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COMMON DISEASES AND TREATMENT 175 Symptoms. In this condition the fowl is Hkely to walk with seeming difficulty or limp. Treatment. To remove the cause lower the roosts or provide plenty of litter on the floor. When the foot is badly swollen, a small cut should be made with a clean sharp knife and the pus removed. Wash the wound out with equal parts of hydrogen peroxide and water. Grease with vaseline and bandage with a strip of cloth. QUESTIONS 1. What general preventives should be practiced in order to prevent poultry diseases? 2. Describe the symptoms for roup, together with an effective treatment. Why is it so necessary to remove fowls that are af- fected with such a disease as cholera, chicken pox, favus, roup, etc., from the flock? 3. Describe the method of treating chicken pox. 4. What prevention and treatment should be practiced for white diarrhea in chickens? 5. Describe a method for treating chickens with gapes. 6. How can feather pulling be overcome in a flock? 7. Describe the method of treating fowls for scaly leg. 8. What is usually the cause of rheumatism in poultry? 9. Describe the cause and treatment for bumble foot. 10. Describe the method of preparing a good internal antiseptic that may be used in the drinking water to prevent such contagious diseases as roup, white diarrhea, and cholera. SUGGESTIONS 1. Form the habit of carefully observing the growing stock as well as the producers at all times and remove immediately all birds that appear to be listless or not inclined to be as active as the rest of the flock. This practice is very important and can not be emphasized too greatly. 2. Keep in mind at all times that it is ordinarily not practical to attempt to treat individual fowls that are sick. Such fowls, even though they recover, ordinarily do not produce such results as will pay for their feed, and under no circumstances should they be used in the breeding pen. 3. Should a disease or infection break out in your flock or those of your neighbor's and you are unable to determine the nature or cause of it, send a fowl or two so affected to your state college of agriculture for diagnosis. REFERENCES Diseases of Poultry, by Pearl, Surface, Curtiss. Important Poultry Diseases, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin 957, by D. E. Salmon.

biodiversity-heritage-library

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FEEDING FOB E&O- PRODUCTION 211 the nutritive ratio, using the totals from the above table, may be represented as follows : Table IV. Formula for Determining the Nutritive Ratio. Total fat. Heat equivalent. Total Nitrogen-Free Second factor Extract. of nutritive ratio. .457 X 2H + 4.05 = 4.6 1.101 Total protein EGG LAYING RATION There is no best ration for all conditions, as many grains can be fed interchangeably, depending on their availability, Figure 208. — The amount of feed consumed by a Rhode Island Red and eggs produced. composition and price. As in the case of mash feeds the more simple grain mixtures, composed of home grown grains, will prove more profitable and produce eggs at less cost than complicated mixtures composed of eight or ten grains. All the following rations have been used with satis- factory results at the Government Experimental Farm at Beltsville, Md. In making a selection one should choose the ration most suitable to local conditions, and one that is most economical. Feeds not given in these rations may

biodiversity-heritage-library

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218 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION are used hens will complete their molt sooner than they would otherwise. The period of artificial lighting. The period during which artificial hghts are used in the poultry house ranges from the 1st of September or October to the 1st of March or April, these being the months during which the days are shortest. The three methods that have been used as con- cerning the period or time of the day during which lights have been turned on are as follows: 1. The hghts are turned on an hour or two before day- Figure 212. — The interior of a poultry house illuminated with electric lights. light in the morning and again in the evening before it gets dark, so as to make a twelve-hour day for the hens. 2. The hghts being turned on only in the evening before it gets dark and remain on so as to give the hens the same number of hours as mentioned above. 3. To turn the hghts on in the morning only, usually about 4:30 a. m., and turn them off as soon as it becomes sufficiently light in the house for the hens to see. When this plan is used the lights are not turned on in the evening. Considering all these plans, the latter seems to be the

biodiversity-heritage-library

2023-12-23T15:39:03.867577

117738-38249481-0231

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CULLING THE FLOCK 225 wise marked so that eggS from them will be saved for hatch- ing. The hens culled as poor producers should be marketed as soon as possible, so as to realize an immediate saving on the feed consumed. The best time to cull is during the lat- ter part of August or the first part of September. It is comparatively easy at this time of the year to form a fairly close estimate of the relative value of a hen as to its ability to produce eggs and hkewise to cull out the poor producers. Hens that show indications of laying at this time have as a rule been the better producers for the year. The fact should be kept in mind also that hens that have been good layers during their first laying year are usually the ones that will be the better producers in the second and third years. Hens showing positive indications of having been good producers throughout the year should be retained for the next year regardless of their age. Relatively few hens, however, will prove to be profitable producers beyond their second laying year, if they are of the heavier breeds, such as the Plymouth Rock or Wyandotte, or beyond their third laying year, if they are of the lighter breeds, such as the Leghorn. When possi- ble, preliminary culling during July is desirable also in order to eliminate hens which have started to molt and have stopped laying for reasons mentioned under "Molt." Method of culling. There are several points which re- quire special attention in selecting the good layers. (See Culling Chart in the Appendix.) It is a comparatively easy matter to cull when the different characteristics or several of them agree as indicating good production or poor production. Experience, however, will show that there is not always an agreement of indications. When such char- acteristics do not agree, one's judgment must be used in deciding which should be given the greatest weight. The following are the principal points to be considered: Sickness and lach. of Vigor. Sick fowls can ordinarily bs

biodiversity-heritage-library

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PREPARING BIRDS FOR EXHIBITION 261 When making the preUminary selection each bird should be carefully examined for such defects as would disquahfy it and, therefore, eUminate the possibiUty of winning a prize. When a defect of such a nature as would be considered a disqualification is discovered by the poultry judge, the fowl is no longer considered as eligible for a place among the winners. Figure 258, — Examining the head, face, and wattles of the fowl for defects and diaqualifications. General disqualifications. Some of the general disqual- ifications as given in the American Standard of Perfection that should be carefully guarded against and which are found in some of the more common breeds are as follows: Comb. A lopped comb in all males or females excepting the females of the egg, or Mediterranean and Continental, classes and Dorkings, (See Figure 61, No. 2.) is a disqualifi- cation. The same is true with split combs, side sprigs. (See Figure 61, No. 4.) Rose combs that are abnormal in

biodiversity-heritage-library

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268 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION the coop open. Provide three, or better still, four tubs arranged on a bench or platform of convenient height. The water in the first tub is used for the actual washing. The second and third tubs of water are used to remove all the soap, while the water in the fourth tub may have added a slight amount of blueing, such as is used in washing clothes. The practice of adding blueing is not as widespread as it used to be on account of the danger of coloring the plumage. Each tub should contain sufficient water to cover the body- Figure 265. — Washing the fowl. and neck feathers of the bird when immersed. Clean rain water should be used, if it is possible to obtain it, as hard water or water that contains mineral deposits such as iron will not produce satisfactory results. Pure white soap, such as Ivory or Castile soap, should be used. The water in the first two tubs should be heated to a temperature that will be comfortable to the hand, while the water in the third tub should be slightly cooler and in the fourth tub cooler still. Prior to washing the birds, soap the water well in the first tub, so as to have plenty of suds.

biodiversity-heritage-library

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117738-38249531-0281

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PREPARING BIRDS FOR EXHIBITION 275 cocks, cockerels, hens, pullets, young pens, and old pens. By this is meant that cockerels do not usually compete against cocks, hens against pullets, or young pens against old pens. A cockerel is a male bird under one year old, a cock over one year old. A hen is a female over one year old and a pullet under one year old. This distinction likewise Figure 269. The correct way to carry a fowl. Figure 270. The incorrect way. applies to the age of the individuals in a young or old pen. A pen consists of one male and four females. Cash and ribbon prizes are usually offered as the first, second and third premiums and ribbons only offered for the fourth and fifth premiums. Cash prizes for pens usually exceed those in value of single bird entries. Usually it takes 3 or 4 entries in a class to win first money. When there are fewer than 3 entries in a class, the first premium

biodiversity-heritage-library

2023-12-23T15:39:03.875206

117738-38249567-0317

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ORGANIZATION 311 members compete for them by writing essays on some poultry subject, or as the result of an examination given to the members on tm princi- ples of poultry culture. Monthly meetings. After the club has been organized and the work actually under way, one of the most important factors to stimulate and maintain interest and add to the members' knowledge of the subject is that of holding monthly meetings. Clubs should embody in their constitution the clause of holding monthly meetings, and the members should agree, when signing their application cards, to attend them. During the school session the meetings should be held at the schoolhouse. During the summer they can be held at the different members' homes. On all occasions the patrons and pubHc should be invited to attend. The program for such a meeting should constitute as far as possible the following parts: (1) Business meeting of fifteen minutes. (a) Roll call. (b) Examination of members' records by club leader. (c) Questions and discussion of individual problems. (2) Seasonable questions to members, embracing phases of work done by them during the previous month. Fifteen minutes. (3) One or two talks by members, farmers or their wives, local poultrymen, county leader or poultry speciaHst on seasonable poultry topics. Thirty minutes. (4) Actual demonstration by members of some timely phase of poultry work. Suggestions for such demonstrations will be found at the end of each chapter under the heading of "Suggestions." Twenty minutes. (5) Open period for questions, plans, entertainment, refresh- ments, etc. Club exhibits. The exhibiting of fowls and eggs by the members of a club is a very important feature of the work that should be encouraged. These exhibits afford an excel- lent opportunity for the members to display their stock and to show the public what they have accomplished. Such exhibits may be held either as a club or community exhibit in connection with the county or local fair or poultry association or in connection with the state fair or state poultry association show. When a community poultry

biodiversity-heritage-library

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318 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION made by the secretary or manager to find a good market for eggs produced by the association, together with broilers, surplus fowls, and capons. By marketing as an associa- tion but little difficulty should be experienced in obtaining a suitable market, for the reason, that if the members are adhering to their agreement, the quality and quantity of the fowls and eggs produced will be readily accepted. To take advantage of every source of revenue afforded by an associa- tion of this kind, an effort should be made to advertise the fact that they have breeding stock for sale. In doing so special mention should be made that the association is in po- sition to fill orders for eggs for hatching, and, when possible, day-old chicks and breeders. When conditions seem to war- rant it, the association should consider the erection of a community hatchery. Such a plan would not only afford the usual benefits of increasing their incubator capacity and enable them to do custom hatching, but also open a profitable field for selling day-old chicks. When there is a creamery operating in the community, the association should have in mind the possible field of fattening fowls by utihzing the skim milk or buttermilk from the creamery as a supple- ment to other feeds. In this way the surplus stock of the members can be marketed at an increased profit, together with the stock purchased from other farmers and poultry- men in the neighborhood. Exhibits. As the principal event in the year's work definite plans should be made for holding an annual exhibit of fowls raised by the members of the association. Lec- tures, illustrated and otherwise, should be planned, so as to make the event complete. An educational display show- ing what has been accompUshed and the advantages of such an association should be arranged with the idea of interesting others to join. QUESTIONS 1. What are the objects of organizing boys' and girls' poultry clubs?

biodiversity-heritage-library

2023-12-23T15:39:03.879283

117738-38249581-0331

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BUSINESS MANAGEMENT 325 for market eggs, eggs for hatching, etc., as well as the quan- tity sold during that period. The totals as obtained at the bottom of the debit and credit side of this monthly state- ment should be carried over to the yearly record which is shown on page 324. The yearly feed record is not regarded as absolutely necessary, for the information may be secured from each of the monthly statement sheets. If a feed record is desired separate from the information given in the monthly state- ^ment, however, this form may be used, enabling one to tell at a glance the time, quantity, and cost of feeds purchased and used. Such information may be of considerable value when laying in a supply of feed for the year. In the event that feed is not purchased and in its stead home-grown feed is used, measure out a quantity at a time and place it where it will not be used for any purpose other than for the fowls, charging this feed to yourself at current prices. When this amount of feed is used, repeat the operation. In this way a more accurate record of feed costs can be kept. The yearly egg record provides a space for each day in the month wherein the number of eggs produced may be recorded. At the end of the month the monthly column should be totaled to determine the number of eggs produced during that time. At the end of the year the number of eggs produced during each of the 12 months may be added to secure the yearly egg record. The average nirni- ber of eggs per hen each month may be obtained by adding the nimiber of hens in the flock at the beginning of the month to the number of hens in the flock at the end of the month and dividing this total by 2, which will give approximately the average number of hens during the month. The average production per hen is the total number of eggs divided by the average number of hens.

biodiversity-heritage-library

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INDEX 361 Management, (continued) of breeders, 63. of Rowing stock, 118. of sitting hen, 77. Mangel beets, 115, 203. Manure — amount per bird per year, 300. analysis of, 301. fertilizer value of, 301. value of, 300. Market classification for broilers, 290. for grades of eggs, 283. Marketing — case count method of, 287. co-operative, 317. ducks, 295. frequency of, 287. geese, 296. guineas, 296. unportance of, 278. "loss off" methods of, 287. methods of, 278, 287. of broilers, 290. of capons, 293. of eggs, 280, 287. of hens, 292. of table fowls, 290. of turkeys, 294, 295. of squabs, 296. Mash- dry, for growing stock, 113. feeding, 213. feeds, 201. for fattening, 291, 293, 295. for growing chicks, 110. hopper, 110, 113, 214. wet, 110, 214. Mate, time to, 61. Mating and breeding, 45. Matings — double, 60. flock or mass, 61. kinds of, 60. single, 60. size of, 62. stud, 61. Meat breeds of ducks, 240. Meat class — breeds of, 33. characteristics of, 34. Meat scrap, 110, 201, 202, 212, 291. for breeders, 64. importance of, 202. Mediterranean class, 30. Meetings of community breed- ing clubs, 316. junior clubs, 311. Membrane of egg, 67. Mercurial ointment, 180. Middlings, 110, 201, 212, 291, 293, 295. Mill feeds, 201. Milk- butter, 291, 293. skim, 202, 291, 293. sour, for chickens, 109, 111, 11.3. whole, 113. Minorca — character'" itics of, 32. standard weights of, 32. varieties of, 31. Miscellaneous class, 41. varieties of, 42. Mites, 176. Harvest, 183. Moisture during incubation, 85. type of incubator, 78. Molt as influencing production, 74, 226. feeding during the, 215. Mondaine pigeons, 253. Mongrels, breeding from, 50. vs. standard-bred fowls, 25. Monthly statement sheet, 322. Muscovy duck, 242. Mutations, or sports, 46. Narragansett turkey, 236. Neck of breeders, 57. Nest eggs, 76. Nests — ■ for sitting hens, 76. material for, 76. proper number of, 149, 281. trap, 149. Nitrogen-free extract, 206, 207. Nitrogenous material, 206. Nomenclature of the fowl, 51, 52. Non-moisture type incubator, 78.

biodiversity-heritage-library

2023-12-23T15:39:03.884354

117738-38249624-0374

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STANDARD BOOKS FOR FARMS AND FARM SCHOOLS We can supply any book published on General Farming, Gardening, Dairy, Live Stock, Horticulture, Forestry, Soils, Poultry, Bees, etc. All inquiries and orders for Farm Books will receive prompt attention. Beginningsin Animal Husbandry By Prof. C. S. Plumb, of the Ohio State Univer- sity College of Agriculture. Author of "Types and Breeds," etc. It teaches in a very interest- ing way what every farmer and farm boy ought to know about types and breeds, judging, breed- ing, feeding and care of farm animals and poul- try. No bock like it has ever been published. 393 pages; 216 illustrations. Cloth bound, $L60 ; postage 12c extra. A new standard bonk by A. D. Wilson, Minn. College of Agr., and C. W. Warburton, U. S. Dept. of Agr., on the best methods of growing, harvesting and marketing farm crops; seed selection; fertilizers; cost of production; rotations; and weeds. Handsomely bound; 544 pages; 160 illustrations. A practical book by practical men. Cloth bound, $1.80; postage 17c extra. A clear, non - tech- nical discussion, by Profs. A. R. Whitson and H. L. Walster, of the Wis. College of Agr., pre- senting the foundation principles of soil manage- ment. It tells clearly how to make simple tests of soils to discover their needs; how to fertilize, tiU, and otherwise handle different types of soil, as sandy, marsh and clay soil. It wUl answer your perplexing soil questions. 315 pages; well illustrated; nicely bound. Cloth, $1.60; postage 12c extra. Field Crops rilLD CROPS SOILS SOIL rmiuiy Soils and Soil Fertility Make all Remittances by Postoffice or Express Orders, or New York, Chicago, or St. Paul Drafts. Webb Publishing Co., St. Paul, Minn.

