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Elephant hunting in Kenya | [[File:Loxodonta africana -Amboseli National Park, Kenya-8.jpg|thumb|350px|An African elephant in [[Amboseli National Park]], Kenya.]]
'''Elephant hunting''', which used to be an accepted activity '''in Kenya''', was banned in 1973, as was the [[ivory trade]]. Kenya pioneered the [[destruction of ivory]] as a way to combat this [[black market]].
==History==
===Colonial Kenya===
During [[British Kenya|colonial times]], elephant hunting in Kenya was seen as a sport for noblemen and was exploited by the colonial governors.<ref name="History1915">{{cite book|author=American Museum of Natural History|title=The American Museum journal|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=66seAQAAIAAJ|access-date=6 May 2011|year=1915|publisher=American Museum of Natural History}}</ref> [[British East Africa]] was not unique in this: [[big-game hunting]] was popular in many parts of [[British Empire|the Empire]].
Among the [[white hunter]]s, the bull elephant was said to be the most exhilarating target. Small-bore [[rifle]]s appeared to be the preferred option and aiming at the brain instead of the heart was another preference. The motive was not always monetary. However, many hunters were indiscriminate in their choice of elephants to kill – young, old, male or female, it did not matter, as the primary purpose was ivory to sell and [[elephant meat]] to feed their hunting party.<ref name="Steinhart2006">{{cite book|last=Steinhart|first=Edward I.|title=Black poachers, white hunters: a social history of hunting in colonial Kenya|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xXaP-eY493cC&pg=PA71|access-date=6 May 2011|year=2006|publisher=James Currey|isbn=978-0-85255-960-4|page=71}}</ref>
The [[East African Professional Hunter's Association]] was formed to regulate the industry and restrict its excesses. The Association, which came into being at the [[Fairmont The Norfolk Hotel|Norfolk Hotel]], Nairobi, stemmed from a desire to regulate hunting in the wake of technological developments like the safari vehicle, which had made accessing remote hunting areas much easier. During its existence it was able to accomplish much to conserve East African wildlife and become perhaps one of the most respected societies in the world of its kind.<ref name=herne167>{{cite book |title=White Hunters: The Golden Age of African Safaris |last=Herne |first=Brian |year= 1999 |publisher=Henry Holt and Company, LLC |location=New York |page=167 }}</ref>
One of the most prolific of the white hunters was the Scottish adventurer [[W. D. M. Bell]], who is reported to have killed over a thousand elephants, spread across several African countries. <ref name="Barclay">{{cite book|last=Barclay|first=Edgar N|title=Big Game Shooting Records 1931|publisher=HF&G Witherby|chapter=Chapter One - correspondence with WDM Bell and author}}</ref> See the first of his memoirs, ''The Wanderings of an Elephant Hunter'' (1923), for more information. Some of the madness of the desire to shoot an elephant (albeit not in Kenya) is shown in ''[[White Hunter Black Heart]]'', a fictionalised version of what happened during the filming of the Hollywood classic ''[[The African Queen (film)|African Queen]]''.
In 1963, the [[History_of_Kenya#Independence|first year of independence]], the [[government of Kenya|Kenyan government]] issued 393 permits ([[hunting license]]s) for elephants.<ref name="McNickle2004">{{cite book|last=McNickle|first=Dan|title=Teaching and Hunting in East Africa|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zdSHVaGcCwsC&pg=PT275|access-date=6 May 2011|date=19 March 2004|publisher=Trafford Publishing|isbn=978-1-4120-1935-4|page=275}}</ref>
In the 1950s and 1960s, the Kenyan poacher received approximately Shs. 3-4/lb ($.79–1.05/kg); by the 1970s, it was Shs. 100/kg ($12.74/kg), increasing the black market value for the primary producer from about one-fifth to one-third of the real value.<ref>Douglas-Hamilton, p. 77</ref>
===The ban, and ivory smuggling===
According to the American hunter [[Craig Boddington]], elephant hunting was made illegal in Kenya in 1973 and all animal hunting without a permit in 1977.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sportsafield.com/notes-from-afield/africas-elephant-explosion|title=Africa's elephant explosion|publisher=Sportsafield|access-date=6 May 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160510154017/http://www.sportsafield.com/notes-from-afield/africas-elephant-explosion|archive-date=10 May 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref>
By the late 1970s, the elephant population was estimated around 275,000, dropping to 20,000 in 1989.<ref name="ifaw.org2004">{{cite web|url=http://www.ifaw.org/Publications/Program_Publications/Elephants/asset_upload_file236_12046.pdf |title=Elephants on the High Street |date=March 2004 |publisher=International Fund for Animal Welfare |pages=18 |access-date=9 May 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110928081306/http://www.ifaw.org/Publications/Program_Publications/Elephants/asset_upload_file236_12046.pdf |archive-date=28 September 2011 }}</ref> Between 1970 and 1977, Kenya lost more than half of its elephants.<ref name="savetheelephants.org1979">{{cite web|url=https://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&q=cache:aVmYNQzzD6wJ:www.savetheelephants.org/files/pdf/publications/1979%2520Douglas-Hamilton%2520African%2520Elephant%2520Ivory%2520Trade%2520Study.pdf+kenya+elephant+ivory&hl=en&gl=us&pid=bl&srcid=ADGEESjXA_YT_db_nctmmbthPos3ND898AdycIwZxSwqAQrLb1EIJtiFy256vXYlu78njDGIelvBtUYi8MCWD2QDoME2zD-lemLDTFdcthjgS-0H2z4G-GbaepaVoeawZDsvloI2C8Ix&sig=AHIEtbRtWTmA6gOHe3MIqyQSFH3bpPFppg|title=AFRICAN ELEPHANT IVORY TRADE STUDY FINAL REPORT|first=I. |last=Douglas-Hamilton|date=August 1979|work=savetheelephants.org|page=19|access-date=9 May 2011}}</ref>
In the 1970s, [[Ngina Kenyatta]] (Mama Ngina), wife of then-President [[Jomo Kenyatta]], and other high-level government officials were allegedly involved in an ivory-smuggling ring that transported tusks out of the country in the state private aeroplane.<ref name="Information1975">{{cite book|title=New Scientist|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zE74f2fU1iwC&pg=PA452|access-date=8 May 2011|date=22 May 1975|publisher=Reed Business Information|page=452|issn=0262-4079}}{{Dead link|date=March 2024 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref><ref name="Bonner1993">{{cite book|last=Bonner|first=Raymond|title=At the hand of man: peril and hope for Africa's wildlife|url=https://archive.org/details/athandofmanperil00bonn|url-access=registration|access-date=8 May 2011|year=1993|publisher=Knopf|isbn=978-0-679-40008-0|page=[https://archive.org/details/athandofmanperil00bonn/page/51 51]}}</ref><ref name="Society1980">{{cite book|title=Animal kingdom|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oAEdAQAAMAAJ|access-date=8 May 2011|year=1980|publisher=New York Zoological Society}}</ref><ref name="Wieland2004"/><ref name="Munger1983">{{cite book|last=Munger|first=Edwin S.|title=Touched by Africa|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=06MMAAAAIAAJ|access-date=8 May 2011|year=1983|publisher=Castle Press|isbn=978-0-934912-00-6}}</ref> ''New Scientist'' claimed that there was now documentary proof that at least one member of "Kenya's royal family" (the Kenyatta) had shipped over six tons of ivory to China.<ref name="Information1975"/>
In the 1970s, 1900 elephants were killed in Kenya for their ivory tusks, increasing to 8300 elephants in the 1980s.<ref name="Lowery1997" />
===The worldwide ban on ivory trade===
In 1989, as a dramatic gesture to persuade the world to halt the ivory trade, President [[Daniel arap Moi]] [[Destruction_of_ivory#Kenya and the first fires|ignited twelve tons of elephant tusks]].<ref name="Perlez1989">{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1989/07/19/world/kenya-in-gesture-burns-ivory-tusks.html|title=KENYA, IN GESTURE, BURNS IVORY TUSKS|last=Perlez|first=Jane|date=July 19, 1989|work=[[The New York Times]] |access-date=9 May 2011}}</ref>
In the 1990s the widespread ban on commercial ivory trading reduced the industry to a fraction of what it had been and elephant populations have stabilised.<ref name="Wieland2004">{{cite book|last=Wieland|first=Terry|title=A view from a tall hill: Robert Ruark in Africa|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CflNHBquJWAC&pg=PA411|access-date=6 May 2011|date=25 March 2004|publisher=Down East Enterprise Inc|isbn=978-0-89272-650-9|page=411}}{{Dead link|date=March 2024 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> But illegal poaching and sale on the black market still poses a serious threat, as does government bribery. The largest poaching incident in Kenya since the ivory trade ban occurred in March 2002, when a family of ten elephants was killed.<ref name="ifaw.org2004" />
Illegal elephant deaths decreased between 1990, when the [[CITES]] ban was issued, and 1997, when only 34 were illegally killed.<ref name="Lowery1997">{{cite web|url=http://www1.american.edu/ted/ice/poach.htm|title=ICE Case Studies - CASE NUMBER: 33 - CASE MNEMONIC: POACH - CASE NAME: Ivory Poaching |first=N. |last=Lowery |date=December 1997|publisher=[[American University]]|access-date=9 May 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160505054639/http://www1.american.edu/ted/ice/poach.htm |archive-date=5 May 2016}}</ref> Ivory seizures rose dramatically since 2006 with many illegal exports going to Asia.<ref name="cnn.com2011">{{cite news |url=http://articles.cnn.com/2011-05-06/world/kenya.illegal.ivory_1_illegal-ivory-elephant-tusks-kenyan-elephants?_s=PM:WORLD |title=Kenya finds Illegal ivory in boxes disguised as diplomatic baggage |date=May 6, 2011 |publisher=CNN |access-date=9 May 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110513075330/http://articles.cnn.com/2011-05-06/world/kenya.illegal.ivory_1_illegal-ivory-elephant-tusks-kenyan-elephants?_s=PM%3AWORLD |archive-date=13 May 2011 }}</ref> Poaching spiked seven-fold between 2007 and 2010.<ref name="Straziuso2010">{{cite news|url=http://www.nbcnews.com/id/37167109|title=Ivory trade threatens African elephant |last=Straziuso|first=Jason |author2=Michael Casey |author3=William Foreman |date=2010-05-15|publisher=Associated Press|access-date=9 May 2011}}</ref>
Large scale tourism promotion picked up in Kenya following the imposed hunting ban in Kenya since 1977. It has been noted that "photographic tourism", or non-consumptive wildlife use, [[Tourism in Kenya|is contributing 12% of Kenya’s GDP]]. Hence, some groups have recommended that tourism be promoted rather than any kind of hunting or consumptive wildlife use, as it could divert the attention of the government of Kenya from the policy goal of wildlife preservation.<ref name=sport>{{Cite web|url=http://www.bornfree.org.uk/campaigns/further-activities/trophy-hunting/|title=Shooting animals for 'sport'|access-date=8 May 2011|publisher=Bornfree.org}}</ref><ref name="Internet Archive Digital Library">{{cite book|last1=Arkell-Hardwick|first1=Alfred|title=An ivory trader in North Kenia|date=1903|publisher=Longmans, Green, and Co.|location=London|url=https://archive.org/details/ivorytraderinnor00hard|access-date=17 February 2015}}</ref>
===The current situation, including safari tourism===
[[File:Elephant576.JPG|thumb|An elephant skull with tusk removed by poachers near [[Voi]], [[Taita-Taveta District]].]]
Although elephant hunting has been banned for more than 40 years in Kenya, poaching has not been eradicated completely given the poverty of many Kenyans and the high value of elephant tusks. Tusks traditionally were shipped overseas and sold on the black market.<ref name="AndersonGrove1990">{{cite book|last1=Anderson|first1=David|last2=Grove|first2=Richard H.|title=Conservation in Africa: Peoples, Policies and Practice|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oclQ6rHRJAYC&pg=PA45|access-date=6 May 2011|date=25 May 1990|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-34990-1|page=45}}</ref>
Arrests continue at Nairobi's international airport, where 92 kilos{{clarify|reason=kilograms?|date=March 2014}} of raw ivory were seized in 2010, and 96 kilos{{clarify|reason=https://www.un.org/en/chronicle/article/fighting-wildlife-trade-kenya|date=March 2014}} in 2011.<ref name="voanews.com2011">{{cite news |url=http://blogs.voanews.com/breaking-news/2011/04/29/kenya-seizes-traveler-carrying-elephant-ivory/ |title=Kenya Seizes Traveler Carrying Elephant Ivory |date=April 29, 2010 |publisher=Voice of America News |access-date=9 May 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110506152540/http://blogs.voanews.com/breaking-news/2011/04/29/kenya-seizes-traveler-carrying-elephant-ivory/ |archive-date=6 May 2011 }}</ref>
An individual case that received publicity in 2014 was the death of [[Satao (elephant)|Satao]], one of the world's largest elephants, in the [[Tsavo Trust]]. Despite [[Kenya Wildlife Service]] guards, poachers managed to shoot the bull with poisoned arrows and cut off his tusks.{{cn|date=February 2024}}
==Possible trophy hunting in the future==
[[Trophy hunting]], purely as sport and as a conservation action, is now being considered for adoption in Kenya, as such a programme appears to have yielded positive results in Namibia and South Africa under a programme titled "Community-Based Natural Resource Management" (CBNRM). Under this programme, while cash was offered as an incentive for sport hunting, the basic aim was wildlife control on the communal land, providing benefits to the community as a whole.<ref name=trophy>{{Cite web|url=http://conservationfinance.wordpress.com/2007/03/19/elephant-hunting/ |title=Elephant Hunting |access-date=7 May 2011 |publisher=Conservation Finance |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110813225940/http://conservationfinance.wordpress.com/2007/03/19/elephant-hunting/ |archive-date=13 August 2011 }}</ref> It is believed{{By whom|date=October 2011}} that trophy hunting might attract elephant poachers into moving into legal hunting and leaving elephant trading.
The [[Food and Agriculture Organization]]'s (FAO) report states: "Trophy hunting is generally self-regulating because low off-take is required to ensure high trophy quality and marketability in future seasons. Trophy hunting creates crucial financial incentives for the development and/or retention of wildlife as a land use over large areas in Africa, including in areas where ecotourism is not viable. Hunting plays an important role in the rehabilitation of degraded wildlife areas by enabling the income generation from wildlife without affecting population growth of trophy species."<ref name=hunting>{{Cite web|url=fttp://ftp.fao.org/docrep/fao/010/aj114e/aj114e09.pdf|title=Trophy Hunting In Sub Saharan Africa: Economic Scale and Conservation Significance|access-date=7 May 2011|publisher=fao.org}}</ref>
The policy of trophy hunting has been adopted in 23 sub-Saharan African countries. The income generated in total in Africa is quoted to be USD 201 million/year, derived from about 18,500 international hunting clients covering an area of 1.4 million km².<ref name=hunting/> Since there is a lack of consensus among the clients about the efficacy of this method of biodiversity conservation in Africa, a study carried out by the [[Africa Wildlife Conservation Fund]] indicates that if Kenya makes trophy hunting legal again, nearly 90% of the clients would be interested to pursue this activity in that country. In this context, the importance of effective regulation of hunting operators and clients has also been highlighted.<ref name=fund>{{Cite web |url=http://www.africanwildlifeconservationfund.org/Research_Team_at_African_Wildl/Romanach_Pubs/Potential%20of%20trophy%20hunting.pdf |title=Potential of trophy hunting to create incentives for wildlife conservation in Africa where alternative wildlife-based land uses may not be viable |pages=283, 286–287, 289 |access-date=8 May 2011 |publisher=Africa Wildlife Conservation Fund |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110517024606/http://www.africanwildlifeconservationfund.org/Research_Team_at_African_Wildl/Romanach_Pubs/Potential%20of%20trophy%20hunting.pdf |archive-date=17 May 2011 }}</ref>
One of the disadvantages of trophy hunting is the possible publicity backlash, such as [[Zimbabwe]] experienced with the [[killing of Cecil the lion]].
==See also==
*[[Elephant hunting in Chad]]
*[[Environmental issues in Kenya]]
==References==
{{Reflist|2}}
{{Africa topic|Elephant hunting in|countries_only=yes}}
[[Category:Environmental issues in Kenya]]
[[Category:Economy of Kenya]]
[[Category:Elephant hunting]]
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
[[Category:Hunting by country]]
[[Category:Ivory]] |
Habitat fragmentation | {{Short description|Discontinuities in an organism's environment causing population fragmentation.}}
[[File:Grasp africa-vi.png|thumb|right|Predicted fragmentation and destruction of [[Hominidae|Great Ape]] habitat in [[Central Africa]], from the [[GLOBIO Model|GLOBIO]]<ref>{{cite web|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051030100748/http://www.globio.info/region/africa/|archive-date=30 Oct 2005|url-status=dead|url=http://www.globio.info/region/africa/|website=GLOBIO|title=GLOBIO: Africa}}</ref> and GRASP projects in 2002. Areas shown in black and red delineate areas of severe and moderate habitat loss, respectively.]]
[[File:Deforestation central Europe - Rodungen Mitteleuropa.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Deforestation]] in [[Europe]]. France is the most deforested country in Europe, with only 15% of the native vegetation remaining.]]
[[File:Sugarcane Deforestation, Bolivia, 2016-06-15 by Planet Labs.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Deforestation]] in [[Bolivia]], 2016.]]
'''Habitat fragmentation''' describes the emergence of discontinuities (fragmentation) in an organism's preferred [[Environment (biophysical)|environment]] ([[Habitat (ecology)|habitat]]), causing [[population fragmentation]] and [[ecosystem decay]]. Causes of habitat fragmentation include [[geological]] processes that slowly alter the layout of the physical environment<ref name="SahneyBentonFerry2010LinksDiversityVertebrates">{{cite journal|author=Sahney|first1=S.|last2=Benton|first2=M. J.|last3=Falcon-Lang|first3=H. J.|date=1 December 2010|title=Rainforest collapse triggered Pennsylvanian tetrapod diversification in Euramerica|url=http://geology.geoscienceworld.org/cgi/content/abstract/38/12/1079|format=PDF|journal=Geology|volume=38|issue=12|pages=1079–1082|bibcode=2010Geo....38.1079S|doi=10.1130/G31182.1}}</ref> (suspected of being [[allopatric speciation|one of the major causes]] of [[speciation]]<ref name="SahneyBentonFerry2010LinksDiversityVertebrates" />), and human activity such as [[Conservation development|land conversion]], which can alter the environment much faster and causes the [[extinction]] of many species. More specifically, [[habitat]] fragmentation is a process by which large and contiguous habitats get divided into smaller, isolated patches of habitats.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Fahrig|first=Lenore|date=2019|title=Habitat fragmentation: A long and tangled tale|journal=Global Ecology and Biogeography|language=en|volume=28|issue=1|pages=33–41|doi=10.1111/geb.12839|bibcode=2019GloEB..28...33F |s2cid=91260144|issn=1466-8238}}</ref><ref name="Fahrig2003" />
==Definition==
The term habitat fragmentation includes five discrete phenomena:
* Reduction in the total area of the habitat
* Decrease of the interior: [[edge effect|edge]] ratio
* Isolation of one habitat fragment from other areas of habitat
* Breaking up of one patch of habitat into several smaller patches
* Decrease in the average size of each patch of habitat
"fragmentation ... not only causes loss of the amount of habitat but by creating small, isolated patches it also changes the properties of the remaining habitat" (van den Berg et al. 2001){{Failed verification|date=April 2018}}. Habitat fragmentation is the landscape level of the phenomenon, and patch level process. Thus meaning, it covers; the patch areas, edge effects, and patch shape complexity.<ref>van den Berg LJL, Bullock JM, Clarke RT, Langsten RHW, Rose RJ. 2001. Territory selection by the Dartford warbler (Sylvia undata) in Dorset, England: the role of vegetation type, habitat fragmentation, and population size. Biol. Conserv. 101:217-28</ref>
In scientific literature, there is some debate whether the term "habitat fragmentation" applies in cases of [[habitat loss]], or whether the term primarily applies to the phenomenon of habitat being cut into smaller pieces without significant reduction in habitat area. Scientists who use the stricter definition of "habitat fragmentation" per se<ref name="Fahrig2003" /> would refer to the loss of habitat area as "habitat loss" and explicitly mention both terms if describing a situation where the habitat becomes less connected and there is less overall habitat.
Furthermore, habitat fragmentation is considered as an invasive threat to [[biodiversity]], due to its implications of affecting large number of [[species]] than [[Invasive species|biological invasions]], [[overexploitation]], or [[pollution]].<ref name="Haddad2015" />
Additionally, the effects of habitat fragmentation damage the ability for species, such as [[native plant]]s, to be able to effectively adapt to their changing environments. Ultimately, this prevents [[gene flow]] from one generation of [[Population genetics|population]] to the next, especially for species living in smaller population sizes. Whereas, for species of larger populations have more [[Mutation|genetic mutations]] which can arise and [[genetic recombination]] impacts which can increase species survival in those environments. Overall, habitat fragmentation results in habitat disintegration and [[Habitat destruction|habitat loss]] which both tie into destructing [[biodiversity]] as a whole.
== Causes ==
===Natural causes===
Evidence of [[habitat destruction]] through natural processes such as [[volcanism]], fire, and [[climate variability and change|climate change]] is found in the fossil record.<ref name="SahneyBentonFerry2010LinksDiversityVertebrates" />{{Failed verification|date=February 2018}}Studies have demonstrated the impacts of individual species at the landscape level<ref name="auto">{{Cite journal |last1=McLachlan |first1=S.M |last2=Bazely |first2=D.R |date=October 2003 |title=Outcomes of longterm deciduous forest restoration in southwestern Ontario, Canada |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0006-3207(02)00248-3 |journal=Biological Conservation |volume=113 |issue=2 |pages=159–169 |doi=10.1016/s0006-3207(02)00248-3 |bibcode=2003BCons.113..159M |issn=0006-3207}}</ref> For example, From research the results show that the impact of deer herbivory on forest plant communities can be observed at the landscape level at the Rondeau Provincial park for the period of 1955-1978<ref name="auto"/>and also, [[Carboniferous rainforest collapse|habitat fragmentation of tropical rainforests in Euramerica]] 300 million years ago led to a great loss of amphibian diversity, but simultaneously the drier climate spurred on a burst of diversity among reptiles.<ref name="SahneyBentonFerry2010LinksDiversityVertebrates" />
===Human causes===
Habitat fragmentation is frequently caused by humans when [[native plant]]s are cleared for human activities such as [[agriculture]], [[Subdivision (land)|rural development]], [[urbanization]] and the creation of [[hydroelectric]] reservoirs. Habitats which were once continuous become divided into separate fragments. Due to human activities, many tropical and temperate habitats have already been severely fragmented, and in the near future, the degree of fragmentation will significantly rise.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Templeton |first1=Alan R. |last2=Shaw |first2=Kerry |last3=Routman |first3=Eric |last4=Davis |first4=Scott K. |date=1990 |title=The Genetic Consequences of Habitat Fragmentation |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/2399621 |journal=Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden |volume=77 |issue=1 |pages=13–27 |doi=10.2307/2399621 |jstor=2399621 |issn=0026-6493}}</ref> After intensive clearing, the separate fragments tend to be very small islands isolated from each other by cropland, pasture, pavement, or even barren land. The latter is often the result of [[slash and burn]] farming in [[tropical forest]]s. In the wheat belt of central-western [[New South Wales]], [[Australia]], 90% of the native vegetation has been cleared and over 99% of the [[tall grass prairie]] of [[North America]] has been cleared, resulting in extreme habitat fragmentation.
=== Endogenous vs. exogenous ===
There are two types of processes that can lead to habitat fragmentation. There are exogenous processes and endogenous processes. Endogenous is a process that develops as a part of species biology so they typically include changes in biology, behavior, and interactions within or between species. Endogenous threats can result in changes to breeding patterns or migration patterns and are often triggered by exogenous processes. Exogenous processes are independent of species biology and can include habitat degradation, habitat subdivision or habitat isolation. These processes can have a substantial impact on endogenous processes by fundamentally altering species behavior. Habitat subdivision or isolation can lead to changes in dispersal or movement of species including changes to seasonal migration. These changes can lead to a decrease in a density of species, increased competition or even increased predation.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Fischer|first1=Joern|last2=Lindenmayer|first2=David B.|date=February 7, 2007|title=Landscape Modification and Habitat Fragmentation: A synthesis|journal=Global Ecology and Biogeography|volume=16|issue=3|pages=265–280|doi=10.1111/j.1466-8238.2007.00287.x|bibcode=2007GloEB..16..265F |ref=1|doi-access=free}}</ref>
==Implications ==
=== Habitat and biodiversity loss ===
{{Main|biodiversity loss}}
One of the major ways that habitat fragmentation affects [[biodiversity]] is by reducing the amount of suitable habitat available for organisms. Habitat fragmentation often involves both [[habitat destruction]] and the subdivision of previously continuous habitat.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Fahrig|first1=Lenore|title=Effects of Habitat Fragmentation on Biodiversity|journal=Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics|date=November 2003|volume=34|issue=1|pages=487–515|doi=10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.34.011802.132419}}</ref> Plants and other [[Sessility (zoology)|sessile]] organisms are disproportionately affected by some types of habitat fragmentation because they cannot respond quickly to the altered spatial configuration of the habitat.<ref name="Lienert2004">{{cite journal|last1=Lienert|first1=Judit|title=Habitat fragmentation effects on fitness of plant populations – a review|journal=Journal for Nature Conservation|date=July 2004|volume=12|issue=1|pages=53–72|doi=10.1016/j.jnc.2003.07.002|bibcode=2004JNatC..12...53L }}</ref>
Habitat loss, which can occur through the process of habitat fragmentation, is considered to be the greatest threat to species.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Wilcove | first1 = David S. |display-authors=etal | year = 1998 | title = Quantifying Threats to Imperiled Species in the United States | jstor = 1313420 | journal = BioScience | volume = 48 | issue = 8| pages = 607–615 | doi=10.2307/1313420| doi-access = free}}</ref> But, the effect of the configuration of habitat patches within the landscape, independent of the effect of the amount of habitat within the landscape (referred to as fragmentation per se<ref name="Fahrig2003">{{cite journal | last1 = Fahrig | first1 = L | year = 2003 | title = Effects of habitat fragmentation on biodiversity | journal = Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics | volume = 34 | pages = 487–515 | doi=10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.34.011802.132419}}</ref>), has been suggested to be small.<ref name="Fahrig2013">{{cite journal | last1 = Fahrig | first1 = L | year = 2013 | title = Rethinking patch size and isolation effects: the habitat amount hypothesis | journal = J. Biogeogr. | volume = 40 | issue = 9| pages = 1649–1663 | doi = 10.1111/jbi.12130 | bibcode = 2013JBiog..40.1649F | doi-access = free}}</ref> A review of empirical studies found that, of the 381 reported significant effect of habitat fragmentation per se on species occurrences, abundances or diversity in the scientific literature, 76% were positive whereas 24% were negative.<ref name="Fahrig2017">{{cite journal | last1 = Fahrig | first1 = L | year = 2017 | title = Ecological Responses to Habitat Fragmentation Per Se | journal = Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics | volume = 48 | pages = 1–23 | doi = 10.1146/annurev-ecolsys-110316-022612}}</ref> Despite these results, the scientific literature tends to emphasize negative effects more than positive effects.<ref>Fahrig, L. (2018) Forty years of biais in habitat fragmentation research, In: Effective Conservation Science: Data Not Dogma (Edited by Kareiva, Marvier and Silliman), Oxford University Press, United Kingdom</ref> Positive effects of habitat fragmentation per se imply that several small patches of habitat can have higher conservation value than a single large patch of equivalent size.<ref name="Fahrig2017" /> Land sharing strategies could therefore have more positive impacts on species than land sparing strategies.<ref name="Fahrig2017" /> Although the negative effects of habitat loss are generally viewed to be much larger than that of habitat fragmentation, the two events are heavily connected and observations are not usually independent of one another.<ref>{{Cite journal |doi=10.1016/j.biocon.2018.07.022| s2cid=52839843 | title=Is habitat fragmentation good for biodiversity? | year=2018 | last1=Fletcher | first1=Robert J. | last2=Didham | first2=Raphael K. | last3=Banks-Leite | first3=Cristina | last4=Barlow | first4=Jos | last5=Ewers | first5=Robert M. | last6=Rosindell | first6=James | last7=Holt | first7=Robert D. | last8=Gonzalez | first8=Andrew | last9=Pardini | first9=Renata | last10=Damschen | first10=Ellen I. | last11=Melo | first11=Felipe P.L. | last12=Ries | first12=Leslie | last13=Prevedello | first13=Jayme A. | last14=Tscharntke | first14=Teja | last15=Laurance | first15=William F. | last16=Lovejoy | first16=Thomas | last17=Haddad | first17=Nick M. | journal=Biological Conservation | volume=226 | pages=9–15 | bibcode=2018BCons.226....9F | url=https://eprints.lancs.ac.uk/id/eprint/126675/1/Fletcher_etal_2018_Biological_Conservation.pdf }}</ref>[[File:Indiana Dunes Habitat Fragmentation.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Habitat fragmented by numerous roads near the [[Indiana Dunes National Park]].]]
Area is the primary determinant of the number of species in a fragment<ref name="Rosenzweig">{{cite book | last = Rosenzweig | first = Michael L. | author-link = Michael Rosenzweig | title = Species diversity in space and time | year = 1995 | publisher = [[Cambridge University Press]] | location = Cambridge}}</ref> and the relative contributions of demographic and genetic processes to the risk of global population extinction depend on habitat configuration, stochastic environmental variation and species features.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Robert | first1 = A | year = 2011 | title = Find the weakest link. A comparison between demographic, genetic and demo-genetic metapopulation extinction times | journal = BMC Evolutionary Biology | volume = 11 | issue = 1 | page = 260 | doi = 10.1186/1471-2148-11-260 | pmid = 21929788 | pmc = 3185286 | bibcode = 2011BMCEE..11..260R | doi-access = free }}</ref> Minor fluctuations in climate, resources, or other factors that would be unremarkable and quickly corrected in large populations can be catastrophic in small, isolated populations. Thus fragmentation of habitat is an important cause of species extinction.<ref name="Rosenzweig" /> Population dynamics of subdivided populations tend to vary [[wikt:asynchronous|asynchronous]]ly. In an unfragmented landscape a declining population can be "rescued" by immigration from a nearby expanding population. In fragmented landscapes, the distance between fragments may prevent this from happening. Additionally, unoccupied fragments of habitat that are separated from a source of [[Colonisation (biology)|immigrants]] by some barrier are less likely to be repopulated than adjoining fragments. Even small species such as the [[Columbia spotted frog]] are reliant on the [[rescue effect]]. Studies showed 25% of juveniles travel a distance over 200m compared to 4% of adults. Of these, 95% remain in their new locale, demonstrating that this journey is necessary for survival.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Funk W.C. |author2=Greene A.E. |author3=Corn P.S. |author4=Allendorf F.W. | year = 2005 | title = High dispersal in a frog species suggests that it is vulnerable to habitat fragmentation | journal = [[Biology Letters|Biol. Lett.]] | volume = 1 | issue = 1| pages = 13–6 | doi=10.1098/rsbl.2004.0270|pmid=17148116 |pmc=1629065}}</ref>
Additionally, habitat fragmentation leads to [[edge effect]]s. Microclimatic changes in light, temperature, and wind can alter the ecology around the fragment, and in the interior and exterior portions of the fragment.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Magnago|first1=Luiz Fernando Silva|last2=Rocha|first2=Mariana Ferreira|last3=Meyer|first3=Leila|last4=Martins|first4=Sebastião Venâncio|last5=Meira-Neto|first5=João Augusto Alves|date=September 2015|title=Microclimatic conditions at forest edges have significant impacts on vegetation structure in large Atlantic forest fragments|journal=Biodiversity and Conservation|language=en|volume=24|issue=9|pages=2305–2318|doi=10.1007/s10531-015-0961-1|bibcode=2015BiCon..24.2305M |s2cid=16927557|issn=0960-3115|url=http://www.locus.ufv.br/handle/123456789/21347}}</ref> [[wildfire|Fires]] become more likely in the area as humidity drops and temperature and wind levels rise. Exotic and pest species may establish themselves easily in such disturbed environments, and the proximity of domestic animals often upsets the natural ecology. Also, habitat along the edge of a fragment has a different climate and favours different species from the interior habitat. Small fragments are therefore unfavourable for species that require interior habitat. The percentage preservation of contiguous habitats is closely related to both genetic and species biodiversity preservation. Generally a 10% remnant contiguous habitat will result in a 50% [[biodiversity loss]].<ref>Quammen, David (1997), "The Song of the Dodo: Island Biogeography in an Age of Extinction" (Scribner)</ref>
Much of the remaining terrestrial [[wildlife]] habitat in many third world countries has experienced fragmentation through the development of [[Urban sprawl|urban expansion]] such as roads interfering with [[habitat loss]]. Aquatic species’ habitats have been fragmented by [[dam]]s and [[Interbasin transfer|water diversions]].<ref name="Habitat Loss">{{Cite web|url=https://www.nwf.org/Home/Educational-Resources/Wildlife-Guide/Threats-to-Wildlife/Habitat-Loss|title=Habitat Loss|website=National Wildlife Federation|language=en|access-date=2020-03-06}}</ref> These fragments of habitat may not be large or connected enough to support species that need a large territory where they can find mates and food. The loss and fragmentation of habitats makes it difficult for migratory species to find places to rest and feed along their migration routes.<ref name="Habitat Loss" />
The effects of current fragmentation will continue to emerge for decades. Extinction debts are likely to come due, although the counteracting immigration debts may never fully be paid. Indeed, the experiments here reveal ongoing losses of biodiversity and ecosystem functioning two decades or longer after fragmentation occurred. Understanding the relationship between transient and long-term dynamics is a substantial challenge that ecologists must tackle, and fragmentation experiments will be central for relating observation to theory.<ref name="Haddad2015"/>
===Informed conservation===
Habitat fragmentation is often a cause of species becoming [[threatened]] or [[endangered]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Crooks|first1=Kevin R.|last2=Burdett|first2=Christopher L.|last3=Theobald|first3=David M.|last4=King|first4=Sarah R. B.|last5=Di Marco|first5=Moreno|last6=Rondinini|first6=Carlo|last7=Boitani|first7=Luigi|date=2017-07-18|title=Quantification of habitat fragmentation reveals extinction risk in terrestrial mammals|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|language=en|volume=114|issue=29|pages=7635–7640|doi=10.1073/pnas.1705769114|issn=0027-8424|pmc=5530695|pmid=28673992|bibcode=2017PNAS..114.7635C |doi-access=free}}</ref> The existence of viable habitat is critical to the survival of any species, and in many cases, the fragmentation of any remaining habitat can lead to difficult decisions for conservation biologists. Given a limited amount of resources available for conservation is it preferable to protect the existing isolated patches of habitat or to buy back land to get the largest possible contiguous piece of land. In rare cases, a [[conservation reliant species]] may gain some measure of disease protection by being distributed in isolated habitats, and when controlled for overall habitat loss some studies have shown a positive relationship between species richness and fragmentation; this phenomenon has been called the habitat amount hypothesis, though the validity of this claim has been disputed.<ref name="Fahrig2013" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hanski|first=Ilkka|date=May 2015|editor-last=Triantis|editor-first=Kostas|title=Habitat fragmentation and species richness|journal=Journal of Biogeography|language=en|volume=42|issue=5|pages=989–993|doi=10.1111/jbi.12478|bibcode=2015JBiog..42..989H |s2cid=84220990 |doi-access=}}</ref> The ongoing debate of what size fragments are most relevant for conservation is often referred to as [[SLOSS debate|SLOSS]] (Single Large or Several Small). Habitat loss in a biodiversity hotspot can result in a localized extinction crisis, generally speaking habitat loss in a hotspot location can be a good indicator or predictor of the number of threatened and extinct endemic species.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Brooks |first1=Thomas M. |last2=Mittermeier |first2=Russell A. |last3=Mittermeier |first3=Cristina G. |last4=da Fonseca |first4=Gustavo A. B. |last5=Rylands |first5=Anthony B. |last6=Konstant |first6=William R. |last7=Flick |first7=Penny |last8=Pilgrim |first8=John |last9=Oldfield |first9=Sara |last10=Magin |first10=Georgina |last11=Hilton-Taylor |first11=Craig |date=August 2002 |title=Habitat Loss and Extinction in the Hotspots of Biodiversity |url=https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1523-1739.2002.00530.x |journal=Conservation Biology |volume=16 |issue=4 |pages=909–923 |doi=10.1046/j.1523-1739.2002.00530.x |bibcode=2002ConBi..16..909B |s2cid=44009934 |issn=0888-8892}}</ref>
One solution to the problem of habitat fragmentation is to link the fragments by preserving or planting [[Habitat corridor|corridors]] of native vegetation. In some cases, a bridge or underpass may be enough to join two fragments.<ref>{{cite web|title=Wildlife Crossings: Animals survive with bridges and tunnels|url=http://www.wilderutopia.com/environment/wildlife/wildlife-crossings-animals-survive-bridges-tunnels/|publisher=Wilder Eutopia|access-date=19 December 2017|date=2013-05-19}}</ref> This has the potential to mitigate the problem of isolation but not the loss of interior habitat. Wildlife corridors can help animals to move and occupy new areas when food sources or other natural resources are lacking in their core habitat, and animals can find new mates in neighbouring regions so that [[genetic diversity]] can increase. Species that relocate seasonally can do so more safely and effectively when it does not interfere with human development barriers.
Due to the continuous expansion of urban landscapes, current research is looking at [[green roof]]s being possible vectors of habitat corridors. A recent study has found that green roofs are beneficial in connecting the habitats of arthropods, specifically bees and weevils.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Braaker |first1=S. |last2=Ghazoul |first2=J. |last3=Obrist |first3=M. K. |last4=Moretti |first4=M. |date=April 2014 |title=Habitat connectivity shapes urban arthropod communities: the key role of green roofs |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1890/13-0705.1 |journal=Ecology |volume=95 |issue=4 |pages=1010–1021 |doi=10.1890/13-0705.1 |pmid=24933819 |bibcode=2014Ecol...95.1010B |s2cid=41070926 |issn=0012-9658}}</ref>
Another mitigation measure is the enlargement of small remnants to increase the amount of interior habitat. This may be impractical since developed land is often more expensive and could require significant time and effort to restore.
The best solution is generally dependent on the particular species or ecosystem that is being considered. More mobile species, like most birds, do not need connected habitat while some smaller animals, like rodents, may be more exposed to predation in open land. These questions generally fall under the headings of [[metapopulation]]s [[island biogeography]].
