Datasets:

masakhane

/

afriqa_wiki_en_fr_100

like 2

Follow

Masakhane NLP 89

("jejka pisać"). Types of decorated Ukrainian eggs. "Pysanka" is often taken to mean any type of decorated egg, but it specifically refers to an egg created by the written-wax batik method and utilizing traditional folk motifs and designs. Several other types of decorated eggs are seen in Ukrainian tradition, and these vary throughout the regions of Ukraine. All but the krashanky and lystovky are usually meant to be decorative (as opposed to edible), and the egg yolk and white are either allowed to dry up over time or (in modern times) removed by blowing them out through a small

Pysanka

hole in the egg. In recent years, new forms of egg decoration have been brought from abroad and become popularized in Ukraine. These include: History. According to many scholars, the art of wax-resist (batik) egg decoration in Slavic cultures probably dates back to the pre-Christian era. They base this on the widespread nature of the practice, and pre-Christian nature of the symbols used. No ancient examples of intact pysanky exist, as the eggshells of domesticated fowl are fragile, but fragments of colored shells with wax-resist decoration on them were unearthed during the archaeological excavations in Ostrówek

Pysanka

, Poland (near the city of Opole), where remnants of a Slavic settlement from the early Piast Era were found. As in many ancient cultures, Ukrainians worshipped a sun god, Dazhboh. The sun was important – it warmed the earth and thus was a source of all life. Eggs decorated with nature symbols became an integral part of spring rituals, serving as benevolent talismans. In pre-Christian times, Dazhboh was one of the major deities in the Slavic pantheon; birds were the sun god's chosen creations, for they were the only ones who could get near him. Humans could not catch

Pysanka

the birds, but they did manage to obtain the eggs the birds laid. Thus, the eggs were magical objects, a source of life. The egg was also honored during rite-of-Spring festivals––it represented the rebirth of the earth. The long, hard winter was over; the earth burst forth and was reborn just as the egg miraculously burst forth with life. The egg therefore, was believed to have special powers. With the advent of Christianity, via a process of religious syncretism, the symbolism of the egg was changed to represent, not nature's rebirth, but the rebirth of man. Christians

Pysanka

embraced the egg symbol and likened it to the tomb from which Christ rose. With the acceptance of Christianity in 988, the decorated pysanka, in time, was adapted to play an important role in Ukrainian rituals of the new religion. Many symbols of the old sun worship survived and were adapted to represent Easter and Christ's Resurrection. In modern times, the art of the pysanka was carried abroad by Ukrainian emigrants to North and South America, where the custom took hold, and concurrently banned as a religious practice in Ukraine by the Soviet regime, where it was nearly forgotten

Pysanka

. Museum collections were destroyed both by war and by Soviet cadres. Since Ukrainian Independence in 1991, there has been a rebirth of this folk art in its homeland and a renewal of interest in the preservation of traditional designs and research into its symbolism and history. Archaeology. No actual pysanky have been found from Ukraine's prehistoric periods, as eggshells do not preserve well. Cultic ceramic eggs have been discovered in excavations near the village of Luka Vrublivets'ka, during excavations of a Trypillian site (5th to 3rd millennium BC). These eggs were ornamented and in the form of торохкальці (torokhkal'tsi

Pysanka

; rattles containing a small stone with which to scare evil spirits away). Similarly, no actual pysanky from the Kyivan Rus' period exist, but stone, clay and bone versions exist and have been excavated in many sites throughout Ukraine. Most common are ceramic eggs decorated with a horsetail plant (сосонка "sosonka") pattern in yellow and bright green against a dark background. More than 70 such eggs have been excavated throughout Ukraine, many of them from graves of children and adults. They are thought to be representations of real decorated eggs. These ceramic eggs were common in Kyivan Rus' and had a

Pysanka

characteristic style. They were slightly smaller than life size (2.5 by 4 cm, or 1 by 1.6 inches) and were created from reddish pink clays by the spiral method. The majolica glazed eggs had a brown, green or yellow background and showed interwoven yellow and green stripes. The eggs were made in large cities like Kyiv and Chernihiv, which had workshops that produced clay tile and bricks; these tiles (and pysanky) were not only used locally but were exported to Poland and to several Scandinavian and Baltic countries. The oldest "real" pysanka was excavated in Lviv in 2013 and was

Pysanka

found in a rainwater collection system that dates to the 15th or 16th century. The pysanka was written on a goose egg, which was discovered largely intact, and the design is that of a wave pattern. The second oldest known pysanka was excavated in Baturyn in 2008 and dates to the end of the 17th century. Baturyn was Hetman Mazepa's capital, and it was razed in 1708 by the armies of Peter I. A complete (but crushed) pysanka was discovered, a chicken egg shell with geometric designs against a blue-gray background. Legends. The Hutsuls—a group of Rusyns

Pysanka

who live in the Carpathian Mountains around western Ukraine—believe that the fate of the world depends upon the pysanka. As long as the egg writing custom continues, the world will exist. If, for any reason, this custom is abandoned, evil—in the shape of a horrible serpent who is forever chained to a cliff—will overrun the world. Each year the serpent sends out his minions to see how many pysanky have been written. If the number is low the serpent's chains are loosened and he is free to wander the earth causing havoc and destruction. If, on

Pysanka

the other hand, the number of pysanky has increased, the chains are tightened and good triumphs over evil for yet another year. Newer legends blended folklore and Christian beliefs and firmly attached the egg to the Easter celebration. One legend concerns the Virgin Mary. It tells of the time Mary gave eggs to the soldiers at the cross. She entreated them to be less cruel to her son and she wept. The tears of Mary fell upon the eggs, spotting them with dots of brilliant color. Another legend tells of when Mary Magdalene went to the sepulchre to anoint the

Pysanka

body of Jesus. She had with her a basket of eggs to serve as a repast. When she arrived at the sepulchre and uncovered the eggs, the pure white shells had miraculously taken on a rainbow of colors. A common legend tells of Simon the peddler, who helped Jesus carry his cross on the way to Calvary. He had left his goods at the side of the road, and, when he returned, the eggs had all turned into intricately decorated pysanky. Superstitions and folk beliefs. Many superstitions were attached to pysanky. Pysanky were thought to protect households from evil spirits

Pysanka

, catastrophe, lightning and fires. Pysanky with spiral motifs were the most powerful, as the demons and other unholy creatures would be trapped within the spirals forever. A blessed pysanka could be used to find demons hidden in the dark corners of your house. Pysanky held powerful magic, and had to be disposed of properly, lest a witch get a hold of one. She could use the shell to gather dew, and use the gathered dew to dry up a cow's milk. The witch could also use bits of the eggshell to poke people and sicken them. The eggshell had

