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BREEDING 49 Figure 48. Figure 49. Figure 50. Figure 51. Result of using a pure-bred sire. The above pure-bred Barred Rock Cockerel (Figure 48), crossed with the mongrel hen (Figure 49), produced a half-blood pullet (Figure 50), weighing (average of the flock) 1.23 pounds more than the mother hen. Another pure-bred cross on this pullet produced a three- quarters-blood pullet (Figure 51), weighing (average) 0.59 pounds more than her mother — An increase of nearly two pounds in two crosses. Note also the improvement in breed type.

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56 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION inactive and clumsy, most especially in the case of male birds in not being able to fertilize as properly as more active birds. Second, fowls that are below standard weight should not be selected, as there is a tendency for the off- spring of some breeds to decrease in size rather than in- crease when such practice is followed. Color. In choosing the birds for the breeding pen they should be so mated as to produce fowls that will conform Figure 59. — Barred Plymouth Rock female showing high vitality. Figure 60. — Barred Plymouth Rock female showing low vitality. with the standard requirements for color and markings. Head. The head is a good indication as to the health of the fowl. Good breeders should have a medium-sized head, broad between the eyes with a short stubby beak fairly well curved. A small refined head denotes an ap- parent lack of vigor. The distance between the eye and the base of the beak should not be great, as a long face is usually associated with a long crow head,which is undesirable. The face should have a good healthy color. Comb. The comb should be well placed and should have a good bright red color. Avoid loppgd combs in those breeds

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BREEDING 63 as an older male bird. The fowls, either male or female, that have proven themselves to be especially valuable as breeders should be retained as long as they will breed. FREE RANGE FOR BREEDING STOCK Whenever possible, the breeding stock should have free range, especially during the early fall and winter before the breeding season. When this is not possible, free range just preceding and during the breeding season will be of great value in strengthening the fertility of the hatching eggs. MANAGEMENT OF THE BREEDERS After the fowls have been selected and mated, care should be taken to see that they are kept in good condition in order to insure the best results. Examine the fowls and houses at frequent intervals to see that they are not infested with lice and mites. When infested with either of these pests the fertility will be affected and sometimes totally destroyed. In cold weather care must be used to see that the male does not have his comb and wattles frosted or frozen. If injured in this way, his ability to fertilize eggs in most cases will be impaired, and he usually will not recover for several weeks. In very cold weather, males intended for breed- ing should be placed in a box or crate at night partly cov- ered with a bag or cloth to prevent the freezing of the comb and wattles. Another means of preventing frosted comb and wattles is to grease these parts with vaseline. It fre- quently happens that the male is so gallant that he allows the hens to eat all the feed, with the result that he soon gets out of condition. It is well, therefore, to examine the male occasionally at night after he goes to roost to see that his crop is full and that he is not growing thin. If his gal- lantry is proving detrimental to himself, the male should be fed at least once a day separately from the hens. Sick fowls or those that show any signs of being out of condition should be removed from the breeding pen immediately.

biodiversity-heritage-library

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16 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION a revenue producer practically all the year round. In many instances the amount of money received from poul- try has been surprisingly large, often sufficient to buy the food and pay for the clothing of the family. The money from poultry and eggs, taken together with their other year- round revenue producers on the farm, such as butter, has, therefore, come to be a decided factor in providing for the physical welfare of the farmer and his family, and in many instances has gone still further and become one of the chief agencies in helping to pay off the farm mortgage or other indebtedness. It often happens that the care of the poul- try flock becomes primarily the work of the farm women. Thus the women frequently have control of a part or all of the income derived from the poultry flock. In such instances it will be found that much of this money goes for purposes which tend to improve conditions of life on the farm and to provide conveniences and comforts in the home. The money is also often used to further the education of the children as well 'as to broaden the Hfe and outlook of the farm communities. A further development of the industry can be cited in the growth of special commercial poultry farms, where the keeping of poultry for the production of market eggs is the main activity. Sometimes these poultry farms have reached a point where from 1,000 to 20,000 or more head of fowls are kept. Poultry shows and education. While this development of poultry keeping has been largely a matter of natural economic conditions, certain other agencies have played a part. Thus, fairs and poultry shows where poultry has been exhibited have had a considerable efi'cct in spreading interest in this activity and have, therefore, had a consider- able influence on its development. The various govern- ments, and, in the United States, the Federal Department

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18 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION

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BREEDS AND VARIETIES 25 or both. As to the variety of the breed selected individual choice will have to be the governing factor. In the selec- tion of a breed or variety of poultry, care should be taken to obtain healthy, vigorous stock. Standard-bred fowls versus mongrels. The value of standard, or pure-bred, fowls over mongrels can not be over- estimated. (By standard-bred poultry we mean fowls bred to conform with well established standards of form, color, markings, and weight as estabhshed for the various breeds Figure 12. — A mongrel flock. and varieties.) Given the same care, feed, and attention, standard-bred fowls will make a greater profit and afford greater interest and pleasure than mongrels or mixed fowls. The value of standard-bred fowls as compared with mon- grels will be noted as follows: Standard-bred fowls produce uniform products which bring high- er prices. Standard-bred stock and eggs sold for breeding purposes, bring higher prices than market quota- tions. Standard-bred fowls can be exhibited and thus compete for prizes. Standard-bred fowls create greater interest in poultry. The products from mongrel and mixed fowls are not uniform and do not always bring the highest prices. Eggs and stock from mon- grel fowls are not sold for breed- ing purposes. Mongrel fowls are not ex- hibited in poultry shows or ex- hibits. Mongrel fowls do not inspire any great interest.

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Cornell University Library SF 487.L24 Practical poultry production 3 1924 003 186 354

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BREEDS AND VARIETIES 31 Light and Dark Brown, Rose Comb Brown, Single and Rose Comb White, Single and Rose Comb Buff, Single Comb Black, Silver and Red Pyle. The Single Comb White Leg- horn is not only the most popular variety, but the one gen- erally found on commercial egg farms. Leghorns are neat appearing, alert and stylish in their bearing. All varieties of this breed have yellow skin and shanks. An indication of their size may be secured from the following standard weights: cock 53/^ lbs., hen 4 lbs., cockerel 4J^ lbs., pullet 31/^ lbs. The Ancona. There are two varieties, both black in color with approximately one feather in every five ending with aV-shaped white tip. These two varieties, the Single Comb and Rose Comb, are likewise identical in size and shape. This breed is similar to the Leg- horns in that both originated in Italy; in shape they are quite similar; and they both possess the same economic qualities. The standard weights for this breed are: cock 53^ lbs., hen 43^ lbs., cockerel 43^ lbs., pullet 33^ lbs. How do these weights compare with those of the Leghorn? The Minorca. The Minorca is of Spanish origin. The three varieties of this breed, that is, Single and Rose Comb Black, Single and Rose Comb White, and Single Comb Buff, Figure 21. — Single Comb White Leghorn male.

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52 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION POINTS Figure 54.— Nomenclature chart giving the location of the various parts of the fowl.

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80 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION Figure 79. — An exterior view of an incubator cellar on a commercial poultry farm. quickly than higher priced incubators. The value of the machine is small as compared to the value of the eggs used and the results produced. It is advisable, there- fore, to invest in one that is absolutely relia- ble. It is best to pur- chase a make of incubator that is giving good results in your vicinity, so as to secure the benefit of the experience and advice of others. Place to operate the incubator. Incubators are oper- ated in a great variety of places with marked success. When but a few machines are used, they can be operated in a room or cellar of the house. A special incubator cellar or house should be provided where the hatching operations are extensive, or when mammoth machines are used. The main essential in an incubator room or cellar is to Figure 80. — The interior of a well arranged incubator cellar. The incubator room or cellar should be large enough to allow the attendant to work around the machines conveniently. Many incubator cellars have cement floors which are easier to keep clean and neat than board or earth floors.

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NATURAL AND ARTIFICIAL BROODING 99 but, as hens seldom sit closely on the chicks they do not receive this degree of heat. Hens naturally adapt their methods of brooding to conditions, such as outside, temperature, size of the chicks, and conditions of the weather. In the suc- cessful operation of an artificial brooder these conditions must be met as closely as possible to secure the best results. The brooder should be so constructed as to supply the proper temperature, be readily adapted to meet changes in weather conditions, easy to clean, and well ventilated. Before the chicks are moved from the incubator to the brooder, it should have been in operation for a day or two at the proper temperature before re- ceiving the chicks. After placing them in the brooder, they can be given feed and water as described in the next chapter. It is well to mention at this time that great care should be tak- en when moving chicks from the incubator to the brooder, as they may become chilled. They should be moved in a cloth-lined and covered basket or box. . Hovers, brooders, and brooding systems. There is per- haps a wider difference of opinion as to the value of various brooding systems than any other part of poultry equipment. We may thus infer that no system is ideal for all conditions, but that satisfactory results depend to a great extent upon individual handling and care. As previously mentioned, many failures in brooding are due to weak chicks which can Figure 101. — An easily constructed A-shaped brood coop that can be folded up and stored when not in use.

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114 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION I

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POULTRY HOUSES AND APPLIANCES 129 The houses used in this plan consist of small buildings, usually built so that they can be moved from place to place on the farm, and so placed as to eUminate the necessity of fences, thereby giving the flock free range. The advan- tages of the colony system are : (1) The fowls so housed are usually on free range. (2) The fact that the fowls are on range enables them to pick up considerable feed during the summer months. (3) The expense of fences is eliminated. Figure 123. — Colony house built out of piano boxes and covered with roofing paper. Such houses are practical, easy to construct, and cost but little to build. (4) The danger of spreading disease throughout the flock is reduced to a minimum, owing to the fact that the flock is divided into small units. The disadvantages of the colony plan are as follows: (1) The extra labor in caring for the fowls in stormy weather and the difficulty in feeding and caring for the fowls at such a time. Colony houses can, however, be drawn together at some central point on the farm for the winter, thereby cutting down the amount of labor in caring for the fowls.

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COMMON DISEASES AND TREATMENT 163 depressed, the feathers ruffled, and the comb is usually either very pale or very dark. Fowls so infected usually have a great thirst but poor appetite. Fortunately many so-called cases of cholera are simply diarrhea. Fowls having cholera usually die within 36 hours. Treatment. The most satisfactory method of combating this disease is to kill and burn all fowls that are really affected. Clean and spray all water fountains and the houses thor- oughly with a 10% solution of carbohc acid and water, or one of the coal-tar products, such as creolin, creosote, etc., and water. The droppings should be buried deep, burned, or sprayed with the above solution. The drinking water may be made antiseptic by adding as much potas- sium permanganate as will remain on the surface of a dime to each gallon of water. This serves to prevent the spread of the infection through water and is also a means of adminis- tering a general preventive to the flock as a whole. Recent experiments at the *Rhode Island Experiment Station show that attempts to immunize fowls against chol- era infection by inoculation have not proven entirely satisfac- tory. Such inoculations, however, produce an increased resistance against infection but not complete immunization. Tuberculosis. Tuberculosis of poultry is a highly con- tagious disease that usually affects the hver, spleen, and in- testines. Symptoms. From the outward appearance the symp- toms of this disease are usually not noticeable until it has reached an advanced stage of development. The fowls grad- ually lose weight, their combs turn pale, and, as the disease coirtinues, the birds become hstless and seem to be affected with diarrhea. Not infrequently the disease affects their joints, either by creating a swelling or by causing the fowl to become lame. (See Figure 163.) ♦Rhode Island Experiment Station Bulletin 179 by Dr. Philip Hadley.

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COMMON DISEASES AND TREATMENT 165 Figure 165,- — A bad case of limberneck. en to the fowls will some- times effect a cure. In all cases an effort should be made to find the cause of the disease, which is usually a dead animal or fowl that is decomposed and is being eaten by the birds. The carcasses of birds that die as the result of limberneck should be deeply buried or burned when found. Chicken pox, or sore head. This is a very contagious disease that occurs in practically all classes of poultry, par- ticularly in the South. Symptoms. It may be told by the formation of yellow patches or nodules that appear at the base of the beak, on the face, comb, and wattles. In severe cases these patches or nodules increase in number to the extent that the bird has difficulty in opening its eyes and beak. Treatment. Cover the sore patches with carbolated vasehne, which will cause the crust to soften and drop off. The tissue beneath the crust or scab should then be painted with tincture of iodine. As an additional remedy add 5 pounds of powdered sul- phur to 100 pounds of dry mash, placing this mixture before the birds affected. The general sug- gestions as already given concerning spraying the house and coops with a disinfectant appUes equal- Figure 166.-A young chick with sore head. lyaS Well tO this iuf CCtiOD.