=== Genetic risks ===
As the remaining habitat patches are smaller, they tend to support smaller populations of fewer species.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Simberloff|first1=Daniel|date=1 January 1998|chapter=Small and Declining Populations|title=Conservation Science and Action|language=en|pages=116–134|doi=10.1002/9781444313499.ch6|isbn=978-1-4443-1349-9}}</ref> Small populations are at an increased risk of a variety of genetic consequences that influence their long-term survival.<ref>{{cite book|title=Introduction to conservation genetics|last1=Frankham|first1=Richard|last2=Ballou|first2=Jonathan D.|last3=Briscoe|first3=David A.|date=2009|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-70271-3|edition=2nd|location=Cambridge}}</ref> Remnant populations often contain only a subset of the genetic diversity found in the previously continuous habitat. In these cases, processes that act upon underlying genetic diversity, such as [[adaptation]], have a smaller pool of fitness-maintaining alleles to survive in the face of environmental change. However, in some scenarios, where subsets of genetic diversity are partitioned among multiple habitat fragments, almost all original genetic diversity can be maintained despite each individual fragment displaying a reduced subset of diversity.<ref name="Borrell2018">{{cite journal |last1=Borrell |first1=James S. |last2=Wang |first2=Nian |last3=Nichols |first3=Richard A. |last4=Buggs |first4=Richard J. A. |title=Genetic diversity maintained among fragmented populations of a tree undergoing range contraction |journal=Heredity |date=15 August 2018 |volume=121 |issue=4 |pages=304–318 |doi=10.1038/s41437-018-0132-8 |pmid=30111882 |pmc=6134035}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Mustajärvi |first1=Kaisa |last2=Siikamäki |first2=Pirkko |last3=Rytkönen |first3=Saara |last4=Lammi |first4=Antti |date=2001 |title=Consequences of plant population size and density for plant-pollinator interactions and plant performance: Plant-pollinator interactions |journal=Journal of Ecology |language=en |volume=89 |issue=1 |pages=80–87 |doi=10.1046/j.1365-2745.2001.00521.x|s2cid=84923092 |doi-access=free }}</ref>
==== Gene Flow and Inbreeding ====
[[Gene flow]] occurs when individuals of the same species exchange genetic information through reproduction. Populations can maintain genetic diversity through [[Animal migration|migration]]. When a habitat becomes fragmented and reduced in area, gene flow and migration are typically reduced. Fewer individuals will migrate into the remaining fragments, and small disconnected populations that may have once been part of a single large population will become reproductively isolated. Scientific evidence that gene flow is reduced due to fragmentation depends on the study species. While trees that have long-range pollination and dispersal mechanisms may not experience reduced gene flow following fragmentation,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kramer |first1=Andrea T. |last2=Ison |first2=Jennifer L. |last3=Ashley |first3=Mary V. |last4=Howe |first4=Henry F. |title=The Paradox of Forest Fragmentation Genetics |journal=Conservation Biology |date=August 2008 |volume=22 |issue=4 |pages=878–885 |doi=10.1111/j.1523-1739.2008.00944.x |pmid=18544089|bibcode=2008ConBi..22..878K |s2cid=1665248 }}</ref> most species are at risk of reduced gene flow following habitat fragmentation.<ref name="Lienert2004" />
Reduced gene flow, and reproductive isolation can result in [[inbreeding]] between related individuals. Inbreeding does not always result in negative fitness consequences, but when inbreeding is associated with fitness reduction it is called [[inbreeding depression]]. Inbreeding becomes of increasing concern as the level of [[homozygosity]] increases, facilitating the expression of deleterious alleles that reduce the fitness. Habitat fragmentation can lead to inbreeding depression for many species due to reduced gene flow.<ref name="Pavolva2017">{{cite journal |last1=Pavlova |first1=Alexandra |last2=Beheregaray |first2=Luciano B. |last3=Coleman |first3=Rhys |last4=Gilligan |first4=Dean |last5=Harrisson |first5=Katherine A. |last6=Ingram |first6=Brett A. |last7=Kearns |first7=Joanne |last8=Lamb |first8=Annika M. |last9=Lintermans |first9=Mark |last10=Lyon |first10=Jarod |last11=Nguyen |first11=Thuy T. T. |last12=Sasaki |first12=Minami |last13=Tonkin |first13=Zeb |last14=Yen |first14=Jian D. L. |last15=Sunnucks |first15=Paul |title=Severe consequences of habitat fragmentation on genetic diversity of an endangered Australian freshwater fish: A call for assisted gene flow |journal=Evolutionary Applications |date=July 2017 |volume=10 |issue=6 |pages=531–550 |doi=10.1111/eva.12484 |pmid=28616062 |pmc=5469170|bibcode=2017EvApp..10..531P }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wang |first1=W |last2=Qiao |first2=Y |last3=Li |first3=S |last4=Pan |first4=W |last5=Yao |first5=M |title=Low genetic diversity and strong population structure shaped by anthropogenic habitat fragmentation in a critically endangered primate, Trachypithecus leucocephalus |journal=Heredity |date=15 February 2017 |volume=118 |issue=6 |pages=542–553 |doi=10.1038/hdy.2017.2 |pmid=28198816 |pmc=5436025}}</ref> Inbreeding depression is associated with conservation risks, like local extinction.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Hedrick|first1=Philip W.|last2=Kalinowski|first2=Steven T.|date=November 2000|title=Inbreeding Depression in Conservation Biology|journal=Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics|language=en|volume=31|issue=1|pages=139–162|doi=10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.31.1.139|issn=0066-4162}}</ref>
==== Genetic drift ====
Small populations are more susceptible to [[genetic drift]]. Genetic drift is random changes to the genetic makeup of populations and leads to reductions in genetic diversity. The smaller the population is, the more likely genetic drift will be a driving force of evolution rather than natural selection. Because genetic drift is a random process, it does not allow species to become more adapted to their environment. Habitat fragmentation is associated with increases to genetic drift in small populations which can have negative consequences for the genetic diversity of the populations.<ref name="Pavolva2017" /> However, research suggests that some tree species may be resilient to the negative consequences of genetic drift until population size is as small as ten individuals or less.<ref name="Borrell2018" />
===== Genetic consequences of habitat fragmentation for plant populations =====
Habitat fragmentation decreases the size and increases plant populations' spatial isolation. With [[genetic variation]] and increased methods of inter-population [[genetic divergence]] due to increased effects of [[Genetic drift|random genetic drift]], elevating [[inbreeding]] and reducing gene flow within plant species. While genetic variation may decrease with remnant population size, not all fragmentation events lead to genetic losses and different types of genetic variation. Rarely, fragmentation can also increase gene flow among remnant populations, breaking down local genetic structure.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Young|first1=Andrew|last2=Boyle|first2=Tim|last3=Brown|first3=Tony|date=1996|title=The population genetic consequences of habitat fragmentation for plants|journal=Trends in Ecology & Evolution|language=en|volume=11|issue=10|pages=413–418|doi=10.1016/0169-5347(96)10045-8|pmid=21237900}}</ref>
==== Adaptation ====
In order for populations to evolve in response to natural selection, they must be large enough that natural selection is a stronger evolutionary force than genetic drift. Recent studies on the impacts of habitat fragmentation on adaptation in some plant species have suggested that organisms in fragmented landscapes may be able to adapt to fragmentation.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Matesanz |first1=Silvia |last2=Rubio Teso |first2=María Luisa |last3=García-Fernández |first3=Alfredo |last4=Escudero |first4=Adrián |title=Habitat Fragmentation Differentially Affects Genetic Variation, Phenotypic Plasticity and Survival in Populations of a Gypsum Endemic |journal=Frontiers in Plant Science |date=26 May 2017 |volume=8 |pages=843 |doi=10.3389/fpls.2017.00843 |pmid=28603529 |pmc=5445106|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Dubois |first1=Jonathan |last2=Cheptou |first2=Pierre-Olivier |title=Effects of fragmentation on plant adaptation to urban environments |journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences |date=5 December 2016 |volume=372 |issue=1712 |pages=20160038 |doi=10.1098/rstb.2016.0038 |pmid=27920383 |pmc=5182434}}</ref> However, there are also many cases where fragmentation reduces adaptation capacity because of small population size.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Legrand |first1=Delphine |last2=Cote |first2=Julien |last3=Fronhofer |first3=Emanuel A. |last4=Holt |first4=Robert D. |last5=Ronce |first5=Ophélie |last6=Schtickzelle |first6=Nicolas |last7=Travis |first7=Justin M. J. |last8=Clobert |first8=Jean |title=Eco-evolutionary dynamics in fragmented landscapes |journal=Ecography |date=January 2017 |volume=40 |issue=1 |pages=9–25 |doi=10.1111/ecog.02537 |url=http://aura.abdn.ac.uk/bitstream/2164/9606/1/Legrand_et_al_2016_Ecography.pdf |hdl=2164/9606|doi-access=free |bibcode=2017Ecogr..40....9L }}</ref>
==== Examples of impacted species ====
Some species that have experienced genetic consequences due to habitat fragmentation are listed below:
[[File:Macquarie perch.jpg|thumb|Macquarie perch]]
* ''[[Macquaria australasica]]''<ref name="Pavolva2017" /><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://fishesofaustralia.net.au/home/species/1594|title=Macquaria australasica|website=fishesofaustralia.net.au|language=en|access-date=2018-06-06}}</ref>
*''[[Fagus sylvatica]]''<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Jump |first1=A. S. |last2=Penuelas |first2=J. |title=Genetic effects of chronic habitat fragmentation in a wind-pollinated tree |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |date=12 May 2006 |volume=103 |issue=21 |pages=8096–8100 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0510127103 |pmid=16698935 |pmc=1472435 |bibcode=2006PNAS..103.8096J|doi-access=free }}</ref>
*''[[Betula nana]]''<ref name="Borrell2018" />
*''[[Rhinella ornata]]''<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Dixo |first1=Marianna |last2=Metzger |first2=Jean Paul |last3=Morgante |first3=João S. |last4=Zamudio |first4=Kelly R. |title=Habitat fragmentation reduces genetic diversity and connectivity among toad populations in the Brazilian Atlantic Coastal Forest |journal=Biological Conservation |date=August 2009 |volume=142 |issue=8 |pages=1560–1569 |doi=10.1016/j.biocon.2008.11.016|bibcode=2009BCons.142.1560D }}</ref>
*''[[Ochotona princeps]]''<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Peacock |first1=Mary M. |last2=Smith |first2=Andrew T. |title=The effect of habitat fragmentation on dispersal patterns, mating behavior, and genetic variation in a pika ( Ochotona princeps ) metapopulation |journal=Oecologia |date=24 November 1997 |volume=112 |issue=4 |pages=524–533 |doi=10.1007/s004420050341 |pmid=28307630 |bibcode=1997Oecol.112..524P |s2cid=2446276}}</ref>
*''[[Uta stansburiana]]''<ref name="Delany2010">{{cite journal |last1=Delaney |first1=Kathleen Semple |last2=Riley |first2=Seth P. D. |last3=Fisher |first3=Robert N. |last4=Fleischer |first4=Robert C. |title=A Rapid, Strong, and Convergent Genetic Response to Urban Habitat Fragmentation in Four Divergent and Widespread Vertebrates |journal=PLOS ONE |date=16 September 2010 |volume=5 |issue=9 |pages=e12767 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0012767 |pmid=20862274 |pmc=2940822 |bibcode=2010PLoSO...512767D|doi-access=free }}</ref>
*''[[Plestiodon skiltonianus]]''<ref name="Delany2010" />
*''[[Sceloporus occidentalis]]''<ref name="Delany2010" />
*''[[Chamaea fasciata]]''<ref name="Delany2010" />
=== Effect on animal behaviours===
Although the way habitat fragmentation affects the genetics and extinction rates of species has been heavily studied, fragmentation has also been shown to affect species' behaviours and cultures as well. This is important because social interactions can determine and have an effect on a species' fitness and survival. Habitat fragmentation alters the resources available and the structure of habitats, as a result, alters the behaviours of species and the dynamics between differing species. Behaviours affected can be within a species such as reproduction, mating, foraging, species dispersal, communication and movement patterns or can be behaviours between species such as predator-prey relationships.<ref name="Banks2007">{{cite journal |last1=Banks |first1=Sam C |last2=Piggott |first2=Maxine P |last3=Stow |first3=Adam J |last4=Taylor |first4=Andrea C |title=Sex and sociality in a disconnected world: a review of the impacts of habitat fragmentation on animal social interactions |journal=Canadian Journal of Zoology |date=2007 |volume=85 |issue=10 |pages=1065–1079 |doi=10.1139/Z07-094}}</ref> In addition, when animals happen to venture into unknown areas in between fragmented forests or landscapes, they can supposedly come into contact with humans which puts them at a great risk and further decreases their chances of survival.<ref name="Haddad2015">{{Cite journal|last1=Haddad|first1=Nick M.|last2=Brudvig|first2=Lars A.|last3=Clobert|first3=Jean|last4=Davies|first4=Kendi F.|last5=Gonzalez|first5=Andrew|last6=Holt|first6=Robert D.|last7=Lovejoy|first7=Thomas E.|last8=Sexton|first8=Joseph O.|last9=Austin|first9=Mike P.|last10=Collins|first10=Cathy D.|last11=Cook|first11=William M.|date=2015-03-01|title=Habitat fragmentation and its lasting impact on Earth's ecosystems|journal=Science Advances|language=en|volume=1|issue=2|pages=e1500052|doi=10.1126/sciadv.1500052|pmid=26601154|pmc=4643828|bibcode=2015SciA....1E0052H|issn=2375-2548}}{{Creative Commons text attribution notice|cc=by4|from this source=yes}}</ref>
==== Predation behaviours ====
Habitat fragmentation due to anthropogenic activities has been shown to greatly affect the predator-prey dynamics of many species by altering the number of species and the members of those species.<ref name="Banks2007" /> This affects the natural predator-prey relationships between animals in a given community <ref name="Banks2007" /> and forces them to alter their behaviours and interactions, therefore resetting the so-called "behavioral space race".<ref name="Shneider2001">{{cite journal |last1=Shneider |first1=Michael F |title=Habitat loss, fragmentation and predator impact: spatial implications for prey conservation |journal=Journal of Applied Ecology |date=2001 |volume=38 |issue=4 |pages=720–735|doi=10.1046/j.1365-2664.2001.00642.x|bibcode=2001JApEc..38..720S |doi-access=free }}</ref> The way in which fragmentation changes and re-shapes these interactions can occur in many different forms. Most prey species have patches of land that are a refuge from their predators, allowing them the safety to reproduce and raise their young. Human introduced structures such as roads and pipelines alter these areas by facilitating predator activity in these refuges, increasing predator-prey overlap.<ref name="Shneider2001" /> The opposite could also occur in the favour of prey, increasing prey refuge and subsequently decreasing predation rates. Fragmentation may also increase predator abundance or predator efficiency and therefore increase predation rates in this manner.<ref name="Shneider2001" /> Several other factors can also increase or decrease the extent to which the shifting predator-prey dynamics affect certain species, including how diverse a predators diet is and how flexible habitat requirements are for predators and prey.<ref name="Banks2007" /> Depending on which species are affected and these other factors, fragmentation and its effects on predator-prey dynamics may contribute to species extinction.<ref name="Banks2007" /> In response to these new environmental pressures, new adaptive behaviours may be developed. Prey species may adapt to increased risk of predation with strategies such as altering mating tactics or changing behaviours and activities related to food and foraging.<ref name="Banks2007" />
===== Boreal woodland caribous =====
In the boreal woodland caribous of British Columbia, the effects of fragmentation are demonstrated. The species refuge area is peatland bog which has been interrupted by linear features such as roads and pipelines.<ref name="DeMars2017">{{cite journal |last1=DeMars |first1=Craig A |last2=Boutin |first2=Stan |title=Nowhere to hide: Effects of linear features on predator-prey dynamics in a large mammal system |journal=Journal of Animal Ecology |date=September 4, 2017 |volume=87 |issue=1 |pages=274–284 |doi=10.1111/1365-2656.12760|pmid=28940254 |doi-access=free}}</ref> These features have allowed their natural predators, the wolf, and the black bear to more efficiently travel over landscapes and between patches of land.<ref name="DeMars2017" /> Since their predators can more easily access the caribous' refuge, the females of the species attempt to avoid the area, affecting their reproductive behaviours and offspring produced.<ref name="DeMars2017" />
==== Communication behaviours ====
Fragmentation affecting the communication behaviours of birds has been well studied in Dupont's Lark. The Larks primarily reside in regions of Spain and are a small passerine bird which uses songs as a means of cultural transmission between members of the species.<ref name="DeMars2017" /> The Larks have two distinct vocalizations, the song, and the territorial call. The territorial call is used by males to defend and signal territory from other male Larks and is shared between neighbouring territories when males respond to a rivals song.<ref name="Laiolo2005">{{cite journal |last1=Laiolo |first1=Paola |last2=Tella |first2=José L |title=Habitat fragmentation affects culture transmission: patterns of song matching in Dupont's lark |journal=Journal of Applied Ecology |date=2005 |volume=42 |issue=6 |pages=1183–1193 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2664.2005.01093.x|bibcode=2005JApEc..42.1183L |hdl=10261/57878 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> Occasionally it is used as a threat signal to signify an impending attack on territory.<ref name="Laiolo2007">{{cite journal |last1=Laiolo |first1=Paola |last2=Tella |first2=José L |title=Erosion of animal cultures in fragmented landscapes |journal= Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment|date=2007 |volume=5 |issue=2 |pages=68–72 |doi=10.1890/1540-9295(2007)5[68:eoacif]2.0.co;2}}</ref> A large song repertoire can enhance a male's ability to survive and reproduce as he has a greater ability to defend his territory from other males, and a larger number of males in the species means a larger variety of songs being transmitted.<ref name="Laiolo2005" /> Fragmentation of the Dupont's Lark territory from agriculture, forestry and urbanization appears to have a large effect on their communication structures.<ref name="Laiolo2007" /> Males only perceive territories of a certain distance to be rivals and so isolation of territory from others due to fragmentation leads to a decrease in territorial calls as the males no longer have any reason to use it or have any songs to match.<ref name="Laiolo2007" />
[[Human]]s have also brought on varying implications into ecosystems which in turn affect animal behaviour and responses generated.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Wong|first1=B. B. M.|last2=Candolin|first2=U.|date=2015-05-01|title=Behavioral responses to changing environments|journal=Behavioral Ecology|language=en|volume=26|issue=3|pages=665–673|doi=10.1093/beheco/aru183|issn=1045-2249|doi-access=free|hdl=10.1093/beheco/aru183|hdl-access=free}}</ref> Although there are some species which are able to survive these kinds of harsh conditions, such as, cutting down wood in the forests for [[Pulp and paper industry|pulp and paper]] industries, there are animals which can survive this change but some that cannot. An example includes, varying [[aquatic insect]]s are able to identify appropriate ponds to lay their eggs with the aid of [[Polarized light pollution|polarized light]] to guide them, however, due to [[ecosystem]] modifications caused by humans they are led onto artificial structures which emit artificial light which are induced by dry asphalt dry roads for an example.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/221958968|title=polarized Light Pollution: a new kind of ecological photopollution|website=Research Gate}}</ref>
=== Effect on microorganisms ===
While habitat fragmentation is often associated with its effects on large plant and animal populations and biodiversity, due to the interconnectedness of ecosystems there are also significant effects that it has on the [[microbiota]] of an environment. Increased fragmentation has been linked to reduced populations and diversity of fungi responsible for decomposition, as well as the insects they are host to.<ref name="Nordén2013">{{Cite journal|last1=Nordén|first1=Jenni|last2=Penttilä|first2=Reijo|last3=Siitonen|first3=Juha|last4=Tomppo|first4=Erkki|last5=Ovaskainen|first5=Otso|date=May 2013|editor-last=Thrall|editor-first=Peter|title=Specialist species of wood-inhabiting fungi struggle while generalists thrive in fragmented boreal forests|journal=Journal of Ecology|language=en|volume=101|issue=3|pages=701–712|doi=10.1111/1365-2745.12085|s2cid=85037421 |issn=0022-0477|doi-access=free|bibcode=2013JEcol.101..701N }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Kiesewetter |first=Kasey N. |last2=Otano |first2=Leydiana |last3=Afkhami |first3=Michelle E. |date=June 2023 |title=Fragmentation disrupts microbial effects on native plant community productivity |url=https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1365-2745.14097 |journal=Journal of Ecology |language=en |volume=111 |issue=6 |pages=1292–1307 |doi=10.1111/1365-2745.14097 |issn=0022-0477}}</ref> This has been linked to simplified food webs in highly fragmented areas compared to old growth forests.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Komonen|first1=Atte|last2=Penttila|first2=Reijo|last3=Lindgren|first3=Mariko|last4=Hanski|first4=Ilkka|date=July 2000|title=Forest fragmentation truncates a food chain based on an old-growth forest bracket fungus|journal=Oikos|language=en|volume=90|issue=1|pages=119–126|doi=10.1034/j.1600-0706.2000.900112.x|bibcode=2000Oikos..90..119K |issn=0030-1299}}</ref> Furthermore, edge effects have been shown to result in significantly varied [[Microenvironment (ecology)|microenvironments]] compared to interior forest due to variations in light availability, presence of wind, changes in precipitation, and overall moisture content of leaf litter.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Matlack|first=Glenn R.|date=1993|title=Microenvironment variation within and among forest edge sites in the eastern United States|journal=Biological Conservation|language=en|volume=66|issue=3|pages=185–194|doi=10.1016/0006-3207(93)90004-K|bibcode=1993BCons..66..185M }}</ref> These microenvironments are often not conducive to overall forest health as they enable [[Generalist and specialist species|generalist]] species to thrive at the expense of [[Generalist and specialist species|specialists]] that depend on specific environments.<ref name="Nordén2013" />
=== Effect on mutualistic and antagonistic relationships ===
A [[metadata]] analysis has found that habitat fragmentation greatly affects [[Mutualism (biology)|mutualistic]] relationships while affecting antagonistic relationships, such as [[predation]] and [[Herbivore|herbivory]], to a less degree.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Magrach |first1=Ainhoa |last2=Laurance |first2=William F. |last3=Larrinaga |first3=Asier R. |last4=Santamaria |first4=Luis |date=October 2014 |title=Meta-Analysis of the Effects of Forest Fragmentation on Interspecific Interactions: Forest Fragmentation and Interspecific Interactions |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/cobi.12304 |journal=Conservation Biology |language=en |volume=28 |issue=5 |pages=1342–1348 |doi=10.1111/cobi.12304|pmid=24725007 |s2cid=5526322 }}</ref> For example, the mutualistic relationship between ''[[Mesogyne insignis]]'' and ''[[Megachile]]''. A study has found greater [[pollination]] and increased fruit production of ''M. insignis'' in unfragmented forests verses fragmented forests.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Olotu |first1=Moses I. |last2=Ndangalasi |first2=Henry J. |last3=Nyundo |first3=Bruno A. |date=March 2012 |title=Effects of forest fragmentation on pollination of Mesogyne insignis (Moraceae) in Amani Nature Reserve forests, Tanzania: Effects of forest fragmentation on pollination of Mesogyne insignis |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2028.2011.01302.x |journal=African Journal of Ecology |language=en |volume=50 |issue=1 |pages=109–116 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2028.2011.01302.x}}</ref> As for an example of an antagonistic relationship of nest predation, a study found that there is no increase in nest predation on fragmented forests - thus not supporting the [[Edge effects|edge effect]] hypothesis.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Carlson |first1=Allan |last2=Hartman |first2=Göran |date=2001 |title=Tropical forest fragmentation and nest predation – an experimental study in an Eastern Arc montane forest, Tanzania |url=http://link.springer.com/10.1023/A:1016649731062 |journal=Biodiversity and Conservation |volume=10 |issue=7 |pages=1077–1085 |doi=10.1023/A:1016649731062|s2cid=20971928 }}</ref>
== Forest fragmentation ==
{{Split section|date=November 2022}}
{{Commons category|Forest fragmentation}}
Forest fragmentation is a form of habitat fragmentation where forests are reduced (either naturally or man-made) to relatively small, isolated patches of forest known as forest fragments or forest remnants.<ref name="SahneyBentonFerry2010LinksDiversityVertebrates" /> The intervening matrix that separates the remaining woodland patches can be natural open areas, [[farmland]], or developed areas. Following the principles of [[island biogeography]], remnant woodlands act like islands of forest in a sea of pastures, fields, subdivisions, shopping malls, etc. These fragments will then begin to undergo the process of [[ecosystem decay]].
Forest fragmentation also includes less subtle forms of discontinuities such as utility right-of-ways (ROWs). Utility ROWs are of ecological interest because they have become pervasive in many forest communities, spanning areas as large as 5 million acres in the United States.<ref name="Russell2005">{{Cite journal|last1=Russell|first1=K. N.|last2=Ikerd|first2=H.|last3=Droege|first3=S.|date=2005-07-01|title=The potential conservation value of unmowed powerline strips for native bees|journal=Biological Conservation|volume=124|issue=1|pages=133–148|doi=10.1016/j.biocon.2005.01.022|bibcode=2005BCons.124..133R }}</ref> Utility ROWs include electricity transmission ROWs, gas pipeline and telecommunication ROWs. Electricity transmission ROWs are created to prevent vegetation interference with transmission lines. Some studies have shown that electricity transmission ROWs harbor more plant species than adjoining forest areas,<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Wagner|first1=David L.|last2=Metzler|first2=Kenneth J.|last3=Leicht-Young|first3=Stacey A.|last4=Motzkin|first4=Glenn|date=2014-09-01|title=Vegetation composition along a New England transmission line corridor and its implications for other trophic levels|journal=Forest Ecology and Management|volume=327|pages=231–239|doi=10.1016/j.foreco.2014.04.026}}</ref> due to alterations in the microclimate in and around the corridor. Discontinuities in forest areas associated with utility right-of-ways can serve as biodiversity havens for native bees <ref name="Russell2005" /> and grassland species,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lampinen |first1=Jussi |last2=Ruokolainen |first2=Kalle |last3=Huhta |first3=Ari-Pekka |last4=Chapman |first4=Maura (Gee) Geraldine |title=Urban Power Line Corridors as Novel Habitats for Grassland and Alien Plant Species in South-Western Finland |journal=PLOS ONE |date=13 November 2015 |volume=10 |issue=11 |pages=e0142236 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0142236 |pmid=26565700 |pmc=4643934 |bibcode=2015PLoSO..1042236L|doi-access=free }}</ref> as the right-of-ways are preserved in an early successional stage.
Forest fragmentation reduces food resources and [[habitat]] sources for animals thus splitting these species apart. Thus, making these animals become much more susceptible to effects of [[predation]] and making them less likely to perform [[Hybrid (biology)|interbreeding]] - lowering genetic diversity.<ref>{{Citation|last1=Bogaert|first1=Jan|title=Forest Fragmentation: Causes, Ecological Impacts and Implications for Landscape Management|date=2011|work=Landscape Ecology in Forest Management and Conservation: Challenges and Solutions for Global Change|pages=273–296|editor-last=Li|editor-first=Chao|publisher=Springer|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-3-642-12754-0_12|isbn=978-3-642-12754-0|last2=Barima|first2=Yao S. S.|last3=Mongo|first3=Léon Iyongo Waya|last4=Bamba|first4=Issouf|last5=Mama|first5=Adi|last6=Toyi|first6=Mireille|last7=Lafortezza|first7=Raffaele|editor2-last=Lafortezza|editor2-first=Raffaele|editor3-last=Chen|editor3-first=Jiquan}}</ref>
=== Implications ===
Forest fragmentation is one of the greatest threats to [[biodiversity]] in forests, especially in the tropics.<ref>{{cite book | last = Bierregaard | first = Richard | editor = Claude Gascon | editor2 = Thomas E. Lovejoy | editor3 = Rita Mesquita | year = 2001 | title = Lessons from Amazonia: The Ecology and Conservation of a Fragmented Forest | publisher = Yale University Press | isbn = 978-0-300-08483-2 | url-access = registration | url = https://archive.org/details/lessonsfromamazo0000unse}}</ref> The problem of [[habitat destruction]] that caused the fragmentation in the first place is compounded by:
* the inability of individual forest fragments to support viable populations, especially of large vertebrates
* the local [[extinction]] of species that do not have at least one fragment capable of supporting a viable population
* [[edge effect]]s that alter the conditions of the outer areas of the fragment, greatly reducing the amount of true forest interior habitat.<ref>{{cite book | last = Harris | first = Larry D. | year = 1984 | title = The Fragmented Forest: Island Biogeography Theory and the Preservation of Biotic Diversity | publisher = The University of Chicago Press | isbn = 978-0-226-31763-2 | url-access = registration | url = https://archive.org/details/fragmentedforest0000harr}}</ref>
The effect of fragmentation on the [[flora]] and [[fauna]] of a forest patch depends on a) the size of the patch, and b) its degree of isolation.<ref>{{Citation|last=Didham|first=Raphael K|chapter=Ecological Consequences of Habitat Fragmentation|date=2010-11-15|encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Life Sciences|pages=a0021904|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|language=en|doi=10.1002/9780470015902.a0021904|isbn=978-0-470-01617-6}}</ref> Isolation depends on the distance to the nearest similar patch, and the contrast with the surrounding areas. For example, if a cleared area is [[reforestation|reforested]] or allowed to [[natural regeneration|regenerate]], the increasing [[structural diversity]] of the [[vegetation]] will lessen the isolation of the forest fragments. However, when formerly forested lands are converted permanently to pastures, agricultural fields, or human-inhabited developed areas, the remaining forest fragments, and the [[Biota (biology)|biota]] within them, are often highly isolated.
Forest patches that are smaller or more isolated will lose species faster than those that are larger or less isolated. A large number of small forest "islands" typically cannot support the same biodiversity that a single contiguous forest would hold, even if their combined area is much greater than the single forest. However, forest islands in rural landscapes greatly increase their biodiversity.<ref>, Banaszak J. (ed.) 2000. Ecology of Forest Islands. Bydgoszcz University Press, Bydgoszcz, Poland, 313 pp.</ref> In the [[Maulino forest]] of Chile fragmentation appear to not affect overall plant diversity much, and tree diversity is indeed higher in fragments than in large continuous forests.<ref>{{cite book |last=Bustamante |first=Ramiro O.|author-last2=Simonetti|author-first2=Javier A.|author-last3=Grez|author-first3=Audrey A.|author-last4=San Martín|author-first4=José |date=2005 |title=Historia, biodiversidad y ecología de los bosques costeros de Chile |chapter=Fragmentación y dinámica de regeneración del bosque Maulino: diagnóstico actual y perspectivas futuras|editor-last=Smith|editor-first=C.|editor-last2=Armesto|editor-first2=J.|editor-last3=Valdovinos|editor-first3=C.|chapter-url=http://bdrnap.mma.gob.cl/recursos/SINIA/Biblio_AP/070316BIBLIORNAP_164.pdf |pages=529–539 |trans-chapter=Fragmentation and regeneration dynamics of the Maulino forest: present status and future prospects|language=es}}</ref><ref name=Bosque2020-3>{{Cite journal|title=Native and exotic plant species diversity in forest fragments and forestry plantations of a coastal landscape of central Chile|journal=[[Bosque (journal)|Bosque]]|url=https://scielo.conicyt.cl/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0717-92002020000200125&lng=es&nrm=iso&tlng=en|last1=Becerra|first1=Pablo I.|volume=41|last2=Simonetti|first2=Javier A.|publisher=[[Austral University of Chile]]|issue=2|doi=10.4067/S0717-92002020000200125 |year=2020|pages=125–136|doi-access=free}}</ref>
[[McGill University]] in [[Montreal]], [[Quebec]], [[Canada]] released a university based newspaper statement stating that 70% of the world's remaining forest stands within one kilometre of a forest edge putting biodiversity at an immense risk based on research conducted by international scientists.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.mcgill.ca/newsroom/channels/news/forest-fragmentation-threatens-biodiversity-243709|title=Forest fragmentation threatens biodiversity|website=Newsroom|language=en|access-date=2020-03-06}}</ref>
Reduced fragment area, increased isolation, and increased edge initiate changes that percolate through all ecosystems. Habitat fragmentation is able to formulate persistent outcomes which can also become unexpected such as an abundance of some species and the pattern that long temporal scales are required to discern many strong system responses.<ref name="Haddad2015" />
=== Sustainable forest management ===
The presence of forest fragments influences the supply of various [[ecosystem]]s in adjacent [[Agriculture|agricultural]] fields (Mitchell et al. 2014). Mitchell et al. (2014), researched on six varying ecosystem factors such as crop production, [[decomposition]], [[pesticide regulation]], carbon storage, [[soil fertility]], and water quality regulation in soybean fields through separate distances by nearby forest fragments which all varied in isolation and size across an agricultural landscape in [[Quebec|Quebec, Canada]]. Sustainable forest management can be achieved in several ways including by managing forests for [[ecosystem service]]s (beyond simple provisioning), through government compensation schemes, and through effective regulation and legal frameworks.<ref>{{Citation|title=Chapter 23 - Sustainable Forest Management|date=2019-01-01|url=https://repozitorij.uni-lj.si/IzpisGradiva.php?id=36180|journal=Sustainable Food and Agriculture|pages=233–236|editor-last=Campanhola|editor-first=Clayton|publisher=Academic Press|doi=10.1016/B978-0-12-812134-4.00023-6|language=en|isbn=978-0-12-812134-4|s2cid=128938268|editor2-last=Pandey|editor2-first=Shivaji}}</ref> The only realistic method of conserving forests is to apply and practice sustainable [[forest management]] to risk further loss.
There is a high industrial demand for [[wood]], [[Pulp (paper)|pulp]], [[paper]], and other resources which the [[forest]] can provide with, thus businesses which will want more access to the cutting of forests to gain those resources. The [[Rainforest Alliance|rainforest alliance]] has efficiently been able to put into place an approach to sustainable forest management, and they established this in the late 1980s. Their [[Conservation biology|conservation]] was deemed successful as it has saved over nearly half a billion acres of land around the world.<ref name="What is Sustainable Forestry">{{Cite web|url=https://www.rainforest-alliance.org/articles/what-is-sustainable-forestry|title=What is Sustainable Forestry?|website=Rainforest Alliance|date=28 July 2016|language=en|access-date=2020-03-06}}</ref>
A few approaches and measures which can be taken in order to conserve forests are methods by which erosion can be minimized, waste is properly disposed, conserve native [[tree]] species to maintain [[genetic diversity]], and setting aside forestland (provides habitat for critical [[Species|wildlife species]]).<ref name="What is Sustainable Forestry" /> Additionally, [[Wildfire|forest fires]] can also occur frequently and measures can also be taken to further prevent forest fires from occurring. For example, in [[Guatemala]]’s culturally and ecologically significant [[Petén Department|Petén]] region, researchers were able to find over a 20-year period, actively managed [[Forest Stewardship Council|FSC]]-certified forests experienced substantially lower rates of [[deforestation]] than nearby protected areas, and forest fires only affected 0.1 percent of certified land area, compared to 10.4 percent of protected areas.<ref name="What is Sustainable Forestry" /> However, it must be duly noted that short term decisions regarding forest sector employment and harvest practices can have long-term effects on biodiversity.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.fs.fed.us/nrs/pubs/gtr/gtr_nrs90/gtr-nrs-90-chapter-4.pdf|title=Strategies for Sustainable Forest Management|website=fed.us}}</ref> Planted forests become increasingly important as they supply approximately a quarter of global industrial roundwood production and are predicted to account for 50% of global output within two decades (Brown, 1998; Jaakko Poyry, 1999).<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Siry|first1=Jacek P.|last2=Cubbage|first2=Frederick W.|last3=Ahmed|first3=Miyan Rukunuddin|date=2005-05-01|title=Sustainable forest management: global trends and opportunities|journal=Forest Policy and Economics|language=en|volume=7|issue=4|pages=551–561|doi=10.1016/j.forpol.2003.09.003|issn=1389-9341}}</ref> Although there have been many difficulties, the implementation of forest certification has been quite prominent in being able to raise effective awareness and disseminating knowledge on a holistic concept, embracing economic, environmental and social issues, worldwide. While also providing a tool for a range of other applications than assessment of [[sustainability]], such as e.g. verifying [[Carbon sink|carbon sinks.]]<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Rametsteiner|first1=Ewald|last2=Simula|first2=Markku|date=2003-01-01|title=Forest certification—an instrument to promote sustainable forest management?|journal=Journal of Environmental Management|series=Maintaining Forest Biodiversity|language=en|volume=67|issue=1|pages=87–98|doi=10.1016/S0301-4797(02)00191-3|pmid=12659807|issn=0301-4797}}</ref>
== Approaches to understanding habitat fragmentation ==
Two approaches are typically used to understand habitat fragmentation and its ecological impacts.
=== Species-oriented approach ===
The species-oriented approach focuses specifically on individual species and how they each respond to their environment and habitat changes with in it. This approach can be limited because it does only focus on individual species and does not allow for a broad view of the impacts of habitat fragmentation across species.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Fischer|first1=Joern|last2=Lindenmayer|first2=David B.|title=Landscape Modification and Habitat Fragmentation: A synthesis|journal=Global Ecology and Biogeography|date=February 7, 2007|volume=16|issue=3|pages=265–280|doi=10.1111/j.1466-8238.2007.00287.x|bibcode=2007GloEB..16..265F |ref=1|doi-access=free}}</ref>
==== Pattern-oriented approach ====
The pattern-oriented approach is based on land cover and its patterning in correlation with species occurrences. One model of study for landscape patterning is the patch-matrix-corridor model developed by [[Richard Forman]] The pattern-oriented approach focuses on land cover defined by human means and activities. This model has stemmed from [[island biogeography]] and tries to infer causal relationships between the defined landscapes and the occurrence of species or groups of species within them. The approach has limitations in its collective assumptions across species or landscapes which may not account for variations amongst them.<ref>Fischer, Joern & B. Lindenmayer, David. (2007). Landscape modification and habitat fragmentation: a synthesis. Global Ecology and Biogeography. 16. 265-280. 10.1111/j.1466-8238.2007.00287.</ref>
==== Variegation model ====
The other model is the variegation model. Variegated landscapes retain much of their natural vegetation but are intermixed with gradients of modified habitat <ref>{{cite web|title=Landscape Ecology and Landscape Change|url=http://www.veac.vic.gov.au/reports/Chapter%202%20-%20Landscape%20Ecology%20and%20Landscape%20Change.pdf|access-date=March 22, 2018|ref=2}}</ref> This model of habitat fragmentation typically applies to landscapes that are modified by agriculture. In contrast to the fragmentation model that is denoted by isolated patches of habitat surrounded by unsuitable landscape environments, the variegation model applies to landscapes modified by agriculture where small patches of habitat remain near the remnant original habitat. In between these patches are a matrix of grassland that is often modified versions of the original habitat. These areas do not present as much of a barrier to native species.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=McIntyre |first1=S. |last2=Barrett |first2=G. W. |title=Habitat Variegation, An Alternative to Fragmentation |journal=Conservation Biology |date=1992 |volume=6 |issue=1 |pages=146–147 |jstor=2385863 |doi=10.1046/j.1523-1739.1992.610146.x|bibcode=1992ConBi...6..146M }}</ref>
==See also==
{{Portal|Environment|Ecology|Earth sciences|Biology}}
{{Div col|colwidth=30em}}
* [[Empty forest]]
* [[Extinction vortex]]
* [[Gene pool]]
* [[Genetic erosion]]
* [[Habitat conservation]]
* [[Habitat corridor]]
* [[Habitat destruction]]
* [[Landscape connectivity]]
* [[Landscape ecology]]
* [[Patch dynamics]]
* [[Reproductive isolation]]
* [[Restoration ecology]]
* [[Road kill]]
* [[Wildlife corridor]]
* [[Wildlife crossing]]
{{div col end}}
== Bibliography ==
* Lindenmayer D.B & Fischer J (2013) ''Habitat Fragmentation and Landscape Change: An Ecological and Conservation Synthesis'' (Island Press)
==References==
{{Reflist}}
==External links==
{{Commons category|Ecological fragmentation}}
*[http://www.globio.info GLOBIO], an ongoing programme to map the past, current and future impacts of human activities on the natural environment, specifically highlighting larger wilderness areas and their fragmentation
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20120217000742/http://vlab.infotech.monash.edu.au/simulations/cellular-automata/population-genetics/ Monash Virtual Laboratory] – Simulations of habitat fragmentation and population genetics online at Monash University's Virtual Laboratory.
*[http://www.mma.es/portal/secciones/biodiversidad/desarrollo_rural_paisaje/fragmentacion_rural/pdf/2_Desfragmentacion_Belgica.pdf Defragmentation in Belgium (Flanders) – Connecting nature, connecting people. Accessed: Jan 22, 2009]{{Dead link|date=March 2024 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}
*[http://www.mma.es/portal/secciones/biodiversidad/desarrollo_rural_paisaje/fragmentacion_rural/pdf/1_Desfragmentacion_Holanda.pdf Wildlife passages – De-Fragmentation in the Netherlands – How to evaluate their effectiveness? Accessed: Jan 22, 2009]{{Dead link|date=March 2024 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}
*[http://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/landscape-fragmentation-in-europe Landscape Fragmentation in Europe] The technical report from 2006 - the result of a collaboration between the Swiss Federal Office for the Environment (FOEN) and the European Environment Agency (EEA). Accessed: Feb 22, 2016
* [https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-24229723 Kinver, Mark. (2013, September 26). "Forest fragmentation triggers 'ecological Armageddon'", BBC News.]