Pysanka

to be ground up very finely (and fed to chickens to make them good egg layers) or broken into pieces and tossed into a running stream. The cloth used to dry pysanky was powerful, too, and could be used to cure skin diseases. And it was considered very bad luck to trample on a pysanka—God would punish anyone who did with a variety of illnesses. There were superstitions regarding the colors and designs on the pysanky. One old Ukrainian myth centered on the wisdom of giving older people gifts of pysanky with darker colors and/or rich designs, for their

Pysanka

life has already been filled. Similarly, it is appropriate to give young people pysanky with white as the predominant color because their life is still a blank page. Girls would often give pysanky to young men they fancied, and include heart motifs. It was said, though, that a girl should never give her boyfriend a pysanky that has no design on the top and bottom of the egg, as this might signify that the boyfriend would soon lose his hair. Writing pysanky. Each region, each village, and almost every family had its own special ritual, its own symbols, meanings and

Pysanka

secret formulas for dyeing eggs. These customs were preserved faithfully and passed down from mother to daughter through generations. The custom of decorating pysanky was observed with greatest care, and a pysanka, after receiving the Easter blessing, was held to have great powers as a talisman. Pysanky were traditionally made during the last week of Lent, Holy Week in the Orthodox and Greek (Uniate) Catholic calendars. (Both faiths are represented in Ukraine, and both still celebrate Easter by the Julian calendar.) They were made by the women of the family. During the middle of the Lenten season, women began putting

Pysanka

aside eggs, those that were most perfectly shaped and smooth, and ideally, the first laid eggs of young hens. There had to be a rooster, as only fertilized eggs could be used. (If non-fertile eggs were used, there would be no fertility in the home.) The dyes were prepared from dried plants, roots, bark, berries and insects (cochineal). Yellow was obtained from the flowers of the woadwaxen, and gold from onion skins. Red could be extracted from logwood or cochineal, and dark green and violet from the husks of sunflower seeds and the berries and bark of the elderberry

Pysanka

bush. Black dye was made from walnut husks. The dyes were prepared in secret, using recipes handed down from mother to daughter. Sometimes chemical dyes (of unusual or difficult colors) were purchased from peddlers along with alum, a mordant that helped the natural dyes adhere better to eggshells. A stylus, known as a pysachok, pysak, pysal'tse, or kystka (kistka), depending on region, was prepared. A piece of thin brass was wrapped around a needle, forming a hollow cone. This was attached to a small stick (willow was preferred) with wire or horsehair. In the Lemko regions, a simple pin or

Pysanka

nail inserted onto the end of a stick was used instead (drop-pull technique). The pysanky were made at night, when the children were asleep. The women in the family gathered together, said the appropriate prayers, and went to work. It was done in secret—the patterns and color combinations were handed down from mother to daughter and carefully guarded. Pysanky were made using a wax resist (batik) method. Beeswax was heated in a small bowl on the large family stove (піч), and the styluses were dipped into it. The molten wax was applied to the white egg with a

Pysanka

writing motion; any bit of shell covered with wax would be sealed, and remain white. Then the egg was dyed yellow, and more wax applied, and then orange, red, purple, black. (The dye sequence was always light to dark). Bits of shell covered with wax remained that color. After the final color, usually red, brown or black, the wax was removed by heating the egg in the stove and gently wiping off the melted wax, or by briefly dipping the egg into boiling water. Boiled eggs were not used, as pysanky were generally written on raw or, less commonly, baked

Pysanka

eggs (pecharky). Boiled eggs were dyed red for Easter, using an onion skin dye, and called "krashanky". The number of colors on an egg was usually limited, as natural dyes had very long dyeing times, sometimes hours. Pysanky would be written—and dyed—in batches. Alternatively, in ethnic Lemko and Boiko areas, as well as Nadsiannia, the drop pull method was also utilized. A pinhead was dipped into molten wax and then applied to the shell of the egg. Simple drops were made, or there was an additional pulling motion, which would create teardrop or comma shapes. These drops were

Pysanka

used to create patterns and designs. Dyeing and wax removal proceeded as with traditional pysanky. Pysanky continue to be made in modern times; while many traditional aspects have been preserved, new technologies are in evidence. Aniline dyes have largely replaced natural dyes. Styluses are now made with modern materials. Traditional styluses are still made from brass and wood, but those made with more modern plastic handles are gaining in popularity. An electric version of the stylus has been commercially available since the 1970s, with the cone becoming a metal reservoir which keeps the melted beeswax at a constant temperature and

Pysanka

holds a much larger amount than a traditional stylus. These newer styluses (whether electric or not) also sport machined heads, with sizes or the opening ranging from extra-extra-fine to extra-heavy. Sharing pysanky. Pysanky are typically made to be given to family members and respected outsiders. To give a pysanka is to give a symbolic gift of life, which is why the egg must remain whole. Furthermore, the design, a combination of the motifs and colors on a traditional folk pysanka, has a deep, symbolic meaning. Traditionally, a pysanka given with its symbolic meaning in mind, be it

Pysanka

wishes of protection, fecundity, or love. Typically, pysanky were displayed prominently in a public room of the house. In a large family, by Holy Thursday, 60 or more eggs would have been completed by the women of the house. (The more daughters a family had, the more pysanky would be produced.) The eggs would then be taken to the church on Easter Sunday to be blessed, after which they were given away. Here is a partial list of how the pysanky would be used: Everyone from the youngest to the oldest received a pysanka for Easter. Young people were given

Pysanka

pysanky with bright designs; dark pysanky were given to older people. A bowl full of pysanky was invariably kept in every home. It served not only as a colorful display, but also as protection from all dangers. Some of the eggs were emptied, and a bird's head made of wax or dough and wings and tail-feathers of folded paper were attached. These “doves” were suspended before icons in commemoration of the birth of Christ, when a dove came down from heaven and soared over the child Jesus. Traditional symbolism in pysanky. A great variety of ornamental motifs are

Pysanka

found on pysanky. Because of the egg's fragility, few ancient examples of pysanky have survived. However, similar design motifs occur in pottery, woodwork, metalwork, Ukrainian embroidery and other folk arts, many of which have survived. The symbols which decorated pysanky underwent a process of adaptation over time. In pre-Christian times these symbols imbued an egg with magical powers to ward off evil spirits, banish winter, guarantee a good harvest and bring a person good luck. After 988, when Christianity became the state religion of Ukraine, the interpretation of many of the symbols began to change, and the pagan