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180 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION it down near the base of the feathers, below the vent, at the base of the tail, under the wings, around the breast, and in the back of the neck. Care should be taken not to inhale the sodium fluoride powder, as it irritates the nose and throat. A damp handkerchief tied over the nose and mouth can be used by those applying the powder. Ointment. One of the most effective ointments used to destroy lice on fowls is commerical blue ointment or mercurial ointment. When the latter is used it should be thoroughly mixed with an equal part of vaseline or lard. Commercial blue ointment may be used un- diluted. When using either of these apply a small portion ( a piece about the size of a pea) with the fingers around the vent of the fowl, but not on the body or under the wings. Care should also be taken to see that none of the ointment gets into the vent, as it is injurious. HEAD LICE ON CHICKS Very frequently chicks that are hatched by ,„. , a hen that is infested with lice likewise become Figure 180, — A head louse infested and frequently die when they are not greatly enlarg- i ./ ./ ed, such as is properly treated. found on chick- r- £- - ./ «°S' Remedy. Head Hce may be prevented or exterminated by one or more of the following methods. Ointment. As a treatment for lice on chickens a small portion of lard or vaseline should be applied to the top of the head, under the wings, and around the vent. As pre- viously suggested in the chapter on brooding, care should be taken not to get too much grease on the chickens, as it may prove fatal. Dusting. As a preventive it is suggested that steps be taken to keep the chickens free from hce by dusting the mother hen thoroughly before the chicks are hatched and at intervals of a week or ten days after the chicks are hatched.

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FEEDWa FOR EOG PRODUCTION 199 as containing round follicles, each one of which is the first stage in the development of the egg, and are called the ova, or yolks. The ovum, or yolk, develops in about two weeks, during which time it is enclosed in a sack composed of mem- brane. While so enclosed the yolk receives by means of the blood the material that composes it. At the end of two weeks, when the yolk reaches its full development, the membraneous sack is broken and the yolk enters the funnel- shaped opening of the oviduct, which will be noted in the center of Figure 199. As soon as the yolk enters, the white of the egg, or albumen, is secreted as the yolk proceeds through the oviduct. After a sufficient amount of the albu- *■ {mwerol 7naTrer\ -^'Sone. 'rProtein' Stare/, ^Wiy-Ctl'nFreeEi^l-r-act, sugarn] ' D7r£J:^rp roh/zj z:ee Figure 198. — Chart showing how the elements of the feed go to meet the body requirements and to produce the finished product. men, or white, is secreted to surround the yolk of the egg the secretion of the membranes and shell begins. This will be noted at the lower end of the oviduct canal. This process is completed by the time the egg leaves the uterus, or shell gland, whereupon it passes out through the vent. POULTRY FEEDS AND THEIR BY-PRODUCTS Poultry should have that kind and variety of food which would be natural in the environment of fowls on range. It may be supplemented or modified, however, by such feeds or methods of feeding as experiment and experience may have found productive and profitable. Grain feeds. The principal feeds fed to poultry consist

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214 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION common method and it should be kept in a hopper! before the fowls constantly. The wet or moist mash should in no sense be sloppy and when properly fed gives very good results. It should be fed only once a day, preferably in the morning, or at noon, and only as much should be given as the fowls will eat up clean in about half an hour. A moist mash provides a satis- factory way to use up table scraps and cooked vegetables. Figure 210. — Two styles of easily constructed homemade feed hoppers. The hopper on the left is very simple and does not waste feed. Exercise. When hens tend to become too fat, they should be made to exercise more by working harder for their feed, which should be fed in a deep Htter. When such is the case reduce the amount of scratch grains and likewise the amount of meat scrap in the mash. At times it becomes necessary to close up the dry mash hopper until noon in order to make the hens work harder for their scratch grains.

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216 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION the months of February, March, April, and May the birds entered in the contest consumed the greatest amount of feed and also produced the greatest amount of eggs. "In June, July, August, September, and October the birds consumed the smallest amount of feed and also produced the least num- ber of eggs. From this it may be safely concluded that dur- ing the period of heaviest feed consumption there is also the greatest egg production." Experiments. It is interesting to note the results of three years' experimental work on feeding for egg production at the Government Poultry Farm, Beltsville, Maryland, f This report stated that "the amount of feed consumed varies considerably throughout the year, being greatest just pre- ceding the period of highest egg production, but it does not vary absolutely with production either during one year or when one year is compared with another." Referring again to the results of the Texas Egg Laying Contest it states that "the feed consumption averaged 5}/q pounds for every dozen eggs produced" and that it cost an average price of 22 cents for feed alone (not counting labor and other production costs) to produce a dozen eggs. Further, that on an average it took SJ/^ pounds of feed to produce a pound of eggs and that "the birds in the contest produced 3}/2 times their own Hve weight in eggs." The results of the feeding work at the Government Poultry Farmf showed in this connection that the average feed consumption for each dozen eggs produced was 63^ pounds. This increased amount as compared to the average of 5}/^ pounds for each dozen of eggs at the Texas Contest is due most likely to the fact that the feeding experiments as conducted at the Government Farm covered a longer period and involved a larger number of birds of the general- f'Feed Cost of Egg Production." U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, Bulletin 561 by Harry M. Lamon and Alfred R. Lee.

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CULLING THE FLOCK 229 stops laying. White or pinkish vent color usually indicates that the hen is laying, while a yellow vent indicates that the hen is not laying. The condition of the vent other than color should Hkewise be considered. That is, when a hen is laying, the vent is large, expanded, and moist, and when not laying it is comparatively small and dry. Comb. The comb of a hen that is laying or about to lay is large, feels waxy to the touch and is bright red in color. Figure 220, — The head of a good and of a poor producer. Note how the comb and wattles of the poor producer on the left are small and shrunken in size. Likewise note the listless appearance of the eye of the poor producer. The good producer on the right has a fairly large and well developed comb and wattles and a bright, keen eye. When not laying, the comb is small, shrunken, pale or dull in color, comparatively hard and covered with whitish scales. As previously mentioned a dark or bluish color in the comb usually indicates that the hen is sick. The changes in the wattles and ear lobes are quite similar to those of the comb, but not quite so marked. When considering the size of the comb of the fowl the difference in the size of the combs of the various breeds should likewise be considered. Pelotc and keel bones. The p)elvic bones can be felt as points on each side of the vent. As the hens stop lay- ing there is a tendency for them to take on fat and this condition is noticeable on these bones.

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PREPARING BIRDS FOB EXHIBITION 263 presence of feathers or down on the shanks, feet and toes of all breeds that should have unfeathered shanks and toes. Shanks and feet of a color that is foreign to the breed con- cerned disquaUfies; hkewise, the presence of more or fewer than four toes on breeds having four toes and more or fewer than five toes on breeds so characterized. Figure 260. — Examining the wings. Weight. A fowl that weighs less than two pounds below the standard weight for the breed, excepting turkeys and bantams, is a disquaKfication. Any attempt to deceive the judge by faking, that is, to remove or change a disqualifying feature in any manner will disqualify the fowl. For additional information on the disqualifications of turkeys, ducks, geese and bantams and disqualifications peculiar to the individual breeds refer to the American Stan- dard of Perfection.

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PREPARING BIRDS FOR EXHIBITION 265 erated. There is no question, however, that a bird should be clean when shown and that a clean fowl with proper train- ing will make a better appearance and impression than one equally as good otherwise but having soiled plumage or one that is easily frightened. Some fowls do not respond to training or conditioning as readily as others. It is well, therefore, to have an extra fowl or two in training before the final selection is made. If possible, the birds selected should be removed from the rest of the flock and the males and females separated. Homemade or purchased exhibition coops should be provided and each fowl kept in the coop for a portion of each day. Exhibition coops such as shown in Figure 263 can be purchased from most poultry supply houses. Fowls so con- fined will become accustomed to the coop and the handhng of them daily will have the effect of making them tame. In removing and returning the fowls to and from the coops, move quietly and handle the birds gently so as not to frighten them unnecessarily. When handling the birds, hold them as shown in Figures 258, 259, 260, 261, and examine the plumage so that they will become accustomed to such movements when being handled by the judge. Fowls intended for exhibition should not be closely con- fined to the coop for too great a period, as long continuous cooping may cause the bird to lose its appetite and result in a subsequent loss in weight. An effective plan is to allow the birds range every other day and confine them to the coop every other day alternately. This plan should be Figure 262. — A homemade exhibition coop suitable for training and con- ditioning exhibition fowls.

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280 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION EGGS Eggs are by far the most important poultry product marketed and the sale of them amounts to hundreds of mil- lions of dollars annually. The revenue received from this product by the farmer or poultryman could in most instances be substantially increased by putting into practice the prin- ciples suggested herein as concerning the proper handUng of eggs to be marketed. Figure 272.- -Male birds confined to a yard by themaelves after the breeding season is over. CARE AND PREPARATION FOR MARKET Infertile eggs. The first and most important suggestion that can be given relating to the production of eggs for market is to "PRODUCE INFERTILE EGGS." As stat- ed on page 279, an infertile egg is one that is laid by a hen that has not been allowed to run with a male bird. In most cases 14 days is sufficient time for eggs to become in- fertile after the male bird has been removed from the flock.

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MARKETING THE PRODUCT 299 ice. Drawn poultry deteriorates more quickly than un- drawn poultry. When the fowl is drawn, the work should be done before the bird is cool. Make a slit with a knife from near the end of the keel bone down to the vent of suffi- cient size to admit the hand. Cut carefully around the vent and puU out the in- testines together with the other organs, un- less the market re- quirements specify otherwise. Packing. After the fowls have been thoroughly cooled by being placed in a re- frigerator or in cold water thej' are ready for packing. When the birds are cooled by the latter method, allow them to dry before packing. The inside of the box or barrel should be well lined with clean parchment or wrapping paper. Pack the birds solidly, so that they will not shift about in shipment and become bruised. When poultry is to be packed in ice, which method should be the only one employed in hot or warm weather, they are usually placed in barrels with layers of ice between each layer of birds, the ice forming the top and bottom layers. SHIPPING LIVE POULTRY fowls of all kinds can be shipped alive and will some- Figure 2S8. — A metal rack holding 180 fowls as used in large fattening and killing plants.^ The fowls are hung on this rack and placed in the refrigerator to cool.

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314 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION in boys' and girls' poultry-club work. Before trying to organ- ize such an association, the opinion of those in the community who are interested in poultry should be sought. Should enough poultrymen be favorably incUned to lend their sup- port, the preliminary steps should be taken to effect such an organization. When possible, the co-operation of the business men should be obtained, for the reason that such men in towns are often owners of farms and consequently interested in the advancement of agriculture, which in turn Figure 298. — A school community poultry breeding association and poultry house located on the school grounds. will benefit their various branches of business. Likewise their assistance should be sought in helping to finance such an association, if necessary. This is usually done by having the business men's associations take the initiative and agree to contribute a reasonable amount of money for the purchase of eggs from standard-bred stock to be dis- tributed among the farmers or poultrymen that join the organization. Should this method not be advisable, it is sometimes possible for the organization to secure a loan from the bank to finance the members in the purchase of standard- bred stock or eggs. This plan as well as the former has been carried out with success in several sections of the country.

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316 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION Organization. Other than the usual election of officers and the adoption of a constitution and by-laws a board of directors should be appointed or elected. The duties of such a board will be to consider such problems and phases of work as may arise and submit their recommendations to the asso- ciation at the monthly meeting for discussion. In perfect- ing the organization an agreement should be drawn up and Figure 300. — A poultry educational exhibit. signed by each member of the association agreeing to do specific things which will have to do with the welfare, suc- cess, and future growth of the organization. This agree- ment should embody such clauses as agreeing to dispose of all their stock through the association, to raise none other than the community breed and variety, and to adhere strictly to the rules and regulations, constitution, and by- laws of the association. The following agreement which was used in the or-

biodiversity-heritage-library

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BUSINESS MANAGEMENT 329 YEARLY BALANCE SHEET Explanation. As will be seen, this form is used to deter- mine the total profit or loss, as the case may be, for the year. The years 1920 and 1921, together with the amounts as shown on this form have been used by way of illustration to indicate the proper column wherein such amounts should be placed, in order to secure the yearly balance. It wiU be readily seen that by keeping an account by the use of the preceding forms that this yearly balance sheet can be summarized and totaled with but Httle effort and will enable one to obtain a true statement as to the financial standing of the business. January 1 has been indicated as the date of the inven- tory. Should any other date, such as October 1 or November 1, be used as the beginning of the poultry year, the yearly balance and the inventory should be made at that time. When the,,refurns from the flock are included in the income tax^-statement, such returns must be made not later than pwo and a half months after the close of the year. If a period of 12 months, ending October 31, for Instance, is regarded as the end of the poultry year, the income tax statement must be filed not later than the following January 15.

