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CHAPTER III BREEDING As in other branches of hve stock production, the ques- tion of breeding poultry is all important where success is to be obtained. IMPORTANCE OF BREEDING There is no other phase of poultry production to which more importance can be attached than that of the principles and practice of breeding. The beginner may obtain stock from a good strain of standard-bred poultry, the birds may be housed in a thoroughly practical and well-planned build- ing, and proper methods of feeding may be employed, but, should they be carelessly or indifferently bred, unsatisfac- tory results will surely follow. It has been of only .compar- atively recent years that this fact has been so generally recognized as concerning poultry. It may be said that poul- try breeders, or, as they are sometimes called, "fanciers," were the first to make any attempt to put into practice the principles of breeding in their effort to perfect the various breeds and varieties of poultry, as regarding type, color of plumage, and certain other characteristics. In the major- ity of such cases utility qualities, such as increased egg and meat production, were of little concern. Of more recent years commercial poultrymen, or, as they are otherwise known, "utility poultrymen," have endeavored to put into practice such principles of breeding and selec- tion as to increase egg-producing abiUty and meat quali- ties of fowls. In most instances but little attention being paid to markings, color of plumage, pr other standard re- quirements, the sole idea is to increase production to meet market requirements, and to increase profits. It may thus 44

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58 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION MALE HEAD^ ^WWINa DEFECTIVE COMB^. I THUMB MA£K. 2. LOPPED (^IN^LE). 3. HOLLOW CENTER 4 ^WE ^PRId- 5 UNEYEN ^ESEATIOLffi. 6. TWITES. Figure 61. well spread and carried neither too high nor too low. A tail carried too high gives the bird the appearance of being short. An extremely high tail is known as a squirrel tail, as shown in No. 1, Figure 62. When carried too low it de- tracts considerably from the appearance of the bird. The proper angle at which the tail should be carried for each breed will be found in the American Standard of Perfection. Wry tail, No. 2, Figure 62, that is, a tail carried to one side, should be avoided in selecting the breeders. Legs and toes. The legs should be of medium length, straight and set well apart. Such legs indicate sturdiness and vigor. The toes should be straight, strong, and well spread.

biodiversity-heritage-library

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BREEDINa 61 is mated to females that are darker in color than called for in the standard. This is known as the cockerel mating and produces exhibition cockerels and cockerel-bred pul- lets (those which are darker in color than exhibition pullets). To secure exhibition females a Hghter colored male is mated to exhibition or standard females, that is, females having black and white barring of equal width. This is known as a pullet mating and produces exhibition pullets and Ught colored cockerels, or, as they are called, pullet-bred cock- erels. Stud mating. This system of mating is not as commonly used with fowls as those previously mentioned. As prac- ticed the male or males are kept separate from the females and are only mated at certain periods. The object of stud mating is for the purpose of breeding individual females in one flock for instance to two or more males, having in mind a definite purpose of breeding. To carry on this plan successfully it is necessary to trapnest the females. (See page 149.) After each second or third egg produced the fe- male is removed from the trap nest, taken to the male, and left with him until copulation takes place. It has been found that more frequent copulation is unnecessary to secure satisfactory fertility. Flock, or mass, breeding. This form of breeding, as the name implies, refers to the mating of the entire flock, wherein there may be several males. This plan is not recommended unless all the individuals of the flock are selected for some definite purpose of breeding. TIME TO MATE The breeding pen should be mated at least two weeks before beginning to save eggs for hatching. When less time is allowed the greatest number of fertile eggs is not likely to be secured. When possible, the mating should be made far enough in advance so that a few eggs could be

biodiversity-heritage-library

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70 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION eggs from the egg breeds, such as the Leghorn and Ancona, in the same incubator or under the same hen with brown- shelled eggs of the heavier breeds, such as Plymouth Rocks or Wyandottes. The white-shelled eggs from the smaller breeds often hatch a little earlier than the brown-shelled eggs of the larger breeds. Eggs from different varieties of the same class of fowls may, however, be incubated together. Sound shells. Only eggs of sound shells should be set. This precaution is evident if they are to be set under a hen, as they are apt to get broken during incubation. Eggs of thin or porous shells are undesirable even for the incubator. Abnormal eggs. Neither the hen nor the incubator will hatch strong chicks from eggs that are ab- normal or small or poorly shaped. PACKING HATCHING EGGS FOR SHIPMENT Thousands of sittings of eggs for hatching are shipped each season and Figure 68. A turning crate for hatching eggs. . i .. many are sent long dis- tances, but in some instances rough handling in transit appears to affect the hatch from such eggs. A satisfac- tory method of shipping eggs for hatching is to use a common chip market basket, well lined on the inside with excelsior. Wrap each egg in a layer of paper, and put enough excelsior around the egg to make a ball of about three inches in diameter. Pack the eggs securely in the basket, covering them with a layer of excelsior. Then the basket should be covered with a strong piece of cotton cloth.

biodiversity-heritage-library

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NATURAL AND ARTIFICIAL INCUBATION 87 this purpose. Most incubators come equipped with testing chimneys that fit on an incubator lamp. An electric light or a kerosene lamp may be used in a box with a hole slightly smaller than an egg cut in the side of the box and at the same level as the light. A hole slightly larger than the chimney of the lamp should be cut in the top of the box to allow the heat to es- cape. (See Figure 86.) The eggs, when tested, should be held with the large end up so that the size of the air cell may be seen as well as the condition of the embryo. The testing should take place in a darkened room. The infertile egg when held be- fore the hole of the tester will look perfectly clear, or the same as a fresh egg. A fertile egg will show a small dark spot, known as the embryo, with a mass of little blood veins radiating in all directions, if the embryo is living. If the germ of the egg is dead and it has been incubated for at le.ast 46 hours, the blood settles away from the embryo toward the edge of the yolk, usually forming an irregular circle of blood, known as a blood ring. All infertile and dead-germ eggs should be removed at the first test. Eggs containing living embryos are dark and well filled Figure 85. — The eggs should be tested at least twice during the period of incubation, preferably on the 7th and 14th days, and all infertile eggs and those with dead germs removed.

biodiversity-heritage-library

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PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION up on the 14th day, showing a clear, distinct hne between the air cell and the growing embryo. Eggs with dead germs at the end of 14 days show only partial development and lack a clear dis- tinct line of demarcation between the air cell and the rest of the egg. Care of the incubator at hatch- ing time. When the eggs begin to hatch do not disturb the machine until the hatch is over. The door should not be opened to see how the eggs are hatching, as the mois- ture, which is very essential at this time, will thus be allowed to escape. It is usually advisable to darken the incubator at hatching time by covering the glass in the door with a cloth, so that the chickens will not be attracted to the front part of the machine by the light. When the hatching is com- Figure 86. — Homemade egg Candler. The hole for testing eggs should be directly op- posite the flame of the lamp. Figure 87. — An infertile egg at the end Figure 88, — A fertile egg after 7 days of of 7 days' incubation broken out into incubation broken out into a saucer a saucer to show the lack of germ to show the blood veins and develop- development. ment.

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NATURAL AND ARTIFICIAL BROODING 105 cases aim to keep the chicks comfortable. When too cold, it will be noticed that they will crowd together and try to get near the center of the hover. When it is found in the morning that the droppings are well scattered under the hover, it is an indication that the chicks have had sufficient heat. When the chicks are comfortable, they will distribute themselves evenly at night. Too much heat will cause them to sweat and frequently results in their death. It is impractical to state for each style of brooder at what temperature it should be kept to raise young chicks. In most cases it should be run at from 90° to 100° F., when the chicks are first put in and at an average of from 93° to 95° F., for the first ten days, the temperature being grad- ually reduced to about 85° F., for the following 10 days and then lowered to 70° to 75° F., for as long as artificial heat is needed. In warmer weather and as the chicks grow larger the lamps may be used only at night and later only on cold nights. Care should be taken to prevent the chicks from becoming chilled or overheated, as either chilling or overheating . weakens them and may cause considerable trouble. From 3^ an inch to 2 inches of sand and cut clover or chaff litter should be spread over the entire floor of the brooder. Management. Hovers and brooders must be cleaned fre- quently, as cleanliness is very essential, if chicks are to be raised successfully. When first put into the brooder, they should be confined under or around the hover by placing a cloth or wire frame 10 to 24 inches from the outside of the hover proper. This practice does not apply to the small indoor colony brooders. This guard should be moved gradually further away from the hover and removed entirely when the chicks are 3 or 4 days old, or after they have learned to return to the hover. When weather conditions are favorable, the chicks should be allowed to run on the ground.

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138 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION Figure 134. — Showing the method of placing the rafters for a two-thirds pitch roof. The crosspieees and uprights in the middle as shown in the picture are but temporary braces and will be removed. house, depending upon its size, are usually built of 3 x 4 or 4 X 6 or 6 X 6 inch lumber. The roof. There are six different styles of roof as shown in Figure 135. Figure 135. — Types of roofs for poultry houses, (a) Shed roof or single-pitch type, (b) Combination or two-thirds pitch, (c) Gable or double pitch, (d) Monitor, (e) Semi-monitor, (f) A-shaped.

biodiversity-heritage-library

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POULTRY HOUSES AND APPLIANCES IBS Figure 155 and with a sharp pair of scissors clip the flight feathers only. With these feathers cut, the wing will then have the appearance as shown in Figure 156. Fur- thermore, the clipping of the flight feathers is hardly ap- parent when the wing is folded in its natural position, as shown in Figure 157. Gates. In all cases at least one gate should be provided for each yard and, where several yards adjoin, a gate should be made between each yard and the one next to it. When the yard is of considerable size, a double gate should be provided, so as to admit a wagon to remove the litter from the house or a team of horses in the event it is desired to plow the yard. Figure 158. — The corner posts of the fence should be well braced. PAINT AND WHITEWASH It is always advisable either to paint or whitewash the poultry buildings not only from the standpoint of appearance, Figure 159. — The gate should be well made and hung on strong hinges in order for it to be serviceable.

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156 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION but likewise to protect the lumber. Suitable ready mixed paints can be purchased and will in most cases answer the purpose. Whitewash is the most inexpensive finish that can be applied and can be used either for the exterior or inter- ior of the house. Satisfactory weather-proof whitewash for the outside of the building can be made as follows: 1. Slake 1 bushel of quick hme in 12 gallons of hot water. 2. Dissolve 2 pounds of common salt and 1 pound of Figure 160. — When colony houses are only temporarily placed in a field or lot and a gate is not close by, a stile as shown can be erected. Ordinarily the fowls will not attempt to fly out from the top step of the stile. sulphate of zinc in 2 gallons of boiling water. When mixed, pour this into the slaked hme. Stir well and add 2 gallons of skim milk. QUESTIONS 1. What are the nine essential factors for a suitable poultry house? 2. What are the advantages and disadvantages of a colony house system? 3. What are the advantages and disadvantages of a continuous house system? 4. De.scribf an ideal location for the poultry house. 5. What factors should be considered in planning the size and dimensions of the house?

biodiversity-heritage-library

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COMMON DISEASES AND TREATMENT 173 Treatment. An additional quantity of meat scrap mixed with the dry mash, green feed and range will frequently overcome this trouble. The brooder should also be slightly darkened when this habit is present. Egg eating. This habit, when once contracted by a fowl is difficult to correct. It is usually caused by the hen's stepping on a thin-shelled egg and breaking it, af- ter which it is eaten. Treatment. Provide plenty of oyster shells as a preventive to insure the production of eggs with normal shells, which are less easily broken. Darkening the nest tends to discourage the habit. Increasing the amount of beef scrap in the mash also tends to break it. Free range also helps to overcome this unnatural habit. Rheumatism. Fortu- nately this affliction is not commonly found in fowls. Symptoms. The disease is usually characterized by lame- ness or stiffness of the joints and is usually caused by con- tinued exposure to cold or dampness. Treatment. The most effective treatment for this dis- ease is to see that the houses are well ventilated and dry. Fowls so affected will usually respond to treatment when kept dry and warm and when suppUed with a good ration supplemented with green feed. Scaly leg. This diseased condition is most frequently Figure 172. — A fowl afflicted with rheumatism.

biodiversity-heritage-library

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206 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION COMPOSITION OF THE FEEDS It is necessary not only to have the right kind of feeds but that they should be fed at proper intervals and in amounts proportioned to the nutritive and productive requirements of the fowl. In order to feed intelHgently, therefore, we must know, first, the composition of feeds. Feeds and feeding stuffs contain three elements in varying amounts that are essential in the feeding of poultry. They are protein, or nitrogenous material, nitrogen-free extract, or carbohydrates, and fat, together with water and ash. Protein is that part of the food that makes flesh, bone and Figure 204. — When feeding sprouted oats allow one square inch per hen daily. muscle and serves to replace waste material and promote growth. Protein also is the principal ingredient in the white of the egg. It is the element that is apt to be deficient in feeding stuffs and the commercial value of feed depends largely on the amount of protein it contains. Carbohydrates, or nitrogen-free extract, is that part of the feed that goes to make fat, generate heat, and exert energy. The fat content in feeds performs practically the same functions as the carbohydrates. Ash is the mineral material contained in feeds and is largely used in making bone, eggshells, etc., and is just as essential as water or protein. Knowing the

biodiversity-heritage-library

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CULLING THE FLOCK 223 Fig. 213. — This Single-Combed White Leghorn hen, a good producer, laid 160 eggs in a year. Such hens are profitable and should be retained. trying to raise them. When looking over the growing stock, there will be found certain cockerels that are larger in size and more vigorous than others. On locating such birds they should be leg banded or marked so that they may be retained Figure 214. — This Single-Combed White Leghorn hen, a poor producer, laid but 80 eggs in a year. Such hens should be culled as unprofitable.