Pysanka

motifs were reinterpreted in a Christian light. Since the mid-19th century, pysanky have been created more for decorative reasons than for the purposes of magic, especially among the Diaspora, as belief in most such rituals and practices has fallen by the wayside in a more modern, scientific era. Additionally, the Ukrainian diaspora has reinterpreted meanings and created their own new symbols and interpretations of older ones. The names and meaning of various symbols and design elements vary from region to region, and even from village to village. Similar symbols can have totally different interpretations in different places. There are several

Pysanka

thousand different motifs in Ukrainian folk designs. They can be grouped into several families. Keep in mind that these talismanic meanings applied to traditional folk pysanky with traditional designs, not to modern original creations. Geometric. The most popular pysanka designs are geometric figures. The egg itself is most often divided by straight lines into squares, triangles and other shapes. These shapes are then filled with other forms and designs. These are also among the most ancient symbols, with the решето (resheto, sieve) motif dating back to Paleolithic times. Other ancient geometric symbols are agricultural in nature: triangles, which symbolized clouds

Pysanka

or rain; quadrilaterals, especially those with a resheto design in them, symbolized a ploughed field; dots stood for seeds. Geometric symbols used quite commonly on pysanky today. The triangle is said to symbolize the Holy Trinity; in ancient times it symbolized other trinities: the elements of air, fire and water, the family (man, woman and child) or the cycle of life (birth, life, and death). Diamonds, a type of quadrilateral, are sometimes said to symbolize knowledge. Curls/spirals are ancient symbols of the Zmiya/Serpent, and are said to have a meaning of defense or protection. The spiral is said

Pysanka

to be protective against the "нечиста сила"; an evil spirit which happens to enter a house will be drawn into the spiral and trapped there. Dots, which can represent seeds, stars or cuckoo birds’ eggs (a symbol of spring), are popularly said to be the tears of the blessed Virgin. Hearts are also sometimes seen, and, as in other cultures, they represent love. An adaptation of the geometric design is not a symbol per se but a division of the egg called "forty triangles" (actually 48) or "Sorokoklyn (forty wedges)." Its ancient meaning is not known, but is often said

Pysanka

to represent the forty days of lent, the forty martyrs, the forty days that Christ spent in the desert, or the forty life tasks of married couples. Eternity bands. Eternity bands or meanders are composed of waves, lines or ribbons; such a line is called a "bezkonechnyk." A line without end is said to represent immortality. Waves, however, are a water symbol, and thus a symbol of the Zmiya/Serpent, the ancient water god. Waves are therefore considered an agricultural symbol, because it is rain that ensures good crops. Berehynia. The goddess motif is an ancient one, and most commonly

Pysanka

found in pysanky from Bukovyna, Polissia or Podillia. The berehynia was believed to be the source of life and death. On the one hand, she is a life giving mother, the creator of heaven and all living things, and the mistress of heavenly water (rain), upon which the world relies for fertility and fruitfulness. On the other hand, she was the merciless controller of destinies. The goddess is sometimes depicted with arms upraised, and the arms vary in number but are always in pairs: 2, 4 or 6. This is similar to the appearance of the Christian Oranta. Pysanky with

Pysanka

this motif were called “bohyn’ky” (богиньки, little goddesses) or “zhuchky” (жучки, beetles), the latter because they are similar in appearance to the Cyrillic letter Ж (zh). Sometimes the berehynia has become abstracted, and is represented by a plant—vazon—the tree of life. Her arms become the branches and flowers, and she is firmly rooted in a flowerpot. The most common depiction of the great goddess is a composition containing “kucheri” (curls). The berehynia may be seen perched on a curl, or a curl may be given wings; the symbol may be doubled, end-to-end. There is usually a

Pysanka

crown on the berehynia's head. These compositions are given the folk names of “queen,” “princess,” "rooster," “scythe,” “drake,” or simply “wings." Christian symbols. The only true traditional Christian symbol, and not one adapted from an earlier pagan one, is the church. Stylized churches are often found on pysanky from Hutsul regions (including parts of Bukovyna). Church parts are usually in threes: three stories/roofs, three towers, three openings (windows, doors). Sometimes only the bell tower (dzvinytsia) is depicted. Crosses are fairly common, although most of those found on traditional pysanky are not Ukrainian (Byzantine) crosses. The crosses most commonly

Pysanka

depicted are of the simple "Greek" cross type, with arms of equal lengths. This type of cross predates Christianity, and is a sun symbol (an abstracted representation of the solar bird); it is sometimes combined with the star (ruzha) motif. The "cross crosslet" type of cross, one in which the ends of each arm are crossed, is frequently seen, particularly on Hutsul and Bukovynian pysanky. Other adapted religious symbols include a triangle with a circle in the center, denoting the eye of God, and one known as the "hand of god." In the 20th and 21st centuries, the commercially produced

Pysanka

folk pysanky of the Carpathians, especially Kosmach, have begun displaying more Christian symbols. The lower arm of the cross in older designs is often lengthened to appear more Christian, even if it throws off the symmetry of the design. Crucifixes are sometimes seen. Pysanky are being written with depictions of Easter baskets on them, including a paska and candle. White doves, symbols of the Holy Spirit, are also more frequently seen; doves are usually depicted in flight, while other wild birds are traditionally shown perched. Phytomorphic (plant) motifs. The most common motifs found on pysanky are those associated with plants

Pysanka

and their parts (flowers and fruit). Women who wrote pysanky drew their inspiration from the world of nature, depicting flowers, trees, fruits, leaves and whole plants in a highly stylized (not realistic) fashion. Such ornaments symbolized the rebirth of nature after winter, and pysanky were written with plant motifs to guarantee a good harvest. A most popular floral design is a plant in a vase of standing on its own, which symbolized the tree of life and was a highly abstracted version of the berehynia (great goddess). Pysanky created by the mountain people of the Hutsul region of Ukraine often

Pysanka

showed a stylized fir tree branch, a symbol of youth and eternal life. Trees, in general, symbolized strength, renewal, creation, growth; as with animal motifs, the parts (leaves, branches) had the same symbolic meaning as the whole. The oak tree was a sacred to the ancient god Perun, the most powerful of the pagan Slavic pantheon, and thus oak leaves symbolized strength. Pussy willow branches are sometimes depicted on pysanky; in Ukraine, the pussy willow replaces the palm leaf on Palm Sunday. This is not a common motif, though, and may be a more recent addition. Two very popular plant

Pysanka

motifs on modern diasporan pysanky are poppies and wheat; these motifs are never seen on traditional pysanky, and are purely a modern invention. Flowers. Flowers are a common pysanka motif. They can be divided into two types: specific botanical types, and non-specific. Specific botanical types include sunflowers, daisies, violets, carnations, periwinkle and lily-of the-valley. These flowers are represented with identifying features that make them recognizable. Carnations will have a serrated edge to the petals, the flowers of the lily of the valley will be arrayed along a stem, periwinkle will have three or four leaves (periwinkle is