biodiversity-heritage-library

2023-12-23T15:39:03.748046

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INDEX 363 Preserving eggs — demonstration of, 126. methods of, 122. necessity of, 120. time for, 120. Prevention of poultry diseases, 159. Principles of breeding, 45. Prizes awarded for junior club worli:, 313. for exhibition fowls, 275. Progression, 47. Proportion of males to females, 62. Protein, 206, 207. Pullet, definition of, 275. Pullet mating, 61. Pullets as breeders, 62, 118. Quality of feed, 110, 201. Quantity of feed consumed, 216. of feed for chickens, 109. of grain to feed, 213, 215. of mash to feed, 213, 215. Range — as affecting feed consumed, 215. for breeding stock, 63. growing stock, 94, 116. Rape, 203. Rations — balanced, 207. egg-laying, 212. fattening, 291, 292, 293, 294, 295, 296. for chickens, 109, 110. for growing stock, 112, 113. Records^ balance, yearly, 329. egg, yearly, 325. feed, yearly, 324. hatching and brooding, 321. inventory, yearly, 328. monthly statement, 322. poultry club, 330. summary, yearly, 327. Red bugs, or chiggers, 183. Regression, 47. Reversion, or atavism, 46. Rheumatism, 173. Rhode Island Reds- standard weights of, 29. varieties of, 29. Roasters, small, 290. soft, 186. Rolled barley, 109, 112. oats, 109. Roof and roofing material, 139. types of, 138, 139. Roofing paper, 115, 139, 142. Roost, teaching chickens to, 118. Roosts, 144. Rose Comb breeds, 349. "Rots" (eggs), 286. Rouen duck, 243. Roup, 160. Rules and regulations for shows 274. for junior clubs, 307. Runt pigeons, 251. Rye, as green feed, 203. Salicylic acid, 171. Salt spray for fleas, 182. Scalding to pick, 298. Scale of points — for eggs, 343, 344. for exhibition fowls, 346. for table fowls, 341. Scaly leg, 173. Score card — for different classes, 346. for eggs, 343, 344. for table fowls, 341. Scraps— table, 213. Scratch feed — for chickens, 109. for growing stock, 112. for layers, 212. Selecting birds for the show, 259, 260. the breed, 23. the community breed, 315. Selection of the breeders, 55. Setting a hen, 75. management of, 77. Sex, predetermining, 73. proportion of, secured, 71. Shade for chicks, 116. Shank — color as influencing produc- tion, 227. condition of in layers, 228. Shanks — cleaning of, 267, 270.

biodiversity-heritage-library

2023-12-23T15:39:03.750105

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THE POULTRY INDUSTRY 19 the farmers of this community depend upon poultry and eggs produced almost entirely for their income. At the present time there is in the making a third poultry community located at Vineland, New Jersey. Here in the past few years the keeping of poultry has increased from a point where a few thousand fowls were kept until at the present time it is estimated that over three hundred thousand Single Comb White Leghorns are maintained principally Figure 7.- -A well-managed back-yard flock will aid considerably in reducing living expenses. for the production of eggs for the New York markets. Back-yard flocks. Another branch of the industry that has made wonderful strides in the past decade and which now plays an important part in food production is that of thousands of small flocks of fowls on town and village lots and in city back yards. Although as individual flocks their output is relatively small, at the same time their aggre-

biodiversity-heritage-library

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40 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION Figure 40 Rose Comb White Bantam cock. Figure 41. Black Cochin Bantam cock. Game Bantam both consist of the following varieties: Black-breasted Red, Brown Red, Golden Duckwing, Silver Duckwing, Birchen, Red Pyle, White and Black. A well- known and typical representative of this class is the Black- breasted Red Game. The Bantam Class. The classification of Bantams as Figure 42. — Black-breasted Red Game Bantam oook. Figure 43. — Silver Spangled Hamburg hen.

biodiversity-heritage-library

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54 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION 58, while an outstanding characteristic peculiar to these breeds, is purely a useless appendage. ESSENTIALS OF POULTRY BREEDING Health and vigor. In the selection of fowls for breeding the fact should be kept in mind that health and vigor in FEMALE HEADtS momra DIFFEEETfT TYPES OECOMB^. I JINGLE Z PEA. 3 ROSE 4 ^mCLE. 5 SINGLE. 6 ROSE Figure 56. the parent stock are necessary for the production of strong healthy chicks. Frail weak chicks are usually the result of low vitality and vigor in one or both of the parents. The death rate among such chicks is usually great and those that do mature rarely if ever produce satisfactory results. Chicks from strong vigorous parents will develop rapidly, under proper management, into well finished cockerels and pullets capable of producing desirable results.

biodiversity-heritage-library

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BREEDING 65 taining charcoal, grit, and oyster shell should always be available to the fawls. QUESTIONS 1. Discuss the growth and progress that have been made in breeding poultry for standard requirements and high production. 2. What is the advantage of breeding fowls for standard require- ments and capable of high production? 3. Discuss heredity, variation, sports, reversion, correlation, re- gression, progression, prepotency and fecundity. 4. What is meant by inbreeding, line-breeding, outbreeding, crossbreeding? 5. Describe the process known as "Grading Up." 6. Name the various parts of the fowl. 7. Name the head parts found in the crested breeds. 8. What breeds are characterized by having a fifth toe. 9. What are two of the most important essentials in selecting breeders? 10. Discuss the general appearance and action of fowls that are to be considered as breeders. 11. When selecting the breeding pen, discuss the desirable char- acteristics that they should possess as concerning size, head, neck, wings, back, etc. 12. In general what are some of the outstanding defects that should be guarded against in selecting breeders? 13. What things should be kept in mind when breeders are selected for exhibition purposes primarily? For meat production? For egg production? 14. Describe single mating, double mating, stud mating, flock mating. 15. How long should the breeding pen be mated before eggs are saved for hatching? 16. When in confinement or yarded, how many Leghorn hens can be mated to a male bird? As concerning the general-purpose breeds, how many hens can be mated to a male bird, when confined? When given free range? 17. What is the advantage of free range over confinement for the breeding stock? 18. Discuss the management and feeding of the breeding pen. SUGGESTIONS 1 . Should you have a flock of fowls, would it not be to your advan- tage to so breed them as to combine standard requirements and pro- duction? What steps would you take to accomplish this end? 2. Could you not endeavor to have some one of the poultry breeders in your community give a talk on breeding poultry before a near-by farmers' club or grange? Could not such a talk be arranged also before the Boys' and Girls' Poultry Clubs in your community school?

biodiversity-heritage-library

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66 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION 3. An interesting contest that can be arranged in connection with the school poultry club is to have a live bird on exhibit and to have the members name the various parts of the fowl, the object being to see what member can give the most complete list. 4. In company with other members of your poultry club or asso- ciation, arrange to have a meeting at a near-by poultry plant some after- noon and hold a demonstration for the selection of the breeding pen. Keep in mind the object for which the mating is to be made as well as the desirable and undesirable characteristics to look for. Let each member make his or her owa decision, placing on a piece of paper the leg band numbers of the birds selected. Have the members compare this selection with those of a competent breeder or the owner of the flock, who should state his reasons for such selection in detail. 5. If you have a flock of fowls at home, write an article or compo- sition outlining in detail how you would select a pen of breeders from the flock, and how you would manage and feed them during the breed- ing season. After outUning such a plan endeavor to put it into oper- ation. REFERENCES The Mating and Breeding of Poultry, by Harry M. Lamon & Rob R. Slocum. The Principles of Breeding, by E. Davenport. Plymouth Rock Standard and Breed Book, published by the American Poultry Association.

biodiversity-heritage-library

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84 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION Care of the lamp. Use a good grade of oil. Clean and fill the lamp once daily, trimming the wick by scraping the charred portion off with a knife or by cutting the wick with scissors. The burner should be kept absolutely free from dirt and thoroughly cleaned after each hatch. A new wick is usually a good investment for each hatch, thereby eliminating any danger that the wick may give out during the hatch. Turn the eggs before cleaning and refilling the lamp, so that there will be no possibility of getting oil on the eggs. The flame of the lamp is apt to increase in size after Kghting. It is, therefore, advisable to return shortly after attending to the lamp to see that the flame is at a proper height. Turning the eggs. The eggs are usually turned for the flrst time at the end of the second day of incubation and twice daily throughout the hatch up to the 18th or 19th day, or until the chicks commence to pip. After the eggs are turned, reverse the egg trays, end to end, and change the position of the trays from one side of the machine to the other, in a two-tray incubator. While turning the eggs keep the incubator doors closed unless the directions state otherwise. Eggs should be turned by removing a few from the center of the tray and working the others toward that point, placing those that have been taken out of the center to the sides of the tray. Cooling of eggs. The length of time to cool eggs de- pends upon the temperature of the incubator room. As a rule it is safe to leave the eggs out of the machine until they feel sUghtly cool when placed against the face or eyelid. Cool the eggs once each day after the 7th and up to the 18th day, inclusive. To cool properly, place the tray of eggs on top of the machine or on a table in such a position that they will not be in a draft. It is important that the egg tray should not project over the edge of its support,

biodiversity-heritage-library

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NATURAL AND ARTIFICIAL INCUBATION 91 17. Describe two methods of supplying moisture to eggs. 18. When testing eggs on the 7th and 14th days, describe the appearance of an infertile egg. A dead-germ egg. A fertile egg. 19. What points should be kept in mind when the eggs begin to hatch in an incubator? 20. What should be done with the incubator when the season's hatching is complete? SUGGESTIONS 1. In order to become familiar with selecting eggs for hatching, save all the eggs produced by your flock for several days and examine them carefully. How many would you select for hatching? In what respect are these superior to those not selected? 2. Prove to your own satisfaction the many advantages of hatch- ing early by carrying on the following simple experiment: Carry on your regular hatching operations as early in the spring as your climate and equipment will permit. About six weeks or two months later, hatch a few more chickens from the same stock as your early hatched chickens, giving them the same care, feed and attention. On or about the middle of September, compare the early hatched stock with the late hatched for size, development^ and health. Leg-band the pullets from both lots and see which begin to lay first. In carrying on this test, it should be remembered that, in order to make a fair comparison, all conditions should be the same with both lots of chickens, excepting the time they are hatched. 3. Do you not think it would be to the advantage of the members of your club or association and to other poultrymen and farmers in your section to know of the advantages of early hatching? If so, why not acquaint them with the facts in the case? 4. A most instructive demonstration can be carried on in connec- tion with a group of poultrymen, farmers, boys and girls interested in poultry by studying and discussing the operation and construction of a hot-air and hot-water incubator. If they cannot be obtained in any other way, two incubators for this purpose may be borrowed from the local poultry supply dealer. 5. Another interesting demonstration can be arranged at the same time by showing the method of candling eggs during mcubation. An egg candler should be provided, such as is shown on page 88, Figure 86, together with eggs that have been incubated for 7 and 14 days. After those present pass judgment as to whether an egg is fertile, infertile, or is a dead-germ egg, break it out into a saucer to determine its true con- dition. REFERENCES Embryology of the Chick, by F. R. Lillie. Natural and Artificial Incubation of Hens' Eggs, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin 585, by Harry M. Lamon.

biodiversity-heritage-library

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117738-38249365-0115

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FEEDING AND CARE OF CHICKS 109 times a day, dividing the day into equal periods, and alter- nating a mash or soft feed with a grain or scratch feed. A most practical method of feeding young chicks is that of keeping before them a pan or dish of sour milk for them to drink .together with a pan or box of bran. This should be given them as their first feed and kept before them at all times in addition to the method of feeding suggested below. For the first feed in the morning and the feed at noon scat- ter in the litter or in a shallow trough as much johnny cake broken into small bits as the chickens will eat up in a short time. For the last feed in the evening they should be given as much as they want. It should be kept in mind, however, that more harm can be done by overfeeding young chicks than by underfeeding. Johnnnycake may be made as follows : Corn meal 5 pounds Eggs (infertile) pounds Baking soda 2 tablespoonfuls Mix with milk to a stiff batter and bake well. Note; — When infertile eggs are not available, use a double quan- tity of baking soda and add one half pound of sifted beef scrap. The following may be used in the place of johnnycake where there is a considerable number of chicks to be fed and where the infertile eggs are available: 3 parts of dry bread crumbs and 1 part of hard-boiled infertile eggs mixed thoroughly together. Rolled oats may be used in the place of bread crumbs. The scratch feed to be fed after the first morning and noon feeds should consist of the following: Finely cracked corn 5 pounds Finely cracked wheat 3 pounds Pinhead oat meal, hulled or rolled oats 2 pounds. This mixture, when available, makes an ideal ration. In the absence of corn, cracked Kaffir corn, rolled or hulled barley may be substituted. As a substitute for this grain ration, a reliable brand of commercial chick grain may be fed. After the chicks are 10 days old, discontinue feeding

biodiversity-heritage-library

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134 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION ber. Hollow tile, brick, cement, and even stone, are occa- sionally used in building poultry houses, but in most instances such material not only proves to be too costly but Ukewise is not as satisfactory as lumber. The most common fault found in houses built of hollow tile, brick, and cement is that they retain the dampness, which is detrimental to the health of fowls. In the extreme northern sections of the country, where the thermometer registers as low as 40° below zero during the winter months, houses properly constructed of lumber have given mostsatisfactoryresults. (Seepage 142.) Even in such parts of the country where, owing to the scar- city of timber, other building materials can be purchased as cheaply as lumber, it is advisable to use lumber. Size and dimensions of the house. The size of the poul- try house will depend on the number of fowls to be kept. The amount of floor space per bird is dependent somewhat on the system of housing used. When colony houses are used in a mild climate and hens have free range throughout most of the year, 2 to 3 square feet per bird should be allowed. With such a system and in sections where the birds are confined to the house during most of the winter months at least 4 to 5 square feet per bird should be provided. From 3 to 5 square feet per bird should also be allowed in a continuous house, depending on the number of fowls. Small houses should provide more space per bird than large houses. In larger houses there is a greater area in which the birds can exercise. The house should not be so deep that the sunlight will not reach the rear portion of the building at some time during the day. As to the height, a low house is more easily kept warm in the win- ter than one with a high roof. The roof, however, should not be so low as to make it inconvenient for the attendant. Foundation and floors. When a permanent continu- ous house is built, the most satisfactory foundation is con-

biodiversity-heritage-library

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152 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODVCTIOX for the birds. In the winter such an opening should be sealed tight to prevent drafts. There is, however, less chance of a bird's catching cold in a cold, dry house than in a warm, damp one. Proper ventilation will prevent the accumulation of dampness. YARDS AND FENCES Yards. In most instances yards are of course unneces- sary when the colony houses system is used. Yards are never advisable except when it is absolutely necessary to keep the birds confined to a limited area. When it is necessary to so confine the birds, double yards should be provided, one in the frorjt and one in the rear of the house. With this arrangement the birds may be alternated from one to the other. With such a system and with proper management a green crop can always be available for the fowls throughout most of the year, by growing such a crop in one yard while the fowls ha^e access to the other yard. (See page 203.) When yards can be constructed on only one side of the house, they should be on the south side. If it is desired to keep the yard in permanent sod, at least 100 square feet of yard space should be allowed for each fowl. When green feed such as sprouted oats, mangel beets, etc., are supplied and the yards used principally for exercise, provide at least 35 square feet for each fowl. Fences. Two-inch wire mesh is probably the cheapest and one of the most suitable materials for fencing fowls. Figure 153. — A water pan placed on an ele- vated platform to prevent the litter from getting into the water.