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224 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION as breeders, other conditions being favorable, such as color, type, etc. When to cull. Culling, generally speaking, should be a continuous process throughout the year. It should include the elimination not only of hens that are non-productive but Figure 215. — A Barred Plymouth Rock Figure 21fi. — An extremely poor Barred cockerel well grown and developed — Plymouth Rock cockerel. Such birds as the kind to keep. these should be culled from the flock and marketed. likewise those that are sick, that are thin or emaciated, as well as those that show poor vitaHty. At some one time, however, the whole flock should be given a careful and systematic culling. Each hen should be handled and gone over carefully with the object of picking out and retaining the better producers and culling the poor producers. At such a time it is also advisable to pick out from the better producers such hens as will be needed for breeders the fol- lowing spring. These fowls should be leg banded or other-

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TURKEYS, DUCES, GEESE, GUINEA FOWLS 237 Figure 227. — White Holland turkey male. MANAGEMENT The production of turkeys is a profitable side line for those so situated that they can give plenty of range to the flock. Experience shows that turkeys do not thrive well on limited range or in confinement. Thus free range is of importance from the standpoint of health, vigor, and.

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TURKEYS, DUCK8, GEESE, GUINEA FOWLS 241

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274 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION essary in the coop when fowls are shipped only short dis- tances or when they will not be confined to the coop over 24 hours. When feed is provided, whole grain, such as corn and wheat, are most satisfactory. Water when placed in the shipping coop is liable to spill out and soil the plumage. A mangel tied in the coop which the fowl can pick at will supply sufficient moisture. A tag or card plainly marked showing the destination of the shipment as well as the return address can be tacked or pasted on the outside where it can be plainly seen. In fastening a coop it should be made secure, so that it will not come open in transit. Some provision should be made so that the coop can be readily opened on arrival at the show room. Frequently it is found necessary to dam- age the coop considerably be- fore it can be opened, often rendering it practically unfit ^"'"thfppirg^x'ilSS'fUr''"' for use in returning the fowls. SHOW RULES AND REGULATIONS In order to acquaint those who have never exhibited poultry with the more important rules governing poultry shows and exhibits the following are cited: 1. In judging poultry only fowls of the same breed and variety compete. That is, for instance. White Plymouth Rocks do not compete against Barred Plymouth Rocks. This holds true in every other breed and variety, except where prizes are offered for the best bird or birds, all varities competing. 2. The units of classification in judging are as follows:

biodiversity-heritage-library

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288 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION eggs direct to the consumer. When satisfactory prices can be obtained for a high grade fresh product, this system will prove practical. There are several factors, however, that must be considered when this method is used, namely, when the distance between the producer and consumer is too great, the postage required may prove prohibitive. Another factor that should be considered and definitely agreed upon when this system of marketing is employed is that the consumer shall make prompt settlement and return the cartons, which. Figure 2S1. — A satisfactorj^ type of egg carton for shipping by parcel post, allowing one and two dozen sizes. in most cases, can be used several times. In order to secure the best prices for eggs so marketed, fresh, clean, infertile eggs should be furnished as suggested above. Containers. There are several makes and styles of con- tainers of various sizes ranging from one-dozen-egg capacity up. These containers are usually constructed of corrugated cardboard or of a light metal. In selecting a container con- sideration should be given to the cost, simplicity, strength, weight, and durability, as all these factors will influence either directly or indirectly the cost of marketing by this method. The containers as shown in Figure 281 are com- monly used with good results.

biodiversity-heritage-library

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MARKETIN& THE PRODUCT 291 Fattening broilers. Broilers that are to be shipped alive as well as those that are to be killed before shipping should be fed a special ration before they are sent to market. Broil- ers may be fattened either by confining them to a coop, such as is shown in Figure 284, for 10 days or 2 weeks or pen fattened by keeping them in their house for the same period, and feeding a ration that will increase their weight and improve their condition. A good fattening ration for broil- ers is as follows: Mix with 1 gallon of skim milk or buttermilk. Figure 284. — Surplus cockerels being fattened for marlcet. 3 pounds of corn meal 1 pound of middlings 1 pound of bran 1 pound ground oats When chickens are confined to a fattening coop, this mixture should be fed twice daily in a trough such as is shown in Figure 284. Birds fed on this mixture should not be given water to drink. When skim milk or buttermilk is not available, add to the above mixture one pound of beef scrap, using water to moisten the mixture. Likewise, when skim or buttermilk is not fed, green feed, such as sprouted oats, cut clover or alfalfa, should be given to the , fowls, in order to keep them in good condition. Broilers

biodiversity-heritage-library

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CHAPTER XVII ORGANIZATION JUNIOR CLUBS In view of the work that is carried on in many of the states along the lines of organizing boys' and girls' poultry clubs, the following is suggested with a view of assisting those who are desirous of organizing such clubs or acting in the capacity of a community leader in carrying on such club work. Object of organization. Primarily the principal object of organizing poultry clubs among boys and girls is to give a better knowledge of the value and importance of the poultry industry, to teach better methods of caring for poul- try and eggs, to show the increased revenue that can be derived from standard-bred poultry when proper methods of management are pursued, and to gratify the desire on the part of most boys and girls to possess live pets. Advantages. When an effort is made to organize a poultry club, it has usually been found advisable to regard the school as a medium and unit through which the organiza- tion can be carried on and perfected. When the plan is first presented, the parents of the children should be invited, so that they will have a better understanding of the work and thus be able to assist in carrying out the plans. The purpose of the organization and the importance of the poul- try industry should be explained. The boys and girls should be told that by carrjdng on this work they can establish for themselves a profitable and permanent business which will enable them to make money without interfering with their regular school work. Prizes and exhibits are arranged in this form of club work, in order to enable the members 305

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COPYRIGHTED, 1S20-1922 WEBB PUBLISHING COMPANY All Rights Reserved W-3

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CONTENTS Chapter Page Preface 6 I The Poultry Industry 11 Size and extent. — Development. — Growth of incentives. — Poultry keeping on the farm. — Shows and education. — Intensive poultry sections. — Back-yard flocks. — The poultry breeder. II Breeds and Varieties 22 Origin and classification. — Selecting the breed. — Pur- pose, Standard-bred fowls vs. mongrels. — General-pur- pose Class: The Plymouth Rock, The Wyandotte, The Rhode Island Red, The Orpington. — ^The Egg Class: The Leghorn, The Ancona, The Minorca, The Blue Anda- lusian, The Campine. — The Meat Class: The Langshan, The Brahma, The Cochin, the Cornish. — The Game, Bantam, and Miscellaneous Classes. ni Breeding 44 Importance. — Principles of breeding: Heredity, Varia- tion, Sports or Mutations, Reversion or Atavism, Cor- relation, Regression, Progression, Prepotency, Fecundi- ty, Inbreeding, Linebreeding, Outbreeding or outcross- ing. Crossbreeding, Grading up. — Nomenclature of the fowl. — Essentials of poultry breeding: Health and vigor. Appearance and action. — Selection of the breeders : Size, Color, Head, Comb, Eyes, Neck, Body, Breast, Back, Wings, Tail, Legs and Toes, Skin. — Kind of fowls to re- ject. — Purpose of breeding. — Kinds of matings: Single mating, double mating, stud mating, flock or mass breed- ing. — ^Time to mate.-— Size of mating. — Age of breed- ing stock. — Free range. — Management. — Feeding. IV Natural and Artificial Incubation 67 Preliminary considerations. — The egg. — Selection and care of eggs for hatching: Fertility, Freshness, Soiled eggs, Similar eggs, Sound shells, Normal eggs. — Method of packing eggs for hatching. — Period of incubation. — Pro- portion of males to females. — Time of year to hatch. — When to hatch, When not to hatch.— Natural Incuba- tion: How to set a hen. Indication of broodiness. Quar- ters, Dusting; Management of the sitting hen. — Arti- ficial incubation: Incubators, Types of incubators. Se- lection of the incubator. Place to operate. Operation of the incubator. The Thermostat, The Thermometer, Operation, Correct temperature. Care of lamp. Turn- ing the eggs. Cooling the eggs. Moisture and ventilation. Testing the eggs. Care of incubator at hatching time, Disinfecting and storing incubators. V Natural and Artificial Brooding 92 Natural Brooding: Brooding chicks with hens. Care of

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PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION CHAPTER I THE POULTRY INDUSTRY The production of poultry and eggs constitutes one of our most important branches of agriculture. To thorough- ly appreciate this great source of food supply the magnitude of the poultry industry should be considered. SIZE AND EXTENT Size. It has been usual from the fact that most poultry is kept in comparatively small flocks on general farms, to regard the poultry industry as a little business. The rel- atively small size of these individual units has caused us to lose sight of the fact that flocks of fowls exist on practically every farm, and that in the aggregate they form an industry which is of great magnitude. Thus, for example, we find in the United States, according to the census of 1910, a total of over 5,500,000 farms reported as keeping poultry out of a total of a little over 6,300,000 farms. The value of the poultry and eggs produced in the United States during that year was somewhat in excess of $600,000,000.00. This amount includes only the value of poultry products on farms and does not take into consideration a large amount which is produced by thousands of back-yard flocks in the villages and towns. Taking into consideration the great develop- ment and progress that has been made in poultry keeping since the 1910 census was taken, and since the further 11

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32 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION are larger than any of the other breeds in the egg class. They have noticeably long bodies and in shape are more angular appearing than either the Leghorn or Ancona. The skin color of all the varieties of this breed is white. The exceptionally large white-shelled egg produced by the Minorca is typical of the breed. The standard weights are divided as follows: For the Single Comb Black, the weights are: cock 9 lbs., hen 7^ lbs., cockerel 7}i lbs., pullet 63^ lbs. When compared with the breeds of the gen- eral-purpose class, it will be noted that the standard weights for the Single Comb Black Minorca are greater than for the Rhode Island Red and Wyandotte cock, hen, and pullet, the weights of the cock- erel in each of these breeds being the same. For the other varieties, including the Rose Comb Black Minorcas,the weights are: cock 8 lbs., hen 63^ lbs. cockerel 63^2 lbs., pullet 5H lbs. The Blue Andalusian. There is only one variety of this breed, it being, as its name implies, blue in color. This blue plumage is a characteristic that is peculiar to but few varieties of poultry, the Blue Andalusian and the Blue Orpington being the only two varieties found in the American Standard of Perfection.* As with the Minorca, the skin *The American Standard of Perfection published hy the American Poultry Association is the authorized guide for the selection and judging of standard-bred poultry. Figure 22. — Single Comb White Leghorn female.

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BREEDING 57 that are supposed to have upright combs. Defective combs such as shown in Figure 61 should be guarded against. Eyes. The eyes should be of a good size, clear, bright, and fairly prominent. A dull sunken eye denotes lack of vigor and vitality. Neck. The neck should not be long but fairly short and stout, indicating strength; and curved so that the head will be well back and over the breast. Body. The body should have a well balanced appearance and should possess sufficient depth and length, keeping in mind the desirable type of the breed in question. The underline of the fowl is governed largely by the Une of the back. In most cases the underline should not be straight or absolutely parallel with the line of the back, nor should the underUne diverge sharply to the rear so as to give a baggy appearance. It should, however, be fairly straight and diverge slightly to the rear. Breast. From the market point of view the breast is most important, owing to the quality and quantity of meat it carries in proportion to the rest of the body. It should be deep, round, broad and full. Avoid fowls having narrow or flat breasts. A fowl with a full crop must not be confused with one having a full breast. Back. The back, which is a most important part of the fowl, should conform with the requirements of the breed in question as given in the American Standard of Perfec- tion. A very common defect is the tendency for the back to become narrow as it approaches the tail. This is not a defect, however, in the Cornish or the Games. Wings. The wings should be fairly short and held firmly in place. Fowls with twisted or slipped wings should not be used, as these are defects and are inherited. Tail. The tail should conform with the requirements of the breed which usually call for one of medium length,

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62 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION incubated for a week to see whether they are running fer- tile. If they are not fertile, the male should be removed and ' another male bird substituted. The lack of ability to fer- tilize eggs is not a very common defect among male birds. The mating should be done as early in the year as possible. SIZE OF MATING To a certain extent the breed influences the size of the mating. When fowls are yarded it is usually desirable to place from 12 to 15 females of the lighter type, such as the Leghorns, with a male bird. For birds of the general-pur- pose class, such as the Plymouth Rock, the proportion should be 1 male to 10 or 12 females, under yarded condi- tions, and from 8 to 10 females of the meat breeds, such as the Brahma, with 1 male. But, whenever the fowls have access to free range and the male is strong and vigorous, it is possible to obtain fertile eggs from a considerably larger flock of females. A vigorous Plymouth Rock or Wyandotte cockerel, for instance, on free range should be productive of good fertility when mated to 20 to 25 females. A male of the egg breeds, such as the Leghorn, under the same conditions, can be mated successfully to 25 to 35 females. When eggs for hatching are desired from a flock of hens that is too large for 1 male, 2 or more males can be placed with the flock, either at the same time or by alter- nating the males on successive days. AGE OF THE BREEDING STOCK As to the age of breeders, either pullets or hens, cock- erels or cocks, can be used in the breeding flock. Hens, however, are preferable to pullets in that they lay larger eggs and seem to give better fertility and produce stronger chickens. Yearlings and two-year-old hens are more desir- able than hens over two years old. An early hatched, well developed cockerel is oftentimes as desirable as a breeder

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NATURAL AND ARTIFICIAL INCUBATION 83 Attend to the regulation of the temperature of the incu- bator before opening the door of the machine to attend to the eggs, but do not change the regulator any more than is absolutely necessary. The eggs will tend to throw off some heat as the embryo in the egg develops so that this fact may occasionally make it necessary to change the regulator slightly. The temperature in the egg chamber may Ukewise be regulated by lowering the flame of the lamp in the mid- dle of the day when the room is warmer, owing to outside heat. Incubators require careful, regular, and sys- tematic attention, which, though simple, is very ex- acting in order to secure good hatches. The correct temperature. This depends upon the posi- tion of the thermometer in the egg chamber. The manu- facturers' directions should be followed in this connection and changed only after experience shows that they can be improved. When the contact thermometer is used, the temperature should be held at 1013^° to 102° F. the first week; 102° to 103° the second week; and 103° the third week. When a hanging thermometer is used, the tempera- ture should be 102° to 1023^° F. the first two weeks, and 103° F., the last week. When the hatch is complete the thermometer will frequently run up to 104° or 105° F. with- out any injury to the chicks. This is due to the increased heat from the bodies of the chicks. It is not advisable to change the regulator at this time, provided the temperature does not run beyond 105° F. With a good hatch the eggs will usually start to pip on the evening of the 19th day or the morning of the 20th and most of the chicks will be out of the shell on the morning of the 21st day. A high temperature during the incubation period may hatch the eggs too quickly and produce weak chicks, while a tem- perature that is too low throughout the hatch may delay the hatch somewhat.