Pysanka

represented by its leaves, not its flowers, on pysanky). There are also flower motifs called orchids and tulips, but these are not botanical names. They are actually the names given to fantastical flowers, as neither of these flowers was commonly found in Ukraine until modern times. The names reflected the exoticism of the designs. Non-specific flowers are much more common, and consist of the ruzha and others. The ruzha (or rozha) is named after the mallow flower, although it does not resemble one, and is another name given to the eight-pointed star motif. A ruzha can be full

Pysanka

, empty, compound, divided or even crooked. It is a sun sign. Other non-specific types often have hyphenated names: potato-flower, strawberry-flower, etc. They are usually simple arrangements of petals, six or more, and bear little resemblance to the plant they are named for. Vazon/Tree of Life. The “tree of life” motif is widely used in traditional pysanky designs. It can be represented in many ways. Sometimes it appears as two deer on either side of a pine tree. More often it manifests as a flower pot (“vazon”), filled with leaves and flowers. The pot itself is usually

Pysanka

a rectangle, triangle or a rhomboid (symbolic of the earth), and is covered with dots (seeds) and dashes (water). Many branches grow out of it, in a symmetric fashion, with leaves and flowers. This plant is a berehynia (goddess) symbol, with the branches representing the many arms of the mother goddess. Fruit. Fruit is not a common motif on pysanky, but is sometimes represented. Apples, plums and cherries are depicted on traditional pysanky. Currants and viburnum (kalyna) berries are sometimes seen, too. These motifs are probably related to fecundity. Grapes are seen more often, as they have been transformed from

Pysanka

an agricultural motif to a religious one, representing the Holy Communion. Scevomorphic motifs. Skeuomorphic designs are the second-largest group of designs, and are representations of man-made agricultural objects. These symbols are very common, as Ukraine was a highly agricultural society, and drew many of its positive images from field and farm. Some of these symbols are related to agriculture; others have older meanings, but were renamed in more recent times based on their appearance. Common symbols include the ladder, symbolizing prayers going up to heaven, and the sieve ("resheto"), standing for a plowed field, or perhaps the separation

Pysanka

of good and evil. Rakes and combs are often depicted; both are meant to invoke a good harvest. Both are rain symbols. The body of the rake (sometimes depicted as a triangle) is the cloud, and the teeth symbolize rain drops. (Note: these combs are not hair combs, but agricultural implements, see Harrow (tool).) Windmills, a variation on the broken cross (swastika) motif, are sun symbols. The movement of the cross echoes the movement of the sun across the sky. Zoomorphic (animal) motifs. Although animal motifs are not as popular as plant motifs, they are nevertheless found on pysanky, especially

Pysanka

those of the people of the Carpathian Mountains. Animal depicted on pysanky include both wild animals (deer, birds, fish) and domesticated ones (rams, horses, poultry). As with plants, animals were depicted in the abstract, highly stylized, and not with realistic detail. Horses were popular ornaments because they symbolized strength and endurance, as well as wealth and prosperity. They also had a second meaning as a sun symbol: in some versions of pagan mythology, the sun was drawn across the sky by the steeds of Dazhboh, the sun god. Similarly, deer designs were fairly common as they were intended to bring

Pysanka

prosperity and long life; in other versions of the myth, it was the stag who carried the sun across the sky on his antlers. Rams are symbols of leadership, strength, dignity, and perseverance. Sometime women simply drew parts of animals; these symbols were probably a sort of shorthand, endowed with all the attributes of the animal represented. Ducks’ necks, goose feet, rabbits’ ears, rams’ horns, wolves’ teeth, bear claws, and bulls’ eyes can all be found on pysanky. One cannot be sure, however, if these symbols were actually meant to represent animals, or were renamed centuries later because of

Pysanka

their appearance. Birds. Birds were considered the harbingers of spring, thus they were a commonplace pysanka motif. Birds of all kinds are the messengers of the sun and heaven. Birds are always shown perched, at rest, never flying (except for swallows and, in more recent times, white doves carrying letters). Roosters are symbols of masculinity, or the coming of dawn, and hens represent fertility. Birds were almost always shown in full profile, stylized, but with characteristic features of the species. Partial representations of some birds––mostly domestic fowl––are often seen on pysanky. Bird parts (eyes, feet, beaks, combs, feathers) are said

Pysanka

carry the same meaning as the entire bird. Thus hen's feet represent fertility and the rooster's comb signifies masculinity. Insects. Insects are only rarely depicted on pysanky. Highly stylized spiders (and occasionally their webs) are the most common on folk pysanky, and symbolize perseverance. Beetles are sometimes seen, but rarely look anything like a beetle. What they do resemble, somewhat, is the letter Ж, as in their Ukrainian name "жучок." Other insects are sometimes seen on modern, diasporan pysanky, most commonly butterflies and bees, but seem to be a modern innovation. In Onyshchuk's "Symbolism of the Ukrainian

Pysanka

Pysanka" she depicts pysanky with a butterfly motif, but the original design, recorded by Kulzhynsky in 1899, was labeled as being swallows' tails. Fish. The fish, originally a symbol of health, eventually came to symbolize Jesus Christ, the "fisher of men." In old Ukrainian fairy tales, the fish often helped the hero to win his fight with evil. In the Greek alphabet “fish” (ichthys) is an acrostic of "Jesus Christ, Son of God, Savior,” and it became a secret symbol used by the early Christians. The fish represents abundance, as well as Christian interpretations of baptism, sacrifice, the powers of

Pysanka

regeneration, and Christ himself. Serpent. Another ancient symbol is that of the змія or serpent, the ancient god of water and earth. The serpent could be depicted in several ways: as an "S" or sigma, as a curl or spiral, or as a wave. When depicted as a sigma, the zmiya often wears a crown. Depictions of the serpent can be found on Neolithic Trypillian pottery. The serpent symbol on a "pysanka" is said to bring protection from catastrophe. Spirals were particularly strong talismans, as an evil spirit, upon entering the house, would be drawn into the spiral and trapped

Pysanka

there. Cosmomorphic motifs. Among the oldest and most important symbols of pysanky is the sun, and the simplest rendering of the sun is a closed circle with or without rays. Pysanky from all regions of Ukraine depict an eight-sided star, the most common depiction of the sun; this symbol is also called a "ruzha." Six- or seven-sided stars can also be seen, but much less commonly. The sun can also appear as a flower or a трилист (three leaf). The swastika, called in Ukrainian a "svarha," is sometimes referred to as a "broken cross" or "ducks’ necks." It