biodiversity-heritage-library

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CHAPTER IX COMMON DISEASES AND TREATMENT The prevention of poultry diseases and infection is largely a matter of management. The most successful poultrymen endeavor to manage their flocks in a way to prevent disease rather than to be continually doctoring. While it is found possible to prevent diseases to a great extent by keeping the fowls as well as the houses and sur- roundings clean and sanitary, in many flocks, nevertheless, fowls from time to time come in contact with some disease or disorder that interferes with their growth or production. In most instances it is not practical to attempt to cure one or two sick fowls; for, even though they are apparently cured, their value as producers or breeders will be lessened. Again, the disease may reappear and endanger other fowls. Every effort should be made to prevent disease from be- coming prevalent throughout the flock; for, unless a known cure is possible and the flock can be treated as a whole, it may become necessary to kill off a large number of the fowls. GENERAL PREVENTION Other than by keeping the poultry house, drinking foun- tains, hoppers, and surroundings clean and sanitary the healthy fowls in the flock may be prevented from getting diseases by immediately removing those that show signs of infection. The contagious or infectious diseases like roup, canker, chicken pox, cholera, etc., are caused by germs, which not only develop rapidly within a fowl so affected, but are subject to spread among the rest of the flock. The drinking fountain is most frequently the means of spreading disease and thus endangering other birds. In less severe forms of disease, as, for example, roup, canker, chicken pox, it is possible to prevent the contamination of the whole 159

biodiversity-heritage-library

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POULTRY PESTS 177 Figure 175, — A female chicken roite after feeding. Great- ly enlarged. be given to spraying the under side of the dropping boards and roosts, especially where the roost joins the support (See Figure 176.), as these are favorite hiding places for mites. The poultry house that is kept clean and has plenty of sunlight and ventilation is usually free from mites. A very good way to erad- icate this pest is to spray the inside of the house or to whitewash it. Whitewash. An effective whitewash that has been used for this purpose is made as follows: Slake half a peck of hme and dilute it with 20 gallons of water. Add 1 pound of salt previously dissolved in water. To this mixture add 2 quarts of crude carbolic acid or 1 gallon of stock dip and apply with a spray pump or brush. A good spray. Another very effective method that can be used to kill mites is to spray the roosts, nests, and all cracks or crevices with kerosene, crude oil, or some wood preservative manufactured from coal tar, such as creolin, creosote, etc. If possible, the spraying should be done with crude oil or wood preservative rather than kerosene, inasmuch as it is neces- sary, when kerosene is used, to continue to spray every 10 days or 2 weeks throughout the warm weather, once the mites have gotten started. The effect of crude oil Figure 176. — A small hand pump may be nr\Q^ iaf nyr>i^ii/i+ ia used for spraying the inside of the house. Or dt COai-Lar prOQUCTi IS ^^^%^hH^H^&9

biodiversity-heritage-library

2023-12-23T15:39:03.773216

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202 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION feeds. The average farmer is usually in a position to feed home-grown grains, supplemented with purchased mill feeds and meat scrap or commercial ready-mixed mash feeds. The methods of feeding as practiced by successful poul- trymen vary to the extent that some purchase their feeds and mix them, while others depend entirely on commercial mixed feed. Meat feed. Meat scrap or some other animal feed rich in protein is of most importance in the mash a,nd should not Figure 200. — Classification of poultry feeds. be omitted, if a profitable egg production is to be secured. Either fish meal or fish scrap can be used to replace the meat scrap in the mash and compares favorably in results obtained with a good grade of meat scrap containing the same per cent of protein. Skim milk or buttermillc, either sweet or sour, may be used for replacing part or all of the meat scrap. It may be used either in mixing the mash, if a wet mash is fed, or it can be kept before the fowls to drink. The vegetable protein feeds are not a satisfactory sub- stitute for the meat or animal protein feeds. In sections, however, where they can be obtained cheaply they may be used to replace from one fourth to one half of the meat scrap.

biodiversity-heritage-library

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220 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION QUESTIONS 1. Name some of the features that are essential for profitable egg production. 2. What two facts should be kept in mind when feeding for egg production? 3. Describe the development of the egg. 4. What are the most common grain feeds fed to poultry? 5. Mention some of the more common grain by-products usu- ally found in mash feeds. 6. What facts should be kept in mind when purchasing com- mercial feeds? 7. Discuss the importance of meat food in the ration. 8. Mention several kinds of green feeds that can be fed. 9. Describe the method of sprouting oats. 10. Discuss the necessity of feeding charcoal, grit, and oyster shell. 11. Why is water so essential to hens? 12. What are the three important elements found in feeds? What part do they play in maintaining the body and producing the product? 13. What is a balanced ration? 14. What is the nutritive ratio? 15. How is the nutritive ratio determined? 16. Mention at least three of the rations recommended in this chapter for egg production. 17. How and when should a grain mixture be fed? 18. Discuss two ways of feeding a mash mixture. 19. How should hens be fed that show a tendency to become too fat? What ration would you feed to such hens? 20. About how much feed would you give daily to a pen of fowls consisting of 2.5 hens and 1 male bird of the general-purpose breed? 21. What is the object and purpose of artificially lighting poul- try houses? 22. What are the advantages of artificial lighting? 23. During what time of the year are lights used? Why? 24. What three plans are used as concerning the time lights are turned on? What are the three methods of lighting? 25. How should fowls in illuminated houses be fed? SUGGESTIONS 1. As the principal purpose for which most fowls are kept is for the production of eggs, endeavor to so manage your flock as to secure a good egg yield. If fowls are to be kept, make them profitable. The real pleasure in poultry after all is in the profit. 2. By following the suggestions as given on pages 208 to 211 determine the nutritive ration of Rations Nos. i, 2, and 4. After determining the quantity of feeds that you are now using for your flock, figure out what the nutritive ratio will be. Does this conform to the nutritive ratio as recommended for laying hens as given on page 207? 3. Does your method of feeding differ materially from that de- scribed on page 213? If you are not securing as good an egg yield

biodiversity-heritage-library

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CULLINa THE FLOCK 227 the summer, and complete their molt before the better pro- ducers begin. Early molters molt slowly while this process is more rapid with the better producers, or late molters. In considering these facts, therefore, save the hens that have not started to molt by the last of August or are just beginning to molt in September. Some hens molt as late as December. Discard those that have finished molting or are well into the molt by the end of August. The hens that molt last, provid- ed they are otherwise de- sirable, are the ones that should be saved for the breeding pen. The hen that has not molted can be told bj' the fact that the plumage is soiled, worn, or broken, which indications are es- pecially evident in the tail feathers. Those that have molted or are in the process of molting show clean, fresh plumage or are growing new feathers. Culling out the early molters just as soon as they begin to molt is one of the easiest ways to eliminate the poor layers. Shank color. The degree of leg or shank color in those breeds or varieties having yellow legs should hkewise be considered in culling the flock. In such birds it will be noticed that the color of the shank fades out as the laying season advances and the rapidity and degree of the fading of color depends to a great extent on the heaviness of laying. As the color leaves the legs it fades from the scales on the front of the shanks first, and later from those on the rear. Figure 219. — A Barred Plymouth Rock hen that has completed the molt.

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TURKEYS, DUCES, GEESE, GUINEA FOWLS 245 2}/^ to 3 lbs. apiece when about 6 weeks of age. There are three varieties of the Indian Runner duck: the White, Fawn and White, and Penciled, the Fawn and White variety being probably the most popular of the three. As will be noted from the standard weights, this breed of ducks is considerably smaller than those of the meat class, the weights being: Adult drake 4J^ lbs., young drake 4 lbs., adult duck 4 lbs., young duck 3J/^ lbs. THE ORNAMENTAL CLASS This class includes the following standard varieties: The Call, Crested White, and East India ducks. Each of these is raised primarily for ornamental purposes, the Call being more common in this country than the other two. MANAGEMENT The production of ducks will be found practical and profitable both from the standpoint of eggs and meat, when a profitable market can be found. Duck eggs can be hatched successfully by either natural or artificial methods. The period of incubation for duck eggs is 28 days, with the excep- tion of the Muscovy ducks, which is from 35 to 37 days. Matings are usually made in the proportion of one drake to 5 or 6 ducks. GEESE Geese can be raised successfully in practically any part of this country and are found on many general farms. They are more frequently found, however, on the general farms in the South and in the Middle West. Geese are primarily raised as a meat food. The one factor that is against their wider use as a table fowl is the fact that they are too large for the average family. BREEDS There are six breeds of geese recognized by the Amer- ican Standard of Perfection, namely, the Toulouse, Emden, Chinese, African, Wild, or Canadian, and Egyptian.

biodiversity-heritage-library

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270 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION and third tubs, raise and lower the fowl slowly several times in the water so that all portions of the plumage may be reached. The use of a sponge will likewise assist in removing the soap. After four or five fowls have been washed, change the water in all the tubs before washing additional birds. When blueing is used in the last tub, immerse the fowl com- pletely with the exception of the head and repeat the opera- tion of allowing the water to come in contact with all sections of the plumage. Drying the birds. On removing the fowl from the tub, and before placing it in the clean coop before the stove or radiator to dry, remove the surplus water from the feathers by blotting the surface feathers with a Turkish towel. Should the fowl seem cold and shiver when placed in the coop, move it closer to the source of heat for a short period. Do not place the coop too close to the stove, however, for, if the feathers dry too quickly they are apt to curl. If, on the other hand, the bird seems too warm, remove the coop a little from the stove. After the feathers are dry, increase the space between the coop and the stove until the tem- perature around the coop is about 70°. Keep the birds in the room at this temperature for at least 12 hours before shipping them. Cleaning the head, feet, and shanks. After the fowl is thoroughly dry, examine the shanks and feet to see that no dirt remains under or around the scales. Such particles of dirt can be easily removed with a tooth pick. At this time it is also well to moisten a small cloth with a very little sweet or ohve oil or vaseline and rub it on the shanks, wat- tles, ear lobes, face, and comb. It will tend to bring out the true color of these parts considerably. It is advisable to repeat this operation after the birds reach the show, as a final dressing up. Be careful not to apply too much oil or vaseline, as it may later soil the plumage.