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CHAPTER V . NATURAL AND ARTIFICIAL BROODING The successful and proper brooding of chickens is rather a difficult operation, especially for the beginner. Compar- atively speaking, it is not nearly so difficult to secure good egg yields and fair hatches as it is to successfully brood chicks. Such failure usually results either in raising only a small percentage of those hatched or in faihng to raise strong, vigorous birds which develop into good stock. Methods of artificial brooding are being improved each year, but no one system has given perfect satisfaction. The simplest and easiest way to raise a few chickens is with mother hens. This is the method that is used most extensively on the average farm and small poultry plant. Brooding chicks with artificial brooders is necessary where early chickens are raised, where chicks are raised in large numbers commercially, and where only Leghorns or non- sitting breeds of poultry are kept. NATURAL BROODING Brooding chickens with hens. As mentioned in the pre- ceding chapter, sitting hens should be confined to slightly darkened nests at hatching time, and not disturbed unless they step on or pick the chicks. If for either of these rea- sons it should be necessary to remove the chicks, they should be put as soon as dry in a basket lined with warm material, and kept warm until all the eggs are hatched. Some hens begin to get restless after a part of the chicks are out, allow- ing the remaining eggs to become cool at the very time when heat is necessary. In such cases the eggs that are slow in hatching may be placed under other hens. As soon as pos- sible after the eggs are hatched the hens should be fed, as they will then be likely to be contented. At this time, 92

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CARE OF OROWINO STOCK 117 ample shade and green feed, but will benefit the trees as well as themselves by destroying insects and worms. When an orchard or woodlot can not be used for this purpose, the growing of corn or sunflowers will help to provide the neces- sary shade. Artificial protection against the sun's rays may be obtained by supporting frames covered with burlap a few feet above the ground. Cleanliness. Every effort should be made to keep the Figure 115, — Shade provided by growing plants or trees is ihucIl cooler than that afforded by buildings or other artificial means. coops or house clean and sanitary. Disease most frequently starts in unclean quarters. The house should be cleaned at least once a week and twice a ■v^eek, if the weather has been such that the birds have been confined to the house during the greater part of the time. Clean sand and straw Utter should be scattered over the floor of the houses so as to assist in keeping them clean. When the chicks are confined to a hmited range, the ground should be spaded up or plowed at frequent intervals, so as to provide fresh ground in which

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126 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION 2. There is hardly a demonstration that can be more effectively carried out or that creates more interest than that of preserving eggs by the water glass method. In carrying on the demonstration the method should be explained as discussed herein and the actual opera- tion take place, following the five steps as outlined. An interesting additional feature for such a demonstration is that of showing how an old egg in which considerable evaporation has taken place can not be preserved. In order to prove this point, fill a quart fruit jar about three fourths full of the water glass solution. Place in this solution an egg that has quite a large air cell. It will be noted that the egg will settle to the bottom of the jar and then slowly rise to the top and float on the surface. This action can be easily observed and is most effective in showing- that an old egg can not be preserved. 3. Should you or your club desire to encourage the home preser- vation of eggs, you no doubt can obtain considerable co-operation from the local druggists or grocers, who, having sodium silicate for sale, will gladly arrange for a window display showing the method of pre- serving eggs. REFERENCES "Preserving Eggs," U. S. Department of Agriculture Farmers' Bulletin No. 1109 by J. W. Kinghorne.

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POULTRY HOUSES AND APPLIANCES 151 To provide this a receptacle large enough to hold a day's supply of water should be placed on a platform or shelf elevated about a foot from the floor to prevent the scratch- ing material or litter from getting into the water. (See Figure 153.) Water pans or drinking vessels should be carefully cleaned each day before fresh water is added. VENTILATION The keynote of proper ventilation is fresh air without drafts. A cloth or burlap curtain over the opening in Figure 152. — A broody coop hung on the back of the house. the front of the house that can be closed on cold nights and in stormy weather is one of the most successful'methods for ventilating. In mild weather such glass windows as are in the front of the house should be opened or removed so as to provide plenty of ventilation. In extremely hot weather provision should be made in the rear of the house for an opening to allow a complete circulation of air, so that the building will not be too warm

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106 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION as they will do much better than when kept continuously indoors. Weak and crippled chicks should be killed as soon as noticed, because they rarely if ever develop into desirable stock. Brooders and brooder houses should be disinfected at least once a year and more frequently should disease occur in the flock. Care of purchased day-old chicks. Whenever day-old chicks are purchased, provide a brooder of sufficient capac- ity for the number bought and have it in working order and regulated when the chicks arrive. Should the brooder not be ready, take the chicks from the shipping box into a warm room, feed and return them to the box, and repeat at inter- vals of about 5 hours until the brooder is ready. It some- times happens that delay in the delivery of a brooder places one at a disadvantage as to what to do with the chicks. In such cases a fireless brooder may be constructed tempo- rarily, such as is described on page 104. After the chicks have been placed in their brooder and made comfortable, they should be managed as described in the foregoing pages. QUESTIONS 1. Discuss the advantages of natural as compared with artificial brooding. 2. Discuss the care of a sitting hen at the time of hatching. 3. Describe the method of treating lice on chickens. 4. Discuss the points to be kept in mind as concerning the care and location of the brood coop. 5. Describe the method of wing banding chicks. 6. What are the essential features to be kept in mind in the construction of a practical, comfortable brood coop? 7. Why should the mother hen be confined until the chicks are weaned? 8. What principles are necessary for the successful brooding of chicks by artificial methods? 9. Describe three systems of brooding chicks artificially. 10. Describe the construction of a fireless brooder. 11. At what temperature should a brooder be operated during the first twenty days? 12. When day-old chicks are purchased, what steps should be taken before they arrive?

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CHAPTER VII PRESERVED EGGS During the spring and early summer, when eggs are abundant and reasonable in price, attention should be given to preserving them for winter use. It frequently happens that farmers and poultrymen as well as those having small flocks dispose of all their eggs in the spring when they are plentiful and cheap in price without preserving a supply for fall and winter use. When such practice is followed, it becomes necessary during the season of low production to use for home consumption fresh eggs which at that time bring a much higher price on the market than eggs produced in the spring. When a supply of preserved eggs is available for use in the fall and winter, these can be used at home and practically all the fresh eggs sold. Fresh eggs properly pre- served may be kept from eight to ten months in excellent condition and used with good results. TIME AND KIND Time to preserve. Eggs produced during the hot weather ordinarily do not possess the keeping qualities of those pro- duced in the spring, unless they are handled under the most favorable conditions. Again eggs are more plentiful in April and May than they are in July and August. It has been found that eggs laid in April, May and early June keep bet- ter than those laid later in the season. It is recommended, therefore, that only eggs produced at this season be pre- served. Kind to preserve. Careful attention should be given to the condition of eggs preserved, as one or two dirty-shelled eggs or bad eggs may spoil the entire lot. It is also import- ant to see that no cracked eggs are preserved. If satisfac- 120

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PRESERVED EGGS 123 is nearly full, being sure at all times, however, to have at least 2 inches of the solution covering the top layer of eggs. When it is found that the solution is evaporating, additional solution should be added. Limewater method. Whenever water glass can not be obtained, the following method may be used in its stead. Many regard this method entirely satisfactory, although instances are known where eggs so preserved have tasted sUghtly of lime, a probable result of the fact that the eggs es'ss Figure 118. have thin shells. Slake 2 pounds of unslaked lime with a little water and add 5 gallons of water that has previously been boiled and allowed to cool. The mixture should be allowed to stand until the lime settles and the liquid is clear. Place clean fresh eggs in a clean earthenware jar and dip out the clear lime water, pouring it into the vessel until the eggs are covered. This quantity of solution will be sufficient to preserve from 25 to 30 dozens of eggs. At least 2 inches of the solution should cover the top layer of eggs. Some pre- fer to add a pound of salt with the lime water mixture, but for good results it is not necessary to do so.

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124 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION DISPOSITION Using preserved eggs. Fresh clean eggs properly pre- served by either of these methods can be used satisfactorily for all purposes in cooking and for the table. Eggs pre- served in the summer should be used first, as their keeping qualities are not so good as those preserved in the spring. Before boiling preserved eggs, a small hole should be made in the large end of the egg with a pin, to allow the air in the egg to escape, when heated, so as to prevent cracking the shell. (See Figure 120.) In preserved eggs the yolk or white does not possess the firmness that characterizes the fresh eggs. This condition is brought about by the fact that the tissues of the egg are weakened by age. This condition, however, does not detract in any way from the food value of the egg. At times difficulty is experienced in attempting to poach preserved eggs, especially those which have been preserved for over six months, because the yolk has a tendency to mix with the white. This tendencj^ is not found to such a great extent when perfectlj' fresh clean eggs are properly preserved. Figure 119. — The glass jar shown in this cut illustrates more clearly the eggs in solution.

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POULTRY HOUSES AND APPLIANCES 137 Figure 132. — The method of erecting the uprights of the frameworlc of a con- tinuous house. when laid on a cement wall and 4x4 inch when the foun- dation is of brick piers or posts. Floor joists, of course, are necessary only in houses having a wooden floor. AVhen constructing colony houses, especial- ly those that are to be moved from place to place, the frame- work should be well braced to prevent the houses from rack- ing when moved. The runners, or skids, of the colony Figure 133. — Close up showing uprights in position and the framework of the roof completed. The second story section of this house will be used as a feed room and for suppUes.

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174 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION found among older fowls and is caused by small mites that burrow under the scales of the shanks and the feet, and there multiply in number. Symptoms. The disease is easily recognized by the enlarged condition and rough appearance of the feet and legs. Treatment. Wash the bird's legs well with soap and warm water, remov- ing all the loose scales. Rub well with a mixture Figure 172.— A male bird affected with scaly leg. of equal parts of kerO- sene and linseed oil. Vase- line may be substituted for the linseed oil. Pure kerosene applied to the fowl's legs and feet has likewise been found to be 'an effective remedy. When kerosene is applied care should be taken that none of the kerosene comes in contact with the feathers or skin of the fowl. Bumble foot. Bumble foot is caused by bruises formed on the bottom of the feet, usually caused by the fowl's jumping from high roosts to the hard floor. Figure 174. — A case of bumble foot.

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CAPONS AND CAPONIZINO 187 Most suitable breeds for capons. Owing to the fact that large capons bring the best prices, it does not pay to caponize males of the smaller breeds, such as the Leghorn. Breeds with yellow legs and skin, such as the Plymouth Rock, Cornish, Brahma, Langshan, and Wyandotte, as in other classes of table poultry, are the most desirable for this purpose. Of these the Light Brahma and Barred Plymouth Rock and other American breeds are most generally used. Time to caponize. Cockerels should be caponized when they weigh from 11/^ to 3 pounds, or when they are from 2 to 4 months old. The general-purpose breeds can be caponized when a pound and a half in weight or when 2 months old, while cockerels of the meat breeds should be about 3 or 4 months old or about 3 pounds in weight. Ordinarily cockerels should not be caponized when larger or older than just stated, as there is considerable danger in losing the birds by pricking the arteries which he near the testicles and thereby causing them to bleed to death. Capons are in the greatest demand beginning with the Thanksgiving season and until the end of March. Considering this fact and remembering that it takes about ten months to pro- duce a well-finished capon, it will be evident that it is important to hatch early in the spring in order to have cockerels of suitable size to caponize in June and July. Preliminary requirements. Cockerels that are to be Figure 186. — Barred Plymouth Rock cockerel of smtable size to caponize.

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188 PR-AOTIGAL POULTRY PRODUCTION caponized must be confined and deprived of all feed and water for 24 to 36 hours prior to the operation, in order that the intestines will be empty and enable the operator to locate and remove the testicles easily. Depriving the cockerels of water before the operation lessens the blood flow when the incision is made. Caponizing instruments. To perform this operation successfully, a set of special caponizing instruments is nee- Figure 187. — Members of a poultry club caponizing a cockerel. essary and can be bought from practically any poultry sup- ply house. The necessary instruments are a sharp-pointed knife to make the incision, (Figure 188c), a spreader, used to spread the ribs apart (Figure 188d and e), a sharp-pointed hook to tear the membrane beneath the skin (Figure 188h), and the testicle remover of which there are six different types, (Figure 188 a, b, i, k, 1, and m). Of these instruments either

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FEEDING FOR EGG PRODUCTION 205 for grinding the food, and charcoal tends to absorb gases and poisons. Ordinarily a hen will eat 2 pounds of oyster shell and 1 pound of grit a year. Water. The body of a hen is said to contain about 55% water, while the average per cent of water in an egg is 65.5%. Thus it will be seen that water is most essential and a plen- tiful supply of clean fresh water should always be available. Fifty laying hens will require about 4 to 8 quarts of water daily. Condiments and egg tonics. The object of so-called egg tonics, or condiments, is to increase the palatabihty of the ration and stimulate the fowls' appetite, with the result Figure 203. — Oats in the process of sprouting. that they eat more feed and produce more eggs. Ordinarily fowls that are properly fed and managed do not require a condiment or tonic to produce satisfactory results. Some poultrymen, however, resort to a condiment to stimulate production especially when the fowls are in poor condition. An example of such a tonic may be made as follows: Mix equal parts of capsicum, ground cloves, allspice and ginger. This mixture is fed in the proportion of one teaspoonful to each quart of mash twice weekly.

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2S8 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION Figure 228. — Flock of Bronze turkeys on range. growth. Given free range they will readily pick up such food as grasshoppers, insects, green food and waste grains thereby reducing the cost of production. Breeding. One of the most important factors in order to obtain success in turkey production is the proper selec- Figure 229. — Turkey egg.9. The one on the left was laid by a pullet, the one on the right by a hen.

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TURKEYS, DUCES, GEESE, GUINEA FOWLS 255 Figure 253. — A well arranged pigeon fly. Figure 254. — A pair of White King squabs 4 weeks old.