{{Modelling ecosystems|expanded=other}}
{{Authority control}}
{{Conservation of species}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Habitat Fragmentation}}
[[Category:Habitats| Fragmentation]]
[[Category:Habitat|Fragmentation]]
[[Category:Ecological connectivity]]
[[Category:Conservation biology]]
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
[[Category:Sustainable forest management]] |
2014 Sundarbans oil spill | {{Engvar|date=December 2014}}
{{use dmy dates|date=December 2014}}
{{Infobox oil spill
| name = 2014 Sundarbans oil spill
| image = File:Spilt oil in Sundarban.jpg
| image_caption = Spilled oil on the Shela River
| location = Shela River, [[Sundarbans]], [[Khulna District]], Bangladesh<ref>{{cite news|last1=Abu Bakar Siddique|title=The Sundarbans in big trouble|url=http://www.dhakatribune.com/bangladesh/2014/dec/10/sundarbans-big-trouble|work=Dhaka Tribune}}</ref>
| coordinates ={{coord|22|21|51|N|89|40|1|E|type:edu|display=title inline}}
| spill_date = 9 December 2014
| cause = Collision between oil tanker and cargo vessel
| operator = MS Harun & Co.
| casualties =
| volume = {{convert|350,000|L|impgal usgal}}
| area = {{convert|350|km2|abbr=on}}
| coast =
}}
The '''2014 Sundarbans oil spill''' was an [[oil spill]] that occurred on 9 December 2014 at the Shela River in [[Sundarbans]], Bangladesh, a [[UNESCO World Heritage Site]].<ref name=":142">{{Cite news|url = https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-30448377|title = India on alert after Sunderbans oil spill in Bangladesh|work = [[BBC]]|access-date = 16 December 2014}}</ref><ref name=":222">{{cite news|last1=Phillips|first1=Tom|title=Fears for rare wildlife as oil 'catastrophe' strikes Bangladesh|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/bangladesh/11291856/Fears-for-rare-wildlife-as-oil-catastrophe-strikes-Sundarbans.html|access-date=15 December 2014|work=[[The Daily Telegraph]]|date=13 December 2014}}</ref> The spill occurred when an oil-tanker named ''Southern Star VII'',<ref name=":32">{{Cite news|url = http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/home/environment/pollution/350-tonne-oil-spill-by-Bangladeshi-ship-threatens-Sunderbans/articleshow/45483696.cms|title = 350-tonne oil spill by Bangladeshi ship threatens Sunderbans|last = Krishnendu Mukherjee|first = Rakhi Chakrabarty|work = [[The Times of India]]|access-date = 15 December 2014}}</ref> carrying {{convert|350,000|L|impgal usgal}} of [[furnace oil]], was in collision with a cargo vessel<ref name=":222"/> and sank in the river.<ref name="Global Voices Online">{{Cite news|url = http://globalvoicesonline.org/2014/12/14/massive-oil-spill-threatens-bangladeshs-sundarbans/|title = Massive Oil Spill Threatens Bangladesh's Sundarbans|work = Global Voices Online|access-date = 15 December 2014}}</ref> By 17 December, the oil had spread over a {{convert|350|km2|abbr=on}} area.<ref name=":0">[http://www.dw.de/assessing-the-oil-spills-impact-on-bangladeshs-sundarbans-forest/a-18137182 "Assessing the oil spill's impact on Bangladesh's Sundarbans forest". ''Deutsche Welle''. 17 December 2014.]</ref> The oil spread to a second river and a network of canals in Sundarbans, which blackened the shoreline.<ref>{{cite news|title=Bangladesh launches campaign to clean up Sunderbans oil spill|url=http://www.thehindu.com/sci-tech/energy-and-environment/bangladesh-launches-campaign-to-clean-up-sunderbans-oil-spill/article6689136.ece|access-date=15 December 2014|work=[[The Hindu]]}}</ref> The spill threatened trees, plankton, and vast populations of small fish and dolphins.<ref name=":132">{{Cite news|url = http://www.aljazeera.com/news/asia/2014/12/bangladesh-begins-oil-clean-up-after-spill-2014121292319849578.html|title = Bangladesh begins oil clean-up after spill|work = [[Al Jazeera English|Aljazeera]]|access-date = 15 December 2014}}</ref> The spill occurred at a protected [[mangrove]] area, home to rare [[Irrawaddy dolphin|Irrawaddy]] and [[Ganges river dolphin]]s.<ref name=":02" /> By 12 January 2015, {{convert|70000|L|impgal usgal}} of oil had been cleaned up by local residents, the [[Bangladesh Navy]], and [[Government of Bangladesh|the government of Bangladesh]].<ref name=":1">{{Cite news|url = http://www.prothom-alo.com/bangladesh/article/421969|title = ৩০ টন তেলমাখা সামগ্রী, অপসারিত হয়নি বাকি তেল, দুশ্চিন্তা কাটেনি|work = [[Prothom Alo]]|access-date = 13 January 2015|archive-date = 13 January 2015|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150113121140/http://www.prothom-alo.com/bangladesh/article/421969|url-status = dead}}</ref>
== Location ==
The collision between the oil tanker and the cargo vessel occurred at the Shela River in Sundarbans, [[Khulna Division]], Bangladesh. The site is near [[Mongla Port]], and is about {{convert|100|km|mi}} from [[Kolkata Port (Vidhan Sabha constituency)|Kolkata Port]].<ref name=":32"/> The oil tanker was at anchor at the confluence between the Shela River and the Passur River in dense fog when the cargo vessel collided with it at 5am on 9 December 2014.<ref name=Kumar-Rao>{{cite web |url=https://maptia.com/aratikumarrao/stories/oil-spill-in-the-sundarbans |title=Oil spill in the Sundarbans |author=Kumar-Rao, Arati |date=24 December 2014 |publisher=Maptia |access-date=21 February 2015 |archive-date=21 February 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150221144123/https://maptia.com/aratikumarrao/stories/oil-spill-in-the-sundarbans |url-status=dead }}</ref> The site is in a protected [[mangrove]] area, home to rare [[Irrawaddy dolphin|Irrawaddy]] and [[Ganges dolphin]]s.<ref name=":02">{{Cite news|url = http://www.aljazeera.com/news/asia/2014/12/bangladesh-oil-spill-threatens-rare-dolphins-20141211165442529249.html |title = Bangladesh oil spill threatens rare dolphins|work = [[Al Jazeera English|Aljazeera]] |access-date = 15 December 2014}}</ref>
== Casualties and losses ==
[[File:The oil Tank.jpg|thumb|Salvaged oil tanker]]
Seven crew members of the sunken ship managed to swim ashore,<ref>{{cite news|title=India on alert after oil spill in Sundarbans|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-india-sundarbans-idUSKBN0JQ1BZ20141212|date=12 December 2014|access-date=9 May 2022|work=[[Reuters]]}}</ref> but the captain of the ship, Mokhlesur Rahman, died, and his body was recovered a few kilometers away from the spot where the ship sank.<ref>{{cite news|title=Callousness cause for Sundarban environmental disaster|url=http://www.observerbd.com/2014/12/17/61220.php|access-date=17 December 2014|work=observerbd.com}}</ref> Experts estimated that {{currency|1000000000|BDT}} was lost as a result of the sinking of the oil-tanker.<ref name=":4">{{Cite news|url = http://www.clickittefaq.com/more-stories/tk-100-cr-loss-feared-sundarban-oil-spill/|title = TK 100 cr. loss feared from Sundarban oil spill|work = [[The Daily Ittefaq]]|access-date = 15 December 2014|archive-date = 15 December 2014|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20141215220859/http://www.clickittefaq.com/more-stories/tk-100-cr-loss-feared-sundarban-oil-spill/|url-status = dead}}</ref> The residents of the surrounding area are at a health risk.
The government of Bangladesh told the local residents to collect the oil and sell it to the [[Bangladesh Petroleum Corporation]]. The local oil collectors faced health risks and various skin diseases, including hair fallout if furnace oil mixed with water contacts a person's face or hair.<ref name=":4" />
== Environmental issues ==
[[File:Dead crab after oil spill in Sundarban.jpg|left|thumb|A dead crab and color interference pattern formed in the spilled oil.]]
[[File:Golpata tree oil covered.jpg|thumb|Oil covered trees]]
Environmentalists warned that the event was an ecological "catastrophe",<ref name=":132"/> as the spill occurred at a protected area where rare dolphins were present.<ref name=":02" /> Experts expressed concerns that the oil spill will hamper the well-being of the aquatic organisms in the area. Wildlife near the river are at a risk of death, because the smell of oil makes breathing difficult.<ref name=":722">{{cite news|title=Oil spill in Sundarbans threatens food cycle|url=http://en.prothom-alo.com/bangladesh/news/57215/Oil-spill-in-Sundarbans-threatens-food-cycle|access-date=19 December 2014|work=[[Prothom Alo]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141219172507/http://en.prothom-alo.com/bangladesh/news/57215/Oil-spill-in-Sundarbans-threatens-food-cycle|archive-date=19 December 2014|url-status=dead}}</ref> Some images indicate that the disaster killed some animals.<ref name="Global Voices Online"/>
On 13 December 2014, a dead Irrawaddy dolphin was seen floating on the Harintana-Tembulbunia channel of the Shela River.<ref name=":622">{{Cite news|url = http://www.dhakatribune.com/bangladesh/2014/dec/14/first-dead-dolphin-spotted|title = First dead dolphin spotted|last = Siddique|first = Abu Bakar|work = The Dhaka Tribune|access-date = 18 December 2014}}</ref> However, it was not confirmed that the dolphin's death was caused by the oil spill. According to the local residents, few dolphins have been seen in the area since the oil spill.
Oriental small-clawed otter (''Amblonyx cinereus'') aquatic carnivore animal lives in the aquatic ecosystem of Sundarbans.<ref>Bautista H. and Rahman K. M. M. (2016). Review On the Sundarbans Delta Oil Spill: Effects On Wildlife and Habitats. International Research Journal, 1(43), Part 2, pp: 93-96. DOI: 10.18454/IRJ.2016.43.143</ref> On 18 December 2014, two dead [[otter]]s were recovered from the Shela River by forest department workers. An [[autopsy]] of the two otters confirmed that they had died from ingesting oil. The otter is considered to be an [[endangered species]], and has been included in the [[International Union for Conservation of Nature]] endangered list.<ref name=":9">{{Cite news|url = http://en.prothom-alo.com/bangladesh/news/57260/Two-otters-dead-in-oil-spill|title = Two otters dead in oil spill|last = Mahmud|first = Iftekhar|work = [[Prothom Alo]]|access-date = 22 December 2014|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20141221142751/http://en.prothom-alo.com/bangladesh/news/57260/Two-otters-dead-in-oil-spill|archive-date = 21 December 2014|url-status = dead}}</ref>
A team of forest department workers saw [[crocodile]]s, [[monitor lizard]]s and many other animals smeared with oil at the Chandpai range of the Sundarbans.<ref name=":9" />
The oil spill is also posing a major threat to the forest's food cycle. Reports from various sources showed that the microorganisms, the primary level of the food cycle, are dying.<ref name=":722"/> The [[United Nations]] expressed deep concern over the oil spill, urging the government of Bangladesh to impose a "complete ban" on commercial vessels moving through the forest.<ref name=":8">{{Cite news|url = https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2014/dec/18/un-sends-team-to-clean-up-sunderbans-oil-spill-in-bangladesh|title = UN sends team to clean up Sunderbans oil spill in Bangladesh|date = 18 December 2014|work = [[Agence France-Presse|AFP]]|access-date = 19 December 2014|publisher = [[The Guardian]]}}</ref>
[[Shajahan Khan]], the shipping minister of Bangladesh, told [[Bangladesh Sangbad Sangstha]] that he has talked with environmental experts, and they said that there will likely be no major damage as a result of the oil spill.<ref name=":622"/> Researchers said that Khan's claim was "unscientific and misleading".<ref name=":722"/>
Ten species that are at risk as a result of the spill have been listed by [[National Geographic Traveller|The National Geographic Traveler]]. These species are the [[Irrawaddy dolphin]]s, [[Bengal tiger]]s, [[leopard]]s, [[great egret]]s, [[rhesus macaque]]s, [[northern river terrapin]]s, [[black-capped kingfisher]]s, [[chital]]s, [[saltwater crocodile]]s, and [[horseshoe crab]]s.<ref>{{Cite news|url = http://www.dhakatribune.com/bangladesh/2014/dec/20/bnp-probe-sundarbans-oil-spill|title = BNP to probe Sundarbans oil spill|work = The Dhaka Tribune|access-date = 22 December 2014}}</ref>
The presence of [[white-rumped vulture]] (''Gyps bengalensis'') over the Sundarbans sky also indicated the large scale death of wild fauna. The secondary effect of oil spill is always much greater than the primary effects.<ref>Rahman K. M. M. & Rakhimov I. I. (2015). Ecological Effects of Oil Spill on Bangladesh Sundarbans Biodiversity. International Scientific and Practical Conference "Complex Problems of Technosphere Safety";Voronezh: Voronezh State Technical University, Russia;Part.VI.258p:Pp:16-21.</ref>
==Oil collection==
[[File:Oil collection by local residents of Sundarbans.jpg|thumb|Local residents collecting oil]]
After the spill, primarily [[Bangladeshi]] fishermen began to clean up the oil using sponges and sacks.<ref name=":132"/> [[Padma Oil Company]], a government-owned corporation, bought the oil at a price of 30 takas per litre.<ref>{{Cite news|url = http://bdnews24.com/bangladesh/2014/12/12/suranjit-peeved-over-sundarbans-oil-spill|title = Suranjit peeved over Sundarbans oil spill|work = [[Bdnews24.com]]|access-date = 19 December 2014}}</ref> The Bangladeshi navy initially sent four ships to deal with the spill, and planned to use chemicals to disperse the oil,<ref name=":132"/> but the plan was canceled, as there were concerns that dispersing the oil would further damage the ecology and biodiversity of the mangrove forest.<ref>{{Cite news|url = http://www.dhakatribune.com/bangladesh/2014/dec/13/dilly-dallying-delays-clean-sundarbans-spill|title = Dilly dallying delays clean-up of Sundarbans spill|work = The Dhaka Tribune|access-date = 19 December 2014}}</ref> The government of Bangladesh closed the Shela River to all vessels.<ref>{{Cite news|url = http://www.thehindu.com/news/international/south-asia/river-route-closed-after-sundarbans-oil-spill/article6683452.ece|title = River route closed after Sundarbans oil spill|work = [[The Hindu]]|access-date = 15 December 2014}}</ref> The owner of the sunken oil tanker, MS Harun & Co., began salvage efforts, assisted by three private rescue vessels. The Bangladesh Forest Department filed a 1 billion taka lawsuit against the owners of the two cargo ships involved in the collision.<ref>{{Cite news|url = http://bdnews24.com/bangladesh/2014/12/10/govt-files-tk-1-billion-compensation-suit-for-sundarbans-oil-spill|title = Govt files Tk 1 billion compensation suit for Sundarbans oil spill}}</ref> By 12 January 2015, the government, with the help of local residents, the Bangladesh Navy, and the owner of the oil tanker, had collected {{convert|70000|L|impgal usgal}} of oil.<ref name=":1" /> The Bangladesh government said that they do not have the capacity to manage oil spills.<ref name=":52">{{cite news |title=No capacity to tackle oil spills |url=http://www.hawker.com.bd/news_details.php?news_id=389549 |work=[[The Daily Star (Bangladesh)|The Daily Star]] |date=16 December 2014 |access-date=16 December 2014 |archive-date=26 December 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141226151916/http://www.hawker.com.bd/news_details.php?news_id=389549 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url = http://www.dhakatribune.com/bangladesh/2014/dec/14/india-alert-after-sunderbans-oil-spill|title = India on alert after Sundarbans oil spill|work = The Dhaka Tribune|access-date = 16 December 2014}}</ref>
The Economic Relations Division of the Bangladesh government sent a letter to the United Nation's Bangladesh office on 15 December 2014, asking for help in the oil collection efforts. The United Nations accepted the request, and a team from the [[UNEP]] and [[OCHA]] went to the site of the spill.<ref>{{cite news|title=UN agrees to help govt contain oil spread|url=http://en.prothom-alo.com/bangladesh/news/57157/Govt-seeks-UN-help-for-Sundarbans|access-date=17 December 2014|work=[[Prothom Alo]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141217121509/http://en.prothom-alo.com/bangladesh/news/57157/Govt-seeks-UN-help-for-Sundarbans|archive-date=17 December 2014|url-status=dead}}</ref> A team from the [[United Nations Disaster Assessment and Coordination]] arrived in the [[Dhaka]] to support the cleanup efforts.<ref name=":8" />
==See also==
{{Portal|Environment|Ecology|Biology}}
* [[Rampal Power Station (Proposed)|Rampal Power Station]]
* [[List of oil spills]]
== References ==
{{reflist}}
==External links==
{{Commons category|Sundarbans oil spill|Sundarbans oil spill|}}
* [https://www.bbc.com/news/in-pictures-30529147 In pictures: Bangladesh oil spill clean-up]
* [http://www.observerbd.com/2014/12/22/62242.php Oil spill takes toll on aquatic life]
[[Category:Sundarbans|Oil spill]]
[[Category:Oil spills in Asia|Sundarbans oil spill 2014]]
[[Category:Man-made disasters in Bangladesh|Sundarbans oil spill]]
[[Category:2014 in Bangladesh|Sundarbans oil spill]]
[[Category:2014 in the environment|Sundarbans oil spill]]
[[Category:2014 industrial disasters|Sundarbans oil spill]]
[[Category:2014 health disasters|Sundarbans oil spill]]
[[Category:Environment of Bangladesh|Sundarbans oil spill]]
[[Category:Environmental conservation|Sundarbans oil spill]]
[[Category:2014 disasters in Bangladesh|Sundarbans oil spill]] |
Environmental issues of Jamaica's reefs | #REDIRECT [[Coral reefs of Jamaica#Causes of decline]]
{{R from merge}}
{{R to section}}
[[Category:Coral reefs]]
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
[[Category:Environmental impact by effect|Coral reefs]]
[[Category:Environment of Jamaica]] |
Social Trekking | {{Orphan|date=January 2021}}
'''Social Trekking''' is a new concept in [[Environmentalism|environmental awareness]] efforts, wherein [[tour operator]]s and organizations committed to [[Environmental protection|environmental conservation]] organize 'green-treks' to encourage people to recover and bring back garbage from environmentally sensitive [[glacier]] regions.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://presstrustofkashmir.com/trekking-tourism-grows-significantly-in-kashmir/|title=Trekking-Tourism Grows Significantly In Kashmir|publisher=presstrustofkashmir.com|date=2017-08-31|accessdate=2017-09-04|url-status=bot: unknown|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170901095603/http://presstrustofkashmir.com/trekking-tourism-grows-significantly-in-kashmir/|archivedate=2017-09-01}}</ref> Social treks are part of 'low impact tourism' efforts,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.knskashmir.com/Mustaq-Pahalgami-flags-off-second-batch-of-trekers-19566 |title=Mustaq Pahalgami flags off second batch of trekers |publisher=www.knskashmir.com |date=2017-09-10 |accessdate=2017-09-10 |url-status=bot: unknown |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170910150950/http://www.knskashmir.com/Mustaq-Pahalgami-flags-off-second-batch-of-trekers-19566 |archivedate=2017-09-10 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://scoopnews.in/det.aspx?q=70740|title=Himalayan Welfare Organization flags off second batch of trekers|publisher=scoopnews.in|date=2017-09-10|accessdate=2017-09-14|url-status=bot: unknown|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170913134232/http://scoopnews.in/det.aspx?q=70740|archivedate=2017-09-13}}</ref> designed with the aim of minimizing the [[carbon footprint]] of the event, while also recovering and bringing back any garbage found on the way and/or at the destination, usually situated in ecologically sensitive far flung hilly areas, where local municipal committees fail to ensure proper garbage recovery.
==References==
{{Reflist}}
[[Category:Environmental conservation]] |
Habitat destruction | {{Short description|Process by which a natural habitat becomes incapable of supporting its native species}}
{{EngvarB|date=June 2022}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2022}}
[[File:Biodiversity Hotspots Map.jpg|upright=2|thumb|Map of the world's biodiversity hot spots, all of which are heavily threatened by habitat loss and degradation]]
'''Habitat destruction''' (also termed '''habitat loss''' and '''habitat reduction''') occurs when a natural [[habitat]] is no longer able to support its native species. The organisms once living there have either moved to elsewhere or are dead, leading to a decrease in biodiversity and [[Abundance (ecology)|species numbers]].<ref name="Calizza Costantini Careddu Rossi pp. 5784–5796">{{cite journal|last1=Calizza|first1=Edoardo|last2=Costantini|first2=Maria Letizia|last3=Careddu|first3=Giulio|last4=Rossi|first4=Loreto|date=June 17, 2017|title=Effect of habitat degradation on competition, carrying capacity, and species assemblage stability|journal=Ecology and Evolution|publisher=Wiley|volume=7|issue=15|pages=5784–5796|doi=10.1002/ece3.2977|issn=2045-7758|pmc=5552933|pmid=28811883|doi-access=free|bibcode=2017EcoEv...7.5784C }}</ref><ref name="SahneyBentonFerry2010LinksDiversityVertebrates">{{cite journal|author=Sahney|first1=S|last2=Benton|first2=Michael J.|last3=Falcon-Lang|first3=Howard J.|date=1 December 2010|title=Rainforest collapse triggered Pennsylvanian tetrapod diversification in Euramerica|url=http://geology.geoscienceworld.org/cgi/content/abstract/38/12/1079|url-status=live|format=PDF|journal=Geology|volume=38|issue=12|pages=1079–1082|bibcode=2010Geo....38.1079S|doi=10.1130/G31182.1|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111011144357/http://geology.geoscienceworld.org/cgi/content/abstract/38/12/1079|archive-date=2011-10-11|access-date=2010-11-29|via=GeoScienceWorld}}</ref> Habitat destruction is in fact the leading cause of [[biodiversity loss]] and species [[extinction]] worldwide.<ref name="Marvier-2004">{{Cite journal|last1=Marvier|first1=Michelle|last2=Kareiva|first2=Peter|last3=Neubert|first3=Michael G.|date=2004|title=Habitat Destruction, Fragmentation, and Disturbance Promote Invasion by Habitat Generalists in a Multispecies Metapopulation|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.0272-4332.2004.00485.x|journal=Risk Analysis|volume=24|issue=4|pages=869–878|doi=10.1111/j.0272-4332.2004.00485.x|pmid=15357806|bibcode=2004RiskA..24..869M |s2cid=44809930|issn=0272-4332|access-date=2021-03-18|archive-date=2021-07-23|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210723082930/https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.0272-4332.2004.00485.x|url-status=live}}</ref>
Humans contribute to habitat destruction through the [[Exploitation of natural resources|use of natural resources]], agriculture, industrial production and [[urbanization]] ([[urban sprawl]]). Other activities include [[mining]], [[logging]] and [[trawling]]. Environmental factors can contribute to habitat destruction more indirectly. Geological processes, [[climate change]],<ref name="SahneyBentonFerry2010LinksDiversityVertebrates" /> [[introduced species|introduction]] of [[invasive species]], ecosystem [[nutrient depletion]], [[water pollution|water]] and [[noise pollution]] are some examples. Loss of habitat can be preceded by an initial [[habitat fragmentation]]. Fragmentation and loss of habitat have become one of the most important topics of research in ecology as they are major threats to the survival of [[endangered species]].<ref name="WIEGAND 108–121">{{Cite journal |last1=WIEGAND |first1=THORSTEN |last2=REVILLA |first2=ELOY |last3=MOLONEY |first3=KIRK A. |date=February 2005 |title=Effects of Habitat Loss and Fragmentation on Population Dynamics |url=https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1523-1739.2005.00208.x |journal=Conservation Biology |volume=19 |issue=1 |pages=108–121 |bibcode=2005ConBi..19..108W |doi=10.1111/j.1523-1739.2005.00208.x |issn=0888-8892 |s2cid=33258495}}</ref>
== Observations ==
=== By region ===
[[File:Bolivia-Deforestation-EO.JPG|thumb|right|Satellite photograph of [[deforestation in Bolivia]]. Originally dry tropical forest, the land is being cleared for [[soybean]] cultivation.<ref>{{cite web
| title = Tierras Bajas Deforestation, Bolivia
| work = Newsroom. Photo taken from the International Space Station on April 16, 2001
| publisher = [[NASA Earth Observatory]]
| date = 2001-04-16
| url = http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Newsroom/NewImages/images.php3?img_id=4842
| access-date = 2008-08-11
| archive-date = 2008-09-20
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080920061746/http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Newsroom/NewImages/images.php3?img_id=4842
| url-status = dead
}}</ref>]]
[[Biodiversity hotspot]]s are chiefly [[tropical]] regions that feature high concentrations of [[Endemism|endemic]] species and, when all hotspots are combined, may contain over half of the world's [[Terrestrial animal|terrestrial]] species.<ref name="Cincotta">Cincotta & Engelman, 2000.</ref> These hotspots are suffering from habitat loss and destruction. Most of the natural habitat on islands and in areas of high human population density has already been destroyed (WRI, 2003). Islands suffering extreme habitat destruction include [[New Zealand]], [[Madagascar]], the [[Philippines]], and [[Japan]].<ref name="Primack">Primack, 2006.</ref> South and East Asia—especially [[China]], [[India]], [[Malaysia]], [[Indonesia]], and Japan—and many areas in [[West Africa]] have extremely dense human populations that allow little room for natural habitat. Marine areas close to highly populated [[coast]]al cities also face degradation of their [[coral reef]]s or other marine habitat. [[Forest_City,_Johor#History|Forest City]], a township in southern Malaysia built on [[Environmentally Sensitive Area]] (ESA) Rank 1 wetland is one such example, with irreversible reclamation proceeding prior to environmental impact assessment and approvals. Other such areas include the eastern coasts of Asia and Africa, northern coasts of [[South America]], and the [[Caribbean Sea]] and its associated [[island]]s.<ref name="Primack"/>
Regions of un[[sustainable agriculture]] or unstable governments, which may go hand-in-hand, typically experience high rates of habitat destruction. [[South Asia]], [[Central America]], [[Sub-Saharan Africa]], and the [[Amazonian tropical rainforest]] areas of South America are the main regions with unsustainable agricultural practices and/or government mismanagement.<ref name="Primack"/>
Areas of high agricultural output tend to have the highest extent of habitat destruction. In the U.S., less than 25% of native vegetation remains in many parts of the [[Eastern United States|East]] and [[Midwestern United States|Midwest]].<ref name="Stein">Stein et al., 2000.</ref> Only 15% of land area remains unmodified by human activities in all of Europe.<ref name="Primack"/>
Currently, changes occurring in different environments around the world are changing the specific geographical habitats that are suitable for plants to grow. Therefore, the ability for plants to migrate to suitable environment areas will have a strong impact on the distribution of plant diversity. However, at the moment, the rates of plant migration that are influenced by habitat loss and fragmentation are not as well understood as they could be.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Higgins |first1=Steven I. |last2=Lavorel |first2=Sandra |last3=Revilla |first3=Eloy |date=2003-04-25 |title=Estimating plant migration rates under habitat loss and fragmentation |url=https://doi.org/10.1034/j.1600-0706.2003.12141.x |journal=Oikos |volume=101 |issue=2 |pages=354–366 |doi=10.1034/j.1600-0706.2003.12141.x |bibcode=2003Oikos.101..354H |hdl=10261/51883 |issn=0030-1299|hdl-access=free }}</ref>
=== By type of ecosystem ===
[[File:Lacanja burn.JPG|thumb|Jungle burned for agriculture in southern Mexico]]
[[Tropical rainforest]]s have received most of the attention concerning the destruction of habitat. From the approximately 16 million square kilometers of tropical rainforest habitat that originally existed worldwide, less than 9 million square kilometers remain today.<ref name="Primack"/> The current rate of [[deforestation]] is 160,000 square kilometers per year, which equates to a loss of approximately 1% of original forest habitat each year.<ref name="Laurance">Laurance, 1999.</ref>
Other forest [[ecosystem]]s have suffered as much or more destruction as tropical [[rainforest]]s. [[Deforestation and climate change|Deforestation]] for [[Agriculture|farming]] and [[logging]] have severely disturbed at least 94% of [[Temperate broadleaf and mixed forests|temperate broadleaf forests]]; many [[old growth forest]] stands have lost more than 98% of their previous area because of human activities.<ref name="Primack"/> [[Tropical and subtropical dry broadleaf forests|Tropical deciduous dry forests]] are easier to [[Slash and burn|clear and burn]] and are more suitable for agriculture and [[cattle ranching]] than tropical rainforests; consequently, less than 0.1% of [[Tropical and subtropical dry broadleaf forests|dry forests in Central America's Pacific Coast]] and less than 8% in [[Madagascar dry deciduous forests|Madagascar]] remain from their original extents.<ref name="Laurance"/>
[[File:Farmland-batang bungo.jpg|thumb|left|Farmers near newly cleared land within Taman Nasional Kerinci Seblat ([[Kerinci Seblat National Park]]), [[Sumatra]]]]
Plains and [[desert]] areas have been degraded to a lesser extent. Only 10–20% of the world's [[drylands]], which include [[temperate grasslands, savannas, and shrublands]], [[Scrubland|scrub]], and [[Temperate deciduous forest|deciduous forests]], have been somewhat degraded.<ref>Kauffman & Pyke, 2001.</ref> But included in that 10–20% of land is the approximately 9 million square kilometers of seasonally dry-lands that humans have converted to deserts through the process of [[desertification]].<ref name="Primack"/> The [[tallgrass prairie]]s of North America, on the other hand, have less than 3% of natural habitat remaining that has not been converted to farmland.<ref>White et al., 2000.</ref>
[[File:Hawaii turtle.JPG|thumb|''[[Chelonia mydas]]'' on a Hawaiian coral reef. Although the endangered species is protected, habitat loss from human development is a major reason for the loss of [[green turtle]] nesting beaches.]]
[[Wetland]]s and marine areas have endured high levels of habitat destruction. More than 50% of wetlands in the U.S. have been destroyed in just the last 200 years.<ref name="Stein"/> Between 60% and 70% of European wetlands have been completely destroyed.<ref>Ravenga et al., 2000.</ref> In the United Kingdom, there has been an increase in demand for coastal housing and tourism which has caused a decline in marine habitats over the last 60 years. The [[Sea level rise|rising sea levels]] and temperatures have caused [[soil erosion]], [[coastal flooding]], and loss of quality in the UK [[marine ecosystem]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.azocleantech.com/article.aspx?ArticleID=535|title=United Kingdom: Environmental Issues, Policies and Clean Technology|date=2015-06-08|website=AZoCleantech.com|access-date=2017-12-12|archive-date=2019-03-30|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190330131246/https://www.azocleantech.com/article.aspx?ArticleID=535|url-status=live}}</ref> About one-fifth (20%) of marine coastal areas have been highly modified by humans.<ref>Burke et al., 2000.</ref> One-fifth of coral reefs have also been destroyed, and another fifth has been severely degraded by [[overfishing]], pollution, and [[invasive species]]; 90% of the Philippines' coral reefs alone have been destroyed.<ref name="MEA">Millennium Ecological Assessment, 2005.</ref> Finally, over 35% of the [[Coastal ecosystems|mangrove ecosystems]] worldwide have been destroyed.<ref name="MEA"/>
==Natural causes==
[[File:Burnt forest GJ.jpg|thumb|Forest in [[Grands-Jardins National Park]] 10 years after a forest fire occurred<ref>{{Citation|title=File:Burnt forest GJ.jpg|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Burnt_forest_GJ.jpg|work=Wikipedia|language=en|access-date=2021-03-18|archive-date=2021-07-23|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210723082910/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Burnt_forest_GJ.jpg|url-status=live}}</ref>]]
Habitat destruction through natural processes such as volcanism, [[fire]], and climate change is well documented in the fossil record.<ref name="SahneyBentonFerry2010LinksDiversityVertebrates"/> One study shows that habitat fragmentation of tropical rainforests in Euramerica 300 million years ago led to a great loss of amphibian diversity, but simultaneously the drier climate spurred on a burst of diversity among reptiles.<ref name="SahneyBentonFerry2010LinksDiversityVertebrates"/>
==Causes due to human activities==
Habitat destruction caused by humans includes [[land conversion]] from forests, etc. to [[arable land]], [[urban sprawl]], [[Public works|infrastructure development]], and other anthropogenic changes to the characteristics of land. Habitat degradation, fragmentation, and [[pollution]] are aspects of habitat destruction caused by humans that do not necessarily involve over destruction of habitat, yet result in habitat collapse. [[Desertification]], [[deforestation]], and [[Coral bleaching|coral reef degradation]] are specific types of habitat destruction for those areas ([[desert]]s, [[forest]]s, [[coral reef]]s).{{Citation needed|date=January 2021}}
===Overarching drivers===
The forces that cause humans to destroy habitat are known as ''drivers'' of habitat destruction. [[Demographic]], economic, sociopolitical, scientific and technological, and cultural drivers all contribute to habitat destruction.<ref name="MEA" />
Demographic drivers include the [[Human overpopulation|expanding human population]]; rate of [[Population growth|population increase]] over time; [[Population density|spatial distribution]] of people in a given area ([[List of urban areas by population|urban]] versus rural), ecosystem type, and country; and the combined effects of poverty, age, family planning, gender, and education status of people in certain areas.<ref name="MEA" /> Most of the exponential human population growth worldwide is occurring in or close to [[biodiversity hotspots]].<ref name="Cincotta" /> This may explain why human population density accounts for 87.9% of the variation in numbers of [[threatened species]] across 114 countries, providing indisputable evidence that people play the largest role in decreasing [[biodiversity]].<ref>McKee et al., 2003.</ref> The boom in human population and migration of people into such species-rich regions are making [[conservation biology|conservation efforts]] not only more urgent but also more likely to conflict with local human interests.<ref name="Cincotta" /> The high local population density in such areas is directly correlated to the poverty status of the local people, most of whom lacking an education and family planning.<ref name="Geist">Geist & Lambin, 2002.</ref>
According to the Geist and Lambin (2002) study, the underlying driving forces were prioritized as follows (with the percent of the 152 cases the factor played a significant role in): economic factors (81%), institutional or policy factors (78%), technological factors (70%), cultural or socio-political factors (66%), and [[demographic]] factors (61%). The main economic factors included [[commercialization]] and growth of [[timber market]]s (68%), which are driven by national and international demands; urban [[industrial growth]] (38%); low domestic costs for land, labor, fuel, and timber (32%); and increases in product prices mainly for [[cash crops]] (25%). Institutional and policy factors included formal pro-[[deforestation]] policies on [[land development]] (40%), [[economic growth]] including [[colonization]] and infrastructure improvement (34%), and subsidies for land-based activities (26%); [[property rights]] and land-tenure insecurity (44%); and policy failures such as [[corruption]], lawlessness, or [[mismanagement]] (42%). The main technological factor was the poor application of technology in the [[wood industry]] (45%), which leads to wasteful logging practices. Within the broad category of cultural and sociopolitical factors are public attitudes and values (63%), individual/household behavior (53%), public unconcern toward forest environments (43%), missing basic values (36%), and unconcern by individuals (32%). Demographic factors were the in-migration of colonizing settlers into sparsely populated forest areas (38%) and growing population density—a result of the first factor—in those areas (25%).
