Datasets:

masakhane

/

afriqa_wiki_en_fr_100

like 2

Follow

Masakhane NLP 88

or delegations to the conference and only met with a small group of reporters. The minority group of the Senate Committee on Environment and Public Works prepared a report on "the CRU Controversy", published in February 2010, which listed as "Key Players" 17 scientists including Mann and Phil Jones. Inhofe said it showed that the controversy was "about unethical and potentially illegal behavior by some of the world's leading climate scientists." On May 26 Inhofe formally requested that the Inspector General of the United States Department of Commerce investigate how the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) had dealt

Jim Inhofe

with the emails, and whether the emails showed any wrongdoing; it found no major issues or inappropriate actions. Global warming temperatures. In July 2010 Inhofe said, "I don't think that anyone disagrees with the fact that we actually are in a cold period that started about nine years ago. Now, that's not me talking, those are the scientists that say that." The Union of Concerned Scientists said that Inhofe was wrong, pointing to a NOAA report indicating that the summer of 2010 had so far been the hottest on record since 1880. Inhofe added, "People on the other

Jim Inhofe

side of this argument back in January, they said, 'Inhofe, it has nothing to do with today's or this month or next month. We're looking at a long period of time. We go into twenty year periods.'" During a House committee hearing in 2011, Inhofe testified, "I have to admit—and, you know, confession is good for the soul ... I, too, once thought that catastrophic global warming was caused by anthropogenic gases—because everyone said it was." Under questioning from committee member Jay Inslee, Inhofe dismissed the notion that he was less knowledgeable than climate scientists, saying that

Jim Inhofe

he'd already given "five speeches on the science." 2015: Chair of Environment and Public Works committee. On January 21, 2015, Inhofe returned to chairing the Senate Committee on Environment and Public Works as part of a new Republican majority in the Senate. In response to NOAA and NASA reports that 2014 had been the warmest year globally in the temperature record, he said, "we had the coldest in the western hemisphere in the same time frame", and attributed changes to a 30-year cycle, not human activities. In a debate on the same day about a bill for the

Jim Inhofe

Keystone XL pipeline, Inhofe endorsed an amendment proposed by Senator Sheldon Whitehouse, "Climate change is real and not a hoax", which passed 98–1. Inhofe clarified his view that "Climate is changing and climate has always changed and always will. There is archaeological evidence of that, there is biblical evidence of that, there is historical evidence of that", but added, "there are some people who are so arrogant to think they are so powerful they can change climate." On February 26, 2015, Inhofe brought a snowball to the Senate floor and tossed it before delivering remarks in which he said that

Jim Inhofe

environmentalists keep talking about global warming even though it keeps getting cold. Hydraulic fracturing. On March 19, 2015, Inhofe introduced S.828, "The Fracturing Regulations are Effective in State Hands (FRESH) Act." The bill would transfer regulatory power over hydraulic fracturing from the federal government to state governments. In his announcement of the bill, Inhofe said that hydraulic fracturing has never contaminated ground water in Oklahoma. The U.S. senators from seven states (Arkansas, Idaho, Kentucky, Louisiana, South Dakota and Texas) cosponsored the bill. Paris Agreement. Inhofe co-authored and was one of 22 senators to sign a letter to President Donald

Jim Inhofe

Trump urging him to withdraw the United States from the Paris Agreement. According to OpenSecrets, Inhofe has received over $529,000 from the oil and gas industry since 2012. Political positions and controversies. Foreign policy. Israel Anti-Boycott Act. In October 2017, Inhofe co-sponsored the Israel Anti-Boycott Act (s. 720), which made it a federal crime for Americans to encourage or participate in boycotts against Israel and Israeli settlements in the occupied Palestinian territories if protesting actions by the Israeli government. Western Sahara. Inhofe has long supported the Polisario Front and has traveled to Algeria many times to

Jim Inhofe

meet with its leaders. He has urged Morocco to hold a referendum on Western Saharan independence. In 2017, Inhofe blocked the Trump administration's nomination of J. Peter Pham for Assistant Secretary of State for African Affairs, citing a disagreement over Western Sahara. After the December 2020 Israel–Morocco normalization agreement, Inhofe sharply criticized the Trump administration for recognizing Morocco's claim over Western Sahara, calling the decision "shocking and deeply disappointing" and adding that he was "saddened that the rights of the Western Sahara people have been traded away". War in Afghanistan. Inhofe opposed the 2021 withdrawal of U.S.

Jim Inhofe

troops from Afghanistan under President Biden, saying that Biden should maintain "a relatively small troop presence until the conditions outlined in the 2020 U.S.-Taliban Agreement are fully implemented." Immigration. Inhofe wrote the Inhofe Amendment to the Comprehensive Immigration Reform Act of 2006, which was debated in Congress in May 2006. The amendment would make English the national language of the United States and require that new citizens take an English proficiency test. The amendment was passed on May 18, 2006, with 32 Democrats, one independent, and one Republican dissenting. The measure had 11 cosponsors, including one Democrat. Social issues. Gun

Jim Inhofe

policy. In the aftermath of the 2017 Las Vegas shooting, Inhofe blamed the "culture of sanctuary cities" for the shootings. LGBT rights. Inhofe has generally been seen as overtly hostile by LGBT advocacy groups, earning a 0% in every one of his terms on Human Rights Campaign's position scorecard. Inhofe is in favor of a constitutional amendment banning same-sex marriage, against adding sexual orientation to the definition of hate crimes, and voted against prohibiting job discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation. Inhofe's office has said he "does not hire openly gay staffers due to the possibility

Jim Inhofe

of a conflict of agenda." Inhofe campaigned for his Senate seat in 1994 using the phrase "God, guns, and gays." In 2008, his campaign was noted by the Associated Press for running an ad with "anti-gay overtones" featuring a wedding cake with two male figures on top, fading into his opponent's face. In 1999, along with Republican colleagues Tim Hutchinson and Bob Smith, and Republican Senate Majority Leader Trent Lott, Inhofe stalled the nomination of James Hormel, a gay man, as US Ambassador to Luxembourg for over 20 months specifically because of Hormel's sexual orientation. President Bill

Jim Inhofe

Clinton eventually appointed him in a recess appointment, making him the United States' first openly gay ambassador in June 1999, and angering Inhofe, who held up seven more Clinton appointees in retaliation. In 2015, Inhofe condemned the Supreme Court ruling in "Obergefell v. Hodges", which held that same-sex marriage bans violated the constitution. Racial and gender civil rights. In 1995, Inhofe voted to ban affirmative action hiring with federal funds. In 1997, he voted to end special funding for minority- and women-owned businesses. The bill he voted for would have abolished a program that helps businesses owned by