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284 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION 3-16 of an inch in depth. The white of the egg should be firm and clear and the yolk hardly visible and free from blood clots or blood rings or any form of de- composition. Extras. This class of eggs consists of those of good size weighing at least 24 ounces to the dozen or 45 pounds net to the thirty- dozen case. They should be clean, sound in shell with Figure 278. — When taking eggs to market, protect them from the sun's rays. Figure 277, — Egg crate with hinged top holding 30 dozen eggs. The egtrs here shown are not packed in regular paste- board fillers but in individual one-dozen- size cartons. an air cell not more than % of an inch in depth and the white firm and yolk only slightly visible. Number Ones. This class of eggs should weigh at least 23 ounces to the dozen or 43 pounds net to the thirty-dozen case. They should be clean, sound in shell, air cell not more than one half an inch in depth, white of the egg rea- sonably firm and yolk visible but mobile. The yolks should likewise not be stuck to the shell or seriously out of place. The air cell need not neces- sarily be stationary. Number Twos. These should be clean, sound in shell, but sometimes consist of weak

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MARKETING THE PRODUCT 295 form of diarrhea. The addition of corn to the ration should be very gradual. Marketing. The most satisfactory method of feeding turkeys for market is on range. Attempts to confine tur- keys during the fattening period in an effort to secure a more rapid development has not proven satisfactory or practical. When confined they will eat well for the first few days after which they lose their appetite and conse- quently lose in weight. The majority of turkey raisers sell their birds alive to dealers who either kill and dress them for market or ship them alive to other dealers in the larger markets. The method of killing, picking and preparing for market as given for chickens applies in like manner to turkeys. DUCKS As stated in Chapter XIV, ducks are usually marketed as "green" ducks. In preparing ducks for market the aim is to secure a good growth and development of flesh in a short period. To secure this result the duckhngs to be marketed should be fattened for a period of two weeks before being sent to market on a ration consisting of three parts by weight, of corn meal, two parts of low grade flour or middlings, one part of bran, one half part of beef scrap, with three per cent grit and ten per cent green feed. This mash should be fed three times a day during this period. The green feed is sometimes eliminated from the above feed during the latter part of the feeding period, as it has a tendency to color the meat and affect the firmness of the flesh. Ducks are dressed either by dry picking, scalding, or steaming. Owing to the commercial value of duck feath- ers (Page 302), it is advisable when possible and practical to employ the dry picking method. Thus it will not be necessary to dry the feathers artificially, as is the case when ducks are scalded and picked. This difficulty is

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ORGANIZATION 309 case an effort should be made to have all the members agree to adopt the same breed and variety of standard-bred fowls. The advan- tages of such a plan will be found under the heading of "Community Breeding Associations." In any case the members should agree to raise only standard-bred poultry. The advantages of standard-bred fowls over mongrels will be found in Chapter II. The following suggested plans could assist club members in getting started, when financially unable to purchase stock or eggs outright: Figure 293.- -A poultry house being buili; by club members. Figure 294. — A poultry bouse built by a club member.

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160 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION flock by adding to the drinking water an antiseptic that has the power to kill such germs as may be present. In such instances it is well to give the flock an antisep- tic, such as potassium permanganate in the drinking water, as described under roup, and to spray and clean the house and buildings thoroughly with a 5% solution of crude carbolic acid or some coal-tar product in water. Usually the fowl that is not well can be told by the fact that it is f^% Figure 161. — Doctoring a sick hen. not as active as the others, stands around in an out-of- the-way place, and shows little disposition to eat. Such a fowl should be immediately removed from the flock and, if seriously sick, should be killed and the carcass burned or deeply buried. COMMON DISEASES, SYMPTOMS AND TREATMENT Roup. Roup is a highly contagious disease, spreading from one bird to another rapidly. The disease is quite com- mon in the fall, especially in poorly ventilated damp houses. Late-hatched and poorly developed stock is usually very

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CHAPTER XI CAPONS AND CAPONIZING What is a capon? The word capon is the name applied to the unsexed male chicken and caponizing is the process of unsexing by the removal of the testicles. A true capon is quite different from a cock or cockerel both in his dispo- sition and appearance. In disposition he is quiet and docile, shows no disposition to fight, is easy to confine, and seldom if ever crows. The comb and wattles develop little or not at all, making the head appear small and feminine. The purpose of caponizing. Cockerels are caponized for two reasons, first, to secure an increased growth and a bet- ter quality of flesh, and, second, to secure a higher price that is paid for capons as compared with cockerels and cocks. The flesh of a cockerel as it matures becomes tough and stringy, while the flesh of the capon retains the softness and tenderness of young birds and is, therefore, more desirable Figure 184. — A Buff Orpington cock. Figure 185. — A Buff Orpington capon. 185

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194 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION instead and can not be sold at capon prices. Such a bird is known as a "slip." In order to become perfectly familiar with the location of the testicles and the procedure as de- scribed herein, it is advisable for the beginner to practice this operation on a dead cockerel or one that is intended to be killed. Thus the place to make the incision, the loca- tion of the testicles, etc., can be definitely learned and con- fidence secured. While the operation is not a difficult one, practice is necessary to enable one to caponize quickly. Even expert caponizers make mistakes and some birds will be lost, but this loss should not be more than two or three per cent of the number operated on. Care after the operation. Caponizing apparently does not inconvenience or hurt the birds at all. From appear- ances it would seem that the first step in the operation, namely the removal of the feathers, is the most painful and this can be lessened to a great extent by soaking the feathers over the ribs with water before they are removed. After the capons are released from the operating table they should be confined to a yard or pen by themselves where they can be kept quiet for several days. Remove all roosts from their house for the first two weeks after the operation, as the less jumping or flying they do, the sooner the wound will heal. Capons may be fed as usual, but, if preferred, a wet mash composed of equal parts of corn meal, bran, mid- dlings, and 10% beef scrap can be given for a day or two after the operation. During the first week or ten days the capons should be carefully observed to see whether or not "wind puffs" have formed. This condition is caused by air gathering under and puffing out the skin near the wound. To reheve this trouble make a small cut in the skin with the point of a knife and press out the air. Feeding capons. In addition to such feeding as the birds pick up on range, they should be fed a grain ration.

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FEEDING FOB EGG PRODUCTION 219 most desirable. When the lights are used in the evening it is necessary to provide some way to dim the lights before turning them out completely so that the hens can see their way to the roosts. When the lights are used only in the morning, such a system is not necessary. Kinds of lights to use. The various means of illumi- nating the poultry house are by the use of electric hghts, gasoline lamps or kerosene lamps. The former is by far the most satisfactory method and less dangerous from the standpoint of fire than the other two methods. Aside from the element of safety, the electric lights can be so arranged that they can be turned on automatically early in the morn- ing by means of an alarm clock. By this arrangement the alarm will go off at a given time and the alarm key in turn- ing will automatically make a contact so as to turn the lights on. When gasoline or kerosene lamps are used, it is necessary to light them at such a time as it is desired to have Hght. When electric lights are used, it is usually planned to provide one light of from 40 to 80 watts for each 100 hens. One gasoline lamp will usually be sufficient for the same number of fowls. When kerosene lamps are used, a reflector should be provided for each lamp and four such lamps should be arranged for each 100 hens. In other words, sufficient light should be provided to enable the hens to see sufficiently to eat. Methods of feeding. Methods of feeding fowls in illum- inated pens differ little from those suggested in this chapter. Some poultrymen, however, prefer to feed scratch grain three times a day at morning, noon, and night instead of twice daUy, believing that the extra grain feed is necessary to keep up the body requirements during the winter months when artificial lights are used. Another plan is that of scattering some grains in the litter after the fowls have gone to roost, so they will have it to eat in the morning.

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228 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION Other factors that affect the color of the shanks are the nature of the soil and the extent of grass on the range or yard to which the flocks have access. For instance, some kinds of soil tend to bleach the color out of the shanks and it has also been noticed that fowls on grass range do not lose this color as rapidly as those in bare yards. Hens that show bright or medium-colored shanks are most usually poor layers. Occasionally, however, poor layers may show pale or white shanks. This is especially true with a sick hen or one in poor condition. In breeds where the shanks show a horn color as well as yellow, as in the case of the Rhode Island Reds, the horn color must not be confused with yel- low. In such cases the absence of yellow color will be noted on the rear and sides of the shanks. The correct color of the shanks for the standard breeds will be found on pages 348, 349. Condition of shank- Another characteristic which may be found in some high producers is the flexibility of the skin on the rear of the shanks. As laying progresses the skin becomes loose and pliable and a groove or depression forms on the sides of the shanks. This condition is not apparent to such an extent on poor or fair layers. Beak color. In such breeds as have yellow beaks prac- tically the same principle appHes as in the case of the yellow shanks. The beak color, however, is lost from the beak more quickly than from the shanks, as the hen starts laying, and is likewise regained more quickly when she stops lay- ing. The lower half of the beak fades out faster than the upper half. The lower half of the beak may be used as a guide in this connection in individuals where the upper beak is horn color or black. Vent color. In breeds having a yellow skin the yellow color immediately surrounding the vent is quickly lost when laying begins and is likewise regained quickly when the bird

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TURKEYS, DUCES, GEESE, GUINEA FOWLS 253 in carrying messages from the Front where other means of communication failed. The Homer is a good breeder; but, ow- ing to its small size, is not as profitable as a squab - producing varie- ty. It comes in a variety of colors, including blue, black, silver and a mix- ture of these colors. Maltese. Maltese pigeons at one time were bred quite extensively for squab purposes, but Figure 247.— white King. the standard requirements call for long legs and long necks. Breeders find, therefore, that they are not as profitable for squab breeding as the White Kings and Carneaux. Mondaines. The Mondaine pigeon is one of the later creations. It is smaller than the Runts, but larger than Kings or Carneaux. They have a rather long, slender body, but some breeders claim that they are good squab pro- ducers. They come in white and blue barred. Their standard weights are: Old cocks 27 ozs., old hens 24 ozs., young cocks 24 ozs., young hens 22 ozs. Hungarians. Hun- garians are a species of the hen pigeon family. Figure 248 -White Runt. They are very sinfilar to

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CHAPTER XV PREPARING BIRDS FOR EXHIBITION OBJECT AND VALUE OF EXHIBITING POULTRY Since the first exclusive poultry exhibit . was held in Boston in 1849 poultry shows as a class have played a most important part in the development of the industry. A poultry show properly conducted is the final court in deter- mining the merits of a fowl, and in determining the abihty of a breeder to produce standard-bred stock. Then, too, "Poultry shows or exhibitions play a most important part in improving the various breeds and varieties. Not only do they serve to foster competition, and create rivalry, thereby increasing interest in breeding, but they also make it possible to compare results. In this way the individual breeders have an opportunity to see what other breeders have accomplished, and to observe where their birds are strong or weak in comparison. Thus they learn where they must seek to improve, if they expect to work their way to the top or if they expect to stay there, when once they have arrived." * In addition to these advantages the exhibition of fowls provides additional features which should not be overlooked. The best individuals in each class or variety are awarded premiums and ribbons, designating their place as prize winners. While the money prizes in most instances are not of great amounts, at the same time the honor and distinc- tion of winning can not be measured in terms of dollars and cents. The advertising value of such winners is of great importance, and plays a significant part in the affairs of one who produces and has for sale breeding stock and eggs for hatching. ♦The Mating and Breeding of Poultry by Harry M. La,mon and Rob R. Slocum, publisiied by Orange Judd & Company, 258

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MARKETINO THE PRODUCT 288 white-shelled and brown- shelled eggs in separate packages. Eggs irregu- lar in shape, unusually large or small eggs, those having thin shells, or that have shells otherwise de- fective should be kept for home use, so that breakage in transit may be reduced as much as possible. Eggs are divided into several classes for differ- ent markets. There is no uniform grade or standard that applies to all markets and to all kinds of eggs. Fresh gath- ered eggs, however, are usually divided in the following classes: — Spec- ials, Extras, Number Ones and Number Twos. Specials. Eggs that come within this class are of uniform size, weighing over 24 ounces to the dozen or over 45 pounds to the thirty-doz- en case. They should be absolutely clean, strong and sound in shell with a small air cell not over Figure 276. — Extremely large, small, and soiled eggs should not be marketed. All the eggs in this picture were produced by a farm flock of mongrel fowls.

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MARKETING THE PRODUCT 287 recognized when held before the candle, and when broken show a lumpy adherence to the inside of the shell. Packing. Eggs marketed in quantity for shipment should be packed in a standard egg crate, which holds thirty dozen eggs. Place a layer of clean excelsior or straw evenly dis- tributed over the bottom of the crate before packing the eggs. Use clean fillers and pasteboard flats and place the eggs with the small end down. When the case is full, cover the top layer with excelsior or straw evenly distributed over the top. Nail the lid on securely at each end but not in the center of the case, thus allowing room for a slight move- ment of the eggs, and reducing the breakage. When market- ing to private trade or direct to the consumer, pasteboard cartons holding a dozen eggs each may be used, as shown in Figure 277. MARKETING Precaution. Market the eggs frequently; twice a week, if possible, during the summer. When selling eggs, insist that they be purchased on a "loss-off" basis, that is, that they be candled and purchased on the basis of quality rather than by the case irrespective of quality. Thus the price received for eggs so purchased will be based on the actual quality. It is obvious, therefore, that infertile eggs of good quahty sold on a "loss-off" plan will bring a greater return than those sold on a "case-count" basis, irrespective of quality or condition. It necessarily follows that the dealer who purchases eggs on a "case-count" plan is compelled to pay less per dozen than when bought on a quality basis in order to protect himself from possible loss in reselling the eggs, a per cent of which may be unfit for sale or consumption. By parcel post. Many farmers and poultrymen espe- cially those in the more thickly settled sections of the country have taken advantage of the parcel post to market their

