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the Byzantine Empire. The Venetians incited the Slavs of the eastern Adriatic littoral to rebel against Byzantine rule and Nemanja joined them, launching an offensive towards Kotor. The Bay was thenceforth under the rule of the Nemanjić dynasty. In 1195, Nemanja and his son Vukan constructed the Church of Saint Luka in Kotor. In 1219, Saint Sava founded the seat of the Eparchy of Zeta on Prevlaka, one of the eparchies of the Serbian Orthodox Church. Due to its protected location, Kotor became a major city for the salt trade. The area flourished during the 14th century under the rule

Bay of Kotor

of Emperor of the Serbs Dušan the Mighty who, notorious for his aggressive law enforcement, made the Bay of Kotor a particularly safe place for doing business. The city of Kotor was under Nemanjić rule until 1371. It was followed by a period of frequent political changes in the region. Local lords from the Vojinović and Balšić noble families fought over the influence in the region. Since 1377, northern parts of the Bay region came under the rule of Tvrtko I Kotromanić, who proclaimed himself King of the Serbs and Bosnia. For several years (1385–1391), the city of Kotor also

Bay of Kotor

recognized the suzerainty of the Kingdom of Bosnia. After 1391, it gained political independence, and functioned as a city-state until 1420. Its merchant fleet and importance gradually increased, but so was the interest of the powerful Republic of Venice for the city and the bay region. From 1405 to 1412, the First Scutari War was fought in the region. Venetian rule (1420–1797). In 1420, the city of Kotor recognized the Venetian rule, marking the beginning of an era that would last until 1797. Northern parts of the Bay region still remained under the Kingdom of Bosnia, while southern parts

Bay of Kotor

were controlled the Lordship of Zeta, followed by the Serbian Despotate. In the meanwhile, the Second Scutari War was fought in the region, resulting in the peace treaties of 1423 and 1426. By the middle of the 15th century, northern parts of the Bay region became incorporated into the Duchy of Saint Sava. In 1482, Ottomans took the city of Novi, establishing their rule in the northern parts of the Bay area. Under Ottoman rule, those regions were attached to the Sanjak of Herzegovina. The Ottoman possessions in the Bay region were retaken at the end of the 17th century

Bay of Kotor

and the whole area became part of the Venetian Republic, within the province of Venetian Albania. Until the 20th century, the difference between the two parts was visible because the former Ottoman part had an Orthodox majority, while the part that was under Venetian rule had a Catholic majority. The town of Perast had difficult moments in 1654 when the Ottomans attacked, retaliating against Bokeljs who had sunk an Ottoman ship. The Bokeljs' successful defence of Perast and the Bay received attention all over Europe. It attracted Petar Zrinski, a statesman in Europe who had fought dramatic battles with the

Bay of Kotor

Turks. During his three-day sojourn in Perast he presented his legendary sword to the town in recognition for their efforts to defend their homeland, and to stop the Ottoman Empire. In 1669, according to Andrija Zmajević, hajduks of the Bay wished to build a church, but were denied due to Zmajević's intervention on the "providur" of Kotor and the captain of Perast. Ottoman travel writer Evliya Çelebi visited the Bay of Kotor and mentioned Croats who lived in Herceg Novi. Modern history. By the Treaty of Campo Formio (1797), the Bay region came under the Habsburg rule. By

Bay of Kotor

the Treaty of Pressburg (1805), the region was set to be transferred to the French rule, but that was effectively achieved only after the Treaties of Tilsit (1807). Under the French rule, the Bay region was included in the Napoleonic Kingdom of Italy and later in the Illyrian Provinces, which were a part of the French Empire. The region was later conquered by Montenegro with Russian help by Prince-Bishop Petar I Petrović-Njegoš and, in 1813, a union of the bay area with Montenegro was declared. In 1815, the bay was annexed by the Austrian Empire and was included

Bay of Kotor

in the province of Dalmatia (part of Cisleithania since 1867). In 1848, when the numerous revolutions sparked in the Austrian Empire, an Assembly of the Bay of Kotor was held sponsored by Petar II Petrović-Njegoš of Montenegro, to decide on the proposition of the Bay's unification with Ban of Croatia Josip Jelačić in an attempt to unite Dalmatia, Croatia and Slavonia under the Habsburg crown. The Kingdom of Montenegro attempted to take the Bay during World War I. It was bombed from Lovćen, but, by 1916, Austria-Hungary had defeated Montenegro. During Austro-Hungarian rule, the majority of

Bay of Kotor

people participated in the Great Retreat with the Royal Serbian Army through Albania. On 7 November 1918, the Serbian army entered the Bay. Within a month, the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes was formed and was renamed as Yugoslavia in 1929. The Bay was a municipality of Dalmatia until it was re-organized into smaller districts ("oblasts") in 1922. It was incorporated into the Oblast of Cetinje and, from 1939, into the Zeta Banovina. According to the 1910 census, the bay had 40,582 inhabitants, of whom 24,794 were Eastern Orthodox and 14,523 Catholic. The Bay region was occupied by

Bay of Kotor

the Royal Italian Army in April 1941, and was included in the Governorate of Dalmatia until September 1943. Since 1945, it has been part of the People's Republic of Montenegro. Culture. Most of the region's inhabitants are Orthodox Christians, declaring themselves on census forms of either Montenegrins or Serbians, while a minority are Croatians. The Bay region is under the protection of UNESCO due to its rich cultural heritage. The Boka region has a long naval tradition and has harbored a strong naval fleet since the Middle Ages. The fleet peaked at 300 ships in the 18th century

Bay of Kotor

, when Boka was a rival to Dubrovnik and Venice. On the landward side, long walls run from the fortified old town of Kotor to the castle of Saint John, far above; the heights of the Krivošije, a group of barren plateaus in Mount Orjen, were crowned by small forts. The shores of the bay Herceg Novi house the Orthodox convent of St. Sava near (Savina monastery) standing amid surrounding gardens. It was founded in the 16th century and contains many specimens of 17th century silversmiths' work. 12.87 km east of Herceg Novi, there is a Benedictine monastery on a small

Bay of Kotor

island opposite Perast (Perasto). Perast itself was for a time an independent state in the 14th century. Demographics. The Bokelj ("Бокељ") people (pl. "Бокељи", "Bokelji") are the inhabitants of the Boka kotorska (hence the name) and adjacent regions (near the towns of Kotor, Tivat, Herceg Novi, Risan, Perast). They are an ethnic South Slavic community, many of whom nationally identify as Montenegrin, Serb or Croat. Most are Eastern Orthodox, while some are Roman Catholics. According to the 2011 Montenegro census, the total population of Boka was 67,456. When it comes to ethnic composition, in 2011 there were 26,435 (39.2%) Serbs