Jim Inhofe

women and minorities to compete for federally funded transportation; it did not pass. The next year, Inhofe voted to repeal the Disadvantaged Business Enterprise Program, which is designed to "remedy ongoing discrimination and the continuing effects of past discrimination in federally-assisted highway, transit, airport, and highway safety financial assistance transportation contracting markets nationwide" by allocating 10% of highway funds to benefit the business enterprises of racial minorities and women. Overall, in 2002, the American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU) rated Inhofe at 20%, indicating that he has an anti-racial civil rights record. Four years later, on December 31, 2006

Jim Inhofe

, the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) rated Inhofe at 7%, indicating that he has an anti-civil rights and anti-affirmative action record. Privacy. In 2001, Inhofe voted to loosen restrictions on cell phone wiretapping. The bill, which passed, removed the requirement that a person or party implementing an order to wiretap a private citizen's cellphone must ascertain that the target of the surveillance is present in the house or using the phone that has been tapped. Free speech and expression. In 1995, Inhofe co-sponsored a constitutional amendment to the U.S. Constitution that would

Jim Inhofe

give Congress and individual U.S. states the power to prohibit the physical desecration of the American flag. The bill's primary sponsor was Orrin Hatch (R-UT). GI Bill reform. Inhofe, an initial sponsor of Senator Jim Webb's Post-9/11 Veterans Educational Assistance Act of 2008, subsequently withdrew support for this bill to support S 2938, a competing bill that would have provided benefits beyond those offered in Webb's bill. But he voted to enact Webb's legislation in June 2008. Inhofe agreed to support legislation allowing military mental health specialists to talk with veterans about private firearms in

Jim Inhofe

an effort to reduce suicides. Economic issues. Aviation. Trained by the U.S. Navy, Inhofe is one of the few members of Congress holding a Commercial Airman certificate. In 1994, when he first ran for the U.S. Senate, he used his plane as a daily campaign vehicle to travel throughout Oklahoma and visit almost every town in the state. He has been influential in Senate and Congressional debates involving aircraft regulation. Taxpayer-funded travel. Inhofe has said that he has made over 140 trips to Africa over about 20 years and helped to get United States Africa Command established. He has

Jim Inhofe

made multiple foreign trips, especially to Africa, on missions that he described as "a Jesus thing" and that were paid for by the U.S. government. He has used these trips for activities on behalf of The Fellowship, a Christian organization. Inhofe has said that his trips included some governmental work but also involved "the political philosophy of Jesus, something that had been put together by Doug Coe, the leader of The Fellowship ... It's all scripturally based." Inhofe used his access as a Senator to pursue religious goals. Federal disaster relief. Inhofe has consistently voted against federal disaster relief, most

Jim Inhofe

notably in the case of relief for the 24 states affected by Hurricane Sandy, but argued for federal aid when natural disasters hit Oklahoma. In defense of his decision to vote against a relief fund for Sandy but not in Oklahoma after tornadoes ravaged it in May 2013, he claimed the situations were "totally different", in that the Sandy funding involved "Everybody getting in and exploiting the tragedy that took place. That won't happen in Oklahoma." Inhofe pointedly did not thank President Obama for his attention to the tragedy in his state, so as to not be compared to

Jim Inhofe

Chris Christie. Earmarks. In April 2021, Inhofe expressed support for bringing back earmarks to the United States Senate. Impeachment. On February 12, 1999, Inhofe was one of 50 senators to vote to convict and remove Bill Clinton from office. On February 5, 2020, he voted to acquit Donald Trump. 2016 presidential election. Early during the Republican Party presidential primaries in 2016, Inhofe endorsed fellow Republican John Kasich. Since Trump's election, he has voted in line with Trump's position 94.2% of the time. Purchase of Raytheon stock. In December 2018, Inhofe bought $50,000 to $100,000 worth of

Jim Inhofe

stock in Raytheon, a major defense contractor that has billions of dollars' worth of contracts with the Pentagon. The week before, he had successfully lobbied the Trump administration to increase military spending. Ethics watchdogs said the purchase raised conflict of interest concerns, and noted that members of Congress are not allowed to purchase stocks on the basis of information that is not publicly available. Inhofe sold the stock shortly after reporters asked him about the purchase. He said the purchase was made by a third-party adviser who manages Inhofe's investments on his behalf. Judiciary. In March 2016, around

Jim Inhofe

seven months before the next presidential election, Inhofe argued that the Senate should not consider Obama's Supreme Court nominee because "we must let the people decide the Supreme Court's future" via the presidential election. In September 2020, less than two months before the next presidential election, Inhofe supported an immediate vote on Trump's nominee to fill the Supreme Court vacancy caused by Justice Ruth Bader Ginsburg's death. Inhofe also voted to confirm Neil Gorsuch and Brett Kavanaugh (Trump's other two Supreme Court nominations) while voting against Sonia Sotomayor and Elena Kagan (Obama's two Supreme

Jim Inhofe

Court nominations). All four were successful. 2021 storming of the United States Capitol. On May 28, 2021, Inhofe abstained from voting on the creation of an independent commission to investigate the 2021 United States Capitol attack. Personal life. In 1959, Inhofe married Kay Kirkpatrick, with whom he has four children. On November 10, 2013, Inhofe's son, Dr. Perry Inhofe, died in a plane crash in Owasso, Oklahoma, flying alone for the first time since training in a newly acquired plane. Inhofe was the first recipient of the U.S. Air Force Academy's Character and Leadership Award for his character

Jim Inhofe

and leadership in public service. Jim Inhofe James Mountain Inhofe ( ; born November 17, 1934) is an American businessman, politician, and soldier serving as the senior United States senator from Oklahoma, a seat he was first elected to in 1994. A member of the Republican Party, he chaired the U.S. Senate Committee on Environment and Public Works (EPW) from 2003 to 2007 and again from 2015 to 2017. Inhofe served as the U.S. representative for from 1987 to 1994 and as mayor of Tulsa from 1978 to 1984. Inhofe is known for his rejection of climate science. He has supported a

Jim Inhofe

Don Nickles Don Nickles Donald Lee Nickles (born December 6, 1948) is an American politician and lobbyist who was a Republican United States Senator from Oklahoma from 1981 to 2005. He was considered both a fiscal and social conservative. After retiring from the Senate as the longest serving senator from Oklahoma up until that point, he founded the Nickles Group, a lobbying firm. Early life. Nickles was born and raised in Ponca City, Oklahoma, the son of Coeweene (Bryan) and Robert C. Nichols. He attended Ponca City public schools. To help pay for their education at Oklahoma State University, he and his

Don Nickles

wife, the former Linda Lou Morrison, operated Don Nickles Professional Cleaning Service in Stillwater. He was a member of Beta Theta Pi fraternity at Oklahoma State University, and earned a Bachelor of Arts in business administration in 1971. After college, he went to work for Nickles Machine Corporation in Ponca City, a business started in 1918 by his grandfather, Clair Nickles. He became the company's vice president and general manager. He also served in the Oklahoma National Guard from 1970 until 1976. A formative experience was the distress his family suffered following the death of his father, Robert, in

