaplan was a former student. Farnsworth's design has been compared to a combination of Mr. Burns, Grampa Simpson, and Professor Frink from Matt Groening's other series, "The Simpsons". There is a direct nod to this in the episode "Anthology of Interest II", in which the Professor portrays the Wizard of Oz. In the initial storyboards of "Space

Professor Farnsworth

Pilot 3000", Fry presumes that the Professor is descended from a supposed sister and a supposed brother-in-law named Eddie Farnsworth. In the first season, Farnsworth excuses his unhelpfulness by saying that he was "already in his pajamas". This was an early attempt at a catchphrase that was abandoned after "The Series Has Landed". In the "Action Delivery Force" segment of "Reincarnation", Professor Farnsworth is voiced by David Herman. Legacy. In 2020, a new species of snake from the Western Ghats of India, "Ahaetulla farnsworthi", was named after the character. One of the researchers, Achyuthan Srikanthan, was a fan

Professor Farnsworth

of the show and character, and the species was named after Farnsworth as a reference to the character's attempts to revive barking snakes from extinction. Professor Farnsworth Professor Hubert J. Farnsworth, commonly referred in show to as either Professor Farnsworth or simply Professor, is a fictional character in the American animated television series "Futurama". The mad scientist proprietor of the Planet Express delivery service for whom the main characters work, he is the great (×30) grandnephew and the great (×31) grandson of series protagonist Philip J. Fry because of a time paradox. He alternates between intelligence and amoral senility

Professor Farnsworth

Walter Leake Walter Leake Walter Daniel Leake (May 20, 1762November 6, 1825) served as a United States Senator from Mississippi (1817–1820) and as third Governor of Mississippi (1822–1825). He was the first Governor of Mississippi to die in office. Biography. Early life. Walter Leake was born on May 20, 1762 in Albemarle County in the Colony of Virginia. He was the son of Captain Mask Leake and nephew of Rev. Samuel Leake (Princeton University graduate and a member of the first Board of Trustees of Hampden–Sydney College), an ancestor of Senator John McCain of Arizona. Career. He served in the United

Walter Leake

States Senate from 1817 to 1820. He was appointed to the Mississippi Supreme Court in 1821, and went on to serve as the Governor of Mississippi from 1822 to 1825. Personal life. His daughter, Susan Wingfield Leake, married in 1807 Henry Goodloe Johnston of Spotsylvania County, Virginia and was an ancestor of Haley Reeves Barbour, the former Governor of Mississippi. Legacy. Leake County, Mississippi, as well as Leakesville, Mississippi are named for him. Walter Leake Walter Daniel Leake (May 20, 1762November 6, 1825) served as a United States Senator from Mississippi (1817–1820) and as third Governor of Mississippi (1822–1825). He

Walter Leake

Bannik Bannik The Bannik () is a bathhouse ("banya") spirit in Slavic mythology. He is usually described as a small, naked old man with a long beard, his body covered in the birch leaves left over from well used bath brooms. Many accounts also claim that he is a shapeshifter and can appear as a local person to someone who stumbles across him, or even as a stone or coal in the oven heating the bathhouse. Slavic bathhouses resemble saunas, with an inner steaming room and an outer changing room. A place where women gave birth and practiced divinations, the bathhouse was

Bannik

strongly endowed with vital forces. The third firing (or fourth, depending on tradition) was reserved for the bannik, and, given his inclination to invite demons and forest spirits to share his bath, no Christian images were allowed lest they offend the occupants. If disturbed by an intruder while washing, the bannik might pour boiling water over him, or even strangle him. There were several rituals performed in order to keep the bannik happy and peaceful. The most common occurred during the steaming/firing that was reserved for the spirit itself or upon the quitting of the banya for the night

Bannik

; offerings of fir branches, water and soap were left, capped by a formal thank you uttered aloud. The bannik was often blamed for anything that went wrong within the bathhouse, so if the structure burned down (which they often did), it was believed the spirit had been affronted in some way. In order to appease the bannik, upon the rebuilding of a banya, a black hen would be suffocated, left unplucked and buried beneath the building's threshold. The people performing this ritual would end it by bowing and backing away from the threshold, while reciting appropriate incantations. The banya