=== Forest conversion to agriculture ===
{{Further|Deforestation}}
{{multiple image
| total_width = 450
| image1 = 20210331 Global tree cover loss - World Resources Institute.svg
| caption1 = The rate of global tree cover loss has approximately doubled since 2001, to an annual loss approaching an area the size of Italy.<ref>{{cite news |ref={{harvid|World Resources Institute, 31 March|2021}}
|last1=Butler |first1=Rhett A.
|title=Global forest loss increases in 2020
|url=https://news.mongabay.com/2021/03/global-forest-loss-increases-in-2020-but-pandemics-impact-unclear/
|work=Mongabay
|date=31 March 2021
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210401022404/https://news.mongabay.com/2021/03/global-forest-loss-increases-in-2020-but-pandemics-impact-unclear/
|archive-date=1 April 2021
|url-status=live }} ● ''Mongabay'' graphing WRI data from {{cite web
|title=Forest Loss / How much tree cover is lost globally each year?
|url=https://research.wri.org/gfr/forest-extent-indicators/forest-loss
|website=research.WRI.org
|publisher=World Resources Institute — Global Forest Review
|archive-url=https://archive.today/20230802052653/https://research.wri.org/gfr/forest-extent-indicators/forest-loss
|archive-date=2 August 2023
|date=2023
|url-status=live}}</ref>
| image2 = 8000 BCE+ Loss of forest and grassland to grazing and crops.svg
| caption2 = The period since 1950 has brought "the most rapid transformation of the human relationship with the natural world in the history of humankind".<ref name=IGBP_Steffen_2004>{{cite web |last1=Steffen |first1=Will |last2=Sanderson |first2=Angelina |last3=Tyson |first3=Peter |last4=Jäger |first4=Jill |last5=Matson |first5=Pamela |last6=Moore III |first6=Berrien |last7=Oldfield |first7=Frank |last8=Richardson |first8=Katherine |last9=Schellnhuber |first9=H. John |last10=Turner II |first10=B. L. |last11=Wasson |first11=Robert J. |display-authors=4 |title=Global Change and the Climate System / A Planet Under Pressure |url=http://www.igbp.net/download/18.56b5e28e137d8d8c09380001694/1376383141875/SpringerIGBPSynthesisSteffenetal2004_web.pdf |publisher=International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme (IGBP) |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170319052247/http://www.igbp.net/download/18.56b5e28e137d8d8c09380001694/1376383141875/SpringerIGBPSynthesisSteffenetal2004_web.pdf |archive-date=19 March 2017 |pages=131, 133 |date=2004 |quote=Fig. 3.67(j): loss of tropical rainforest and woodland, as estimated for tropical Africa, Latin America and South and Southeast Asia. |url-status=live}}</ref> Almost one-third of the world's forests, and almost two-thirds of its grassland, have been lost to human agriculture—which now occupies almost half the world's habitable land.<ref name=LandUseChange_8000BCE>{{cite web |title=Deforestation and Forest Loss / Humanity destroyed one third of the world's forests by expanding agricultural land |url=https://ourworldindata.org/deforestation |publisher=Our World in Data (OWID) |archive-url=https://archive.today/20221107180838/https://ourworldindata.org/deforestation |archive-date=7 November 2022 |quote=Data: Historical data on forests from Williams (2003) - Deforesting the Earth. Historical data on agriculture from The History Database of Global Environment (HYDE). Modern data from the FAO |url-status=live }}</ref>
}}
Geist and Lambin (2002) assessed 152 case studies of net losses of tropical forest cover to determine any patterns in the proximate and underlying causes of tropical deforestation. Their results, yielded as percentages of the case studies in which each parameter was a significant factor, provide a quantitative prioritization of which proximate and underlying causes were the most significant. The proximate causes were clustered into broad categories of [[agricultural expansion]] (96%), [[infrastructure expansion]] (72%), and [[wood extraction]] (67%). Therefore, according to this study, [[forest conversion]] to agriculture is the main [[land use]] [[land conversion|change]] responsible for tropical deforestation. The specific categories reveal further insight into the specific causes of tropical deforestation: transport extension (64%), commercial wood extraction (52%), [[permanent cultivation]] (48%), [[cattle ranching]] (46%), shifting ([[slash and burn]]) cultivation (41%), [[subsistence agriculture]] (40%), and [[fuel wood]] extraction for domestic use (28%). One result is that [[shifting cultivation]] is not the primary cause of deforestation in all world regions, while transport extension (including the [[Road construction|construction of new roads]]) is the largest single proximate factor responsible for deforestation.<ref name="Geist" />
Habitat size and numbers of species are systematically related. Physically larger species and those living at lower latitudes or in forests or oceans are more sensitive to reduction in habitat area.<ref name=":0">{{cite journal |last1=Drakare |first1=Stina |last2=Lennon |first2=Jack J. |last3=Hillebrand |first3=Helmut |year=2006 |title=The imprint of the geographical, evolutionary and ecological context on species-area relationships |journal=Ecology Letters |volume=9 |issue=2 |pages=215–227 |doi=10.1111/j.1461-0248.2005.00848.x |pmid=16958886 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Conversion to "trivial" standardized ecosystems (e.g., [[monoculture]] following deforestation) effectively destroys habitat for the more diverse species. Even the simplest forms of agriculture affect diversity – through clearing or draining the land, discouraging [[Weed|weeds]] and [[Pest (organism)|pests]], and encouraging just a limited set of domesticated plant and animal species.<ref name=":0" />
There are also feedbacks and interactions among the proximate and underlying causes of deforestation that can amplify the process. Road construction has the largest feedback effect, because it interacts with—and leads to—the establishment of new settlements and more people, which causes a growth in wood (logging) and food markets.<ref name="Geist" /> Growth in these markets, in turn, progresses the commercialization of agriculture and logging industries. When these industries become commercialized, they must become more efficient by utilizing larger or more modern machinery that often has a worse effect on the habitat than traditional farming and logging methods. Either way, more land is cleared more rapidly for commercial markets. This common feedback example manifests just how closely related the proximate and underlying causes are to each other.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Allen |first1=L. |url=https://www.nap.edu/read/19401/chapter/8 |title=Read "Transforming the Workforce for Children Birth Through Age 8: A Unifying Foundation" at NAP.edu |last2=Kelly |first2=B. B. |date=2015 |isbn=978-0-309-32485-4 |language=en |doi=10.17226/19401 |pmid=26269871}}</ref>
=== Climate change ===
{{See also|Effects of climate change|Effects of climate change on biomes}}
{{multiple image
| total_width = 500
| image1 = NSIDC arctic sea ice extent since 1979.svg
| caption1 = Decline in arctic sea ice ''extent'' (area) from 1979 to 2022
| image2 = Plot arctic sea ice volume.svg
| caption2 = Decline in arctic sea ice ''volume'' from 1979 to 2022
}}
[[Climate change]] contributes to destruction of some habitats, endangering various species. For example:
* Climate change causes [[Sea level rise|rising sea levels]] which will threaten natural habitats and species globally.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Baker|first1=Jason D.|last2=Littnan|first2=Charles L.|last3=Johnston|first3=David W.|date=2006-05-24|title=Potential effects of sea level rise on the terrestrial habitats of endangered and endemic megafauna in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands|journal=Endangered Species Research|volume=2|pages=21–30|doi=10.3354/esr002021|issn=1863-5407|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Galbraith|first1=H.|last2=Jones|first2=R.|last3=Park|first3=R.|last4=Clough|first4=J.|last5=Herrod-Julius|first5=S.|last6=Harrington|first6=B.|last7=Page|first7=G.|date=2002-06-01|title=Global Climate Change and Sea Level Rise: Potential Losses of Intertidal Habitat for Shorebirds|journal=Waterbirds|volume=25|issue=2|pages=173–183|doi=10.1675/1524-4695(2002)025[0173:GCCASL]2.0.CO;2|s2cid=86365454 |issn=1524-4695}}</ref>
* Melting [[sea ice]] destroys habitat for some species.<ref>Constable, A.J., S. Harper, J. Dawson, K. Holsman, T. Mustonen, D. Piepenburg, and B. Rost, 2022: [https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg2/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGII_CCP6.pdf Cross-Chapter Paper 6: Polar Regions]. In: [https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg2/ Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change] [H.-O. Pörtner, D.C. Roberts, M. Tignor, E.S. Poloczanska, K. Mintenbeck, A. Alegría, M. Craig, S. Langsdorf, S. Löschke, V. Möller, A. Okem, B. Rama (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK and New York, NY, USA, pp. 2319–2368, {{doi|10.1017/9781009325844.023}}</ref>{{rp|2321}} For example, the [[Arctic sea ice decline|decline of sea ice in the Arctic]] has been accelerating during the early twenty‐first century, with a decline rate of 4.7% per decade (it has declined over 50% since the first satellite records).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Huang |first1=Yiyi |last2=Dong |first2=Xiquan |last3=Bailey |first3=David A. |last4=Holland |first4=Marika M. |author-link4=Marika Holland |last5=Xi |first5=Baike |last6=DuVivier |first6=Alice K. |last7=Kay |first7=Jennifer E. |last8=Landrum |first8=Laura L. |last9=Deng |first9=Yi |date=2019-06-19 |title=Thicker Clouds and Accelerated Arctic Sea Ice Decline: The Atmosphere-Sea Ice Interactions in Spring |journal=Geophysical Research Letters |volume=46 |issue=12 |pages=6980–6989 |bibcode=2019GeoRL..46.6980H |doi=10.1029/2019gl082791 |issn=0094-8276 |s2cid=189968828 |doi-access=free |hdl-access=free |hdl=10150/634665}}</ref><ref name=":22">{{Cite journal |last1=Senftleben |first1=Daniel |last2=Lauer |first2=Axel |last3=Karpechko |first3=Alexey |date=2020-02-15 |title=Constraining Uncertainties in CMIP5 Projections of September Arctic Sea Ice Extent with Observations |journal=Journal of Climate |volume=33 |issue=4 |pages=1487–1503 |bibcode=2020JCli...33.1487S |doi=10.1175/jcli-d-19-0075.1 |issn=0894-8755 |s2cid=210273007 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name=":32">{{Cite journal |last1=Yadav |first1=Juhi |last2=Kumar |first2=Avinash |last3=Mohan |first3=Rahul |date=2020-05-21 |title=Dramatic decline of Arctic sea ice linked to global warming |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11069-020-04064-y |journal=Natural Hazards |volume=103 |issue=2 |pages=2617–2621 |doi=10.1007/s11069-020-04064-y |bibcode=2020NatHa.103.2617Y |issn=0921-030X |s2cid=218762126}}</ref> One well known example of a species affected is the [[polar bear]], whose habitat in the Artic is threatened.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Durner |first1=George M. |last2=Douglas |first2=David C. |last3=Nielson |first3=Ryan M. |last4=Amstrup |first4=Steven C. |last5=McDonald |first5=Trent L. |last6=Stirling |first6=Ian |last7=Mauritzen |first7=Mette |last8=Born |first8=Erik W. |last9=Wiig |first9=Øystein |last10=Deweaver |first10=Eric |last11=Serreze |first11=Mark C. |last12=Belikov |first12=Stanislav E. |last13=Holland |first13=Marika M. |last14=Maslanik |first14=James |last15=Aars |first15=Jon |year=2009 |title=Predicting 21st-century polar bear habitat distribution from global climate models |journal=Ecological Monographs |volume=79 |issue=1 |pages=25–58 |bibcode=2009EcoM...79...25D |doi=10.1890/07-2089.1 |s2cid=85677324 |last16=Bailey |first16=David A. |last17=Derocher |first17=Andrew E.}}</ref> [[Algae]] can also be affected when it grows on the underside of sea ice.<ref name="Riebesell">{{Cite journal |last1=Riebesell |first1=Ulf |last2=Körtzinger |first2=Arne |last3=Oschlies |first3=Andreas |date=2009 |title=Sensitivities of marine carbon fluxes to ocean change |journal=PNAS |volume=106 |issue=49 |pages=20602–20609 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0813291106 |pmc=2791567 |pmid=19995981 |doi-access=free}}</ref>
* [[Coral reef|Warm-water coral reefs]] are very sensitive to global warming and ocean acidification. Coral reefs provide a [[habitat]] for thousands of species. They provide [[ecosystem services]] such as [[coastal protection]] and food. But 70–90% of today's warm-water coral reefs will disappear even if warming is kept to {{Convert|1.5|C-change}}.<ref name=":2">{{cite book |last1=Hoegh-Guldberg |first1=O. |first2=D. |last2=Jacob |first3=M. |last3=Taylor |first4=M. |last4=Bindi |first5=S. |last5=Brown |first6=I. |last6=Camilloni |first7=A. |last7=Diedhiou |first8=R. |last8=Djalante |first9=K.L. |last9=Ebi |first10=F. |last10=Engelbrecht |first11=J. |last11=Guiot |first12=Y. |last12=Hijioka |first13=S. |last13=Mehrotra |first14=A. |last14=Payne |first15=S.I. |last15=Seneviratne |first16=A. |last16=Thomas |first17=R. |last17=Warren |first18=G. |last18=Zhou |chapter-url=https://www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/sites/2/2022/06/SR15_Chapter_3_LR.pdf |chapter=Impacts of 1.5°C Global Warming on Natural and Human Systems |title=Global Warming of 1.5°C: An IPCC Special Report on the impacts of global warming of 1.5 °C above pre-industrial levels and related global greenhouse gas emission pathways, in the context of strengthening the global response to the threat of climate change, sustainable development, and efforts to eradicate poverty |date=2022 |pages=175–312 |isbn=978-1-009-15794-0 |url=https://www.ipcc.ch/sr15/ |editor-last1=Masson-Delmotte |editor-first1=V. |editor-first2=P. |editor-last2=Zhai |editor-first3=H.-O. |editor-last3=Pörtner |editor-first4=D. |editor-last4=Roberts |editor-first5=J. |editor-last5=Skea |editor-first6=P.R. |editor-last6=Shukla |editor-first7=A. |editor-last7=Pirani |editor-first8=W. |editor-last8=Moufouma-Okia |editor-first9=C. |editor-last9=Péan |editor-first10=R. |editor-last10=Pidcock |editor-first11=S. |editor-last11=Connors |editor-first12=J.B.R. |editor-last12=Matthews |editor-first13=Y. |editor-last13=Chen |editor-first14=X. |editor-last14=Zhou |editor-first15=M.I. |editor-last15=Gomis |editor-first16=E. |editor-last16=Lonnoy |editor-first17=T. |editor-last17=Maycock |editor-first18=M. |editor-last18=Tignor |editor-first19=T. |editor-last19=Waterfield |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge, UK and New York City |doi=10.1017/9781009157940.005 }}</ref>{{rp|179}} For example, Caribbean [[coral reef]]s{{snd}}which are [[Biodiversity hotspot|biodiversity hotspots]]{{snd}}will be lost within the century if global warming continues at the current rate.<ref name=":6">{{Cite news |last=Aldred |first=Jessica |date=2 July 2014 |title=Caribbean coral reefs 'will be lost within 20 years' without protection |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2014/jul/02/caribbean-coral-reef-lost-fishing-pollution-report |access-date=9 November 2015 |newspaper=The Guardian}}</ref>
===Habitat fragmentation===
{{excerpt|Habitat fragmentation|file=no}}
==Impacts ==
=== On animals and plants ===
When a habitat is destroyed, the [[carrying capacity]] for [[Indigenous (ecology)|indigenous]] plants, animals, and other organisms is reduced so that [[population decline|populations decline]], sometimes up to the level of [[extinction]].<ref>Scholes & Biggs, 2004.</ref>
Habitat loss is perhaps the greatest threat to organisms and biodiversity.<ref>Barbault & Sastrapradja, 1995.</ref> Temple (1986) found that 82% of [[Endangered species|endangered bird species]] were significantly threatened by habitat loss. Most amphibian species are also threatened by native habitat loss,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Beebee |first1=Trevor J.C. |last2=Griffiths |first2=Richard A. |date=31 May 2005 |title=The amphibian decline crisis: A watershed for conservation biology? |journal=Biological Conservation |volume=125 |issue=3 |page=271 |bibcode=2005BCons.125..271B |doi=10.1016/j.biocon.2005.04.009}}</ref> and some species are now only breeding in modified habitat.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Borzée |first1=Amaël |last2=Jang |first2=Yikweon |date=28 April 2015 |title=Description of a seminatural habitat of the endangered Suweon treefrog Hyla suweonensis |journal=Animal Cells and Systems |volume=19 |issue=3 |page=216 |doi=10.1080/19768354.2015.1028442 |s2cid=86565631 |doi-access=free}}</ref> [[endemism|Endemic]] organisms with limited ranges are most affected by habitat destruction, mainly because these organisms are not found anywhere else in the world, and thus have less chance of recovering. Many endemic organisms have very specific requirements for their survival that can only be found within a certain ecosystem, resulting in their extinction. Extinction may also take place very long after the destruction of habitat, a phenomenon known as [[extinction debt]]. Habitat destruction can also decrease the range of certain organism populations. This can result in the reduction of genetic diversity and perhaps the production of [[infertile]] youths, as these organisms would have a higher possibility of mating with related organisms within their population, or different species. One of the most famous examples is the impact upon China's [[giant panda]], once found in many areas of [[Sichuan]]. Now it is only found in fragmented and isolated regions in the southwest of the country, as a result of widespread [[deforestation]] in the 20th century.<ref>{{cite web |date=24 August 2011 |title=The Panda's Forest: Biodiversity Loss |url=http://pulitzercenter.org/reporting/china-sichuan-panda-deforestation-habitat-mountain-conservation |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110923010154/http://pulitzercenter.org/reporting/china-sichuan-panda-deforestation-habitat-mountain-conservation |archive-date=23 September 2011 |access-date=6 September 2011}}</ref>
As habitat destruction of an area occurs, the [[species diversity]] offsets from a combination of habitat generalists and specialists to a population primarily consisting of [[Generalist and specialist species|generalist species]].<ref name="Marvier-2004" /> [[Invasive species]] are frequently generalists that are able to survive in much more diverse habitats.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Evangelista |first1=Paul H. |last2=Kumar |first2=Sunil |last3=Stohlgren |first3=Thomas J. |last4=Jarnevich |first4=Catherine S. |last5=Crall |first5=Alycia W. |last6=Norman III |first6=John B. |last7=Barnett |first7=David T. |date=2008 |title=Modelling invasion for a habitat generalist and a specialist plant species |journal=Diversity and Distributions |volume=14 |issue=5 |pages=808–817 |bibcode=2008DivDi..14..808E |doi=10.1111/j.1472-4642.2008.00486.x |issn=1366-9516 |s2cid=14148713 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Habitat destruction leading to climate change offsets the balance of species keeping up with the [[extinction threshold]] leading to a higher likelihood of extinction.<ref name="Travis-2003">{{Cite journal |last=Travis |first=J. M. J. |date=2003-03-07 |title=Climate change and habitat destruction: a deadly anthropogenic cocktail |url= |journal=Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series B: Biological Sciences |volume=270 |issue=1514 |pages=467–473 |doi=10.1098/rspb.2002.2246 |issn=0962-8452 |pmc=1691268 |pmid=12641900}}</ref>
Habitat loss is one of the main environmental causes of the decline of biodiversity on local, regional, and global scales. Many believe that habitat fragmentation is also a threat to biodiversity however some believe that it is secondary to habitat loss.<ref name="Helm 051109031307003">{{Cite journal |last1=Helm |first1=Aveliina |last2=Hanski |first2=Ilkka |last3=Partel |first3=Meelis |date=2005-11-09 |title=Slow response of plant species richness to habitat loss and fragmentation |url=https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1461-0248.2005.00841.x |journal=Ecology Letters |volume=9 |issue=1 |pages=72–77 |doi=10.1111/j.1461-0248.2005.00841.x |issn=1461-023X |pmid=16958870}}</ref> The reduction of the amount of habitat available results in specific landscapes that are made of isolated patches of suitable habitat throughout a hostile environment/matrix. This process is generally due to pure habitat loss as well as fragmentation effects. Pure habitat loss refers to changes occurring in the composition of the landscape that causes a decrease in individuals. Fragmentation effects refer to an addition of effects occurring due to the habitat changes.<ref name="WIEGAND 108–121" /> Habitat loss can result in negative effects on the dynamic of species richness. The order [[Hymenoptera]] is a diverse group of plant pollinators who are highly susceptible to the negative effects of habitat loss, this could result in a domino effect between the plant-pollinator interactions leading to major conservation implications within this group.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Spiesman |first1=Brian J. |last2=Inouye |first2=Brian D. |date=December 2013 |title=Habitat loss alters the architecture of plant–pollinator interaction networks |url=https://doi.org/10.1890/13-0977.1 |journal=Ecology |volume=94 |issue=12 |pages=2688–2696 |bibcode=2013Ecol...94.2688S |doi=10.1890/13-0977.1 |issn=0012-9658 |pmid=24597216}}</ref>
=== On human population ===
[[File:KatrinaNewOrleansFlooded edit2.jpg|thumb |The draining and development of coastal wetlands that previously protected the [[Gulf Coast]] contributed to severe flooding in New Orleans, Louisiana, in the aftermath of [[Hurricane Katrina]] in 2005.<ref>Tibbetts, 2006.</ref>]]
Habitat destruction can vastly increase an area's vulnerability to [[natural disaster]]s like [[flood]] and [[drought]], [[crop failure]], [[spread of disease]], and [[water contamination]].<ref name="MEA"/>{{page needed|date= April 2021}} On the other hand, a healthy ecosystem with good [[ecosystem management|management]] practices can reduce the chance of these events happening, or will at least mitigate adverse impacts.<ref name = WRR>{{cite web | last1= Mumba | first1= Musonda | last2= Munang | first2= Richard | last3= Rivington | first3= Mike | title= Ecosystem Management: The Need to Adopt a Different Approach Under a Changing Climate | url= https://www.wri.org/our-work/project/world-resources-report/ecosystem-management-need-adopt-different-approach-under | website= Resources Report | date= 27 June 2013 | publisher= United Nations Environment Programme/Macaulay Land Use Research Institute | access-date= 15 April 2021 | archive-date= 15 April 2021 | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20210415232300/https://www.wri.org/our-work/project/world-resources-report/ecosystem-management-need-adopt-different-approach-under | url-status= live }}</ref> Eliminating swamps—the habitat of [[pest (organism)|pest]]s such as [[mosquito]]es—has contributed to the prevention of diseases such as [[malaria]].<ref>{{cite book
| last1 = Bull
| first1 = David
| title = A Growing Problem: Pesticides and the Third World Poor
| year = 1982
| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=RPjwAAAAMAAJ
| publisher = OXFAM
| publication-date = 1982
| page = 29
| isbn = 9780855980641
| access-date = 24 April 2021
| quote = It was drainage of swampland which eradicated the disease [malaria] from the [[Fenlands]] in Britain and the [[Pontine marshes]] of Italy.
| archive-date = 24 April 2021
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210424030702/https://books.google.com/books?id=RPjwAAAAMAAJ
| url-status = live
}}</ref>
Completely depriving an [[pathogen|infectious agent]] (such as a virus) of its habitat—by [[vaccination]], for example—can result in eradicating that infectious agent.<ref>
{{cite book
| last1 = Reiter
| first1 = Paul
| author-link1 = Paul Reiter
| year = 1997
| chapter = Surveillance and Control of Urban Dengue Vectors
| editor1-last = Gubler
| editor1-first = Duane J.
| editor2-last = Ooi
| editor2-first = Eng Eong
| editor3-last = Vasudevan
| editor3-first = Subhash
| editor4-last = Farrar
| editor4-first = Jeremy
| editor4-link = Jeremy Farrar
| title = Dengue and Dengue Hemorrhagic Fever
| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=Tl_YBAAAQBAJ
| series = CAB books
| edition = 2, revised
| location = Wallingford, Oxfordshire
| publisher = CABI
| publication-date = 2014
| page = 504
| isbn = 9781845939649
| access-date = 30 September 2021
| quote = The eradication of smallpox virus [...] is also a perfect example of habitat destruction: smallpox vaccination gives life-long immunity, and humans are the only host. Mass vaccination therefore resulted in total elimination of the habitat of the virus.
}}
</ref>
Agricultural land can suffer from the destruction of the surrounding landscape. Over the past 50 years, the destruction of habitat surrounding agricultural land has degraded approximately 40% of agricultural land worldwide via [[erosion]], [[Soil salinity|salinization]], [[Soil compaction|compaction]], [[Natural resource#Depletion|nutrient depletion]], [[pollution]], and [[urbanization]].<ref name="MEA"/> Humans also lose direct uses of natural habitat when habitat is destroyed. Aesthetic uses such as [[birdwatching]], recreational uses like [[hunting]] and [[fishing]], and [[ecotourism]] usually{{quantify|date= April 2021}} rely upon relatively undisturbed habitat. Many{{quantify|date=September 2021}} people value the complexity of the natural world and express concern at the loss of natural habitats and of animal or plant species worldwide.<ref>{{cite web |title= Valuing nature |url= https://www.wwf.org.uk/what-we-do/valuing-nature |website= World Wildlife Foundation |publisher= WWF |access-date= 15 April 2021 |archive-date= 25 April 2021 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20210425084205/https://www.wwf.org.uk/what-we-do/valuing-nature |url-status= live }}</ref>
Probably the most profound impact that habitat destruction has on people is the loss of many valuable [[ecosystem services]]. Habitat destruction has altered nitrogen, phosphorus, sulfur, and [[carbon cycle]]s, which has increased the frequency and severity of [[acid rain]], [[algal bloom]]s, and [[fish kill]]s in rivers and oceans and contributed tremendously to global [[climate change]].<ref name="MEA"/>{{qn|date= April 2021}} One ecosystem service whose significance is becoming better understood is [[Climate|climate regulation]]. On a local scale, trees provide windbreaks and shade; on a regional scale, [[Transpiration|plant transpiration]] recycles rainwater and maintains constant annual rainfall; on a global scale, plants (especially trees in tropical rainforests) around the world counter the accumulation of [[greenhouse gas]]es in the atmosphere by [[Carbon sequestration|sequestering carbon]] dioxide through [[photosynthesis]].<ref name="Primack"/> Other ecosystem services that are diminished or lost altogether as a result of habitat destruction include [[watershed management]], [[nitrogen fixation]], oxygen production, [[pollination]] (see [[pollinator decline]]),<ref>
{{cite journal
| journal= PLOS ONE|volume= 8|issue= 5|year= 2013
| doi= 10.1371/journal.pone.0063421|pmc= 3661593
| title= Plant Pollinator Networks along a Gradient of Urbanisation
| author1= Benoît Geslin|author2= Benoit Gauzens
| author3= Elisa Thébault|author4= Isabelle Dajoz|pmid= 23717421
| page= e63421 |bibcode= 2013PLoSO...863421G
| doi-access= free
}}
</ref>
[[waste treatment]] (i.e., the [[Decomposition|breaking down]] and immobilization of [[toxic]] pollutants), and [[Nutrient cycle|nutrient recycling]] of [[sewage]] or [[agricultural runoff]].<ref name="Primack"/>
The loss of trees from tropical rainforests alone represents a substantial diminishing of Earth's ability to produce oxygen and to use up carbon dioxide. These services are becoming even more important as increasing [[carbon dioxide]] levels is one of the main contributors to global [[climate change]].<ref name = WRR/> The [[Biodiversity loss|loss of biodiversity]] may not directly affect humans, but the indirect effects of losing many species as well as the diversity of ecosystems in general are enormous. When biodiversity is lost, the environment loses many species that perform valuable and unique roles in the ecosystem. The environment and all its inhabitants rely on biodiversity to recover from extreme environmental conditions. When too much biodiversity is lost, a catastrophic event such as an earthquake, flood, or volcanic eruption could cause an ecosystem to crash, and humans would obviously suffer from that.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Sinclair |first1=A. R. E. |last2=Byrom |first2=Andrea E. |date=January 2006 |title=Understanding ecosystem dynamics for conservation of biota |journal=Journal of Animal Ecology |language=en |volume=75 |issue=1 |pages=64–79 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2656.2006.01036.x |issn=0021-8790|doi-access=free |pmid=16903044 |bibcode=2006JAnEc..75...64S }}</ref> Loss of biodiversity also means that humans are losing animals that could have served as biological-control agents and plants that could potentially provide higher-yielding crop varieties, pharmaceutical drugs to cure existing or future diseases (such as cancer), and new resistant crop-varieties for agricultural species susceptible to pesticide-resistant insects or virulent strains of [[fungi]], [[virus]]es, and [[bacteria]].<ref name="Primack"/>
The negative effects of habitat destruction usually impact rural populations more directly than urban populations.<ref name="MEA"/> Across the globe, poor people suffer the most when natural habitat is destroyed, because less natural habitat means fewer natural resources ''per capita'', yet wealthier people and countries can simply pay more to continue to receive more than their ''per capita'' share of natural resources.
Another way to view the negative effects of habitat destruction is to look at the [[opportunity cost]] of destroying a given habitat. In other words, what do people lose out on with the removal of a given habitat? A country may increase its food supply by converting forest land to row-crop agriculture, but the value of the same land may be much larger when it can supply natural resources or services such as clean water, timber, ecotourism, or flood regulation and drought control.<ref name="MEA"/>{{qn|date=April 2021}}
==Outlook==
The [[Human overpopulation|rapid expansion of the global human population]] is increasing the world's food requirement substantially. Simple logic dictates that more people will require more food. In fact, as the world's population increases dramatically, agricultural output will need to increase by at least 50%, over the next 30 years.<ref name="Tilman">Tilman et al., 2001.</ref> In the past, continually moving to new land and soils provided a boost in food production to meet the global food demand. That easy fix will no longer be available, however, as more than 98% of all land suitable for agriculture is already in use or degraded beyond repair.<ref>Sanderson et al., 2002.</ref>
The impending global [[food crisis]] will be a major source of habitat destruction. Commercial farmers are going to become desperate to produce more food from the same amount of land, so they will use more [[fertilizer]]s and show less concern for the environment to meet the market demand. Others will seek out new land or will convert other land-uses to agriculture. Agricultural intensification will become widespread at the cost of the environment and its inhabitants. Species will be pushed out of their habitat either directly by habitat destruction or indirectly by fragmentation, [[environmental degradation|degradation]], or [[pollution]]. Any efforts to protect the world's remaining natural habitat and biodiversity will compete directly with humans' growing demand for natural resources, especially new agricultural lands.<ref name="Tilman"/>
==Solutions==
Attempts to address habitat destruction are in international policy commitments embodied by [[Sustainable Development Goal 15]] "Life on Land" and [[Sustainable Development Goal 14]] "Life Below Water". However, the [[United Nations Environment Programme]] report on "Making Peace with Nature" released in 2021 found that most of these efforts had failed to meet their internationally agreed upon goals.<ref>United Nations Environment Programme (2021). ''[https://www.unep.org/resources/making-peace-nature Making Peace with Nature: A scientific blueprint to tackle the climate, biodiversity and pollution emergencies]. Nairobi. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210323211102/https://www.unep.org/resources/making-peace-nature|date=2021-03-23}}''</ref>
Tropical deforestation: In most cases of [[tropical deforestation]], three to four underlying causes are driving two to three proximate causes.<ref name="Geist" /> This means that a universal policy for controlling tropical deforestation would not be able to address the unique combination of proximate and underlying causes of deforestation in each country.<ref name="Geist" /> Before any local, national, or international deforestation policies are written and enforced, governmental leaders must acquire a detailed understanding of the complex combination of proximate causes and underlying driving forces of deforestation in a given area or country.<ref name="Geist" /> This concept, along with many other results of tropical deforestation from the Geist and Lambin study, can easily be applied to habitat destruction in general.
Shoreline erosion: Coastal erosion is a natural process as storms, waves, tides and other water level changes occur. Shoreline stabilization can be done by barriers between land and water such as seawalls and bulkheads. Living shorelines are gaining attention as a new stabilization method. These can reduce damage and erosion while simultaneously providing ecosystem services such as food production, nutrient and sediment removal, and water quality improvement to society<ref>{{Cite web|title=Living Shorelines|url=https://www.habitatblueprint.noaa.gov/living-shorelines/|access-date=2021-03-23|website=NOAA Habitat Blueprint|language=en-US|archive-date=2021-03-18|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210318194801/https://www.habitatblueprint.noaa.gov/living-shorelines/|url-status=live}}</ref>
[[File:Habitat Destruction, Uganda (21429887344).jpg|thumb|Example of human caused habitat destruction likely capable of reversing if further disturbance is halted. Uganda.]]
[[File:Pivers-Island-840x320.jpg|alt=Pivers Island, North Carolina|thumb|Natural vegetation along this coastal shoreline in North Carolina, US, is being used to reduce the effects of shoreline erosion while providing other benefits to the natural ecosystem and the human community.]]
Preventing an area from losing its specialist species to generalist invasive species depends on the extent of the habitat destruction that has already taken place. In areas where the habitat is relatively undisturbed, halting further habitat destruction may be enough.<ref name="Marvier-2004" /> In areas where habitat destruction is more extreme ([[Habitat fragmentation|fragmentation]] or patch loss), [[restoration ecology]] may be needed.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Liao|first1=Jinbao|last2=Bearup|first2=Daniel|last3=Wang|first3=Yeqiao|last4=Nijs|first4=Ivan|last5=Bonte|first5=Dries|last6=Li|first6=Yuanheng|last7=Brose|first7=Ulrich|last8=Wang|first8=Shaopeng|last9=Blasius|first9=Bernd|date=2017-05-02|title=Robustness of metacommunities with omnivory to habitat destruction: disentangling patch fragmentation from patch loss|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ecy.1830|journal=Ecology|volume=98|issue=6|pages=1631–1639|doi=10.1002/ecy.1830|pmid=28369715|bibcode=2017Ecol...98.1631L |issn=0012-9658|hdl=10067/1418100151162165141|hdl-access=free|access-date=2021-03-18|archive-date=2021-07-23|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210723082938/https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/ecy.1830|url-status=live}}</ref>
Education of the general public is possibly the best way to prevent further human habitat destruction.<ref name="Morrison-1999">{{Citation|title=Habitat and habitat destruction|first = M.L.|last = Morrison |doi=10.1007/1-4020-4494-1_165 |url= https://link.springer.com/referenceworkentry/10.1007/1-4020-4494-1_165 |encyclopedia=Environmental Geology. Encyclopedia of Earth Science|series = Encyclopedia of Earth Science|year= 1999|pages = 308–309|place= Dordrecht|publisher= Springer|isbn = 0-412-74050-8}}</ref> Changing the dull creep of environmental impacts from being viewed as acceptable to being seen a reason for change to more sustainable practices.<ref name="Morrison-1999" /> Education about the necessity of [[family planning]] to slow population growth is important as greater population leads to greater human caused habitat destruction.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Ehrlich|first1=P. R.|last2= Pringle |first2=R. M.|date=2008-08-11|title=Where does biodiversity go from here? A grim business-as-usual forecast and a hopeful portfolio of partial solutions|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|volume=105|issue= Supplement 1|pages=11579–11586|doi=10.1073/pnas.0801911105|pmid=18695214|pmc=2556413|bibcode=2008PNAS..10511579E |issn=0027-8424|doi-access=free}}</ref>
The preservation and creation of [[Wildlife corridor|habitat corridors]] can link isolated populations and increase pollination.<ref name="Townsend-2002">{{Cite journal|last1=Townsend|first1=Patricia A.|last2=Levey|first2=Douglas J.|title=An Experimental Test of Whether Habitat Corridors Affect Pollen Transfer|date=2002|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1890/03-0607|journal=Ecology|volume=86|issue=2|pages=466–475|doi=10.1890/03-0607|issn=0012-9658|access-date=2021-03-18|archive-date=2021-07-23|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210723082947/https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1890/03-0607|url-status=live}}</ref> Corridors are also known to reduce the negative impacts of habitat destruction.<ref name="Townsend-2002" />
The biggest potential to solving the issue of habitat destruction comes from solving the political, economical and social problems that go along with it such as, individual and commercial material consumption,<ref name="Morrison-1999" /> sustainable extraction of resources,<ref>{{Citation|last=Bringezu|first=Stefan|title=Visions of a sustainable resource use|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.9774/gleaf.978-1-907643-07-1_5|work=Sustainable Resource Management: Global Trends, Visions and Policies|year=2009|pages=155–215|publisher=Greenleaf Publishing Limited|doi=10.9774/gleaf.978-1-907643-07-1_5|isbn=978-1-907643-07-1|access-date=2021-03-18}}</ref> [[Protected area|conservation areas]],<ref name="Morrison-1999" /> restoration of degraded land<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Elmarsdottir|first1=Asrun|last2=Aradottir|first2=Asa L.|last3=Trlica|first3=M. J.|date=2003-09-26|title=Microsite availability and establishment of native species on degraded and reclaimed sites|journal=Journal of Applied Ecology|volume=40|issue=5|pages=815–823|doi=10.1046/j.1365-2664.2003.00848.x|issn=0021-8901|doi-access=free|bibcode=2003JApEc..40..815E }}</ref> and addressing climate change.<ref name="Travis-2003" />
Governmental leaders need to take action by addressing the underlying driving forces, rather than merely regulating the proximate causes. In a broader sense, governmental bodies at a local, national, and international scale need to emphasize:
# Considering the irreplaceable [[ecosystem services]] provided by natural habitats.
# Protecting remaining intact sections of natural habitat.
# Finding ecological ways to increase agricultural output without increasing the total land in production.
# Reducing [[human population]] and expansion. Apart from improving access to [[contraception]] globally, furthering [[gender equality]] also has a great benefit. When women have the same education (decision-making power), this generally leads to smaller families.
It is argued that the effects of habitat loss and fragmentation can be counteracted by including spatial processes in potential restoration management plans. However, even though spatial dynamics are incredibly important in the conservation and recovery of species, a limited amount of management plans are taking the spatial effects of habitat restoration and conservation into consideration.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Huxel |first1=Gary R. |last2=Hastings |first2=Alan |date=September 1999 |title=Habitat Loss, Fragmentation, and Restoration |url=https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1526-100X.1999.72024.x |journal=Restoration Ecology |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=309–315 |doi=10.1046/j.1526-100x.1999.72024.x |bibcode=1999ResEc...7..309H |s2cid=86235090 |issn=1061-2971}}</ref>
==See also==
*[[Impacts of shipping on marine wildlife and habitats in Southeast Asia]]
==Notes==
{{reflist}}
==References==
{{refbegin}}
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* {{cite journal |author1=Sahney S. |author2=Benton M.J. |author3=Falcon-Lang H.J. | year = 2010 | title = Rainforest collapse triggered Pennsylvanian tetrapod diversification in Euramerica | journal = Geology | volume = 38 | issue = 12| pages = 1079–1082 | doi=10.1130/G31182.1 | bibcode=2010Geo....38.1079S}}
* {{cite journal |author1=Sanderson E. W. |author2=Jaiteh M. |author3=Levy M. A. |author4=Redford K. H. |author5=Wannebo A. V. |author6=Woolmer G. | year = 2002 | title = The human footprint and the last of the wild | journal = BioScience | volume = 52 | issue = 10| pages = 891–904 | doi=10.1641/0006-3568(2002)052[0891:thfatl]2.0.co;2| doi-access=free }}
* Scholes, R. J. and R. Biggs (eds.). 2004. [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/248529390_Ecosystem_services_in_southern_Africa_a_regional_assessment Ecosystem services in Southern Africa: a regional assessment. The regional scale component of the Southern African Millennium Ecosystem Assessment.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201002175727/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/248529390_Ecosystem_services_in_southern_Africa_a_regional_assessment |date=2020-10-02 }} [[Council for Scientific and Industrial Research|CSIR]], Pretoria, South Africa.
* Stein, B. A., L. S. Kutner, and J. S. Adams (eds.). 2000. Precious Heritage: The Status of Biodiversity in the United States. Oxford University Press, New York.
* {{cite book | author = Temple S. A. | chapter = The Problem of Avian Extinctions | title = Current Ornithology | year = 1986 | volume = 3 | pages = 453–485 | doi=10.1007/978-1-4615-6784-4_11| isbn = 978-1-4615-6786-8 }}
* {{cite journal | author = Tibbetts John | year = 2006 | title = Louisiana's Wetlands: A Lesson in Nature Appreciation | pmc = 1332684 | journal = Environ Health Perspect | volume = 114 | issue = 1| pages = A40–A43 | pmid=16393646 | doi=10.1289/ehp.114-a40}}
* {{cite journal |author1=Tilman D. |author2=Fargione J. |author3=Wolff B. |author4=D'Antonio C. |author5=Dobson A. |author6=Howarth R. |author7=Schindler D. |author8=Schlesinger W. H. |author9=Simberloff D. |s2cid=23847498 |year=2001 |title=Forecasting agriculturally driven global environmental change |journal=Science |volume=292 |issue=5515 |pages=281–284 |doi=10.1126/science.1057544 |pmid=11303102 |display-authors=etal |bibcode=2001Sci...292..281T }}
* White, R. P., S. Murray, and M. Rohweder. 2000. Pilot Assessment of Global Ecosystems: Grassland Ecosystems. World Resources Institute, Washington, D. C.
* WRI. 2003. World Resources 2002–2004: Decisions for the Earth: Balance, voice, and power. 328 pp. World Resources Institute, Washington, D.C.
{{refend}}{{Extinction}}
{{human impact on the environment|state=expanded}}
{{threatened species}}
{{population}}
[[Category:Habitats| ]]
[[Category:Habitat]]
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
[[Category:Environmental terminology]]
[[Category:Environmental impact by effect]] |
Category:Reforestation | {{Commons category|Reforestation}}
{{Catmain}}
{{CatRel|Forest conservation}}
[[Category:Forest management]]
[[Category:Forestry and the environment]]
[[Category:Ecological restoration]]
[[Category:Conservation biology]]
[[Category:Climate change mitigation]]
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
[[Category:Sustainable forest management]]
[[Category:Carbon dioxide removal]]
[[Category:Biosequestration]] |
Category:Wetland conservation | {{Cat main}}
[[Category:Wetlands]]
[[Category:Environmental conservation]] |
Category:Wilderness | {{Cat main|Wilderness}}
[[Category:Environmental conservation]] |
Category:Conservation projects | {{Commons category|Conservation projects}}
Conservation projects are programmes undertaken by [[conservation movement|conservation]] and [[Environmental movement|environmental]] organizations to protect [[biodiversity]], [[wildlife]], wild places or [[endangered species]].
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
[[Category:Projects]] |
Category:Conservationists | {{Non-diffusing parent category|Women conservationists}}
{{Commons cat}}
This category is for '''[[Conservation movement|conservationists]]''' who were or are active in the [[conservation movement]]. For people involved in [[Conservation and restoration]], also referred as conservationists see [[:Category:Conservator-restorers]].
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
[[Category:Nature conservation|:]]
[[Category:Environmentalists]]
[[Category:People in environmental occupations]] |
Adaptive management | {{short description|Adaptive environmental assessment and management (AEAM)}}
{{More footnotes needed|date=October 2012}}
'''Adaptive management''', also known as '''adaptive resource management''' or '''adaptive environmental assessment and management''', is a structured, [[iteration|iterative]] process of robust [[decision making]] in the face of [[uncertainty]], with an aim to reducing uncertainty over time via [[system monitoring]]. In this way, decision making simultaneously meets one or more [[resource management]] objectives and, either passively or actively, accrues information needed to improve future management. Adaptive management is a tool which should be used not only to change a system, but also to learn about the system.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|title=Adaptive Environmental Assessment and Management|last=Holling|first=C.S.|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|year=1978|isbn=9781932846072}}</ref> Because adaptive management is based on a learning process, it improves long-run management outcomes. The challenge in using the adaptive management approach lies in finding the correct balance between gaining knowledge to improve management in the future and achieving the best short-term outcome based on current knowledge.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EMxPZu99B_MC|title=Adaptive Environmental Management: A Practitioner's Guide|last1=Allan|first1=Catherine|last2=Stankey|first2=George Henry|date=2009-06-05|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=9781402096327}}</ref> This approach has more recently been employed in implementing [[international development]] programs.
==Objectives==
There are a number of scientific and social processes which are vital components of adaptive management, including:
* Management is linked to appropriate temporal and spatial scales
* Management retains a focus on [[statistical power]] and controls
* Use of computer models to build synthesis and an embodied ecological consensus
* Use of embodied ecological consensus to evaluate strategic alternatives
* Communication of alternatives to political arena for negotiation of a selection
The achievement of these objectives requires an open management process which seeks to include past, present and future [[Stakeholder (corporate)|stakeholders]]. Adaptive management needs to at least maintain [[Glasnost|political openness]], but usually aims to create it. Adaptive management must therefore be a [[scientific]] and social process. It must focus on the development of new [[institutions]] and institutional strategies in balance with [[scientific hypothesis]] and experimental frameworks (resilience.org).