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2023-12-23T15:39:03.886836

117738-38249316-0006

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biodiversity-heritage-library

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117738-38249307-0015

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CONTENTS 9 Chapter Page XIII CuUing the Flock 222 Object. — Culling the growing stock. — When to cull. — Method: Sickness and lack of vigor, Molt, Shank color. Beak color. Vent color, Comb, Pelvic and keel bones, Flexibility of abdomen. — Kind to cull. — Kind to save. XrV Turkeys, Ducks, Geese, Guinea Fowls, and Pigeons 234 Turkeys. — Varieties: Bronze, White Holland, Bourbon Red, Black, Narragansett, Slate. — Management: Breed- ing, Mortality, Marketing. — Ducks. — Management. — Breeds: The Meat Class: Pekin, Aylesbury, Muscovy, Rouen, Cayuga, Buff, Swedish. — The Egg Class: Indian Runner. — The Ornamental Class. — Geese. — Breeds: Toulouse, Emden, Chinese, African Wild, or Canadian, Egyptian. — Guineas. — -Varieties : Pearl, White, Lavender. — Pigeons. — Varieties: Runts, White Kings, Carneaux, Homers, Maltese, Mondaine, Hungarians. XV Preparing the Birds for Exhibition 258 Object and value of exhibiting poultry. — Kinds of poul- try shows. — Preparing the birds for the show. — Select- tion. General disqualifications. Comb, Face, Back, Wings, Tail, Shanks and feet, Weight, Conditioning birds. Washing, Drying, Cleaning the head, feet and shanks. — Preparing ducks, geese, turkeys and pigeons for exhibition: Geese, Ducks, Turkeys, Pigeons. — • Shipping birds. — Show rules and regulations. XVI Marketing the Product 278 Eggs. — Care and preparation for market: InfertiTe eggs. Nests, Gathering eggs. Storing, Grading, Packing. — Marketing: Precaution, By parcel post. By express. Packing, Weights. Table Fowls. — Broilers: Market classification. Time to market. Fattening. — Hens: Time to market. How to market. — Capons: Killing, Best method of killing. Dry picking. Scalding, Drawing, Packing. — Turkeys. — Ducks. — Geese. — Guinea fowls. — Squabs. — Shipping live poultry. XVn Organization 305 Junior clubs: Object of organization. Suggested constitu- tion and by-laws. Plans for starting the actual work, Monthly meetings. Club exhibits. Awarding prizes on poultry work. — Adult community clubs: Advantages of such an organization. Selecting the community breed. Organization, Meetings, Development, Exhibits. XVin Business Management 320 Hatching and brooding record. — Monthly statement sheet. — Yearly feed record. — ; Yearly egg record.— Yearly summary. — Yearly inventory. — ^Yearly balance sheet. — Poultry club record. — Advertising: What and when to ad- ' vertise, Methods of advertising. Answering inquiries. Appendix 335 Index 353

biodiversity-heritage-library

2023-12-23T15:39:03.900606

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BREEDING 55 Figure 57. — The head of a crested fowl showing 1 crest, 2 V-shaped comb, 3 muff, and 4 beard. Appearance and action. The general appearance and action of fowls to be selected for the breeding pen as they appear on the range or in the yard should be considered. Select those with clean smooth plumage, for fre- quently soiled and roughened feathers are an indication of sick- ness or lack of condition. Fowls that are slow and sluggish in their action with little disposi- tion to move about should not be selected for the breeding pen. Sick fowls should never be used as breeders. Those that have been sick but have recovered should not be selected as breeders, if healthy fowls are obtainable. Male birds should be decidedly masculine in appearance, while females showing masculinity should be avoided as breeders. SELECTION OF THE BREEDERS . Having in mind the importance of health and vigor in the breeding stock, consideration should be given next to the desirable characteristics that good breeders should pos- sess. These general character- istics apply in a large measure to both the male and the female. Size. Select fowls that are closest to the standard weight for the breed. Breeders that are considerably' above and be- low standard weight are not de- Figure ss.-The fifth toe that is char- sirablefor two reasons. First, and French Br'e°edJ. °^ """ ^"i*"'"' ovcrsized fowls are apt to be

biodiversity-heritage-library

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64 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION FEEDING THE BREEDERS The feed for the breeding stock should be of such a nature as to keep the fowls in good condition and at the same time be conducive to the production of eggs. A good ration such as is fed to layers is suitable for this purpose provided it is not of a forcing nature. That is, it should not contain an extremely large amount of meat scrap or meat meal. The birds should be in good flesh and not allowed to become extremely fat. All grains should be fed in a litter so as to induce exercise by scratching for ^^^M Figure 64. — Fowls on free range will give higher fertility and better hatches and stronger chickens than those confined. them. When the flock does not have access to some nat- ural supply of green feed, as is not hkely during or preceding the breeding season, it is well to feed green feed in the form of sprouted oats, cabbage, mangels or cut alfalfa or clover. Care should be taken to see that the breeding pen is supphed with fresh clean water each day. In cold weather see that the ice is broken on top of the water pan at frequent inter- vals so as to enable the fowls to drink. A receptacle con-

biodiversity-heritage-library

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NATURAL AND ARTIFICIAL INCUBATION 85 for part of the eggs would then be hkely to cool much more quickly than the others. Moisture and ventilation. Moisture and ventilation are closely related and closely associated factors in incubation, the amount of each depending upon the other. Moisture is one of the uncertain factors in incubation on which there are as yet no very satisfactory rules which will cover all conditions. Odd as it may seem, good hatches are secured both with and without using moisture under apparently the same conditions. An experienced incubator operator Figure 83. — Cooling eggs from a mammoth incubator. usually works out, as the result of practice, the best amount of moisture to use under his conditions. When too much moisture is present, it may prevent the normal evaporation that is necessary to allow sufficient space for the chick to turn in the egg and break the shell. On the other hand, too little moisture may cause the chick to become dry and stick to the shell. Moisture is extensively used in hatching in high altitudes and in places where the incubator is run in a dry room. The following are the most common methods for supplying moisture in incubators: Sprinkling the eggs with warm water of about 100° F., placing a pan of water or receptacle containing moist sand or a wet sponge inside of

biodiversity-heritage-library

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94 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION Figure 92. — The brood coop should be thor- oughly cleaned and sprayed with kerosene or crude petroleum to prevent lice and mites. once a week, making every effort to keep it free from lice arid mites. From one to two in- ches of sand or shavings or a thin layer of fine straw or cut hay should be spread on the floor of the coop. The same should be done in brood- er houses when artificial methods of brooding are used. Brood coops should be moved to fresh ground weekly, preferably where there is a grass range. Shade is very essen- tial in rearing chickens, most especially during hot weather. A cornfield affords an excellent range for young chicks, as they secure many insects and worms, and have fresh ground to run on, due to the cultivation of the corn, and have abundant shade at the same time. These principles should be kept in mind at all times and put into practice whether the chicks are brooded by natural or artificial methods and the brood coop or the brooder lo- cated accor- dingly. Figure 93. — Punching a hole in the web of a chick's foot with a toe-punching instru- ment. Figure 94. — The hole punched. Instruments for this purpose can be purchased from most poultry supply houses.

biodiversity-heritage-library

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CARE OF GROWING STOCK 119 3. Describe a good growing mash for the chicks after they are 10 days old. 4. What are the points to be kept in mind when commercial chick feeds are purchased? 5. What are the six essentials for the proper growth of growing stock? 6. Describe a good grain ration for the growing stock. 7. Of what value are free range and shade for the growing chick- ens? 8. What practice should be followed in order to insure cleanli- ness and freedom from disease of the growing stock? 9. At what time should the cockerels be separated from the pullets? 10. What should be done when the pullets start laying? SUGGESTIONS 1. A demonstration that will be of value to any group of people or community interested in poultry is that of .actually mixing desir- able feeds for chicks and growing stock. In order to arrange for such a demonstration before a poultry club or an association, a talk should be given by some one that is acquainted with the subject of feeding the young stock, calling attention to the facts as stated in this chapter. Such a talk can be supplemented with the actual mixing together of the various feeds as outlined herein. 2. Should there be a poultry farm located in the community, a visit should be made with the idea of determining the methods em- Eloyed in the management of the growing stock. Observations should e made to see how closely such management conforms with the six essentials for proper growth. In making such an observation partic- ular attention should be 'given to the kind of houses used for the young stock, how they are fed and watered, the kind of feed that is used, what provisions are made for free range and shade, and the methods of management employed. 3. In order to become entirely familiar with this phase of poul- try keeping, a visit should likewise be made to a general farm where several hundred fowls are kept. , Observation and a comparison should be made of the methods employed on this farm as contrasted with the methods used on the poultry farm and those given in this chapter. REFERENCES "Natural and Artificial Brooding of Chickens" by Harry M. L'amon, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Farmers' BuUetia No. 624.

biodiversity-heritage-library

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128 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION HOUSING Kind of house to build. As with other phases of poul- try keeping, the question is often asked "What is the best style of house?" In a general way the answer may be given that the most satisfactory style or plan of a house should embody the above mentioned essentials, taking into consider- ation the part of the country where the house will be located. With a few modifications a house embodying these essen- tials will give satisfactory results in Maine as well as in Figure 122, — A practical easily constructed colony house that will accommodate a flock of 25 fowls. California. The house in the South or the Southwest, however, may be built more open, that is, with a more open front and at a less expense than one suitable for a colder climate. Colony house and continuous house. The housing of fowls consists of two systems, each differing considerably from the other. The first system is called the colony plan, or extensive system.

biodiversity-heritage-library

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POULTRY HOUSES AND APPLIANCES 153 When such wire is used it will be found to last longer by naihng the bottom edge of it to a four-inch board ex- tending from post to post. The top of the fencing may be kept rigid by fastening it to a heavy wire stretched at the tops of the posts. Where two or more yards are adjoining, the fences should be boarded at the bottom to a height of 3 feet to prevent the male birds from fighting between the fences (See Figure 124.), or an extra strip of wire fencing Figure 154. — A ventilator as shown here or in Figure 148 stiould be opened in warm weather. 3 feet wide can be attached on the other side of the post for this purpose in the place of boards. The height of the fence is governed by the variety of fowls kept. The smaller breeds, such as the Leghorns, need a fence from 6 to 8 feet high in order to keep them con- fined. A 6-foot fence can be used where Leghorns are raised, provided the flight feathers of one wing of the fowl are cKpped. For the heavier breeds a 5-foot fence will be found satisfactory. Where the general-purpose breeds, such as

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158 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION section. Such a trip as this will also enable you to observe the satis- factory and unsatisfactory features in other poultryraen's or farmers' poultry houses. 5. If your house has an earth floor, why not consider removing this floor and in its stead build a concrete floor, which will be more permanent and more easily kept clean. 6. Does your poultry house or the majority of those in your com- munity have too much glass in the front? If such is the case, why not consider removing or suggesting to others that some of the glass be removed and the openings covered with curtains in cold weather? 7. Does your house contain sufficient roosting space, nests, and other interior arrangements as mentioned herein? If not, such im- provement as can be made will, no doubt, prove to be most desirable. 8. Before the arrival of winter be sure that all cracks in the rear and sides of the house are tightly sealed in order to prevent drafts. Before warm weather comes also make sure that the house is sufficiently ventilated to keep the building from becoming too hot during the sum- mer. REFERENCES Poultry House Construction,!!. S. Department of Agriculture Farmers Bulletin 574, by Alfred R. Lee. A Simple Trap Nest for Poultry, !!. S. Department of Agriculture Farmers' Bulletin 682, by Alfred R. Lee. Poultry Management, U. S. Department of Agriculture Farmers' BuUetin 287, by George A. Bell.

biodiversity-heritage-library

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POULTRY PESTS 183 Spray. Meantime the poultry house should be thoroughly- cleaned by removing all nests, nesting material, roosts and other interior fixtures and spraying thoroughly with crude petroleum, kerosene, or one of the coal-tar products. Scalding. Equipment, such as brood coops and ship- ping crates, when infested, can be treated by scalding thor- oughly with boiling water. When there is every indica- tion that the blue bugs have been eradicated, the birds may be returned to the house. CHIGGERS (RED BUGS OR HARVEST MITES) <^ >> Chiggers are found and are quite trouble- HfisH some in the southern and likewise the central *^^iia3oy^ western states. The chigger, or red bug, f ] before it develops to the adult stage, is A i].';.!'".' L microscopic in size, red in color, and has six M '"'" K* legs. After developing, or reaching the f vffj'/ | adult size, they become larger and visible to the eye, although still very small in size. ^Xgger^^M ^•■r"fd Chiggers breed in tall grass and are partic- enlarged. *YFrom ularly abundant in low marshy land. Banks.) They attack the fowls and the chicks while they are on range, biting and penetrating the skin, usually under the wings, on the breast and neck, causing annoyance and itching. Soon after the chiggers penetrate the skin, an abscess is formed and becomes inflamed. The presence of these mites, especially on chickens, results in the birds' becoming weak, with httle disposition to eat, and they finally die from hunger. Remedy. The remedy is either one of prevention or application. Keep the grass down. The most satisfactory method of exterminating chiggers is by keeping the grass cut or grazed short on ground where the fowls range. Ointment. To treat the birds individually, apply