Bay of Kotor

, 26,108 (38.7%) Montenegrins, and 4,519 (6.7%) Croats. Bay of Kotor The Bay of Kotor (Montenegrin and Serbian: , Italian: ), also known as the Boka, is a winding bay of the Adriatic Sea in southwestern Montenegro and the region of Montenegro concentrated around the bay. It is also the southernmost part of the historical region of Dalmatia. The bay has been inhabited since antiquity. Its well-preserved medieval towns of Kotor, Risan, Tivat, Perast, Prčanj and Herceg Novi, along with their natural surroundings, are major tourist attractions. The Natural and Culturo-Historical Region of Kotor was designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site

Bay of Kotor

Book of Abraham Book of Abraham The Book of Abraham is a work produced between 1835 and 1842 by Joseph Smith following the purchase of two Egyptian scrolls from a traveling mummy exhibition. According to Smith, the book was "a translation of some ancient records... purporting to be the writings of Abraham, while he was in Egypt, called the Book of Abraham, written by his own hand, upon papyrus". Smith said the papyri described Abraham's early life, his travels to Canaan and Egypt, and his vision of the cosmos and its creation. The work was canonized by The Church of Jesus Christ

Book of Abraham

of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church) in 1880 as part of its Pearl of Great Price. It thus forms a doctrinal foundation for the LDS Church and Mormon fundamentalist denominations of the Latter Day Saint movement. It is not considered a sacred text by the Community of Christ. Other groups in the Latter Day Saint movement have differing opinions regarding the Book of Abraham, some rejecting and some accepting the text as divinely inspired scripture. The book contains several doctrines that are unique to Mormonism such as the idea that God organized eternal elements to create the universe (instead of

Book of Abraham

creating it "ex nihilo"), the potential exaltation of humanity, a pre-mortal existence, the first and second estates, and the plurality of gods. The Book of Abraham papyri were thought to have been lost in the 1871 Great Chicago Fire. However, in 1966 several fragments of the papyri were found in the archives of the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York and in the LDS Church archives. They are now referred to as the Joseph Smith Papyri. Upon examination by professional Egyptologists (both Mormon and otherwise), these fragments were identified as Egyptian funerary texts, including the "Breathing Permit of

Book of Abraham

Hôr" and the "Book of the Dead", among others. As a result, the Book of Abraham has been the source of significant controversy, generally divided along religious lines: Mormon scholars tend to accept it as an authentic, ancient interpretation of more ancient scripture while non-Mormon scholars tend to reject it. Origin. Eleven mummies and several papyri were discovered near the ancient Egyptian city of Thebes by Antonio Lebolo between 1818 and 1822. Following Lebolo's death in 1830, the mummies and assorted objects were sent to New York with instructions that they should be sold in order to benefit

Book of Abraham

the heirs of Lebolo. Michael H. Chandler eventually came into possession of the mummies and artifacts and began displaying them, starting in Philadelphia. Over the next two years Chandler toured the eastern United States, displaying and selling some of the mummies as he traveled. In late June or early July 1835, Chandler exhibited his collection in Kirtland, Ohio. A promotional flyer created by Chandler states that the mummies "may have lived in the days of Jacob, Moses, or David". At the time, Kirtland was the home of the Latter Day Saints, led by Joseph Smith. In 1830 Smith published the

Book of Abraham

Book of Mormon which he said he translated from ancient golden plates that had been inscribed with "reformed Egyptian" text. He took an immediate interest in the papyri and soon offered Chandler a preliminary translation of the scrolls. Smith said that the scrolls contained the writings of Abraham and Joseph, as well as a short history of an Egyptian princess named "Katumin". He wrote: Smith, Joseph Coe, and Simeon Andrews soon purchased the four mummies and at least five papyrus documents for $2,400 (). Translation process. Ancient Egyptian writing systems had been a subject fascination for centuries, drawing the attention

Book of Abraham

of scholars who attempted to understand the symbols. The Rosetta Stone, an ancient monument discovered in 1799, had the same message written in ancient Egyptian and the Greek alphabet, allowing for the first comprehensive understanding of ancient Egyptian in modern times. However, at the time Smith began his efforts the Rosetta Stone was not fully understood. Not until the 1850s would there be a wide scholarly consensus on how to translate ancient Egyptian writing. Between July and November 1835 Smith began "translating an alphabet to the Book of Abraham, and arranging a grammar of the Egyptian language as practiced by

Book of Abraham

the ancients." In so doing, Smith worked closely with Cowdery and Phelps. The result of this effort was a collection of documents and manuscripts now known as the Kirtland Egyptian papers. One of these manuscripts was a bound book titled simply "Grammar & A[l]phabet of the Egyptian Language", which contained Smith's interpretations of the Egyptian glyphs. The first part of the book focuses almost entirely on deciphering Egyptian characters, and the second part deals with a form of astronomy that was supposedly practiced by the ancient Egyptians. Most of the writing in the book was written not by Smith but

Book of Abraham

rather by a scribe taking down what Smith said. The "Egyptian Alphabet" manuscript is particularly important because it illustrates how Smith attempted to translate the papyri. First, the characters on the papyri were transcribed onto the left-hand side of the book. Next, a postulation as to what the symbols sounded like was devised. Finally, an English interpretation of the symbol was provided. Smith's subsequent translation of the papyri takes on the form of five "degrees" of interpretation, each degree representing a deeper and more complex level of interpretation. In translating the book, Smith dictated, and Phelps, Warren Parrish

Book of Abraham

, and Frederick G. Williams acted as scribes. The complete work was first published serially in the Latter Day Saint movement newspaper "Times and Seasons" in 1842, and was later canonized in 1880 by the LDS Church as part of its Pearl of Great Price. Eyewitness accounts of how the Papyri were translated are few and vague. Warren Parish, who was Joseph Smith's scribe at the time of the translation, wrote in 1838 after he had left the church: "I have set by his side and penned down the translation of the Egyptian Hieroglyphicks [sic] as he claimed to receive

Book of Abraham

it by direct inspiration from Heaven." Wilford Woodruff and Parley P. Pratt intimated second hand that the Urim and Thummim were used in the translation. A non-church member who saw the mummies in Kirtland spoke about the state of the papyri, and the translation process: "These records were torn by being taken from the roll of embalming salve which contained them, and some parts entirely lost but Smith is to translate the whole by divine inspiration, and that which was lost, like Nebuchadnezzar's dream can be interpreted as well as that which is preserved;" Content. Book of Abraham