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292 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION that are fattened by confining them to their pen or house should be fed a mash composed of 3 pounds of corn meal, 1 pound of middlings, 1 pound of bran, and 1 pound of ground oats, slightly moistened with skim milk or water, in the morning and at noon. In addition to this, feed a grain mix- ture of equal parts of cracked corn and wheat for the even- ing meal, keeping a pan of skim milk when available or water before the birds constantly to drink. Chickens fat- tened by this method of feeding are called "milk-fed." HENS As the majority of hens after reaching a certain age do not lay enough eggs to pay for their feed, care, and atten- tion, they should be marketed. As a rule hens of the heav- ier breeds, such as the Plymouth Rocks, cease to produce a profitable number of eggs after they are two years old. Consequently fowls of this class should be marketed as soon after this time as possible, so that the feed may be fed more profitably to the pullets and younger hens. It will be found, when culling, that many fowls of the lighter breeds, as the Leghorns, can be kept profitably for three years or longer. Time to market. Usually the best time to market old hens, especially those that molt early, is during July and August. The number of eggs produced by hens while they are molting is very small and in the majority of cases no eggs are produced during this time. Hens culled from the flock as non-producers should be marketed soon after cull- ing, in order to save feed. How to market. Ordinarily it is not advisable to attempt to fatten hens for market that are two years old or over, for in the majority of instances they are fat enough. Hens that are not in good flesh, however, such as the smaller breeds, should be placed in a coop, as shown in Figure 284, and fed a fattening ration for a week or ten days before kill- ing. By doing so, such fowls, when placed on the mar-

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ORaANIZATION 317 ganization of the Farmville Barred Plymouth Rock Associa- tion may serve as a guide in drafting similar agreements. AGEEEMENT Being a member of the Farmville Barred Pljrmouth Rock Asso- ciation, the object of which is to improve poultry practices by the estabhshment of one variety of standard-bred fowls, I hereby agree to abide by the terms of this agreement as well as the constitution and by-laws of the association. I agree to accept the eggs furnished by the association without obligating myself in any way except by adhering to this agreement. To accept these eggs for mcubation and so manage them as to pro- duce the maximum results and likewise to consider such suggestions and practical advice as given by the poultry adviser of the association so as to produce the best quality of eggs and poultry for market. The standard variety of this association being the Barred PljTn- outh Rock, I agree to dispose of all chickens I possess prior to October 1, except standard-bred Barred Plymouth Rocks. To attend the meetings of this association as often as possible, so as to receive the benefits of hearing poultry topics discussed as well as the business transactions of the association. At all seasons of the year except during the breeding season when eggs are produced exclusively for breeding purposes, I agree to pro- duce infertile eggs by disposing of or isolating all male birds from my flock. I agree to market aU my poultry and poultry products through this association. In the event that this is not done I agree to pay the association such a percentage as might be decided upon by the board of directors of the value of all products marketed outside of this asso- ciation. I agree to furnish next year at a price not to exceed. . . .per dozen twice the number of eggs that I have received this year or such pro- rata part as the association may require to new members of the asso- ciation. I furthermore agree to uphold the reputation of this association at all times and realize that carelessness on my part will reflect a dis- credit to the association and all of its members, including myself. Should I fail to comply with this agreement I agree to return the value (not over $5.00) of the eggs received to the Farmville Barred Plymouth Rock Association on demand. Meetings. Periodic meetings should be arranged to stimulate interest and improve the members' knowledge of handling poultry by the exchange of ideas and by lectiu-es in addition to carrying on the business of the association. Possibilities for development. After the work is well under way and the association is in a position to market some of the products produced, arrangements should be

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326 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION YEARLY EGG RECORD

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APPENDIX 351 Incubation: Is natural or artificial incubation practiced?.. Between what dates is most of the hatching done?.. Brooding: Is natural or artificial brooding practiced? Egg production: Method of feeding.. Rations Are infertile eggs produced?.. Gathering eggs: Frequency...- By whom.. In what Marketing: Where kept for marketing?.. How long kept? _ How marketed? Distance from market? If standard-bred poultry is kept, do you sell eggs for hatching? Breeding stock? Day-old chicks?.. Note to the Teacher: Have the members of the poultry class or club use this form in making a survey of the farms in the community when they start their poultry work and again at the end of the year. This will enable you to note such changes or improvements as have been made during this time.

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360 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION Hovers — capacity of, 100, 101. individual, 100. Hungarian pigeons, 253. Hydrogen peroxide, 162, 175. Identifying chickens, 95. Inbreeding, 48. Income tax return, 329. Incubation — artificial, 78. natural, 67, 74. periods of, 71. progress of, 67. temperature of, 83. Incubator — capacity of, 79. care of at hatching, 88. cellar, 80, 81. disinfecting and storing, 88. electric, 79. hatched chickens brooded by hens, 93. hot-air, 79. hot- water, 79. mammoth, 79. operation of, 81, 82. place to operate, 80. selecting, 79. types of, 78. Indian Runner ducks, 244. Infertile eggs, 87. for market, 280. Inquiries answered, 332. Interior fixtures, 144. Intestinal worms, 170. Inventory— yearly, 328. Iodine, tincture of, 165, 166. Johnnycake, 109. Jungle fowl, 22. Junior clubs — advantages of, 305. constitution and by-laws of, 308. exhibits, 311. meetings of, 311. object of organizing, 305. organization of, 306. plans for starting work, 308. record, 330. rules for, 307. Kaffir corn, 109, 112, 201. Keel bone, 230. Kerosene oil, 174, 177, 183. Killing- capons, 195. methods of, 297. squabs, 296. Labor, 130. Lamp, care of in incubator, 84. Land plaster, 301. Langshan — as capons, 187. description of, 34. standard weights of, 34. varieties of, 34. Lavender guinea, 249. Layers, characteristics of, 232. "Leakers" (eggs), 286. Leghorn — as capon, 187. characteristics of, 31. standard weights of, 81. varieties of, 30, 31. Leg banding, 95, 223. Legs and toes of breeders, 58. disqualifications of, 262. Lice, 150, 178. and mites on breeders, 63. head, on chickens, 93, 180. Lights — artificial, 217. effect on egg production, 217, Idnd of to use, 219. Limberneok, 164. Lime, 301. Limewater for preserving eggs, 123. Line breeding, 48. Linseed oil, 174. Litter, 117, 301. feeding in, 213, 214. for brooders, 94. Location of houses, 132. "Loss off" plan of marketing eggs, 287. Louse powder, 179. Lumber as building material, 133, 134. Maltese pigeons, 253. Mammoth incubator, 79. Management — busmess, 320.

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12 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION

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14 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION DEVELOPMENT Growth of incentives. Judging from the nature of poul- try keeping among our semicivilized races of recent times, it is probable that the domestication of fowls was first ac- complished for the sport of cock fighting rather than for any economic reason. As the value of fowls as a source of food production became recognized, however, they were kept more and more for this purpose primarily. In consequence, from those early times until recent years the keeping of Figure 3. — Interior view of a modern cold-storage"plant. poultry has been a matter of supplying food for the family. There was no incentive to keep a larger flock than would supply eggs and meat needed for the family, for the reason that transportation facilities were not such as to allow the surplus to be taken any considerable distance for disposal. When there was such a surplus it came to be largely a medium of barter or exchange with neighbors or with the merchants of near-by villages or towns. With the advent of steam rail- roads, however, and, more lately with the coming of cold storage, it has been possible to ship poultry and eggs long

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BREEDS AND VARIETIES 29 of this breed, both of which are of the same type and color, differing only in that one variety has a single comb and the other a rose comb. While this breed is one of comparatively recent origin, it has been widely adopted and is to-day one of the popular farm varieties. The standard weights of this breed are as follows: cock 8}/^ lbs., hen 63^ lbs., cock- erel 73^ lbs., and pullet 5 lbs. From these weights it will be noted by comparison with the Wyandottes that they are practically the same with the exception of the pullet weight. The Orpington. As previously noted, this breed is of English ori- gin, but its place as a general -purpose fowl in this country has become firmly established. The standard varieties of this breed are: Buff, Black, White, and Blue. Un- like the American breeds the Orpington is charac- terized by having a white skin, which fact detracts somewhat from its value as a table fowl, as most markets in this country prefer yellow-skin breeds. The Buff and White Orpingtons have pinkish white shanks, while the Black Orpington has black shanks and those of the Blue Orpington are leaden blue in color. This breed is heavier in weight than either of the three above men- tioned breeds. The standard weights are: cock 10 lbs., hen 8 lbs., cockerel SJ^ lbs., and pullet 7 lbs. Figure 19. — White Orpington male.

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BREEDS AND VARIETIES 33 of the Andalusian is white. In shape and size it is between the Leghorn and the Minorca. The standard weights are: cock 6 lbs., hen 5 lbs., cockerel 5 lbs., pullet 4 lbs. The Campine. The Campine can best be remembered as the breed that originated in that country which we have come to know and respect so well, namely, Belgium. There are two varieties, the Silver and Golden Campine, each being identical in size and shape. Both varie- ties have white skins. Although they have been known in this country only during comparatively recent years, they have found considerable favor as egg pro- ducers. Their stand- ard weights are : cock 6 lbs., hen 4 lbs., cockerel 5 lbs., pullet 3J^ lbs. Figure 23.— Single Comb Ancona male. THE MEAT CLASS The breeds included in this class are primarily kept for the production of meat rather than for their egg-laying abil- ity. The four most popular breeds representing this group are the Langshan, Brahma, Cochin, and Cornish, all of which are of Asiatic origin, except the Cornish, which came from England. Although classed as meat breeds, repre- sentatives of this group are sometimes kept as general- purpose fowls. Each of these breeds is heavier and larger in size than the egg breeds or those of the general-purpose class. The Langshan, Brahma, and Cochin especially, are not as active as the breeds of the other two classes. They

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BREEDS AND VARIETIES 35 Figure 25. — Black Minorca male. Figure 26. — Black Minorca female. Figtire 27. — Blue Andalusian male. Figure 28. — Blue Andalusian female.

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50 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION flock by breeding from an unrelated individual, which is, however, of the same breed and variety. This is known as outbreeding, or outcrossing, and is usually done to revive or introduce some character or factor such as vigor, in which the flock is deficient. Crossbreeding. This form of breeding refers to the mating together of two distinct breeds or varieties. The object of crossbreeding is usually the effort to produce a new breed by securing a new combination or blending of characters of the two original breeds. Sometimes the offspring of the first cross is mated to a third breed to further the blending or to in- troduce still other char- acters that may be de- sired in the new breed. Many of the American breeds and varieties originated as the result of crossbreeding. GRADING UP It sometimes happens that the improvement of the flock is desired wherein the birds are mongrels. In such a case, where the owner cannot afford to purchase a pen of standard-bred fowls, day-old chicks or hatching eggs from which to make a beginning, a standard-bred male may be se- cured. When such a bird is bred on a selected few of the best of the mongrel or grade females and this process con- tinued for several years, a decided improvement will result. While such a practice is not generally recommended in Figure 52. — A standard-bred male at the head of a mongrel flock will improve the quality of the flocli materially.

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82 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION leases the heat from the heater. On the other hand, as the temperature of the incubator decreases the thermostat contracts, lowering the disk so as to close the heater, thereby retaining the heat. The thermometer. There are two general styles of incubator thermometers, each of which gives satisfactory results. One is placed on the egg tray, usually in contact with the eggs and is known as the contact thermometer, while the other is hung above the eggs. In using the ther- mometer follow the manufacturers' directions unless there is a very good reason for making changes. When the contact thermometer is used, some operators prefer to have the bulb touch two eggs so that it may record the tempera- ture of at least one fertile egg. The thermometer is usually placed in the front of the egg tray, so that it can be easily read without opening the door of the machine. Operating the incubator. The incubator should be set up according to the manufacturers' direction; and see that the machine is sitting perfectly level, thereby causing an even distribution of heat in the egg chamber. All parts of the incubator should be in their proper positions and the regulator should work freely. If the door of the machine sticks, do not plane it off until the machine has been heated up and thoroughly dried out. The machine should be run at about 102° F. for a few days before putting in the eggs. Figure 82. — It takes several hours for the machine to come back to its correct temperature after the eggs are first put in. Therefore, the regulator should not be changed during that time.

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THE POULTRY INDUSTRY 17 of Agriculture, the state agricultural colleges and experi- ment stations have of late recognized the growing impor- tance of the poultry industry, and by their experimental and educational work have done much to spread informa- tion on this subject. Intensive poultry sections. Something of the present development in poultry keeping can be realized from the development of certain communities which depend almost Figure 5. — Poultry students constructing poultry appliances. (Courtesy Cornell University) entirely upon poultry activities for their prosperity. Thus, for example, in the United States there is the Petaluma dis- trict in Cahfornia. This has an area with a radius of ap- proximately sixteen miles where about a million and a half hens, principally Single Comb White Leghorns, are kept for lajdng purposes. Another great poultry community in this country is the district known as Little Compton in Rhode Island. Here the fowls kept are principally Rhode Island Reds, and

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24 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION Figure 10. — A standard-bred flock. Figure 11. — A mixed flock.