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192 PRACTICAL POULTRY PBODVOTION Figure 194. — The spreader in place. One testicle can be seen lying between the jaws of the spreader. incision between the last two ribs. Then when the operation is over and the bird is released, the skin slips back over the wound and closes it. (See Figure 196.) Insert the spreader (Figure 1881 or d) and enlarge the cut so as to allow the introduction of the testicle remover (Fig- ure 188 i, 1 or m) but do not cut too close to the backbone, as to do so might cause considerable bleeding. After the incision is made and the spreader inserted, a thin membrane will be observed covering the intestines. Figure 195. — Removing the testicle.

biodiversity-heritage-library

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FEEDING FOB EGO PRODUCTION 217 purpose class than was included in the Texas Contest where the majority of the birds were Leghorns. Further, it is brought out as the result of the feeding work at the Government Poultry Farm that the value of eggs or seUing price for the year was greatest in November, while the feed cost to produce a dozen of eggs was greatest in December, owing to the low production at that time. Eggs are produced at the lowest cost during the period of greatest production, which is in the spring, and at the highest cost in the season of lowest production, which is the fall and early winter. This high cost of egg production in the fall and winter increases materially as the fowls become older. ARTIFICIAL LIGHTS Within the past several years the practice known as artificial Kghting of poultry houses has come into use. The object of this system is to obtain a greater egg production during the fall and winter months when eggs are high in price, the sole idea being to produce by means of artificial Hghts a longer working day for the hen. In the fall and winter the period of daylight is comparatively short as contrasted with the spring and summer days. Consequently by the use of lights the short days are made longer, thereby per- mitting the hens to eat more feed with which to produce more eggs. This practice is ordinarily carried on with the layers rather than with birds that are intended for breeders. Some poultr}Tiien who have tried artificial lights, how- ever, on their breeding stock, do not report any detrimental results. Another advantage of artificial fighting is that by providing a longer working day, late-hatched and slow- developing pullets are given an opportunity to mature more rapidly, and thereby come into egg production sooner than when artificial hghts are not provided. Again, when lights

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22G PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION Figure 217. — A Barred Plymouth Rock lien in full molt. distinguished in that they are usually lifeless, inactive and have a tendency to stay on the roost all or part of the day. Likewise they show but little desire to eat and their comb is usually very pale or of a dark or bluish color. Fowls with long toe nails, a snaky or crow head, and dull sunken eyes can safely be culled as possessing but Ht- tle vigor or constitutional, strength. Molt. Molting is the proc- ess of shedding the old feath- ers and the growing of new feathers to take their place. This condition or process is one of the most valuable and easily appKed tests as an index of production. Most hens cease laying completely or practically so during the molt, as but few hens can grow feathers and produce eggs at the same time. It will be observed that hens of the general-purpose breeds lay more or less during the molt. This condition is less fre- quently found in the lighter breeds, such as the Leghorn. The best producers continue laying well into the fall, be- fore molting. The poor pro- ducers usually molt early in ^■«"- 'i^n-hat^S^no^ToUed. ^"^

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TURKEYS, DUCES, GEESE. GUINEA FOWLS 251 Figure 244. — Pearl Guinea. of the business and con- siderable experience is necessary to insure the greatest success in squab production on a com- mercial scale. BREEDS Among the varieties of pigeons kept for the production of squabs are the Runts, White Kings, Carneaux, Homers, Mal- tese, Mondaines and Hungarians. The White Kings and Carneaux are regarded by many as the better varieties, as they are good breeders and produce a popular-sized squab demanded by most mar- kets. Homers are good breeders, though small; but a Runt- Homer cross makes a very good squab-producing pigeon. Runts. Contrary to their name, Runts are the largest of all varieties of pigeons. The weights range as follows: Old cocks 28 to 48 ozs., old hens 28 to 40 ozs., young cocks 23 to 40 ozs., young hens from 22 to 36 ozs. There are seven distinct varieties — White, Blue, Black, Yellow, Red, Sil- ver, and Dun. They are bred extensively especial- ly on the Pacific Coast. White Kings. This breed comes in but one Figure 245.— White Guinea. color, white, as the name

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260 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION practically start soon after the chickens are hatched and continues up until the time the birds are sent to the show. In other words, unless chickens are properly managed and grown so that they will mature into typical representatives of their breed, they will not make a creditable showing. Most frequently chickens from special matings are hatched at such a time that they will be grown and in the pink of condition for a certain show. Again such stock is frequently grown in a separate place from the rest of the flock in order to insure the best of care and attention. Such practice is. Figure 257.-^An egg exhibit is always an interesting attraction at a poultry show. of course, principally that of specialized poultry breeders, but these facts should be kept in mind by those who hope to attain the highest success in their efforts. Preliminary selection. The actual prehminary selection of the birds to be shown should take place by observing the fowls as they appear on the range or in the yard at least a month or two before sending them to the show. Atten- tion will then be directed to certain individuals that are out- standing in their appearance, fowls that possess good tj'pe and color, and other characteristics that go to make likely candidates. Such birds should be examined carefully in detail for under color and surface color, as well as for defects and desirable points, as called for in the American Standard of Perfection.

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MARKETING THE PRODUCT 285 watery eggs, eggs with heavy yolks and all other eggs sound in shell but fit for food. The several classes of eggs which go to make up this grade are defined as follows: — (1) Heated egg. This term is applied to an egg in which the embryo has developed to the point that corresponds to about 18 to 24 hours of incu- bation. In the infertile egg this condition may be recognized by the in- Figure 279. — Candling eggs for quality. Notice the candler has separate boxes for the good eggs aa well as the checks, cracked eggs, dirty eggs, and rots. When selhng eggs insist that they be bought on a quality basis. creased color of the yolk and when held before the candle it will appear heavier and slightly darker than in the fertile Figure 280. — A shipment of eggs on the rail- road station platform exposed to the sun. Infertile eggs will withstand such conditions much better than fertile eggs. egg. (2) Shrunken egg. This class of Seconds may be easily distinguished by the increased size of the air cell. As previously stated in the chapter on incubation, the size of the air cell increases in pro- portion to the evapora- tion of the water in the egg. (3) Small eggs.

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294 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION composed of equal parts of corn meal, middlings, wheat bran, and 10% beef scrap. TURKEYS The period of fattening turkeys for market usually begins about the first of October so as to have them in the best ^_j^_^ condition for the . ^'' ^^"'^^rrr-^ '~~^'-o-_ , Thanksgiving and Christmas "^^ trade. The method of fattening that is commonly prac- ticed consists of feeding a grain mixture of wheat and oats morn- ing and evening during the first part of the fat- tening period gradually chang- ing the feed to corn as the weather becomes colder and as the period of marketing ap- proaches. It is advisable at first to feed sparingly morning and evening, and gradually increasing the amount until about a week before marketed they are fed three times a day and are given all they will eat. Corn and especially new corn should not be fed to turkeys in any quantity during the first part of the fattening process, as it is apt to cause a Figure 286. — Working plans of a portable fatten- ing battery.

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ORGANIZATION 319 2. What are the advantages of such organizations? 3. Discuss briefly the organization of such a club, together with some of the rules which should be adopted. 4. Mention some of the more important articles that should be included in the constitution and by-laws. 5. Describe several plans whereby members of the club can get started in their actual work. 6. Discuss the importance and value of holding monthly meetings. 7. Discuss the factors that should be considered when arranging for poultry-club exhibits. 8. Discusss the value of holding a club demonstration in connec- tion with an exhibit. 9. What is a community poultry breeding club? 10. What are the advantages of such an association? 11. How should the community breed be selected? 12. Describe the organization of a community poultry-breeding club. 13. Of what value are meetings of such an association? 14. Mention some of the possibilities for development of a com- munity breeding association. 15. Describe some of the features that should be included in an exhibit held by a community breeding association. SUGGESTIONS 1. Reference has been made several times in the preceding chap- ters to the importance of organizing boys or girls or adults in a com- munity interested in poultry into an association or club. With this thought in mind^ the suggestions contained in this chapter have been offered. There is no question that those interested in poultry keeping would be considerably benefited by organizing themselves into a club or association. This applies to boys and girls as well as owners of back-yard flocks, poultrymen, and farmers. Boys and girls should secure the help of their teacher, who in most oases will be only too glad to assist in the organization. Owners of back-yard flocks, poultrymen, or farmers, should seek the co-operation of their county agricultural agent, who in turn will render every possible assistance in perfecting such an organization as it might be desirable to form. 2. Consider carefully the advantages of a community poultry breeding association, reaUzine what can be accomplished when one breed and variety of standard-bred fowls is produced by a number of people in one community. Such an organization, properly organized and conducted, will be most instrumental in developing interest in poultry among the members and in the community, to say nothing of the financial benefits that can be derived. 3. In the case of the boys' and girls' poultry club or a poultry association formed among adults, the advantages of an aimual exhibit should not be overlooked. The suggestions as given in Chapter XV will be of considerable help in this connection. REFERENCES Better Poultry Through Commimity Breeding Associations, U. S. Department of Agriculture Yearbook, 1918, separate No. 778, by Jos. Wm. Kinghome.

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328 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION YEARLY INVENTORY INVENTORY JANUARY I. Stock: No. of cocks , Value, $ ;No. of hens Value, $ ; No. of pullets , Value, $ ; No. of Cockerels , Value, $ ; Total value of stock, $ Equipment ; Value of poultry houses, $ ; Value of Feed hoppers; $ Value of drinking vessels, $ Value of brood coops, $ ; Value of poultry fences, $ No. of incubators ; Make Value, $ ; No. of brooders ; Make Value, $ ; Value of grain on hand, $ Total value of equipment, $ Explanation. The inventory should be taken in order to determine the value of stock and equipment on hand and to assist in making up a yearly balance sheet, which follows. It should contain a summary and total both of the number and value of all fowls and such equipment as one may pos- sess. Ordinarily, unless improvements are made on equip- ment such as poultry houses, hoppers, etc., 10% of the value of the equipment should be deducted from the total value for depreciation. Judgment should be used in each case when buildings are repaired or when new equipment has been purchased. In some cases repaired buildings or build- ings that have been painted are of greater value than they were formerly, so that this fact should be taken into con- sideration when making an inventory. The time to take the inventory need not necessarily be January 1. Some other time may be chosen, if found more desirable, to meet individual needs and conditions. Many poultrymen regard October 1 or November 1 more suitable as representing the beginning of the poultry year, and consequently take their inventory at that time.

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INDEX Abdomen, condition of, 231. Acid phosphate, 301. Action and appearance, 55 Advertising — ■ methods of, 332. value of poultry shows, 258. what and when to advertise, 331. African geese, 247. Agglutination test, 169. Age of breeding stock, 62 . Agricultural Colleges and Ex- periment Stations, 17, 337. Air cell of egg, 67, 86, 345. Albumen of egg, 68, 199. Alfalfa, 115, 291. meal, 203. American breeds: See General- purpose class. American Standard of Perfec- tion, 32, 263, 347. Ancona — characteristics of, 31. standard weights of, 31. Andalusian, Blue, 32. Animal protein feeds, 202, 212. Appearance and action, 55. Appliances, 144. Artificial and natural incuba- tion, 67. brooding, 98. incubation, 78. lights, 217. methodsof feeding with, 219. period of, 218. Asiatic breeds: See Meat class. Ash, 206. Atavism, or reversion, 46. Aylesbury duck, 242. Back of breeders, 57. Back, disqualifications of, 262. Back-yard flocks, 11, 19. Balance sheet — yearly, 329. Balanced ration — how determin- ed, 207. Banding: See Wing banding. Bantams — Game, 39, 40. value of, 41. varieties of, 41. Barley, 201, 203, 212. meal, 212. rolled or huUed, 109, 112. Beak — color as influencing produc- tion, 228. shape of, 56. Beef scrap: See Meat scrap. Black turkey, 235. Blackhead, 166. Blastoderm, 68, 86. Blood ring, 87, 121, 286, 343. Bloom of egg, 69. Blue Andalusian — characteristics of, 32. standard weights of, 33. Blue bugs, 182. Blue ointment, 180. Blueing water for washing birds, 268. Board floors, 136. Body of breeders, 57. Bone meal, 212. Borax, 162. Boric acid, 162. Bourbon Red turkey, 235. Brahma — as capons, 187. standard weights of, 34. varieties of, 34. Bran, 109, 110, 201, 212, 291, 295. Bread for chicks, 109. Breast, of breeders, 57. Breastbone: See keel bone. Breed — • definition of, 23. selecting the, 23, 315. Breeder, the poultry, 20, 44. Breeders — age of, 62, 353

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362 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODOCTION Non-producers, culling, 222. Non-sitters, 30. Nutritive ratio, 207. formula for, 211. how to determine, 208. Oats — as green feed, 203. ground, 201, 212, 291. ^lulled, 109, 112. Jieal, 109, 110. pinhead, 109, rolled, 109. sprouted, 110, 115, 203, 204, 291. Organization of clubs, 305, 306, 316. of poultry associations, 276. Origin of domestic fowls, 22. Ornamental breeds of ducks, 245. class of fowls, 42. Orpington — characteristics of, 29. standard weight of, 29. varieties of, 29. Out-breeding, 48. Out-crossing, 48. Oviduct, 199, 231. Ovary, 199, 231. Oyster shell, 64, 111, 113, 204. Packing — dressed fowls, 299. eggs, 287, 289. hatching eggs for shipment, 70. squabs for market, 297. Painting houses, 155. Parcel post — containers, for use by, 288. marketing eggs by, 287. packing for shipment, 289. shipments, weight of, 289. Partitions in the house, 142, 146. Peanut meal, 203. Pearl guinea, 249. Pekin duck, 240. Pelvic bones, spread of, 229, 230. Permanganate of potash: See Potassium permanganate. Picking ducks, 295. Pigeons — ■ Carneau, 252. Pigeons, (continued) Homer, 252. Hungarian, 253. Maltese, 253. management of, 254. marketing of, 296. method of catching, 272. Mondaine, 253. preparing for exhibition, 272. Runt, 251. squab breeds, 251. White King, 251. Pinhead oat meal, 109. Plumage — condition of, 55. washing of, 266. Plymouth Rock — as a capon, 187. standard weights of, 27. varieties of, 27. Polish class, 42. Posing birds, 266. Potash salts, 301. Potassium chlorate : See Chlorate of potash. Potassium permanganate, 160, 162, 163, 170. Poultry and eggs — back-yard, 11, 19. breeders, 20. club record, 330. clubs, 305. development of industry, 14. distribution of inlJ. S., 12, 13. farmers, commercial, 16. industry, development of, 14. industry, size and extent of, 11. keeping on the farm, 15. sections, intensive, 17. shows, 16, 259. standard-bred, 25. value of, 11. Premiums for exhibition fowls, 258, ,275. Preparing birds for exhibition, 258, 259. Prepotency, 48. Preserved eggs — keeping qualities of, 120. selhng, 125. using, 124,

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BREEDS AND VARIETIES 37 Figure 33. — Black Langshan male. Figure 34. — Black Langahan female. Figure 35. — Dark Brahma male. Figure 36. — Dark Brahma female.