Don Nickles

1961, when Nickles was twelve years old. The family had to sell off part of the family business to raise cash to pay the required estate tax. In 1978, aged 29, his election to the Oklahoma State Senate was the beginning of his career in public office. Two years later, at the age of 31, he became and remains the youngest Republican ever elected to the U.S. Senate. U.S. Senate. Tenure. He sponsored legislation to cut taxes, reduce government spending, promote national defense, and reduce what he believed to be official hostility to religion. He sponsored the Defense of Marriage

Don Nickles

Act which allowed states to refuse to recognize same-sex marriages conducted in other states. As Republican Whip, Nickles called for the resignation of fellow Republican Trent Lott as majority leader after Lott made remarks praising Strom Thurmond that seemed insensitive to the issue of racial segregation. The National Federation of Independent Business praised Nickles for including in the Senate's 2005 budget a provision that would accelerate by one year a complete repeal of the federal estate tax Nickles was one of many Republican senators who in 1981 called the White House to express his discontent over the nomination

Don Nickles

of Sandra Day O'Connor of Arizona to the United States Supreme Court. Nickles said that he and other socially conservative Republican senators would not support O'Connor because of her "presumed unwillingness" to overturn the abortion decision "Roe v. Wade". During a 1986 campaign rally at the University of Oklahoma in Norman, President Reagan accidentally called him Don Rickles, the American comedian. The president was later told about his mistake and found it very amusing. Nickles was one of three Senators to vote against the confirmation of Ruth Bader Ginsburg and one of nine to vote against the confirmation of Stephen

Don Nickles

Breyer to the Supreme Court. Leadership. Nickles quickly rose in the Senate Republican leadership, serving as chairman of the National Republican Senatorial Committee in the 101st Congress; Chairman of the Republican Policy Committee in the 102nd, 103rd, and 104th Congresses; and Assistant Republican Leader from 1996 to 2003. After being term-limited out of the Assistant Leader position, Nickles served in the 108th Congress as chairman of the Senate Budget Committee. Nickles was also on Bob Dole's short list of vice presidential choices, before Dole finally decided on former Congressman Jack Kemp of New York. In December 2002, Nickles

Don Nickles

became embroiled in the controversy surrounding Republican Leader Trent Lott. At Senator Strom Thurmond's 100th birthday party, Lott had made comments that some took to be racially insensitive. As the controversy grew, Nickles went on national television and became the first senator in the Republican leadership to say that Lott should step down. Nickles believed that the controversy over Lott's remarks would distract from the Republican legislative agenda, and as he served as Lott's deputy in the Senate this statement was seen as the proverbial "straw that broke the camel's back." Despite many apologies for his

Don Nickles

remarks, Lott stepped down shortly thereafter. Declining to run for the position of Senate Majority Leader himself, Lott was succeeded by Bill Frist of Tennessee. Nickles was re-elected in 1986, 1992 and 1998 and was the senior senator from Oklahoma from 1994 to 2005. Post-Senate career. On October 7, 2003, he announced that he would not run in the 2004 election. Republican Tom Coburn was elected to succeed Nickles. Nickles went on to found the Nickles Group, a government consulting group in Washington, D.C. He also serves on the boards of directors of a number of public companies

Don Nickles

, such as Oklahoma City-based Chesapeake Energy. Nickles was one of the politicians featured in the film "Traffic", giving his opinion on the war on drugs. Family. Nickles and his wife, Linda, have four children. Don Nickles Donald Lee Nickles (born December 6, 1948) is an American politician and lobbyist who was a Republican United States Senator from Oklahoma from 1981 to 2005. He was considered both a fiscal and social conservative. After retiring from the Senate as the longest serving senator from Oklahoma up until that point, he founded the Nickles Group, a lobbying firm. Early life. Nickles was

Don Nickles

James Legge James Legge James Legge (; 20 December 181529 November 1897) was a Scottish linguist, missionary, sinologist, and translator who was best known as an early translator of Classical Chinese texts into English. Legge served as a representative of the London Missionary Society in Malacca and Hong Kong (1840–1873) and was the first Professor of Chinese at Oxford University (1876–1897). In association with Max Müller he prepared the monumental "Sacred Books of the East" series, published in 50 volumes between 1879 and 1891. Early life. James Legge was born at Huntly, Aberdeenshire. He enrolled in Aberdeen Grammar School at age 13 and

James Legge

then King's College, Aberdeen at age 15. He then continued his studies at Highbury Theological College, London. Mission to China and family. Legge went, in 1839, as a missionary to China, but first stayed at Malacca three years, in charge of the Anglo-Chinese College there. The College was subsequently moved to Hong Kong, where Legge lived for nearly thirty years. On 2 December 1843, Legge married Mary Isabella Morison (1816–1852), daughter of the Rev. John Morison, D.D. of Chelsea. The next year, she gave birth in Hong Kong to a son who lived for only a few hours

James Legge

. By her he also fathered Sir Thomas Morison Legge, the first Medical Inspector of Factories and Workshops in the UK. A Chinese Christian, Wat Ngong, accompanied Legge when he moved in 1844. He returned home to Huntly, Aberdeenshire, in 1846–7, taking with him three Chinese students. Legge and the students were received by Queen Victoria before his return to Hong Kong. After Isabella died, he married secondly a widow, Hannah Mary Willetts née Johnstone (d. 1881). Translating the classics. Convinced of the need for missionaries to be able to comprehend the ideas and culture of the Chinese, he began in

James Legge

1841 a translation in many volumes of the Chinese classics, a monumental task that he completed a few years before his death. During his residence in Hong Kong, he translated Chinese classic literature into English with the help of Wang Tao and Hong Rengan, among others. He was appointed headmaster of Ying Wa College in Malacca in 1839 and continued in that position until 1867, the college having removed to Hong Kong in 1844. He was pastor of the Union Church in Hong Kong from 1844 to 1867. He was third and final editor of the "Chinese Serial", the first

James Legge

Chinese newspaper in Hong Kong. The paper closed in May 1856. In 1867, Legge returned to Dollar in Clackmannanshire, Scotland, where he invited Wang Tao to join him, and received his LLD from the University of Aberdeen in 1870. While in Scotland, he also revisited his native burgh, Huntly, accompanied by Wang Tao. He then returned to Hong Kong as pastor at Union Church from 1870 to 1873. While in Hong Kong he published "The She King (Classic of Poetry)" in 1871 which according to Peter France is the first substantial volume of Chinese poetry in English translation still in

James Legge

use. The work underwent a new edition in 1876 in verse. He took a long trip to North China, beginning 2 April 1873 in Shanghai, arriving at Tianjin by boat, then travelling by mule cart and arriving in Peking on 16 April 1873, where he stayed at the London Missionary Society headquarters. He visited the Great Wall, Ming Tombs and the Temple of Heaven, where he felt compelled to take off his shoes with holy awe. He left Peking, accompanied by Joseph Edkins, and headed for Shandong by mule cart to visit Jinan, Taishan, where they ascended the sacred Mount