Bannik

was considered a liminal space among Slavic peasants and thus, was considered "unclean", or a place of possible spiritual danger. Despite this, most births occurred inside the banya and it was believed that the bannik was not truly happy or settled until a child was born within his domain. The bannik had the ability to predict the future. One consulted him by standing with one's back exposed in the half-open door of the bath. The bannik would gently stroke one's back if all boded well; but if trouble lay ahead, he would strike with his claws. Bannik

Bannik

Barbara Dulinsky Barbara Dulinsky Master Sergeant Barbara Jean Dulinsky (1928–1995) was a member of the United States Marine Corps who, in 1967, became the first female United States Marine to serve in a combat zone, when her request to be sent to Vietnam was granted. She served at Military Assistance Command, Vietnam (MACV) Headquarters in Saigon. She died in 1995. Barbara Dulinsky Master Sergeant Barbara Jean Dulinsky (1928–1995) was a member of the United States Marine Corps who, in 1967, became the first female United States Marine to serve in a combat zone, when her request to be sent to Vietnam was

Barbara Dulinsky

Endowment (Mormonism) Endowment (Mormonism) In Mormonism, the endowment is a two part ordinance (ceremony) designed for participants to become kings, queens, priests, and priestesses in the afterlife. As part of the first ceremony, participants take part in a scripted reenactment of the Biblical creation and fall of Adam and Eve. The ceremony includes a symbolic washing and anointing, and receipt of a "new name" which they are not to reveal to others except at a certain part in the ceremony, and the receipt of the temple garment, which Mormons then are expected to wear under their clothing day and night throughout their

Endowment (Mormonism)

life. Participants are taught symbolic gestures and passwords considered necessary to pass by angels guarding the way to heaven, and are instructed not to reveal them to others. As practiced today in The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church), the endowment also consists of a series of covenants (promises to God) that participants make, such as a covenant of consecration to the LDS Church. All LDS Church members who choose to serve as missionaries or participate in a celestial marriage in a temple must first complete the first endowment ceremony. The second part, or second anointing

Endowment (Mormonism)

is the pinnacle ordinance of the temple, jointly given to a husband and wife couple, where their exaltation is guaranteed. Participants are anointed kings, queens, priests, and priestesses, whereas they are only anointed to become such in the first part. The second part of the endowment is given to a select group, and its existence is not widely known among the general membership. The endowment as practiced today was instituted by founder Joseph Smith in the 1840s with further contributions by Brigham Young and his successors. The ceremony is performed in Latter Day Saint temples, which are dedicated specifically for

Endowment (Mormonism)

the endowment and certain other ordinances sacred to Mormons, and are open only to Mormons who meet certain requirements. There was a brief period during the construction of the Salt Lake Temple where a small building referred to as the Endowment House was used to administer the endowment ordinance. The endowment is currently practiced by the LDS Church, several denominations of Mormon fundamentalism, and a few other Mormon denominations. The LDS Church has simplified its ceremony from its 19th century form. A distinct endowment ceremony was also performed in the 1830s in the Kirtland Temple, the first temple of the

Endowment (Mormonism)

broader Latter Day Saint movement, which includes other smaller churches such as the Community of Christ. The term "endowment" thus has various meanings historically, and within the other branches of the Latter Day Saint movement. The prevalence of LDS Church members who participate in the endowment ceremony is difficult to determine. However, estimates show that fewer than half of converts to the LDS Church ultimately undergo the first endowment ceremony, and young people preparing for missions account for about one-third of "live" endowments (as contrasted with proxy endowments for the deceased). The second endowment ceremony had been given 15,000

Endowment (Mormonism)

times by 1941, but has become less common today. Previous Latter Day Saint endowments. The meaning and scope of the term "endowment" evolved during the early Latter Day Saint movement, of which Mormonism is a part. The term derives from the Authorized King James Version, referring to the spiritual gifts given the disciples of Jesus on the day of Pentecost, in which they were "endowed with power from on high," Christians generally understand this endowment to refer to the gift of the Holy Spirit, which the Latter Day Saints believe is given at the Confirmation ceremony. In 1831, however, Smith