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BREEDS AND VARIETIES 39 The three varieties are the Dark, White, and White Laced Red. As a meat breed the Dark Cornish especially have gained rapidly in popularity in this country. In appearance all varieties of the Cofnish differ materially from the other breeds of this class. They are close-feathered, the shanks being free from feathers, the body very thick and compact, and the breast and shoulders very broad and well devel- oped. The standard weights for the Dark and White Cornish are: cock 10 lbs., hen 73^^ lbs., cockerel 8 lbs., pullet 6 lbs. For the White Laced Red Cornish the weights are : cock 8 lbs., hen 6 lbs., cockerel 7 lbs., pullet 5 lbs. THE GAME, BANTAM AND MISCELLANEOUS CLASSES The breeds found in these classes are not so well adap- ted nor are they so gener- ally found on farms or on commercial poultry plants in this country as the breeds of the first three classes. It must not be supposed, however, that they are without value as producers of eggs and meat, for such is not the case. Many justly claim that no finer quahty of meat, and especially meat from the breast, can be obtained than that on a well finished Game. The Game and Game Bantam Class. The Game and Figure 39. Black-breasted Red Game cock.

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46 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION Variation. By using the same example as given above under heredity we may find in the offspring of the mating of White Plymouth Rocks 'one or more birds that are supe- rior to their parents in type, size, or production. On the other hand some of the offspring may be inferior to the parents in these qualities. This difference is called varia- tion. It is by taking advantage of this law of breeding and selecting the birds which show improvement in appearance, performance, and size over the parent stock that progress is made. Figure 46. — This White Leghorn hen pos- Figure 47 — A White Leghorn hen of poor sesses the standard requirements of standard qualities, which produced over her breed and produced over 200 eggs 200 eggs in a year, in one year. Sports, or mutations. By this term is meant the occur- rence of individuals that are characterized by being radically different in type or color from their own ancestors. An example of a "sport" can be cited in the case of the White Minorca which is claimed to have been produced from a mating of Black Minorcas. Reversion, or atavism, refers to the cropping out or appearance of characters in the offspring which are not found in the immediate parents but which were present in some of

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78 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION When several hens are sitting in the same room, they should be confined to their nests, allowing them to come off only once a day to receive feed and water. A good feed for sitting hens is whole corn or wheat, or both. If there are any that are not inchned to come off for themselves, they should be removed from the nests for feed and water. Hens usually return to the nest before there is any danger of the eggs' becoming chilled; but, if they do not do so within a reasonable time, they should be put back on the nest. The eggs and nest should be examined each day and when soiled should be cleaned by removing all broken eggs, and those that are soiled should be cleaned with a damp cloth. When the nest material is soiled, it should be removed and clean straw or hay added. Frequently eggs that are laid in the late winter and early spring are infertile. With this in mind it is advisable to set several hens at the same time and test the eggs after they have been incubated for 5 to 7 days. (See page 86 as to the method of testing eggs.) The infertile and dead-germ eggs should be removed and the fertile eggs put back under the hens. It is often possible then to put all the fertile eggs under fewer hens than were set originally and to reset the others. In this way a larger number of chicks can be hatched earlier than when the eggs are not tested. ARTIFICIAL INCUBATION INCUBATORS Types of incubators. The various makes and kinds of incubators on the market are either of the hot-air or hot- water types. Both "moisture" and "non-moisture" incu- bators are made in these various styles of machines. The smaller incubators are usually heated by burning kerosene oil, gas or electricity. The source of heat for most of the mammoth machines is supplied by a coal stove, although gas and kerosene oil are used to some extent. In a few

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NATURAL AND ARTIFICIAL BROODING 101 exception of a small door through which the chicks pass from one room to the other. The small brooder of 50-chick capacity is gradually being replaced by larger brooder stoves of from 250 to 500- chick capacity. Hovers are used either in continuous brooder houses or small colony houses. Outdoor brooders are used with satisfactory results under most weather conditions. Often the capacity of brooders and hovers is overestimated and experience has shown that from half to two thirds of the chicks esti- mated for the brooder or hover will usually do much better. Until one has had consid- erable experience, it is best not to brood over 250 chicks in one flock. When a lamp is used as the source of heat for the brooder, care should be taken to keep the wick and burner perfectly clean or else trouble will result. A new wick for the brooder lamp after each second lot of chicks are brooded is a good investment. Brooder lamps and stoves should be in- spected several times a day to see if they are in working order. The brooder lamp should not be filled too full of oil, as the heat of the lamp when lighted will expand the oil in the bowl and may cause it to overflow and catch fire. Brooder stoves. Brooder stoves and separate individual hovers heated by coal, distillate oil and kerosene are coming Figure 103. — A coal-heated colony stove brooder house, 12x14 feet with a capacity of 500 chicks.

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CHAPTER VI FEEDING AND CARE OF CHICKS AND GROW- ING STOCK In addition to having the chicks hatched early, it is most important to keep the chicks growing, so that they will reach maturity and start laying before cold weather. Con- sidering this fact, it is well, therefore, to keep in mind the factors that are essential for the prop- er growth and develop- ment of the young stock. FEEDING AND CARE OF YOUNG CHICKS The first feed. It is advised that the chicks should not be fed until they are 36 to 48 hours old. The yolk of the egg which is absorbed j ust be- fore the chick is hatched furnishes all the nourishment required during this time. It is very necessary that the yolk of the egg be thoroughly digested before the first feed is given. Many beginners, not understanding this fact, and who are anxious to feed the young chicks, give them feed before they are ready for it. Such practice frequently results in bowel trouble and very often in the death of the chick. It is this provision of nature for the first food of the chick that makes it possible to ship newly hatched chicks considerable distances without feed or water. At the start it is advisable to feed five Figure 107. — The yolk of the egg just before it is absorbed by the chick. 108

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POULTRY H0VBE8 AND APPLIANCES 135 Figure 130. — -Laying a concrete floor in a continuous house. Crete. Such a foundation should be built deep enough not to be affected by frost, to hold the buildings substantially, and of sufficient height above the ground level to prevent the entrance of water. An average height of 8 to 12 inches above the level of the ground should be sufficient to in- sure a dry floor. When a concrete foundation is used, the floor of the house should likewise be made of concrete. Figure 131. — Part of the concrete floor completed. Such a floor is permanent and easily kept clean.

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142 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION or burlap in cold weather. (See Figure 126.) In the South more open space may be given to the front of the house and a curtain provided where necessary for cool nights. (See Figure 128.) The front of the house should be high enough so that the opening or windows will permit the sun to shine well back into the house during the winter. The walls of the house may consist of one or two thick- nesses of boards, depending upon the climate. In an ex- tremely cold section the rear wall of the house may be built of either two thicknesses of boards covered on the inside with building or roofing paper, or built with double walls with a dead air space between, the inside wall being covered with roofing paper. In sections of moderate cli- mate one thickness of boards will suffice and, when built of unmatched lumber, the cracks should be covered with narrow strips to prevent drafts. Partitions. In long continuous houses, whether they are divided into pens or not, there should be a solid parti- tion from the back of the house to the front part of the dropping board and extending to the ceiling at intervals of from 20 to 30 feet. (See Figure 144.) This arrangement eUminates the possibility of drafts' affecting the birds at night while on the roost. When the house is divided into pens, the lower 3 feet of the partition should be solid to pre- vent the males in the different pens from fighting and the other part composed of wire netting. Solid partitions should be built across the entire house at a distance of every Figure 139. — The framework of a colony house shown in Figure 122. Note how the framework is braced to prevent racking when the house is moved.

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144 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION Figure 141. Cross-section of Colony House shown in Figure 122. This house has a capacity of 25 hens. 40 to 50 feet, depending on the length of the building, in order to prevent drafts. Such partitions closer than this will interfere with the circulation of the especially in hot weather. INTERIOR ARRANGEMENTS The interior fixtures should in most instances be built so that they can be readily removed and cleaned, and be also inex- pensive and simple in construction. Roosts. The roosts are placed in the rear of the building and all the roosts should be on the same level, so that the birds will not crowd and fight to get on the high- est roost at night. The roosts should be from 5 to 8 inches above the drop- ping board and so constructed that they can be lifted up in V one section to facilitate clean- in (See Figure 147.) Satisfac- tory roosts can be made from 2 x2 or 2 X 4 inch scantlings with the upper edge slightly rounded ^'«"^= 142.-End elevation of colony house shown

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178 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION Figure 177. — A large common hen louse. Greatly enlarged. much more lasting. The time to use either of these methods is early in the spring before the mites have a chance to increase in number and annoy the fowls. Should mites ap- pear later in the summer, the spray- ing should be repeated. LICE The common chicken louse is larger than a mite and is pale yellow in color. It differs from the mite also in that it spends most of its time on the body of the fowl, although sometimes it is found in the nests. The louse lays its eggs at the base of the fluffy feathers on the fowl, especially around the vent. From 6 to 10 days are required for these eggs to hatch. Lice do not suck the blood from the fowls as do the mites, but annoy the birds by feeding on scales and secretions of the skin, and parts of the feathers. Remedy. Owing to the fact that hce spend the greater part of their time on the fowls the most effective treatment is that which is applied directly to the birds. The cleanliness of the Figure 178.— Dusting fowls by hand is espec- >ipn Viniitsp i<5 pniiallv fi<? lally recommended for sitting hens and fowls nen nOUSe is equaiiy as th^t are very much infested with lice.

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FEEDING FOR EGO- PRODUCTION 201 of corn, wheat, oats, and barley. Kaffir corn and buckwheat are also used, but these are not so generally available or so widely grown as corn, wheat, oats, and barley and usually cost more. Corn and wheat are the two best grains and are similar in value as poultry feeds. On account of the hulls and higher fiber content oats and barley are not as satisfactory as corn or wheat. Rye is not fed to any great extent and does not seem to be relished by fowls. Slightly damaged grains or wheat screenings sometimes can be pur- chased at a reduced price to an advantage, their value de- pending entirely upon their quality, condition, and cost. Ordinarily only sound grains in good condition should be fed to poultry and moldy grains or by-products should never be used. Mash feeds. The most common mill feeds and by- products fed in mash form are corn meal, wheat bran, wheat middhngs, and beef scrap. Corn chop, corn and cob meal, gluten meal, ground oats, and low grade wheat flour may also be added or substituted to advantage. A mash composed of several of these by-products together with meat scrap should be fed in addition to the scratch grains as discussed on page 213. It should be remembered that a highly compUcated mash consisting of a large variety of ground grains is not necessary to secure satisfactory results, for such results can be secured from a mor-e simple mash containing 3 or 4 grain by-products together with meat scrap. Commercial feeds. Quite a variety of commercial mixtures both of scratch grains and of ground grains are prepared for poultry. The value of such commercial feed depends upon its composition and the quality of the grain used in its preparation. When grains can not be grown or when only a comparatively small number of fowls are kept, it is usually better to purchase commercial mixed

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208 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION by multiplying the fat by 2^. (Fat has 2^ times as much heat value as nitrogen-free extract.) Up to this time sufficient experiments have not been carried on in feeding poultry to determine the amount of various feeds that are actually digested by poultry, as has been done with cattle. The total composition of feed stuffs, therefore, will be used in computing the nutritive ratio rather than the percentage of digestible nutrients. The nutritive ratio, as will be given below, will not include the fiber content, as very httle fiber is digested by poultry. The composition of the various poultry feeds is shown in Table II. How to determine the nutritive ratio. The following Figure 206. — Various styles of drinking fountains. will illustrate how a nutritive ratio is determined. Ration No. 3 as found on page 212 will be selected for this purpose, as it consists of but four ingredients, and the simphcity of its make-up will enable one to see how a nutritive ratio is computed more quickly perhaps than a complicated ration. Referring to Table II will be found the number of pounds or per cent of the several feed constituents in 100 lbs. of each of the feeds Usted. In order to get the number of pounds or per cent of these constituents in 2 lbs. of cracked corn, the per cent of protein, nitrogen-free extract, and fat as given in Table II for cracked corn is divided by 100 to get the amount in 1 lb., which is then multiplied by 2 lbs. This same procedure is followed out in each of the other 3 in-

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TURKEYS, DVCK8, GEESE, GUINEA FOWLS 235 Figure 225. — Wild turkey male. age of this variety is pure white with the exception of the beard, which is black. The standard weights are: Adult cock 28 lbs., yearling cock 24 lbs., cockerel 20 lbs., hen 18 lbs., pullet 14 lbs. Bourbon Red. This variety is of a deep brownish-red color, with white wings and tail. The standard weights are: Adult cock 30 lbs., yearling cock 25 lbs., cockerel 20 lbs., hen 18 lbs., pullet 12 lbs. Black. The plumage color of this variety is of a lus-

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242 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION It is most extensively found on commercial duck farms that make a specialty of producing "green" ducks, that is, ducklings which are grown rapidly and marketed when from 8 to 12 weeks old and weigh from 43^ to 6 pounds apiece. The White Pekin is the only variety of this breed, it having a yellow skin, and white or creamy-white plumage. Figure 234. — Pekin drake and duck. The standard weights for Pekin ducks are: Adult drake 9 lbs., young drake 8 lbs., adult duck 8 lbs., young duck 7 lbs. Aylesbury. This breed which is likewise white in color is quite similar to the Pekin, the standard weights of both of these breeds being identical. This breed, which is a native of England, is quite popular in that country as a producer of duck meat. Muscovy. The Muscovy is found more on general farms than on commercial duck farms, owing to the fact that they are not so well suited to highly intensive conditions or to

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244 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION variety is an even shade of rich fawn buff with the excep- tion of the head and the upper part of the neck in the drake which are of a seal-brown color. The standard weights are one pound hghter in each class than in the Pekin. Swedish. The Swedish duck, or, as it is sometimes called, the Blue Swedish, is quite similar to the Pekin in type, but smaller. The plumage of the Blue Swedish is a steel blue in all sections except that it has a white bib on the neck Figure 237. — Fawn and White Runner drake. Figure 23S,— Blue Swedish drake. and the two main flight feathers are pure white. The standard weights are: Adult drake 8 lbs., young drake 63^ lbs., adult duck 7 lbs., young duck 5}^ lbs. THE EGG CLASS Indian Runner. There is but one standard variety in- cluded in this class, that being the Indian Runner, or, as it is sometimes called, the Runner Duck. While this breed is noted for its high egg production, at the same time, having a yellow skin, it makes good broilers when weighing from

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CHAPTER XVI MARKETING THE PRODUCT To the farmer or poultryman who plans on securing part or all of his income from poultry the marketing of the prod- uct is of considerable importance. As with other food com- modities, the marketing of poultry and eggs has made great strides in recent years and as a result has developed into a most essential branch of the industry. In order to secure the best returns for his product the poultryman or farmer must know the market demands as well as how, where, and when to sell such products. Not only is the quality of the product essential, but an attractive appearance is of equal importance. In like manner the requirements as to the manner of dressing and packing vary in different markets, so that such facts should be considered in order to secure the best returns. There are several different methods or combinations of methods through which poultry products are marketed. In general these methods can be classified as follows: From the producer to any of the following agencies: the country buyer or huckster, the country store, the wholesaler, com- mission merchant, retail store, hotel, restaurant, or to the consumer direct. It frequently happens, especially in re- mote sections of the country, that the producer sells to the huckster, or to the country store, from which place they are sent to the wholesaler, commission merchant, or jobber, in the city, and finally disposed of through the retail store to the consumer. The advisability of the producer's selling direct to the consumer or through the various mediums as given should be decided in individual cases, depending on market conditions and extent of the product to be sold. 278