James Legge

Tai, carried by four men on chairs. Leaving Mount Tai on 15 May, they visited Confucius Temple and the Forest of Confucius at Qufu, where he climbed to the top of Confucius' burial mound. Legge returned to Shanghai by way of the Grand Canal, and thence to England via Japan and the USA in 1873. Oxford professor. In 1875, he was named Fellow of Corpus Christi College, Oxford and in 1876 assumed the new Chair of Chinese Language and Literature at Oxford, where he attracted few students to his lectures but worked hard for some 20 years on his translations

James Legge

of the Chinese classics in his study at 3 Keble Terrace, later renumbered 3 Keble Road, which now has an Oxfordshire Blue Plaque in his memory. According to an anonymous contemporary obituary in the Pall Mall Gazette, Legge was in his study every morning at three o'clock, winter and summer, having retired to bed at ten. When he got up in the morning the first thing he did was to make himself a cup of tea over a spirit-lamp. Then he worked away at his translations while all the household slept. In 1879, Legge was a member of a

James Legge

committee formed to create a women's college at Oxford "in which no distinction will be made between students on the ground of their belonging to different religious denominations". This resulted in the founding of Somerville Hall, later renamed Somerville College, one of the first two Oxford colleges for women. Legge was an ardent opponent of Britain's opium policy, and was a founding member of the Society for the Suppression of the Opium Trade. In addition to his other work Legge wrote "The Life and Teaching of Confucius" (1867); "The Life and Teaching of Mencius" (1875); "The Religions of

James Legge

China" (1880); and other books on Chinese literature and religion. His respect for Confucianism was controversial among his fellow missionaries. Legge was given an honorary MA, University of Oxford, and LLD, University of Edinburgh, 1884. Death and legacy. Legge died at Oxford in 1897 and is buried in Wolvercote Cemetery. Many of his manuscripts and letters are archived at the School of Oriental and African Studies. Ideas on Bible translation. In the Book of Documents and the Classic of Poetry, the word, "Shangdi" (Chinese: 上帝; pinyin: "Shàngdì"; Wade-Giles: "Shang Ti"; lit. "High Emperor"")," is used in reference to a

James Legge

deity"." Legge believed and argued that the word "Shangdi" represented a monotheistic god; therefore, he thought it an appropriate term for translating words in reference to the Christian God into Chinese. He believed that using a term already deeply entrenched in Chinese culture could prevent Christianity from being seen as a completely foreign religion. His opponents argued that this would cause confusion due to the word's use in Taoism and Chinese folk religion. Selected works. Legge's most enduring work has been "The Chinese Classics: with a Translation, Critical and Exegetical Notes, Prolegomena, and Copious Indexes", 5 vols., (Hong

James Legge

Kong: Legge; London: Trubner, 1861–1872): These contain parallel Chinese and English text, with detailed notes, introductions and indexes. Chinese names are transcribed in Legge's own romanisation. Legge originally planned his "Chinese Classics" as seven volumes, but his translations of the "I Ching" and "Book of Rites" (and several others) were instead included in the "Sacred Books of the East" series edited by Max Müller (Oxford: Clarendon Press): Other works: James Legge James Legge (; 20 December 181529 November 1897) was a Scottish linguist, missionary, sinologist, and translator who was best known as an early translator of Classical Chinese texts into

James Legge

Tokusō Tokusō The "tokusō" from 1256 to 1333 was the military dictator of Japan as de facto head of the "bakufu" (shogunate); despite the actual shōgun being merely a puppet. This implies that all other positions in Japan—the Emperor, the Imperial Court, "Sesshō" and "Kampaku", and the "shikken" (regent of the shōgun)—had also been reduced to figureheads. Origin. The name "tokusō" is said to have come from , the Buddhist name of Hōjō Yoshitoki, but Hōjō Tokimasa is usually regarded as the first "tokusō". There were eight "tokusō": The political structure of the "tokusō" dictatorship was set up by Yasutoki and

Tokusō

was consolidated by his grandson Tokiyori. The "tokusō" line held overwhelming power over the "gokenin" and the cadet lines of the Hōjō clan. Tokiyori often worked out policies at at his residence instead of discussing them at the , the council of the shogunate. This made the "tokusō"s stronger. In 1256, Tokiyori separated the positions of "shikken" and "tokusō" for the first time. Because of an illness, he installed his infant son Tokimune as the "tokusō" while Nagatoki, a collateral relative, was appointed "shikken" to assist Tokimune. Tokusō The "tokusō" from 1256 to 1333 was the military dictator of Japan as

Tokusō

Xu Sheng Xu Sheng Xu Sheng (died 222–229), courtesy name Wenxiang, was a military general serving under the warlord Sun Quan in the late Eastern Han dynasty and early Three Kingdoms period of China. Early life and career. Xu Sheng was from Ju County (), Langya Commandery (), which is present-day Ju County, Shandong. When chaos broke out in central and northern China towards the end of the Eastern Han dynasty, Xu Sheng moved from his hometown to Wu Commandery (around present-day Suzhou, Jiangsu) in southern China, where he gained a reputation for his bravery. He was later recruited by the warlord

Xu Sheng

Sun Quan, who controlled much of the territories in Jiangdong at the time. Sun Quan appointed Xu Sheng as a Major of Separate Command (), placed him in command of 500 troops, and appointed him as the Chief of Chaisang (柴桑; around present-day Jiujiang, Jiangxi) to defend the county from attacks by Huang Zu, the Administrator of Jiangxia Commandery (江夏郡; around present-day Xinzhou District, Wuhan, Hubei). Huang Zu once sent his son, Huang She (), to lead a few thousand troops to attack Chaisang. At the time, Xu Sheng had less than 200 men with him, so they released arrows

Xu Sheng

at Huang She's advancing forces and wounded over 1,000 enemy soldiers. Xu Sheng then ordered the city gates to be opened and they charged out and defeated the enemy. Huang She no longer posed a threat to Xu Sheng after that battle. Xu Sheng was promoted to Colonel () and appointed as the Prefect of Wuhu County. Later, he defeated some bandits in Nan'e () and Lincheng () counties. He was subsequently promoted to General of the Household () and tasked with overseeing a regiment. Wars with Cao Cao and Liu Bei. In 213, when Sun Quan's rival Cao Cao led an

Xu Sheng

army to attack Ruxu (濡須; north of present-day Wuwei County, Anhui), Xu Sheng followed Sun Quan to resist the enemy at the Battle of Ruxu. Cao Cao launched a heavy assault on Hengjiang (橫江; southeast of present-day He County, Anhui, on the northern shore of the Yangtze), so Xu Sheng and Sun Quan's other generals led their forces to defend that position. Strong winds blew their "mengchong"s (a type of warship) across the river towards Cao Cao's side. Sun Quan's generals were all terrified and did not dare to land on the enemy's grounds