Book of Abraham

text. The Book of Abraham tells a story of Abraham's life, travels to Canaan and Egypt, and a vision he received concerning the universe, a pre-mortal existence, and the creation of the world. Although the nineteenth-century American context surrounding Smith's papyri translation was rife with Egyptomania, the Book of Abraham itself does not contain the popular tropes then associated with ancient Egypt, such as mummies or pyramids, and its content instead "grew out of the Bible." The book has five chapters, outlined below: Nearly half of the Book of Abraham shows a dependence on the King

Book of Abraham

James Version of the Book of Genesis. According to H. Michael Marquardt, "It seems clear that Smith had the Bible open to Genesis as he dictated this section [i.e., Chapter2] of the 'Book of Abraham.'" Smith explained the similarities by reasoning that when Moses penned Genesis, he used the Book of Abraham as a guide, abridging and condensing where he saw fit. As such, since Moses was recalling Abraham's lifetime, his version was in the third person, whereas the Book of Abraham, being written by its titular author, was composed in the first person. The Book of Abraham was

Book of Abraham

incomplete when Joseph Smith died in 1844. It is unknown how long the text would be, but Oliver Cowdery gave an indication in 1835 that it could be quite large: When the translation of these valuable documents will be completed, I am unable to say; neither can I gave you a probable idea how large volumes they will make; but judging from their size, and the comprehensiveness of the language, one might reasonably expect to see sufficient to develop much on the mighty of the ancient men of God. A visitor to Kirtland saw the mummies, and noted, "They say

Book of Abraham

that the mummies were Epyptian, but the records are those of Abraham and Joseph...and a larger volume than the Bible will be required to contain them." Distinct doctrines. The Book of Abraham text is a source of some distinct Latter Day Saint doctrines, which Mormon author Randal S. Chase calls "truths of the gospel of Jesus Christ that were previously unknown to Church members of Joseph Smith's day." Examples include the nature of the priesthood, an understanding of the cosmos, the exaltation of humanity, a pre-mortal existence, the first and second estates, and the plurality of gods

Book of Abraham

. The Book of Abraham expands upon the nature of the priesthood in the Latter Day Saint movement, and it is suggested in the work that those who are foreordained to the priesthood earned this right by valor or nobility in the pre-mortal life. In a similar vein, the Book explicitly denotes that Pharaoh was a descendant of Ham and thus "of that lineage by which he could not have the right of Priesthood". This passage is the only one found in any Mormon scripture that bars a particular lineage of people from holding the priesthood. Even though nothing in

Book of Abraham

the Book of Abraham explicitly connects the line of Pharaoh and Ham to black Africans, this passage was used as a scriptural basis for withholding the priesthood from black individuals. An 1868 "Juvenile Instructor" article points to the Pearl of Great Price as the "source of racial attitudes in church doctrine", and in 1900, First Presidency member George Q. Cannon began using the story of Pharaoh as a scriptural basis for the ban. In 1912, the First Presidency responded to an inquiry about the priesthood ban by using the story of Pharaoh. By the early 1900s, it became the foundation

Book of Abraham

of church policy in regards to the priesthood ban. The 2002 "Doctrine and Covenants Student Manual" points to Abraham 1:21–27 as the reasoning behind not giving black people the priesthood until 1978. Chapter 3 of the Book of Abraham describes a unique (and purportedly Egyptian) understanding of the hierarchy of heavenly bodies, each with different movements and measurements of time. In regard to this chapter, Randal S. Chase notes, "With divine help, Abraham was able to gain greater comprehension of the order of the galaxies, stars, and planets than he could have obtained from earthly sources." At the pinnacle of

Book of Abraham

the cosmos is the slowest-rotating body, Kolob, which, according to the text, is the star closest to where God lives. The Book of Abraham is the only work in the Latter Day Saint canon to mention the star Kolob. According to the Book: Based on this verse, the LDS Church claims that "Kolob is the star nearest to the presence of God [and] the governing star in all the universe." Time moves slowly on the celestial body; one Kolob-day corresponds to 1,000 earth-years. The Church also notes: "Kolob is also symbolic of Jesus Christ, the central figure

Book of Abraham

in God's plan of salvation." The Book of Abraham also explores pre-mortal existence. The LDS Church website explains: "Life did not begin at birth, as is commonly believed. Prior to coming to earth, individuals existed as spirits." These spirits are eternal and of different intelligences. Prior to mortal existence, spirits exist in the "first estate". Once certain spirits (i.e., those who choose to follow the plan of salvation offered by God the Father of their own accord) take on a mortal form, they enter into what is called the "second estate". The doctrine of the second estate is

Book of Abraham

explicitly named only in this book. The purpose of earthly life, therefore, is for humans to prepare for a meeting with God; the Church, citing notes: "All who accept and obey the saving principles and ordinances of the gospel of Jesus Christ will receive eternal life, the greatest gift of God, and will have 'glory added upon their heads for ever and ever'." Also notable is the Book of Abraham's description of a plurality of gods, and that "the gods" created the Earth, not "ex nihilo", but rather from pre-existing, eternal matter. This shift away from monotheism and

Book of Abraham

towards henotheism occurred , when Smith was imprisoned in the Liberty Jail in Clay County, Missouri (this was after the majority of the Book of Abraham had been supposedly translated, but prior to its publication). Smith noted that there would be "a time come in the [sic] which nothing shall be with held [sic] whither [sic] there be one god or many gods they [sic] shall be manifest all thrones and dominions, principalities and powers shall be revealed and set forth upon all who have indured [sic] valiently [sic] for the gospel of Jesus Christ" and that all will be revealed

Book of Abraham

according to that which was ordained in the midst of the councyl [sic] of the eternal God of all other Gods before this world was. Facsimiles. Three images (facsimiles of vignettes on the papyri) and Joseph Smith's explanations of them were printed in the 1842 issues of the "Times and Seasons". These three illustrations were prepared by Smith and an engraver named Reuben Hedlock. The facsimiles and their respective explanations were later included with the text of the Pearl of Great Price in a re-engraved format. According to Smith's explanations, Facsimile No.1 portrays Abraham fastened to an

Book of Abraham

altar, with the idolatrous priest of Elkenah attempting to sacrifice him. Facsimile No.2 contains representations of celestial objects, including the heavens and earth, fifteen other planets or stars, the sun and moon, the number 1,000 and God revealing the grand key-words of the holy priesthood. Facsimile No.3 portrays Abraham in the court of Pharaoh "reasoning upon the principles of Astronomy". Interpretations and contributions to the Latter Day Saint movement. The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. The Book of Abraham was canonized in 1880 by the LDS Church, and it remains a part of the larger scriptural