Adaptive management can proceed as either passive or active adaptive management, depending on how learning takes place. Passive adaptive management values learning only insofar as it improves decision outcomes (i.e. passively), as measured by the specified utility function. In contrast, active adaptive management explicitly incorporates learning as part of the objective function, and hence, decisions which improve learning are valued over those which do not.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1">{{Cite book|title=Adaptive management of renewable resources|last=Walters|first=Carl J.|date=1986-01-01|publisher=Macmillan|isbn=978-0029479704|oclc=13184654}}</ref> In both cases, as new knowledge is gained, the models are updated and optimal management strategies are derived accordingly. Thus, while learning occurs in both cases, it is treated differently. Often, deriving actively adaptive policies is technically very difficult, which prevents it being more commonly applied.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Carey|first1=Gemma|last2=Crammond|first2=Brad|last3=Malbon|first3=Eleanor|last4=Carey|first4=Nic|date=2015-09-18|title=Adaptive Policies for Reducing Inequalities in the Social Determinants of Health|journal=International Journal of Health Policy and Management|volume=4|issue=11|pages=763–767|doi=10.15171/ijhpm.2015.170|issn=2322-5939|pmc=4629702|pmid=26673337}}</ref>
==Features==
Key features of both passive and active adaptive management are:
*Iterative decision-making (evaluating results and adjusting actions on the basis of what has been learned)
*[[Feedback]] between monitoring and decisions (learning)
*Explicit characterization of system uncertainty through multi-model inference
*[[Bayesian inference]]
*Embracing [[risk]] and uncertainty as a way of building understanding
However, a number of process failures related to information feedback can prevent effective adaptive management decision making:<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Elzinga|first1=Caryl L. |last2=Salzer|first2=Daniel W. |last3=Willoughby|first3=John W.|date=1998-01-01|title=Measuring & Monitering Plant Populations|journal=U.S. Bureau of Land Management Papers|url=http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/usblmpub/17/}}</ref>
* [[data collection]] is never completely implemented
* data are collected but not analyzed
* [[data analysis|data are analyzed]] but results are inconclusive
* data are analyzed and are interesting, but are not presented to decision makers
* data are analyzed and presented, but are not used for decision-making because of internal or external factors
==History==
The use of adaptive management techniques can be traced back to peoples from ancient civilisations. For example, the [[Yap]] people of Micronesia have been using adaptive management techniques to sustain high [[population density|population densities]] in the face of resource scarcity for thousands of years (Falanruw 1984). In using these techniques, the Yap people have altered their environment creating, for example, coastal [[mangrove]] depressions and [[seagrass meadow]]s to support fishing and termite resistant wood (Stankey and Shinder 1997).
The origin of the adaptive management concept can be traced back to ideas of [[scientific management]] pioneered by [[Frederick Winslow Taylor|Frederick Taylor]] in the early 1900s (Haber 1964). While the term "adaptive management" evolved in natural resource management workshops through decision makers, managers and scientists focussing on building simulation models to uncover key assumptions and uncertainties (Bormann ''et al.'' 1999)<!-- ### This sentence is incomplete. Managagers and sci. did what? -->
Two ecologists at The [[University of British Columbia]], [[C. S. Holling|C.S. Holling]]<ref name=":0" /> and C.J Walters<ref name=":1" /> further developed the adaptive management approach as they distinguished between passive and active adaptive management practice. [[Kai Lee]], notable Princeton physicist, expanded upon the approach in the late 1970s and early 1980s while pursuing a post-doctorate degree at UC [[Berkeley, California|Berkeley]]. The approach was further developed at the International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis (IIASA) in [[Vienna]], [[Austria]], while C.S. Holling was director of the institute. In 1992, Hilbourne described three learning models for federal land managers, around which adaptive management approaches could be developed, these are reactive, passive and active.
Adaptive management has probably been most frequently applied in Yap, [[Australia]] and [[North America]], initially applied in [[fishery]] management, but received more broad application in the 1990s and 2000s. One of the most successful applications of adaptive management has been in the area of waterfowl harvest management in North America, most notably for the [[mallard]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Nichols|first1=James D.|last2=Johnson|first2=Fred A.|last3=Williams|first3=Byron K.|last4=Boomer|first4=G. Scott|date=2015-06-01|title=On formally integrating science and policy: walking the walk|journal=Journal of Applied Ecology|volume=52|issue=3|pages=539–543|doi=10.1111/1365-2664.12406|issn=1365-2664|doi-access=|bibcode=2015JApEc..52..539N }}</ref>
Adaptive management in a conservation project and program context can trace its roots back to at least the early 1990s, with the establishment of the Biodiversity Support Program (BSP)<ref>[http://www.worldwildlife.org/bsp/index.html Biodiversity Support Program]</ref> in 1989. BSP was a [http://www.usaid.gov/ USAID]-funded consortium of WWF<ref>[http://www.worldwildlife.org/ WWF]</ref> The Nature Conservancy (TNC),<ref>[http://www.tnc.org/ The Nature Conservancy]</ref> and World Resources Institute (WRI).<ref>[http://www.wri.org/ World Resources Institute]</ref> Its Analysis and Adaptive Management Program sought to understand the conditions under which certain conservation strategies were most effective and to identify lessons learned across conservation projects. When BSP ended in 2001, TNC and Foundations of Success<ref>[http://www.fosonline.org/ Foundations of Success]</ref> (FOS, a non-profit which grew out of BSP) continued to actively work in promoting adaptive management for conservation projects and programs. The approaches used included Conservation by Design<ref>[http://conserveonline.org/workspaces/cbdgateway/ Conservation by Design]</ref> (TNC) and Measures of Success<ref>[http://www.islandpress.org/ip/books/book/islandpress/M/bo3559851.html Measures of Success]</ref> (FOS).
In 2004, the Conservation Measures Partnership (CMP)<ref>[http://www.conservationmeasures.org/ Conservation Measures Partnership]</ref> – which includes several former BSP members – developed a common set of standards and guidelines<ref>{{Cite web | url=http://www.conservationmeasures.org/initiatives/standards-for-project-management/ | title=Home | access-date=2011-08-17 | archive-date=2011-08-27 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110827101834/http://www.conservationmeasures.org/initiatives/standards-for-project-management | url-status=dead }}</ref> for applying adaptive management to conservation projects and programs.
==Use in environmental practices==
Applying adaptive management in a [[Conservation biology|conservation]] or [[ecosystem management]] project involves the integration of project/program design, management, and monitoring to systematically test assumptions in order to adapt and learn. The three components of adaptive management in environmental practice are:
*''Testing assumptions'' is about systematically trying different actions to achieve a desired outcome. It is not, however, a random trial-and-error process. Rather, it involves using knowledge about the specific site to pick the best known strategy, laying out the assumptions behind how that strategy will work, and then collecting monitoring data to determine if the assumptions hold true.
*''Adaptation'' involves changing assumptions and interventions to respond to new or different information obtained through monitoring and project experience.
*''Learning'' is about explicitly documenting a team's planning and implementation processes and its successes and failures for internal learning as well as learning across the conservation community. This learning enables conservation practitioners to design and manage projects better and avoid some of the perils others have encountered.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Stankey|first1=George H.|last2=Clark|first2=Roger N.|last3=Bormann|first3=Bernard T.|last4=Stankey|first4=George H.|last5=Clark|first5=Roger N.|last6=Bormann|first6=Bernard T.|title=Adaptive management of natural resources: theory, concepts, and management institutions.|journal=Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-654. Portland, or: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station. 73 P |year=2005 |volume=654 |doi=10.2737/PNW-GTR-654 |hdl=2027/umn.31951d02977054k |url=https://www.treesearch.fs.fed.us/pubs/20657/|hdl-access=free}}</ref> Learning about a managed system is only useful in cases where management decisions are repeated.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Rout|first1=Tracy M.|last2=Hauser|first2=Cindy E.|last3=Possingham|first3=Hugh P.|date=2009-03-01|title=Optimal adaptive management for the translocation of a threatened species|journal=Ecological Applications|volume=19|issue=2|pages=515–526|doi=10.1890/07-1989.1|issn=1939-5582|pmid=19323207|bibcode=2009EcoAp..19..515R |url=http://espace.library.uq.edu.au/view/UQ:181588/UQ181588_OA.pdf}}</ref>
==Application to environmental projects and programs==
[[Image:CMP Cycle - 2008-02-20.jpg|thumb|Figure 1: CMP Adaptive Management Cycle]]
''Open Standards for the Practice of Conservation''<ref>[http://www.conservationmeasures.org/ ''Open Standards for the Practice of Conservation'']</ref> lays out five main steps to an adaptive management project cycle (see Figure 1). The ''Open Standards'' represent a compilation and adaptation of best practices and guidelines across several fields and across several organizations within the conservation community. Since the release of the initial ''Open Standards'' (updated in 2007 and 2013), thousands of project teams from conservation organizations (e.g., TNC, Rare, and WWF), local conservation groups, and donors alike have begun applying these ''Open Standards'' to their work. In addition, several CMP members have developed training materials and courses to help apply the Standards.
Some recent write-ups of adaptive management in conservation include wildlife protection (SWAP, 2008), forests ecosystem protection (CMER, 2010), coastal protection and restoration (LACPR, 2009), natural resource management (water, land and soil), species conservation especially, fish conservation from [[overfishing]] (FOS, 2007) and [[climate change]] (DFG, 2010). In addition, some other examples follow:
*In 2006–2007, FOS worked with The National Fish and Wildlife Foundation (NFWF) to develop an evaluation system help NFWF gauge impact across the various coral reef habitat and species conservation projects;
*In 2007, FOS worked with the [[Ocean Conservancy]] (OC) to evaluate the effectiveness of this Scorecard in helping to end overfishing in domestic fisheries.
*Between 1999 and 2004, FOS worked for WWF's Asian Rhino and Elephant Action Strategy (AREAS) Program to ensure that Asian elephants and rhinos thrive in secure habitats within their historical range and in harmony with people.
*The Department of Fish and Game (DFG) is developing and implementing adaptation strategies to help protect, restore and manage fish and wildlife, with the understanding that some level of climate change will occur and that it will have profound effects on ecosystems in the United States.
*The Adaptive Management program was created by CMR to provide science-based recommendations and technical information to assist the Forest Practices Board. In April 2010, the Forest Practices Adaptive Management Annual Science Conference was held in Washington.
*In 2009, The Louisiana Coastal Protection and Restoration (LACPR) Technical Report has been developed by the [[United States Army Corps of Engineers]] (USACE) according to adaptive management process.
*Since 2009, the Kenya Wildlife Service has been managing its marine protected areas using adaptive management in an ongoing process of learning through the Science for Active Management (SAM)<ref>[http://sam4wio.weebly.com Science for Active Management]</ref> Program.
==In international development==
The concept of adaptive management is not restricted to natural resources or [[ecosystem management]], as similar concepts have been applied to [[international development]] programming.<ref>{{Cite book |doi = 10.17226/10972|isbn = 978-0-309-09191-6|title = Adaptive Management for Water Resources Project Planning|year = 2004}}</ref><ref>Rondinell, D. A. (1993) Development Projects as Policy Experiments: an adaptive approach to development administration, 2nd ed, Routledge, London and New York</ref> This has often been a recognition to the "wicked" nature of many development challenges and the limits of traditional planning processes.<ref>{{Cite journal |doi = 10.1007/BF01405730|title = Dilemmas in a general theory of planning|year = 1973|last1 = Rittel|first1 = Horst W. J.|last2 = Webber|first2 = Melvin M.|journal = Policy Sciences|volume = 4|issue = 2|pages = 155–169|s2cid = 18634229}}</ref><ref>Ramalingam, B., Laric, M. and Primrose, J. (2014) 'From Best Practice to Best Fit: Understanding and Navigating Wicked Problems in International Development'. Working Paper. London: ODI</ref><ref>Head, B. and Alford, J. (2008) "Wicked Problems: The Implications for Public Management", 12th Annual Conference International Research Society for Public Management, Vol. Panel on Public Management in Practice, 26–28 March 2008, Brisbane.</ref> One of the principal changes facing international development organizations is the need to be more flexible, adaptable and focused on learning.<ref>{{Cite journal |doi = 10.1109/TPC.2009.2034240|title = Adapting to Change: Becoming a Learning Organization as a Relief and Development Agency|year = 2009|last1 = Smith|first1 = S.|last2 = Young|first2 = A.|journal = IEEE Transactions on Professional Communication|volume = 52|issue = 4|pages = 329–345|s2cid = 9884915}}</ref> This is reflected in international development approaches such as Doing Development Differently, Politically Informed Programming and Problem Driven Iterative Adaptation.<ref>Andrews, M., Pritchett, L. and Woolcock, M. (2015) Doing problem driven work. Working Paper 30. Cambridge, MA: Center for International Development at [[Harvard University]].</ref><ref>Booth, D. and Unsworth, S. (2014) Politically smart, locally-led development. ODI discussion paper London: [[Overseas Development Institute]].</ref><ref>Fritz, V., Levy, B., and Ort, R. (2014) Problem-driven political economy analysis: The World Bank's experience. Washington DC: [[World Bank]].</ref>
One recent example of the use of adaptive management by international development donors is the planned Global Learning for Adaptive Management (GLAM) programme to support adaptive management in [[Department for International Development]] and [[USAID]]. The program is establishing a centre for learning about adaptive management to support the utilization and accessibility of adaptive management.<ref>Funds for NGOs. [https://www2.fundsforngos.org/economic-development/dfid-global-learning-adaptive-management-glam-programme/ "DFID: Global Learning for Adaptive Management (GLAM) Programme"]. Retrieved April 19, 2017.</ref><ref>Oxfam [http://oxfamblogs.org/fp2p/wp-content/uploads/2017/05/Adaptive-Management-LSE-Oxfam-Report_DRAFT-for-comments3.doc%C2%A0 "Adaptive Management at Oxfam"]. Retrieved May 25, 2017</ref> In addition, donors have been focused on amending their own programmatic guidance to reflect the importance of learning within programs: for instance, USAID's recent focus in their ADS guidance on the importance of collaborating, learning and adapting.<ref name="usaid.gov">USAID. [https://www.usaid.gov/sites/default/files/documents/1870/201.pdf "ADS Chapter 201 Program Cycle Operational Policy"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191023195937/https://www.usaid.gov/sites/default/files/documents/1870/201.pdf |date=2019-10-23 }}. Retrieved April 19, 2017.</ref><ref>USAID Learning Lab. [https://usaidlearninglab.org/faq/collaborating-learning-and-adapting-cla "CLA"]. Retrieved April 19, 2017.</ref> This is also reflected in Department for International Development's Smart Rules that provide the operating framework for their programs including the use of evidence to inform their decisions.<ref>DFID. [https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/dfid-smart-rules-better-programme-delivery "DFID Smart Rules: Better Programme Deliver"]. Retrieved April 19, 2017.</ref> There are a variety of tools used to operationalize adaptive management in programs, such as [[learning agenda]]s and [[decision cycle]]s.<ref>[https://usaidlearninglab.org/library/knowing-when-adapt-decision-tree "Knowing When to Adapt - A Decision Tree"] Retrieved March 22, 2019</ref>
Collaborating, learning and adapting (CLA) is a concept related to the operationalizing of adaptive management in international development that describes a specific way of designing, implementing, adapting and evaluating programs.<ref>Altschuld, J. W., & Watkins, R. (2015). Needs assessment: trends and a view toward the future. New Directions for Evaluation, Number 144. Hoboken, NJ: [[John Wiley & Sons]].</ref>{{rp|85}}<ref>Janus, Steffen Soulejman. (2016). Becoming a knowledge-sharing organization: a handbook for scaling up solutions through knowledge capturing and sharing. Washington, D.C.: [[World Bank Group]]. http://hdl.handle.net/10986/25320</ref>{{rp|46}} CLA involves three concepts:
#collaborating intentionally with stakeholders to share knowledge and reduce duplication of effort,
#learning systematically by drawing on evidence from a variety of sources and taking the time to reflect on implementation, and
#adapting strategically based on applied learning. CLA practices have tangible benefits; for instance, a recent study recently found that companies "which apply more data-driven and adaptive leadership practices perform better" when examined against those which focus less on those practices.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/j.ijpe.2015.11.013 |url=http://eprints.uwe.ac.uk/27723|title=Data-driven and adaptive leadership contributing to sustainability: Global agri-food supply chains connected with emerging markets|year=2016|last1=Akhtar|first1=Pervaiz|last2=Tse|first2=Ying Kei|last3=Khan|first3=Zaheer|last4=Rao-Nicholson|first4=Rekha|journal=International Journal of Production Economics|volume=181|pages=392–401}}</ref>
CLA integrates three closely connected concepts within the organizational theory literature: namely collaborating, learning and adapting. There is evidence of the benefits of collaborating internally within an organization and externally with organizations.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://usaidlearninglab.org/library/literature-review-evidence-base-collaborating,-learning,-and-adapting|title=Literature review of the evidence base for collaborating, learning, and adapting|last=Lab|first=Learning|date=2016-08-11|work=USAID Learning Lab|access-date=2017-06-06}}</ref> Much of the production and transmission of knowledge—both [[explicit knowledge]] and [[tacit knowledge]]—occurs through collaboration.<ref>For example: Polanyi, Michael (1966), The tacit dimension. Chicago: [[University of Chicago Press]].</ref> There is evidence for the importance of collaboration among individuals and groups for innovation, knowledge production, and diffusion—for example, the benefits of staff interacting with one another and transmitting knowledge.<ref>Kelly, Kip, and Schaefer, Alan (2014). [http://www.kenan-flagler.unc.edu/~/media/Files/documents/executive-development/unc-white-paper-creating-a-collaborative-organizational-culture.pdf "Creating a collaborative organizational culture"]. UNC White Paper.</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Phelps | first1 = C. | last2 = Heidl | first2 = R. | last3 = Wadhwa | first3 = A. | year = 2012 | title = Knowledge, networks, and knowledge networks: a review and research agenda | journal = Journal of Management | volume = 38 | issue = 4| pages = 1115–1166 | doi=10.1177/0149206311432640| s2cid = 7849173 }}</ref><ref>Hackman, J. R. (2002). Leading teams: setting the stage for great performances. Boston: [[Harvard Business School Press]].</ref> The importance of collaboration is closely linked to the ability of organizations to collectively learn from each other, a concept noted in the literature on [[learning organization]]s.<ref>Garvin, David A. August 1993. "[https://hbr.org/1993/07/building-a-learning-organization Building a learning organization]." [[Harvard Business Review]] 71, no. 4: 78–91.</ref><ref name="Senge">Senge, P. M. (1990). The fifth discipline: the art and practice of the learning organization. New York: [[Doubleday (publisher)|Doubleday]] Business.</ref><ref>Argyris, C. and Schön, D. (1978) Organizational learning: a theory of action perspective, Reading, Mass: [[Addison Wesley]].</ref>
CLA, an adaptive management practice, is being employed by implementing partners<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://usaidlearninglab.org/library-series/cla-case-2015|title=CLA Case Study 2015|work=USAID Learning Lab|access-date=2017-06-06}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://usaidlearninglab.org/library-series/cla-case-2016|title=CLA Case Study 2016|work=USAID Learning Lab|access-date=2017-06-06}}</ref> that receive funding from the [[federal government of the United States]],<ref>Fintrac. [http://www.fintrac.com/learning-innovation "Collaborating, Learning and Adapting"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170625011244/http://www.fintrac.com/learning-innovation |date=2017-06-25 }}. Retrieved April 19, 2017.</ref><ref>QED Group LLC. [https://www.qedgroupllc.com/impact-stories/collaborating-learning-and-adapting/ "Impact Stories: Collaborating, Learning and Adapting: Facilitating Agile Program Success Through CLA"]. Retrieved April 19, 2017.</ref><ref>Global Communities. (2016). M&E for "Collaboration, Learning and Adapting" in PACE. http://www.globalcommunities.org/publications/2016-M+E-CLA-PACE.pdf</ref> but it is primarily a framework for internal change efforts that aim at incorporating collaboration, learning, and adaptation within the [[United States Agency for International Development]] (USAID) including its missions located around the world.<ref>USAID Learning Lab [https://usaidlearninglab.org/node/14633 "Understanding CLA"]. Retrieved June 4, 2017.</ref> CLA has been linked to a part of USAID's commitment to becoming a learning organization.<ref>OECD, 2016. Development Co-operation Peer Reviews: United States. {{doi|10.1787/9789264266971-en}}</ref> CLA represents an approach to combine strategic collaboration, continuous learning, and adaptive management.<ref>USAID Learning Lab. [https://usaidlearninglab.org/faq/collaborating-learning-and-adapting-cla "CLA"]. Retrieved April 19, 2017.</ref> A part of integrating the CLA approach is providing tools and resources, such as the Learning Lab, to staff and partner organizations.<ref>Borgen. [http://www.borgenmagazine.com/roadmap-usaid-learning-lab/ "A Roadmap to USAID Learning Lab"]. Retrieved April 19, 2017</ref> The CLA approach is detailed for USAID staff in the recently revised program policy guidance.<ref name="usaid.gov"/>
==Use in other practices as a tool for sustainability==
Adaptive management as a systematic process for improving environmental management policies and practices is the traditional application however, the adaptive management framework can also be applied to other sectors seeking [[sustainability]] solutions such as business and community development. Adaptive management as a strategy emphasizes the need to change with the environment and to learn from doing. Adaptive management applied to ecosystems makes overt sense when considering ever changing environmental conditions. The flexibility and constant learning of an adaptive management approach is also a logical application for organizations seeking sustainability methodologies.
Businesses pursuing sustainability strategies would employ an adaptive management framework to ensure that the organization is prepared for the unexpected and geared for change. By applying an adaptive management approach the business begins to function as an integrated system adjusting and learning from a multi-faceted network of influences not just environmental but also, economic and social (Dunphy, Griffths, & Benn, 2007). The goal of any sustainable organization guided by adaptive management principals must be to engage in active learning to direct change towards sustainability (Verine, 2008). This "learning to manage by managing to learn" (Bormann BT, 1993) will be at the core of a sustainable business strategy.
Sustainable community development requires recognition of the relationship between environment, economics and social instruments within the community. An adaptive management approach to creating sustainable community policy and practice also emphasizes the connection and confluence of those elements. Looking into the cultural mechanisms which contribute to a community value system often highlights the parallel to adaptive management practices, "with [an] emphasis on feedback learning, and its treatment of uncertainty and unpredictability" (Berkes, Colding, & Folke, 2000). Often this is the result of indigenous knowledge and historical decisions of societies deeply rooted in ecological practices (Berkes, Colding, & Folke, 2000). By applying an adaptive management approach to community development the resulting systems can develop built in sustainable practice as explained by the Environmental Advisory Council (2002), "active adaptive management views policy as a set of experiments designed to reveal processes that build or sustain resilience. It requires, and facilitates, a social context with flexible and open institutions and multi-level governance systems that allow for learning and increase adaptive capacity without foreclosing future development options" (p. 1121). A practical example of adaptive management as a tool for sustainability was the application of a modified variation of adaptive management using artvoice, [[photovoice]], and [[agent-based model]]ing in a participatory social framework of action. This application was used in field research on tribal lands to first identify the environmental issue and impact of illegal trash dumping and then to discover a solution through iterative agent-based modeling using [[NetLogo]] on a theoretical "regional cooperative clean-energy economy". This [[cooperative]] economy incorporated a mixed application of: traditional trash recycling and a waste-to-fuels process of carbon recycling of non-recyclable trash into [[ethanol fuel]]. This industrial waste-to-fuels application was inspired by pioneering work of the Canadian-based company, [[Enerkem]]. See Bruss, 2012 - PhD dissertation: Human Environment Interactions and Collaborative Adaptive Capacity Building in a Resilience Framework, GDPE Colorado State University.
In an ever-changing world, adaptive management appeals to many practices seeking sustainable solutions by offering a framework for decision making that proposes to support a sustainable future which, "conserves and nurtures the diversity—of species, of human opportunity, of learning institutions and of economic options"(The Environmental Advisory Council, 2002, p. 1121).
== Effectiveness ==
It is difficult to test the effectiveness of adaptive management in comparison to other management approaches. One challenge is that once a system is managed using one approach it is difficult to determine how another approach would have performed in exactly the same situation.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last1=Holden|first1=Matthew H.|last2=Ellner|first2=Stephen P.|date=2016-07-01|title=Human judgment vs. quantitative models for the management of ecological resources|journal=Ecological Applications|volume=26|issue=5|pages=1553–1565|doi=10.1890/15-1295|pmid=27755756|issn=1939-5582|arxiv=1603.04518|bibcode=2016EcoAp..26.1553H |s2cid=1279459}}</ref> One study tested the effectiveness of formal passive adaptive management in comparison to human intuition by having natural resource management students make decisions about how to harvest a hypothetical fish population in an online computer game. The students on average performed poorly in comparison to the computer programs implementing passive adaptive management.<ref name=":2" /><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://psmag.com/sometimes-even-bad-models-make-better-decisions-than-people-4956bade3990#.cnenr5clc|title=Sometimes, Even Bad Models Make Better Decisions Than People|date=2016-03-11|newspaper=Pacific Standard|access-date=2016-12-22}}{{dead link|date=September 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>
Collaborative adaptive management is often celebrated as an effective way to deal with natural resource management under high levels of conflict, uncertainty and complexity.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last=Beratan|first=Kathi|date=2014-03-28|title=Summary: Addressing the Interactional Challenges of Moving Collaborative Adaptive Management From Theory to Practice|journal=Ecology and Society|volume=19|issue=1|doi=10.5751/ES-06399-190146|issn=1708-3087|doi-access=free}}</ref> The effectiveness of these efforts can be constrained by both social and technical barriers. As the case of the [[Glen Canyon Dam|Glenn Canyon Dam]] Adaptive Management Program in the US illustrates, effective collaborative adaptive management efforts require clear and measurable goals and objectives, incentives and tools to foster collaboration, long-term commitment to monitoring and adaptation, and straightforward joint fact-finding protocols.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Susskind|first1=Lawrence|last2=Camacho|first2=Alejandro E.|last3=Schenk|first3=Todd|date=2011-10-31|title=A critical assessment of collaborative adaptive management in practice|journal=Journal of Applied Ecology|volume=49|issue=1|pages=47–51|doi=10.1111/j.1365-2664.2011.02070.x|issn=0021-8901|doi-access=}}</ref> In Colorado, USA, a ten-year, [[ranch]]-scale (2590 ha) experiment began in 2012 at the [[Agricultural Research Service]] (ARS) Central Plains Experimental range to evaluate the effectiveness and process of collaborative adaptive management <ref name=":3" /> on [[rangeland]]s. The Collaborative Adaptive Rangeland Management or “CARM” project monitors outcomes from yearling steer grazing management on 10, 130 ha pastures conducted by a group of conservationists, ranchers, and public employees, and researchers. This team compares ecological monitoring data tracking profitability and conservation outcomes with outcomes from a “traditional” management treatment: a second set of ten pastures managed without adaptive decision making but with the same stocking rate. Early evaluations of the project by social scientists offer insights for more effective adaptive management.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|last1=Wilmer|first1=Hailey|last2=Derner|first2=Justin D.|last3=Fernández-Giménez|first3=María E.|last4=Briske|first4=David D.|last5=Augustine|first5=David J.|last6=Porensky|first6=Lauren M.|date=September 2018|title=Collaborative Adaptive Rangeland Management Fosters Management-Science Partnerships|journal=Rangeland Ecology & Management|volume=71|issue=5|pages=646–657|doi=10.1016/j.rama.2017.07.008|s2cid=90148819|issn=1550-7424}}</ref> First, trust is primary and essential to learning in adaptive management, not a side benefit. Second, practitioners cannot assume that extensive monitoring data or large-scale efforts will automatically facilitate successful collaborative adaptive management. Active, long-term efforts to build trust among scientists and stakeholders are also important. Finally, explicit efforts to understand, share and respect multiple types of manager knowledge, including place-based ecological knowledge practiced by local managers, is necessary to manage adaptively for multiple conservation and livelihood goals on rangelands.<ref name=":4" /> Practitioners can expect adaptive management to be a complex, non-linear process shaped by social, political and ecological processes, as well as by data collection and interpretation.
==General resources==
Information and guidance on the entire adaptive management process is available from CMP members' websites and other online sources:
*The Conservation Measures Partnership's ''Open Standards for the Practice of Conservation'' provide general guidance and principles for good adaptive management in conservation.
*Miradi Adaptive Management Software for Conservation Projects is user friendly software developed through a joint venture between CMP and Benetech. The software walks conservation teams through each step of the Open Standards.
*Foundations of Success (FOS) Resources and Training web pages list reference materials on adaptive management and [[monitoring and evaluation]], as well as information about online or in-person courses in adaptive management.
*The Nature Conservancy's Conservation Action Planning (CAP) Resources page includes detailed guidance and tools for implementing the CAP adaptive management process. See also TNC's CAP Standards.
*The Wildlife Conservation Society's Living Landscapes page contains extensive guidance materials on WCS's approach to adaptive management.
*WWF's web page on the ''WWF Standards of Conservation Project and Programme Management'' contains detailed guidance, resources, and tools for the steps in WWF's adaptive management process.
*Measures of Success: Designing, Managing, and Monitoring Conservation and Development Projects, written in 1998 by Richard Margoluis and Nick Salafsky, was one of the first detailed manuals about applying adaptive management to conservation projects. Also available in Spanish.
*Foundations of Success (FOS) web pages list Asian Rhino and Elephant Program Evaluation in 2004.
*Foundations of Success (FOS) web pages list National Fish & Wildlife Foundation's Coral Fund in 2007.
*Foundations of Success (FOS) web pages list Ocean Conservancy's Overfishing Scorecard in 2007.
*The Department of Fish and Game (DFG) web pages list Adapting to Climate Change programme.
*U.S. Army Corps of Engineers web pages list Louisiana Coastal Protection and Restoration Final Technical Report in 2009.
*Washington State Department of Natural Resource (CMR) web pages list Forest Practices Adaptive Management Program in 2010.
==See also==
{{Div col|colwidth=22em}}
* [[Conservation biology]]
* [[Decision cycle]]
* [[Decision theory]]
* [[Ecology]]
* [[Fisheries]]
* [[Forestry]]
* [[Learning cycle]]
* [[Operations research]]
* [[Optimization (mathematics)]]
* [[Silviculture]]
{{Div col end}}
==Notes==
{{Reflist|colwidth=30em}}
==References==
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*{{cite book |author1=Bormann, B.T. |author2=Wagner, F.H. |author3=Wood, G. |author4=Algeria, j. |author5=Cunningham, P.G. |author6=Brooks, M.H. |author7=Friesema, P. |author8=Berg, J. |author9=Henshaw, J | year = 1999| title = Ecological Stewardship: A common reference for ecosystem management|publisher = Elsevier| location = Amsterdam}}
*{{cite book |author1=Williams, Byron K. |author2=Robert C. Szaro |author3=Carl D. Shapiro | year = 2007 | title = Adaptive Management: The U.S. Department of the Interior Technical Guide | publisher = US Department of the Interior | isbn = 978-1-4113-1760-4}}
*{{cite book | editor-last = Holling | editor-first = C. S. | editor-link = C. S. Holling | year = 1978 | title = Adaptive Environmental Assessment and Management | publisher = Wiley | location = Chichester | isbn = 978-0-471-99632-3}}
*{{cite conference| last = Falanrue |first=Marjorie |year=1982 |title = People pressure and management of limited resources on Yap| publisher = The Smithsonian Institution Press |conference=Proc. World Congress on National Parks | location = Washington DC| editor1 = McNeely, J.A. |editor2=Miller, K.R. |pages=348–354 }}
*{{cite book | author = Walters, C.J.| year = 1986 | title = Adaptive Management of Renewable Resources | publisher = Mc Graw Hill | location = New York, NY | isbn = 978-0-02-947970-4}}
*{{cite book | last = Lee | first = Kai N. | year = 1993 | title = Compass and Gyroscope: Integrating Science and Politics for the Environment | publisher = Island Press | location = Washington, D.C. | isbn = 978-1-55963-197-6 | url = https://archive.org/details/compassgyroscope0000leek }}
*{{cite book | last = Walters | first = Carl | year = 1986 | title = Adaptive Management of Renewable Resources | publisher = Macmillan | location = New York | isbn = 978-0-02-947970-4}}
*{{cite book | author1 = Argyris, Chris | author2 = Donald A. Schön | year = 1978 | title = Organizational Learning: A Theory of Action Perspective | publisher = Addison-Wesley | location = Reading, Massachusetts | isbn = 978-0-201-00174-7 | url = https://archive.org/details/organizationalle00chri }}
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*{{cite book |author1=Margoluis, Richard |author2=Nick Salafsky | year = 1998 | title = Measures of Success: Designing, Managing, and Monitoring Conservation and Development Projects | publisher = Island Press | location = Washington, D.C | isbn = 978-1-55963-612-4}}
*{{cite book | author = Schön, Donald A. | year = 1984 | title = The Reflective Practitioner: How Professionals Think In Action | publisher = Basic Books | location = New York | isbn = 978-0-465-06878-4 | url = https://archive.org/details/reflectivepracti00scho }}
*{{cite book | author = Senge, Peter M. | year = 2006 | title = The Fifth Discipline: The Art and Practice of the Learning Organization | publisher = Currency Doubleday | location = New York | isbn = 978-0-385-26095-4 | url = https://archive.org/details/fifthdisciplinet00seng }}
*{{cite book |author1=Catherine Allan |author2=George H. Stankey | year = 2009 | title = Adaptive Environmental Management: A Practitioner's Guide | publisher = Dordrecht | location = The Netherlands | isbn = 978-90-481-2710-8}}
*{{cite journal |author1=Johnson, F.A. |author2=Williams, B.K. |author3=Nichols, J.D. |author4=Hines, J.El |author5=Kendall, W.L. |author6=Smith, G.W. |author7=Caithamer, D.F. | year = 1993 | title = Developing an adaptive management strategy for harvesting waterfowl in North America | journal =Trans N Am Wildl Nat Resour Conf | issue = 58 | pages = 565–583}}
*{{cite journal | author = Hilborn, R. | year = 1992 | title = Can fisheries agencies learn from experience? | journal = Fisheries | issue =17 | volume = 4 | pages = 6–14| doi = 10.1577/1548-8446(1992)017<0006:CFALFE>2.0.CO;2 }}
*{{cite journal |author1=Nichols, J.D. |author2=Runge, M.C. |author3=Johnson, F.A. |author4=Williams, B.K. | year = 2007 | title = Adaptive harvest management of North American waterfowl populations: a brief history and future prospects | journal = Journal of Ornithology | issue = S2 | doi = 10.1007/s10336-007-0256-8 | volume = 148 | pages = 343|s2cid=8903078 |url=https://zenodo.org/record/1232777 }}
*{{cite journal |author1=Nichols, J.D. |author2=Johnson, F.A. |author3=Williams, B.K. | year = 1995 | title = Managing North American waterfowl in the face of uncertainty | journal = Annu. Rev. Ecol. Syst. | volume = 26 | pages = 177–199 | doi = 10.1146/annurev.es.26.110195.001141 |url=http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1372&context=usfwspubs }}
*{{cite journal |author1=Johnson, F.A. |author2=Williams, B.K. | year = 1999 | title = Protocol and practice in the adaptive management of waterfowl harvests. | journal = Conservation Ecology | volume = 3 | issue = 8 |doi=10.5751/ES-00091-030108 |hdl=10535/3370 |hdl-access = free }}
*{{cite journal |author1=Margoluis, R. |author2=Stem, C. |author3=Salafsky, N. |author4=Brown, M. | year = 2009 | title = Using conceptual models as a planning and evaluation tool in conservation | journal = Evaluation and Program Planning | doi = 10.1016/j.evalprogplan.2008.09.007 | volume = 32 | pages = 138–147 | pmid = 19054560 | issue = 2}}
*{{cite book | last = Marmorek | first = David R. |author2=D.C.E. Robinson|author3=C. Murray|author4=L. Grieg | year = 2006 | title = Enabling Adaptive Forest Management | publisher = National Commission on Science for Sustainable Forestry | page = 94| doi = 10.13140/2.1.2301.5367 }}
*{{cite journal |author1=Greig, L.|author2=Marmorek, D.R. |author3=Murray, C.M. |author4=Robinson, D.C.E. | year = 2013| title = Insight into enabling adaptive management | journal = Ecology and Society | volume = 18| pages = 24 | issue = 3 | doi=10.5751/es-05686-180324|doi-access = free |hdl = 10535/9163 |hdl-access = free }}
*{{cite book | last = Murray | first = Carol |author2=David Marmorek | editor = Peter Friederici | title = Ecological Restoration of Southwestern Ponderosa Pine Forests | year = 2003 | publisher = Island Press | location = Washington, D.C. | isbn = 978-1-55963-652-0 | pages = 417–428 | chapter = Adaptive management and ecological restoration | chapter-url = http://www.essa.com/downloads/Murray_&_Marmorek_Ponderosa_Pine_2003.pdf}}
*{{cite book | last = Peterman | first = Randall M. |author2=Calvin N. Peters | editor = Vera Sit and Brenda Taylor (eds). | title = Statistical Methods for Adaptive Management Studies | chapter-url = http://www.for.gov.bc.ca/hfd/pubs/Docs/Lmh/Lmh42.htm | year = 1998 | publisher = B.C. Ministry of Forests | location = Victoria, B.C. | isbn = 978-0-7726-3512-9 | pages = 105–127 | chapter = Decision analysis: taking uncertainties into account in forest resource management}}
*{{cite journal |author1=Salafsky, N. |author2=Margoluis, R. |author3=Redford, K. |author4=Robinson, J. | year = 2002 | title = Improving the practice of conservation: A conceptual framework and agenda for conservation science | journal = Conservation Biology | url = http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/118954269/issue| archive-url = https://archive.today/20130105071802/http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/118954269/issue| url-status = dead| archive-date = 2013-01-05| doi = 10.1046/j.1523-1739.2002.01232.x| volume = 16 | issue = 6 | pages = 1469–1479|s2cid=16578544 }}
*{{cite journal |author1=Salafsky, N. |author2=Salzer, D. |author3=Stattersfield, A.J. |author4=Hilton-Taylor, C. |author5=Neugarten, R. |author6=Butchart, S.H.M. |author7=Collen, B. |author8=Cox, N. |author9=Master, L.L. |author10=O'Connor, S. |author11=Wilkie, D. | year = 2009 | title = A standard lexicon for biodiversity conservation: Unified classifications of threats and actions | journal = Conservation Biology | doi = 10.1111/j.1523-1739.2008.00937.x| volume = 22 | pages = 897–911 | pmid = 18544093 | issue = 4|doi-access = |s2cid=19479216 }}
*{{cite journal|author1=Salzer, D. |author2=Salafsky, N. |year=2006 |title=Allocating resources between taking action, assessing status, and measuring effectiveness of conservation actions |journal=Natural Areas Journal |url=http://www.naturalarea.org/journaltoc.aspx?p=95 |volume=26 |issue=3 |pages=310–316 |doi=10.3375/0885-8608(2006)26[310:ARBTAA]2.0.CO;2 |s2cid=11789167 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110724221134/http://www.naturalarea.org/journaltoc.aspx?p=95 |archive-date=2011-07-24 }}
*{{cite journal | last = Stankey | first = George H |author2=Roger N. Clark|author3=Bernard T. Bormann | year = 2005 | title = Adaptive management of natural resources: theory, concepts, and management institutions | journal = Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-654. Portland, or: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station. 73 P | volume = 654 | page = 73 p| doi = 10.2737/PNW-GTR-654 | hdl = 2027/umn.31951d02977054k | hdl-access = free }}
*{{cite journal |author1=Stem, C.. |author2=Margoluis, R. |author3=Salafsky, N. |author4=Brown, M. | year = 2005 | title = Monitoring and evaluation in conservation: A review of trends and approaches | journal = Conservation Biology | url = http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/118701082/issue | archive-url = https://archive.today/20130105055456/http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/118701082/issue | url-status = dead | archive-date = 2013-01-05 | doi = 10.1111/j.1523-1739.2005.00594.x | volume = 19 | issue = 2 | pages = 295–309|bibcode=2005ConBi..19..295S |s2cid=8709069 }}
*{{cite book | last = Virine | first = Lev |author2=Michael Trumper |url=http://www.projectdecisions.org |title=Project Decisions: The Art and Science | location = Vienna, VA | publisher = Management Concepts | year = 2008 | isbn = 978-1-56726-217-9 }}
*{{cite book | author = Elzinga, C.L. | author2 = D. W. Salzer | author3 = J. W. Willoughby | year = 1998 | title = Measuring and Monitoring Plant Populations | publisher = Bureau of Land Management | location = Denver, CO | id = BLM Technical Reference 1730-1 | url = http://www.blm.gov/nstc/library/pdf/MeasAndMon.pdf | access-date = 2015-04-25 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150528203109/http://www.blm.gov/nstc/library/pdf/MeasAndMon.pdf | archive-date = 2015-05-28 | url-status = dead }}
*{{cite journal |author1=Alana L. Moore |author2=Michael A. | year = 2009 | title = On Valuing Information in Adaptive-Management, Models | pmid = 20136870 | journal = Conservation Biology | url = http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com.simsrad.net.ocs.mq.edu.au/doi/10.1111/cbi.2010.24.issue-4/issuetoc | doi = 10.1111/j.1523-1739.2009.01443.x | volume = 24 | issue = 4 | pages = 984–993|s2cid=5623403 }}
*{{cite book |author1=George H. Stankey |author2=Roger N. Clark |author3=Bernard T. Bormann | year = 2005 | title = Adaptive Management of Natural Resources: Theory, Concepts, and Management Institutions | publisher = United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) | location = Washington | url = http://www.fs.fed.us/pnw/pubs/pnw_gtr654.pdf }}
*{{cite journal |author=Gregory R |author2=Ohlson D |author3=Arvai J | year = 2006 | title = Deconstructing adaptive management: criteria for application to environmental management | pmid = 17205914 | journal = Ecological Applications | doi = 10.1890/1051-0761(2006)016[2411:DAMCFA]2.0.CO;2 | volume = 16 | issue = 6 | pages = 2411–2425|hdl=1794/22080 |hdl-access = free }}
* Australian Government Connected Water |url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110215233134/http://www.connectedwater.gov.au/framework/adaptive_management.html%7C
*{{cite journal | doi = 10.1890/1051-0761(2000)010[1251:ROTEKA]2.0.CO;2 | author = Berkes, F. |author2=Colding, J. |author3=Folke, C.| year = 2000 |title = Rediscovery of Traditional Ecological Knowledge as Adaptive Management |journal = Ecological Applications |volume = 10 | issue = 5|pages = 1251–1262}}
*{{cite journal | author = Chaffee, E. E.| year = 1985 |title = Three Models of Strategy | journal = The Academy of Management Review |volume = 10 | issue = 1 | pages = 89–98 | doi=10.5465/amr.1985.4277354}}
*{{cite book | author = Dunphy, D. |author2=Griffths, A. |author3=Benn, S| year = 2007 | title = Organizational Change for Corporate Sustainability | publisher = Routledge | location = London}}
*{{cite book | author = The Environmental Advisory Council | year = 2002 | title = Resilience and Sustainable Development: Building Adaptive Capacity in a World of Transformation | publisher = EDITA NORSTEDTS TRYCKERI AB | location = stockholm}}
*{{cite journal |author = Verine, L.| year = 2008 | title = Adaptive Project Management |journal = PM World Today | volume = 10 | issue=5 | pages = 1–9}}
*{{cite journal | doi = 10.1890/07-1989.1 | author = Rout, T.M. |author2=Hauser, C.E. |author3=Possingham, H.P. | year = 2009 | title = Optimal adaptive management for the translocation of a threatened species | journal = Ecological Applications | volume = 19| issue=2 | pages = 515–516 | pmid = 19323207 | bibcode = 2009EcoAp..19..515R | url = http://espace.library.uq.edu.au/view/UQ:181588/UQ181588_OA.pdf }}
*{{cite journal | doi = 10.1890/1051-0761(2002)012[0927:AAMIIP]2.0.CO;2 | author = Shea, K. |author2=Possingham, H.P. |author3=Murdoch, WW. |author4=Roush, R. |author-link4=Rick Roush| year = 2002 | title = Active Adaptive Management in Insect Pest and Weed Control: Intervention with a Plan for Learning | journal = Ecological Applications | volume = 12|issue=3 | pages = 927–936|url=http://espace.library.uq.edu.au/view/UQ:8678/UQ8678_OA.pdf }}
{{Natural resources}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Adaptive Management}}
[[Category:Habitat management equipment and methods]]
[[Category:Learning methods]]
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
[[Category:Sustainable design]]
[[Category:Management frameworks]] |
Conservation biology | {{Short description|Study of threats to biological diversity}}
{{Redirect2|Biological conservation|Conservation ecology|scientific journals|Conservation Biology (journal){{!}}''Conservation Biology'' (journal)|and|Biological Conservation (journal){{!}}''Biological Conservation'' (journal)|and|Conservation Ecology (journal){{!}}''Conservation Ecology'' (journal)|the popular movement|Conservationism}}
[[File:2016 EPI Ecosystem Vitality Objective - Biodiversity and Habitat (26170609028).jpg|thumb|300px|2016 conservation indicator which includes the following indicators: marine protected areas, terrestrial biome protection (global and national), and species protection (global and national)]]
'''Conservation biology''' is the study of the conservation of nature and of [[Earth]]'s [[biodiversity]] with the aim of protecting [[species]], their [[habitats]], and [[ecosystems]] from excessive rates of [[extinction]] and the erosion of biotic interactions.<ref name="SahneyBenton2008RecoveryFromProfoundExtinction">{{cite journal |last1=Sahney |first1=S. |last2=Benton |first2=M. J |title=Recovery from the most profound mass extinction of all time |journal=Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences |volume=275 |issue=1636 |pages=759–65 |year=2008 |pmid=18198148 |pmc=2596898 |doi=10.1098/rspb.2007.1370 }}</ref><ref name=ConsBiol80>{{cite book |author1=Soulé, Michael E. |author2=Wilcox, Bruce A. |title=Conservation biology: an evolutionary-ecological perspective |publisher=Sinauer Associates |location=Sunderland, Mass |year=1980 |isbn=978-0-87893-800-1 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Soulé |first1=Michael E. |title=What is Conservation Biology? |journal=BioScience |volume=35 |issue=11 |pages=727–34 |year=1986 |url=http://www.michaelsoule.com/resource_files/85/85_resource_file1.pdf |doi=10.2307/1310054 |jstor=1310054 |publisher=American Institute of Biological Sciences }}</ref> It is an interdisciplinary subject drawing on natural and social sciences, and the practice of [[natural resource management]].<ref name="Soule86">{{cite book|last = Soule| first= Michael E. | title=Conservation Biology: The Science of Scarcity and Diversity| year = 1986 | publisher = Sinauer Associates| page = 584 | isbn=978-0-87893-795-0}}</ref><ref name="Hunter96">{{cite book |author=Hunter, Malcolm L. |title=Fundamentals of conservation biology |publisher=Blackwell Science |location=Oxford |year=1996 |isbn=978-0-86542-371-8 |url=https://archive.org/details/fundamentalsofco00hunt }}</ref><ref name="Groom06">{{cite book |author1=Meffe, Gary K. |author2=Martha J. Groom |title=Principles of conservation biology |publisher=Sinauer Associates |location=Sunderland, Mass |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-87893-518-5 |edition=3rd}}</ref><ref name="Dyke08">{{cite book |last=Van Dyke |first=Fred |date=2008 |title=Conservation biology: foundations, concepts, applications |location=New York |publisher=[[Springer-Verlag]] |edition=2nd |isbn=9781402068904 |oclc=232001738 |doi=10.1007/978-1-4020-6891-1 |hdl=11059/14777 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Evh1UD3ZYWcC}}</ref>{{rp|478}}
The [[conservation ethic]] is based on the findings of conservation biology.