Xu Sheng

. However, Xu Sheng led his men to charge at the enemy and succeeded in killing a few and forcing the rest to retreat. When the winds stopped, Sun Quan's forces returned to their side. Sun Quan highly praised Xu Sheng for his courage. Between 214 and 215, Sun Quan led his armies to attack Hefei, a strategic fortress defended by Cao Cao's general Zhang Liao, leading to the Battle of Xiaoyao Ford. During an early skirmish, when Sun Quan's forces were just setting up their camps outside Hefei, Zhang Liao suddenly led hundreds of troops on a

Xu Sheng

fierce assault, completely catching the enemy off guard. Xu Sheng's unit was routed and his men turned around and fled. Pan Zhang, another officer under Sun Quan, executed two deserters – one from Xu Sheng's unit and the other from Song Qian's. Xu Sheng had no choice but to gather his remaining men and return to battle. He lost his "mao" (矛; a type of long spear) in the earlier clash but He Qi found his weapon later on the battlefield. A plague eventually forced Sun Quan to withdraw his forces from Hefei. As they were retreating, Zhang

Xu Sheng

Liao and his troops launched a sudden counterattack and inflicted a crushing defeat on the enemy at Xiaoyao Ford. Xu Sheng was promoted to General Who Builds Martial Might (), enfeoffed as a Marquis of a Chief Village (), appointed as the Administrator of Lujiang Commandery (), and given Lincheng County () as his marquisate. Between 221 and 222, when the Battle of Xiaoting broke out between Sun Quan and Liu Bei, Xu Sheng participated in the war and succeeded in capturing many enemy camps when Sun Quan's forces launched a counterattack after enduring defeats in earlier engagements. War with Wei, and death

Xu Sheng

. In late 222, Cao Pi ordered his general Cao Xiu to lead the Wei armies to attack Dongkou County. In response to the invasion, Xu Sheng, along with Lü Fan and Quan Cong led Sun Quan's forces across the river to defend Dongkou. However, they encountered a storm and many of their troops and ships were lost. Sun Quan's generals were browbeaten because they had lost about half of their ships in the storm, but were overjoyed when they heard of the arrival of He Qi, who reached Dongkou behind schedule and was not affected by the disaster

Xu Sheng

. Coincidentally, He Qi was obsessed with luxuries so his ships were finely decorated and his weapons were of top quality. Cao Xiu was shocked when he witnessed the grandeur display of He Qi's refulgent navy so he paused the attack and withdrew. Xu Sheng managed to gather his surviving troops and form a defence line along the shore. A naval battle ensued, during which Cao Xiu targeted Lü Fan while sending his subordinates to attack Xu Sheng. Xu Sheng was outnumbered but he managed to hold his position. Both sides eventually withdrew their forces. Xu Sheng was subsequently promoted

Xu Sheng

to General Who Stabilises the East () and elevated from the status of a village marquis to a county marquis under the title "Marquis of Wuhu" (). In late 224, when Cao Pi mobilised a large army to attack Sun Quan, Xu Sheng suggested to pitch encampments from Jianye, erect fake towers within each camp, and suspend some warships on the river. Sun Quan's other generals disagreed and felt that such "defences" would serve no purpose, but Xu Sheng ignored them and proceeded with his plan. Xu Sheng's ruse effectively led to the construction of a "wall" along the river

Xu Sheng

banks that served as a border stretching over hundreds of "li". When Cao Pi reached Guangling Commandery (廣陵郡; covering parts of present-day Jiangsu), he saw Sun Quan's "strong defences" and the high tide and sighed, "Wei has thousands of armed cavalry units but they can't be deployed here". He then withdrew his forces. Sun Quan's generals finally recognised the value of Xu Sheng's plan. Xu Sheng died sometime during the Huangwu era (222-229) of Sun Quan's reign before Sun Quan declared himself emperor and established the state of Eastern Wu. His militia and

Xu Sheng

marquis title were inherited by his son, Xu Kai (徐楷). Appraisal. Xu Sheng was known for his confidence and fervent loyalty towards Sun Quan, as demonstrated in the incident when Xing Zhen (邢貞) came to confer the title "King of Wu" () on Sun Quan. In 220, Sun Quan became a vassal of the state of Cao Wei, which replaced the Han dynasty after the Wei founder, Cao Pi, forced Emperor Xian to abdicate the throne to him. Cao Pi sent Xing Zhen as an emissary to meet Sun Quan and confer the title "King of Wu" () on him. Xing Zhen

Xu Sheng

behaved arrogantly in front of Sun Quan and incurred much anger from Sun Quan's subjects, including Zhang Zhao and Xu Sheng. Xu Sheng told his colleagues: "Isn't it humiliating to watch our lord submit to Xing Zhen and not be able to serve him with our lives and help him conquer Xu, Luoyang and Bashu?" Tears rolled down his face. When Xing Zhen heard Xu Sheng's remark, he told an aide: "It's obvious from the reactions of the subjects of Jiangdong that they won't remain subservient for long." Xing Zhen was right, because in 222

Xu Sheng

, Sun Quan declared independence from Wei but continued ruling his domain under the title "King of Wu" before declaring himself emperor in 229. Xu Sheng's ego did not always lead to positive actions though. After the Battle of Ruxu in 217, Zhou Tai was appointed as the commander of the garrison at Ruxu, with Xu Sheng and Zhu Ran as his subordinates. However, both of them were unwilling to submit to Zhou Tai's command, citing the latter's humble origins in comparison to their more affluent family backgrounds. When Sun Quan heard about it, he visited Ruxu and

Xu Sheng

hosted a party for all the officers there, during which he asked Zhou Tai to display his battle scars for all to see. He later awarded Zhou Tai with an imperial parasol. After that incident, Xu Sheng and Zhu Ran agreed to submit to Zhou Tai's command. Xu Sheng was also known for his tendency to worry too much. When he was serving as the Prefect of Wuhu County, he arrested one of Jiang Qin's subordinates and sought permission from Sun Quan to have that man executed. However, Sun Quan declined because Jiang Qin was away battling bandits

Xu Sheng

in Yuzhang Commandery (). Since then, Xu Sheng had been apprehensive of Jiang Qin. During the Battle of Ruxu in 217, Jiang Qin and Lü Meng were placed in charge of military discipline among Sun Quan's forces. Xu Sheng was worried that Jiang Qin might use the opportunity to find fault with him, but much to his surprise, Jiang Qin praised him in front of Sun Quan. When Sun Quan asked Jiang Qin why he did so, Jiang Qin replied that Xu Sheng was "loyal and hardworking, possessed both courage and talent, and was capable of leading thousands of troops