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MARKETING THE PRODUCT 30J used daily. The use in moderate quantities of sand, saw- dust, fine dry loam or road dust, or, preferably, mixtures of these with a small quantity of land plaster, acid phos- phate or potash salts, is recommended. Sifted coal ashes may also be used as an absorbent, but wood ashes or lime should not be mixed with the manure, as they are likely to cause the loss of its most valuable fertilizing constituents: namely, nitrogen (ammonia). The Utter from the poultry Figure 290. — A specially constructed car for shipping live fowls to market. house may be mixed with the manure, which increases the bulk, but reduces the value per pound of the manure and makes it more difficult to apply to the soil, except where it is to be broadcasted and plowed in. The litter, however, is of much value to the land. Poultry manure is more valuable than the manure of any other common farm animal. A ton of poultry manure con- tains from 0.80 to 2.00 per cent nitrogen; 0.50 to 2.00 per cent phosphoric acid, and from 0.80 to 0.90 per cent potash, depending upon the dryness of the manure, and is valued at from $10.00 to $15.00. It is particularly well adapted to gardening, and poultry raisers should either use it on

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308 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION SUGGESTED CONSTITUTION AND BY-LAWS Article I. This club shall be known as the Boys' and Girls' Poultry Club. Article II. The objects of the club shall be: (1) To obtain a greater knowledge of the value of raising and breeding standard-bred poultry. (2) To teach better methods of marketing first-class poultry and eggs of uniform quality, and, (3) To learn how to carry on hatch- ing, rearing, feeding, and housing of fowls. Article III. Any boy or girl between the ages of ten and eighteen years can become a member of the club on signing the membership roll and on agreeing to set at least one setting of eggs from standard- bred stock during the hatching season, and foUowmg instructions. Article IV. Members shall not pay any dues or assessments other than those actually necessary to carry on the club activities. Such dues or assessments shall not exceed a year. Article V. The club as an organization agrees to hold a meeting at least once a month and all members of the organization are expected to attend. Article VI. Each member must study the instructions sent out by the club organizer and agree to furnish reports when requested to do so. The officers of the club shall be a president, a vice-president, and a secretary and treasurer. Article VII. The president or secretary has a right to caU a meeting of the club at any time. The annual meeting shall take place as soon after November 1st of each year as possible. The officers for the ensuing year shall be elected at that meeting and shall hold office until their successors are elected. Article VIII. Each member is expected to exhibit every fall or winter several fowls of his or her own raising, and one dozen of eggs at the state or county fair or some other suitable place, such as a school or community show. > Article IX. All prizes on live poultry must be decided in accord- ance with the standards of the breeds described in the American Stan- dard of Perfection, published by the American Poultry Association. Plans for starting the actual work. One of the most important phases of this work is that of providing ways and means by which the members can get their start. When this problem is solved, the club can be considered well under way. Generally speaking, there are two methods that can be followed. The first and least expensive one is that of hatching chickens from eggs purchased from a reliable breeder of standard-bred stock. The second plan is that of buying several hens and a male bird. This method, although pre- senting a larger money investment, ordinarily brings imme- diate returns through the production of eggs. In either

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APPENDIX

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APPENDIX 337 LIST OF STATE AGRICULTURAL INSTITUTIONS Alabama Polytechnic Institute and the Agricultural Experiment Station, Auburn, Ala. Arizona State College of Agriculture and the Agricultural Experiment Station, Tuscon, Arizona. Arkansas State College of Agriculture and the Agricultural Experiment Station, Fayetteville, Ark. California State College of Agriculture and the Agricultural Experiment Station, of the University of California, Berkeley, California. Poultry Experiment Plant, Davis, Cal. Colorado State College of Agriculture and the Agricultural Experiment Station, Fort Collins, Colo. Connecticut Agricultural College and the Storrs Agricultural Exper- iment Station, Storrs, Conn. Delaware College and Agricultural Experiment Station, Newark^ Del. Florida State College of Apiculture and the Agricultural Expermaent Station of the University of Florida, Gainesville, Fla. Georgia State College of Agriculture, Athens, Ga. Georgia Experi- ment Station, Experiment, Ga. Idaho College of Agriculture and the Agricultural Experiment Station of the University of Idaho, Moscow, Idaho. Illinois College of Agriculture and the Agricultural Experiment Sta- tion of the University of Illinois, Urbana, 111. Indiana-Purdue University (School of Agriculture, the Agricultural Experiment Station), La Fayette, Ind. Iowa State College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts and the Agri- cultural Experiment Station, Ames, Iowa. Kansas State Agricultural College and the Agricultural Experiment Station, Manhattan, Kansas. Kentucky College of Agriculture and the Agricultural Experiment Station of the University of Kentucky, Lexington, Ky. Louisiana State University and Agricultural and Mechanical College and the State Experiment Station, Baton Rouge, La. Maine College of Agriculture and the Agricultural Experiment Station of the University of Maine, Orono, Maine. Maryland State College of Agriculture and the Agricultural Experiment Station, College Park, Md. Massachusetts Agricultural College and the Agricultural Experi- ment Station, Amherst, Mass. Michigan Agricultural College and the Agricultural Experiment Station, East Lansing, Mich. Minnesota State School of Agriculture and the Agricultural Experi- ment Station, University Farm, St. Paul, Minn. Mississippi Agricultural and Mechanical College and Agricultural Exfjeriment Station, Agricultural College, Miss. Missouri College of Agriculture and the Agricultural Experiment Station of the University of Missouri, Columbia, Mo. State Poultry Experiment Station, Mountain Grove, Mo. Montana State College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts and the Agricultural Experiment Station, Bozeman, Montana.

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342 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION SCALE OF POINTS Disqualifications. — Decidedly crooked breasts, crook- ed backs, or wry tails. Health and Vigor ; • ■ ■ ;. ; ■ ' The bird must be free from disease or from any indication of liaving been affected with dis- ease. It must also show strong constitution and great vigor as indicated by bright red comb and wattles, and by full, prominent bright eyes, by general alertness, and by bright, lustrous plum- age.* Males should be decidedly masculine. Avoid females showing masculine appearance. Head, 5. Shape of Head Should be short, deep, and broad. Face, comb, and wattles Should be bright red. * (Dark red approach- ing black indicates poor condition.) Wattles medium size. Comb small to medium, firmly set on head. Avoid lopped combs in those breeds where they are supposed to be upright. Eye Large, full, bright. (Sunken or dull eye denotes lack of vigor and poor vitality.) Beak Short, strong, curved. Neck. body. Wings. Medium short and stout in proportion to the Perfect Score Strong, medium size, neatly folded, and held firmly in place. (Avoid breeding from slipped or twisted winged birds.) Body, 60. General Shape. — -Body should show good length, breadth, and depth, and be well fleshed throughout. Breadth of Body Should be broad at shoulders, breadth ex- tending downward well back to hips. Depth of Body Should be deep from shoulder to front of keel and extending well back. Back Score Allowed 16 20 *Allowance should be made for fowls in molt. (Sec Chapter XIII.)

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344 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION JUDGE SECRETARY SUPPLEMENTARY SCORE CARD FOR CASE LOTS (For Values in detail see Score Card for Exhibition and for Commer- cial Eggs.) (Name of Show or Association) (Date, Month, Days and Year Show Is Held) EXHIBITOR ADDRESS CLASS ENTRY NO COLOR WEIGHT OZ CASE-LOT SCORE CARD When judging eggs in Case Lots the same values are allotted as in smaller lots, as shown on Score Card for Exhibition and for Com- mercial Eggs; but in order to lessen the detail a number of the items have been added together to meet the requirements of Graders and Inspectors of Commercial Eggs. JUDGE SECRETARY Notice: — ^The score cards as given herein for exhibition and com- mercial eggs as well as for eggs m case lots are copyrighted by the American Poultry Association. Permission for their publication has been granted by this Association. Copies of these score cards may be obtained from the Secretary of the American Poultry Association.

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NATURAL AND ARTIFICIAL BROODING 95 Identifying chickens. All the chicks should be toe punched or marked before they are transferred o to the brooder or brood coop. Such identification will enable one to tell their age and breeding after they "^' are mature. There has recently come into practice a system of permanently identifying chickens, that is known ^• as wing banding. When this method is employed a small numbered " band is placed on the leg of the chick soon after it is hatched. When ^ about 4 weeks old, a slit is made with a knife in the web of the wing 8. as shown in Figure 96. The band is then removed from the leg and 9- inserted in this slit and closed, care being taken not to close the ^O- band so tight as to pinch the skin. Bands properly placed in the wings // of chickens will in most cases re- main there throughout the life of <?. the birds. By keeping a record of the numbers of these bands a com- /s. plete history, including time of hatching and breeding of the birds /<f may be kept. Brood coops. Brood coops for /S. the hen and chicks should be made so that they can be closed at night /ff. to keep out cats, rats, and other Figure 95.— Different combin'a- animals. Such coops should be ^IpJe^e^ShUclia^^^^

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NATURAL AND ARTIFICIAL BROODING 97 in sections of the country that have extremely cool weather in the early spring. The center slat in the front is removable, sliding into a small wire staple at the top and dropping into a square hole at the bottom. The slats are made of strips one inch square. The long narrow door at the top in the front of the coop is kept open for ventilation except in cool weather or on cool nights. This opening as well as the ventilators mentioned above should be covered with a % in. mesh wire netting. Confine the mother hen. The mother hen should be confined to the brood coop until the chicks are weaned, the Figure 98. — New lumber need not necessarily be used in the construction of such coops for they can easily be made from dry-goods boxes or other available material. chicks being allowed free range after they are a few days old. Hens that are allowed unlimited range and have to forage for feed for themselves and chicks often take them through wet grass where the chicks may get chilled and die or become lost. Then, too, most of the feed the chicks secure when the mother hen is not confined goes to keep up heat of the body and to produce energy. The feed consumed by those that are with the hen that is confined to the coop produces

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112 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION Figure 109. — Dry-mash hopper for the growing stoclc. The food requirements for the growing chicks may be divided as follows: grain feed, dry mash, sour milk, green feed, and water. Grain feed. In addition to such feed as chicks on free range are likely to find, the following mixture should either be scattered on the ground near their house or during rainy weather inside their house in the morning and evening. A satisfactory ration is as follows: 6 parts by weight of cracked corn 2 parts by weight of wheat 2 parts by weight of hulled oats When available Kaffir corn or rolled or hulled barley may be substituted for hulled oats. In localities where hulled oats, Kaffir corn or rolled barley can not be obtained Figure 110. — ^Showing construotion of the dry-mash hopper.

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POULTRY HOUSES AND APPLIANCES 131 in one house is greater. (4) A greater number of birds can be housed on a smaller area of land in this system, when fences are used to keep them confined, than with the colony house system. The disadvantages of this system are: (1) The added cost for fences, if the fowls are to be confined within a given area. (2) The added cost of feed due to the fact that the fowls, if yarded, have to be supphed with practically all the feed required. (3) The danger of spreading disease through- out the entire flock is greater than when the flock is divided Figure 125. — A semi-monitor continuous poultry house suitable for a small farm flock, in sections where the winters are severe. It will be noticed that this house has a concrete foundation. into smaller units. (4) The possibility of the yards' becom- ing polluted through continued usage. For the general farm the colony house system is usually recommended in that the houses may be moved about from place to place, thereby giving the fowls free range and other natural advantages. The continuous house system is usually found on com- mercial poultry farms or on general farms with large flocks.

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146 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION Mnm i li ^ 5 ■«;V*>V5!V'*>1^1 Y p ^ illv^ ^4 ^ ^l^■^^ fti * ! 5!^^ Ill •^ * f i 111 Its i Figure 144. — Partition and cross-section of laying house as shown in Figure 124.

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148 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION Figure 147. — A good interior arrangement of a long laying house, showing roosts, dropping boards, nests underneath and wire coop at end for confining broody hens. One section of the roost is shown elevated to facilitate cleaning the dropping boards. The nests allow the hen to enter from the rear, the front being opened to permit cleaning the nests and gathering the eggs. Note ventilators in the back of house and the abundance of sunlight which insures a dry house and healthy fowls. Figure 148.— Interior view of colony house as shown in Figure 122 with tran nests placed at the end of the building. A ventilator such as is shown in the rear of the house should be provided and kept open in hot weather

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182 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION runs, especially an earth floor in the poultry house or the ground beneath the poultry house, when the floor is raised above the ground, with a solution of salt and water. This keeps the ground moist and prevents the fleas from breeding. POULTRY TICKS, OR BLUE BUGS These insect pests are likewise common in some of the southwestern and southern states and are extremely harm- ful to poultry and pigeons. The habits of these insects are much the same as those of red, or gray mites, as the adult insect feeds on the body of the birds at night and during the day hides in the cracks and crevices of the house. The eggs of the blue bug are laid in the cracks and crevi- ces of the poultry house and after hatching the young bugs crawl out and Figure 182.— Blue Bug. (Greatly enlarged.) attach themSclveS tO the fowl where they remain until they become full of blood. They then drop off and develop to adult size, after which they attack the fowls only at night, spending the day in the cracks and other hiding places about the house. "Blue bugs" are about the size of a bed bug and are much more harmful and more difficult to kill than either lice or mites. Remedy. Various means may be employed in the extermination of this pest. Change of quarters. When the poultry house or coops become infested, move the birds to other quarters for a week or ten days. During this period the young bugs on the birds become filled with blood and fall off. The fowls should then be returned to their former house.

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CAPONS AND GAPONIZING 197 5. An interesting comparison can be made by weighing a cajjon and a cockerel, both of which were hatched at the same time, both being of the same breed and variety and in so far as possible both being raised under practically the same conditions. In such cases where the capon does not greatly exceed the cockerel in weight, the superior meat qualities of the capon will more than overbalance the value of the capon as compared with the cockerel. REFERENCES "Capons and Caponizing," Rob R. Slocum, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin, No. 849. Note: — Caponizing instruments are manufactured and may be se- cured from either of the following: S. K. Burdin, 120 Stibbard Ave., Toronto, Canada; Geo. Beuoy, Cedar Vale, Kansas; Geo. P. Pilling & Son Co,, Arch & 23rd Sts., Philadelphia, Pa,

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212 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION be substituted on the basis of their comparative analysis, as shown in Table II, provided the meat scrap or animal pro- tein feeds are not entirely replaced by cotton-seed meal or other of the vegetable protein feeds. The change from one feed to another should be made gradually, as sudden changes may decrease the egg production considerably. Ration No. 1 Mash Scratch Mixture 16 pounds corn meal 8 pounds cracked corn 6J^ pounds meat scrap 8 pounds wheat 1 pound bran 8 pounds oats 1 pound middlings Ration No. 2 2 pounds barley, or corn, meal 2 pounds cracked corn 1 pound bran 1 pound oats 1 pound middlings 1 pound wheat or barley 1 pound meat or fish scrap Ration No. 3 (Wheatless Ration) 3 pounds corn meal 2 pounds cracked corn 1 pound meat scrap 1 pound oats Ration No. 4 9 pounds corn meal 10 pounds cracked corn 5 pounds middlings 5 pounds wheat 4 pounds bran 5 pounds oats 2 pounds cotton-seed or gluten meal 5 pounds barley 2 pounds meat scrap 2 per cent bone meal Ration No. 5 1 pound corn meal 2 pounds cracked corn 1 pound bran 1 pound wheat ^ pound meat scrap 1 pound oats 1 pound middlings 1 pound barley 1 pound ground oats Ration No. 6 3 pounds corn meal 2 pounds cracked corn 1 pound bran 1 pound wheat 1 pound middlings 1 pound oats H pound meat scrap Feed with table scraps or cooked vegetables.