== Origins ==
[[File:Hopetoun falls.jpg|thumb|upright=1.25|Efforts are made to preserve the natural characteristics of [[Hopetoun Falls]], Australia, without affecting visitors' access.]]
The term conservation biology and its conception as a new field originated with the convening of "The First International Conference on Research in Conservation Biology" held at the [[University of California, San Diego]] in La Jolla, California, in 1978 led by American biologists Bruce A. Wilcox and [[Michael E. Soulé]] with a group of leading university and zoo researchers and conservationists including [[Kurt Benirschke]], Sir [[Otto Frankel]], [[Thomas Lovejoy]], and [[Jared Diamond]]. The meeting was prompted due to concern over tropical deforestation, disappearing species, and eroding genetic diversity within species.<ref>J. Douglas. 1978. Biologists urge US endowment for conservation. Nature Vol. 275, 14 September 1978. Kat Williams . 1978. Natural Sciences. Science News. September 30, 1978.</ref> The conference and proceedings that resulted<ref name=ConsBiol80/> sought to initiate the bridging of a gap between theory in ecology and [[evolutionary genetics]] on the one hand and conservation policy and practice on the other.<ref>Organization of the meeting itself also entailed bridging a gap between genetics and ecology. Soulé, was an evolutionary geneticist working with wheat geneticist Sir Otto Frankel to advance [[conservation genetics]] as a new field at the time. [[Jared Diamond]], who suggested the idea for a conference to Wilcox was concerned with the application of community ecology and island biogeography theory to conservation. Wilcox and [[Thomas Lovejoy]], who together initiated planning for the conference in June 1977 when Lovejoy secured a commitment of seed funding at [[World Wildlife Fund]], felt both genetics and ecology should be represented. Wilcox suggested use of a new term ''conservation biology'', complementing Frankel's conception and coining of "conservation genetics", to encompass the application of biological sciences in general to conservation. Subsequently, Soulé and Wilcox wrote conceived the agenda for the meeting they jointly convened on September 6–9, 1978, titled ''First International Conference on Resesarch in Conservation Biology'', in which the program described "The purpose of this conference is to accelerate and facilitate the development of a rigorous new discipline called conservation biology — a multidisciplinary field drawing its insights and methodology mostly from population ecology, community ecology, sociobiology, population genetics, and reproductive biology." This inclusion of topics at the meeting related to animal breeding reflected participation and support of the zoo and captive breeding communities.</ref>
Conservation biology and the concept of biological diversity ([[biodiversity]]) emerged together, helping crystallize the modern era of conservation science and [[National Environmental Policy Act|policy]]. The inherent multidisciplinary basis for conservation biology has led to new subdisciplines including conservation social science, [[conservation behavior]] and conservation physiology.<ref name="Cooke et al 2013">{{cite journal |last1=Cooke |first1=S. J. |last2=Sack |first2=L. |last3=Franklin |first3=C. E. |last4=Farrell |first4=A. P. |last5=Beardall |first5=J. |last6=Wikelski |first6=M. |last7=Chown |first7=S. L. |title=What is conservation physiology? Perspectives on an increasingly integrated and essential science |journal=[[Conservation Physiology]] |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=cot001 |year=2013 |pmid=27293585 |pmc=4732437 |doi=10.1093/conphys/cot001 }}</ref> It stimulated further development of [[conservation genetics]] which [[Otto Frankel]] had originated first but is now often considered a subdiscipline as well.
== Description ==
The rapid decline of established biological systems around the world means that conservation biology is often referred to as a "Discipline with a deadline".<ref>{{cite book |author=Wilson, Edward Osborne |title=The future of life |publisher=Little, Brown |location=Boston |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-316-64853-0 }}{{page needed|date=October 2016}}</ref> Conservation biology is tied closely to [[ecology]] in researching the [[population ecology]] ([[Biological dispersal|dispersal]], [[wikt:migration|migration]], [[demographics]], [[effective population size]], [[inbreeding depression]], and [[minimum viable population|minimum population viability]]) of [[rare species|rare]] or [[endangered species]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kala |first1=Chandra Prakash |title=Indigenous Uses, Population Density, and Conservation of Threatened Medicinal Plants in Protected Areas of the Indian Himalayas |journal=Conservation Biology |volume=19 |issue=2 |year=2005 |pages=368–78 |doi=10.1111/j.1523-1739.2005.00602.x |jstor=3591249 |s2cid=85324142 }}</ref><ref name="SahneyBentonFerry2010LinksDiversityVertebrates">{{cite journal |last1=Sahney |first1=S. |last2=Benton |first2=M. J. |last3=Ferry |first3=P. A. |title=Links between global taxonomic diversity, ecological diversity and the expansion of vertebrates on land |journal=Biology Letters |volume=6 |issue=4 |pages=544–7 |year=2010 |pmid=20106856 |pmc=2936204 |doi=10.1098/rsbl.2009.1024 }}</ref> Conservation biology is concerned with phenomena that affect the maintenance, loss, and restoration of biodiversity and the science of sustaining evolutionary processes that engender [[genetics|genetic]], [[population]], [[species]], and ecosystem diversity.<ref name="Hunter96"/><ref name="Groom06" /><ref name="Dyke08" /><ref name="SahneyBentonFerry2010LinksDiversityVertebrates"/> The concern stems from estimates suggesting that up to 50% of all species on the planet will disappear within the next 50 years,<ref name="Koh">{{cite journal |last1=Koh |first1=Lian Pin |last2=Dunn |first2=Robert R. |last3=Sodhi |first3=Navjot S. |last4=Colwell |first4=Robert K. |last5=Proctor |first5=Heather C. |last6=Smith |first6=Vincent S. |title=Species coextinctions and the biodiversity crisis |journal=Science |volume=305 |issue=5690 |pages=1632–4 |year=2004 |pmid=15361627 |doi=10.1126/science.1101101 |bibcode=2004Sci...305.1632K |s2cid=30713492 }}</ref> which will increase poverty and starvation, and will reset the course of evolution on this planet.<ref>Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (2005). ''Ecosystems and Human Well-being: Biodiversity Synthesis.'' World Resources Institute, Washington, DC.[http://www.millenniumassessment.org/documents/document.354.aspx.pdf]</ref><ref name="Jackson">{{cite journal |last=Jackson |first=J. B. C. |title=Ecological extinction and evolution in the brave new ocean |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume=105 |issue=Suppl 1 |pages=11458–65 |year=2008 |pmid=18695220 |pmc=2556419 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0802812105 |bibcode=2008PNAS..10511458J |doi-access=free }}</ref> Researchers acknowledge that projections are difficult, given the unknown potential impacts of many variables, including species introduction to new biogeographical settings and a non-analog climate.<ref name="Fitzpatrick 2255–2261">{{Cite journal |last1=Fitzpatrick |first1=Matthew C. |last2=Hargrove |first2=William W. |date=2009-07-01 |title=The projection of species distribution models and the problem of non-analog climate |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s10531-009-9584-8 |journal=Biodiversity and Conservation |language=en |volume=18 |issue=8 |pages=2255–2261 |doi=10.1007/s10531-009-9584-8 |s2cid=16327687 |issn=1572-9710}}</ref>
Conservation biologists research and educate on the trends and process of [[biodiversity loss]], species [[extinction]]s, and the negative effect these are having on our capabilities to sustain the well-being of human society. Conservation biologists work in the field and office, in government, universities, non-profit organizations and industry. The topics of their research are diverse, because this is an interdisciplinary network with professional alliances in the biological as well as social sciences. Those dedicated to the cause and profession advocate for a global response to [[Holocene extinction|the current biodiversity crisis]] based on [[morals]], [[ethics]], and scientific reason. Organizations and citizens are responding to the biodiversity crisis through conservation action plans that direct research, monitoring, and education programs that engage concerns at local through global scales.<ref name="Soule86"/><ref name="Hunter96"/><ref name="Groom06" /><ref name="Dyke08"/> There is increasing recognition that conservation is not just about what is achieved but how it is done.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last1=Cooke |first1=S. J. |last2=Michaels |first2=S. |last3=Nyboer |first3=E. A. |last4=Schiller |first4=L. |last5=Littlechild |first5=D. B. R. |last6=Hanna |first6=D. E. L. |last7=Robichaud |first7=C. D. |last8=Murdoch |first8=A. |last9=Roche |first9=D. |last10=Soroye |first10=P. |last11=Vermaire |first11=J. C. |date=2022-05-31 |title=Reconceptualizing conservation |journal=PLOS Sustainability and Transformation |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=e0000016 |doi=10.1371/journal.pstr.0000016 |issn=2767-3197|doi-access=free }}</ref> A "conservation acrostic" has been created to emphasize that point where C = co-produced, O = open, N = nimble, S = solutions-oriented, E = empowering, R = relational, V = values-based, A = actionable, T = transdisciplinary, I = inclusive, O = optimistic, and N = nurturing.<ref name=":4" />
== History ==
{{quote box
| quote= The conservation of natural resources is the fundamental problem. Unless we solve that problem, it will avail us little to solve all others.
| source= – Theodore Roosevelt<ref>Theodore Roosevelt, Address to the Deep Waterway Convention
Memphis, TN, October 4, 1907</ref>
| align=right
| width=25%
| salign=right
}}
=== Natural resource conservation ===
Conscious efforts to conserve and protect ''global'' biodiversity are a recent phenomenon.<ref name="Dyke08"/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ffem.fr/lang/en/accueil-FFEM/activites-ffem/biodiversite_protection|title=Biodiversity protection and preservation|website=ffem.fr|access-date=2016-10-11|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161018140452/http://www.ffem.fr/lang/en/accueil-FFEM/activites-ffem/biodiversite_protection|archive-date=2016-10-18|url-status=dead}}</ref> Natural resource conservation, however, has a history that extends prior to the age of conservation. Resource ethics grew out of necessity through direct relations with nature. Regulation or communal restraint became necessary to prevent selfish motives from taking more than could be locally sustained, therefore compromising the long-term supply for the rest of the community.<ref name="Dyke08"/> This social dilemma with respect to natural resource management is often called the "[[Tragedy of the Commons]]".<ref>{{cite journal|author=Hardin G |title=The Tragedy of the Commons |journal=Science |volume=162 |issue=3859 |pages=1243–8 |date=December 1968 |pmid=5699198 |doi=10.1126/science.162.3859.1243 |bibcode=1968Sci...162.1243H |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>Also considered to be a consequence of evolution, where individual selection is favored over group selection. For recent discussions, see: {{cite journal |author=Kay CE |title=The Ultimate Tragedy of Commons |journal=Conserv. Biol. |volume=11 |issue=6 |pages=1447–8 |year=1997 |doi=10.1046/j.1523-1739.1997.97069.x|s2cid=1397580 }}<br />''and'' {{cite journal|vauthors=Wilson DS, Wilson EO |title=Rethinking the theoretical foundation of sociobiology |journal=Q Rev Biol |volume=82 |issue=4 |pages=327–48 |date=December 2007 |pmid=18217526 |url=http://evolution.binghamton.edu/dswilson/resources/publications_resources/Rethinking |doi=10.1086/522809 |s2cid=37774648 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090326151243/http://evolution.binghamton.edu/dswilson/resources/publications_resources/Rethinking%20sociobiology.pdf |archive-date=2009-03-26 }}</ref>
From this principle, conservation biologists can trace communal resource based ethics throughout cultures as a solution to communal resource conflict.<ref name="Dyke08"/> For example, the Alaskan [[Tlingit people|Tlingit]] peoples and the [[Haida people|Haida]] of the [[Pacific Northwest]] had resource boundaries, rules, and restrictions among clans with respect to the fishing of [[sockeye salmon]]. These rules were guided by clan elders who knew lifelong details of each river and stream they managed.<ref name="Dyke08" /><ref name="Mason">Mason, Rachel and Judith Ramos. (2004). Traditional Ecological Knowledge of Tlingit People concerning the Sockeye Salmon Fishery of the Dry Bay Area, A Cooperative Agreement Between Department of the Interior National Park Service and the Yakutat Tlingit Tribe, Final Report (FIS) Project 01-091, Yakutat, Alaska.{{cite web |url=http://www.ser.org/iprn/pdf/Elaine_Abraham.pdf |title=Traditional Ecological Knowledge of Tlingit People Concerning the Sockeye Salmon Fishery of the Dry Bay Area |access-date=2009-01-07 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090225013400/http://www.ser.org/iprn/pdf/Elaine_Abraham.pdf |archive-date=2009-02-25 }}</ref> There are numerous examples in history where cultures have followed rules, rituals, and organized practice with respect to communal natural resource management.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Murphree|first=Marshall W.|date=2009-05-22|title=The strategic pillars of communal natural resource management: benefit, empowerment and conservation|journal=Biodiversity and Conservation|language=en|volume=18|issue=10|pages=2551–2562|doi=10.1007/s10531-009-9644-0|s2cid=23587547|issn=0960-3115}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=Wilson, David Alec |title=Darwin's cathedral: evolution, religion, and the nature of society |publisher=University of Chicago Press |location=Chicago |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-226-90134-3 }}</ref>
The Mauryan emperor [[Ashoka]] around 250 BC issued edicts restricting the slaughter of animals and certain kinds of birds, as well as opened veterinary clinics.
Conservation ethics are also found in early religious and philosophical writings. There are examples in the [[Tao]], [[Shinto]], [[Hindu]], [[Islamic]] and [[Buddhist]] traditions.<ref name="Dyke08" /><ref name="Primack 2004">{{cite book | last = Primack | first = Richard B. | title = A Primer of Conservation Biology, 3rd ed. | publisher = Sinauer Associates | year = 2004 | pages = [https://archive.org/details/primerofconserva00rich/page/320 320pp] | isbn = 978-0-87893-728-8 | url = https://archive.org/details/primerofconserva00rich/page/320 }}</ref> In Greek philosophy, Plato lamented about pasture [[land degradation]]: "What is left now is, so to say, the skeleton of a body wasted by disease; the rich, soft soil has been carried off and only the bare framework of the district left."<ref>Hamilton, E., and H. Cairns (eds). 1961. Plato: the collected dialogues. Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ</ref> In the bible, through Moses, God commanded to let the land rest from cultivation every seventh year.<ref name="Dyke08" /><ref>The Bible, Leviticus, 25:4-5</ref> Before the 18th century, however, much of European culture considered it a [[Earth religion|pagan view]] to admire nature. Wilderness was denigrated while agricultural development was praised.<ref name="Evans97">{{cite book |author=Evans, David |title=A history of nature conservation in Britain |publisher=Routledge |location=New York |year=1997 |isbn=978-0-415-14491-9 }}</ref> However, as early as AD 680 a [[wildlife sanctuary]] was founded on the [[Farne Islands]] by [[St Cuthbert]] in response to his religious beliefs.<ref name="Dyke08" />
=== Early naturalists ===
[[File:White Gerfalcons.jpg|thumb|upright|White [[gyrfalcon]]s drawn by [[John James Audubon]] ]]
[[File:On the feet of the canidae and ursidae (1914) fig. 2.png|thumb|upright=1.15|More conservation research is needed for understanding ecology and behaviour of the [[dhole]] in central China.]]
[[Natural history]] was a major preoccupation in the 18th century, with grand expeditions and the opening of popular public displays in [[Europe]] and [[North America]]. By 1900 there were 150 [[natural history museum]]s in [[Germany]], 250 in [[Great Britain]], 250 in the [[United States]], and 300 in [[France]].<ref name="Farber00">{{cite book |author=Farber, Paul Lawrence |title=Finding order in nature: the naturalist tradition from Linnaeus to E. O. Wilson |publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press |location=Baltimore |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-8018-6390-5 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/findingorderinna0000farb }}</ref> Preservationist or conservationist sentiments are a development of the late 18th to early 20th centuries.
Before Charles Darwin set sail on HMS ''Beagle'', most people in the world, including Darwin, believed in special creation and that all species were unchanged.<ref name=":3">{{Cite book|title=Biology|last=Mader|first=Sylvia|publisher=McGraw Hill Education|year=2016|isbn=978-0-07-802426-9|location=New York, NY|page=262}}</ref> George-Louis Leclerc was one of the first naturalist that questioned this belief. He proposed in his 44 volume natural history book that species evolve due to environmental influences.<ref name=":3" /> Erasmus Darwin was also a naturalist who also suggested that species evolved. Erasmus Darwin noted that some species have vestigial structures which are anatomical structures that have no apparent function in the species currently but would have been useful for the species' ancestors.<ref name=":3" /> The thinking of these early 18th century naturalists helped to change the mindset and thinking of the early 19th century naturalists.
By the early 19th century [[biogeography]] was ignited through the efforts of [[Alexander von Humboldt]], [[Charles Lyell]] and [[Charles Darwin]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://web2.uwindsor.ca/courses/biology/macisaac/55-437/intro.htm|title=Introduction to Conservation Biology and Biogeography|website=web2.uwindsor.ca}}</ref> The 19th-century fascination with natural history engendered a fervor to be the first to collect rare specimens with the goal of doing so before they became extinct by other such collectors.<ref name="Evans97" /><ref name="Farber00" /> Although the work of many 18th and 19th century naturalists were to inspire nature enthusiasts and [[Environmental organization|conservation organizations]], their writings, by modern standards, showed insensitivity towards conservation as they would kill hundreds of specimens for their collections.<ref name="Farber00" />
=== Conservation movement ===
{{Main|Conservation movement}}
The modern roots of conservation biology can be found in the late 18th-century [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]] period particularly in [[England]] and [[Scotland]].<ref name="Evans97" /><ref name="Cloyd">{{Cite book | last = Cloyd | first = E. L. | year = 1972 | title = James Burnett, Lord Monboddo | location = New York | publisher = Oxford University Press | page = 196 | isbn = 978-0-19-812437-5 }}</ref> Thinkers including [[Lord Monboddo]] described the importance of "preserving nature"; much of this early emphasis had its origins in [[Christian theology]].<ref name="Cloyd"/>
Scientific conservation principles were first practically applied to the forests of [[British India]]. The conservation ethic that began to evolve included three core principles: that human activity damaged the [[Natural environment|environment]], that there was a [[civic duty]] to maintain the environment for future generations, and that scientific, empirically based methods should be applied to ensure this duty was carried out. Sir [[James Ranald Martin]] was prominent in promoting this ideology, publishing many medico-topographical reports that demonstrated the scale of damage wrought through large-scale deforestation and desiccation, and lobbying extensively for the institutionalization of forest conservation activities in British India through the establishment of [[Indian Forest Service|Forest Departments]].<ref>Stebbing, E.P (1922)''The forests of India'' vol. 1, pp. 72-81</ref>
The [[Madras]] Board of Revenue started local conservation efforts in 1842, headed by [[Alexander Gibson (botanist)|Alexander Gibson]], a professional [[botany|botanist]] who systematically adopted a forest conservation program based on scientific principles. This was the first case of state conservation management of forests in the world.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WDYlNljAP5AC|title=Empire Forestry and the Origins of Environmentalism|first1=Greg |last1=Barton|year=2002|publisher=Cambridge University Press|page=48|isbn=978-1-139-43460-7 }}</ref> [[Governor-General of India|Governor-General]] [[James Broun-Ramsay, 1st Marquess of Dalhousie|Lord Dalhousie]] introduced the first permanent and large-scale forest conservation program in the world in 1855, a model that soon spread to [[British empire|other colonies]], as well the United States,<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.hindu.com/mp/2007/11/05/stories/2007110550080500.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071108213227/http://www.hindu.com/mp/2007/11/05/stories/2007110550080500.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=November 8, 2007|title=A life for forestry|last=MUTHIAH|first=S. |date=Nov 5, 2007|access-date=2009-03-09|work=[[The Hindu]]|location=Chennai, India}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Cleghorn|first=Hugh Francis Clarke |title=The Forests and Gardens of South India |publisher=W. H. Allen|location=London|year= 1861|edition=Original from the University of Michigan, Digitized Feb 10, 2006|oclc= 301345427|url=http://www.worldcat.org/wcpa/oclc/301345427?page=frame&url=http%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D_ZbC9FY1JqIC%26checksum%3D374d90c92770a514a51708f07461f0b3&title=&linktype=digitalObject&detail=}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Bennett|first=Brett M.|title=Early Conservation Histories in Bengal and British India: 1875-1922 |url=http://www.asiaticsociety.org.bd/journals/Golden_jubilee_vol/articles/H_468%20(Brett%20M%20Benet).htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120304212026/http://www.asiaticsociety.org.bd/journals/Golden_jubilee_vol/articles/H_468%20(Brett%20M%20Benet).htm |archive-date=2012-03-04 |journal=Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bangladesh |volume=50 |issue=1–2 |year=2005 |pages=485–500|publisher=Asiatic Society of Bangladesh |issn=1016-6947}}</ref> where [[Yellowstone National Park]] was opened in 1872 as the world's first national park.<ref>{{cite book|last=Haines|first=Aubrey|title=The Yellowstone Story: A History of Our First National Park: Volume 1 Revised Edition|year=1996|publisher=Yellowstone Association for Natural Science, History of Education}}</ref>
The term ''conservation'' came into widespread use in the late 19th century and referred to the management, mainly for economic reasons, of such natural resources as [[timber]], fish, game, [[topsoil]], [[pasture]]land, and minerals. In addition it referred to the preservation of [[forest]]s ([[forestry]]), [[wildlife]] ([[wildlife refuge]]), parkland, [[wilderness]], and [[Drainage basin|watersheds]]. This period also saw the passage of the first conservation legislation and the establishment of the first nature conservation societies. The [[Sea Birds Preservation Act 1869|Sea Birds Preservation Act of 1869]] was passed in Britain as the first nature protection law in the world<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?isbn=3540740023|title=Coastal Dunes: Ecology and Conservation|author1=G. Baeyens |author2=M. L. Martinez |year=2007|page=282|publisher=Springer}}</ref> after extensive lobbying from the Association for the Protection of Seabirds<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/local/humberside/hi/people_and_places/nature/newsid_9383000/9383787.stm|title=Protecting seabirds at Bempton Cliffs | work=BBC News | first=Jo|last=Makel|date=2 February 2011}}</ref> and the respected [[ornithology|ornithologist]] [[Alfred Newton]].<ref>Newton A. 1899. The plume trade: borrowed plumes. ''The Times'' 28 January 1876; and The plume trade. ''The Times'' 25 February 1899. Reprinted together by the Society for the Protection of Birds, April 1899.</ref> Newton was also instrumental in the passage of the first [[Game laws]] from 1872, which protected animals during their breeding season so as to prevent the stock from being brought close to extinction.<ref>Newton A. 1868. The zoological aspect of game laws. Address to the ''British Association'', Section D, August 1868. Reprinted [n.d.] by the Society for the Protection of Birds.</ref>
One of the first conservation societies was the [[Royal Society for the Protection of Birds]], founded in 1889 in [[Manchester]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.rspb.org.uk/about/history/milestones.asp |title=Milestones |publisher=RSPB |access-date=19 February 2007}}</ref> as a [[advocacy group|protest group]] campaigning against the use of [[great crested grebe]] and [[Black-legged kittiwake|kittiwake]] skins and feathers in [[fur clothing]]. Originally known as "the Plumage League",<ref>{{cite book |last=Penna |first=Anthony N. |location=Armonk, N.Y. U.S. |title=Nature's Bounty: Historical and Modern Environmental Perspectives |year=1999 |publisher=[[M. E. Sharpe]] |isbn=978-0-7656-0187-2 |page=[https://archive.org/details/naturesbountyhis0000penn/page/99 99] |url=https://archive.org/details/naturesbountyhis0000penn/page/99 }}</ref> the group gained popularity and eventually amalgamated with the Fur and Feather League in Croydon, and formed the RSPB.<ref name="history">{{cite web |url=http://www.rspb.org.uk/about/history/index.asp |title=History of the RSPB |publisher=RSPB |access-date=19 February 2007}}</ref> The [[National Trust]] formed in 1895 with the manifesto to "...promote the permanent preservation, for the benefit of the nation, of lands, ... to preserve (so far practicable) their natural aspect." In May 1912, a month after the ''Titanic'' sank, banker and expert naturalist [[Charles Rothschild]] held a meeting at the [[Natural History Museum, London|Natural History Museum]] in London to discuss his idea for a new organisation to save the best places for wildlife in the British Isles. This meeting led to the formation of the Society for the Promotion of Nature Reserves, which later became the [[Wildlife Trusts]].
[[File:Wanton waste of MN native fish by the ton.jpg|alt=In this single-night bowfishing tournament in Minnesota, 85% of individual fish shot and dumped were native fishes. |thumb|Some biodiversity loss is more insidious than others due to systemic neglect. For example, sport killing and wanton waste of tons of native fishes from unregulated 21st century [[bowfishing]] in the United States.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last=Lackmann |first=Alec R. |last2=Bielak-Lackmann |first2=Ewelina S. |last3=Jacobson |first3=Reed I. |last4=Andrews |first4=Allen H. |last5=Butler |first5=Malcolm G. |last6=Clark |first6=Mark E. |date=2023-08-30 |title=Harvest trends, growth and longevity, and population dynamics reveal traditional assumptions for redhorse (Moxostoma spp.) management in Minnesota are not supported |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s10641-023-01460-8 |journal=Environmental Biology of Fishes |language=en |doi=10.1007/s10641-023-01460-8 |issn=1573-5133}}</ref> New conservation movements are needed to deter irreparable biodiversity loss to fragile freshwater ecosystems. ]]
In the [[United States]], the [[Forest Reserve Act of 1891]] gave the President power to set aside forest reserves from the land in the public domain. [[John Muir]] founded the [[Sierra Club]] in 1892, and the [[New York Zoological Society]] was set up in 1895. A series of [[National Park|national forests and preserves]] were established by [[Theodore Roosevelt]] from 1901 to 1909.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nps.gov/thro/learn/historyculture/theodore-roosevelt-and-conservation.htm|title=Theodore Roosevelt and Conservation - Theodore Roosevelt National Park (U.S. National Park Service)|website=nps.gov|access-date=2016-10-04}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.runet.edu/~wkovarik/envhist/5progressive.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050223142405/http://www.runet.edu/~wkovarik/envhist/5progressive.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=2005-02-23 |title=Environmental timeline 1890–1920 |website=runet.edu }}</ref> The 1916 National Parks Act, included a 'use without impairment' clause, sought by John Muir, which eventually resulted in the removal of a proposal to build a dam in [[Dinosaur National Monument]] in 1959.<ref name="Davis96">{{cite book |author=Davis, Peter |title=Museums and the natural environment: the role of natural history museums in biological conservation |url=https://archive.org/details/museumsnaturalen0000davi |url-access=registration |publisher=Leicester University Press |location=London |year=1996 |isbn=978-0-7185-1548-5 }}</ref>
[[File:Muir and Roosevelt restored.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Theodore Roosevelt|Roosevelt]] and [[John Muir|Muir]] on [[Glacier Point]] in [[Yosemite National Park]]]]
In the 20th century, [[Canadians|Canadian]] civil servants, including [[Charles Gordon Hewitt]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://people.wku.edu/charles.smith/chronob/HEWI1885.htm |title=Chrono-Biographical Sketch: Charles Gordon Hewitt |website=people.wku.edu |access-date=2017-05-07}}</ref> and [[James Bernard Harkin|James Harkin]], spearheaded the movement toward [[wildlife conservation]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Foster|first=Janet|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8KLFOFGXvYQC&q=Janet+Foster+working+for+wildlife%257D%257D|title=Working for Wildlife: The Beginning of Preservation in Canada|date=1998-01-01|publisher=University of Toronto Press|isbn=978-0-8020-7969-5|language=en}}</ref>
In the 21st century professional conservation officers have begun to collaborate with [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|indigenous]] communities for protecting wildlife in Canada.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Cecco |first1=Leyland |title=Indigenous input helps save wayward grizzly bear from summary killing |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2020/apr/19/grizzly-bear-canada-indigenous-conservation-british-columbia |access-date=23 April 2020 |work=The Guardian |date=19 April 2020}}</ref> Some conservation efforts are yet to fully take hold due to ecological neglect.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Lackmann |first=Alec R. |last2=Andrews |first2=Allen H. |last3=Butler |first3=Malcolm G. |last4=Bielak-Lackmann |first4=Ewelina S. |last5=Clark |first5=Mark E. |date=2019-05-23 |title=Bigmouth Buffalo Ictiobus cyprinellus sets freshwater teleost record as improved age analysis reveals centenarian longevity |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s42003-019-0452-0 |journal=Communications Biology |language=en |volume=2 |issue=1 |pages=1–14 |doi=10.1038/s42003-019-0452-0 |issn=2399-3642|doi-access=free |pmc=6533251 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Rypel |first=Andrew L. |last2=Saffarinia |first2=Parsa |last3=Vaughn |first3=Caryn C. |last4=Nesper |first4=Larry |last5=O’Reilly |first5=Katherine |last6=Parisek |first6=Christine A. |last7=Miller |first7=Matthew L. |last8=Moyle |first8=Peter B. |last9=Fangue |first9=Nann A. |last10=Bell‐Tilcock |first10=Miranda |last11=Ayers |first11=David |last12=David |first12=Solomon R. |date=December 2021 |title=Goodbye to “Rough Fish”: Paradigm Shift in the Conservation of Native Fishes |url=https://afspubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/fsh.10660 |journal=Fisheries |language=en |volume=46 |issue=12 |pages=605–616 |doi=10.1002/fsh.10660 |issn=0363-2415|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Scarnecchia |first=Dennis L. |last2=Schooley |first2=Jason D. |last3=Lackmann |first3=Alec R. |last4=Rider |first4=Steven J. |last5=Riecke |first5=Dennis K. |last6=McMullen |first6=Joseph |last7=Ganus |first7=J. Eric |last8=Steffensen |first8=Kirk D. |last9=Kramer |first9=Nicholas W. |last10=Shattuck |first10=Zachary R. |date=December 2021 |title=The Sport Fish Restoration Program as a Funding Source to Manage and Monitor Bowfishing and Monitor Inland Commercial Fisheries |url=https://afspubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/fsh.10679 |journal=Fisheries |language=en |volume=46 |issue=12 |pages=595–604 |doi=10.1002/fsh.10679 |issn=0363-2415}}</ref> For example in the USA, 21st century [[bowfishing]] of native fishes, which amounts to killing wild animals for recreation and disposing of them immediately afterwards, remains unregulated and unmanaged.<ref name=":7" />
=== Global conservation efforts ===
In the mid-20th century, efforts arose to target individual species for conservation, notably efforts in [[big cat]] conservation in [[South America]] led by the New York Zoological Society.<ref>A.R. Rabinowitz, ''Jaguar: One Man's Battle to Establish the World's First Jaguar Preserve'', Arbor House, New York, N.Y. (1986)</ref> In the early 20th century the New York Zoological Society was instrumental in developing concepts of establishing preserves for particular species and conducting the necessary conservation studies to determine the suitability of locations that are most appropriate as conservation priorities; the work of Henry Fairfield Osborn Jr., [[Carl E. Akeley]], [[Archie Carr]] and his son Archie Carr III is notable in this era.<ref>{{cite book |author1=Carr, Marjorie Harris |author2=Carr, Archie Fairly |title=A naturalist in Florida: a celebration of Eden |url=https://archive.org/details/naturalistinflor0000carr |url-access=registration |publisher=Yale University Press |location=New Haven, Conn |year=1994 |isbn=978-0-300-05589-4 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.wku.edu/~smithch/chronob/OSBO1887.htm|title=Chrono-Biographical Sketch: (Henry) Fairfield Osborn, Jr.|website=wku.edu}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=the story of the virungas |url=http://www.cotf.edu/ete/modules/mgorilla/mgeuropean.html |access-date=2022-07-10 |website=cotf.edu}}</ref><!-- The timings of these two sentences contradict each other. --> Akeley for example, having led expeditions to the [[Virunga Mountains]] and observed the [[mountain gorilla]] in the wild, became convinced that the species and the area were conservation priorities. He was instrumental in persuading [[Albert I of Belgium]] to act in defense of the [[mountain gorilla]] and establish [[Albert National Park]] (since renamed [[Virunga National Park]]) in what is now [[Democratic Republic of Congo]].<ref>Akeley, C., 1923. ''In Brightest Africa'' New York, Doubleday. 188-249.</ref>
By the 1970s, led primarily by work in the United States under the [[Endangered Species Act]]<ref>U.S. Endangered Species Act (7 U.S.C. § 136, 16 U.S.C. § 1531 et seq.) of 1973, Washington DC, U.S. Government Printing Office</ref> along with the [[Species at Risk Act]] (SARA) of Canada, [[Biodiversity Action Plan]]s developed in [[Australia]], [[Sweden]], the [[United Kingdom]], hundreds of species specific protection plans ensued. Notably the United Nations acted to conserve sites of outstanding cultural or natural importance to the common heritage of mankind. The programme was adopted by the General Conference of [[UNESCO]] in 1972. As of 2006, a total of 830 sites are listed: 644 cultural, 162 natural. The first country to pursue aggressive biological conservation through national legislation was the United States, which passed back to back legislation in the Endangered Species Act<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/16/1531-|title=16 U.S. Code § 1531 - Congressional findings and declaration of purposes and policy|website=LII / Legal Information Institute}}</ref> (1966) and [[National Environmental Policy Act]] (1970),<ref>{{cite web|url=http://frwebgate.access.gpo.gov/cgi-bin/getdoc.cgi?dbname=browse_usc&docid=Cite:+42USC4321|title=US Government Publishing Office - FDsys - Browse Publications|website=frwebgate.access.gpo.gov}}</ref> which together injected major funding and protection measures to large-scale habitat protection and threatened species research. Other conservation developments, however, have taken hold throughout the world. India, for example, passed the [[Wildlife Protection Act of 1972]].<ref>{{cite journal |first1=Paul R. |last1=Krausman |first2=A. J. T. |last2=Johnsingh |year=1990 |title=Conservation and Wildlife Education in India |journal=Wildlife Society Bulletin |volume=18 |issue=3 |pages=342–7 |jstor=3782224}}</ref>
In 1980, a significant development was the emergence of the [[urban wildlife|urban conservation]] movement. A local organization was established in [[Birmingham]], UK, a development followed in rapid succession in cities across the UK, then overseas. Although perceived as a [[grassroots movement]], its early development was driven by academic research into urban wildlife. Initially perceived as radical, the movement's view of conservation being inextricably linked with other human activity has now become mainstream in conservation thought. Considerable research effort is now directed at urban conservation biology. The [[Society for Conservation Biology]] originated in 1985.<ref name="Dyke08"/>{{rp|2}}
By 1992, most of the countries of the world had become committed to the principles of conservation of biological diversity with the [[Convention on Biological Diversity]];<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.biodiv.org/convention/default.shtml|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070227072411/http://www.biodiv.org/convention/default.shtml|url-status=dead|title=Convention on Biological Diversity Official Page|archivedate=February 27, 2007}}</ref> subsequently many countries began programmes of [[Biodiversity Action Plan]]s to identify and conserve threatened species within their borders, as well as protect associated habitats. The late 1990s saw increasing professionalism in the sector, with the maturing of organisations such as the [[Institute of Ecology and Environmental Management]] and the [[Society for the Environment]].