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256 FRAGTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION Figure 255. — Interior arrangement of a pigeon loft sliowing nests, nest pans and roosts on the right. advisable to place an extra egg or eggs in the nest, as a pair of pigeons can raise only two good squabs at a time. The period of incubation is about 17 days. Squabs are fed by their parents until they are from 3J^ to 43^ weeks of age. QUESTIONS 1. What are the six varieties of domestic turkeys as recognized by the American Standard of Perfection? 2. Which is the most popular variety of turkeys? Describe this variety. 3. Under what conditions should turkeys be grown? 4. What are some of the important factors that should be con- sidered when breeding turkeys? 5. What is the main cause of mortality among young turkeys, or poults? 6. In what three classes are the breeds of ducks divided? 7. Describe the Pekin duck. What are "green" ducks? 8. What are the two varieties of the Muscovy duck? 9. Name the three varieties of the Indian Runner duck.

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PREPARING BIRDS FOR EXHIBITION 273 metal ring about 18 inches in diameter at the end of a pole, the length of which is governed by the size of the loft. SHIPPING THE BIRDS Under no conditions should a makeshift coop or poorly- constructed one be used for shipping the fowls. A desirable fowl may be rendered unfit for show, if shipped in a coop that is too small. Coops for this purpose may be purchased for a reasonable amount. A homemade shipping coop can easily be con- structed by following the plans given in Figure 268. The following dimen- sions should be used in constructing this coop : For 1 bird, 12 inches wide, 18 inches long, 25 inches high. For 2 birds, 12 inches wide, 24 inches long, 25 inches high. For 3 birds, 18 inches wide, 24 inches long, 25 inches high. For exhibition pen of 4 females and a male, 24 inches wide, 24 inches long, and 25 inches high. In order to keep the fowl from becoming soiled during the trip, a piece of muslin should be tacked on the inside of the top under the slats, care being taken not to use cloth that is too heavy or thick, so as to cut off ventilation. A small amount of clean hay or straw that is free from dust, or dry shavings should be placed in the bottom of the coop. A cup or can may be provided for feed. Cans for this pur- pose should be nailed securely about half way between the top and bottom in a corner of the coop. Feed is not nec- Figure 267. — Ready-made shipping coops for exhibition fowls suitable for one bird each. Larger sized coops may be purchased for from 2 to 5 fowls each.

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306 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION to compete among themselves, and thus secure the benefit of prizes and the honor of winning such awards. The mem- bers should be told that they will not be required to purchase extensive equipment or necessarily to build separate houses and yards, the idea being that they should do the best they can by improving such buildings and equipment as Figure 291. — A typical boys' and girls' poultry club. they have at home until they are well estabhshed in the work. In most cases the only requirement necessary is that of pur- chasing standard-bred stock in the form of hatching eggs or fowls. Organization. After allowing a Httle time for the boys and girls to think over the matter, a second meetmg should be called with the idea of enrolling those who desire to be- come members. After the club is organized, there should

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BUSINESS MANAGEMENT 323 MONTHLY STATEMENT SHEET Month of 19.... In the second column under "Item" place the kind and amoimt of the article purchased. For example, should beef scrap be purchased on the first day of January, indicate the amount and nature of the item as, for instance, 100 lbs. of beef scrap. Then, on the same line, under the heading of "Feed," place the cost of this beef scrap. The same principle holds true

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324 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION with all items purchased. The last column on the debit side should contain the total amount expended on each day for all items, which, when added together at the end of the month, should give the total amount expended during that period. The total hne at the bottom of this form will indi- cate the amount spent during the month for feed, for equip- YEARLY FEED RECORD ment, etc., which, when added together, should agree with the total amount spent. On the credit side of this sheet indicate, as will be noted, the various receipts for each day, totaling the daily receipts at the extreme right-hand side of this form. Likewise at the bottom of the form total the amount of money received

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APPENDIX 341 and eggs, and give a history of your experience as an ex- hibitor at the poultry shows, (b) Tell what the poultry shows taught you. OUTLIITE FOR A COMPOSITION ON "HISTORY OF MY POUL- TRY CLUB WORK" To Be Written by Fourth- Year Poultry Club Members Discussion: (a) TeU how you joined the Poultry Club and the object of the Poultry-Club Work. History: (a) Tell what breed you selected and why you selected this breed. Tell how many eggs you set and give an outline of your first year's work. (b) Tell what improvements you made in the handling of the poultry at home after you joined the Poultry Chib, and what results you obtained (housing, feeding, etc.) and how the home poultry flock has been improved. (c) Tell what problems you came in contact with and how you met them. (d) TeU what the Poultry Club has done for you in interest, in- struction, and money value. (e) Give an account of any interesting experiences you may have had in your Poultry Club work, such as trips, fairs, etc. Note: Use drawings and photographs, it possible, to illustrate this composition. SCORE CARD FOR BREEDING STOCK SUITABLE FOR THE PRODUCTION OF TABLE FOWLS This card is designed as a guide in selecting breeding stock of a type especially suited for producing desirable table fowls. It is ar- ranged in the form of a score card so that it can be used, if desired, for the scoring of such fowls when exhibited in competition. In appljang this scale of points, due consideration must be given to breed char- acteristics. Other points being equal, preference must be given to those birds most nearly approaching the standard weights for each breed, as given in the American Standard of Perfection. Other points being equal, preference should be given to those birds showing greatest indication of standard breeding. In judging the excellence of the fowls, it will be found helpful, if not actually necessary, to handle them and not depend upon observation alone. Weight Sex Exhibitor Entry No Band No Class Breed Variety. (Continued on next page)

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DEDICATED TO THE BOYS AND GIRLS AND MEN AND WOMEN WHO ARE DESIROUS OF SECURING DEFINITE INFORMATION THAT WILL HELP THEM TO SOLVE THEIR POULTRY PROBLEMS

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BREEDING 45 be seen that the ultimate goal of each of these two classes of breeders was more or less extreme. Still more recently we find developing a class of poultrymen who through rigid selection and careful constructive breeding are combining the ideals of the fancier and utility poultryman by producing fowls that meet standard requirements and that are also profitable producers. That such a combination is not only possible but highly practicable and profitable is evidenced by the fact that many of our leading poultry breeders are new bending their efforts for the production of such stock. A breeder of such stock as is shown in Figure 46 will not only establish a reputation and a profitable market for breeding stock, but will have eggs to sell for table purposes as well. Producers of purely utility stock, Figure 47, can hope to derive most of their revenue only from the sale of market eggs. PRINCIPLES OF BREEDING While the highest attainment and success can best be secured by a thorough understanding and systematic prac- tice of the principles of breeding, at the same time consider- able improvement in quantity of products and quahty of stock can be secured by following the fundamentals of breed- ing practices as herein outlined.* Heredity. This term, which is one of the most common- ly used in breeding practices, refers to the transmission of the characters of the parents to the offspring. Such char- acters as are found in both the offspring as well as the parent stock are said to be inherited. For example, we can be rea- sonably sure when mating a White Plymouth Rock male and female together that generally speaking the offspring will be white in color, will be about the same type as the parents, and will have single combs. ^Those desiring additional and more complete information on the mating and breeding of poultry are referred to "Mating and Breeding of Poultry" by Harry M. Lamon and Rob R. Slocum, published by Orange Judd Co.

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BREEDING 59 Skin. The skin color is important especially in the meat breeds, as the best markets demand a yellow-skinned carcass. This point should be considered by the breeders of market poultry. KIND OF FOWLS TO REJECT The following defects should be guarded against when selecting fowls for the breeding pen: Crow, or snake, head; sunken and dull appearing eyes; wedge-shaped back; long, slim back; wry and squirrel tail; decidedly crooked breast- NALE^ WITH DEFECTIVE WL CA2EIACE. 1. pqpiRBEL. Z. -WRY. Figure 62. bone; narrow breast; long slim legs and toes; knock-knee; shallow abdomen; and fowls that are deformed in any man- ner. Birds possessing these undesirable characteristics either inherit them or have been grown under unfavorable conditions. PURPOSE OF BREEDING In addition to the foregoing characters the purpose of breeding should be kept in mind when the fowls are selected. If the principal idea is to produce stock of exhibition quality, the fowls should be selected that approach nearest to the standard in type and markings, or that will combine these qualities so as to produce birds that will most nearly approach the standard. In addition to these standard requirements, if

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60 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION the purpose of mating be to produce table fowls, birds that possess a large frame well covered with an abundance of meat evenly distributed should be selected as breeders. (See Scale of Points in Appendix.) In the selection of breeders for the reproduction of stock for egg production birds should be chosen that are good producers of eggs or are the sons or daughters of good producers. Many suggestions relating to the selection of high producers will be found in Chapter XIII. KINDS OP MATINGS Single mating. Many varie- ties of fowls are single mated. That is, both males and females are secured which should con- form to the standard require- ments of the variety concerned from one mating. While the production of both males and females of standard quaHty is possible as the result of single mating, especially in the case of solid colored birds, many poultry breeders depart from this plan and resort to one mating to secure exhibition males and another mating for exhibition females. This system is known as double mating. Double mating. As explained, this plan of breeding involves two separate matings in order to secure both exhib- ition males and females. A good example of double mating can be cited in the case of Barred Plymouth Rocks. To secure exhibition or standard males, that is, males having black and white barring of equal width, an exhibition male Figure 63. — A knock-kneed fowl, the kind to be avoided as a breeder.

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NATURAL AND ARTIFICIAL INCUBATION 71 which can be sewed on the basket or pushed up under the outside rim with a case knife. Stiff corrugated cardboard cartons made to hold from one to several sittings may- be bought in which to ship eggs. It is advisable to allow eggs for hatching to remain in one position for about 12 hours after they are received, in order to allow the yolk to regain its normal position before the eggs are incubated. PERIOD OF INCUBATION The period of incubation of several of the different species of poultry is shown in the following table: Table I. Period of Incubation for Poultry. Within a given class of poultry the period of incubation varies somewhat with conditions. For example, a hatch may run over one or two days in some instances, because the incubation temperature was too low throughout that period, while, on the other hand, the hatch may come off earher than expected on account of a slightly higher temper- ature during the incubation period. If, as the result of an accident, the eggs are chilled or are overheated, the hatch should be continued and the eggs tested after a few days to determine the extent of the damage. There are instances known where chicks have been hatched from eggs left out of the incubator all night, as well as from eggs that have been subjected for a short time to a temperature consider- ably over 103°. Such practices, however, should be avoided, as the chicks from such eggs usually do not grow well. PROPORTION OF SEXES The average hatch will result in producing approxi- mately 50 per cent of the chicks hatched as males and 50

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72 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTIOlSf Figure 69. — Early hatched pullet, photographed June 26. Figure 70. — Late hatched pullet, photographed June 26. per cent as females. Some hatches will result in producing more of one sex than of the other; but, taking all the sea- son's hatching and the per cent of each sex secured year Figure 71. — Early hatched pullet, pho- tographed September 26. Mature — Laying. Figure 72. — Late batched pullet, pho- tographed September 26. Immature — Not laying

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NATURAL AND ARTIFICIAL BROODING 107 SUGGESTIONS 1. In an effort to learn all that you possibly can about artificial brooding investigate the various systems of brooding chicks in your community and determine, if possible, in each case the reasons for suc- cess and causes of failure in brooding. 2. After looking into the matter, which in your opinion is the most popular form of brooding chicks in your community, that is, by natural methods or artificial? 3. Should you have a flock of fowls, endeavor to put into prac- tice a system of wing banding as described on page 95, keeping a rec- ord of these numbers, including time of hatching and any other in- formation that will be of value to you in the future. 4. Insofar as you can, make a working drawing of a good practical brood coop for hen and chicks, embodying such features as are out- lined in this chapter. After your plan is completed, construct one coop or several such coops from your plan out of dry goods boxes or other available lumber. 5. If you are not entirely convinced as to the importance of confining the mother hen until the chicks are weaned, carry on a little experiment to prove this to your own satisfaction. Such a test should be made with two broods of chicks, both of which are hatched about the same time. With one brood of chicks confine the mother hen through- out the weaning period, being sure that the hen and chicks are provided with sufficient feed and water. The hen with the second brood of chicks should not be confined except during the night and should be allowed to run with the chicks at will. At the end of 8 weeks, weigh the chicks in both lots and compare them for size, weight, and develop- ment. Which lot has the greatest number of chicks living at the end of this period? Do you not think it would be advisable to impress upon your poultry friends and other poultrymen and farmers in your community the importance of confining the mother hen until the chicks are weaned? 6. Do you not think it would be interesting to construct a small fireless brooder such as is shown in Figure 106? Such a brooder might come in handy in case a mother hen should die or in any other emergency REFERENCES Natural and Artificial Brooding of Chickens, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin 624, by Harry M. Lamon.

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PRESERVED EGGS 121 tory results are to be obtained, the eggs should be fresh and clean. It is highly desirable also to preserve only infertile eggs, that is, eggs produced by a flock wherein there is no male bird. When possible, it will be advisable to purchase eggs for preservation direct from a farmer or poultryman who can insure their freshness and also the fact that they are infertile. Eggs purchased from the stores or on the market may not be so desirable for this purpose, owing to the frequency with which they are handled, the range conditions under which they are kept, and their con- dition. Germ de- velopment or blood rings will not be found in infertile eggs and conse- quently they pos- sess better keeping qualities. See page Figure 116. -Cockerels that have been separated from the pullets. 280 in regard to infertile eggs. Eggs that float when placed in the solution are not fresh and, therefore, can not be preserved. When the shell of the egg is only slightly soiled, a cloth dampened with vinegar may be used to remove such stains. When soiled eggs are put into the jar they are apt to spoil and washing removes a protective coating which helps to prevent spoiling. When eggs are purchased, or, if there is any doubt as to their freshness, they should be candled as described on page 86, in order to determine their true condition before preserving them.