Endowment (Mormonism)

began teaching that the elders of the church needed to be further "endowed with power from on high" in order to be effective proselytizers. He therefore gathered the elders together at a general conference in June 1831 and "endowed" them with this power by ordaining them to the High Priesthood. By the mid-1830s, Smith was teaching that a further endowment was necessary, this time requiring the completion of the Kirtland Temple as a house of God where God could pour out his Holy Spirit. Upon the completion of the Kirtland Temple after three years of construction (1833–1836), the elders of

Endowment (Mormonism)

the church gathered for this second promised endowment in early 1836. The Kirtland endowment included a ritual ceremony involving preparatory washings and anointings with oil, followed by a gathering in the temple in which many reported spiritual gifts such as speaking in tongues and visions. The Nauvoo endowment. Overview. The Nauvoo endowment consists of two phases: (1) an initiation, and (2) an instructional and testing phase. The initiation consists of a washing and anointing, culminating in the clothing of the patron in a "Garment of the Holy Priesthood", which is thereafter worn as an undergarment. The instructional and testing phase

Endowment (Mormonism)

of the endowment consists of a scripted reenactment of Adam and Eve's experience in the Garden of Eden (performed by live actors—called officiators; in the mid-20th century certain portions were adapted to a film presentation). The instruction is punctuated with oaths, symbolic gestures, and a prayer around an altar, and at the end of instruction, the initiate's knowledge of symbolic gestures and key-words is tested at a "veil." Introduction. On May 3, 1842, Joseph Smith prepared the second floor of his Red Brick Store, in Nauvoo, Illinois, to represent "the interior of a temple as circumstances

Endowment (Mormonism)

would permit". The next day, May 4, he introduced the Nauvoo endowment ceremony to nine associates: Associate President and Patriarch to the Church Hyrum (Joseph Smith's brother); first counselor in the First Presidency, William Law; three of the twelve apostles, Brigham Young, Heber C. Kimball and Willard Richards; Nauvoo stake president, William Marks; two bishops, Newel K. Whitney and George Miller; and a close friend, Judge James Adams of Springfield, Illinois. Concerning the day's activities, Smith recorded: Throughout 1843 and 1844 Smith continued to initiate other men, as well as women, into the endowment ceremony. By the time

Endowment (Mormonism)

of his death on June 27, 1844, more than 50 persons had been admitted into the Anointed Quorum, the name by which this group called themselves. The Nauvoo endowment and Freemasonry. There are many similarities between Smith's endowment ceremony and certain rituals of Freemasonry, particularly the Royal Arch degree. These specific similarities included instruction in various signs, tokens, and passwords, and the imposition of various forms of the penalties for revealing them. The original wording of the penalties, for example, closely followed the graphic wording of the Masonic penalties. According to the predominant view by historians, Smith used and

Endowment (Mormonism)

adapted material from the Masonic rituals in creating the endowment ceremony. All of those first initiated by Smith on May 4, 1842, were longstanding or recent Masons: Adams was the Deputy Grand Master of the Masonic Grand Lodge of Illinois; Whitney, Miller and Kimball had previously been Lodge Masters; Smith's brother, Hyrum, had been a Mason since 1827; and the remaining five participants (Law, Marks, Young, Richards, and Smith himself) had been initiated as Freemasons just weeks before the meeting. However, none of these Masons ever charged Smith with breaking any of Masonry's oaths or revealing its secrets

Endowment (Mormonism)

. In contrast to those that believe Smith simply copied these rituals to advance his own religion, one Mormon historian has noted that these Masonic parallels confirmed to these men "the breath of the restoration impulse and was evidence of Smith's divine calling". The LDS Church has never commented officially on these similarities, although certain features of the two rituals have been called "analogous" by one official Church Historian and the apostle Jeffrey R. Holland stated in a BBC interview that endowment ordinance vows to secrecy are "similar to a Masonic relationship." The LDS Church apostle John A. Widtsoe downplayed