Pysanka

represented the sun in pagan times: the movement of the arms around the cross represented the movement of the sun across the sky. The Slavic pagans also believed that the sun did not rise on its own, but was carried across the sky by a stag (or, in some versions, a horse). The deer and horses often found on Hutsul pysanky are solar symbols. Pysanky with sun motifs were said to have been especially powerful, because they could protect their owner from sickness, bad luck and the evil eye. In Christian times the sun symbol is said to represent life

Pysanka

, warmth, and the love and the Christian God. Other cosmomorphic symbols are less commonly seen. The moon is sometimes depicted as a circle with a cross inside it; it is begged to shed its light at night to help the traveller, and to chase away evil powers from the household. Stars are sometimes represented as dots. Modern symbolism in pysanky. Modern easter eggs also depict other symbols, memes and inscriptions. With the beginning of the full-scale Russian invasion in 2022, the images acquired a patriotic meaning. There are tridents, a rooster of Vasylkiv majolica, tractors (pulling armored vehicles), inscriptions

Pysanka

Oh in the meadow, "For the freedom of Ukraine", "I believe in Ukrainian Armed Forces", etc. The trend for Ukrainian Pysanka has also spread to foreign designers who create such Pysankas with a rethinking of their symbolism. Color symbolism. It is not only motifs on pysanky which carried symbolic weight: colors also had significance. Although the earliest pysanky were often simply two-toned, and many folk designs still are, some believed that the more colors there were on a decorated egg, the more magical power it held. A multi-colored egg could thus bring its owner better luck and a

Pysanka

better fate. The color palette of traditional pysanky was fairly limited, and based on natural dyes. Yellow, red/orange, green, brown and black were the predominant colors. With the advent of aniline dyes in the 1800s, small amounts of blue and purple were sometimes added. It is important to note that the meanings below are generalizations; different regions interpreted colors differently. Some color combinations had specific meanings, too: As with symbols, these talismanic meanings of colors applied to traditional pysanky with traditional designs, and not to modern decorative pysanky. Pysanka A pysanka (, plural: "pysanky") is a Ukrainian Easter egg, decorated

Pysanka

Howard Baker Howard Baker Howard Henry Baker Jr. (November 15, 1925 June 26, 2014) was an American politician and diplomat who served as a United States Senator from Tennessee from 1967 to 1985. During his tenure, he rose to the rank of Senate Minority Leader and then Senate Majority Leader. A member of the Republican Party, Baker was the first Republican to be elected to the US Senate in Tennessee since the Reconstruction era. Known in Washington, D.C., as the "Great Conciliator", Baker was often regarded as one of the most successful senators in terms of brokering compromises, enacting legislation, and maintaining

Howard Baker

civility. For example, he had a lead role in the fashioning and passing of the Clean Air Act of 1970 with Democratic senator Edmund Muskie. A moderate conservative, he was also respected by his Democratic colleagues. Baker sought the Republican presidential nomination in 1980 but dropped out after the first set of primaries. From 1987 to 1988, he served as White House Chief of Staff for President Ronald Reagan. From 2001 to 2005, he was the United States Ambassador to Japan. Early life. Baker was born in Huntsville, Tennessee, to Dora Ann (née Ladd) and Howard H. Baker His father

Howard Baker

served as a Republican member of the US House of Representatives from 1951 to 1964, representing Tennessee's Second District. Baker attended The McCallie School in Chattanooga, and after graduating, he attended Tulane University in New Orleans. Baker was an alumnus of the Alpha Sigma Chapter of the Pi Kappa Phi fraternity. During World War II, he trained at a U.S. Navy facility on the campus of the University of the South in Sewanee, Tennessee, in the V-12 Navy College Training Program. He served as a lieutenant in the United States Navy and graduated from the University of Tennessee College

Howard Baker

of Law in 1949. That year, he was admitted to the Tennessee bar and began his law practice. Senate career. Baker began his political career in 1964, when he lost to the liberal Democrat Ross Bass in a US Senate election to fill the unexpired term of the late Senator Estes Kefauver. However, Baker only lost by 4.7 percentage points, the closest that a Republican had come to being popularly elected to the Senate from Tennessee. In the 1966 United States Senate election in Tennessee, Bass lost the Democratic primary to a former Governor of Tennessee, Frank G. Clement, and

Howard Baker

Baker handily won his Republican primary race against Kenneth Roberts, 112,617 (75.7 percent) to 36,043 (24.2 percent). Baker won the general election, capitalizing on Clement's failure to energize the Democratic base, especially organized labor. He won by a somewhat larger-than-expected margin of 55.7 percent to Clement's 44.2 percent. Baker thus became the first Republican senator from Tennessee since Reconstruction and the first Republican to be popularly elected to the Senate from Tennessee. Baker voted in favor of the Civil Rights Act of 1968 and the confirmation of Thurgood Marshall to the U.S. Supreme Court. Baker was

Howard Baker

re-elected in 1972 and again in 1978 and served from January 3, 1967, to January 3, 1985. In 1969, he was already a candidate for the Minority Leadership position that opened up with the death of his father-in-law, Everett Dirksen, but Baker was defeated 24–19 by Hugh Scott. At the beginning of the next Congress, in 1971, Baker ran again, losing again to Scott, 24–20. When Scott retired, Baker was elected as leader of the Senate Republicans in 1977 by his Republican colleagues, defeating Robert Griffin, 19–18. Baker led the Senate GOP for the last eight years

Howard Baker

of his tenure, serving two terms as Senate Minority Leader from 1977 to 1981, and two terms as Senate Majority Leader from 1981 to 1985, a role he transitioned to after the Republicans gained the majority in the Senate in the 1980 elections. Baker did not seek further re-election and concluded his Senate career in 1985. He was succeeded by Democratic Representative and future Vice President Al Gore. Nixon administration. President Richard Nixon asked Baker in 1971 to fill one of the two empty seats on the US Supreme Court. When Baker took too long to decide whether he

Howard Baker

wanted the appointment, Nixon changed his mind and nominated William Rehnquist instead. Watergate investigation. In 1973 and 1974, Baker was the influential ranking minority member of the Senate Watergate Committee, chaired by Senator Sam Ervin, which investigated the Watergate scandal. Baker famously asked aloud, "What did the President know and when did he know it?" The question is sometimes attributed to being given to him by his counsel and former campaign manager, future US Senator Fred Thompson. John Dean, former White House counsel to Nixon, revealed to Senate Watergate chief counsel Samuel Dash that Baker had "secret dealings" with the

Howard Baker

White House during the congressional investigation. Although Baker, as a US senator, would be a juror in any future impeachment trial, Baker was recorded, on February 22, 1973, promising Nixon, "I'm your friend. I'm going to see that your interests are protected." Watergate reporter Bob Woodward wrote that then "both the majority Democrats and minority Republicans agreed to share all information." Ultimately, one such document shared by Nixon lawyer Fred Buzhardt inadvertently suggested the presence of Nixon's secret taping system. Presidential campaign. Baker was frequently mentioned by insiders as a possible nominee for Vice President of the