Book of Abraham

work, the Pearl of Great Price. For Latter-day Saints, the book links Old and New Testament covenants into a universal narrative of Christian salvation, expands on premortal existence, depicts "ex materia" cosmology, and informed Smith's developing understanding of temple theology, making the scripture "critical to understanding the totality of his gospel conception". Church leadership traditionally described the Book of Abraham straightforwardly as "translated by the Prophet [Joseph Smith] from a papyrus record taken from the catacombs of Egypt", and "Some have assumed that hieroglyphs adjacent to and surrounding facsimile 1 must be a source for the text of

Book of Abraham

the book of Abraham". However, modern Egyptological translations of papyrus fragments reveal the surviving Egyptian text matches the Breathing Permit of Hôr, an Egyptian funerary text, and does not mention Abraham. The church acknowledges this, and its members have adopted a range of interpretations of the Book of Abraham to accommodate the seeming disconnect between the surviving papyrus and Smith's Book of Abraham revelation. The two most common interpretations are sometimes called the "missing scroll theory" and the "catalyst theory", though the relative popularity of these theories among Latter-day Saints is unclear. The "missing scroll theory" holds that

Book of Abraham

Smith may have translated the Book of Abraham from a now-lost portion of papyri, with the text of Breathing Permit of Hôr having nothing to do with Smith's translation. John Gee, an Egyptologist and Latter-day Saint, and the apologetic organization FAIR (Faithful Answers, Informed Response; formerly FairMormon) favor this view. Other Latter-day Saints hold to the "catalyst theory," which hypothesizes that Smith's "study of the papyri may have led to a revelation about key events and teachings in the life of Abraham", allowing him to "translate" the Book of Abraham from the Breathing Permit of

Book of Abraham

Hôr papyrus by inspiration without actually relying on the papyrus' textual meaning. This theory draws theological basis from Smith's "New Translation" of the Bible, wherein in the course of rereading the first few chapters of Genesis, he dictated as a revelatory translation the much longer Book of Moses. FAIR has claimed the church "favors the missing scroll theory". However, in 2019, the Joseph Smith Papers' documentary research on the Book of Abraham and Egyptian papyri makes it "clear that Joseph Smith and/or his clerks associated the characters from the [surviving Breathing Permit of Hôr] papyri with the English Book

Book of Abraham

of Abraham text", seeming to give more credence to the catalyst theory. Community of Christ. The Community of Christ, formerly known as the Reorganized Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints, does not include the Book of Abraham in its scriptural canon, although it was referenced in early church publications. Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints (Strangite). The Strangite branch of the movement does not take an official position on the Book of Abraham. The branch notes, "We know that 'The Book of Abraham' was published in an early periodical as a text 'purporting to be the

Book of Abraham

writings of Abraham' with no indication of its translation process (see Times and Seasons, March 1, 1842), and therefore have no authorized position on it." Fundamentalist Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints. The Fundamentalist Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints holds to the canonicity of the Book of Abraham. Loss and rediscovery of the papyrus. After Joseph Smith's death, the Egyptian artifacts were in the possession of his mother, Lucy Mack Smith, and she and her son William Smith continued to exhibit the four mummies and associated papyri to visitors. Two weeks after Lucy's

Book of Abraham

death in May 1856, Smith's widow, Emma Hale Smith Bidamon, her second husband Lewis C. Bidamon, and her son Joseph Smith III, sold "four Egyptian mummies with the records with them" to Abel Combs on May26, 1856. Combs later sold two of the mummies, along with some papyri, to the St. Louis Museum in 1856. Upon the closing of the St.Louis Museum, these artifacts were purchased by Joseph H. Wood and found their way to the Chicago Museum in about 1863, and were promptly put on display. The museum and all its contents were burned in 1871 during

Book of Abraham

the Great Chicago Fire. Today it is presumed that the papyri that formed the basis for Facsimiles2 and3 were lost in the conflagration. After the fire, however, it was believed that all the sources for the book had been lost. Despite this belief, Abel Combs still owned several papyri fragments and two mummies. While the fate of the mummies is unknown, the fragments were passed to Combs' nurse Charlotte Benecke Weaver, who gave them to her daughter, Alice Heusser. In 1918 Heusser approached the New York Metropolitan Museum of Art (MMA) about purchasing the items; at the time, the museum

Book of Abraham

curators were not interested, but in 1947 they changed their mind, and the museum bought the papyri from Heusser's widower husband, Edward. In the 1960s the MMA decided to raise money by selling some of its items which were considered "less unique". Among these were the papyri that Heusser had sold to the museum several decades earlier. In May 1966, Aziz S. Atiya, a coptic scholar from the University of Utah, was looking through the MMA's collection when he came across the Heusser fragments; upon examining them, he recognized one as the vignette known as Facsmile1 from The

Book of Abraham

Pearl of Great Price. He informed LDS Church leaders, and several months later, on November27, 1967, the LDS Church was able to procure the fragments, and according to Henry G. Fischer, curator of the Egyptian Collection at the MMA, an anonymous donation to the MMA made it possible for the LDS Church to acquire the papyri. The subsequent transfer included ten pieces of papyri, including the original of Facsimile1. The eleventh fragment had been given to Brigham Young (then church president) previously by Chief Banquejappa of the Pottawatomie tribe in 1846. Three of these fragments were designated Joseph Smith Papyrus

Book of Abraham

(JSP) I, X, and XI. Other fragments, designated JSPII, IV, V, VI, VII, and VIII, are thought by critics to be the Book of Joseph to which Smith had referred. Egyptologist John A. Wilson stated that the recovered fragments indicated the existence of at least six to eight separate documents. The twelfth fragment was discovered in the LDS Church Historian's office and was dubbed the "Church Historian's Fragment". Disclosed by the church in 1968, the fragment was designated JSPIX. Although there is some debate about how much of the papyrus collection is missing, there is broad agreement that

Book of Abraham

the recovered papyri are portions of Smith's original purchase, partly based on the fact that they were pasted onto paper which had "drawings of a temple and maps of the Kirtland, Ohio area" on the back, as well as the fact that they were accompanied by an affidavit by Emma Smith stating that they had been in the possession of Joseph Smith. Controversy and criticism. Since its publication in 1842, the Book of Abraham has been a source of controversy. Non-Mormon Egyptologists, beginning in the late 19th century, have disagreed with Joseph Smith's explanations of the facsimiles