Since 2000, the concept of [[landscape scale conservation]] has risen to prominence, with less emphasis being given to single-species or even single-habitat focused actions. Instead an ecosystem approach is advocated by most mainstream conservationists, although concerns have been expressed by those working to protect some high-profile species.
Ecology has clarified the workings of the [[biosphere]]; i.e., the complex interrelationships among humans, other species, and the physical environment. The [[Human overpopulation|burgeoning human population]] and associated [[agriculture]], [[Industrial sector|industry]], and the ensuing pollution, have demonstrated how easily ecological relationships can be disrupted.<ref>{{cite book |author=Gore, Albert |title=Earth in the balance: ecology and the human spirit |publisher=Houghton Mifflin |location=Boston |year=1992 |isbn=978-0-395-57821-6 |url=https://archive.org/details/earthinbalanceec00gore }}</ref>
{{cquote|The last word in ignorance is the man who says of an animal or plant: "What good is it?" If the land mechanism as a whole is good, then every part is good, whether we understand it or not. If the biota, in the course of aeons, has built something we like but do not understand, then who but a fool would discard seemingly useless parts? To keep every cog and wheel is the first precaution of intelligent tinkering.|20px|20px|[[Aldo Leopold]]|''[[A Sand County Almanac]]''}}
== Concepts and foundations ==
=== Measuring extinction rates ===
{{annotated image/Extinction|float=right}}
Extinction rates are measured in a variety of ways. Conservation biologists measure and apply [[statistical measure]]s of [[fossil record]]s,<ref name="SahneyBenton2008RecoveryFromProfoundExtinction"/><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Regan |first1=Helen M. |last2=Lupia |first2=Richard |last3=Drinnan |first3=Andrew N. |last4=Burgman |first4=Mark A. |title=The Currency and Tempo of Extinction |journal=The American Naturalist |volume=157 |issue=1 |pages=1–10 |year=2001 |pmid=18707231 |doi=10.1086/317005 |s2cid=205983813 }}</ref> rates of [[habitat loss]], and a multitude of other variables such as [[loss of biodiversity]] as a function of the rate of habitat loss and site occupancy<ref>{{cite journal |last1=MacKenzie |first1=Darryl I. |last2=Nichols |first2=James D. |last3=Hines |first3=James E. |last4=Knutson |first4=Melinda G. |last5=Franklin |first5=Alan B. |title=Estimating Site Occupancy, Colonization, and Local Extinction When a Species Is Detected Imperfectly |journal=Ecology |volume=84 |issue=8 |year=2003 |pages=2200–2207 |jstor=3450043 |doi=10.1890/02-3090 |hdl=2027.42/149732 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> to obtain such estimates.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Balmford |first1=Andrew |last2=Green |first2=Rhys E. |last3=Jenkins |first3=Martin |title=Measuring the changing state of nature |journal=Trends in Ecology & Evolution |volume=18 |issue=7 |year=2003 |pages=326–30 |doi=10.1016/S0169-5347(03)00067-3 |url=http://www.homepages.ucl.ac.uk/~ucessjb/S3%20Reading/balmford%20et%20al%202003.pdf }}</ref> ''[[The Theory of Island Biogeography]]''<ref>{{cite book |last1=MacArthur|first1=R.H.|author-link1= Robert MacArthur|last2=Wilson|first2=E.O.|author-link2= E. O. Wilson|title=The Theory of Island Biogeography |publisher=Princeton University Press |location=Princeton, N.J |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-691-08836-5|title-link=The Theory of Island Biogeography}}</ref> is possibly the most significant contribution toward the scientific understanding of both the process and how to measure the rate of species extinction. The current [[background extinction rate]] is estimated to be one species every few years.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Raup DM |title=A kill curve for Phanerozoic marine species |journal=Paleobiology |volume=17 |issue=1 |pages=37–48 |year=1991 |pmid=11538288 |doi=10.1017/S0094837300010332 |bibcode=1991Pbio...17...37R |s2cid=29102370 }}</ref> Actual extinction rates are estimated to be orders of magnitudes higher.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Ceballos|first1=Gerardo|last2=Ehrlich|first2=Paul R.|last3=Barnosky|first3=Anthony D.|last4=García|first4=Andrés|last5=Pringle|first5=Robert M.|last6=Palmer|first6=Todd M.|date=2015-06-01|title=Accelerated modern human–induced species losses: Entering the sixth mass extinction|journal=Science Advances|language=en|volume=1|issue=5|pages=e1400253|doi=10.1126/sciadv.1400253|pmid=26601195|pmc=4640606|bibcode=2015SciA....1E0253C|issn=2375-2548|doi-access=free}}</ref> While this is important, it's worth noting that there are no models in existence that account for the complexity of unpredictable factors like species movement, a non-analog climate, changing species interactions, evolutionary rates on finer time scales, and many other stochastic variables.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Brun |first1=Philipp |last2=Thuiller |first2=Wilfried |last3=Chauvier |first3=Yohann |last4=Pellissier |first4=Loïc |last5=Wüest |first5=Rafael O. |last6=Wang |first6=Zhiheng |last7=Zimmermann |first7=Niklaus E. |date=January 2020 |title=Model complexity affects species distribution projections under climate change |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/jbi.13734 |journal=Journal of Biogeography |language=en |volume=47 |issue=1 |pages=130–142 |doi=10.1111/jbi.13734 |s2cid=209562589 |issn=0305-0270|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name="Fitzpatrick 2255–2261"/>
The measure of ongoing species loss is made more complex by the fact that most of the Earth's species have not been described or evaluated. Estimates vary greatly on how many species actually exist (estimated range: 3,600,000–111,700,000)<ref name="Wilson00">{{cite journal | last1 = Wilson | first1 = Edward O. | year = 2000 | title = On the Future of Conservation Biology | journal = Conservation Biology | volume = 14 | issue = 1| pages = 1–3 | doi=10.1046/j.1523-1739.2000.00000-e1.x| s2cid = 83906221 | doi-access = free }}</ref> to how many have received a [[Binomial nomenclature|species binomial]] (estimated range: 1.5–8 million).<ref name="Wilson00" /> Less than 1% of all species that have been described beyond simply noting its existence.<ref name="Wilson00" /> From these figures, the IUCN reports that 23% of [[vertebrate]]s, 5% of [[invertebrate]]s and 70% of plants that have been evaluated are designated as [[endangered]] or [[threatened]].<ref name="IUCN">{{Cite web|url=http://www.iucnredlist.org/info/tables/table1|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20060630054235/http://www.iucnredlist.org/info/tables/table1|url-status=dead|title=IUCN Red-list statistics (2006)|archivedate=June 30, 2006}}</ref><ref>The IUCN does not disaggregate endangered from [[critically endangered]] or threatened for the purpose of these statistics.</ref> Better knowledge is being constructed by [[The Plant List]] for actual numbers of species.
=== Systematic conservation planning ===
Systematic conservation planning is an effective way to seek and identify efficient and effective types of reserve design to capture or sustain the highest priority biodiversity values and to work with communities in support of local ecosystems. Margules and Pressey identify six interlinked stages in the systematic planning approach:<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Margules CR, Pressey RL |title=Systematic conservation planning |journal=Nature |volume=405 |issue=6783 |pages=243–53 |date=May 2000 |pmid=10821285 |doi=10.1038/35012251 |s2cid=4427223 |url=http://www.ecology.uq.edu.au/docs/SoC_Brazil_2005/Papers/Margules_and_Pressey_2000.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090225013400/http://www.ecology.uq.edu.au/docs/SoC_Brazil_2005/Papers/Margules_and_Pressey_2000.pdf |archive-date=2009-02-25 }}</ref>
# Compile data on the biodiversity of the planning region
# Identify conservation goals for the planning region
# Review existing conservation areas
# Select additional conservation areas
# Implement conservation actions
# Maintain the required values of conservation areas
Conservation biologists regularly prepare detailed conservation plans for [[Grant (money)|grant proposals]] or to effectively coordinate their plan of action and to identify best management practices (e.g.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2007-07-04|url=http://www.amphibians.org/newsletter/ACAP.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070704172505/http://www.amphibians.org/newsletter/ACAP.pdf |title=Amphibian Conservation Action Plan|archive-date=2007-07-04 |access-date=2022-12-29}}</ref>). Systematic strategies generally employ the services of [[Geographic Information Systems]] to assist in the decision-making process. The [[SLOSS debate]] is often considered in planning.
=== Conservation physiology: a mechanistic approach to conservation ===
Conservation physiology was defined by [[Steven J. Cooke]] and colleagues as:<ref name="Cooke et al 2013"/><blockquote>An integrative scientific discipline applying physiological concepts, tools, and knowledge to characterizing biological diversity and its ecological implications; understanding and predicting how organisms, populations, and ecosystems respond to environmental change and stressors; and solving conservation problems across the broad range of taxa (i.e. including microbes, plants, and animals). Physiology is considered in the broadest possible terms to include functional and mechanistic responses at all scales, and conservation includes the development and refinement of strategies to rebuild populations, restore ecosystems, inform conservation policy, generate decision-support tools, and manage natural resources.</blockquote>Conservation physiology is particularly relevant to practitioners in that it has the potential to generate cause-and-effect relationships and reveal the factors that contribute to population declines.
=== Conservation biology as a profession ===
The [[Society for Conservation Biology]] is a global community of conservation professionals dedicated to advancing the science and practice of conserving biodiversity. Conservation biology as a discipline reaches beyond biology, into subjects such as [[philosophy]], [[law]], [[economics]], [[humanities]], [[arts]], [[anthropology]], and [[education]].<ref name="Hunter96"/><ref name="Groom06" /> Within biology, [[conservation genetics]] and [[evolution]] are immense fields unto themselves, but these disciplines are of prime importance to the practice and profession of conservation biology.
Conservationists introduce [[bias]] when they support policies using qualitative description, such as [[Habitat degradation|habitat ''degradation'']], or ''healthy'' [[ecosystem]]s. Conservation biologists advocate for reasoned and sensible management of natural resources and do so with a disclosed combination of [[science]], [[reason]], [[logic]], and [[Value (personal and cultural)|values]] in their conservation management plans.<ref name="Hunter96" /> This sort of advocacy is similar to the medical profession advocating for healthy lifestyle options, both are beneficial to human well-being yet remain scientific in their approach.
There is a movement in conservation biology suggesting a new form of leadership is needed to mobilize conservation biology into a more effective discipline that is able to communicate the full scope of the problem to society at large.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Manolis JC, Chan KM, Finkelstein ME, Stephens S, Nelson CR, Grant JB, Dombeck MP |title=Leadership: A new frontier in conservation science |journal=Conserv. Biol. |volume=23 |issue=4 |pages=879–86 |year=2009 |doi=10.1111/j.1523-1739.2008.01150.x |pmid=19183215 |s2cid=36810103 }}</ref> The movement proposes an adaptive leadership approach that parallels an [[adaptive management]] approach. The concept is based on a new philosophy or leadership theory steering away from historical notions of power, authority, and dominance. Adaptive conservation leadership is reflective and more equitable as it applies to any member of society who can mobilize others toward meaningful change using communication techniques that are inspiring, purposeful, and collegial. Adaptive conservation leadership and mentoring programs are being implemented by conservation biologists through organizations such as the Aldo Leopold Leadership Program.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://leopoldleadership.org/content/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070217231043/http://leopoldleadership.org/content|archive-date=2007-02-17|title=Aldo Leopold Leadership Program|publisher=Woods Institute for the Environment, Stanford University}}</ref>
=== Approaches ===
Conservation may be classified as either [[in-situ conservation]], which is protecting an endangered species in its natural [[habitat (ecology)|habitat]], or [[ex-situ conservation]], which occurs outside the natural habitat.<ref name=":2">{{cite journal |last1=Kala |first1=Chandra Prakash |title=Medicinal plants conservation and enterprise development |journal=Medicinal Plants - International Journal of Phytomedicines and Related Industries |volume=1 |issue=2 |year=2009 |pages=79–95 |doi=10.5958/j.0975-4261.1.2.011 }}</ref> In-situ conservation involves protecting or restoring the habitat. Ex-situ conservation, on the other hand, involves protection outside of an organism's natural habitat, such as on reservations or in [[gene bank]]s, in circumstances where viable populations may not be present in the natural habitat.<ref name=":2" />
Also, non-interference may be used, which is termed a [[Environmentalism|preservationist]] method. Preservationists advocate for giving areas of nature and species a protected existence that halts interference from the humans.<ref name="Hunter96"/> In this regard, conservationists differ from preservationists in the social dimension, as conservation biology engages society and seeks equitable solutions for both society and ecosystems. Some preservationists emphasize the potential of biodiversity in a world without humans.
=== Ecological monitoring in conservation ===
Ecological monitoring is the systematic collection of data relevant to the [[ecology]] of a species or habitat at repeating intervals with defined methods.<ref name=":5">{{Cite book |last=Spellerberg |first=Ian F. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=68ap9hdp8D8C&pg=PR7 |title=Monitoring Ecological Change |date=2005-08-18 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-139-44547-4 |language=en}}</ref> Long-term monitoring for environmental and ecological metrics is an important part of any successful conservation initiative. Unfortunately, long-term data for many [[species]] and [[habitat]]s is not available in many cases.<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last1=Lindenmayer |first1=David B. |last2=Lavery |first2=Tyrone |last3=Scheele |first3=Ben C. |date=2022-12-01 |title=Why We Need to Invest in Large-Scale, Long-Term Monitoring Programs in Landscape Ecology and Conservation Biology |journal=Current Landscape Ecology Reports |language=en |volume=7 |issue=4 |pages=137–146 |doi=10.1007/s40823-022-00079-2 |s2cid=252889110 |issn=2364-494X|doi-access=free |hdl=1885/312385 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> A lack of historical data on species [[population]]s, habitats, and ecosystems means that any current or future conservation work will have to make assumptions to determine if the work is having any effect on the population or ecosystem health. Ecological monitoring can provide early warning signals of deleterious effects (from human activities or natural changes in an environment) on an ecosystem and its species.<ref name=":5" /> In order for signs of negative trends in [[ecosystem]] or species health to be detected, monitoring methods must be carried out at appropriate time intervals, and the metric must be able to capture the trend of the population or habitat as a whole.
Long-term monitoring can include the continued measuring of many biological, ecological, and environmental metrics including annual breeding success, population size estimates, water quality, [[biodiversity]] (which can be measured in many way, i.e. [[Diversity index|Shannon Index]]), and many other methods. When determining which metrics to monitor for a conservation project, it is important to understand how an ecosystem functions and what role different species and abiotic factors have within the system.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Rodríguez-González |first1=Patricia María |last2=Albuquerque |first2=António |last3=Martínez-Almarza |first3=Miguel |last4=Díaz-Delgado |first4=Ricardo |date=2017-11-01 |title=Long-term monitoring for conservation management: Lessons from a case study integrating remote sensing and field approaches in floodplain forests |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0301479717300853 |journal=Journal of Environmental Management |series=Piégay & Lamouroux "Enlarging spatial and temporal scales for biophysical diagnosis and sustainable river management" |language=en |volume=202 |issue=Pt 2 |pages=392–402 |doi=10.1016/j.jenvman.2017.01.067 |pmid=28190693 |issn=0301-4797}}</ref> It is important to have a precise reason for why ecological monitoring is implemented; within the context of conservation, this reasoning is often to track changes before, during, or after conservation measures are put in place to help a species or habitat recover from degradation and/or maintain integrity.<ref name=":5" />
Another benefit of ecological monitoring is the hard evidence it provides scientists to use for advising policy makers and funding bodies about conservation efforts. Not only is ecological monitoring data important for convincing politicians, funders, and the public why a conservation program is important to implement, but also to keep them convinced that a program should be continued to be supported.<ref name=":6" />
There is plenty of debate on how conservation resources can be used most efficiently; even within ecological monitoring, there is debate on which metrics that money, time and personnel should be dedicated to for the best chance of making a positive impact. One specific general discussion topic is whether monitoring should happen where there is little [[Human impact on the environment|human impact]] (to understand a system that has not been degraded by humans), where there is human impact (so the effects from humans can be investigated), or where there is data deserts and little is known about the habitats' and communities' response to human [[Disturbance (ecology)|perturbations]].<ref name=":5" />
The concept of [[bioindicator]]s / [[Bioindicator|indicator species]] can be applied to ecological monitoring as a way to investigate how [[pollution]] is affecting an ecosystem.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Burger |first=Joanna |date=July 2006 |title=Bioindicators: A Review of Their Use in the Environmental Literature 1970–2005 |url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/15555270600701540 |journal=Environmental Bioindicators |language=en |volume=1 |issue=2 |pages=136–144 |doi=10.1080/15555270600701540 |issn=1555-5275}}</ref> Species like [[amphibian]]s and [[bird]]s are highly susceptible to pollutants in their environment due to their behaviours and physiological features that cause them to absorb pollutants at a faster rate than other species. Amphibians spend parts of their time in the water and on land, making them susceptible to changes in both environments.<ref>Macdonald, N. (2002). [https://www.naturewatch.ca/wp-content/biguploads/senior_guide_712.pdf Frogwatch Teachers' guide to frogs as indicators of ecosystem health].</ref> They also have very permeable skin that allows them to breath and intake water, which means they also take any air or water-soluble pollutants in as well. Birds often cover a wide range in habitat types annually, and also generally revisit the same nesting site each year. This makes it easier for researchers to track ecological effects at both an individual and a population level for the species.<ref>Begazo, A. (2022). [https://avianreport.com/birds-as-indicators-of-ecosystem-health Birds as indicators of Ecosystem Health]. Retrieved December 14, 2022</ref>
Many conservation researchers believe that having a long-term ecological monitoring program should be a priority for conservation projects, protected areas, and regions where environmental harm mitigation is used.
=== Ethics and values ===
{{See also|Conservation (ethic)|Land ethic}}
Conservation biologists are [[interdisciplinary]] researchers that practice ethics in the biological and social sciences. Chan states<ref name="Chan08">{{cite journal |last1=Chan |first1=Kai M. A. |title=Value and Advocacy in Conservation Biology: Crisis Discipline or Discipline in Crisis? |journal=Conservation Biology |volume=22 |issue=1 |pages=1–3 |year=2008 |pmid=18254846 |doi=10.1111/j.1523-1739.2007.00869.x |doi-access=free }}</ref> that conservationists must advocate for biodiversity and can do so in a scientifically ethical manner by not promoting simultaneous advocacy against other competing values.
A conservationist may be inspired by the ''resource conservation ethic'',<ref name="Dyke08"/>{{rp|15}} which seeks to identify what measures will deliver "the greatest good for the greatest number of people for the longest time."<ref name="Hunter96" />{{Rp|13}} In contrast, some conservation biologists argue that nature has an [[Intrinsic value (ethics)|intrinsic value]] that is independent of [[anthropocentric]] usefulness or [[utilitarianism]].<ref name="Dyke08"/>{{rp|3,12,16–17}} [[Aldo Leopold]] was a classical thinker and writer on such conservation ethics whose philosophy, ethics and writings are still valued and revisited by modern conservation biologists.<ref name="Dyke08"/>{{rp|16–17}}
=== Conservation priorities ===
{{See also|Biodiversity#Benefits of biodiversity}}
[[File:BiomassCharts.jpg|thumb|upright=1.75|A pie chart image showing the relative biomass representation in a rain forest through a summary of children's perceptions from drawings and artwork (left), through a scientific estimate of actual biomass (middle), and by a measure of biodiversity (right). The biomass of social insects (middle) far outweighs the number of species (right).]]
The [[International Union for Conservation of Nature]] (IUCN) has organized a global assortment of scientists and research stations across the planet to monitor the changing state of nature in an effort to tackle the extinction crisis. The IUCN provides annual updates on the status of species conservation through its Red List.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.iucnredlist.org |title=The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species |access-date=2013-10-20 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140627094911/http://www.iucnredlist.org/ |archive-date=2014-06-27 }}</ref> The [[IUCN Red List]] serves as an international conservation tool to identify those species most in need of conservation attention and by providing a global index on the status of biodiversity.<ref name="Vié09">{{Cite book |editor-last1 =Vié |editor-first1 = J. C. |editor-last2 =Hilton-Taylor |editor-first2 =C. |editor-last3 =Stuart |editor-first3 = S.N. | year =2009 | title =Wildlife in a Changing World – An Analysis of the 2008 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species | location =Gland, Switzerland | publisher =IUCN | page =180 | url =http://data.iucn.org/dbtw-wpd/edocs/RL-2009-001.pdf | access-date =December 24, 2010 }}</ref> More than the dramatic rates of species loss, however, conservation scientists note that the [[sixth mass extinction]] is a biodiversity crisis requiring far more action than a priority focus on [[Rare species|rare]], [[Endemism|endemic]] or [[endangered species]]. Concerns for biodiversity loss covers a broader conservation mandate that looks at [[ecological processes]], such as migration, and a holistic examination of biodiversity at levels beyond the species, including genetic, population and ecosystem diversity.<ref name="Molnar04">{{Cite journal |last1 = Molnar |first1 = J. |last2 = Marvier |first2 = M. |last3 = Kareiva |first3 = P. |title = The sum is greater than the parts |journal = Conservation Biology |volume = 18 |issue = 6 |pages = 1670–1 |year = 2004 |doi = 10.1111/j.1523-1739.2004.00l07.x }}</ref> Extensive, systematic, and rapid rates of biodiversity loss threatens the sustained well-being of humanity by limiting supply of ecosystem services that are otherwise regenerated by the complex and evolving holistic network of genetic and ecosystem diversity. While the [[conservation status]] of species is employed extensively in conservation management,<ref name="Vié09" /> some scientists highlight that it is the common species that are the primary source of exploitation and habitat alteration by humanity. Moreover, common species are often undervalued despite their role as the primary source of ecosystem services.<ref name="Gaston10">{{cite journal | doi=10.1126/science.1182818 | last=Gaston | first=K.J. | title=Valuing common species | journal=Science | volume=327 | issue=5962 | pages=154–155 | year=2010 | pmid=20056880 |bibcode = 2010Sci...327..154G | s2cid=206523787 }}</ref><ref name="Kearns10">{{cite journal |last1=Kearns |first1=Carol Ann |year=2010 |title=Conservation of Biodiversity |journal=Nature Education Knowledge |volume=3 |issue=10 |page=7 |url=http://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/conservation-of-biodiversity-13235087 }}</ref>
While most in the community of conservation science "stress the importance" of [[sustainability|sustaining biodiversity]],<ref name="CREOcare">{{Cite web|title=Center for Biodiversity & Conservation | AMNH|url=https://www.amnh.org/research/center-for-biodiversity-conservation|access-date=2022-12-29|website=American Museum of Natural History|language=en-US}}</ref> there is debate on how to prioritize genes, species, or ecosystems, which are all components of biodiversity (e.g. Bowen, 1999). While the predominant approach to date has been to focus efforts on endangered species by conserving ''[[biodiversity hotspots]]'', some scientists (e.g)<ref name="Luck03">{{cite journal |last1=Luck |first1=Gary W. |last2=Daily |first2=Gretchen C. |last3=Ehrlich |first3=Paul R. |title=Population diversity and ecosystem services |journal=Trends in Ecology & Evolution |volume=18 |issue=7 |year=2003 |pages=331–6 |doi=10.1016/S0169-5347(03)00100-9 }}</ref> and conservation organizations, such as the [[Nature Conservancy]], argue that it is more cost-effective, logical, and socially relevant to invest in ''biodiversity coldspots''.<ref name="Conserving Biodiversity Coldspots">{{cite journal |last1=Kareiva |first1=Peter |last2=Marvier |first2=Michelle |title=Conserving Biodiversity Coldspots |journal=American Scientist |volume=91 |issue=4 |year=2003 |pages=344–51 |doi=10.1511/2003.4.344 }}</ref> The costs of discovering, naming, and mapping out the distribution of every species, they argue, is an ill-advised conservation venture. They reason it is better to understand the significance of the ecological roles of species.<ref name="Molnar04" />
Biodiversity hotspots and coldspots are a way of recognizing that the spatial concentration of genes, species, and ecosystems is not uniformly distributed on the Earth's surface. For example, "... 44% of all species of vascular plants and 35% of all species in four vertebrate groups are confined to 25 hotspots comprising only 1.4% of the land surface of the Earth."<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Myers |first1=Norman |last2=Mittermeier |first2=Russell A. |last3=Mittermeier |first3=Cristina G. |last4=da Fonseca |first4=Gustavo A. B. |last5=Kent |first5=Jennifer |title=Biodiversity hotspots for conservation priorities |journal=Nature |volume=403 |issue=6772 |pages=853–8 |year=2000 |pmid=10706275 |doi=10.1038/35002501 |bibcode=2000Natur.403..853M |s2cid=4414279 }}</ref>
Those arguing in favor of setting priorities for coldspots point out that there are other measures to consider beyond biodiversity. They point out that emphasizing hotspots downplays the importance of the social and ecological connections to vast areas of the Earth's ecosystems where [[biomass]], not biodiversity, reigns supreme.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors = Underwood EC, Shaw MR, Wilson KA |title=Protecting Biodiversity when Money Matters: Maximizing Return on Investment |journal=PLOS ONE |volume=3 |issue=1 |pages=e1515 |year=2008 |pmid=18231601 |pmc=2212107 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0001515 |bibcode = 2008PLoSO...3.1515U |editor1-last=Somers |editor1-first=Michael |display-authors=etal|doi-access=free }}</ref> It is estimated that 36% of the Earth's surface, encompassing 38.9% of the worlds vertebrates, lacks the endemic species to qualify as biodiversity hotspot.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Leroux SJ, Schmiegelow FK |title=Biodiversity concordance and the importance of endemism |journal=Conserv. Biol. |volume=21 |issue=1 |pages=266–8; discussion 269–70 |date=February 2007 |pmid=17298533 |doi=10.1111/j.1523-1739.2006.00628.x|s2cid=1394295 }}</ref> Moreover, measures show that maximizing protections for biodiversity does not capture ecosystem services any better than targeting randomly chosen regions.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Naidoo R, Balmford A, Costanza R |title=Global mapping of ecosystem services and conservation priorities |journal=Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. |volume=105 |issue=28 |pages=9495–500 |date=July 2008 |pmid=18621701 |pmc=2474481 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0707823105 |bibcode = 2008PNAS..105.9495N |display-authors=etal|doi-access=free }}</ref> Population level biodiversity (mostly in coldspots) are disappearing at a rate that is ten times that at the species level.<ref name="Luck03" /><ref name="Wood08" /> The level of importance in addressing biomass versus endemism as a concern for conservation biology is highlighted in literature measuring the level of threat to global ecosystem carbon stocks that do not necessarily reside in areas of endemism.<ref name="Running08" /><ref name="Kurz08" /> A hotspot priority approach<ref>The [http://web.conservation.org/xp/gcf Global Conservation Fund] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071116135224/http://web.conservation.org/xp/gcf |date=2007-11-16 }} is an example of funding organization that excludes biodiversity coldspots in its strategic campaign.</ref> would not invest so heavily in places such as [[steppe]]s, the [[Serengeti]], the [[Arctic]], or [[taiga]]. These areas contribute a great abundance of population (not species) level biodiversity<ref name="Wood08">{{cite journal |vauthors=Wood CC, Gross MR |title=Elemental conservation units: communicating extinction risk without dictating targets for protection |journal=Conserv. Biol. |volume=22 |issue=1 |pages=36–47 |date=February 2008 |pmid=18254851 |doi=10.1111/j.1523-1739.2007.00856.x |s2cid=23211536 |url=http://labs.eeb.utoronto.ca/gross/WoodandGross2008.pdf |access-date=2009-01-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181001072212/http://labs.eeb.utoronto.ca/gross/WoodandGross2008.pdf |archive-date=2018-10-01 |url-status=dead }}</ref> and [[ecosystem services]], including cultural value and planetary [[nutrient cycling]].<ref name="Conserving Biodiversity Coldspots"/>
[[File:Status iucn3.1.svg|thumb|Summary of 2006 [[IUCN Red List]] categories:
EX ([[Extinction|Extinct]]) — EW ([[Extinct in the Wild]]) — CR ([[Critically Endangered]]) — EN ([[Endangered species|Endangered]]) — VU ([[Vulnerable species|Vulnerable]]) — NT ([[Near-threatened species|Near Threatened]]) — LC ([[Least-concern species|Least Concern]]) ]]
Those in favor of the hotspot approach point out that species are irreplaceable components of the global ecosystem, they are concentrated in places that are most threatened, and should therefore receive maximal strategic protections.<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.biodiversityhotspots.org/Pages/default.aspx|title= The Biodiversity Hotspots|url-status= dead|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20081222043456/http://www.biodiversityhotspots.org/Pages/default.aspx|archive-date= 2008-12-22}}</ref> This is a hotspot approach because the priority is set to target species level concerns over population level or biomass.<ref name="Wood08" />{{failed verification|date=July 2012}} Species richness and genetic biodiversity contributes to and engenders ecosystem stability, ecosystem processes, evolutionary [[adaptation|adaptability]], and biomass.<ref>The following papers are examples of research showing the relationship between biodiversity, biomass, and ecosystem stability:<br />{{cite journal |last=Bowen |first=B. W. |date=December 1999 |title=Preserving genes, species, or ecosystems? Healing the fractured foundations of conservation policy |journal=[[Molecular Ecology]] |volume=8 |issue=12 Suppl 1 |pages=S5–10 |doi=10.1046/j.1365-294X.1999.00798.x |pmid=10703547 |s2cid=33096004 |url=http://nature.berkeley.edu/genomicswg/EE_twentyeight.pdf}}<br />{{cite journal |vauthors=Cardinale BJ, Wright JP, Cadotte MW |title=Impacts of plant diversity on biomass production increase through time because of species complementarity |journal=Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. |volume=104 |issue=46 |pages=18123–8 |date=November 2007 |pmid=17991772 |pmc=2084307 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0709069104 |bibcode = 2007PNAS..10418123C |display-authors=etal|doi-access=free }}</ref> Both sides agree, however, that conserving biodiversity is necessary to reduce the extinction rate and identify an inherent value in nature; the debate hinges on how to prioritize limited conservation resources in the most cost-effective way.
=== Economic values and natural capital ===
[[File:Libya 4985 Tadrart Acacus Luca Galuzzi 2007.jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|[[Tadrart Acacus]] desert in western [[Libya]], part of the [[Sahara]] ]]
{{See also|Ecosystem services|Biodiversity<!--#Human benefits-->}}
Conservation biologists have started to collaborate with leading global [[economist]]s to determine how to measure the [[wealth]] and [[Service (economics)|services]] of nature and to make these values apparent in [[International finance|global market transactions]].<ref name="EC08">{{cite book |author=European Communities |title=The economics of ecosystems and biodiversity. Interim Report |publisher=Welzel+Hardt |location=Wesseling, Germany |year=2008 |isbn=978-92-79-08960-2 |url=http://ec.europa.eu/environment/nature/biodiversity/economics/pdf/teeb_report.pdf }}</ref> This system of accounting is called ''[[natural capital]]'' and would, for example, register the value of an ecosystem before it is cleared to make way for development.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Gund Institute for Environment|url=https://www.uvm.edu/gund|access-date=2022-12-29|website=www.uvm.edu|language=en}}</ref> The [[World Wide Fund For Nature|WWF]] publishes its ''[[Living Planet Report]]'' and provides a global index of biodiversity by monitoring approximately 5,000 populations in 1,686 species of vertebrate (mammals, birds, fish, reptiles, and amphibians) and report on the trends in much the same way that the stock market is tracked.<ref name="LLP08" />
This method of measuring the global economic benefit of nature has been endorsed by the [[G8+5]] leaders and the [[European Commission]].<ref name="EC08"/> Nature sustains many [[ecosystem services]]<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.actionbioscience.org/environment/esa.html|title= From the Ecological Society of America (ESA)|access-date= 2008-12-30|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20100726162725/http://www.actionbioscience.org/environment/esa.html|archive-date= 2010-07-26|url-status= dead}}</ref> that benefit humanity.<ref name="MEA08">Millennium Ecosystem Assessment. (2005). [http://www.millenniumassessment.org/documents/document.354.aspx.pdf Ecosystems and Human Well-being: Biodiversity Synthesis]. World Resources Institute, Washington, DC.</ref> Many of the Earth's ecosystem services are [[public goods]] without a [[Market (economics)|market]] and therefore no [[price]] or [[value (economics)|value]].<ref name="EC08" /> When the ''stock market'' registers a financial crisis, traders on [[Wall Street]] are not in the business of trading stocks for much of the planet's living natural capital stored in ecosystems. There is no natural stock market with investment portfolios into sea horses, amphibians, insects, and other creatures that provide a sustainable supply of ecosystem services that are valuable to society.<ref name="MEA08" /> The ecological footprint of society has exceeded the bio-regenerative capacity limits of the planet's ecosystems by about 30 percent, which is the same percentage of vertebrate populations that have registered decline from 1970 through 2005.<ref name="LLP08">{{cite web | last = WWF | title = World Wildlife Fund | url = http://assets.wwf.ca/downloads/lpr_2008.pdf | access-date = January 8, 2009 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090225013400/http://assets.wwf.ca/downloads/lpr_2008.pdf | archive-date = February 25, 2009 | url-status = dead }}</ref>
{{quote box
|The ecological credit crunch is a global challenge. The ''Living Planet Report 2008'' tells us that more than three-quarters of the world's people live in nations that are ecological debtors – their national consumption has outstripped their country's biocapacity. Thus, most of us are propping up our current lifestyles, and our economic growth, by drawing (and increasingly overdrawing) upon the ecological capital of other parts of the world.
| WWF Living Planet Report<ref name="LLP08" />
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The inherent [[natural economy]] plays an essential role in sustaining humanity,<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.millenniumassessment.org/ |title=Millennium Ecosystem Assessment |access-date=2008-12-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081219235544/http://www.millenniumassessment.org/ |archive-date=2008-12-19 |url-status=dead }}</ref> including the regulation of global [[atmospheric chemistry]], [[Pollination management|pollinating crops]], [[pest control]],<ref>{{cite news| url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/7796138.stm | work=BBC News | title=Bees get plants' pests in a flap | date=2008-12-22 | access-date=2010-04-01 | first=Richard | last=Black}}</ref> [[Soil ecology|cycling soil nutrients]], purifying our [[water supply]],<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Hermoso|first1=Virgilio|last2=Abell|first2=R|last3=Linke|first3=S|last4=Boon|first4=P|title=The role of protected areas for freshwater biodiversity conservation: challenges and opportunities in a rapidly changing world.|journal=Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems|year=2016|volume=26|issue=S1|pages=3–11|doi=10.1002/aqc.2681|s2cid=88786689 }}</ref> supplying medicines and health benefits,<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Mitchell R, Popham F |title=Effect of exposure to natural environment on health inequalities: an observational population study |journal=Lancet |volume=372 |issue=9650 |pages=1655–60 |date=November 2008 |pmid=18994663 |doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(08)61689-X |s2cid=37232884 |url=http://eprints.gla.ac.uk/4767/1/4767.pdf }}</ref> and unquantifiable quality of life improvements. There is a relationship, a [[correlation]], between markets and [[natural capital]], and [[Social inequity aversion|social income inequity]] and biodiversity loss. This means that there are greater rates of biodiversity loss in places where the inequity of wealth is greatest<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors = Mikkelson GM, Gonzalez A, Peterson GD |title=Economic Inequality Predicts Biodiversity Loss |journal=PLOS ONE |volume=2 |issue=5 |pages=e444 |year=2007 |pmid=17505535 |pmc=1864998 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0000444 |bibcode = 2007PLoSO...2..444M |editor1-last=Chave |editor1-first=Jerome |doi-access=free }}</ref>
Although a direct market comparison of [[natural capital]] is likely insufficient in terms of [[human value]], one measure of ecosystem services suggests the contribution amounts to trillions of dollars yearly.<ref>Staff of World Resources Program. (1998). [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/feature/eco_fea_value.pdf ''Valuing Ecosystem Services''] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081130114053/http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/feature/eco_fea_value.pdf |date=2008-11-30 }}. World Resources 1998-99.</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Perspectives on biodiversity: valuing its role in an everchanging world |publisher=National Academy Press |location=Washington, D.C |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-309-06581-8 |url=http://books.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_id=9589&page=114 |vauthors = ((Committee on Noneconomic and Economic Value of Biodiversity)),((Board on Biology, Commission on Life Sciences)), ((National Research Council))|doi=10.17226/9589 |pmid=25077215 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.ecotrust.org/press/katoomba_backgrounder.html|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070505071048/http://ecotrust.org/press/katoomba_backgrounder.html|url-status=dead|title=Valuation of Ecosystem services : A Backgrounder|archivedate=May 5, 2007}}</ref><ref>[http://essp.csumb.edu/esse/ Ecosystem Services: Estimated value in trillions] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070407114751/http://essp.csumb.edu/esse/ |date=2007-04-07 }}</ref> For example, one segment of [[North America]]n forests has been assigned an annual value of 250 billion dollars;<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.eurekalert.org/news-releases/642234|title=Carbon capture, water filtration, other boreal forest ecoservices worth estimated $250 billion/year|website=EurekAlert!}}</ref> as another example, [[honey bee]] pollination is estimated to provide between 10 and 18 billion dollars of value yearly.<ref>[http://apis.ifas.ufl.edu/apis92/apnov92.htm APIS, Volume 10, Number 11, November 1992, M.T. Sanford: Estimated value of honey bee pollination] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070202162316/http://apis.ifas.ufl.edu/apis92/apnov92.htm |date=2007-02-02 }}</ref> The value of ecosystem services on one [[New Zealand]] island has been imputed to be as great as the [[GDP]] of that region.<ref>{{Cite web|title=The Hidden Economy|url=http://www.waikatoregion.govt.nz/environmental-information/About-the-Waikato-region/Our-economy/The-hidden-economy/|access-date=2022-12-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110719234229/http://www.waikatoregion.govt.nz/environmental-information/About-the-Waikato-region/Our-economy/The-hidden-economy/|archive-date=2011-07-19|website=www.waikatoregion.govt.nz}}</ref> This planetary wealth is being lost at an incredible rate as the demands of human society is exceeding the bio-regenerative capacity of the Earth. While biodiversity and ecosystems are resilient, the danger of losing them is that humans cannot recreate many ecosystem functions through [[technological innovation]].