Xu Sheng

President of Sri Lanka President of Sri Lanka The president of Sri Lanka ( "Śrī Laṃkā Janādhipathi"; "Ilankai janātipati") is the head of state and head of government of the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka. The president is the chief executive of the union government and the commander-in-chief of the Sri Lanka Armed Forces. The office was created in 1972 as a ceremonial head of state. Until 1972, Ceylon was a Commonwealth realm with Queen Elizabeth II as the head of state and Queen of Ceylon. It became an executive post in 1978, and since then has been the single most dominant

President of Sri Lanka

political office in the country. The current president is Gotabaya Rajapaksa. Origin. Under the Soulbury Constitution which consisted of the Ceylon Independence Act, 1947 and The Ceylon (Constitution and Independence) Orders in Council 1947, Ceylon (as Sri Lanka was known then) became a constitutional monarchy with a parliamentary form of government. The monarch of Ceylon, served as head of state, represented by the governor-general with the prime minister serving as the head of government. The governor-general replaced the position of the British governor of Ceylon who excised executive control over the entire island since 1815. In 1972, the

President of Sri Lanka

new Republican Constitution, declared Sri Lanka a republic and the monarchy was abolished. Originally, Sri Lanka was a parliamentary republic. The president was a mostly ceremonial head of state, with real power vested in the prime minister. In 1978, the second amendment to the Constitution moved from a Westminster system into a presidential system. The presidency became an executive post modelled closely on the French presidency. He was now both head of state and head of government, with a longer-term and independence from Parliament. He was the commander-in-chief of the armed forces, head of the cabinet of

President of Sri Lanka

ministers and could dissolve parliament (after one year has passed since the convening of parliament after a parliamentary election). The prime minister would serve as the deputy to the president and successor. Sri Lankan presidents are vested with very broad executive power. They are involved with every aspect of the government and are able to hold cabinet portfolios, or can bypass the cabinet posts by delegating decisions to the Presidential Secretariat. The seventeenth constitutional amendment of 2001 reduced certain powers of the president in particular in regard to the appointment of the upper judiciary and independent commissions such as the

President of Sri Lanka

election commission or the bribery and corruption commission. In 2010, the eighteenth amendment to the constitution removed the two-term limit for the presidency. It allowed the incumbent president to serve multiple terms as well as increase their power by replacing the broader constitutional council with a limited parliamentary council. The nineteenth constitutional amendment undid much of the changes made by the eighteenth amendment. The two-term limit was restored, and the president was required to consult the prime minister on ministerial appointments. It curtails any president’s immunity by making him liable to fundamental rights litigation on any official

President of Sri Lanka

act. Selection process. Eligibility. The Constitution sets the following qualifications for holding the presidency: Election. The president is elected to office in a presidential election held nationwide for a five-year term. An elected president can serve a maximum of two terms, with each term taking effect from the date of taking a public oath of the office for the elected term. Succession or vacancy. Succession to or vacancies in the office of president may arise under several possible circumstances: death or incapacity, resignation and removal from office. In the case when the president is unable to perform their duties

President of Sri Lanka

, their powers are temporarily transferred to the prime minister until confirmed by Parliament. Powers and duties. Duties. Duties of the president as described in the constitution are; Constitutional powers. Presidents have little constraints on their power. The president shall be responsible to Parliament and can be impeached by a two-thirds majority in Parliament. The president may declare war and peace. They can place the country or any part under a state of emergency, under which they can override any law passed and promulgate any regulation without needing legislative approval. However, to prolong the state of emergency for more than

President of Sri Lanka

a month parliamentary approval is needed. Parliamentary powers. The president has the right to attend Parliament once in every three months with all the privileges, immunities and powers of a member of Parliament, other than the entitlement to vote, and shall not be liable for any breach of the privileges of Parliament or of its members. They have the right to address or send messages to Parliament. They have the power to make the Statement of Government Policy in Parliament at the commencement of each session of Parliament (Speech from the Throne), to preside at ceremonial sittings of Parliament, to

President of Sri Lanka

summon, prorogue and dissolve Parliament. Administrative powers. The president is the head of the executive, as such to keep the Public Seal of the Republic, and make and execute under the public seal numerous appointments which include the prime minister, cabinet and non-cabinet ministers, provincial governors, public officers, ambassadors and commissioned officers of the armed forces. The president may also appoint secretaries, officers and staff to carry out the duties of the office of the president. Grants and dispositions of lands and other immovable property vested in the Republic. Judicial powers. The president would have the power to appoint

President of Sri Lanka

and remove, the chief justice, justices of the Supreme Court, justices of the Court of Appeal and judges of the High Court. The president may grant a pardon, respite or substitute a less severe form of punishment for any punishment imposed on any offender convicted of any offence in any court within the Republic of Sri Lanka. The president has immunity from both civil and criminal proceedings. The president has the power to commission public inquires by appointing a Presidential Commission of Inquiry to investigate any issue. Diplomatic powers. The president would have the power to receive and recognize, and

President of Sri Lanka

to appoint and accredit ambassadors, high commissioners, plenipotentiaries and other diplomatic agents. Ceremonial duties. The president as an important ceremonial role in terms of state ceremonies, functions and in awarding state awards. Most notable would be the traditional "throne speech" delivered by the president to the parliament outlining the official policy statement of the new government to the parliament. The president would lead the independence day celebrations as well as other national ceremonies such as remembrance day, Wap Magul (ceremonial ploughing) and receive the Perahera Sandeshaya. National honours would be awarded by the president on behalf of the Government of

President of Sri Lanka

Sri Lanka. The president would receive letter of credence from foreign ambassadors. Appointments. The president may appoint provincial governors to head the provincial council and serve as their representative in the province. The president may also appoint any number of advisers as "presidential advisers" and coordinate secretaries to assist them. The president has the power to appoint senior attorneys-at-law to the position of President's Counsel. The president may appoint officers from the armed forces to serve as their aide-de-camp as well as extra-aide-de-camp. Additionally, the president may appoint medical officers of the

President of Sri Lanka

armed forces as Honorary Physician to the President and Honorary Surgeon to the President. Privileges. Salary. The president would receive a monthly salary (as of 2016) of LKR 97,500 (≈ $ 636.7) paid from the consolidated fund. It was increased from LKR 25,000 (≈ $ 163.25) to LKR 97,500 in 2006. Tax benefits. By tradition, the president and past presidents are not subjected to income tax. This practice dates back from the pre-republic era when the crown was not subject to tax. In 2018, this practice was changed with the "Inland Revenue Bill" which removed the tax exemption given

President of Sri Lanka

to the President. Legal immunity. The president has immunity from both civil or criminal proceedings, during the tenure of office and acts carried out during this period. Residence. The official residence of the president in Colombo is the President's House (formerly the Queen's House as the residences of the governor-general). The government pays for meals and staff. Other presidential residences include: In recent years from time to time Prime Minister's House, commonly referred to as Temple Trees, which has been the traditional residence of the prime minister since 1948, has been used by some presidents such