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38 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION The Cochin. This breed was formerly known as "The Cochin China," but of late years has been more correctly called "Cochin." There are four standard varieties: namely, Buff, Partridge, White, and Black, the Buff being the most generally raised. The outstanding and most noticeable characteristic of this breed is its profusion of long loose plumage which gives it the appearance of being a bird of greater weight than it is in reahty. The fact Figure 37. — Dark Cornish male. Figure 38. — Dark Cornisli female. that the Cochin does not enjoy greater popularity even as a meat breed may be attributed largely to this excess feather- ing. The standard weights are: cock 11 lbs., hen 83^ lbs., cockerel 9 lbs., pullet 7 lbs. The Cornish. The Cornish is of English origin and was formerly called "The Cornish Game," later Cornish Indian Game, then Cocnish Indians, and now are known as Cornish.

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86 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION the machine below the egg tray, sprinkling or soaking the floor of the incubator room, or placing a pail of water under the lamp. There is considerably less danger of getting too much moisture in the incubator by the latter methods than by putting moisture directly into the egg chamber. When moisture is added to a non-moisture machine it should be removed before the chicks hatch. When an incubator is run in the room of a dwelhng house, it is frequently necessary to add moisture even to a non- moisture machine. Such machines run in a cellar in the same building might not need additional moisture. The presence of moisture on the glass in the door of the incubator during hatching time is the best indica- tion of correct moisture conditions during incubation. The increased size of the air D/<>^n,ms/,om^/f,emr Cell during incubation is caused by ce//onf/K7"i/^'fancy/9c/qy the evaporation of the water in of /r?cutiar/or?. mi • n i . the egg. The air cell durmg mcu- '^"'^'^ ■ bation varies in size with the size of the egg, while the shape of the air cell varies greatly in different eggs. Testing the eggs. An egg whether fertile or not has a grayish spot on the surface of the yolk known as the germ spot, or blastoderm. (See Figure 65). When a fertile egg is placed under a hen or in an incubator, the develop- ment of this germ begins. White-shelled eggs can be tested on the 4th or 5th day, while the germ development in brown-shelled eggs often can not be seen plainly until the 7th day. Eggs with dead germs quickly decay and give off a bad odor, if allowed to remain in the incubator or in the nest. Infertile eggs make excellent feed for young chicks and should be used for

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NATURAL AND ARTIFICIAL BROODING 93 however, do not allow the chicks to have any feed. When the hatching is completed, the hen should be kept on the nest and brood the chicks for at least 24 hours before remov- ing them to the brood coops. Broody hens are sometimes used to raise incubator- hatched chicks and to take the place of the artificial brooder when there is only a small number of chicks to raise. In instances of this kind a few eggs should be put under a broody hen 4 or 5 days before the incubator is to hatch. When the hatch in the incubator is completed and after the chicks are thoroughly dry, one or two should be put under the hen, preferably at night. Should she mother them properly, the following evening add as many as she can take care of. In the spring hens will successfully brood 10 to 15 chicks and from 15 to 20 in warmer weather, depend- ing upon the size of the hen. When giving chicks to a hen to brood, it is best to add those of the same color and age as the ones already with her, for the reason that she will sometimes pick the strange chicks, if they are of a different color from the ones she is already brooding. When transferring chicks from one hen to another, do so at night. Dust the hen with a good insect powder before moving her and the chicks to the brood coop, following the method given on page 77. The hen should be dusted every two weeks or oftener, if necessary, until the chicks are weaned. When lice appear on the chicks, or if they are troubled with "head lice," a httle grease, such as lard or vaseline, should be appHed on the head, neck, under the wings and around the vent, care being taken not to get too much grease on the chicks, as it will stop their growth, and in some cases prove fatal. For additional information on lice and mites see Chapter X. Care of the brood coop. Clean the brood coop at least

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100 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODVCTION usually be traced to faulty incubation or lack of health and vigor in the breeding stock. Brooding systems are classi- fied according to their capacity as follows: Individual brood- ers or hovers holding from 25 to 100 chickens; coal and oil stove brooders with a capacity varying from 200 to 1,500 chicks and hot water pipe systems, the capacity of which is unlimited. When possible, the beginner should thoroughly inves- tigate brooding equipment such as is used by successful poultrymen or farmers in his community and which has been in operation for some time. Thus one can decide which system or kind of brooder is best for individual use. Individual hovers and brooders. Small individual hov- Figure 102, — Artificial brooding of chickens, showing the arrangement of kerosene heated outdoor brooders. Chickens which have access to a shaded range such as is here shown develop and thrive better in warm weather than those not having shade. ers and brooders are heated by hot air or hot water with kerosene oil, and sometimes gasoline is used as the source of heat. Usually these small individual brooders are divided into two compartments of equal size. The hover is located in one compartment, which is artificially heated. In the other compartment, which is known as the cool, or exer- cising, room the chicks become accustomed to a cooler tem- perature before going out of doors. These two compart- ments are separated by a solid wooden partition, with the

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136 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION Such a floor is easily kept clean, practically makes the house rat-proof, and, if properly constructed, can be kept dry. In laying the foundation of a concrete floor, broken stone or gravel should be flrst laid as a foundation and from 2J^ to 3 inches of concrete placed on top. Before finishing the top surface of the floor, a layer of tar paper such as is used for building that is lapped and cemented with tar at the seams should be placed on top of the rough concrete to help keep the floor dry and warm. The top layer of cement is then put on top of the paper. When concrete is not used for the foundation, the building may be erected on brick piers or posts. A board floor is mostly used with such a foundation and in cold climates should be laid double, with building paper between the boards. An earth floor gives good results, if it can be kept dry. It should be 3 to 6 inches higher than the level of the ground outside. An objection to such a floor is the difficulty in keeping it clean. As a sanitary measure remove from 3 to 4 inches of the top soil each year and replace it with fresh clean soil. In the colony house the floor and foundation are usually constructed of lumber, the foundation timbers being con- structed in the form of skids so that the house can be easily moved from place to place. The frataework of the building. The framework of the house should be constructed of lumber of sufficient size and dimensions to make it secure, depending upon the size and construction of the building. With small continuous houses or colony houses most of the frame can be constructed of 2 x 4 inch lumber. In larger buildings, especially of the continuous house type, the uprights can be made of 2 x 4 inch scantlings and the rafters and floor joists of 2 x 4 or 2 x 6 inch lumber when the depth of the house and the span of the roof are over 16 feet deep. The sills can be made of 2 x 4 inch timber

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POULTRY HOUSES AND APPLIANCES 143 ! SCAt.£ 0/=- ^SST Figure 140. — Floor plan and front elevation showing the construction of a colony house as shown in Figure 122.

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150 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION tages of trapnesting the layers are as follows: — (1) To tame the birds, thereby tending toward increased egg pro- duction. (2) To furnish definite knowledge concerning the traits and habits of individuals. (3) To furnish the only satisfactory basis for systematic breeding. (4) To eliminate the non-productive hens. Dust boxes. Fowls clean themselves of insects by wal- lowing in the soil. In addition to this method of keeping themselves clean from insects other measures should be employed to keep down these pests by cleaning the houses thoroughly at intervals and spraying as described in Chapter X. Provision should be made for a dust box in houses hav- ing concrete or board floors, especially in continuous houses and where the birds are yarded. A box 4x4 feet square and one foot high built in the corner of Figure 151.— A simple nest built out the house wiU be found large of an orange crate. gUOUgh for a flock of frOm 50 to 75 hens. Fine, light, dry dust or sandy loam is excel- lent material for this purpose. When possible, wood ashes should be mixed with the soil. Broody coops. A broody coop should be provided and used to break up broody hens. Such a coop can be con- structed on the inside of the house, as shown in Figure 147. In the spring and summer months it is advisable to place the broody coop outside, as shown in Figure 152. When out in the open there is more to attract the hen's attention and it is cooler than when placed inside of the house. These conditions tend to break up broodiness. Drinking fountains. As will be brought out in the chapter on feeding, the importance of providing plenty of fresh, clean water for the fowls can not be oveiestimated.

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186 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION as a table fowl. For this reason the price received for capons is usually greater than that received for cocks. The capon continues to grow longer than a cockerel and fat- tens more readily, consequently reaching a larger size. The advisability of caponizing. The production of capons for market is a specialized branch of the poultry industry. The center of this industry will be found principally in the East in the states of Massachusetts, New Jersey, and eastern Pennsylvania, where capons are produced for the markets of the larger eastern cities. "Soft roasters" which have been for years produced in large numbers on the south shore of Massachusetts are in most instances capons, the males being caponized so they will attain an increased size and have a superior quality of flesh. The advisability of caponizing surplus cockerels rather than to sell them as broilers depends largely upon local market conditions. That is, the local or near-by markets should show a demand for capons and the price paid should be such as to make the venture profitable. In any event it is more profitable to caponize the cockerels than to keep them without caponizing and allow them to develop into cocks, as these bring a lower price than any class of market poultry. If, therefore, condi- tions are not favorable for the production of capons, the sur- plus cockerels should be marketed as broilers. When possible, a few cockerels should be caponized for home use in the win- ter. It is not generally advisable to raise capons on a limited range or where they have to be fed all that they require to eat. As the object of caponizing is to produce flesh, the capon's appetite and desire for feed is greater than that of other fowls. It is, therefore, advisable that they be given plenty of range, when possible, so that they can for- age for part of their feed and thereby help to reduce the cost of production. Other conditions being favorable, the general farm is an ideal place for the production of capons.

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CAPONS AND CAPONIZING 193 This must be torn with a sharp pointed hook (Figure 188h). The intestines will now be seen and, when pushed aside with the probe, (Figure 188g) two small cream-colored or sometimes dark-colored testicles will be observed, one on each side and close to the backbone. These should now be removed with the testicle remover and, if possible, the lower one should be removed first. Those not experienced in caponizing often find it difficult to locate the lower testicle. When such is the case the upper Figure 196, — After the spreader is removed and the weights taken ofE the wings, it will be noticed that the skin slips back over the incision so as to close it. one can be removed, the bird turned over and the other testicle removed by repeating the operation on the other side of the fowl. Practice, however, should make this second operation unnecessary. Care must be taken when removing the testicle so as not to break or rupture the arteries which lie close to them. Should they be cut, the bird will bleed to death within a few minutes. Such birds that may be killed during the operation are suitable for eating and are not, therefore, a loss. Observe closely and be sure that the entire testicle is removed. If even a small portion is left, the bird will not develop into a true capon but will look like a cockerel

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2C 200 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION FOLLICLES OF iSrWMATA - - OVART CONTAmna- ,SMALL AND LARGER roLLICLB^ GLAND. ALBUMFtfff Reproductive Organ-^ of the Hem~ AFTER. rC'VjiL Figure 199. — The egg-producing organs of the hen. (After Duval)

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236 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION Figure 226. — Bronze turkey hen. trous glossy black throughout. The standard weights are: Adult cock 27 lbs., yearling cock 22 lbs., cockerel 18 lbs., hen 18 lbs., pullet 12 lbs. Narragansett. The color of the Narragansett is a steel gray against a black background. The standard weights are: Adult cock 30 lbs., yearling cock 25 lbs., cockerel 20 lbs., hen 18 lbs., pullet 12 lbs. Slate. The plumage of this variety is of a slaty or ashy blue color more or less dotted with black. The standard weights are: Adult cock 27 lbs., yearling cock 22 lbs., cockerel 18 lbs., hen 18 lbs., pullet 12 lbs.

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TURKEYS, DUCES, OEESE, GUINEA FOWLS 243 the production of market ducks, owing to the variation in size between the male and female. The two varieties of the Muscovy duck are the White and Colored. The White variety is pure white throughout all sections of its plumage. In the colored variety the breast, body, and back are blue- black in color, broken with some white. The wing coverts are similar in color, while the tail is black. The standard weights of this breed are: Adult drake 10 lbs., young drake 8 lbs., adult duck 7 lbs., young duck 6 lbs. Figure 235, — Colored Muscovy drake. Figure 236, — Cayuga duck. Rouen. In shape and type this breed is quite similar to the Pekin and has the same standard weights. There is but one variety of this breed, it being colored. The plumage of the male and of the female varies with differ- ent colored markings. Cayuga. This breed likewise resembles the Pekin in shape. It is not quite so desirable as the Pekin as a market duck, owing to the dark plumage. The plumage is greenish black in all sections of the body. The standard weights are : Adult drake 8 lbs., young drake 7 lbs., adult duck 7 lbs., young duck 6 lbs. Buff. The plumage of this breed, of which there is one

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250 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION MANAGExMENT Guinea fowls have a tendency to mate in pairs. One male, however, may be mated successfully with 3 or 4 females. Guinea hens usually begin to lay in April or May and will produce from 20 to 30 eggs before becoming broody. If not allowed to sit, they will continue to lay throughout the summer, pro- ducing from 40 to 60 eggs. Ordinarily hens are used to hatch and rear guinea chickens. The period of incu- bation is from 26 to 28 days. Guinea hens and turkey hens, however, may be employed suc- cessfully. Guineas are usually mar- keted late in the summer when they Figure 243. — Wild, or Canadian, goose. Wcigh frOM 1 tO 13^ pounds when about 2^/2 months of age. PIGEONS Pigeons may be successfully raised and are usually found in practically all sections of the United States, both on farms and in cities. Aside from being raised as pets or for flying purposes, the real economic value of pigeons is for the production of squabs. Squab raising is usually conducted as a special business or as a side line on a small scale in towns, cities and on general farms. An intimate knowledge