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122 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION METHODS Water glass method. One of the most satisfactory methods for preserving eggs is by the use of sodium silicate, or, as it is commonly called, water glass. The present price of sodium silicate is from twenty-five to thirty cents a quart and at this price eggs may be preserved at a cost of approxi- mately three cents a dozen. On account of the low cost of preserving eggs it is not desirable to use water glass solution a second time, as itfe keeping quality deteriorates with age. Use one quart of sodium silicate to nine quarts of water boiled and cooled. Place in a five-gallon crock or jar. This will be sufficient to preserve fifteen dozen eggs and will be a guide as to the quantity needed for a larger amount of eggs. First, select a five- gallon crock or galvanized can and clean it thoroughly, scald it, and allow it to dry. Figure 117.— A desirable and undesir- SeCOnd, heat about 10 tO 12 tgg' a\'^hoV'n"o"?hi dgi^^houid quarts of water to the boiling not be preserved. p^^j^^^, ^^^ g^jj^^ j^ ^^ ^^^1 Third, when cool, measure out 9 quarts of water, place it in the crock, and add 1 quart of sodium silicate, or water glass, stirring the mixture thoroughly. Fourth, the eggs can now be placed in the solution, being very careful to allow at least 2 inches of the solution to cover the top layer of the eggs. Fifth, place the crock containing the preserved eggs in a cool dry place well covered to prevent evaporation. Two or three sheets of waxed paper covered over and tied around the top of the crock will answer this purpose. Should only a few dozen eggs be available at any one time for preserving, additional eggs can be added at later periods until the crock

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POULTRY HOUSES AND APPLIANCES 157 6. Describe three styles of floors for the poultry house and the merits of each style. 7. Discuss the factors to be considered when erecting the frame- work of the house. 8. Name the six styles of poultry house roofs. Which is the most easily constructed? 9. Describe three methods of constructing the front of the house. What kind of openings would you provide for a house in your section of the country? 10. Describe the method of building the walls of the house. 11. Discuss the construction of partitions in a long, continuous house. 12. Where should the roosts be placed? 13. Describe the position and purpose of the dropping board? 14. Describe the size of a suitable nest and the number that should be provided for a flock of 50 hens. 15. What are trap nests and when should they be used? 16. Discuss the value of a dust box for the hens. 17. Where should the water pan be placed in the house? Why? 18. What is the keynote of proper ventilation for the poultry house? How can proper ventilation be provided? 19. When should yards be used and how should they be con- structed? 20. Describe a satisfactory method of building fences. 21. Describe the correct method of clipping the wing. 22. What factors should be considered when constructing gates? 23. Discuss the advantages of painting or whitewashing the poultry buildings. SUGGESTIONS 1. As noted in this chapter, a poultry house should consist of various essential features in order to make it practical and convenient. As will also be noted, no one type or style of poultry house is recom- mended, or, in other words, there is no best type of poultry house suit- able for all conditions and circumstances. With this fact in mind, draw the plans for a poultry house built on either the colony or contin- uous house plan, incorporating the essentials as given. In planning such a house the climate in the section of the country in which you are located should be kept in mind. 2. After you have perfected yoiir jalans for such a house, show it to several of your friends who are familiar with the construction of poultry houses for their suggestions and criticism. After you are con- vinced that these plans are satisfactory, if you are contemplating build- ing a house, it is suggested that the house be built following such plans. 3. If you already have a poultry house and are not entirely sat- isfied with its arrangement, why not remodel it, embracing some of the suggestions as given in this chapter. Figure 137 on page 140 will show you what can be done in this connection. 4. In order to become familiar with the kinds of houses and sys- tems of housing in your community, make a survey, the object of which should be to obtain a list of the various kinds of poultry houses in your

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CAPONS AND CAPONIZING 191 Figure 191. — Making the iiicison. Figure 192.— Diagram showing where incision should be made between last two ribs. Figure 193. — The spreader in place and the membrane being torn with a sharp pointed hock.

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CAPONS AND CAPONIZING 195 such as is fed the rest of the flock each morning and evening until about two weeks before it is desired to market them. They should then be given a fattening ration, as discussed on page 293. During the process of fattening they can be fed either in a small pen or by confining them in feeding coops or crates. Figure 197. — Capons dressed for market. Killing and dressing. In kilhng capons, the method as described on page 297 should be followed. Capons should always be dry-picked. Do not, however, pick the feathers off the neck and head, the tail feathers, those at the base of the tail, the feathers of the last two joints of the wing, and those on the lower part of the leg. These feathers, together with the true capon head, are the characteristic signs by which the capon is known.

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FEEDING FOR EGG PRODUCTION 209 Table 11. Composition of Poultry Feed Stuffs, Feed Stuff Corn Kafir com Barley Oats Rye Wheat Rice .- Buclcwheat Sunflower seed (whole) Soy bean' Cowpea' Canada field pea' Peas'.. Egyptian corn Hempseed Corn meal Barley meal Soy-bean meal' Gluten meal' Gluten feed' Brewers' grains' Wheat bran Wheat middlings Wheat shorts Wheat screenings Cottonseed meal' Linseed meal, old process' Linseed meal, new process' Peanut meal' Skim milk, cream raised by sep- arator^ Buttermilk'' Animal meaP Meat scrap* Meat meaP Fresh bone^ Dried alfalfa hay Mangel beets Per cent 10.9 12.8 10.9 11.0 11.6 10.5 12.4 12.6 8.6 8.7 11,9 15.0 13.4 12.6 8.0 15.0 11.9 10.2 8.6 8.1 8.0 11.9 12.1 11.8 11.6 8.2 9.2 9.9 10.7 90.6 91.0 5.7 7.9 6.3 34.3 8.1 90.9 Per cent 1.5 2.1 2,4 3.0 1,9 1,8 .4 2.0 2.6 5.4 3.4 2.4 2.4 1,9 2,0 1,4 2,6 5.0 .6 1.3 3,4 5.8 3.3 4.5 2.9 7.2 5.7 5.6 4.9 .7 .7 39.9 17.4 22.8 8,8 1,1 Ph Per cent 10.5 9.1 12.4 11.8 10.6 11.9 7.4 10.0 15.3 36.3 23.5 23.7 22.4 9.9 10.0 9.2 10,5 35,9 30.0 23.2 24.1 15.4 15.6 14.9 12.5 42.3 32.9 35.9 47.6 3.2 3,0 39.4 49,7 48.4 20,6 14.6 1.4 Per cent 2.1 2.6 2.7 9,5 1,7 1.8 .2 8.7 29.2 3.9 3.8 7.9 6.4 1.9 14.0 1.9 6.5 3.4 2.6 6,4 13,0 9.0 4.6 7.4 4.9 5.6 5.1 28.9 .9 ^t Per cent 69.6 69.8 69.8 59.7 72.5 71.9 79.2 64.5 21.4 27.7 55.7 50.2 52.6 69.7 45.0 68.7 66.3 28.0 49.2 54.7 44.8 53.9 60.4 56.8 65.1 23.6 35.4 36.8 23.7 5.2 4.8 1.9 37.4 5.5 Per cent 5.4 3,6 1.8 5.0 1.7 2.1 .4 2.2 21.2 18.0 1.7 .8 3.0 3.9 21.0 3.8 2.2 17.5 8.8 6.3 6.7 4.0 4,0 4.5 3.0 13.1 7.7 3.0 8.0 .3 .5 10.7 18.5 12.9 20.5 2.1 .2 (') Contains a high proportion of vegetable protein. (^) Contains a high proportion of animal protein.

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CHAPTER XIV TURKEYS, DUCKS, GEESE, GUINEA FOWLS AND PIGEONS TURKEYS Turkeys are ordinarily raised on general farms rather than on an extensive commercial scale. Years ago New England was famous for its turkeys; but, as the country developed, the number produced grew less until at the pres- ent time but comparatively few are found throughout that section. The majority of turkeys are now grown in the mid- dle and southwestern states. Plenty of range is the most essential factor for the successful production of turkeys. This, together with the fact that turkeys do best in a semidry chmate, is one of the reasons why Texas ranks first as a turkey-producing state. VARIETIES All our varieties of domestic turkeys are descended from wild turkeys which are natives of and are found in North America. The six varieties of domestic turkeys as recog- nized by the American Standard of Perfection are as fol- lows: Bronze, White Holland, Bourbon Red, Black, Nar- ragansett, and Slate. Bronze. This is by far the most popular and widely known variety and in appearance resembles the wild turkey. In color it is a rich brilhant copperish bronze against a back- gromid of black and brown. The tail coverts and main tail feathers have clear white tips. As will be noted from the standard weights, the Bronze is the largest of the several varieties, the standard weights being as follows: Adult cock 36 lbs., yearling cock 33 lbs., cockerel 25 lbs., hen 20 lbs., pullet 16 lbs. White Holland. As the name would indicate, the plum- 234

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252 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION indicates. The standard weights range as follows: Old cocks 22 to 24 ozs., old hens 20 to 22 ozs., young cocks 20 to 22 ozs., young hens 18 to 20 ozs. They are fast breeders of white-meated squabs and are becoming very popular among large commercial squab breeders. Cameaux. Carneaux are also a very popular squab pigeon. Like the White Kings they are fast breeders of Figure 246. — Showing the relative size and shape of a Guinea egg on the left as compared with a hen's egg on the right. The color of a Guinea egg is dull buff. popular-sized squabs that dress off nice for market purposes. Their standard weights are : Old cocks 22 to 25 ozs., old hens 20 ozs., young cocks 20 to 23 ozs., young hens 18 ozs. They come in three colors — Red, Yellow, and Splashed, the latter color usually being a mixture of red and white. Homers. The Homing pigeon derives its name from the fact that, when carried away and released, it will usually return to its home. This trait has led to considerable sport in training such birds to fly long distances. In the recent World War, Homing pigeons played a most important part

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PREPARING BIRDS FOR EXHIBITION 259 KINDS OF POULTRY SHOWS Poultry shows may be classified according to their scope and importance, as follows: (1) Community exhibits which consist of school poultry shows and fowls from back- yard flocks. (2) County fair poultry exhibits. (3) State fair exhibits. (4) Poultry association shows usually held in towns and cities by the state and local poultry associa- Figure 256. — Poultry shows play a most important part in the development of the industry. tions. (5) Shows of the larger poultry associations which are usually of national or international importance. For the beginner just starting with standard-bred poul- try it is usually advisable to exhibit first at the local shows and, as his experience as a breeder develops, exhibits can be made at the county and state fairs, and finally at the larger shows. PREPARING BIRDS FOR THE SHOW Selecting the birds. The actual selection of the birds to be shown and the conditions that will determine selection

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PREPARING BIRDS FOR EXHIBITION 277 state fair. This will contain many useful suggestions as to the rules and regulations relating to a poultry exhibit. 3. When holding a poultry show, endeavor to get as many inter- ested as possible by advertising it thoroughly and inviting the people from the country as well as the townspeople to take part and attend. Endeavor to make it especially attractive by having such demonstra- tions and talks on poultry as are suggested in other chapters. No doubt the poultry department located at your state agricultural college or experiment station will be able to render you considerable assistance. 4. In making plans for the holding of a poultry show undoubt- edly the local Chamber of Commerce wiU not only endorse your plan but will likewise be able to be of considerable assistance to you. 5. In addition to a display of fowls arrange to hold an egg exhibit consisting of eggs produced by the exhibitors' birds. Prizes should be offered for the best eggs based on their quality, condition of shell, uniformity, etc. Usually two classes are provided, one for white and another for brown-shelled eggs. Score cards such as are used in judging eggs, a copy of which will be found on page 343, can be secured from the Secretary of the American Poultry Association. REFERENCES The Mating and Breeding of Poultry, by Harry M. Lamon and Rob R. Hlocum. Barred Plymouth Rock Standard and Breed Book, published by the American Poultry Association.

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302 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION their own gardens or dispose of it at a good price, thus in- creasing the profits of their flocks. Market gardeners and orange growers are big buyers of poultry manure and it also makes a fine fertilizer for top-dressing grass lands. CARE AND VALUE OF POULTRY FEATHERS Poultry feathers, if properly cared for, will bring fair returns, especially white feathers and feathers from ducks, geese, and turkeys. The feathers from ten chickens will make about one pound of cured feathers. If any consider- able quantity of feathers is produced, keep the wing and tail feathers separate from the body feathers and white feathers separate from the colored, if you have any white birds. The feathers must be partly cured before they are sacked for shipment. They may be cured by spreading them not over two to three feet deep in a loft or bin. Work the feathers over occasionally with a fork until the mois- ture has thoroughly dried out. If only a small number of feathers are produced, they can be placed in. small quan- tities in loosely woven burlap sacks and hung up in the loft of a building where they get good circulation on all sides, but should not be laid on the floor or packed on top of each other until thoroughly dry. Dirty feathers may be washed, put through a wringer and dried in the sun, if one has enough feathers to pay for this operation. Ordinarily it is better to try to keep the feathers clean and to throw the dirty feathers in with the poultry manure. The following prices were quoted on different kinds of poultry feathers in the summer of 1919 and clearly show the higher prices paid for white feathers and for geese and duck feathers: Geese feathers, pure white 80c per pound; average white 65c to 70c; gray 55c. Duck feathers, pure white 55c; dirty or scalded white 40c to 50c; dark feathers 40c. Chicken body feathers white 14c to 16c; dark 6c; damp or scalded feathers 3c to 5c; hackles

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CHAPTER XVIII BUSINESS MANAGEMENT One of the most neglected phases of poultry keeping is that of maintaining a record of all business transactions, together with such records as will show whether or not the flock is paying a profit. Such a system is important and of value to those who are keeping poultry only in a small way as well as to farmers and poultrymen with larger flocks, if the business is to be conducted successfully. Aside from these facts, one can frequently determine from such records the cause of loss, should there be any, and, therefore, pre- vent further loss. Again, even when a profit is shown, it may be possible to determine a way to obtain a still greater profit by reducing the cost of production or eliminating unnecessary expenditures. The records and forms used to keep such accounts and transactions need not be compli- cated, in order to determine the standing of the business. As a matter of fact, such records should be simple, so as to eliminate any great clerical work, and also to present the standing of the business clearly and quickly. The records given herein may be used as presented or they may be changed to meet the requirements of a particu- lar flock or the manner in which the business is conducted. In either case the forms can be copied in a suitable blank book so as to keep them intact. The several forms that are necessary are as follows: Hatching and brooding record, monthly statement sheet, feed record, egg record, yearly summary, inventory, and balance sheet. Hatching and brooding record. Under "Number of eggs" indicate the number in each setting or the number placed in the incubator at one time. With each setting or each lot 320

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BUSINESS MANAGEMENT 327 YEARLY SUMMARY Explanation. This record should be filled in at the end of each month so that at the end of the year or at the end of any given number of months the total receipts and ex- penditures can be determined by adding the total amounts spent and received. This record is practically self-explan- atory and is quite similar to the monthly statement.