Book of Abraham

. They have also asserted that damaged portions of the papyri have been reconstructed incorrectly. In 1912, a letter about the Book of Abraham was published by Arthur Cruttenden Mace, Assistant Curator in the Department of Egyptian Art in New York's Metropolitan Museum of Art. He wrote: I return herewith, under separate cover, the 'Pearl of Great Price.' The 'Book of Abraham,' it is hardly necessary to say, is a pure fabrication. Cuts 1 and 3 are inaccurate copies of well known scenes on funeral papyri, and cut 2 is a copy of one of the magical discs which in

Book of Abraham

the late Egyptian period were placed under the heads of mummies. There were about forty of these latter known in museums and they are all very similar in character. Joseph Smith's interpretation of these cuts is a farrago of nonsense from beginning to end. Egyptian characters can now be read almost as easily as Greek, and five minutes' study in an Egyptian gallery of any museum should be enough to convince any educated man of the clumsiness of the imposture. The controversy intensified in the late 1960s when portions of the Joseph Smith Papyri were located. The translation of

Book of Abraham

the papyri by both Mormon and non-Mormon Egyptologists does not match the text of the Book of Abraham as purportedly translated by Joseph Smith. Indeed, the transliterated text from the recovered papyri and facsimiles published in the Book of Abraham contain no direct references, either historical or textual, to Abraham, and Abraham's name does not appear anywhere in the papyri or the facsimiles. Edward Ashment notes, "The sign that Smith identified with Abraham [...] is nothing more than the hieratic version of [...] a 'w' in Egyptian. It has no phonetic or semantic relationship to [Smith's] 'Ah-broam.'" University

Book of Abraham

of Chicago Egyptologist Robert K. Ritner concluded in 2014 that the source of the Book of Abraham "is the 'Breathing Permit of Hôr,' misunderstood and mistranslated by Joseph Smith", and that the other papyri are common Egyptian funerary documents like the Book of the Dead. Original manuscripts of the Book of Abraham, microfilmed in 1966 by Jerald Tanner, show portions of the Joseph Smith Papyri and their purported translations into the Book of Abraham. Ritner concludes, contrary to the LDS position, due to the microfilms being published prior to the rediscovery of the Joseph Smith Papyri, that "it is not

Book of Abraham

true that 'no eyewitness account of the translation survives'", that the Book of Abraham is "confirmed as a perhaps well-meaning, but erroneous invention by Joseph Smith", and "despite its inauthenticity as a genuine historical narrative, the Book of Abraham remains a valuable witness to early American religious history and to the recourse to ancient texts as sources of modern religious faith and speculation". Book of Joseph. As noted above, a second untranslated work was identified by Joseph Smith after scrutinizing the original papyri. He said that one scroll contained "the writings of Joseph of Egypt". Based on descriptions by

Book of Abraham

Oliver Cowdery, some, including Charles M. Larson, believe that the fragments Joseph Smith Papyri II, IV, V, VI, VII, and VIII are the source of this work. Book of Abraham The Book of Abraham is a work produced between 1835 and 1842 by Joseph Smith following the purchase of two Egyptian scrolls from a traveling mummy exhibition. According to Smith, the book was "a translation of some ancient records... purporting to be the writings of Abraham, while he was in Egypt, called the Book of Abraham, written by his own hand, upon papyrus". Smith said the papyri described Abraham's

Book of Abraham

X 2000 X 2000 X 2000, also called SJ X2 or simply as X2, is a tilting train operated by SJ in Sweden. It was constructed by Kalmar Verkstad in Kalmar, Sweden (prior to the company being bought by Adtranz in 1996) and launched in 1990 as a first-class only train with a meal included in the ticket price, and free use of the train's fax machine. There is a bistro on board that serves snack bar-style dishes. From 1995 second class was introduced. All trains are equipped with Wi-Fi for passenger access to the Internet and were

X 2000

repainted grey as of 2005. The trains also have electric power supply sockets at all seats in both first and second class. The trains have been fitted with repeaters to improve mobile phone reception. It has a top commercial speed of , but has reached in a test. The reason the X2 was chosen was that Sweden (like most other countries) has very curved railways, and not enough traffic to justify building special high-speed railway lines (at least before 1990). As a result, a Swedish tilting train had to be developed. A tilting train provided the advantages of high speed

X 2000

and comfort for the passengers, as tilting trains can run through sharp (short radius or tight) curves up to 15% faster than non-tilting trains. The X2 was designed and built by ASEA. SJ ordered 20 sets in August 1986 and planned to order a further 30. In the end 43 sets were built for SJ while one was built for the Guangshen Railway Company, China. Name. "X 2000" was originally a brand name for a number of train connections with a certain service level. Generally the X2 train is used, but because of lack of vehicles, sometimes (especially in

X 2000

2009/2010) other train types have previously been used, like X40 or Rc loco-hauled stock. After the introduction of the X55 in 2012 to replace the X2 on smaller routes such as Stockholm-Sundsvall, other train types are very rarely used on these lines. Since December 2011, all high speed services of SJ using X2 or X55 trains are called "SJ Snabbtåg" (lit. "SJ High-speed train"). Speed. The train's designated top speed is . It reached during a trial run with double locomotive units in 1993. The maximum speed allowed in regular traffic is for safety reasons – the signalling

X 2000

system (and systems like the catenary) are not built for higher speeds, and it shares the track with regular trains (like in most countries); also, most of the lines it uses were built in the mid-to-late-19th century. The 19th century railways Stockholm–Gothenburg/Malmö are relatively straight, since they were planned the shortest way without taking intermediate cities into account, and the landscape is relatively flat. Other 19th-century railways are generally curvier. In comparison to other high-speed trains, the X 2000 is not particularly fast; but compared to regular train services, it cuts journey time by

X 2000

about 10-15% – enough to make it competitive with airlines on many routes. It typically averages about . The fastest part is Katrineholm–Skövde, a distance of that is covered in 1h 2min, resulting in an average speed of . However the introduction of the new Stadler Flirt X74 trains in 2015 for MTR Express, which competes with the X 2000 on the busy Stockholm–Gothenburg route, means that the X 2000 now has at most only a 9% theoretical speed advantage compared to the X74, making it unlikely for any new tilting trains to be introduced in Sweden in the future

X 2000

. SJ considered configuring the trainset with a sixth trailing car and creating a set of 12 cars using a second locomotive. The trainset can stop in 1.1 kilometers from a top speed of 200 km/h. Lines and services. 2008 new high-speed trains. In 2008 SJ ordered 20 X55 Bombardier Regina trains to replace the X 2000 on lines with lower demand and where its performance cannot be fully utilised (especially on lines north of Stockholm such as the Botniabanan). When these trains were delivered in 2012 and 2013 the X 2000 trains could be concentrated to fewer