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CULLING THE FLOCK 231 Figure 222. — This hen has a spread of three fingers between the pelvic bones, indicating that she is in laying condition. laying the ovary and oviduct are of greater size and require more room. To provide this extra room the distance in- creases from the end of the keel, or breast bone, to the pel- vic bones with a consequent increase in the size of the ab- domen. In the smaller breeds, such as the Leghorn, a spread of three or more fingers indicates that the hen is in a laying condition. In the larger breeds such as the Plymouth Rock, a hen that is in laying condition should have a spread of four or more fingers. A spread of less than this indicates that the hen is not in a laying condition. Flexibility of abdomen. In a good producer the abdo- men is soft and flexible, owing to its increased size, together with the fact that there is less tendency at this time to ac- cumulate fat. (Figure 224.) As laying ceases the abdo- men becomes smaller, contrac- ted and feels harder and less flexible. When culling the flock, the fact should be kept in mind that it is safer to de- pend upon the agreement of a combination of several of the characteristics as mentioned ^tZln!!^J^len^r^!JZl'J- *ierein rather than to select rtfanTtWeti°efgo%1'|?oducrS: by any one point alone.

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246 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION The Toulouse. This is the largest of the standard breeds of geese, the standard weights being: Adult gander 26 lbs., young gander 20 lbs., adult goose 20 lbs., young goose 16 lbs. The color of the plumage is dark gray on black, gradually shading to a Ught gray, edged with white on the breast and to white on the abdomen. The Toulouse is a com- paratively good layer, producing from 20 to 35 eggs a year, grows rapidly, and makes a good market fowl. The Emden. The plumage of this breed is pure white. It is slightly smaller than the Toulouse, the standard weights be- ing: Adult gander 20 lbs., young gan- der 18 lbs., adult goose 18 lbs., young Figure 239.— Toulouse goose. gOOSe 16 Ibs. As a table fowl this breed is quite similar to the Toulouse. When picked, however, it makes a better appearance than the Toulouse, owing to the fact that it has white pin feathers. This breed grows rapidly and matures early. Chinese. There are two varieties of Chinese geese, the Brown and the White. The Brown is of a grayish brown color, somewhat lighter on the under side of the body, with a brown head and dark brown or black knob on top of the head and a black bill. The White Chinese goose

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248 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION mental purposes. It resembles the Canadian goose in shape, stands higher, and weighs 2 pounds less in each class. The plumage on the back and body is gray and black with the lower part of the body a pale buff or yellow color, penciled with black. The breast is chestnut and gray and the tail is black. The wings are of a glossy black with white shoulders. MANAGEMENT Geese can be raised in small numbers suc- cessfully and at a profit on many farms, espe- cially on low rough pasture land having a supply of water. Geese need a house only dur- ing cold or stormy weather during which time an open shed should be provided. The period of incuba- tion of goose eggs varies from 28 to 30 days. Ordinarily goose eggs are set under hens so that the geese will con- tinue laying eggs for a longer period. Geese that become broody can usually be broken up by confining them in a slat-bottomed coop for from 2 to 4 days. During this time water can be provided, but no feed should be given. One gander is usually mated to 1 or 2 geese. GUINEAS Guineas are becoming quite popular as a table fowl and especially as a substitute for partridges, quail, and pheasants. Figure 241. — White Chinese goose.

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282 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION dirty nests, and only clean eggs should be marketed. Gathering eggs. Gath- er eggs at least once a day in cool weather and twice daily in hot, freez- ing, or rainy weather. Eggs from stolen nests should not be marketed, as they are of unknown age and quahty, and should be used at home. Umformity of product. Figure 274. — A stolen nest in the hay loft. tt -c i ■ n U niiorm products usually command the best price. Eggs of a uniform color and size can be produced by keeping one breed or variety of stand- ard-bred fowls. (See Figure 273.) When catering to a market that prefers white-shelled eggs, keep some one of the varieties of the egg breeds, such as the Leghorns, etc. If, on the other hand, the market prefers and pays a premium for brown-shelled eggs, keep some one variety of the general-purpose breeds, such as the Plymouth Rocks, Wyandottes, etc. Storing. After the eggs are collected, store them in a cool dry place before send- ing them to market. When storing eggs, be careful to keep them away from onions, kero- sene, or other substances having an odor, as this odor is apt to be ab- sorbed by the eggs. _, J . TV T 1 i Figure 275. — Eggs from a stolen neat under (j r a d 1 n g . JMarket the com crib, use such eggs at home.

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MARKETING THE PRODUCT 297 with other varieties of poultry. After killing all the feathers are plucked with the exception of those of the head; and the crop cut open and all feed removed. A more satisfactory price can usually be secured if the dressed squabs are graded according to size and quaUty. Dark-colored and small-size squabs are apt to lower the price of an entire shipment of mixed squabs. They are usually packed for shipment in cracked ice with paraffin paper between each layer of ice and squabs. KILLING, PICKING, AND SCALDING Killing. Fowls that are to be killed before being sent to market should be deprived of feed for a period of at least 12 hours before Idlling. Best method of killing. The old method of kilhng by removing the head with an ax or hatchet is to be discour- aged in that it detracts considerably from the appearance and affects the keeping quaUties to a certain extent. By far the most satisfactory method of Idlling is that described as follows: Suspend the fowl by means of a cord around the feet. Grasp the head of the fowl with the left hand, force the mouth open, and with a knife having a sharp point make a diagonal cut, severing the arteries in the back of the throat, which are back of the base of the jaw. (See Figure 287.) The point of the knife is then plunged through the groove in the roof of the mouth to the brain. This causes paralysis, loosens the feathers, and allows them to be easily picked. The cutting of the arteries causes the fowl to bleed freely from the mouth. Dry-picking. To make the best appearance when placed on the market, the feathers should be dry-picked in such a manner that the skin will not be torn. Immediately after kilUng and while the bird is still bleeding the feathers should be removed. The method of plucking the feathers is to first remove the tail feathers, then the large wing feathers

biodiversity-heritage-library

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BUSINESS MANAGEMENT 331 ADVERTISING Many of the most successful poultrjonen have built up their business as the result of consistent advertising in some form or another. There is no question that advertising, when properly planned and carried on, is of considerable value and a good investment. When planning to adver- tise such products as are for sale, these facts should be con- sidered. The advertisement should be attractive, so as to catch the eye, should be brief and to the point, stating facts in simple language, and should in no way misrepresent the products offered for sale. The fact should also be kept in mind that the advertisement should be so placed as to be seen by persons that are interested or desirous of purchas- ing that which is for sale. What and when to advertise. Ordinarily the only prod- ucts offered for sale by those keeping poultry are breeding stock, eggs for hatching, and day-old chicks. It is advis- able to advertise such stock just preceding and during the period of greatest demand, which is usually during the late fall, winter, and early spring. In the faU some poultrymen endeavor to dispose of surplus cockerels that are suitable for breeding purposes. A special advertisement stating this ^ fact might prove profitable and enable one to secure better prices for desirable cockerels as breeders than when sold as broilers earlier in the season. It is not usual to advertise table fowls or eggs for consumption, as such products can ordinarily be disposed of through the regular commercial channels at satisfactory prices, and, therefore, nothing is gained by advertising, unless it is desired to build up a special retail trade. Again, many poultrymen and farmers make a practice of advertising table fowls and eggs as well as breeding stock and eggs for hatching on a neat attractive bulletin board so placed that it can be seen by those passing on the public road in front of their farms.

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BUSINESS MANAGEMENT 333 plain stationery. Likewise typewritten letters make a bet- ter impression than those written in longhand. A record should be kept of all inquiries and a second and third fol- low-up letter written within a reasonable length of time, if you do not hear again from the party making the inquiry. In your reply do not appear unduly persistent, but state such facts as will stimulate confidence on the part of the purchaser. In such letters inquire if the party received your first letter and if there is any additional information that you can furnish him. Likewise inquiry might be made as to the reason, if any, why the order was not placed with you, as it is your desire to please prospective purchasers. When advertising in two or more papers, a record should be kept, if possible, as to the number of inquiries received from the advertisement in each paper. This will assist you in determining which paper is the best advertising medi- um for your purposes. Key each advertisement. Making shipments. As soon as an order is received, acknowledge it and thank the purchaser for it, notifying the party as to the date that the shipment will be made, so that some idea may be obtained as to the time of arrival. When shipping live birds, make every effort to so plan the shipment that it will not be held in the express office over Sunday. For instance, shipment should not be made on Saturday, if there is any possibility of its arriving at its destination on Sunday, and consequently being held in the express office until Mon- day morning. QUESTIONS 1. Of what importance and value is the keeping of accounts and records? 2 What is the value of keeping a monthly statement sheet for each month in the year, showing the amount of money spent and the amount received. 3. For what purpose primarily should the feed record form as given herein be used? 4. How can one determine the average egg production per hen during the month?

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346 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION SCALE OF POINTS FOR JUDGING BREEDS OF THE AMERI- CAN, MEDITERRANEAN, AND ASIATIC CLASSES EXHIBITOR ENTRY NO CLASS BREED VARIETY Cook, Cockerel, Hen or Pullet BAND NO

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348 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION A Guide for the Selection pf Good Producing Hens and the Culling of Poor Producers *Pelvic bones are the two bones which can be felt as points on each side of the vent. Form A. H. 260 issued by Animal Husbandry Division, Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture. Washington, D. C.

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INDEX 365 Turkeys — Black, 235. breeding of, 238. Bronze, 234. Bourbon Red, 235. management of, 237. marketing of, 295. method of catching and hold- ing, 272. mortality and disease of, 239. Narragansett, 236. preparing for exhibition, 272. Slate, 236. White Holland, 234. Turpentine, oil of, 168. Uniformity of eggs, 282. Uterus, or shell gland, 199. Variation, 46. Varieties and breeds, 22. Variety, definition of, 23. Vaseline, 161, 165, 167. Vegetable protein feeds, 202, 212. Vegetables, cooked, 212, 214. Velvet-bean meal, 203. Vent color as influencing pro- duction, 228. condition of, in hens, 229. Ventilation, 151 during incubation, 81, 85. Vigor and health, 54. lack of, 225. Volume and weight of feeds, 347. Walls, 142. Washing birds, 266. Water — for chickens, 111, 115. for layers, 205. for the breeding pen, 64. ' for washing birds, 268. fountains, 150. glass, 122. m feeds, 206. lime for preserving eggs, 123. percentage of in eggs, 205. percentage of in fowls, 205. Watery eggs, 286. Weight- disqualifying, of breeders, 55, 263. of eggs, 345. of parcel post shipments, 289. Weights and volume of feeds, 347. Wheat— as green feed, 203. bran, 109, 110, 201, 212, 291, 295. flour, 201, 295. middlings, 110, 201, 212, 291, 295. screenings, 201. White Comb, or favus, 166. White diarrhea, 168. White guinea, 249. White Holland turkey, 234. White King pigeons, 251. White of egg — quality of, 345. White-shelled eggs — breeds that lay, 30, 349. testing, 86. Whitewash, 155, 177. Wild, or Canadian, geese, 247. Windows, 141. "Wind puffs", 194. Wing clipping, 154. disqualifications of, 262. Wing banding chickens, 95. Wings, defective, 57. of breeders, 57. Worms, gape, 170. intestinal, 170. Wry tail, 58, 59. Wyandotte — as capons, 187. characteristics of, 27. standard weights of, 27. varieties of, 27. Yards and fences, 152. Yearly balance sheet, 329. egg record, 325. feed record, 324. inventory, 328. summary record, 327. Yolk of egg, 68, 199. absorption of, 108. quality of, 345.

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334 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION 5. Of what value is the yearly inventory record? 6. What are the essentials of good advertising? 7. How and when should poultry products be advertised? 8. Discuss the methods of advertising. 9. How can advertisements be made attractive? 10. What facts should be kept in mind when answering inquiries? SUGGESTIONS. 1. It is a recognized fact that practically every successful busi- ness endeavors to keep a record of all of its transactions. This same principle as brought out in this chapter should apply to the poultry business. With this idea in mind, resolve to keep such records of your flock as will enable you to determine whether or not it is paying. 2. Keeping records and accounts is largely a matter of habit, and when once cultivated and the true value realized, it is a hard one to break. Usually the most successful poultrymen are the ones that keep definite information and records as to their receipts and expendi- tures. 3. Members of boys' and girls' poultry clubs are particularly urged to keep records and accounts of their poultry work. Besides the advantages mentioned herein, the keeping of such records will enable them to put into practice many of the principles and facts learned in mathematics. 4. Assuming that you had some breeding stock and eggs for hatching for sale, prepare an attractive advertisement stating_ these facts and such additional information as you believe will assist in sell- ing your products. 5. Try advertising in your local papers, should you have any sur- plus stock for sale. The advertising manager of such papers will be only too glad to assist you in preparing advertisements. Vary some part of your name or address, so as to furnish a key to the advertise- ments that brought inquiries. REFERENCES A Simple System of Poultry Accounting, by Rob R. Slooum, Bureau of Animal Industry Circular No. 176, U. S. Department of Agri- culture. Farm Management, Andrew Boss. Farm Management, George E, Warren.