Howard Baker

United States on a ticket headed by incumbent President Gerald Ford in 1976. According to many sources, Baker was a frontrunner until he disclosed that his wife, Joy, was a recovered alcoholic. Ford, whose own wife, Betty, was an alcoholic, chose Kansas Senator Bob Dole. Baker ran for U.S. president in 1980, dropping out of the race for the Republican nomination after losing the Iowa caucuses to George H.W. Bush and the New Hampshire primary to Ronald Reagan even though a Gallup poll had him in second place in the presidential race at 18%, behind Reagan at 41% as late

Howard Baker

as November 1979. Baker's support of the 1978 Panama Canal Treaties was overwhelmingly unpopular, especially among Republicans, and it was a factor in Reagan's choosing Bush instead as his running mate. Ted Stevens served as Acting Minority Leader during Baker's primary campaign. Reagan administration. In 1984, Baker received the Presidential Medal of Freedom. In October 1983, Baker voted in favor of the bill establishing Martin Luther King Jr. Day as a federal holiday. As a testament to Baker's skill as a negotiator and an honest and amiable broker, Reagan tapped him to serve as Chief of

Howard Baker

Staff during part of Reagan's second term (1987–1988). Many saw that as a move by Reagan to mend relations with the Senate, which had deteriorated somewhat under the previous chief of staff, Donald Regan. In accepting the appointment, Baker chose to skip another bid for the White House in 1988. Later life. In 2003, the Howard H. Baker, Jr. Center for Public Policy was set up at the University of Tennessee to honor him. Vice President Dick Cheney gave a speech at the 2005 ground-breaking ceremony for the center's new building. Upon the building's completion in

Howard Baker

2008, US Supreme Court Justice Sandra Day O'Connor assisted in the facility's dedication. In 2007, Baker joined fellow former Senate Majority Leaders Bob Dole, Tom Daschle, and George Mitchell to found the Bipartisan Policy Center, a non-profit think tank that works to develop policies suitable for bipartisan support. He was an advisory board member for the Partnership for a Secure America, a not-for-profit organization dedicated to recreating the bipartisan center in American national security and foreign policy. From 2005 to 2011, Baker was a member of the board of directors of the International Foundation for Electoral

Howard Baker

Systems, a nonprofit that provides international election support. From 2005 to his death, Baker served as Senior Counsel to the law firm of his father and his grandfather, Baker, Donelson, Bearman, Caldwell & Berkowitz. Baker was an accomplished lifelong photographer. His photographs have often been exhibited and were published in "National Geographic", "Life", and in the books "Howard Baker's Washington" (1982), "Big South Fork Country" (1993), and "Scott's Gulf: The Bridgestone/Firestone Centennial Wilderness " (2000). In 1993, he received the International Award of the American Society of Photographers, and in 1994, he was elected into the Hall of Fame

Howard Baker

of the Photo Marketing Association. Death. On June 26, 2014, Baker died at the age of 88 from complications of a stroke that he had suffered a week earlier. He was in his native Huntsville, Tennessee, with his wife, Nancy, by his side. Personal life. Baker, a Presbyterian, was married twice. His first wife, Joy Dirksen, with whom he had two daughters, was herself the daughter of former Senate Minority Leader Everett M. Dirksen (R). After his first wife died of cancer in 1993, he remarried in 1996 to fellow U.S. Senator Nancy Landon Kassebaum, who also happened to be

Howard Baker

the daughter of a Republican politician, Kansas Governor Alfred M. Landon, the unsuccessful Republican nominee for President in 1936 against Democratic incumbent Franklin Roosevelt. Howard Baker Howard Henry Baker Jr. (November 15, 1925 June 26, 2014) was an American politician and diplomat who served as a United States Senator from Tennessee from 1967 to 1985. During his tenure, he rose to the rank of Senate Minority Leader and then Senate Majority Leader. A member of the Republican Party, Baker was the first Republican to be elected to the US Senate in Tennessee since the Reconstruction era. Known in Washington, D.C.

Howard Baker

Zagovory Zagovory In Eastern Slavic mythology, (singular ) is a form of verbal folk magic. Users of "" can enchant objects or people. Etymology. The present-day Russian word ' () corresponds to the English word "conjuration", which once meant a 'conspiracy, plot, act of plotting'. ' ('what is performed with speech') originates from Russian folklore. So does the term "" (), with its prefix of initiation "na-" and the root "-govor" ('speech'), meaning 'what is launched with speech'. Their slight difference in sense can be seen in constructions like "zagovory from maleficium"/"from bullets" (defensive, apotropaic aspect) and "nagovory onto water" (to make it "healing"). The latter phrase

Zagovory

seems to reflect a more offensive action. The Ukrainian ' () and Belarusian ' () are semantically identical to the Russian ', as they both possess the root "-mov" ('speech'). Both of these East Slavic words are close to the Polish term . Polish folklore retains rudiments of verbal magic as ' ('popular healing'). History. "Zagоvory" praxis arose from pagan prayers and incantations, and so was initially based on the belief in the power of the human word. Hence followed the importance of exact pronunciation of the words (whether whispered or sung) as well as exact observing the associated rites. A great deal of life stamina was

Zagovory

obligatory for a performer of the rites. As an example of this, a "" practitioner should have either a full set of teeth, or a knife as a symbolic substitute for teeth that were missing. Originally part of the art of a ' (Cyrillic: "Волхвы"; ), who disappeared during the prosecution of the Eastern Orthodox Church, the ' tradition survived until the 20th century in popular folk culture, often under the guise of a noncanonical Christian prayer. In the Russian Empire, "zagovory" praxes were for centuries prosecuted by its church and by its secular, caesaropapist authorities (at least from mid-17th till mid-19th century). Russian

Zagovory

archives yielded more than 600 cases of church and civil prosecution of witchcraft, blasphemy and rational heresies in the 18th century. Even in 1832, after Digest of Laws of the Russian Empire had been first codified under the leadership of Mikhail Speransky, witchcraft and sorcery still remained a subject of the secular Penal law. For the sake of survival "zagovory" tradition began to mimic Christianity. "Zagovory" imagery became saturated with Christian themes and motifs, used as a reference base for performing magic acts. However within Byzantine written tradition (which embraced the Southern Slavs cultural intermediation) both Christian orthodoxy and some