X 2000

lines with bigger demands such as Stockholm–Malmö/Copenhagen and Stockholm–Gothenburg, using double-length X 2000 between Stockholm and Gothenburg during rush hours and weekends. Renovation. In January 2014, SJ announced that it was to invest 3.5 billion SEK in the modernisation and repowering of its X200 fleet, in order to extend the life of the trains by 20-25 years. SJ stated that the refurbishment of the trains would cost one third of the price of replacing them with new trains, whilst also having a reduced environmental impact. ABB, whose predecessor ASEA designed and built the trains, were

X 2000

awarded the contract to replace the trains' traction converters, transformers, battery chargers, train control systems, and passenger information and entertainment equipment. Additionally to the technical improvements, the new refurbished X2000s feature a new livery with a dark grey front, as well as a rebuilt interior with new seats allowing for 15% higher seating capacity, new walls, ceilings, floors and lighting, and a rebuilt bistro. The new interiors were awarded a Red Dot Design Award in 2020, with the jury stating:"With its perfectly harmonised colours and materials, the interior for the SJ X2000 high-speed train creates a particularly pleasant atmosphere

X 2000

. The elaboration in detail and the lighting concept create a peaceful ambience in the train compartment."The refurbished trains were originally scheduled to start introduction in 2019, however the first refurbished set started operation in November 2021. Impact on the railway. The train has had a major effect on SJ and the country's railway. More passengers, together with the lower operating costs associated with operating trains faster and more efficiently, helped SJ become profitable. It also proved to Swedes that rail is a viable solution not just in exotic densely populated foreign countries, but also at home in Sweden

X 2000

. In 1991, the Swedish government started a massive investment program, spending 5-10 billion kronor annually on improvements to the rail network. The program continues today. A milestone was reached in the late-1990s when the number of trips taken by train in Sweden exceeded the 1940s level for the first time. New links built since 1990 include the Øresund Bridge, the Arlanda Airport link, Södertälje–Huddinge, Söderhamn–Enånger, Varberg–Kungsbacka and Helsingborg–Lund. The X 2000 train contributed to building public support for these large projects. The fast-growing popularity of the trains has created problems with capacity. The time

X 2000

taken for the X 2000 trains were longer in 2008 than in 2000. For Stockholm–Malmö the fastest train took 21 minutes longer in 2008 compared to 2000. It is the congestion on the railways that impedes the fast trains, especially the prioritised fastest connections. The railways are used by fast X 2000 trains, slower passenger trains, and much slower freight trains. Exports. The manufacturer of the X 2000 had tried to sell the train to countries other than Sweden, but with mixed success. In connection with the sales attempts the train was tested and demonstrated in some countries. Norway

X 2000

, Finland, Germany, Austria, France, China, Australia, Portugal and the US were mentioned as candidates. An X 2000 toured the United States in 1992–1993 on lease to Amtrak. It was tested by Amtrak from October 1992 until January 1993. It was used in revenue service on the Northeast Corridor between New York City and Washington DC for about five months, from February until May and from August until September 1993. From May until July it was taken on a national tour around the 48 continental states for demonstration stops at significant stations. It also toured parts of Canada. In 1995, three

X 2000

X 2000 cars (SJ2819, SJ2620 and SJ2520) were hired by Australian operator CountryLink for evaluation purposes, being one driving trailer, one bistro car and one first class car. The trains were towed in a push/pull mode by modified XPT power cars XP2000 and XP2009. After conducting a statewide tour of New South Wales in March 1995, they were used on Sydney to Canberra services from April to June 1995. The X2 was also tested in Norway and Germany. There were competitors which had lower price, including Pendolino and ICE T. The Guangshen Railway Company, China leased and later purchased

X 2000

outright a X 2000 train which it named "Xinshisu" (New Speed). The train served as Guangzhou-Kowloon through train from 1998 until 2007. The train was initially supposed to been given the number 2044, but due to the fact that the number "4" sounds similar to the word for "death" in the Chinese language, it was renumbered as 2088, of which the number "8" symbolises luck in Chinese culture. It was delivered to Sichuan Province in August 2007 when it was replaced by an CRH1A. Due to the 2008 Sichuan earthquake, Chengdu Railway Bureau needed to rebuild the railway networks

X 2000

in Sichuan Province. Also, the authority could not carry the maintenance costs of the train. It was therefore returned to the Guangshen Railway Company in late December 2008. In 2012 the train was purchased by SJ and repatriated back to Sweden. The train had some serious damage and deferred maintenance. The trailer cab (110986 CUB2XFK) were scrapped after being display at the Swedish Railway Museum. The power car (2088 CX2) and five of the trailer cars (110987 through 110991 CUBS2FK) were repaired and re-entered service in 2020. Technical. The X2 was designed for old main lines with tight curves

X 2000

and with continuously welded rails (the train has a maximum axle load of , which causes large forces on the track). However, since 1990 a lot of new high speed lines have been constructed in Sweden, both upgraded lines and new lines. These upgraded or new lines always have ATC, continuously welded rails on concrete sleepers and no crossings with road and rail at the same level. The tilting function is not used on these lines. The max power continuous output of the locomotive is , which is comparatively low for a fast train. It also enabled SJ to say that it

X 2000

does not consume more power at than older Rc- locomotive hauled trains at . The X2 trains have mostly run at the X 2000 service level, but have periodically been used for Linx traffic (from 2000–2004) as well as regional services, for which fewer coaches were used to improve acceleration. Technical data X2 locomotive Technical data X2 passenger coaches Each train also has a UB2X coach with a driver's place, and a URB2 coach with a simple restaurant. In the beginning there were many more UA2 first class coaches than UB2 second class coaches. But after a decision that state

X 2000

employees should normally use second class for train journeys in their works instead of first class something many companies followed, many UA2 have been rebuilt into UB2. X 2000 X 2000, also called SJ X2 or simply as X2, is a tilting train operated by SJ in Sweden. It was constructed by Kalmar Verkstad in Kalmar, Sweden (prior to the company being bought by Adtranz in 1996) and launched in 1990 as a first-class only train with a meal included in the ticket price, and free use of the train's fax machine. There is a bistro on board

X 2000

Unicoherent space Unicoherent space In mathematics, a unicoherent space is a topological space formula_1 that is connected and in which the following property holds: For any closed, connected formula_2 with formula_3, the intersection formula_4 is connected. For example, any closed interval on the real line is unicoherent, but a circle is not. If a unicoherent space is more strongly hereditarily unicoherent (meaning that every subcontinuum is unicoherent) and arcwise connected, then it is called a dendroid. If in addition it is locally connected then it is called a dendrite. The Phragmen–Brouwer theorem states that, for locally connected spaces, unicoherence is equivalent