President of Sri Lanka

as Kumaratunga and Mahinda Rajapaksa. Other presidents, such as Jayewardene and Sirisena, have refused to use the President's House, with the former preferring to stay at his personal residence, Braemar, and the latter at his former ministerial residence at Wijayarama Mawatha. Travel. For ground travel, the president uses the presidential state car, which is an armoured black Mercedes-Benz S-Class (S600) Pullman Guard. For domestic air travel, helicopters from the No. 4 (VVIP/VIP) Helicopter Squadron of the Sri Lanka Air Force are used while for long-distance travel, regular flights of the Sri Lankan Airlines are used

President of Sri Lanka

. During ceremonial occasions, ships and boats of the Sri Lanka Navy have been commissioned as the Presidential yacht. Security. President's Security Division (PSD) is the main unit of the charged with the close protection of the President of Sri Lanka. During President Mahinda Rajapakse's time in office the specialized Army unit the 'President's Guard' was formed for Presidential Security. Prior to the formation of the President's Guard, army personnel served as a squadron under the President's Security Division since 1996 and focused on key tasks including the perimeter security of presidential residence, Temple Trees. 5th

President of Sri Lanka

Regiment Sri Lanka Armoured Corps was the first army unit chosen to be in the dedicated security of the president of Sri Lanka during the presidency of Chandrika Bandaranaike Kumaratunga. However, in April 2015, President Maithripala Sirisena dissolved the President's Guard. Currently the president's security is provided by the elite Special Task Force (STF) of the Sri Lanka Police. Insignia. After the oath of office has been taken by the elected president, a Presidential Standard is adopted by the president as the insignia of their office. Each president has a unique standard, incorporating traditional symbols associated with the

President of Sri Lanka

president or their home region. While there is no formal uniform for the president, traditionally male presidents would wear the national dress, while the only female president wore saris. Presidential staff. Presidential Secretariat. The Presidential Secretariat is the government ministry that functions as the office and staff of the president, supporting the administrative functions of the presidency and other ministerial portfolios that are held by the president. Initially located at President's House, the staff of the office of the president grew with the establishment of the executive presidency and moved into the former Parliament building in Colombo in the

President of Sri Lanka

1980s which now hosts the Presidential Secretariat. The Presidential Secretariat is headed by the secretary to the president (also known as the president's secretary), who is the most senior civil servant in the country. Presidential advisers. The president has the ability to appoint any number of advisers as "presidential advisers". The highest-ranking of which is known as "senior advisers". During his tenure, President Mahinda Rajapaksa had appointed 38 advisers. Coordinating secretaries. The president may appoint any number of coordinating secretaries to assist him/her. The President's Fund. The president is the chair of the Board of Governors

President of Sri Lanka

of the President's Fund which was established under the "President’s Fund Act No. 7 of 1978" to provide funds for relief of poverty, access to special healthcare, advancement of education or knowledge, advancement of the religion and culture, providing awards to persons who have served the nation and for any other purposes beneficial or of interest to the public. It is administrated by the Presidential Secretariat. Post-presidency. Under the Constitutions of Sri Lanka, holders of the office of president are granted a pension equal to the last pay drawn while in office and privileges equivalent to a

President of Sri Lanka

serving cabinet minister. This would include the order of precedence, an official residence, an office, staff, transport and security. The pension will be in addition to any other pension which they would be entitled to due to prior service. A widow of a former president would receive a pension of two thirds which would have been entitled to their spouse and the privileges entitled to their late spouses such as an official residence, transport and the order of precedence. President of Sri Lanka The president of Sri Lanka ( "Śrī Laṃkā Janādhipathi"; "Ilankai janātipati") is the head of state and head

President of Sri Lanka

Hubie and Bertie Hubie and Bertie Hubie and Bertie are animated cartoon rodent characters in the Warner Bros. "Looney Tunes" and "Merrie Melodies" series of cartoons. Hubie and Bertie represent some of animator Chuck Jones' earliest work that was intended to be funny rather than cute. Seven Hubie and Bertie cartoons were produced between 1943 and 1952. Debut. Jones introduced Hubie and Bertie in the short "The Aristo-Cat", first released on June 19, 1943. The plot of the cartoon would serve as the template for most future Hubie/Bertie outings: a character with some mental illness or degree of naïveté (here, a

Hubie and Bertie

cat who doesn't know what a mouse looks like) is psychologically tormented by the pair. They tell the hungry cat that he is a lion and a bulldog his prey, leading to several painful encounters for the cat. Hubie and Bertie as designed by Jones are nearly identical rodents (Hubie, a rat and Bertie, a mouse) with long snouts, large ears, and big, black noses. The two are anthropomorphic, walking on their stubby hind legs and using their forelimbs as arms. They are primarily distinguished by their color: one is brown with a lighter-colored belly and face, while

Hubie and Bertie

the other is gray. Hubie has a Brooklyn accent ("Hey, Boit! C'mere!"). Bertie has large buck teeth, and a habit of responding to Hubie with "Yeah-yeah, sure-sure!" or snickering "Riot!" if Hubie has just proposed some scheme with comic potential. Mel Blanc voiced Hubie. While historians differ on who voiced Bertie in the initial cartoon, Stan Freberg voiced him subsequently. Development. Bertie made a cameo in "Odor-able Kitty". "Trap Happy Porky" (February 24, 1945) was their second appearance. Nameless, indistinguishable except for color, they appear only in the first act, stealing food from Porky in nightshirt and

Hubie and Bertie

cap. They are silent except for a single "I'm only three and a half years old", and retreat when a cat shows up. Jones would repeat the theme of mind games several more times in his Hubie and Bertie shorts, as in their third cartoon, "Roughly Squeaking" on November 23, 1946. This time, Jones has the mice exploit a cat's stupidity by convincing him he is a lion and a dog is a moose he wants to eat. By the short's end, the cat thinks he is a lion, the dog believes he is a pelican, and

Hubie and Bertie

a bystanding bird (driven mad from watching the two) has pulled his feathers out and imagines himself a Thanksgiving turkey. The mice are here voiced by Dick Nelson (Hubie) and Stan Freberg (Bertie). The short was followed by "House Hunting Mice" on September 6, 1947, where Hubie and Bertie run afoul of a housekeeping robot. In the next cartoon, "Mouse Wreckers", and for the remainder of the series, Blanc and Freberg would handle the voices of Hubie and Bertie, respectively. Cat and mouse. Jones introduced a permanent "antagonist" of sorts for the mice in "Mouse Wreckers". The short was released