Zagovory

heterodox manuscripts circulated, which might echo back local heathen concepts. For example, one of the "zagovory" (apparently influenced by christianization, though representing rather a specific vision) named "how to heal wounds" said "like Jesus Christ having been crucified didn't feel any pain, so may the same way not feel any wounds, any illnesses". Another layer in "zagovory" heritage could be of Western origin. Each of the motifs shared by East and West Slavs has West European (mostly Germanic) matches. This indicates that West Slavic charms served as a mediator between the East Slavic tradition and Western influences. The magical

Zagovory

formula "Stop, blood, as still in the wound, as water/Jesus in the Jordan" is an example of a treated person's bleeding wound assimilation with a Medieval apocryphal story of how the Jordan waters stopped flowing when Jesus entered them. It is attested in Belarus, Ukraine, somewhat rare in South and West Russia. As for other Slavic traditions, the formula occurs in Poland and, even more commonly, in Polish texts recorded in Lithuania; it is also found in Czech charms, though intended against disorders other than bleeding. Geographically the Eastern Slavic "zagovory" tradition area could be roughly divided into

Zagovory

two subareas. One of them is the tradition of the Russian North and adjoining Central Russian regions. This tradition was less influenced by neighboring cultures through direct contacts, though strongly influenced by the manuscript tradition. As a result it is not too diverse in the composition of plots and motifs. But the most famous plots, motifs and formulas which are considered an authentic feature of Russian (and all East Slavic) "zagovory" (such as the motive of the sacred center, Alatyr stone on Buyan island amid holy sea) seem to come from there. Within the second tradition, covering most of Ukraine

Zagovory

and Belarus, as well as the south and west Russian regions, the West and South Slavic (as well as Byzantine) influence manifested itself to the greatest extent. The result is the coexistence and active interaction of plots, motifs and poetic formulas of different origins. Mythological center and assimilation formulas. While the idea of the mythological center is totally absent in incantations of West and South Slavs, it is known in the folklore of all East Slavs, especially in Russian tradition of "zagovory". In Eastern Slavic folk religion the concept of Navel of the World is embodied by a sacred stone

Zagovory

Alatyr (frequently referred as white and hot), located somewhere in the East (either in a pristine ("clear") field or Buyan island amid a holy sea/ocean). The Alatyr appears in most of the "zagovory" under a variety of names. Much less than usually it is replaced by a sacred tree (for instance, a willow or a white birch) or a non-specified Christian church. Appeals to such natural phenomena as dawn with red sun (and Eastern side of the world as such), young (new) moon, stars, winds are also very often. As to personalized phenomena in those mythopoetic texts, one

Zagovory

can see that heathen and Christian characters are often interchangeable. For instance, in different versions of the same "zagovory", the supreme power that a practitioner applies to is either Maria (Mother of God) or "Dawn the Red Maiden" (Zorya). In some of the "zagovory" a practitioner appeals to Western side of the world for help in maleficium. Nevertheless, the absolute majority of "zagovory" texts focused on good deeds, such as healing people and livestock, attracting luck, love affairs, wedding protection, birth support and public relations. In Western Siberia a "zagovor" was written down, named "for good deeds", which should have

Zagovory

been read thrice around new moon. It said: "...I behold a young crescent with golden horns, give, my God, golden horns to new moon, so give to me, for good deeds..." Also, it might be a love wish "just like doves live in love, so would we with so-and-so do..." But sentencing that "zagovor" from Perm Governorate should have been well-prepared: a guy should have caught and stabbed a dove, kneaded the dough on its fat and baked a kind of a small kalach, then fed a girlfriend with it, saying the above mentioned words. A recorded

Zagovory

in 1648 "nagovor" onto wax named "how to endure a torture" established that "both heaven and earth are made of bast", and then made a wish "like the dead in the earth don't feel anything, so may so-and-so the same way not feel any atrocities, any tortures". The most usual beginning of a Russian North "zagovor" was "I'm getting up blessed, going out through doors and gates to the East, toward Eastern side, to pristine field, to sea-ocean, on to holy God's island... on that island there lies stone Alatyr..." In the middle of

Zagovory

zagovory the wishful part was patterned as assimilation with natural or sacred phenomena, like in this hemostatic example: "... neither stone Alatyr yields any water, nor would I bleed... neither a hen yields any milk, a cock any egg, nor would so-and-so bleed... neither blood from a bone, nor water from a stone..." The typical ending of "zagovory" (accompanied by symbolism of both key and lock) often included the statement "May my words be (both) firm and plasteringly adherent". Interesting fact. In Russian humanities, the term "zagovory" is often used broadly, for any manifestation of faith in the magic

Zagovory

power of the human word, thus applied to completely different cultural phenomena of the humankind (from Anglo-Saxon metrical charms to Atharvaveda's suktas). Zagovory In Eastern Slavic mythology, (singular ) is a form of verbal folk magic. Users of "" can enchant objects or people. Etymology. The present-day Russian word ' () corresponds to the English word "conjuration", which once meant a 'conspiracy, plot, act of plotting'. ' ('what is performed with speech') originates from Russian folklore. So does the term "" (), with its prefix of initiation "na-" and the root "-govor" ('speech'), meaning 'what is launched with speech'. Their slight difference in sense

Zagovory

Screw (magazine) Screw (magazine) Screw is a pornographic online magazine published in the United States aimed at heterosexual men; originally published as a weekly tabloid newspaper with a statement on the cover offering, "Jerk-Off Entertainment for Men". It was first published in-print in November 1968 by Al Goldstein and Jim Buckley (who edited the short-lived "sister" tabloid "Gay"), and was printed weekly in tabloid form. At its peak, "Screw" sold 140,000 copies a week. Founder Al Goldstein won a series of nationally significant court cases addressing obscenity. On May 2, 1969, "Screw" published the first reference in print to

Screw (magazine)

J. Edgar Hoover's sexuality, entitled "Is J. Edgar Hoover a Fag?" The Eulenspiegel Society (the first BDSM organization founded in the United States) was founded in 1971 in New York City by Pat Bond (he was a music teacher) and Fran Nowve, as an informal association and support group for masochists; sadists joined shortly after in that same year. Bond placed an ad in "Screw" in December 1970, reading: Masochist? Happy? Is it curable? Does psychiatry help? Is a satisfactory life-style possible? There's women's lib, black lib, gay lib, etc. Isn't it time we put

Screw (magazine)

something together?" "Screw"s most successful issue, published in 1973, contained unauthorized photos of Jacqueline Kennedy nude. Stripper and erotic performance artist Honeysuckle Divine wrote a column, "Diary of a Dirty Broad", for "Screw" for several years. According to Goldstein, her act "was unbelievably disgusting, so naturally, we made her our symbol." She also appeared in Goldstein's movie, "SOS: Screw on the Screen". In 1974, Goldstein and Buckley were charged with 12 counts of obscenity in a federal court in Kansas. The case dragged on for three years through two trials and was finally settled when Goldstein agreed to pay