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286 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION (4) Dirty eggs. (5) Watery eggs. This term applies to eggs in which the inner membrane of the air cell has been punctured or ruptured, thereby allowing the air to escape into the con- tents of the egg giving it a watery or frothy appearance. (6) Eggs containing foreign matter. (7) Badly mis-shaped eggs. Other terms used in grading eggs: Cracks. This term applies to eggs which have been cracked but have not started to leak. Leakers. As the name would imply, this term refers to eggs which have been cracked sufficiently to lose part of their contents. Spots. This refers to eggs in which the bacteria or mold growth has developed locally or in spots and causes the formation of a lumpy adhesion on the inside of the shell. There are three recognized classes of mold spots, namely: white, brown and black. Blood rings. Eggs in which the embryo has developed to such an extent that it can be quickly recognized when held before the candle. The development of blood rings cannot take place nor are they found in infertile eggs. Rots. Eggs graded as rots are absolutely unfit for food. The several classes of rots are defined as follows: Black rot. This stage of decomposition is most easily recognized and when held before the candle the contents have a blackish appearance and in most cases the air cell is very prominent. White rot. These eggs have a very characteristic sour smell. The contents are watery, the yolk and white mixed, and the egg offensive to both the sight and smell. Spot rot. In eggs so designated the bacteria or mold growth has not contaminated the entire egg but, as its name would imply, has remained in one spot. Such eggs are easily

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MARKETINa THE PRODUCT 293 ket, will be in a better condition and probably bring a better price. A good fattening ration for fowls is: 10 pounds of corn meal "I Mix with 2 gallons of skim 5 pounds of middlings / milk or buttermilk. This mixture should be fed morning and noon, and cracked corn fed for the evening meal. When skim milk or buttermilk is not avail- able, add }/2 pound of beef scrap to the above mixture. Such green feed as previously mentioned under broilers should like- wise be fed when milk is not available. In most cases it is not advisable or profitable to attempt to fatten fowls that are to be shipped to market alive unless they are in very poor condition, when such special feeding as just given may help to improve them. CAPONS In addition to the in- formation given in Chap- ter XI on marketing capons, the following suggestions are given concerning the preparation of capons for market. About two or three weeks before shipping the capons to market confine them to small yards and feed from 3 to 4 times a day a grain mixture of equal parts of corn and wheat, together with a dry mash, to which they will have access constantly, Figure 285. — Portable fattening^ battery as used by large commercial fattening plants.

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300 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION times net the shipper as much as when dressed. When shipping live poultry to market, well constructed slatted crates, as shown in Figure 283, should be used in order to provide for sufficient ventilation, especially when shipped in express cars. Do not place too many fowls in one crate so that they will be crowded. When shipping a quantity of live fowls to market, they should be graded according Figure 289. — A large shipment of live fowls to market. to size and color, and placed in separate coops or in divi- sions of the same coop according to the variety and size. POULTRY MANURE Poultry manure is a valuable by-product, as the average night droppings of a hen amount to 25 to 35 pounds per year. A conservative estimate indicates that this amount of manure contains fertilizing constituents which would cost 20 to 25 cents if bought in the form of commercial fer- tilizers at ordinary prices. Unless the manure is properly cared for, as much as one half of its fertilizing value is likely to be lost. To prevent loss, frequent cleaning of the dropping boards is necessary, and some sort of absorbent should be

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APPENDIX 343 Back of good length, broad throughout, and fairly level on top, from side to side, throughout its entire length and ending in a broad full tail. Breast Deep, broad, full, corresponding with breadth of shoulders. Keel or breast bone should be long, straight, and well fleshed. Thinness and texture of skin Skin should be thin and smooth; free from roughness or scaliness. Legs, 10. Medium length and set well apart. (Knock-kneed individuals are undesirable.) Thighs and second joints Short, thick, and heavily fleshed. Shanks Short, strong Toes Strong, straight, short, well spread. TOTAL Score Card used by the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Depart- ment of Agriculture. OFFICIAL SCORE CARD FOR EGGS (Copyright 1915 by the American Poultry Association.) (Name of Show or Association) (Date, Month, Days and Year of Show.) EXHIBITOR ADDRESS CLASS ENTRY NO COLOR WEIGHT OZ SCORE CARD FOR EXHIBITION AND FOR COMMERCIAL EGGS When judging an exhibit of eggs, the scores of the eggs forming each individual entry are to be added together; the total then being divided by the number of eggs comprising the entry; and the average so obtained shall be the score of the entry. DISQUALIFICATIONS Exhibition Egg: Cracked shell; extremely dirty or stained shell; foreign shell-color; pronounced irregularity of shape; sign of incuba- tion; decay, rot, mold, or mustiness; blood-rings; foreign odor; or any condition that renders it unfit for food. Coimnercial Egg: Sign of incubation or germ growth; decay, rot, mold, or mustiness; blood-ring; or any condition that renders it unfit for food.

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350 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION FARM POULTRY SURVEY Name Address Date Character of farm: Size._ Crops raised _ .. Stock kept Poultry accommodations: Houses: Kind Number Location.- Nests: Kind Number _ Location.- Runs: Size Number Do fowls have free range? Poultry kept: Breed and variety Number: Males Females.__ Approximate ages

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68 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION Two coiled membraneous cords or layers of thick albumen called chalazae are attached to the opposite ends of the yolk with each end of the shell. The purpose of the chalazae is to lessen the movement of the yolk so that its position will be maintained in the center of the egg. The germ spot, or blastoderm, is a small spot located on the upper surface of the yolk. Figure 66. — Eggs showing variations in size and shape. Uniformity in size and shape should be the guide in selecting hatching eggs. SELECTION AND CARE OF EGGS FOR HATCHING Fertility. The most important factor necessary to pro- duce a good hatch is fertile eggs, produced by healthy, vigor- ous stock properly mated and kept under the best possible conditions. The temperature at which eggs are kept pre- vious to hatching has, therefore, a determining influence on

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NATURAL AND ARTIFICIAL INCUBATION 75 a large number of chickens at comparatively small expense. The hens of the general-purpose breeds such as the Plymouth Rocks, Wyandottes, etc., usually make very good mothers. The heavier breeds of the meat class, including the Brahmas and Langshans, make good sitters, but are inclined to be somewhat clumsy on the nest. The Leghorns and other Figure 75. — Pack the hay or straw down firmly, shaping a circular nest slightly deeper in the center than at the edge to prevent the eggs from rolling out from under the hen and becoming chilled. Egg breeds usually do not make very good mothers, even though they become broody and want to sit. The normal temperature of the hen is from 106° to 107° F. This temperature varies little during the period of uncuba- tion. HOW TO SET A HEN Indication of broodiness. When the hen becomes broody and wants to sit, it will be noticed that she will leave a few soft downy feathers in the nest. Then, too, such a hen sits

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FEEDING OF GROWING STOCK 111 dition when given sour milk to drink. Oyster shell, small grit, and finely ground charcoal should be kept before them constantly. Water. Little chicks should be supplied constantly with fresh water in either shallow pans or small drinking foun- tains. Such vessels should be frequently cleaned. FEEDING OF GROWING STOCK Proper feeding and care of growing stock during the spring and summer is of great importance. The chicks Figure 108. — Frame covered with wire netting to protect feed of young chicks from the older fowls. It will be noted that there is an open space five inches high around the lower edge of the frame to permit the chicks to walk under to get their feed. may be hatched from strong, vigorous stock and carefully brooded; but, unless they receive the proper attention dur- ing the warm months, their growth will be retarded. In other words, the principal idea is to so feed and care for them that they will be kept steadily growing and mature into healthy weU developed fowls. The six essentials for proper growth are (1) proper houses; (2) feed and water; (3) free range; (4) shade; (5) cleanliness — freedom from lice and mites; (6) good management.

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118 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION they may scratch. Chicks should be examined frequently to see if they are infested with lice or mites. When these are found, every effort should be made to exterminate them by following the methods suggested in Chapter X. General management. As soon as the chicks develop sufficiently so that the cockerels want to mate with the pullets, they should be separated from the pullets in order to assist the proper growth of both pullets and cockerels. As soon as the cockerels are of sufficient size, those not intended to be kept for breeders the following year should be marketed (See Chapter XVI) or caponized. When chicks become 2 or 3 months old, it is often advisable to teach them to roost; for, when they are allowed to remain on the floor, it is difficult to keep them clean and to keep them from crowding. Such roosts should be from 3 to 4 inches wide, as this width tends to eliminate the danger of forming crooked breastbones, which are the result of chicks' roost- ing on narrow roosts. The chicks can usually be induced to roost by placing the perches near the floor. If it is found that only a few of them take to roosting, the others can be made to roost, if placed on the roosts after dark for a few nights in succession. In the late summer and early fall the pullets that mature and begin to lay should be removed from the growing houses to their permanent winter quarters. When possible, this change should be made before they begin to lay, so as not to disturb them. When the stock has been wing-banded, it is well to note at this time the numbers of those pullets that started laying first. Other things being equal, these pullets may make desirable breeders the follow- ing spring. QUESTIONS 1. Why is it so necessary that the chicks should not be fed until they are 36 or 48 hours old? 2. Discuss the method of feeding chicks up until they are 10 days old.

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PRESERVED EGGS 125 Figure 120. — Punching a hole in the egg with a pin before boiling. Selling preserved eggs. Or- dinarily the methods of preserv- ing eggs as described herein are intended primarily for home use and should not be construed as a method that can take the place of keeping eggs in cold storage. Should it so happen that it is desired to sell pre- served eggs, it should be thor- oughly understood by the party purchasing them that they are preserved, no attempt being made to represent them as fresh eggs. In several states it is against the law to mis- represent a preserved product as a fresh article. QUESTIONS 1. What is the economic importance of preserving eggs for home use? 2. At what time of the year should eggs be preserved? Why? 3. Describe in detail the kind of eggs to preserve. 4. When eggs are only slightly soiled how can such stains be removed? 5. Why is it so important that only fresh, clean, and infertile eggs be preserved? 6. Describe in detail the method of preserving eggs by the water glass method. 7. Describe in detail the method of preserving eggs by the use of lime. 8. When boiling preserved eggs why is it essential to punch a hole in the large end of the egg? 9. How do the yolk and white of a preserved egg differ from a fresh egg? 10. What measures should be adopted when selling preserved eggs? SUGGESTIONS 1. The preserving of eggs for home use is of great economic value and its practice is spreading rapidly. There are still many, however, who are not acquainted with the value and simplicity of the methods described herein. It is suggested that those interested in poultry and poultry products should endeavor to interest others and especially housewives as to these methods of preserving eggs.

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COMMON DISEASES AND TREATMENT 161 susceptible to roup, especially if all conditions such as proper housing, etc., are not favorable. The prevention in this case would, of course, be to hatch early, so as to have the stock well grown by fall. Likewise undersized or poorly developed birds should be culled from the flock sometime during the summer, as described in Chapter XIII. Symptoms. The first symptoms of roup are watery and swollen eyes, loss of appetite, and a thin watery discharge from the nostrils. It will sometimes be noticed that a fowl so affected will stand around with its head under the wing most of the time. On examining the plu- mage under the wing it will be found discolored or dirty. There is us- ually a rather offensive odor accompanying roup, which, when once detect- ed, can always be recog- nized when roup is pres- ent. As the disease de- velops, the discharge be- .1 . 1 1 • A Figure 162. — A fowl with roup. comes thick and inter- feres with the bird's breathing. In severe cases the bird's head becomes inflamed and the eye badly swollen, so that it protrudes. Treatment. Remove the sick birds to a warm, dry, well-ventilated room that is free from drafts. Syringe the nostrils by means of a medicine dropper with a solution of one teaspoonful of common salt in a quart of water. The eyes may be bathed gently with the same solution. Grease around the nostrils and eyes with pure or carbolated vaseline. After cleaning the nostrils and eyes with the salt- water solution birds may be individually treated by syring-

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168 PRACTICAL POULTRY PRODUCTION frequency of operation. It is usually caused by a change in the quality or quantity of feed, excessive green or meat feed, and very hot weather. Treatment. One of the best cures is to deprive the fowl of all green or meat feeds and wet mash and feed a dry mash and grain feed. A teaspoonful of castor oil or sweet oil with 5 drops of oil of turpentine added will frequently check the trouble. White diarrhea in chicks. This is probably the most dreaded of chick diseases, it being very contagious and fatal in its results. Figure 169. — Chickens with white diarrhea. Symptoms. It can easily be told by the fact that the chicks tend to droop their wings, are sleepy in appearance, show little or no desire to eat, assume almost a ball shape, and the whitish brown droppings adhering to the vent and fluff cause them to become "pasted up." Prevention. The development of this disease can be prevented to a great extent by selecting strong vigorous breeding stock and putting into practice proper methods of brooding and management of the chicks. For instance, it is seldom that this disease will manifest itself if the chicks are properly brooded and every effort is made to keep them from becoming chilled or too warm or overfed. Once the vitality of the chicks is lowered, it is difficult for them to

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