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INDEX 359 Gable-roof house, 139. Game and Game Bantam class, 39. varieties of, 40. Gapes, 170. Gates, 155. Geese — African, 247. Chinese, 246. Egyptian, 247. Emden, 246. feeding for weight, 271 management of, 248. marketing of, 296. method of catching and carry- ing, 271. preparing for exhibition, 271. Toulouse, 246. Wild, or Canadian, 247. General-purpose class — breeds of, 26. characteristics of, 26. feeds consumed by, 215 Germ, dead, 86, 87. spot, 68, 86. Glass windows, 141. Gluten meal, 201, 212. Grading eggs, 282. "Grading up," 49, 50. Grain feed for growing stock, 112. for kyers, 212, 213. growing of, 201. quantity of to feed, 213, 215. "Green ducks," 242, 295. Green feed — for breeders, 64. for chickens, 110. for ducks, 295. for growing stock, 113. for layers, 203. growing of in yards, 152, 203. Grit, 64, 111, 113, 204. Growing stock — care of, 115. culling, 222. Growth of chickens, 73. Guineas — Lavender, 249. management of, 250. marketing of, 296. Pearl, 249. Guineas, (continued) White, 249. Hamburg class, 42. Hatch — early, 73. experiments on, 91. length of, 71. proportion of sex in, 71. time of year to, 73, 74. Hatching and brooding record, 321. Head — cleaning of, 270. crow, 56. disquaHfications of, 261. in selecting breeders, 56. lice on chickens, 93, 180. Health and vigor, 54. Heated eggs, 285. Hens — brooding chickens with, 92. confining mother hen, 97. culling^ 225, 292. definition of, 275. fattening, 293. marketing, 292. time of year to market, 292. Heredity, 45. Hollow tile construction, 134. Homer pigeons, 252. Hopper, feeding dry mash, 110, 113, 214. Houses and appliances- colony, 116, 128. construction of, 132. continuous, 128. essentials of, 127. foundation and floors, 134, 135, 136. framework of, 136. front of, 141. interior of, 144. kind to build, 128. location of, 132. monitor, 139. roof of, 138, 139. size and dimensions of, 134. systems of, 128. time to build, 132. two-story, 130 walls of, 142. Housing growing stock, 115.

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BREEDS AND VARIETIES 27 tion of the Orpington are of American origin. They have yellow skin and legs and lay brown-shelled eggs. The Or- pington is of English origin, has a white skin, and lays brown-shelled eggs. The Pljrmouth Rock. The standard varieties of this breed are as follows: Barred, Buff, White, Silver Penciled, Partridge, and Columbian Plymouth Rocks, of which the Barred variety is the most popular farm fowl. Aside from its desirable economic qualities this preference is due in part at least to the fact that it was one of the first early American varieties developed. The standard weights for the males and females of this breed are: cocks 93^ lbs., hens 7J^ lbs., cockerels 8 lbs., and pullets 6 lbs. The Wyandotte. The standard varieties of the Wyandotte are as follows: Silver, Golden, White, Buff, Black, Partridge, Silver Pen- ciled, and Columbian. The White Wyandotte is un- doubtedly the most popular variety of this breed, and finds favor on many farms as a desirable producer of eggs and meat. White Wyandotte cockerels of from one to two and a half pounds make especially desirable broilers. The outstanding characteristic common to all varieties of this breed is the rose comb and the deep, short, blocky body. As will be noted, this breed is somewhat smaller than the Plymouth Rocks. The standard weight for cock is 8}^ lbs., hen 63^ lbs., cockerel 73^ lbs., and pullet 5}4 lbs. The Rhode Island Red. There are but two varieties Figure 14. — Barred Plymouth Rock female.

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48 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION produced or found in the breed. This individual is an example of progression. Prepotency. The ability of an individual, either male or female, to stamp or fix a certain character or several char- acters on the offspring is called prepotency. Either parent, . for instance, may be prepotent in transmitting to the pro- geny high egg production, size, desirable color of plumage, etc. On the other hand a parent may be prepotent in its ability to impress certain undesirable characters such as knock-knees, side sprigs, etc. Fecundity is the abihty to reproduce the species. In the case of fowls where eggs are the means of reproduction as well as a source of food, we speak of a hen as being fecund from the standpoint of her ability to reproduce her kind. Fecundity is measured by the number of eggs produced in a given period. Inbreeding. Inbreeding involves the mating of closely related individuals. The purpose of inbreeding is to con- centrate blood lines or intensify such characters as are desir- able, in order to strengthen the established qualities. Care should be taken when inbreeding to avoid selecting a male or female, if possible, that possesses undesirable qualities, which are apt to be intensified as well as the desirable characters. Line breeding. This system of breeding refers to limit- ing the selection and mating of individuals within a single family or strain, the purpose of which is to make a more rapid improvement of desirable characters or qualities. Line breeding necessarily is a form of inbreeding wherein, however, close inbreeding is avoided. In the strict inter- pretation of line breeding it should not involve the intro- duction of an individual that is unrelated or from a different family or strain. Outbreeding, or outcrossing. It frequently happens in breeding practice that new blood is introduced into the

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CHAPTER IV NATURAL AND ARTIFICIAL INCUBATION The incubation of eggs by artificial methods has made great progress within recent years. There is no question that artificial incubation as carried on with our present day incubators is thoroughly practical and possesses many advantages over hatching by natural means. A thorough understanding of the fundamentals of incubation and incu- bator operation as given herein, coupled with good manage- ment, will assist materially in securing satisfactory hatches. PRELIMINARY CONSIDERATIONS THE EGG Before considering the subject of incubation a study of the construction of the egg will assist in understanding the suggestions as given for handling eggs that are to be incubated. The shell of the egg is porous, and consists of an outer and an inner layer, under which are two mem- branes. These membranes are separated at the large end of the egg and form the air cell. The air cell in a fresh egg is about as large as a ten cent piece and increases in size as the water in the egg evaporates. (See Figure 84.) Surrounding the yolk is the white of the egg, or albumen. /9/Ai,yn/=n /// J /^"-y^-j—y ^^^g— Inner n7enti>rane /9/r ce/f mhn<>^^^^^Apr><^>J^^<'f'''^'^ * IBrafJ i T I r 1 I ■ ~ < I I I iJ^/ H/.iill Figure 65. — Cross-section of ao egg showing its structure and aeveral parts. 67

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NATURAL AND ARTIFICIAL INCUBATION 69 the results of the hatch. They should be kept in a room or cellar where the temperature is from 50° to 65° F. They are generally kept in a cabinet or turning rack to keep the yolk from setthng away from the center, but eggs that are to be kept less than a week need not be turned. Commercial turning devices of various kinds are sold by poultry supply companies for this purpose. When such devices are not at hand, the eggs may be kept in a drawer or tray and turned with the hand each day. Freshness. Eggs should naturally be as fresh as possi- ble. They should be collected at least once a day in the sum- mer and two or three times a day in the winter, to prevent their being chilled. It is not advisable to use eggs for hatch- ing when they are over two weeks old. Broody hens should not be allowed to sit on eggs all day, as the hatching quahties are apt to be impaired, and the germ of the egg is likely to start development before it is desired. Soiled eggs. Do not set dirty or badly soiled eggs. If slightly soiled, they should be cleaned by rubbing them lightly with a damp cloth. Care should be taken not to rub off any more of the natural bloom of the egg than is absolutely necessary to remove the dirt. Duck eggs are usually soiled and, therefore, require washing, which does not apparently injure their hatching quality. Similar eggs. One should not mix or set white-shelled Figure 67. — Selecting uniform eggs for hatching of good size that are of the same color is one of the quickest ways to secure uniformity in the offspring and increase the size of the eggs that they will produce.

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74 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION the greater will be the rate of growth during that period. Consequently early hatched chicks having the advantage of a more favorable growing season make greater gains during the first four weeks of their Hves than chicks hatched later in the spring. February, March, and April are the best months for hatching in the North Atlantic, North Middle West and Northwestern states, while January, February, and March are the best months for hatching in the South and South- western states. The smaller breeds, such as those of the egg class, can be hatched a little later than those of the heavier breeds, as they develop more rapidly and mature earher. Chicks hatched early with proper care and attention should reach maturity and start laying in September, October, or No- vember. It is during the fall months that the hens are getting ready for winter by molting and growing new feathers and few hens grow feathers and produce eggs at the same time. When hens are molting, eggs are scarce and when eggs -are scarce prices are high. The solution is to hatch early, so as to have early maturing pullets that will produce eggs when hens are molting. When not to hatch. Great numbers of late-hatched chicks die each year as the result of being infested with lice, which are very prevalent in the summer. Then, too, hot weather retards the growth of chicks. Chicks hatched in early spring will get a good start before hot weather ar- rives and will not be so subject to lice as those hatched dur- ing the hot weather. Late-hatched chicks are usually the ones that become infected with roup in the fall, thereby endangering the rest of the flock. NATURAL INCUBATION With proper care and attention sitting hens will produce

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76 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION longer on the nest when laying and on being approached will quite likely remain on the nest and cluck, ruffle her feathers and peck at the intruder. When a hen sits on the nest for two nights in succession and most of the feath- ers are gone from her breast, she is ready to be transferred to the nest where she is to hatch the eggs. Quarters. When there are but a few hens to sit, special quarters are not necessary, but, where natural incubation is carried on to any considerable extent, a separate place or room should be provided for the sitting hens. It might be advisable to build a cheaply constructed shed or house for this purpose. A most satisfactory nest for sitting hens can be built by using the following dimensions: 15 inches square, 12 inches high in back with a board 6 inches high in front to keep the nesting material in place. A wire-covered frame may be made to fit over the nest to confine the hen after setting her. (See Figure 77.) Before making the nest it is advis- able to place 2 or 3 inches of damp earth or a piece of sod in the bottom of the nest box to provide moisture. The nest material is next put in and may consist of hay or straw. In order that the hen will not be disturbed, it is best to place the nest in some quiet out-of-the-way place. When moving the broody hen from the laying nest to the one where she is to sit, the change should be made at night. Place a nest egg or two in the nest under the hen and cover the nest so that she will not get off. On the second evening go quietly in where she is sitting, leave some feed and water, and remove the covering from the nest so that she can come off when ready. When the hen returns to the nest after • eating, remove the nest eggs and put under her those that are to be hatched. Dusting. Several days before the hen is set she should receive a thorough application of insect powder. When

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NATURAL AND ARTIFICIAL BROODIXG 103 little from the center of the floor to provide additional space in the front part of the house, where the temperature will be cooler. Most of the oil brooders are equipped with a regulator that controls automatically the flow of oil that is fed from the tank. Such a system requires a minimum of care and at the same time supplies sufficient heat to keep the chicks from crowding. Coal-heated brooders are operated by self-feeding coal stoves. Hot-water-pipe brooders. This system is used in long Figure 105. — Exterior view oi a continuous hot-water-heated brooder house. continuous brooder houses which are heated with hot-water pipes, coal being used for fuel almost exclusively. This method of brooding is being used with good results, and, when employed, the labor of brooding a large number of chicks is less than where small individual hovers or brood- ers are operated. Fireless brooders. Fireless brooders are used in a small way with good results and can be either purchased or biiilt.

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110 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION the johnnycake or its substitute and feed a growing mash of which the following is a good example: 2 parts by weight of corn meal 2 parts by weight of middlings 1 part by weight of oat meal 2 parts by weight of wheat bran }^ part by weight of sifted beef scrap. When the chicks are 8 to 10 weeks old, add 1 part of ground oats and increase the meat scrap to 1 part. This mash, when fed dry, should be placed in a hopper and left before the chicks continuously. When it is fed wet, add only enough milk or water so as to make the feed crumbly, but in no sense too moist or sloppy. Whether or not it is desirable to purchase prepared chick grains or mashes, depends upon the cost of such feeds when purchased as compared with the cost and labor of mixing such feeds at home. Many successful poultry raisers find it economical and practical to feed ready-mixed commer- cial chick feeds, while still others prefer to purchase the feed ingredients and mix such feeds themselves. When pur- chasing commercial chick feeds, buy those that contain grains of good quality but only a small quantity of grit. Those raising chicks in a limited way will find it more economical to feed commercial chick feeds. As soon as the chicks will eat whole wheat, cracked corn, and other grains, the small chick grain can be ehminated. (See page 112.) Green feed. Any tender green stuff may be fed with good results to young chicks. When a regular supply is desired, it is usually most convenient to use sprouted oats. (See page 204.) The necessity for green feed is of especial importance where the chicks are confined to small yards. The most desirable place to raise chicks successfully is on a good range where no extra green feed is required. Other feeds. In addition to the above feeds, the chicks' growth can be hastened and they can be kept in good con-

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POULTRY HOUSES AND APPLIANCES 133 Figure 128. — -Type of house suitable for a hot climate. Note the openings in the front, sides, and back to provide ample ventilation. the house to thoroughly dry out. This fact should be kept in mind when the floor and foundation of the house are constructed of concrete. Building materials. The most satisfactory, practical, and economical material to use in the construction of the house proper, exclusive of the foundation and floor, is lum- Kgure 129. — Rear view of houses shown in Figure 128.

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COMMON DISEASES AXD TREATMENT 167 possessing good constitutional vigor and vitality and which are properly managed. Symptoms. The comb and skin of the head and neck turn very dark purple. Treatment. No successful cure for this disease has been found; but free range and care not to overfeed are very im- portant factors in keeping the flock free from this disease. Frozen comb. Frozen or frost-bitten combs frequently occur in cold weather, especially with birds hav- ing large single combs. Fowls having lopped sin- gle combs or rose combs are not so susceptible, principally due to the comb's being closer to the head. Symptoms. The points or parts of a comb that have been frozen will turn black soon after the comb thaws out. Unless time- ly treatment is applied, the frozen parts will shrivel and drop off. Treatment. Applying snow or cold water to frozen combs before they thaw out will frequently save them. After being thawed by this method, vasehne should be applied to the frozen parts at least once a day for several days. Diarrhea in hens. Diarrhea, while not a serious afHic- tion, should be checked as soon as possible, as it causes quite a strain on the fowl and interferes with production. Symptoms. Diarrhea can readily be recognized by the extreme watery condition of the droppings and the Figure 168. — The points and part of the blade of the comb of this male bird have been frosted.

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COMMON DISEASES AND TREATMENT 169 resist this disease or other diseases. As a general means of preventing this trouble, care should be taken to see that purchased eggs used for hatching are from flocks that are free from it. It has been found that chicks which have white diarrhea but which have recovered from its effects become carriers of this disease. On reaching maturity the disease becomes centrahzed in the ovary or egg-producing organs and thus the disease is transmitted by the hen through the egg to the chick hatched from the egg. When it is apparent that the disease is present in the flock of hens, it can be eliminated by what is known as the agglutination test. This method has been perfected by the Connecticut Agricultural Experi- ment Station. The manner of carrying on this test is as follows: *A blood sample is taken from the hen and a numbered band placed on the bird, a corresponding number being placed on the sample. A bacteriological test is then made of this blood sample by a bacteriologist in an effort to find out whether the hen is a carrier of this dis- ease or not. Many agricultural colleges are now in a position to carry on such tests. "The test is practically accurate, though in some cases depending on the stage to which the disease has advanced, the test may not locate an infected bird, but if the test is carried on through several generations the disease can be eliminated." "The birds to be tested should have laid practically a year before the test- ing takes place; for, if tested sooner than this, they may not react to the test, because the disease will not have pro- gressed suSiciently. Those birds which show that they are carriers of the disease should be eliminated from the breed- ing pen and eggs for hatching should be saved only from those which do not react to this test." Trecdmeni. Chickens that have reached the advanced * New Hampshire College Extension Circular 44 by A. W. Richardson.