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APPENDIX 345 EXPLANATION OF SCALE OF POINTS Each entry should consist of one dozen eggs. Size or Weight. — One dozen eggs should weigh from 24 to 26 ounces. Deduct one point for each ounce under 24 ounces and one half point for each ounce over 26 ounces, except Langshan, Brahma and Minorca eggs, in which case an entry should weigh from 26 to 28 ounces, and the same deductions as mentioned above made for under or over weight. Exceptionally large eggs are undesirable for shipment especially if they project too high in the filler and thus are liable to be broken. All eggs within the dozen should be uniform in size and weight. Cleanliness. — Each egg should be clean, free from dirt or blood stains. Under no circumstances should eggs be washed, as this removes the natural bloom from the egg and will cause it to spoil more quickly than when it is unwashed. Deduct one point for each soiled egg and each egg that shows signs of being washed. Shape: — There should be a uniformity in the shape of each of the eggs in the entry. An idea as to the correct shape of the egg will be found in Figure 67, page 69. Eggs from different breeds vary somewhat in shape, some being slightly longer and others more round. These points should be considered in forming an ideal as to the correct shape for the entry being judged. Deduct one third of a point for each egg which varies from the average shape of the eggs in the entry. Shell Color: — Uniformity of color and the presence of the natural bloom or luster of each egg is very important. White eggs should be pure white and brown eggs should be the same shade of brown through- out; other jjoints being equal, preference should be given to dark brown eggs over light brown. White eggs of a tinted or creamy color is a defect. Deduct one third of a point for each egg that is off color. Shell Texture: — The shell should be uniformly smooth and free from corrugations or wrinkles, pebbling or rough places, spots and cracks. Eggs with thin shells are undesirable. Cut one third of a point for each thin-shelled egg or egg possessing any of the above defects in shell texture. Fullness: — The fuUness of an egg is determined by the size of the air cell, which is one of the indications of a fresh egg. When held before a candle, see Figure 84, page 86, with the large end of the egg up, the air cell in a fresh egg should be about the size of a ten-cent piece or about one eighth of an inch in depth. Deduct three points for each egg having air cell larger than that of a fresh egg. Quality and Firmness of Yolk: — In determining the condition of the yolk and white it is necessary to candle each egg, see Figure 85, page 87, For a description of the various grades of eggs as concern- ing quality see page 284. When held before the candle the egg should appear opaque, the yolk free from dark color and scarcely visible. Cut three points for each egg containing a dark colored yolk. Eggs showing germ development, decay, rot, mold or blood rings disquaU- fies the entire entry. Quality and Firmness of White: — When candled the white should appear thick. Deduct three points for each e^g wherein the whits appears watery. Any egg showing any indication of decomposition ox incubation as mentioned above disqualifies the entire entry.

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CHAPTER XII FEEDING FOR EGG PRODUCTION The contents and suggestions given in the preceding chapters have a direct bearing on the object for which most fowls are kept, namely, the profitable production of eggs. The features that are so essential for such production are as follows: (1) Standard-bred poultry increases production and improves quality. (2) Select healthy vigorous breed- ers so as to produce strong chickens. (3) Hatch early. Early hatched pullets produce fall and winter eggs. (4) Feed and manage the growing stock properly, so that they will mature before winter. (5) Cull the flock and thereby eliminate unprofitable producers. (6) Provide a suitable and comfortable house for the layers. (7) Provide suitable raw material, that is, feed, so as to make profitable egg pro- duction possible. VALUE OF PROPER FEEDING When feeding hens for egg production two facts should be kept in mind, namely, that the feed consumed first goes to keep up the body requirements and to furnish heat to the body, and, second, to supply the material that makes the egg. It is only after the body requirements of the hen have been satisfied that the surplus feed is available for the production of eggs. When given certain feeds, hens will thrive and keep in good health; but, in order to produce eggs, well balanced, palatable feeds are necessary to fulfill these requirements. DEVELOPMENT OF THE EGG Before discussing the principles and practices of feeding, it will be well to first obtain an idea as to how the egg is formed - By referring to the top of Figure 199 the ovary is shown 198

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FEEDING FOR EGG PRODUCTION 215 The same feeds or combinations of feeds may be fed through- out the year. During the molting period do not try to force the molt prematurely by special methods of feeding. QUANTITY OF GRAIN TO FEED Judgment must be used in deciding how much grain to feed as the amount eaten varies with different flocks and at different seasons of the year. For instance fowls will eat more in the spring when laying heavily than in the sum- mer and fall, when production has dropped off. It is advis- able to feed approximately at the rate of one quart of scratch grains and an equal amount of mash (IJ^ quarts) daily to 13 hens of the general-pur- pose breeds or to 16 hens of the smaller, or egg, breeds. Hens of the general-purpose breeds having free range or large yards containing green feed will eat about 75 pounds of feed in a year, while the hens of the egg breeds such as the Leghorns, will eat about 55 pounds in addition to the green feed consumed. Relation of the amount of feed to egg production. Concerning the amount of feed consumed at different seasons of the year and the correlation of feed consumption with egg production, the following results from the first Texas National Egg Laying Contest are cited:* During *Eeport of the First Texas National Egg Laying Contest, Texas Agricultural Experiment Station. Bulletin 246 by F. W. Kazmier. c/ s.a^A^^Trravr a MvsSMfOff a Figure 211. — Working plans for a dry mash hopper.

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232 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION The kind to cull. Hens possessing the following char- acteristics or a combination of such characteristics should be culled as poor producers: Those that are sick, weak, lacking vigor, inactive, poor eaters, as well as those that have molted or started to molt early, those with small, dry, puckered vents, with small shriveled, hard, dull colored combs, with thick rigid pelvic bones, with pelvic bones that are close togeth- er, small spread between p e Iv i c bones and rear end of keel, and small hard abdo- men. In yellow- skinned breeds poor producers also should show yellow or medi- u m yellow shanks, yellow beaks and vent. See pages 348, 349, for the color of the skin, ear lobes,and shanks of the standard breeds. Figure 224. — The hen on the left has a full, flexible, ex- panded abdomen, indicating that she is laying. The hen on the right shows a hard contracted abdomen, indicat- ing that she is not laying. The kind to save. Such hens that are healthy, strong, vigorous, alert, active, and good eaters should be saved as good producers, that is, those that have not molted or are just beginning to molt by September, having large, moist vents, with large, bright red combs, thin flexible pelvic bones well spread apart, a wide spread between the pelvic bones and rear end of keel, and a large, soft, pliable abdomen.

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TURKEYS, DUCKS, GEESE, GUINEA FOWLS 249 Many hotels and restaurants in large cities are eager to secure young guineas to be served at banquets and dinners as a special delicacy. They are usually raised in small flocks on general farms and need a large range for best results. VARIETIES There are three va- rieties of domesticated guinea fowl, namely, Pearl, White, and Lav- ender, of which the Pearl is the most pop- ular. The Pearl. The Pearl guinea has pur- plish gray plumage regularly dotted or marked with white. In addition to its value as a table fowl the feathers of this variety are frequently used for ornamental purposes. The White. The White guinea fowl is pure white in color and the skin is somewhat lighter than that of the Pearl variety. The Lavender. This variety is quite uncommon and resembles in color markings the Pearl variety except that the plumage is of a Hght gray or lavender, regularly dotted with white dots. Guineas have not yet been recognized by the American Standard of Perfection. No standard weights, therefore, are given. On an average, both the male and female weigh from 3 to 4 pounds at maturity. Figure 242. — African gander.

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262 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION size or lopsided (See Figure 61, No. 3.), and the absence of the spike in rose-comb breeds excepting some of the Ban- tams. A comb foreign to the breed, as, for instance, a rose comb on a Plymouth Rock is also a disquaUfication. Face. White on the face of cockerels and pullets of the Mediterranean class, excepting White Faced Black Spanish, is a disqualification. Figure 259. — Examining the under color of » fowl to detect defects. Back- A deformed or crooked back commonly known as roach back disqualifies. fVings. Clipped flight feathers or secondary feathers of the wing are a disqualification. Tail. A decided squirrel tail or wry tail (Figure 62) is a disqualification as is also the absence of the main tail feathers. Shanks and feet. Disqualifications that should be looked for here are the absence of feathers on the outer sides of the shanks of the Brahmas, Cochins and Langshans; the

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266 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION continued up to within a few days before sending them to the show. They should then be confined to their coops for the final training and conditioning. But little difficulty will be experienced in posing birds after they have become accustomed to being handled by smoothing their wattles as previously described. The ability of a fowl to pose well is of great value and helps to make a favorable impression when being judged. Figure 263. — It is advisable to frequently stroke or gently rub the wattles of the bird with the fingers, as they seem to be very fond of this attention, which, when they are properly handled otherwise, will accomplish much in making them tame. Washing birds. White varieties and those having con- siderable white plumage such as the Columbian Plymouth Rocks, Light Brahmas, etc., and occasionally the Buff varie- ties should be washed, in order to show to a good advantage when exhibiting. Such fowls as Rhode Island Reds, the Partridge varieties, and those having dark-colored plumage need not be washed unless their feathers are considerably

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MARKETING THE PRODUCT 279 PRODUCE INFERTILE EGGS! j tHFERDLE fGGS lEEP BUT IIID MIRIET BEST II SUIKEH HEtT. rs losi. J-tS,(l(MI,UUl! J and hiinJliMi; ew-.. -rhiRl .:i rliL , bc^ai u the I l^h:nii. -.,ut;h : '/'Ar riMiitcr makrt rli<- i^;;' /iv///. . /*', /trIiU tiii nuitci thi bimd nnjj. Y,,u c;in s.ive die -^15,l)l)tl,lllltl now lo^t (rom blood nngs )■)>• kctpini; Ihc male bird from your Il<jck after the hatcbing Tlie niostcr doc^ n..r help the hciis n. lay. He mcrcK 1ltn]i/,l-s I In; iji-nii ul fhc cEtJ. Thf fcailtj fri:in\ in hot weather ijuickh Kttr.iiiu-, ,, jil..,.d ring. «hich ^K•'ih the egg; for food -iiid iiLirtvLi Slimmer ht-at has the siime effect on fertile <.-!;^.l^rlu■lu•n■,.r incubator, INfenril-F tOCiS WILL NOT BBCOME EILOOD RINGS. AtTL-r the hjtching WA-.<m cHik. sell, or pen your rooster. Your hens not running v.ith a mitlc bird will produce infertile cgfjs— qujlity egfjs tliat keep best and market best. RULGS FOR HANDLING EOtiS ON THE FARM. He:it IS the [Treat enemy of em's, bnrh fertile and infcrtilc. Firmcrs arc orRed to follow these simple rulei^. which cost norhins! bui time nad thoucht and will add dollars to the 1 . Keep llie nests dean: provide one nest f.,r every- four liens. 2. Gu.thci the cffu^ tiviee daily. i. Keep (he eijf,", in a cool. ilr\' rwm •■t ccll.ir. ■f M.irl.cr the e;jt;-- i" least c« ice a Mcek 5 Sell, kill, or toiil.nc all male birdi as soon as tlu NOTICE f ranng *nd CdTrW poultry and e^t and ittdi- l-Uinrd !,> Willing Id the buiaa o( .^ninwl A, O. MFLVrV, FERTILE EfiRS COST THE FARMER .$15,000,000 A YEAR. Ir..m had m«h..,K .-I Figure 271. — Infertile egg placard.

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296 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION overcome on large commercial duck farms where thousands of ducks are marketed by steaming the ducks before picking. The method used in dry-picking poultry is also used with ducks, although the latter are more difficult to pick clean. GEESE One of the more common methods of fattening young geese for market is that of confining them to pens protected by a shed-like structure for a period of from three to five weeks before marketing. During this time they are fed whole corn in hoppers to which they have access at all times. When this method is used, oat straw is provided as litter or bedding. Considerable of the oat straw is eaten by the geese and serves as a roughage. Corn silage may also be used as a roughage. Geese are usually killed and picked in the same manner as other kinds of poultry. GUINEAS Guineas are usually marketed most profitably during the summer and fall, when they should weigh from 1 to 1}/^ pounds during the first part of the season. As the season advances the demand is for heavier birds. The common method of marketing guineas is with the feathers on, for when the feathers are removed the small size of the carcass and the dark appearance of the meat detracts from their value from the standpoint of sales. When selling to hotel or restaurant trade, it is usually preferable to ship them dressed. Guineas should be killed and dry-picked in the manner as described for poultry on page 297. SQUABS Squabs are in good market condition when they are about 4 weeks old and fully feathered under the wings, usually just before they are ready to leave the nest. (See page 255.) Squabs are fed by their parents up to this period. The usual practice of killing squabs is the same as that employed

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ORGANIZATION 313 Awarding prizes on poultry work. In rriany instances it may be advisable to award prizes to members on tfteir prac- tical work as well as on their exhibits. When such a plan is followed, the members should be acquainted with the scale of points and the value of such items as will enter into the final awards. A suggested scale is as follows: Total number of standard-bred fowls raised to maturity Points in proportion to number of eggs set 40 Exhibit, including fowls and eggs 25 Reports and records Icept 25 Composition on some phase of poultry work 10 Perfect score 100 Figure 297. — Members of a poultry club preparing tor a judging contest. ADULT COMMUNITY BREEDING CLUBS A community interest in any one type, breed, or variety of live stock in any form is one of the greatest steps in advance toward progressive agriculture that any section can inaugu- rate. The organization of a community breeding associar tion often is and should be the outgrowth of previous efforts

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330 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION POULTRY CLUB RECORD Name Age Name of club Address Breed and variety of fowls No. of eggs set No. of chicks hatched No. of chicks raised. . . .No. of males. . . . No. of females No. fowls sold for market Value No. fowls used at home Value Breeders sold Value Doz. of eggs used at home Value Doz. of eggs sold Value Settings sold Value Value of fowls on hand Value of prizes won Total amount of money received Cost of eggs for hatching Cost of breeding stock bought Cost of equipment Cost of feed Value of labor at 15c an hour Total amount of money spent Profit Explanation. This form has been designed for boys and girls who are members of poultry clubs. As will be noted, this blank is quite simple and, when properly filled out, will present a brief and complete record of the year's work. When desired, this form can be supplemented with some of the forms given previously in this chapter.