Endowment (Mormonism)

the similarities, arguing that they "do not deal with the basic matters [the endowment] but rather with the mechanism of the ritual." One LDS Church educator, however, was censured in the 1970s by the Church Educational System for arguing that the endowment ceremony had a dependent relationship with the rituals of freemasonry. Some within the LDS Church, particularly Smith's contemporaries, have expressed the view that the endowment was given anciently by God in its original form at the Temple of Solomon, but that the form of the ritual degenerated into the form used by Freemasons. Heber C. Kimball clearly

Endowment (Mormonism)

supported this position: "We have the true Masonry. The Masonry of today is received from the apostasy which took place in the days of Solomon and David. They have now and then a thing that is correct, but we have the real thing." Later modifications by the LDS Church. After Smith officiated in Brigham Young's endowment in 1842 Smith told him, "Brother Brigham, this is not arranged perfectly; however we have done the best we could under the circumstances in which we are placed. I wish you to take this matter in hand: organize and systematize all these ceremonies

Endowment (Mormonism)

. Young did as Smith directed, and under Young's direction the Nauvoo endowment ceremony was introduced to the church at large in the Nauvoo Temple during the winter of 1845–46. A spacious hall in the temple's attic was arranged into appropriate ordinance rooms" using canvas partitions. Potted plants were used in areas representing the Garden of Eden, and other areas were furnished appropriately, including a room representing the celestial kingdom. Over 5,500 persons received their endowments in this temple. Young introduced the same ceremony in the Utah Territory in the 1850s, first in the Endowment House and then in

Endowment (Mormonism)

the St. George Temple. During this period the ceremony had never been written down, but was passed orally from temple worker to worker. Shortly after the dedication of the St. George Temple, and before his death in 1877, Young became concerned about the possibility of variations in the ceremony within the church's temples and so directed the majority of the text of the endowment to be written down. This document became the standard for the ceremony thereafter. Also in 1877, the first endowments for the dead were performed in the St. George Temple. In 1893, minor alterations in the

Endowment (Mormonism)

text were made in an attempt to bring uniformity to the ceremony as administered in the temples. Between 1904 and 1906, the temple ceremony received very public scrutiny during the 1904 Senate investigation of LDS Apostle and U.S. Senator, Reed Smoot. Of particular concern to senators was the ceremony's "law of vengeance", in which, during the hearings, it was revealed that participants took an oath of vengeance to pray that God would "avenge the blood of the prophets on this nation". The "prophets" were Joseph and Hyrum Smith, and "this nation" was the United States. Beginning in 1919, church

Endowment (Mormonism)

president Heber J. Grant appointed a committee charged with revising the ceremony, which was done under the direction of Apostle George F. Richards from 1921 to 1927. Richards received permission to write down the previously unwritten portions of the ceremony. Among his revisions was the elimination of the "law of vengeance". Previous versions of the ceremony into the 1880s also had the representative of the Lord cut the symbols in the garments with a knife through the veil, with one source suggesting an early version cut into the knee of the participant to create a scar. The committee also removed

Endowment (Mormonism)

the violent language from the "penalty" portions of the ceremony. Prior to 1927, participants made an oath that if they ever revealed the secret gestures of the ceremony, they would be subject to the following: The first filmed versions of the endowment were introduced in the 1950s, by a committee headed by Gordon B. Hinckley. That change was initiated by church president David O. McKay as a way of providing the instruction simultaneously in different languages, an innovation made necessary by the construction of the Bern Switzerland Temple, the church's first temple in Europe. , ceremonies in all but two

Endowment (Mormonism)

(Salt Lake Temple and Manti Temple) of the church's 128 operating temples are presented using the filmed version. In 1990, further changes included the elimination of all blood oaths and penalties. These penalties, representing what the member would rather suffer than reveal the sacred signs given them in the ceremony, were symbolized by gestures for having the throat cut, the breast cut open, and the bowels torn out. Changes also included the elimination of the five points of fellowship, the role of the preacher, and all reference to Lucifer's "popes and priests" were dropped. The ceremony was also

Endowment (Mormonism)