Hubie and Bertie

in 1949 and was the first in which they are officially called "Hubie" and "Bertie". In the cartoon, the duo moves into a new home, only to discover that it is protected by champion mouser Claude Cat (the character's debut), voiced by Mel Blanc. The mice torment the cat both physically and mentally. The short was nominated for an Academy Award. The mice would antagonize Claude in two more films: "The Hypo-Chondri-Cat", released in 1950, featured Hubie and Bertie making Claude think he is sick with various ailments and, ultimately, that he has died. In 1951's

Hubie and Bertie

Cheese Chasers, however, Hubie and Bertie inadvertently torment Claude when, after going overboard on a cheese raid and getting sick of their favorite food, they decide to commit suicide by trying to get Claude to eat them, but Claude thinks that they are poisonous and refuses, deciding to commit suicide as well by getting a bulldog to attack him but the bulldog gets confused. After these seven cartoons, Jones retired Hubie and Bertie, but continued to use the characters (or mice resembling them) in cameo roles in other shorts whenever he needed a generic mouse for a gag, such as

Hubie and Bertie

the unnamed mouse in "Chow Hound", who resembles Bertie, or the "killer" mice in "Scaredy Cat". Later appearances. Hubie and Bertie have made several cameos in Warner Bros. productions: Home media. All of the Hubie and Bertie cartoons are available, remastered, on "" on DVD and Blu-Ray. Hubie and Bertie Hubie and Bertie are animated cartoon rodent characters in the Warner Bros. "Looney Tunes" and "Merrie Melodies" series of cartoons. Hubie and Bertie represent some of animator Chuck Jones' earliest work that was intended to be funny rather than cute. Seven Hubie and Bertie cartoons were produced between 1943 and

Hubie and Bertie

François-Henri Clicquot François-Henri Clicquot François-Henri (also Henry) Clicquot (1732 – 24 May 1790) was a French organ builder and was the grandson of Robert Clicquot and son of Louis-Alexandre Cliquot, who were also noted organ builders. Clicquot was born in Paris, where he later died. The Clicquot firm installed the first noteworthy organ in the cathedral of Notre-Dame de Paris. Though extensively rebuilt and expanded in the nineteenth century by Aristide Cavaillé-Coll, some of the original Clicquot pipework was reused, notably in the pedal division of that instrument, where it continues to be heard today. Upon the death

François-Henri Clicquot

of Louis-Alexandre, François-Henri inherited his father's workshop. He reconstructed the organ of St. Gervais in 1758, and built the organs at St. Sulpice (also notably rebuilt by Aristide Cavaille-Coll), St. Nicolas-des-Champs, Souvigny, and at Poitiers Cathedral. Clicquot died suddenly before completing the organ at the church of Saint-Germain l'Auxerrois. His son Claude-François Clicquot completed, delivered, and presented the organ on March 7, 1791. François-Henri Clicquot François-Henri (also Henry) Clicquot (1732 – 24 May 1790) was a French organ builder and was the grandson of Robert Clicquot and son of Louis-Alexandre

François-Henri Clicquot

Bay of Kotor Bay of Kotor The Bay of Kotor (Montenegrin and Serbian: , Italian: ), also known as the Boka, is a winding bay of the Adriatic Sea in southwestern Montenegro and the region of Montenegro concentrated around the bay. It is also the southernmost part of the historical region of Dalmatia. The bay has been inhabited since antiquity. Its well-preserved medieval towns of Kotor, Risan, Tivat, Perast, Prčanj and Herceg Novi, along with their natural surroundings, are major tourist attractions. The Natural and Culturo-Historical Region of Kotor was designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1979. Its numerous Orthodox and Catholic

Bay of Kotor

churches and monasteries attract numerous religious pilgrims and other visitors. Geography. The bay is about long with a shoreline extending . It is surrounded by two massifs of the Dinaric Alps: the Orjen mountains to the west, and the Lovćen mountains to the east. The narrowest section of the bay, the long Verige Strait, is only wide at its narrowest point. The bay is a ria of the vanished Bokelj River, which used to flow from the high mountain plateaus of Mount Orjen. The bay is composed of several smaller broad bays, united by narrower channels. The bay inlet was formerly

Bay of Kotor

a river system. Tectonic and karstification processes led to the disintegration of this river. After heavy rains, the waterfall of Sopot spring at Risan appears, and Škurda, another well-known spring, runs through a canyon from Lovćen. The outermost part of the bay is the Bay of Tivat. On the seaward side is the Bay of Herceg Novi, at the main entrance to the Bay of Kotor. The inner bays are the Bay of Risan to the northwest and the Bay of Kotor to the southeast. The Verige Strait represents the bay's narrowest section and is located between Cape

Bay of Kotor

St. Nedjelja and Cape Opatovo; it separates the inner bay east of the strait from the Bay of Tivat. Climate. The Bay lies within the Mediterranean and northwards the humid subtropical climate zone, but its peculiar topography and high mountains make it one of the wettest places in Europe, with Europe's wettest inhabited areas (although certain Icelandic glaciers are wetter). The littoral Dinaric Alps and the Accursed Mountains receive the most precipitation, leading to small glaciers surviving well above the mean annual isotherm. November thunderstorms sometimes drop large amounts of water. By contrast, in August the area is frequently

Bay of Kotor

completely dry, leading to forest fires. With a maximum discharge of , one of the biggest karst springs, the Sopot spring, reflects this seasonal variation. Most of the time it is inactive but after heavy rain a waterfall appears above the Bay of Kotor. <nowiki>*</nowiki>classification scheme after Köppen Two wind systems have ecological significance: Bora and Jugo. Strong cold downslope winds of the Bora type appear in winter and are most severe in the Bay of Risan. Gusts reach and can lead to a significant temperature decline over several hours with freezing events. Bora weather situations are frequent

Bay of Kotor

and sailors study the mountains as cap clouds indicate an imminent Bora event. Jugo is a warm humid wind and brings heavy rain. It appears throughout the year but is usually concentrated in autumn and spring. Monthly and yearly precipitation ranges: History. Middle Ages. The "Sklavenoi", South Slavs, settled in the Balkans in the 6th century. The Serbs, mentioned in the "Royal Frankish Annals" of the mid-9th century, controlled a great part of Dalmatia (""Sorabos, quae natio magnam Dalmatiae partem obtinere dicitur""). Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos in "De Administrando Imperio" mentions that, from Croats who came to Dalmatia, one part was

Bay of Kotor

separated and took rule in Illyricum. The Slavic, Serbian tribes, consolidated under the Vlastimirović dynasty (610–960). The two principalities of Doclea and Travunia were roughly adjacent at Boka. As elsewhere in the Balkans, Slavs mixed with the Roman population of these Byzantine coastal cities. The Theme of Dalmatia was established in the 870s. According to "De Administrando Imperio" (ca. 960), Risan was part of Travunia, a Serbian principality ruled by the Belojević family. After the Great Schism of 1054, the coastal region was under both Churches. In 1171, Stefan Nemanja sided with the Republic of Venice in a dispute with

Bay of Kotor