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CHAPTER X POULTRY PESTS The presence of mites and lice on poultry has a very marked effect on the number of chickens raised and the number of eggs produced by the laying hens. Thousands of chickens die every spring and sununer as the result of lice and in most cases such a loss could have been prevented. It is a fa mili ar sight, that of the hen wallowing in a hole of dust, scratching, and fluttering her feathers in an effort to get rid of these insect pests. It is possible and thor- oughly practical to keep the poultry flock reasonably free from Hce and mites. Such a practice should be the aim of every one who is endeavoring to establish a successful flock of poultry. MITES Chicken mites, or, as they are sometimes called, "gray," or "red," mites are very small and gray in color. After they have been on the fowl, however, and filled themselves with blood they become reddish in appearance. Hence they are sometimes called "red" mites and at other times, when they are hungry, again "gray" mites. In the daytime mites usually stay in the cracks of the hen houses and under the roosts, where they lay their eggs. At night, when the fowls go to roost, the mites come out of their hiding places, attach themselves to the fowls and feed by sucking blood from the birds. This annoyance causes the fowls to become very uncomfortable and consequently they do not thrive as they should. Remedy. Knowing the habits and hiding places of mites, an effort should be made to get rid of them. The chicken house, nests, and dropping board should be thor- oughly cleaned and sprayed. Especial attention should 176

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FEEDING FOR EO-O PRODUCTION 203 Of the high vegetable protein feeds cotton-seed meal has given good results, followed by peanut meal, soy-bean meal, and velvet-bean meal, named in the order of their value. Not over one tenth of the mash should consist of cotton- seed meal, as the use of a larger amount than this is likely to affect the egg jdeld considerably and may affect the qual- ity of the eggs. Green feeds. Green feeds are a necessary part of the hen's rations and should be supplied to her when confined in small yards and also during the winter, when no green feed is available. Free range or large yards kept in grass will fur- nish ideal green feed. Where smaller yards have to be used, they should be divided, if pos- sible, into two parts, as discus- sed in the chap- ter on poultry houses, and used alternately, planting the vacant yard several times a year with a quick-growing green crop, such as rape, oats, wheat, rye or barley. In this way green feed is supplied and also helps to keep the ground sweet and clean. Other green feeds that can be fed especially in winter are sprouted oats, alfalfa meal, chopped alfalfa, and clover hay, cabbages, and mangel beets. Cabbages are fed Figure 201. — Green feed can be grown in yards of small size by sowing wheat, oats, or rye in a 2 x 4 frame, covering the frame with small mesh wire, and surrounding it with a portable fence to keep the fowls away until the grain is of sufficient size. The fence can then be removed, allowing the fowls to eat the green feed. The wire over the top of the frame keeps the fowls away from the roots of the plants.

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210 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION gredients. The following table will show the per cent of protein, nitrogen-free extract, and fat in each of the ingre- dients in ration No. 3. Figure 207. — A balanced ration. 1. Wheat. 2. Cracked corn. 3 Oats. These constitute the grain feeds. 4. Corn meal. 5. Beef scrap. 6. Mid- dlings. 7. Bran. These constitute the mash feed. 8. Grit. 9. Char- coal. 10. Oyster shell. 11. Water. These should be left before the fowls constantly. Table III. Composition of Ingredients of a Balanced Ration. As will be noted, this ration contains 1.101 pounds of protein, 4.05 pounds of nitrogen-free extract, and .457 of a pound of fat. To determine the nutritive ratio of this ration the total amount of fat, .457 of a pound, is multiplied by 2}4: (fat having 2^ times the heat value of nitrogen-free extract), which gives 1.028 lbs. This amount is then added to the total amount of nitrogen-free extract, 4.05, making a total of 5.078 lbs. This total is then divided by the total amount of protein, which is 1.101, which gives a nutritive ratio of 1 : 4.6 for the ration. The formula for computing

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CULLING THE FLOCK 233 Laying hens of yellow-skinned breeds should show pale or white shanks and pale or white beaks and vents. QUESTIONS 1. What two purposes does culling the flock accomplish? 2. What points should be observed when culling young stock? 3. Why should continuous culling be carried on in a general way throughout the year? 4. What is the best time of the year when systematic culling of the layers should be practiced? 5. What are the characteristics usually associated with fowls that lack vigor and are sick? 6. Other things being equal, what hens should be retained as good producers, those that molt in July? Those that molt in August? Those that molt during the latter part of September? 7. What effect has egg production on the color of fowls having yellow legs and beak? 8. Describe the appearance and color of the vent in a good and of a poor producer. 9. What is the appearance of the comb and ear lobes in a good and in a poor producer? 10. Where are the pelvic bones located? 11. What should be the distance between the pelvic bones in a good and in a poor producer? 12. What governs the distance of the keel bone from the pelvic bones of a hen? 13. What should be the distance between the keel and pelvic bones in a good and in a poor producer of the smaller breeds, such as the Leghorn, and of the larger breeds, such as the Plymouth Rock? 14. What is the condition of the abdomen when a hen is laying? When not laying? SUGGESTIONS 1. Culling the flock is of great importance. Cull systematically at least once a year. 2. Retain the non-producers that have been culled for a week or ten days before sending them to market. These birds should be kept in a separate place from the good producers and careful observation should be made as to the number of eggs they produce, comparing the number produced by the culls with those produced by the hens selected as profitable layers. If this culling is done properly, the eggs laid by the poor producers will be but few as compared with those laid by the hens selected as good layers. 3. Try to interest others in culling. A demonstration with per- sons interested will be most beneficial. 4. Remember that the hen that lays is the hen that pays, and the way to determine the hen that lays is to practice systematic culling. Instead of your keeping hens, let the hens keep you. REFERENCES "Culling the Poultry Flock," U. S. Department of Agriculture, Circu- lar No. 31.

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PREPARING BIRDS FOR EXHIBITION 267 soiled. The head parts, however, and the shanks of all varieties should be properly cleaned, as described herein. The process of washing fowls is not a difficult one, and fowls that have been properly trained do not seem to object. It is suggested that those not experienced in washing fowls should first practice on a few before washing those that are to be shown. The most desirable place to wash the fowls is in a room where the temperature is about 70 or 80 degrees Figure 264.- -In addition to handling ttie birds frequently an attempt should be made to get them to pose. and one that is free from draft. When possible, the wash- ing should be done in the morning, so that the birds will have sufficient time to dry off completely before evening. Be- fore beginning the operation, place the exhibition coops a short distance from the stove or radiator, so the fowls will dry readily after being washed. Place clean shavings in the coop and cover the top, back, and sides of the coop with cloth or paper to prevent a draft, leaving the' front of

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PREPARINa BIRDS FOR EXHIBITION 269 Before washing the plumage, clean the face, comb, wat- tles, legs, and feet by scrubbing these parts with a small nail brush and plenty of lather. With the left hand grasp the fowl by the legs, holding the right hand over the back to prevent the wings from flapping, and immerse the bird in the first tub. In doing so be sure to see that the water has penetrated all sections of the plumage until thoroughly soaked to the skin. This is most important. Apply the soap by work- Figure 266. — Rinsing the soap from the feathers. ing a good lather through all portions of the feathers with the fingers, rubbing the lather with the feathers instead of against them until the bird is clean. A small sponge will help consid- erably in applying the lather and in cleaning the main tail and wing feathers. If these feathers are very dirty, a small nail brush may be used for this purpose. Remove as much of the soap as possible from the bird in the first tub and the rest in the second and third tubs. It is very important that all the soap be removed completely, as any trace of it will cause the feathers to appear streaked and matted to- gether when dry. When rinsing the feathers in the second

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276 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION may be awarded, but the second money paid. Prizes are not usually awarded to birds impaired in value for breeding purposes. The American Standard of Perfection should be and usually is the guide and authority in judging.* Un- healthy specimens are not allowed to be exhibited. Fowls intended for exhibition should be banded and the band numbers properly entered on the entry blank. *See page 346 for the Scale of Points of the American, Mediterranean, and Asi- atic Classes. QUESTIONS 1. What is the object and value of poultry exhibitions? 2. Name five kinds of poultry shows. 3. What fact should be kept in mind when selecting the birds for the show? 4. Describe the preliminary selection of the birds to be shown. 5. Name a disqualification as concerning the comb, face, back, wings, tail, shanks, weight. 6. Describe the method of training an exhibition bird. 7. Discuss the arrangements that should be made prior to actually washing the birds. 8. Describe the method of washing an exhibition fowl. 9. Why is it so necessary to remove every particle of soap from the plumage? 10. Describe the method of drying the birds. 11. How should the head, feet, and shanks be cleaned? Why before the bird is washed? 12. Discuss the method of preparing geese and ducks for exhibi- tion; turkeys; pigeons. 13. Discuss the method of shipping fowls to the show. 14. Mention some of the important rules and regulations govern- ing poultry exhibits. SUGGESTIONS 1. The real value of poultry shows can not be fully appreciated until you have actually taken part in one. Hold a poultry show in your community. Such a show may be held either in connection with a school poultry club or local poultry association. Through your efforts endeavor to stimulate enough interest among those in your community who raise poultry to exhibit their fowls at some one time during the year. 2. Should there be no school poultry association or local poultry association in your community, endeavor to organize one, having for one of its objects the holding of an annual poultry show. Suggestions and information concerning the holding of poultry shows may be obtained from the secretaries of such poultry organizations as exist in near-by towns and cities. Secure a copy of the premium list of your

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MAREETINO THE PRODUCT 303 (no quills) 10c; long fancy rooster tails free from stiff feath- ers $1.50. Turkey feathers, white 45c; dark 15c. Prices for turkey feathers from other parts of the body such as wings, tails, pointers, etc., vary from Ic to 25c. These prices are for good dry feathers. Those freshly packed and damp are discounted according to their condition. QUESTIONS 1. What are the essential factors as concerning the marketing of poultry products? 2. Discuss the methods of marketing. 3. What is an infertile egg? Why should infertile eggs be pro- duced for market? 4. Why should eggs of uniform color and size be produced for market? 5. How often should eggs be gathered? 6. Discuss the storing of eggs before being sent to market. 7. How should eggs be graded? What are "Specials," "Extras," "No. I's," "No. 2's"? 8. Describe the method of packing eggs in a standard size crate. 9. On what basis should eggs be sold? 10. Describe the method of packing eggs for shipment by par- cel post. 11. What is the market classification for broilers? 12. Describe the method of fattening broilers. 13. When should hens of the heavier breeds be marketed? Of the lighter breeds? Why? 14. Describe the method of fattening hens for mark^t. 15. How shoiild capons be fed before they are marketed? 16. Discuss in a general way the method of preparing turkeys for market, ducks, geese, guineas, squabs. 17. Describe a satisfactory method for killing. 18. Describe the method of dry-picking fowls. 19. Describe in detail the method of packing fowls for shipment. Describe the method of shipping live fowls. 20. Discuss the value of poultry manure as a fertilizer. 21. How should poultry feathers be handled to obtain the best price when sold? SUGGESTIONS 1. By what method are you now marketing your eggs, that is, direct to the consumer, to a retail store, or to some one of the other agencies mentioned herein? If you are marketing to a retail store or commissioa merchant, why not try to work up a retail trade direct to the consumer, providing your time and facilities will permit. 2. Should you market to a commission merchant, wholesaler, or to a country store, insist that your eggs be purchased on a "loss-off," or quality, basis.

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310 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION 1. Winniig a prize of a setting of eggs or a pen of fowls offered by a local poultryman to the members writing the best compositions on some phase of poultry work. 2. Have the members take charge of the home flock, and, as a reward for the attention given, receive a portion of the eggs produced. From the sale of these eggs the member can secure enough money to purchase several settings of eggs from a standard-bred flock, or a pen of standard-bred fowls. 3. In numerous instances poultrymen have co-operated with members in supplying them without cost 50 to 100 eggs, with theunder- standing that the" poultry breeder is to receive in return two matured fowls hatched from each lot of 50 eggs given to the members. Figure 295,- -A poultry club exhibit held in connection with a regular poultry show. 4. A similar plan is that of a poultryman's lending to a member a pen of fowls during the breeding season, the eggs from which are to be used for hatching. Upon reaching maturity, 3 to 5 birds hatched from these eggs are to be returned to the breeder, together with the original pen. 5. A progressive club might have in connection with its school a poultry plant planned and built by the members. Several pens of fowls could then be purchased or donated by a public-spirited poultry- man, and these fowls taken care of by the members. Thus the club would not only have an opportunity of carrying out a community object lesson, but the eggs produced could be taken to their respective homes to serve as a foundation for a standard-bred flock of their own. 6. Plans may be arranged whereby the merchants of the town would donate several hundred eggs from standard-bred stock, and the

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312 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION show is held, prizes can usually be secured through dona- tion by public-spirited individuals and merchants. Mem- bers showing their fowls at poultry shows or fairs should compete in a separate class by themselves, arrangements being first made with the fair officials to provide such a class. Suggestions for preparing the birds for the show and the rules that usually govern poultry shows and exhibits will be found in Chapter XV. A complete ex- hibit. Besides the display of the mem- bers' fowls and eggs, arrangements should be made for some of the mem- bers to take part in judging and demonstration teams, carrying on actual poultry work. The selec- tion of the mem- bers for such teams can be arranged on a competitive basis. This plan will stimu- late individual interest and cause the members to become proficient when judging their fowls and demonstrating the various phases of poultry work. If possible, arrangements should be made to offer prizes to the teams making the best demonstrators and the best showing as to their ability to judge. Suggestions for such demonstrations can be found at the end of the preceding chapters under the heading of "Suggestions." Figure 296. — Members of a poultry club carrying on a oaponizing deraonstraion.

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PdPDiAi^tign' GitgwiNG. POPULAR FRUIT GROWING By SAMUEL B. GREEN Late Professor of Horticulture and Forestry in the University of Minnesota. This book is the latest and best manual published for fruit growers. It covers the subject in a thorough and practical manner and can be read with profit both by the beginner and by the experienced horticulturist. At the end of each chap- ter are suggestive questions on the matter presented which makes the work pecu- liarly adapted to class-room use. An appendix is added which contains formulas for fungicides, insecticides, grafting waxes, etc., lists of fruits recommended for typical states and rules for naming fruits. The carefully arranged spraying calendar is another important feature. Popular Fruit Growing is uniform in S!Z3 and binding with Vegetable Gardening by the same author. PROFUSELY ILLUSTRATED 300 Pages, 5x7 inches. WEBB PUBLISHING CO., Price, Cloth $1.50. Postpaid. St. Paul, Minn. VEGETABLE GARDENING By SAMUEL B. GREEN Late Professor of Horticulture and Forestry in the University of Minnesota. A manual on the growing of vegetables for home use and for the market. The immense sale of this book to farmers and gardeners and its wide recognition in agricultural schools and colleges prove it to be a standard work on this subject. This is the fourteenth revised edition. It sets forth the principles of plant growth, of soil management, of the indi- vidual peculiarities of plants, etc., as well as specific instructions for the culture of all the popular vegetables. The book is set in large, clear type, printed on high class paper, and is strongly and neatly bound. PROFUSELY ILLUSTRATED 336 Pages, 53^x7 j^ inches. Price, Cloth. $1.50 Postpaid. WEBB PUBLISHING CO., St. Paul, Minn.

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