Screw (magazine)

a $30,000 fine. In 1977, Alabama governor George Wallace sued "Screw" for $5 million for publishing the claim that he had learned to perform sexual acts from reading the magazine. The two parties settled for $12,500, and "Screw" agreed to print an apology. The magazine suspended publication in October 2003, and Goldstein declared bankruptcy. In 2004 the periodical was restarted by former employees led by Kevin Hein; physical publication ended in 2007 as the title neared, but did not reach, its 2000th issue. In 2019, "Screw" returned as an adult, subscription-based television channel ("SCREW TV") on

Screw (magazine)

Roku developed and produced by long-time Goldstein friend and associate Phil Autelitano. On November 4, 2020, the 52nd anniversary of its initial launch, "Screw" resumed publishing in digital-only format, published by SCREW TV producer Phil Autelitano (as "Phil Italiano") and Autelitano Media Group of Miami, FL. Screw (magazine) Screw is a pornographic online magazine published in the United States aimed at heterosexual men; originally published as a weekly tabloid newspaper with a statement on the cover offering, "Jerk-Off Entertainment for Men". It was first published in-print in November 1968 by Al Goldstein and Jim Buckley (who

Screw (magazine)

Clapper bridge Clapper bridge A clapper bridge is an ancient form of bridge found on the moors of the English West Country (Bodmin Moor, Dartmoor and Exmoor) and in other upland areas of the United Kingdom including Snowdonia and Anglesey, Cumbria, Derbyshire, Yorkshire, Lancashire and Scotland. It is formed by large flat slabs of stone, often granite or schist. These can be supported on stone piers across rivers, or rest on the banks of streams. History. Although often credited with prehistoric origin, most were erected in medieval times, and some in later centuries. They are often situated close to a ford where

Clapper bridge

carts could cross. According to the Dartmoor National Park, the word 'clapper' derives ultimately from an Anglo-Saxon word, , meaning 'bridging the stepping stones'; the "Oxford English Dictionary" gives the intermediate Medieval Latin form , , "of Gaulish origin", with an initial meaning of "a pile of stones". Examples. A fine example, the Postbridge Clapper Bridge ("illustration, left"), can be found at Postbridge, on Dartmoor. Its slabs are over long, wide and weigh over each, making the bridge passable to a small cart. It was first recorded in 1380 and was built to facilitate the transportation of Dartmoor tin by pack horses

Clapper bridge

to the stannary town of Tavistock. Other surviving examples include the Tarr Steps over the River Barle in Exmoor, and Stara Bridge over the River Lynher in east Cornwall. Some larger clapper bridges, such as at Dartmeet and Bellever, have collapsed – their slabs swept away by floods, or raided for building or wall construction - and have since been rebuilt. However, there are many other smaller examples in existence on Dartmoor and still in use, such as those at Teignhead Farm (close to Grey Wethers stone circles), Scorhill and across the Wallabrook stream. While the term "clapper bridge" is typically associated

Clapper bridge

with the United Kingdom, other "clapper-style" bridges exist throughout the world. One example is the Anping Bridge in China, being over two kilometres long and one in Louisburgh, Co Mayo in the Republic of Ireland. Clapper bridge A clapper bridge is an ancient form of bridge found on the moors of the English West Country (Bodmin Moor, Dartmoor and Exmoor) and in other upland areas of the United Kingdom including Snowdonia and Anglesey, Cumbria, Derbyshire, Yorkshire, Lancashire and Scotland. It is formed by large flat slabs of stone, often granite or schist. These can be supported on stone piers

Clapper bridge

Nicarchus Nicarchus Nicarchus or Nicarch was a Greek poet and writer of the 1st century AD, best known for his epigrams, of which forty-two survive under his name in the "Greek Anthology", and his satirical poetry. He was a contemporary of, and influence on, the better-known Latin writer Martial. A large proportion of his epigrams are directed against doctors. Some of his writings have been found at Oxyrhynchus in Egypt. A fragment of Nicarchus: The Raven Nicarchus is also the name of a character in a play of Aristophanes, "The Acharnanians." Nicarchus was also the name of a Paeonian

Nicarchus

king, known only from his issuing of a coin. He was perhaps of the late 4th century BC. Nicarchus Nicarchus or Nicarch was a Greek poet and writer of the 1st century AD, best known for his epigrams, of which forty-two survive under his name in the "Greek Anthology", and his satirical poetry. He was a contemporary of, and influence on, the better-known Latin writer Martial. A large proportion of his epigrams are directed against doctors. Some of his writings have been found at Oxyrhynchus in Egypt. A fragment of Nicarchus: The Raven Nicarchus is also the name

Nicarchus

Haibane Renmei Haibane Renmei The series follows Rakka, a newly hatched (a being resembling an angel), and other characters in the city of , a walled town with a single gate through which only a mysterious group, the Toga, are allowed to enter or exit. Plot. The series begins with two parallel scenes. The first scene is of a girl falling through the sky, head downward and cradling a crow. The crow tries to stop the girl's fall by pulling on the hem of her robe, but cannot and eventually flies away. The other scene is of a group of female

Haibane Renmei

Haibane who find a large cocoon growing in a storage room. The Haibane clean the room to prepare for the opening of the cocoon. When the cocoon breaks open, the girl inside (the one seen falling in the first scene) is brought to a guest room where several Haibane care for her, led by an older Haibane named Reki ("small stones"). When the girl wakes up, she can remember only the part of her cocoon dream in which she was falling. As Haibane are traditionally named based on their dreams in the cocoon, she is named Rakka ("falling"). Shortly after

Haibane Renmei

arriving, the Haibane present Rakka with a halo which she begins to wear. Reki cares for Rakka as she goes through the painful and bloody ordeal of having wings erupt from her back. Reki and the other Haibane—who are all teenage girls and younger children—live in "Old Home," an abandoned school in the country near the town of Glie. As time passes, Rakka learns more about Old Home and the Haibane who live there; about Glie, in which the townspeople are friendly and generous to the Haibane; and about "Abandoned Factory," where a second co-ed group of

Haibane Renmei

Haibane lives. The very young children among the Haibane at both locations live at Old Home and are in the care of Reki and a "house mother" from town. All Haibane must work at jobs in Glie and are subject to restrictive rules with sometimes harsh penalties. Foremost among these rules: Haibane may not own anything new, may not use money, and are forbidden to touch or even approach the wall that circles Glie. These rules are strictly enforced by the Haibane Renmei ("Charcoal Feather Federation"), an organization that oversees the lives of the Haibane. Rakka quickly bonds with the

Haibane Renmei