Unicoherent space

to a separation property of the closed sets of the space. Unicoherent space In mathematics, a unicoherent space is a topological space formula_1 that is connected and in which the following property holds: For any closed, connected formula_2 with formula_3, the intersection formula_4 is connected. For example, any closed interval on the real line is unicoherent, but a circle is not. If a unicoherent space is more strongly hereditarily unicoherent (meaning that every subcontinuum is unicoherent) and arcwise connected, then it is called a dendroid. If in addition it is locally connected then it is called a dendrite. The Phragmen

Unicoherent space

Proof by exhaustion Proof by exhaustion Proof by exhaustion, also known as proof by cases, proof by case analysis, complete induction or the brute force method, is a method of mathematical proof in which the statement to be proved is split into a finite number of cases or sets of equivalent cases, and where each type of case is checked to see if the proposition in question holds. This is a method of direct proof. A proof by exhaustion typically contains two stages: The prevalence of digital computers has greatly increased the convenience of using the method of exhaustion (e.g., the first computer

Proof by exhaustion

-assisted proof of four color theorem in 1976), though such approaches can also be challenged on the basis of mathematical elegance. Expert systems can be used to arrive at answers to many of the questions posed to them. In theory, the proof by exhaustion method can be used whenever the number of cases is finite. However, because most mathematical sets are infinite, this method is rarely used to derive general mathematical results. In the Curry–Howard isomorphism, proof by exhaustion and case analysis are related to ML-style pattern matching. Example. Proof by exhaustion can be used to prove that

Proof by exhaustion

if an integer is a perfect cube, then it must be either a multiple of 9, 1 more than a multiple of 9, or 1 less than a multiple of 9. Proof: Each perfect cube is the cube of some integer "n", where "n" is either a multiple of 3, 1 more than a multiple of 3, or 1 less than a multiple of 3. So these three cases are exhaustive: Elegance. Mathematicians prefer to avoid proofs by exhaustion with large numbers of cases, which are viewed as inelegant. An illustration as to how such proofs might be inelegant is

Proof by exhaustion

to look at the following proofs that all modern Summer Olympic Games are held in years which are divisible by 4: Proof: The first modern Summer Olympics were held in 1896, and then every 4 years thereafter (neglecting exceptions such as when the games were not held due to World War I and World War II along with the 2020 Tokyo Olympics being postponed to 2021 due to the COVID-19 pandemic.). Since 1896 = 474 × 4 is divisible by 4, the next Olympics would be in year 474 × 4 + 4 = (474 + 1) × 4, which

Proof by exhaustion

is also divisible by four, and so on (this is a proof by mathematical induction). Therefore the statement is proved. The statement can also be proved by exhaustion by listing out every year in which the Summer Olympics were held, and checking that every one of them can be divided by four. With 28 total Summer Olympics as of 2016, this is a proof by exhaustion with 28 cases. In addition to being less elegant, the proof by exhaustion will also require an extra case each time a new Summer Olympics is held. This is to be contrasted with the

Proof by exhaustion

proof by mathematical induction, which proves the statement indefinitely into the future. Number of cases. There is no upper limit to the number of cases allowed in a proof by exhaustion. Sometimes there are only two or three cases. Sometimes there may be thousands or even millions. For example, rigorously solving a chess endgame puzzle might involve considering a very large number of possible positions in the game tree of that problem. The first proof of the four colour theorem was a proof by exhaustion with 1834 cases. This proof was controversial because the majority of the cases were checked

Proof by exhaustion

by a computer program, not by hand. The shortest known proof of the four colour theorem today still has over 600 cases. In general the probability of an error in the whole proof increases with the number of cases. A proof with a large number of cases leaves an impression that the theorem is only true by coincidence, and not because of some underlying principle or connection. Other types of proofs—such as proof by induction (mathematical induction)—are considered more elegant. However, there are some important theorems for which no other method of proof has been found, such as Proof

Proof by exhaustion

Gossamer (Looney Tunes) Gossamer (Looney Tunes) Gossamer is an animated character in the Warner Bros. "Looney Tunes" and "Merrie Melodies" series of cartoons. He is a large, hairy, orange monster. His body is perched on two giant tennis shoes, and his heart-shaped face is composed of only two oval eyes and a wide mouth, with two hulking arms ending in dirty, clawed fingers. The monster's main trait is his uncombed, orange hair. He originally was voiced by Mel Blanc and has been voiced by Frank Welker, Maurice LaMarche, Joe Alaskey, Jim Cummings, Kwesi Boakye, Eric Bauza and currently Fred Tatasciore. The

Gossamer (Looney Tunes)

word "gossamer" means any sort of thin, fragile, transparent material. In particular, it can refer to a kind of delicate, sheer gauze or a light cobweb. The name is meant to be ironic because the character is large, menacing, and destructive. History. Animator Chuck Jones introduced the unnamed monster in the 1946 cartoon "Hair-Raising Hare". In it, Bugs Bunny is lured to the lair of a mad scientist (a caricature of actor Peter Lorre). The monster serves as the scientist's henchman. Part of this plot was repeated in the 1952 Jones cartoon "Water, Water Every Hare" in which

Gossamer (Looney Tunes)

the monster's character is referred to as "Rudolph" or simply "Monster". In need of a live brain for his giant robot, the mad scientist (this time a caricature of Boris Karloff) releases Rudolph from his chamber on a mission to capture Bugs Bunny; the monster shows a sudden burst of joyousness and quickly sets out when the mad scientist promises the reward of "spider goulash" for capturing the rabbit. The monster next appears in "Duck Dodgers and the Return of the 24½th Century" in 1980. This is the first cartoon where the character is called "Gossamer", and is so

Gossamer (Looney Tunes)

named by Marvin the Martian. Jones gave the monster this name "because he's the opposite looking of gossamer. He's a big, hairy thing." In the 1995 short film, Carrotblanca, Gossamer is seated at a table. Other appearances. Gossamer also has appeared in various recent Warner Bros. productions: Gossamer (Looney Tunes) Gossamer is an animated character in the Warner Bros. "Looney Tunes" and "Merrie Melodies" series of cartoons. He is a large, hairy, orange monster. His body is perched on two giant tennis shoes, and his heart-shaped face is composed of only two oval eyes and a wide

Gossamer (Looney Tunes)

Garifuna Garifuna The Garifuna people ( or ; pl. Garínagu in Garifuna) are a mixed African and indigenous people who originally lived on the Caribbean island of Saint Vincent and speak Garifuna, an Arawakan language, and Vincentian Creole. The Garifuna are the descendants of indigenous Arawak, Kalinago (Island Carib), and Afro-Caribbean people. The founding population of the Central American diaspora, estimated at 2,500 to 5,000 persons, were transplanted to the Central American coast from the Commonwealth Caribbean island of Saint Vincent, which was known to the Garinagu as "Yurumein", in the Windward Islands in the British West Indies in the Lesser Antilles