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APPENDIX 347 Explanation — This consolidated score card for exhibition stock was compiled from the American Standard of Perfection, permission being granted by the American Poultry Association. Any further information as to the scale of points for breeds in other classes, as well as definition and description of the points given above, refer to the American Standard of Perfection. The breeds that can be judged from this combined scale of points are as follows: American Class, all standard var- ieties of Plymouth Rocks, Wyandottes, Javas, Dominiques, Rhode Island Reds and Buckeyes; Mediterranean Class, all varieties of Leghorn, Minorcas, Spanish, Slue Andalusian and Anconas; Asiatic Class, all varieties of Brahamas, Cochins, and Langshans. The Average Weight and Volume of Poultry Feeds. One qt. One lb. KINDS OF FEED weighs measures (pounds) (quarts) Barley meal Barley, whole Bone meal Brewer's dried grains Beef scrap Corn-and-cob meal Corn-and-oat feed Corn bran Corn meal Corn, whole Cottonseed meal Distiller's dried grains Germ oil meal Gluten feed Gluten meal Hominy meal Linseed meal, new process Linseed meal, old process Malt sprouts Mixed feed (bran and middlings) Oat feed (variable mixture) Oat middlings Oats, ground Oats, whole Rye feed (bran and middlings) Rye meal Rye, whole Soy-bean meal Wheat bran Wheat, ground Wheat middlings (flour) Wheat middlings Wheat, whole

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364 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION Shanks, (continued) color of, 349. disqualifications of, 262. effect of soil on, 228. Shed-roof houses, 139. Shell- color, 345. description, 67. gland, 199. oyster, 204. texture, 345. Shipping coops for exhibition fowls, 273. for live poultry, 299. Shows — kinds of, 259. organization for holding, 276. poultry, 16, 259. preparing birds for, 258. rules and regulations, 274. Sick fowls as breeders, 55, 63. Sickness and lack of vigor, 225. Side sprigs, example of prepo- tency, 48. Single comb breeds, 349. Single mating, 60. Size — of breeders, 55. of eggs, 345. of house, 134. of matings, 62. Skin, color of, 59, 349. Skim milk: See Milk. Slate turkeys, 236. "Slip," 194. Soap for washing fowls, 268. Sodium fluoride, 179. Sodium silicate, or water glass, 122. Soft roasters, 186. Soil desirable for fowls, 132. effect of on shank color, 22,S. Soiled eggs, 69. Sore head: See chicken pox. Soy-bean meal, 203. "Specials" (Referring to eggs), 283. Sports, or mutations, 46. "Spots" (Referring to eggs), 286. Spraying for fleas, 181. for mites, 177. Sprouted oats, 110, 115, 203, 291. method for, 204. Squabs, 251, 256, 296. Standard-bred, definition of, 25. poultry, 20. vs. mongrels, 25. Standard weights of breeders, .55. "Stick-tight" fleas, 181. Storing eggs, 282. Strain, definition of, 23. Stubs, examples of reversion, 47. Stud mating, 61. Sulphur, 162, 165. ointment, 166, 184. Summary, yearly record, 327. Survey of farm poultry, 2.50. Sweet oil, 270. Swedish duck, 244. Table fowls, 26, 33, 60, score card for judging, 341. Table scraps, 212, 214. Tails- defective, 57, 59. disqualifications of, 262. of breeders, 57. Temperature — correct for brooding, 104. for storing hatching eggs, 69. normal of the hen, 75. of incubation, 83. Testing eggs, 78, 86. Testicles removed, 193. Thermometer, 81. Thermostat, 81. Ticks, or blue bugs, 182. Tinted-shelled eggs, 349. Tobacco stems, 170. Toe— 5th, 53, 55. picking, 172. Toe punching chicks, 94, 95. Toes and legs of breeders, 58. Tonics — egg, 205. Toulouse geese, 246. Transportation facilities, 14. Trap nests, 149. Tuberculosis, 163. Turning eggs, 84. rack for, 69.

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338 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION Nebraska College of Agriculture and the Agricultural Experiment Station of the University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebr. Nevada College of Agriculture and the Agricultural Experiment Station of the University of Nevada, Reno, Nevada. New Hampshire College of Agriculture and the Mechanic Arts and the Agricultural Experiment Station, Durham, N. H. New Jersey State College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts and the Agricultural Experiment Station of Rutgers College, New Bruns- wick, N. J. New Mexico College of Agriculture and Mechanics Arts and the Agricultural Experiment Station, State College, N. M. New York State College of Agriculture and the Agricultural Exper- iment Station of Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y. North Carolina State College of Agriculture and Engineering and the Agricultural Experiment Station, West Raleigh, N. C. North Dakota Agricultural College and the Agricultural Experiment Station, Agricultural College, N. D. Ohio College of Agriculture, Columbus, Ohio. Ohio Agricultural Experiment Station, Wooster, Ohio. Oklahoma Agricultural and Mechanical College and the Agricultural Experiment Station, Stillwater, Okla. Oregon Agricultural College' and the Agricultural Experiment Station, Corvallis, Ore. Pennsylvania School of Agriculture and Agricultural Experiment Station of the Pennsylvania State College, State College, Pa. Rhode Island State College and the Agricultural Experiment Station, Kingston, R. I. South Carolina-Clemson Agricultural College, and the Agricultural Experiment Station, Clemson College, S. C. South Dakota State College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts and the Agricultural Experiment Station, Brookings, S. D. I'ennessee College of Agriculture and the Agricultural Experiment Station of the University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Tenn. Texas Agricultural and Mechanical College and the Agricultural Experiment Station, College Station, Texas. Utah College of Agriculture and the Agricultural Experiment Station, Logan, Utah. Vermont College of Agriculture and the Agricultural Experiment Station of the University of Vermont, Burlington, Vt. Virginia Agricultural and Mechanical College and Polytechnic Insti- tute i and the Agricultural Experiment Station, Blacksburg, Va. Washington State College of Agriculture and the Agricultural Experi- ment Station, Pullman, Washington. West Virginia College of Agriculture and the Agricultural Experiment Station of West Virginia University, Morgantown, W. Va. Wisconsin College of Agricultrue and the Agricultural Experiment Station of the University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis. Wyoming College of Agriculture and the Agricultural Experiment _ Station of the University of Wyoming, Laramie, Wyo. United States Department of Agi-iculture, Bureau of Animal Indus- try, Washington, D. C, Experimental Station, Beltsville, Md.

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INDEX 355 Caponizing, (^continued) care after, 194. demonstration, 196. instruments, 188. operation, 189. suitable breeds for, 187. time for, 187. Caibohydrates, 206. Carbolated vaseline, 161, 165. Carbolic acid, 160, 163, 177, 184. Carneau pigeons, 252. "Case count" plan of marketing eggs, 287. Case-lot score card, 344. Castor oil, 164, 168. Cayuga duck, 243. Cement construction, 134, 136. Chalazae, 68. Charcoal, 65, 111, 113, 205. Chicken pox, 165. Chicks — brooding, 92, 98. day-old, purchasing, 106. feeding, 108. first feed of, 108. management of, 118. toe-punching, 95. Chiggers, 183. Chinese geese, 246. Chlorate of potash, 162. Cholera, 162. Class, definition of, 22. Classification of poultry, 22 Cleanliness of growing quarters, 117. of eggs, 283, 345. Clipping the wing, 154. Clover hay, 203. cut, 115, 291. Clubs: See Community Breed- ing Clubs. See Junior Clubs. Coal-burning brooders, 102. Coal-tar products, 89, 160, 163, 177. Cochin — description of, 38. standard weights of, 38. varieties of, 38. Cockerel, definition of, 275. Cockerel mating, 61. Cockerels, separating of, 118. Cook, definition of, 275. Cock-fighting, 14. Cold storage, 15. Colony house — advantages of, 129. disadvantages of, 129. floor of, 136. for growing stock, 114, 115. framework of, 136, 143. plan of, 142. Color— of beak, 228. breeders, 55. comb, 56, 229. ear lobe, 349. face, 56. shanks, 227, 349. skin, 59, 349. vent, 228. Comb-— as concerning production, 229. disqualifications of, 261. frozen, 63, 167. of capon, 185. of breeders, 56. white, 166. Combs- defective, 56, 58. types of, 51, 53, 54, 349. Commercial chick grain, 109, 110. feeds, 201. poultry farms, 16. poultrymen, 44. Community breeding clubs — advantages of, 315. development of, 317 exhibits, 317 meetings of, 316. organization of, 316. selecting community breed, 315. Composition of poultry feeds', 206, 209. on "History of my Poultry Club Work," 340. on "Marketing and Exhibit- ing," 340. on "My Experiences with Poultry," 339. on "Poultry Management," 339.

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356 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION Concrete floor, 135. foundation, 134. Condiments, 205. Conditioning birds, 264. Constitution and by-laws of Junior Clubs, 308. Construction — cost of, 130 economy of, 127, 130. of houses, 132. Containers for Parcel Post mar- keting, 288. Continental Class, 30. Continuous house plan — advantages of, 130. disadvantages of, 131. framework of, 136. plan of, 145, 146. Cooling eggSj 84. Cooping exhibition fowls, 265. Copulation, 61. Corn, 109, 112, 201, 294. and cob meal, 201. chop, 201. cracked, 109, 112, 212, 292. Kaffir, 109, 112, 201. meal, 109, 110, 112, 201, 212, 291, 293, 295. silage, 296. Cornish — as capons, 187. description of, 38. standard weights of, 39. varieties of, 39. Correlation, 47. Cost of producing eggs, 216. Cottonseed meal, 203, 212. Cracks (eggs), 286. Crating eggs, 287. Creolin, 163, 177. Creosote, 163, 177. Crested breeds, 349. head, 51, 53, 55. Crop bound, 171. Crossbreeding, 50. Crossing — out, 48. Crowding chicks, 116. Crow-head, 56. Crude oil, 177. petroleum, 183. Culling — chart, 348. Culling, (continued) demonstration, 233. growing stock, 222. hens, 225, 292. kind to cull, 232. method of, 225. object of, 222. time to cull, 224. Curing of feathers, 302. Dampness in poultry houses, 132, 134. Day-old chicks, care of, 106. Dead germ, 87, 88. Defects in breeders, 59. Defective combs, 56, 58. Demonstration — caponizing, 196. contests, 312. culling, 233. egg grading, 304. feed mixing, 119, 221. preserving eggs, 126. selecting the breeders, 66. testing eggs, 91. Department of Agriculture, Fed- eral, 16. Diarrhea as symptom of cholera, 162. as symptom of tuberculosis, 163. in hens, 167. white in chicks, 168. Dimensions of houses, 134. Diseases and treatment, 159. possibilities of spreading, 159. Disinfecting and storing incu- bators, 89. Disqualifications for commercial eggs, 343. for exhibition eggs, 343. for poultry, 261. Domestication of fowls, 14. Double mating, 60. Double-pitched roof, 140. Drafts, prevention of, 142, 151, 267. Drawing the fowl, 29S. Dressing capons, 195. Dressing: See Dry-picking. Drinking fountains, 150. as source of spreading disease, 159.

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COMMON DISEASES AND TREATMENT 171 worms that have attached themselves to the inside of the chicken's windpipe. Symptoms. The characteristic symptom is the frequent gaping of the bird in its effort to expel the worms. are usually found on Treatment. As the gape-worms the ground that has been used for some time as a range for poultry, the best remedy is to move the chickens to a new range. The ground so in- fected should be thoroughly limed and plowed, and not used for young chicks for at least two seasons. As an individual treatment the worms can often-times be removed by in- serting a looped horsehair down the windpipe of the chick. After so in- serting it, turn it two or three times. When withdrawn it will usually bring out several of the worms. Make sure that the hair is injected in the windpipe and not down the bird's throat. The worms so re- moved should be shaken from the hair into a receptacle and scalded or burned. Frequently such worms can be removed by adding 15 grains of salicylic acid to each quart of drinking water. Crop bound. This disorder is caused by the crop's becoming overloaded with feed to such an extent that the muscular walls become partially paralyzed and thus unable to work off the accumulated food. Symptoms. The trouble can be discovered by the fact that the crop is hard, firm, and protrudes noticeably. Again, birds so affected will be frequently noticed trying to move Figiire 170. — The windpipe of a chick cut open showing the gape-worms attached

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172 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION the crop from side to side in an effort to cause additional action or movement, so as to expel the contents. Treatment. Ordinarily this trouble can be overcome by pouring half an ounce of melted lard or sweet oil down the throat and working the crop with the hand so as to allow the oil or lard to mix with the feed. The food will then usually pass away in a few hours. Feather pulling. This habit, most frequently acquired during the molt- ing period or in the spring, is noticeable in that the fowls pick their own feathers and eat them, or the feathers of the oth- er fowls. Treatment. When it is noticed that birds have contracted this habit, they should be given ad- Figure 171. — A result of feather pulling. ditional exorcise by scattering their grain in deep Htter. Likewise plenty of exereise by giving them increased range, if possible, to- gether with the addition of plenty of green feed and animal feed such as meat scrap, fish scrap or milk, will help to overcome this trouble. A piece of salt pork hung in the house where the fowls can pick at it will frequently counter- act the trouble. When this habit is limited to a few birds, they should be removed from the flock. Toe picking. This trouble may likewise be called a habit and is usually found in young chickens that are closely confined.

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FEEDING FOR EGG PRODUCTION 207 composition of feeds and the part that they play in maintain- ing the fowl as well as to produce the product, the question now arises: "How can these essentials be combined in such a proportion that they will supply the necessary re- quirements?" The question is answered and explained in the balanced ration. BALANCED RATIONS By balanced ration is meant the combination of feeds in such proper proportions as will furnish the necessary amount of nutrients (protein, nitrogen-free ex- tract, and fat) to produce, in the case of poultry, a satisfactory egg production, to fulfill the body re- quirements, and that can be fed economically. In preparing a ration it is necessary to obtain what is called a nutritive ratio, that is, to obtain the ratio which exists be- tween the amount of the protein in a given feed stuff and the amount of the carbohydrates and fat. The nutritive ratio. A practical ration for the production of eggs should include a scratch mixture of grains and a mash composed of palatable grain by-products con- taining some animal feed and suf- ficient bulk. In general terms the most satisfactory nutritive ratio for poultry should be 1 part of protein to 43/^ or 5 parts of nitrogen-free extract and fat. When computing the nutritive ratio, the fat is changed to terms of nitrogen-free extract, which is done Figure 205. — Homemade hop- per containing 4 separate compartments. Such a hop- per may be used to feed each of the constituents of the dry mash separately, and a similar hopper containing 3 compartments may be used for charcoal, grit, and oyster shell.

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FEEDING FOR EGG- PRODUCTION 221 as you think you might expect, why not change your method and see if there is an improvement? 4. Secure several samples of commercial grain feeds from various dealers and examine them carefully as to the quality and number of different grains contained. 5. Remember that the animal protein contained in bugs and worms that the fowls get in the spring and summer must be provided in some form by feeding a meat feed in the winter, in order to secure eggs. 6. A feed mixing demonstration carried on before a group of people interested in poultry will be of great value and lead to an inter- esting discussion as to the principles and practice of feeding. 7. Would it not be possible for you to try artificial lights in your poultry house and thus secure an increased egg production in the fall and winter months? REFERENCES Feeds and Feeding, by Henry and Morrison. Feed Cost of Egg Production, TJ. S. Department of Agriculture, De- partment Bulletin 561, by Harry M. Lamon and Alfred R. Lee. Feedmg Hens for Egg Production, U. S. Department of Agriculture Farmers' Bulletin 1067, by Harry M. Lamon and Alfred R. Lee. Principles and Practice of Poultry Culture, by John H. Robinson.

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CHAPTER XIII CULLING THE FLOCK One of the greatest achievements that has been accom- pUshed in poultry keeping of recent years is that of being able to determine by certain characteristics the egg-pro- ducing ability of a hen. No one phase of poultry practice has been of more economic value to the industry than this, for now practically anyone with a little practice and knowl- edge of the characteristics peculiar to the good and poor pro- ducer can cull out unprofitable fowls and thus place the flock on a true business basis. Object of culling. One of the principal reasons for cul- ling is that it insures that the feed will be consumed by the better-producing hens, thereby increasing the profit. Again such practice makes it possible to save the hens that are best suited for breeders both on account of their egg-pro- ducing ability and their superior strength and vitality. These qualities are very essential to layers, if they are to stand up under the strain of heavy production. If the flock is to be put on a paying basis, the poor pro- ducers should be eliminated in order that eggs may be pro- duced profitably and efficiently. Another advantage of removing the poor producers is that of creating more room for those that remain and a better chance to produce desir- able results. Culling the growing stock. Culling should by no means be confined to the layers; for in the young stock as well cer- tain individuals will be found that it would not pay to keep. Young birds that are stunted in growth, unhealthy, or those that do not possess the qualities that go to make up strong, healthy fowls should be removed from the flock and disposed of. Such birds will never pay for the feed and care used in 222

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TURKEYS, DUCKS, GEESE, GUINEA FOWLS 257 10. What is the principal value of Indian Runner ducks? 11. Name the three varieties of ducks included in the orna- mental class. 12. What is the period of incubation for duck eggs? 13. Name the six standard breeds of geese. 14. Describe the Toulouse goose. How does this variety corre- spond in weight to the other five standard varieties? 15. Discuss the value of guineas as table fowls. 16. Discus^ the management of guineas. 17. For what purpose are pigeons usually kept? 18. Describe the two more popular varieties of pigeons and their value as producers of squabs. 19. Discuss the management of pigeons. SUGGESTIONS 1. In order to familiarize yourself with the extent to which the several kinds of poultry mentioned in this chapter are grown in your community, make a survey, listing the various flocks of turkeys, ducks, geese, etc., found in yoiir nighborhood, together with the varie- ties grown. 2. Assuming that you were going to raise turkeys, what facts would you first consider as concerning the location, nearness to mar- kets, and variety selected? Compare your conclusions in this respect with the possibility of producing ducks, geese, guineas, and squabs. After considering each of these subjects thorou^ly, which do you feel will be the most profitable? 3. Should you be interested particularly in any one of these sub- jects, that is, as pertaining to the production of turkeys, or ducks, or geese, etc., inquire of your state agricultural college or the U. S. De- partment of Agriculture for additional information on these phases of poultry keeping. REFERENCES Turkey Raising, U. S. Department of Agriculture Farmers' Bulletin 791, by A. S. Weiant. Duck Raising, IT. S. Department of Agriculture Farmers' Bulletin 679, by Alfred R. Lee. Geese, U. S. Department of Agriculture Farmers' Bulletin 767, by Harry M. Lamon and Alfred R. Lee. The Guinea Fowl, U. S. Department of Agriculture Farmers' Bulletin 828, by A. S. Weiant. Squab Raising, U. S. Department of Agriculture Farmers' Bulletin 684, by Alfred R. Lee.

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PREPARING BIRDS FOB EXHIBITION 271 PREPARING GEESE, DUCKS, TURKEYS AND PIGEONS FOR EXHIBITION Geese and ducks. The preparation of geese and ducks for exhibition does not involve as much detail work as in the case of fowls (referring to chickens). The preliminary preparation of geese and ducks for exhibition should be followed along the same lines as previously described for poultry, that is individuals should be selected that conform as closely as possible to the standard requirements for the breed, care being taken not to select those which possess any serious defects or any disqualifications. As to the actual preparation for exhibition, ducks and geese are practically self-prepared. For a period of at least a week or ten days before shipping the birds to the show those intended for exhibition should have access to a grass range and also, if possible, running water. The grass range will keep them in good condition and by having access to a stream of run- ning water they will keep clean themselves. All breeds of geese with the exception of the Chinese should be fed a grain mixture twice daily, consisting of 1 part corn and 2 parts oats for a period of at least 10 days before exhibiting, to bring them up to standard weight. Oats alone should be fed to Chinese geese, as they are apt to put on too much weight when fed corn. This method of feeding corn and oats likewise apphes to all the breeds of ducks, the exception as to the feeding of oats alone apply- ing to the smaller breeds of ducks, as for instance the Indian Runner. When catching geese and ducks that are to be crated for shipment, care should be taken in handUng them, as the method employed in this case differs from that used in catching chickens.' Grasp the goose firmly with the hand around the neck so as to control its head and prevent its biting. Grasp the body of the goose under the other arm.

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272 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION holding the bird securely. In this position the goose can be easily carried. Do not let go of the neck of the goose until the bird is in the shipping coop or otherwise released. The same method is used in catching and carrying ducks, although one does not have to be cautious as in the case of geese to prevent biting. Both ducks and geese can be carried short distances by the neck alone without injury. Under no circumstances should either ducks or geese be caught or carried by the legs as they are apt to break very easily. Turkeys. As in the case of ducks and geese no great amount of preparation for exhibition is required for turkeys other than keeping them up to standard weight by feeding as described under "Marketing of Turkeys" on page 294. In addition to this the head, feet, and shanks of exhibition turkeys should be washed in the same manner as described for chickens on page 266. When washing these parts it is well for one person to hold the bird while another does the washing. This prevents the possibility of the bird's flutter- ing or struggling and thus injuring the feathers. To catch a turkey grasp it firmly over the shoulders, being careful not to injure the feathers. Next, encircle the body of the turkey with one arm, holding it securely under the arm and with the other hand hold the legs. As turkeys are easily excited, they should be handled carefully. Pigeons. To prepare pigeons for exhibition it is neces- sary to provide a pan containing about four inches of water. This will enable the birds to bathe and thus keep themselves clean. The American Poultry Association does not provide a standard for pigeons. Such standards can be secured from the different pigeon associations. In every case pig- eons should be selected that conform to the standard for the breed and variety concerned. Pigeons are usually caught with a catching net or bag fastened by means of a

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ORGANIZATION 307 be an election of officers, consisting of a president, one or more vice-presidents, and a secretary and treasurer. It is advisable for the teacher in charge to be designated as the honorary president of the club. A simple constitution and by-laws should be adopted. The following are suggested as some of the rules that should be considered in the organ- ization of the club: (1) Boys and girls joining the club must be between ten and eighteen years of age. Special classes may be organized for older boys or girls. (2) No Figure 292, — A poultry club member and his flock. boy or girl shall be ehgible to receive a prize unless he or. she becomes a member of the club and sets at least one setting of eggs from standard-bred stock. (3) Each club member must agree to study the instructions given by the club organizer and write a composition on some phase of poultry keeping. Suggested outUnes for this purpose will be found on pages 339, 340, 341 in the Appendix. Each member must plan to do his or her own work and keep a complete record of all transactions including labor, purchase of supplies, and sale of stock. A suggested report for this purpose will be found on page 330.

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BUSINESS MANAGEMENT 321 of eggs indicate in the second column the date set. This will serve as a record in determining when the chicks will hatch. Under "Eggs tested out" indicate on the 7th and 14th days of incubation the number of infertile and dead- germ eggs. Before doing this, read again what is said on testing eggs, in the chapter on Incubation, page 86. After the eggs are tested and the infertile and dead-germ eggs taken out, place in the next column, the number of eggs remaining. The number of chicks hatched from each lot should be placed in the next column. After the chicks are weaned, it would be well to count them, placing the informa- tion in the 9th column. The number of chicks that die should be placed in the last column.

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322 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION MONTHLY STATEMENT SHEET Month of 19 Dr. (Money spent) O 3 o Total J2 9 9 CD c3 bCo r-, M).S O H Monthly statement. This form, of which there should be twelve copies, one for each month, is self-explanatory and provides for expenditures and receipts during the month. On the debit side of this sheet in the first column indicate the day of the month that an expenditure is made.

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INDEX 357 Dropping board, 147. Dry-picking, 297. Drying washed birds, 270. Ducks — Aylesbury, 242. Buff, 243. Cayuga, 243. Egg class of, 244. eggs, 69. feeding for exhibition, 271. feeding for market, 295. Indian Runner, 244. management of, 245. marketing of, 295. meat class, 240. Muscovy, 242. Ornamental class, 245. Pekin, 240. preparing for exhibition, 271. Rouen, 243. Swedish, 244. Dust boxes, 150. Dusting for lice, 93, 179, 180. sitting hen, 77. Ear lobe, color of, 349. Education, poultry, 16. Egg- albumen of, 68. breeds, 30. development of, 198. eating, 173. laying rations, 211. membranes, 67. ■ nest, 76, 281. producing organs, 199, 231. record, 325. study of, 67. tonics, 205. turning cabinet, 69, 70. yolk of, 68, 108, 345. anormal, 70. and poultry, value of, 11. blood ring of, 286. bloom of, 69. breeding for, 59. candling of, 86. cleaning, 69, 121. cooling in incubator, 84. cost of producing, 216. cracked, 286. crate for, 287, culling hens for, 222. Eggs— dead-germ, 87, 88. dirty, 286. duck, 69. essentials for production of, 198. exhibits of, 277. "extras," 284. feeding for, 211, 215. fertOe, 68, 87, 88. fresh, 69. gathering, 69, 282. grading, 282. heated, 285. high production of, 26, 30. incubation of, 67. infertile, 87, 88, 280. kind to preserve, 120. "leaker,'' 286. market grades of, 283. marketing, 280, 287. mixing of during incubation, 69. packing, 70, 287, 289. preserving, 120. production, feeding for, 211. ''rots," 286. score card for, 343, 344. shape of, 345. shell color, 345. shell texture, 345. shrunken, 285. selected for incubation, 68. size of, 345. small, 285. soiled, 69. "special," 283. "spots,"' 286. storing, 282. thin-shelled, 70. testing, 86. tester, 87. turning of in incubation, 84. uniformity of, 282. variation in production of, 216. watery, 286. weight of, 283, 284, 285, 345. Egyptian geese, 247. Electric incubator, 79. lights, 219. Emden geese, 246.

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358 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION English breeds: See General- purpose and Meat classes. Epsom salts, 170. Exhibition — - breed for, 59. coops, 265. first poultry, 258. object and value of, 258. preparing birds for, 258. selecting birds for, 260. shipping coop for, fowls, 273. Exhibits, of community breed- ing clubs, 317. junior clubs, 311. Experimental stations, 337. "Extras" (Referring to eggs) 284. Eyes of breeders, 57. Face, disqualifications of, 262. Faking, 263. Fancier, 44. Fat, 206, 207. Fattening battery, 294. broilers, 291. capons, 293. ducks, 295. geese, 296. hens, 292. rations, 291, 293, 294, 295. turkeys, 294. Favus, or white comb, 166. Feather pulling, 172. Feathered shanks, 34, 51, 52, 263, 349. Feathers, curing of, 302. drying of washed birds, 270. market grades and prices, 302. market value of, 302. Fecundity, 48. Feed and water for growing stock. 111. cost of, 131. cost of, for eggs, 216. for sitting hen, 78. mixing demonstrations, 119, 221. quantity of grain to, 213, 215. record — yearly, 324. Feeding — breeders, 64. capons, 194, 293. chickens, 108. Feeding, (continued) condiments and egg tonics, 205. exhibition birds, 274. experiments, 216. for egg production, 198. forced, 64. growing stock, 108, 111. methods of, for eggs, 211, 213. methods of, for chicks, 108. on range, 215. stuffs, composition of, 209. value of, for eggs, 198. Feeds and by-products — classification of, 202. commercial, 201. composition of, 206, 209. for fattening: See fattening rations. grain, 199, 212. green, 64, 110, 113, 203. mash, 201. meat, 202. quality of, 201. quantity consumed, 213, 214, 215, 216. weight and volume of, 347 Feet- cleaning of, 267, 270. disqualifications of, 262. Fences, 152. Fertile eggs, 68, 87. FertiUzer, value of poultry man- ure, 301. Fiber, 208. Fireless brooder, 103. Fish scrap, 202, 212. Fleas— "Stick-tight," 181. Flock, culling, 222. breeding of, 61. Floors — board, 136, 137. concrete, 136. earth, 136. kind of, 136. space of, 134. Foundations and floors, 134, 135, 136. concrete, 135, 136. Framework of building, 136. French class, 42. Frozen comb, 63, 167.

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