Garifuna

. Garifuna communities still live in Saint Vincent and the Grenadines and abroad, including Garifuna Americans. Name. In the Garifuna language, the endonym "Garínagu" refers to the people as a whole and the term "Garífuna" refers to an individual person, the culture, and the language. The terms "Garífuna" and "Garínagu" originated as African modifications of the Kalinago terms "Karifuna" and "Kalinago" respectively. The terms may have been used by the Garifuna to refer to themselves as early as the mid-17th century. The Garifuna were historically known by the exonyms "Caribs", "Black Caribs", and "Island Caribs". European explorers began to use the

Garifuna

term "Black Caribs" in the 17th century. In the 18th century, English accounts used the terms "Black Caribs" and "Yellow Caribs" or "Red Caribs" to differentiate, with some ambiguity, two groups with a similar culture by their skin color. The British colonial use of the term "Black Carib", particularly in William Young's "Account of the Black Charaibs" (1795), has been described in modern historiography as framing the majority of the indigenous St. Vincent population as "mere interlopers from Africa" who lacked claims to land possession in St. Vincent. History. Carib background. The Carib people migrated from the mainland to

Garifuna

the islands circa 1200, according to carbon dating of artifacts. They largely displaced, exterminated and assimilated the Taíno who were resident on the islands at the time. 17th century. The French missionary Raymond Breton arrived in the Lesser Antilles in 1635, and lived on Guadeloupe and Dominica until 1653. He took ethnographic and linguistic notes on the native peoples of these islands, including St. Vincent, which he visited briefly. In 1635 the Carib were overwhelmed by French forces led by the adventurer Pierre Belain d'Esnambuc and his nephew Jacques Dyel du Parquet. They imposed French colonial rule. Cardinal Richelieu of

Garifuna

France gave the island to the Compagnie de Saint-Christophe, in which he was a shareholder. Later the company was reorganized as the Compagnie des Îles de l'Amérique. The French colonists imposed French Law on the inhabitants, and Jesuit missionaries arrived to forcibly convert them to the Catholic Church. Because the Carib people resisted working as laborers to build and maintain the sugar and cocoa plantations which the French began to develop in the Caribbean, in 1636, Louis XIII of France proclaimed "La Traité des Noirs". This authorized the capture and purchase of enslaved people from sub-Saharan Africa and

Garifuna

their transportation as labor to Martinique and other parts of the French West Indies. In 1650, the Company liquidated, selling Martinique to Jacques Dyel du Parquet, who became governor. He held this position until his death in 1658. His widow Mme. du Parquet took over control of the island from France. As more French colonists arrived, they were attracted to the fertile area known as "Cabesterre" (leeward side). The French had pushed the remaining Carib people to this northeastern coast and the Caravalle Peninsula, but the colonists wanted the additional land. The Jesuits and the Dominicans agreed that whichever order

Garifuna

arrived there first, would get all future parishes in that part of the island. The Jesuits came by sea and the Dominicans by land, with the Dominicans' ultimately prevailing. When the Carib revolted against French rule in 1660, the Governor Charles Houël du Petit Pré retaliated with war against them. Many were killed; those who survived were taken captive and expelled from the island. On Martinique, the French colonists signed a peace treaty with the few remaining Carib. Some Carib had fled to Dominica and Saint Vincent, where the French agreed to leave them at peace. William Young's report

Garifuna

. After the arrival of the English to St. Vincent in 1667, English Army officer John Scott wrote a report on the island for the English crown, noting that St. Vincent was populated by Caribs and a small number of Blacks from two Spanish slave ships which had wrecked on its shores. Later, in 1795, the British governor of St. Vincent, William Young, noted in another report, addressed to the British Crown, that the island was populated by Black enslaved people from two Spanish slave ships that had sunk near the island of San Vincent in 1635 (although, according to other

Garifuna

authors such as Idiáquez, the two slave ships wrecked between 1664 and 1670). The slave ships were destined to the West Indies (Bahamas and Antilles). According to Young's report, after the wreck, enslaved people from the Igbo ethnic group from what is now Nigeria, escaped and reached the small island of Bequia. There, the Caribs enslaved them and brought them to Saint Vincent. However, according to Young, the enslaved people were too independent of "spirit", prompting the Caribs to make plans to kill all the African male children. When Africans heard about the Caribs' plan, they rebelled and killed

Garifuna

all the Caribs they could find, then headed to the mountains, where they settled and lived with other enslaved people who had taken refuge there before them. From the mountains, the former enslaved people attacked and killed the Caribs continually, reducing them in number. Modern historiography. Several modern researchers have rejected the theory espoused by Young. According to them, most of the enslaved people who arrived in Saint Vincent actually came from other Caribbean islands, and had settled in Saint Vincent in order to escape slavery, therefore Maroons came from plantations on nearby islands. Although most of the enslaved people

Garifuna

came from Barbados (most of the enslaved people of this island were from present-day Nigeria and Ghana), but they also came from places such as St. Lucia (where enslaved people likely came from what is now Senegal, Nigeria, Angola) and Grenada (where there were many enslaved people from Guinea, Sierra Leone, Nigeria, Angolan, Kongo and Ghana). The Barbadians and Saint Lucians arrived on the island before 1735. Later, after 1775, most of the enslaved people who arrived from other islands were Saint Lucians and Grenadians. After arriving on the island, they were taken in by the Caribs, who offered

Garifuna

them protection, enslaved them and, eventually mixed with them. In addition to the African refugees, the Caribs captured enslaved people from neighboring islands (although they also had white people and their fellow Caribs as enslaved people), while they were fighting against the British and the French. Many of the captured enslaved people were integrated into their communities (this also occurred in islands such as Dominica). After the African rebellion against the Caribs, and their escape to the mountains, over time, according to Itarala, Africans would come down from the mountains to have sexual intercourse with Amerindian women - perhaps because most

Garifuna

Africans were men - or to search for other kinds of food. The sexual activity did not necessarily lead to marriage. On the other hand, if the Maroons abducted Arauaco-Caribbean women or married them, is another of the contradictions between the French documents and the oral history of the Garinagu. Andrade Coelho states that "...whatever the case, the Caribs never consented to give their daughters in marriage to blacks". Conversely, Sebastian R. Cayetano argues that "Africans were married with women Caribs of the islands, giving birth to the Garifuna". According to Charles Gullick some Caribs mixed peacefully with the Maroons

Garifuna