{{Clear}}
=== Strategic species concepts ===
==== Keystone species ====
{{Main|Keystone species}}
Some species, called a ''keystone species'' form a central supporting hub unique to their ecosystem.<ref name="Society">{{Cite news|url=https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/keystone-species/ |title= Keystone Species|last=|date=October 19, 2023|newspaper=National Geographic Society|access-date=}}</ref> The loss of such a species results in a collapse in ecosystem function, as well as the loss of coexisting species.<ref name="Hunter96"/> Keystone species are usually predators due to their ability to control the population of prey in their ecosystem.<ref name="Society"/> The importance of a keystone species was shown by the extinction of the [[Steller's sea cow]] (''Hydrodamalis gigas'') through its interaction with [[sea otter]]s, [[sea urchin]]s, and [[kelp]]. [[Kelp bed]]s grow and form nurseries in shallow waters to shelter creatures that support the [[food chain]]. Sea urchins feed on kelp, while sea otters feed on sea urchins. With the rapid decline of sea otters due to [[overhunting]], sea urchin populations [[urchin barren|grazed unrestricted]] on the kelp beds and the [[ecosystem collapse]]d. Left unchecked, the urchins destroyed the shallow water kelp communities that supported the Steller's sea cow's diet and hastened their demise.<ref>P. K. Anderson. (1996). Competition, predation, and the evolution and extinction of Steller's Sea Cow, ''Hydrodamalis gigas''. Marine Mammal Science, 11(3):391-394</ref> The sea otter was thought to be a keystone species because the coexistence of many ecological associates in the kelp beds relied upon otters for their survival. However this was later questioned by Turvey and Risley,<ref name=pmid17148336>{{cite journal |last1=Turvey |first1=S.T |last2=Risley |first2=C.L |title=Modelling the extinction of Steller's sea cow |journal=Biology Letters |volume=2 |issue=1 |pages=94–7 |year=2006 |pmid=17148336 |pmc=1617197 |doi=10.1098/rsbl.2005.0415 }}</ref> who showed that hunting alone would have driven the Steller's sea cow extinct.
==== Indicator species ====
{{Main|Indicator species}}
An ''indicator species'' has a narrow set of ecological requirements, therefore they become useful targets for observing the health of an ecosystem. Some animals, such as [[amphibian]]s with their semi-permeable skin and linkages to [[wetland]]s, have an acute sensitivity to environmental harm and thus may serve as a ''[[miner's canary]]''. Indicator species are monitored in an effort to capture [[environmental degradation]] through pollution or some other link to proximate human activities.<ref name="Hunter96"/> Monitoring an indicator species is a measure to determine if there is a significant environmental impact that can serve to advise or modify practice, such as through different forest [[silviculture]] treatments and management scenarios, or to measure the degree of harm that a [[pesticide]] may impart on the health of an ecosystem.
Government regulators, consultants, or [[NGO]]s regularly monitor indicator species, however, there are limitations coupled with many practical considerations that must be followed for the approach to be effective.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Landres PB, Verner J, Thomas JW |title=Ecological Uses of Vertebrate Indicator Species: A Critique |journal=Conserv. Biol. |volume=2 |issue=4 |pages=316–28 |year=1988 |url=http://www.fs.fed.us/emc/nfma/includes/2007_rule/1988_12_Landres%20et%20al%201988.pdf |doi=10.1111/j.1523-1739.1988.tb00195.x}}</ref> It is generally recommended that multiple indicators (genes, populations, species, communities, and landscape) be monitored for effective conservation measurement that prevents harm to the complex, and often unpredictable, response from ecosystem dynamics (Noss, 1997<ref name="Meffe97">{{cite book |author1=Carroll, C. Dennis |author2=Meffe, Gary K. |title=Principles of conservation biology |publisher=Sinauer |location=Sunderland, Mass |year=1997 |isbn=978-0-87893-521-5 |url=https://archive.org/details/principlesofcons00meff }}</ref>{{Rp|88–89}}).
==== Umbrella and flagship species ====
{{Main|Umbrella species|Flagship species}}
An example of an ''umbrella species'' is the [[monarch (butterfly)|monarch butterfly]], because of its lengthy [[Insect migration|migrations]] and [[Aesthetics|aesthetic]] value. The monarch migrates across North America, covering multiple ecosystems and so requires a large area to exist. Any protections afforded to the monarch butterfly will at the same time umbrella many other species and habitats. An umbrella species is often used as ''flagship species'', which are species, such as the [[giant panda]], the [[blue whale]], the [[tiger]], the [[mountain gorilla]] and the monarch butterfly, that capture the public's attention and attract support for conservation measures.<ref name="Hunter96"/> Paradoxically, however, conservation bias towards flagship species sometimes threatens other species of chief concern.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Fedriani | first1 = JM | last2 = García | first2 = L | last3 = Sanchéz | first3 = M | last4 = Calderon | first4 = J | last5 = Ramo | first5 = C | year = 2017 | title = Long-term impact of protected colonial birds on a jeopardized cork oak population: conservation bias leads to restoration failure | journal = Journal of Applied Ecology | volume = 54 | issue = 2| pages = 450–458 | doi = 10.1111/1365-2664.12672 | hdl = 10261/135920 | hdl-access = free }}</ref>
{{Clear}}
== Context and trends ==
Conservation biologists study trends and process from the [[paleontological]] past to the [[ecological]] present as they gain an understanding of the context related to [[species extinction]].<ref name="SahneyBenton2008RecoveryFromProfoundExtinction"/> It is generally accepted that there have been five major global mass extinctions that register in Earth's history. These include: the [[Ordovician–Silurian extinction event|Ordovician]] (440 [[mya (unit)|mya]]), [[Late Devonian extinction|Devonian]] (370 mya), [[Permian–Triassic extinction event|Permian–Triassic]] (245 mya), [[Triassic–Jurassic extinction event|Triassic–Jurassic]] (200 mya), and [[Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event]] (66 mya) extinction spasms. Within the last 10,000 years, human influence over the Earth's ecosystems has been so extensive that scientists have difficulty estimating the number of species lost;<ref name="Ehrlich">{{cite book |author1=Ehrlich, Anne H. |author2=Ehrlich, Paul R. |title=Extinction: the causes and consequences of the disappearance of species |publisher=Random House |location=New York |year=1981 |isbn=978-0-394-51312-6 }}{{page needed|date=October 2016}}</ref> that is to say the rates of [[deforestation]], [[Coral reef destruction|reef destruction]], [[Threats to wetlands|wetland draining]] and other human acts are proceeding much faster than human assessment of species. The latest ''[[Living Planet Report]]'' by the [[World Wide Fund for Nature]] estimates that we have exceeded the bio-regenerative capacity of the planet, requiring 1.6 Earths to support the demands placed on our natural resources.<ref name="WWFLPR">{{cite book |author=WWF |title=Living Planet Report 2016. Risk and resilience in a new era |url=http://awsassets.panda.org/downloads/lpr_living_planet_report_2016.pdf |year=2016 |publisher=WWF International|location=Gland, Switzerland|page=39 |isbn=978-2-940529-40-7|author-link=World Wildlife Fund }}</ref>
=== Holocene extinction ===
{{Main|Holocene extinction}}
[[File:ChildrenPerceptionBiomass.jpg|thumb|An art scape image showing the relative importance of animals in a rain forest through a summary of (a) child's perception compared with (b) a scientific estimate of the importance. The size of the animal represents its importance. The child's mental image places importance on big cats, birds, butterflies, and then reptiles versus the actual dominance of social insects (such as ants).]]
Conservation biologists are dealing with and have published [[evidence]] from all corners of the planet indicating that humanity may be causing the sixth and fastest planetary [[extinction event]].<ref name="Wake08" /><ref>http://www.millenniumassessment.org{{full citation needed|date=October 2016}}{{Dead link|date=February 2020 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=National Survey Reveals Biodiversity Crisis – Scientific Experts Believe We Are In Midst of Fastest Mass Extinction in Earth's History |url=http://www.amnh.org/museum/press/feature/biofact.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070607101209/http://www.amnh.org/museum/press/feature/biofact.html |archive-date=2007-06-07 |access-date=2022-12-29}}</ref> It has been suggested that an unprecedented number of species is becoming extinct in what is known as the [[Holocene extinction event]].<ref>{{cite book |author1=May, Robert Lewis |author2=Lawton, John |title=Extinction rates |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford [Oxfordshire] |year=1995 |isbn=978-0-19-854829-4 |url=https://archive.org/details/extinctionrates00lawt }}</ref> The global extinction rate may be approximately 1,000 times higher than the natural background extinction rate.<ref name="Dell'Amore">{{cite web|last1=Dell'Amore|first1=Christine|title=Species Extinction Happening 1,000 Times Faster Because of Humans?|url=http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2014/05/140529-conservation-science-animals-species-endangered-extinction/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140531233644/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2014/05/140529-conservation-science-animals-species-endangered-extinction|url-status=dead|archive-date=May 31, 2014|work=National Geographic|access-date=11 October 2016|date=30 May 2014}}</ref> It is estimated that two-thirds of all [[mammal]] [[genera]] and one-half of all mammal [[species]] weighing at least {{Convert|44|kg|lb}} have gone extinct in the last 50,000 years.<ref name=pmid17148336/><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Avise |first1=J. C. |last2=Hubbell |first2=S. P. |last3=Ayala |first3=F. J. |title=In the light of evolution II: Biodiversity and extinction |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume=105 |pages=11453–7 |year=2008 |issue=Suppl 1 |pmid=18695213 |pmc=2556414 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0802504105 |bibcode=2008PNAS..10511453A |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/7808171.stm |first1=Molly |last1=Bentley |date=January 2, 2009 |title=Diamond clues to beasts' demise |work=BBC News}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kennett |first1=D. J. |last2=Kennett |first2=J. P. |last3=West |first3=A. |last4=Mercer |first4=C. |last5=Hee |first5=S. S. Q. |last6=Bement |first6=L. |last7=Bunch |first7=T. E. |last8=Sellers |first8=M. |last9=Wolbach |first9=W. S. |title=Nanodiamonds in the Younger Dryas Boundary Sediment Layer |journal=Science |volume=323 |issue=5910 |page=94 |year=2009 |pmid=19119227 |doi=10.1126/science.1162819 |bibcode=2009Sci...323...94K |s2cid=206514910 |url=http://doc.rero.ch/record/16088/files/PAL_E3879.pdf }}</ref> The Global Amphibian Assessment<ref>{{cite web |title=An Analysis of Amphibians on the 2008 IUCN Red List. Summary of Key Findings |url=http://www.iucnredlist.org/amphibians/key_findings |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090706112056/http://www.iucnredlist.org/amphibians/key_findings |archive-date=2009-07-06 |work=Global Amphibian Assessment
|publisher=IUCN }}</ref> reports that [[Decline in amphibian populations|amphibians are declining]] on a global scale faster than any other [[vertebrate]] group, with over 32% of all surviving species being threatened with extinction. The surviving populations are in continual decline in 43% of those that are threatened. Since the mid-1980s the actual rates of extinction have exceeded 211 times rates measured from the [[fossil record]].<ref name="McCallum07">{{cite journal |last1=McCallum |first1=Malcolm L. |title=Amphibian Decline or Extinction? Current Declines Dwarf Background Extinction Rate |journal=Journal of Herpetology |volume=41 |issue=3 |year=2007 |pages=483–91 |jstor=4498614 |doi=10.1670/0022-1511(2007)41[483:ADOECD]2.0.CO;2 |s2cid=30162903 }}</ref> However, "The current amphibian extinction rate may range from 25,039 to 45,474 times the background extinction rate for amphibians."<ref name="McCallum07" /> The global extinction trend occurs in every major [[vertebrate]] group that is being monitored. For example, 23% of all [[mammals]] and 12% of all [[bird]]s are [[IUCN Red List|Red Listed]] by the [[International Union for Conservation of Nature]] (IUCN), meaning they too are threatened with extinction. Even though extinction is natural, the decline in species is happening at such an incredible rate that evolution can simply not match, therefore, leading to the greatest continual mass extinction on Earth.<ref name="Vince">{{cite web|last1=Vince|first1=Gaia|title=A looming mass extinction caused by humans|url=http://www.bbc.com/future/story/20121101-a-looming-mass-extinction|publisher=BBC|access-date=11 October 2016}}</ref> Humans have dominated the planet and our high consumption of resources, along with the pollution generated is affecting the environments in which other species live.<ref name="Vince"/><ref name="Tate">{{cite web|last1=Tate|first1=Karl|title=The New Dying: How Human-Caused Extinction Affects the Planet (Infographic)|url=http://www.livescience.com/51280-the-new-dying-how-human-caused-extinction-affects-the-planet-infographic.html|website=Live Science|date=19 June 2015|access-date=11 October 2016}}</ref> There are a wide variety of species that humans are working to protect such as the Hawaiian Crow and the Whooping Crane of Texas.<ref name="Worrall">{{cite web|last1=Worrall|first1=Simon|title=How the Current Mass Extinction of Animals Threatens Humans|url=http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2014/08/140820-extinction-crows-penguins-dinosaurs-asteroid-sydney-booktalk/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140823170945/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2014/08/140820-extinction-crows-penguins-dinosaurs-asteroid-sydney-booktalk/|url-status=dead|archive-date=August 23, 2014|work=National Geographic|access-date=11 October 2016|date=20 August 2016}}</ref> People can also take action on preserving species by advocating and voting for global and national policies that improve climate, under the concepts of [[climate mitigation]] and [[climate restoration]]. The Earth's oceans demand particular attention as climate change continues to alter pH levels, making it uninhabitable for organisms with shells which dissolve as a result.<ref name="Dell'Amore"/>
=== Status of oceans and reefs ===
{{See also|Coral reef|Marine pollution|Marine conservation|Human impact on marine life}}
Global assessments of coral reefs of the world continue to report drastic and rapid rates of decline. By 2000, 27% of the world's coral reef ecosystems had effectively collapsed. The largest period of decline occurred in a dramatic "bleaching" event in 1998, where approximately 16% of all the coral reefs in the world disappeared in less than a year. ''[[Coral bleaching]]'' is caused by a mixture of [[environmental stress]]es, including increases in ocean temperatures and [[Ocean acidification|acidity]], causing both the release of [[symbiotic]] [[algae]] and death of corals.<ref name="ausSOE01">{{cite book |title=Australia state of the environment 2001: independent report to the Commonwealth Minister for the Environment and Heritage |publisher=CSIRO Publishing |location=Collingwood, VIC, Australia |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-643-06745-5 |url=http://www.environment.gov.au/soe/2001/publications/report/pubs/part03b.pdf |author=Australian State of the Environment Committee.}}</ref> Decline and extinction risk in coral reef biodiversity has risen dramatically in the past ten years. The loss of coral reefs, which are predicted to go extinct in the next century, threatens the balance of global biodiversity, will have huge economic impacts, and endangers food security for hundreds of millions of people.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Carpenter |first1=K. E. |last2=Abrar |first2=M. |last3=Aeby |first3=G. |last4=Aronson |first4=R. B. |last5=Banks |first5=S. |last6=Bruckner |first6=A. |last7=Chiriboga |first7=A. |last8=Cortes |first8=J. |last9=Delbeek |first9=J. C. |last10=DeVantier |first10=L. |last11=Edgar |first11=G. J. |last12=Edwards |first12=A. J. |last13=Fenner |first13=D. |last14=Guzman |first14=H. M. |last15=Hoeksema |first15=B. W. |last16=Hodgson |first16=G. |last17=Johan |first17=O. |last18=Licuanan |first18=W. Y. |last19=Livingstone |first19=S. R. |last20=Lovell |first20=E. R. |last21=Moore |first21=J. A. |last22=Obura |first22=D. O. |last23=Ochavillo |first23=D. |last24=Polidoro |first24=B. A. |last25=Precht |first25=W. F. |last26=Quibilan |first26=M. C. |last27=Reboton |first27=C. |last28=Richards |first28=Z. T. |last29=Rogers |first29=A. D. |last30=Sanciangco |first30=J. |last31=Sheppard |first31=A. |last32=Sheppard |first32=C. |last33=Smith |first33=J. |last34=Stuart |first34=S. |last35=Turak |first35=E. |last36=Veron |first36=J. E. N. |last37=Wallace |first37=C. |last38=Weil |first38=E. |last39=Wood |first39=E. |title=One-Third of Reef-Building Corals Face Elevated Extinction Risk from Climate Change and Local Impacts |journal=Science |volume=321 |issue=5888 |pages=560–3 |year=2008 |pmid=18653892 |doi=10.1126/science.1159196 |bibcode=2008Sci...321..560C |s2cid=206513451 }}</ref> Conservation biology plays an important role in international agreements covering the world's oceans<ref name="ausSOE01" /> (and other issues pertaining to [[biodiversity]]<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://laws.justice.gc.ca/en/showdoc/cs/M-7.01///en?page=1 |title=Archived copy |access-date=2009-01-05 |archive-date=2011-06-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110605063047/http://laws.justice.gc.ca/en/showdoc/cs/M-7.01///en?page=1 |url-status=dead }}{{full citation needed|date=October 2016}}</ref>).
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| quote = These predictions will undoubtedly appear extreme, but it is difficult to imagine how such changes will not come to pass without fundamental changes in human behavior.
| source = J.B. Jackson<ref name="Jackson"/>{{Rp|11463}}
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The oceans are threatened by acidification due to an increase in CO<sub>2</sub> levels. This is a most serious threat to societies relying heavily upon oceanic [[natural resource]]s. A concern is that the majority of all [[Marine (ocean)|marine]] species will not be able to [[Evolution|evolve]] or [[acclimate]] in response to the changes in the ocean chemistry.<ref>The Royal Society. 2005. Ocean acidification due to increasing atmospheric carbon dioxide. Policy document 12/05. {{ISBN|0-85403-617-2}} [http://royalsociety.org/displaypagedoc.asp?id=13539 Download]</ref>
The prospects of averting mass extinction seems unlikely when "90% of all of the large (average approximately ≥50 kg), open ocean tuna, billfishes, and sharks in the ocean"<ref name="Jackson" /> are reportedly gone. Given the scientific review of current trends, the ocean is predicted to have few surviving [[multi-cellular organism]]s with only [[microbes]] left to dominate [[marine ecosystem]]s.<ref name="Jackson" />
=== Groups other than vertebrates ===
Serious concerns also being raised about [[Taxonomic rank|taxonomic groups]] that do not receive the same degree of social attention or attract funds as the vertebrates. These include [[fungus|fungal]] (including [[lichen]]-forming species),<ref name="fungal-conservation">{{cite web|url=http://www.fungal-conservation.org/blogs/orphans-of-rio.pdf |title=Orphans of Rio |publisher=fungal-conservation.org |access-date=2011-07-09}}</ref> invertebrate (particularly [[insect]]<ref name="Koh"/><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Thomas |first1=JA |last2=Telfer |first2=MG |last3=Roy |first3=DB |last4=Preston |first4=CD |last5=Greenwood |first5=JJ |last6=Asher |first6=J |last7=Fox |first7=R |last8=Clarke |first8=RT |last9=Lawton |first9=JH |title=Comparative Losses of British Butterflies, Birds, and Plants and the Global Extinction Crisis |journal=Science |volume=303 |issue=5665 |pages=1879–81 |year=2004 |pmid=15031508 |doi=10.1126/science.1095046 |bibcode=2004Sci...303.1879T |s2cid=22863854 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Dunn |first1=Robert R. |title=Modern Insect Extinctions, the Neglected Majority |journal=Conservation Biology |volume=19 |issue=4 |year=2005 |pages=1030–6 |doi=10.1111/j.1523-1739.2005.00078.x |s2cid=38218672 }}</ref>) and [[plant]] [[Community (ecology)|communities]]<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Mustajärvi |first1=Kaisa |last2=Siikamäki |first2=Pirkko |last3=Rytkönen |first3=Saara |last4=Lammi |first4=Antti |date=2001 |title=Consequences of plant population size and density for plant-pollinator interactions and plant performance: Plant-pollinator interactions |journal=Journal of Ecology |language=en |volume=89 |issue=1 |pages=80–87 |doi=10.1046/j.1365-2745.2001.00521.x|s2cid=84923092 |doi-access=free }}</ref> where the vast majority of biodiversity is represented. Conservation of fungi and conservation of insects, in particular, are both of pivotal importance for conservation biology. As mycorrhizal symbionts, and as decomposers and recyclers, fungi are essential for sustainability of forests.<ref name="fungal-conservation" /> The value of insects in the [[biosphere]] is enormous because they outnumber all other living groups in measure of [[species richness]]. The greatest bulk of [[biomass]] on land is found in plants, which is sustained by insect relations. This great ecological value of insects is countered by a society that often reacts negatively toward these aesthetically 'unpleasant' creatures.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wilson |first1=Edward O. |title=The Little Things That Run the world (The Importance and Conservation of Invertebrates) |journal=Conservation Biology |volume=1 |issue=4 |year=1987 |pages=344–6 |jstor=2386020 |doi=10.1111/j.1523-1739.1987.tb00055.x }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Samways |first1=Michael J. |title=Insects in biodiversity conservation: some perspectives and directives |journal=Biodiversity and Conservation |volume=2 |issue=3 |year=1993 |pages=258–82 |doi=10.1007/BF00056672 |s2cid=43987366 }}</ref>
One area of concern in the insect world that has caught the public eye is the mysterious case of missing [[honey bee]]s (''Apis mellifera''). Honey bees provide an indispensable ecological services through their acts of pollination supporting a huge variety of agriculture crops. The use of honey and wax have become vastly used throughout the world.<ref>Society, National Geographic. "Honeybee." National Geographic. National Geographic, n.d. Web. 11 October 2016.</ref> The sudden disappearance of bees leaving empty hives or [[colony collapse disorder]] (CCD) is not uncommon. However, in 16-month period from 2006 through 2007, 29% of 577 [[beekeeper]]s across the United States reported CCD losses in up to 76% of their colonies. This sudden demographic loss in bee numbers is placing a strain on the agricultural sector. The cause behind the massive declines is puzzling scientists. [[Pest (organism)|Pests]], [[pesticide]]s, and [[global warming]] are all being considered as possible causes.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Holden |first1=C. |title=Ecology: Report Warns of Looming Pollination Crisis in North America |journal=Science |volume=314 |issue=5798 |page=397 |year=2006 |pmid=17053115 |doi=10.1126/science.314.5798.397 |s2cid=30877553 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Stokstad |first1=E. |title=Entomology: The Case of the Empty Hives |journal=Science |volume=316 |issue=5827 |pages=970–2 |year=2007 |pmid=17510336 |doi=10.1126/science.316.5827.970 |s2cid=170560082 }}</ref>
Another highlight that links conservation biology to insects, forests, and climate change is the [[mountain pine beetle]] (''Dendroctonus ponderosae'') [[epidemic]] of [[British Columbia]], Canada, which has infested {{convert|470000|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}} of forested land since 1999.<ref name="Running08">{{cite journal |last1=Running |first1=S. W. |title=Climate Change: Ecosystem Disturbance, Carbon, and Climate |journal=Science |volume=321 |issue=5889 |pages=652–3 |year=2008 |pmid=18669853 |doi=10.1126/science.1159607 |s2cid=206513681 }}</ref> An action plan has been prepared by the Government of British Columbia to address this problem.<ref>{{cite web |title=British Columbia's Mountain Pine Beetle Action Plan 2006-2011 |url=http://www.for.gov.bc.ca/hfp/mountain_pine_beetle/actionplan/2006/Beetle_Action_Plan.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130419001655/https://www.for.gov.bc.ca/hfp/mountain_pine_beetle/actionplan/2006/Beetle_Action_Plan.pdf |archive-date=2013-04-19 |work=Province of British Columbia}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Mountain pine beetle |url=https://www2.gov.bc.ca/gov/content/industry/forestry/managing-our-forest-resources/forest-health/forest-pests/bark-beetles/mountain-pine-beetle |work=Province of British Columbia |date=January 26, 2024 |url-status=live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20221213155346/https://www2.gov.bc.ca/gov/content/industry/forestry/managing-our-forest-resources/forest-health/forest-pests/bark-beetles/mountain-pine-beetle |archive-date= Dec 13, 2022 }}</ref>
{{Blockquote|This impact [''pine beetle epidemic''] converted the forest from a small net [[carbon sink]] to a large net carbon source both during and immediately after the outbreak. In the worst year, the impacts resulting from the beetle outbreak in British Columbia were equivalent to 75% of the average annual direct forest fire emissions from all of Canada during 1959–1999.|Kurz ''et al''.<ref name="Kurz08">{{cite journal |last1=Kurz |first1=W. A. |last2=Dymond |first2=C. C. |last3=Stinson |first3=G. |last4=Rampley |first4=G. J. |last5=Neilson |first5=E. T. |last6=Carroll |first6=A. L. |last7=Ebata |first7=T. |last8=Safranyik |first8=L. |title=Mountain pine beetle and forest carbon feedback to climate change |journal=Nature |volume=452 |issue=7190 |pages=987–90 |year=2008 |pmid=18432244 |doi=10.1038/nature06777 |bibcode=2008Natur.452..987K |s2cid=205212545 }}</ref>}}
=== Conservation biology of parasites ===
{{Main|Conservation biology of parasites}}
A large proportion of parasite species are threatened by extinction. A few of them are being eradicated as pests of humans or domestic animals; however, most of them are harmless. Parasites also make up a significant amount of global biodiversity, given that they make up a large proportion of all species on earth,<ref name="Kwak 108696">{{Cite journal |last1=Kwak |first1=Mackenzie L. |last2=Heath |first2=Allen C. G. |last3=Cardoso |first3=Pedro |date=2020-08-01 |title=Methods for the assessment and conservation of threatened animal parasites |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0006320720307540 |journal=Biological Conservation |language=en |volume=248 |pages=108696 |doi=10.1016/j.biocon.2020.108696 |s2cid=225517357 |issn=0006-3207}}</ref> making them of increasingly prevalent conservation interest. Threats include the decline or fragmentation of host populations, or the extinction of host species. Parasites are intricately woven into ecosystems and food webs, thereby occupying valuable roles in ecosystem structure and function.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Carlson |first1=Colin J. |last2=Hopkins |first2=Skylar |last3=Bell |first3=Kayce C. |last4=Doña |first4=Jorge |last5=Godfrey |first5=Stephanie S. |last6=Kwak |first6=Mackenzie L. |last7=Lafferty |first7=Kevin D. |last8=Moir |first8=Melinda L. |last9=Speer |first9=Kelly A. |last10=Strona |first10=Giovanni |last11=Torchin |first11=Mark |last12=Wood |first12=Chelsea L. |date=October 2020 |title=A global parasite conservation plan |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0006320719319937 |journal=Biological Conservation |language=en |volume=250 |pages=108596 |doi=10.1016/j.biocon.2020.108596|s2cid=225345547 |hdl=10919/102428 |hdl-access=free }}</ref><ref name="Kwak 108696"/>
=== Threats to biodiversity ===
{{Main|Biodiversity threats}}
Today, many threats to biodiversity exist. An acronym that can be used to express the top threats of present-day H.I.P.P.O stands for Habitat Loss, Invasive Species, Pollution, Human Population, and Overharvesting.<ref name=":0">{{cite web|url=https://www.e-education.psu.edu/geog030/node/394|title=Threats to Biodiversity {{!}} GEOG 030: Geographic Perspectives on Sustainability and Human-Environment Systems, 2011|website=www.e-education.psu.edu|access-date=2016-10-07}}</ref> The primary threats to biodiversity are [[habitat destruction]] (such as [[deforestation]], [[agricultural expansion]], [[Urban planning|urban development]]), and [[overexploitation]] (such as [[wildlife trade]]).<ref name="Ehrlich" /><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Freckleton |first1=Rob |last2=Sodhi |first2=Navjot S. |last3=Bickford |first3=David |last4=Diesmos |first4=Arvin C. |last5=Lee |first5=Tien Ming |last6=Koh |first6=Lian Pin |last7=Brook |first7=Barry W. |last8=Sekercioglu |first8=Cagan H. |last9=Bradshaw |first9=Corey J. A. |title=Measuring the Meltdown: Drivers of Global Amphibian Extinction and Decline |journal=PLOS ONE |volume=3 |issue=2 |pages=e1636 |year=2008 |pmid=18286193 |pmc=2238793 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0001636 |bibcode=2008PLoSO...3.1636S |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Longcore |first1=Travis |last2=Rich |first2=Catherine |s2cid=33259398 |title=Ecological light pollution |journal=Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment |volume=2 |issue=4 |year=2004 |pages=191–8 |jstor=3868314 |doi=10.1890/1540-9295(2004)002[0191:ELP]2.0.CO;2 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite press release |title=Asia's biodiversity vanishing into the marketplace |publisher=Wildlife Conservation Society |date=February 9, 2004 |url=http://news.bio-medicine.org/biology-news-2/Asias-biodiversity-vanishing-into-the-marketplace-2548-1/ |access-date=October 13, 2016 |archive-date=August 23, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190823125652/http://news.bio-medicine.org/biology-news-2/Asias-biodiversity-vanishing-into-the-marketplace-2548-1/ |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite press release |title=Greatest threat to Asia's wildlife is hunting, scientists say |publisher=Wildlife Conservation Society |date=April 9, 2002 |url=http://news.bio-medicine.org/biology-news-2/Greatest-threat-to-Asias-wildlife-is-hunting--scientists-say-7889-1/ |access-date=October 13, 2016 |archive-date=July 25, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110725080253/http://news.bio-medicine.org/biology-news-2/Greatest-threat-to-Asias-wildlife-is-hunting--scientists-say-7889-1/ |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Hance |first1=Jeremy |date=January 19, 2009 |title=Wildlife trade creating 'empty forest syndrome' across the globe |work=Mongabay |url=https://news.mongabay.com/2009/01/wildlife-trade-creating-empty-forest-syndrome-across-the-globe/ }}</ref> <ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Knozowski |first1=Paweł |last2=Nowakowski |first2=Jacek J. |last3=Stawicka |first3=Anna Maria |last4=Górski |first4=Andrzej |last5=Dulisz |first5=Beata |date=2023-11-10 |title=Effect of nature protection and management of grassland on biodiversity – Case from big flooded river valley (NE Poland) |journal=Science of the Total Environment |language=en |volume=898 |pages=165280 |doi=10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.165280 |pmid=37419354 |bibcode=2023ScTEn.898p5280K |issn=0048-9697|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Dulisz |first1=Beata |last2=Stawicka |first2=Anna Maria |last3=Knozowski |first3=Paweł |last4=Diserens |first4=Tom A. |last5=Nowakowski |first5=Jacek J. |date=2022-01-01 |title=Effectiveness of using nest boxes as a form of bird protection after building modernization |journal=Biodiversity and Conservation |language=en |volume=31 |issue=1 |pages=277–294 |doi=10.1007/s10531-021-02334-0 |s2cid=254280225 |issn=1572-9710|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Knozowski |first1=P. |last2=Górski |first2=A. |last3=Stawicka |first3=A. M. |last4=Nowakowski |first4=J. J. |date=2022-12-31 |title=Long-term changes in the diversity of amphibian communities inhabiting small water bodies in the urban area of Olsztyn (NE Poland) |journal=The European Zoological Journal |language=en |volume=89 |issue=1 |pages=791–812 |doi=10.1080/24750263.2022.2087773 |s2cid=250940055 |issn=2475-0263|doi-access=free }}</ref>[[Habitat fragmentation]] also poses challenges, because the global network of protected areas only covers 11.5% of the Earth's surface.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Rodrigues |first1=Ana S. L. |last2=Andelman |first2=Sandy J. |last3=Bakarr |first3=Mohamed I. |last4=Boitani |first4=Luigi |last5=Brooks |first5=Thomas M. |last6=Cowling |first6=Richard M. |last7=Fishpool |first7=Lincoln D. C. |last8=da Fonseca |first8=Gustavo A. B. |last9=Gaston |first9=Kevin J. |last10=Hoffmann |first10=Michael |last11=Long |first11=Janice S. |last12=Marquet |first12=Pablo A. |last13=Pilgrim |first13=John D. |last14=Pressey |first14=Robert L. |last15=Schipper |first15=Jan |last16=Sechrest |first16=Wes |last17=Stuart |first17=Simon N. |last18=Underhill |first18=Les G. |last19=Waller |first19=Robert W. |last20=Watts |first20=Matthew E. J. |last21=Yan |first21=Xie |title=Effectiveness of the global protected area network in representing species diversity |journal=Nature |volume=428 |issue=6983 |pages=640–3 |year=2004 |pmid=15071592 |doi=10.1038/nature02422 |bibcode=2004Natur.428..640R |s2cid=4320526 |url=https://researchonline.jcu.edu.au/1529/2/Rodrigues_et_al_2004.pdf }}</ref> A significant consequence of fragmentation and lack of [[Wildlife corridor|linked protected areas]] is the reduction of animal migration on a global scale. Considering that billions of tonnes of biomass are responsible for [[nutrient cycling]] across the earth, the reduction of migration is a serious matter for conservation biology.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wilcove |first1=David S |last2=Wikelski |first2=Martin |title=Going, Going, Gone: Is Animal Migration Disappearing |journal=PLOS Biology |volume=6 |issue=7 |pages=e188 |year=2008 |pmid=18666834 |pmc=2486312 |doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.0060188 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Becker |first1=C. G. |last2=Fonseca |first2=C. R. |last3=Haddad |first3=C. F. B. |last4=Batista |first4=R. F. |last5=Prado |first5=P. I. |title=Habitat Split and the Global Decline of Amphibians |journal=Science |volume=318 |issue=5857 |pages=1775–7 |year=2007 |pmid=18079402 |doi=10.1126/science.1149374 |bibcode=2007Sci...318.1775B |s2cid=22055213 }}</ref>
{{quote box
|Human activities are associated directly or indirectly with nearly every aspect of the current extinction spasm.
| Wake and Vredenburg<ref name="Wake08">{{cite journal |last1=Wake |first1=D. B. |last2=Vredenburg |first2=V. T. |title=Are we in the midst of the sixth mass extinction? A view from the world of amphibians |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume=105 |issue=Suppl 1 |pages=11466–73 |year=2008 |pmid=18695221 |pmc=2556420 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0801921105 |bibcode=2008PNAS..10511466W |doi-access=free }}</ref>
| width=25%
| align=left}}
However, human activities need not necessarily cause irreparable harm to the biosphere. With [[Conservation management system|conservation management and planning]] for biodiversity at all levels, from [[gene]]s to ecosystems, there are examples where humans mutually coexist in a sustainable way with nature.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Schmidt |first1=Gerald |year=2005 |title=Ecology & Anthropology: A Field Without Future? |journal=Ecological and Environmental Anthropology |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=13–5 |url=http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/icwdmeea/33/ |oclc=729066337 }}</ref> Even with the current threats to biodiversity there are ways we can improve the current condition and start anew.
Many of the threats to biodiversity, including disease and climate change, are reaching inside borders of protected areas, leaving them 'not-so protected' (e.g. [[Yellowstone National Park]]).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=McMenamin |first1=S. K. |last2=Hadly |first2=E. A. |last3=Wright |first3=C. K. |title=Climatic change and wetland desiccation cause amphibian decline in Yellowstone National Park |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume=105 |issue=44 |pages=16988–93 |year=2008 |pmid=18955700 |pmc=2579365 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0809090105 |bibcode=2008PNAS..10516988M |doi-access=free }}</ref> [[Climate change]], for example, is often cited as a serious threat in this regard, because there is a [[feedback loop]] between species extinction and the release of [[carbon dioxide]] into the [[atmosphere]].<ref name="Running08" /><ref name="Kurz08" /> Ecosystems store and [[Carbon cycle|cycle]] large amounts of carbon which regulates global conditions.<ref>{{cite book|title=Global climate change and life on earth|publisher=Routledge, Chapman and Hall|year=1991|isbn=978-0-412-02821-2|location=New York|author=Wyman, Richard L.|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/globalclimatecha0000unse_i6d1}}</ref> In present day, there have been major climate shifts with temperature changes making survival of some species difficult.<ref name=":0" /> The [[effects of global warming]] add a catastrophic threat toward a mass extinction of global biological diversity.<ref name=":1" /> Numerous more species are predicted to face unprecedented levels of extinction risk due to population increase, climate change and economic development in the future.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Tilman |first1=David |last2=Clark |first2=Michael |last3=Williams |first3=David R. |last4=Kimmel |first4=Kaitlin |last5=Polasky |first5=Stephen |last6=Packer |first6=Craig |date=2017 |title=Future threats to biodiversity and pathways to their prevention |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/nature22900 |journal=Nature |language=en |volume=546 |issue=7656 |pages=73–81 |doi=10.1038/nature22900 |pmid=28569796 |bibcode=2017Natur.546...73T |s2cid=4400396 |issn=1476-4687}}</ref> Conservationists have claimed that not all the species can be saved, and they have to decide which their efforts should be used to protect. This concept is known as the Conservation Triage.<ref name=":0" /> The extinction threat is estimated to range from 15 to 37 percent of all species by 2050,<ref name=":1">{{cite journal |last1=Thomas |first1=Chris D. |last2=Cameron |first2=Alison |last3=Green |first3=Rhys E. |last4=Bakkenes |first4=Michel |last5=Beaumont |first5=Linda J. |last6=Collingham |first6=Yvonne C. |last7=Erasmus |first7=Barend F. N. |last8=de Siqueira |first8=Marinez Ferreira |last9=Grainger |first9=Alan |last10=Hannah |first10=Lee |last11=Hughes |first11=Lesley |last12=Huntley |first12=Brian |last13=van Jaarsveld |first13=Albert S. |last14=Midgley |first14=Guy F. |last15=Miles |first15=Lera |last16=Ortega-Huerta |first16=Miguel A. |last17=Townsend Peterson |first17=A. |last18=Phillips |first18=Oliver L. |last19=Williams |first19=Stephen E. |title=Extinction risk from climate change |journal=Nature |volume=427 |issue=6970 |pages=145–8 |year=2004 |pmid=14712274 |doi=10.1038/nature02121 |bibcode=2004Natur.427..145T |s2cid=969382 |url=https://pure.qub.ac.uk/ws/files/733227/Thomas&Cameron_Extinctions_Cover&Article_Nature_2004.pdf}}
*{{cite magazine |author=John Roach |date=July 12, 2004 |title=By 2050 Warming to Doom Million Species, Study Says |magazine=National Geographic |url=http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2004/01/0107_040107_extinction.html}}</ref> or 50 percent of all species over the next 50 years.<ref name="Koh" /> The current extinction rate is 100–100,000 times more rapid today than the last several billion years.<ref name=":0" />
{{clear}}
== See also ==
{{Div col|colwidth=20em}}
* [[Applied ecology]]
* [[Bird observatory]]
* [[Conservation-reliant species]]
* [[Ecological extinction]]
* [[Gene pool]]
* [[Genetic erosion]]
* [[Genetic pollution]]
* [[In-situ conservation]]
* [[Indigenous peoples#Environmental and economic benefits of the Indigenous stewardship of land|Indigenous peoples: environmental benefits]]
* [[List of basic biology topics]]
* [[List of biological websites]]
* [[List of biology topics]]
* [[List of nature conservation organizations|List of conservation organisations]]
* [[List of conservation topics]]
* [[Mutualisms and conservation]]
* [[Natural environment]]
* [[Nature conservation]]
* [[:Category:Nature conservation organizations by country|Nature conservation organizations by country]]
* [[Protected area]]
* [[Regional Red List]]
* [[Renewable resource]]
* [[Restoration ecology]]
* [[Tyranny of small decisions]]
* [[Water conservation]]
* [[Welfare biology]]
* [[Wildlife disease]]
* [[Wildlife management]]
* [[World Conservation Monitoring Centre]]
{{Div col end}}
== References ==
{{Reflist}}
== Further reading ==
'''Scientific literature'''
* {{cite journal |last1=Bowen |first1=Brian W. |title=Preserving genes, species, or ecosystems? Healing the fractured foundations of conservation policy |journal=Molecular Ecology |volume=8 |issue=s1 |year=1999 |pages=S5–S10 |doi=10.1046/j.1365-294X.1999.00798.x |pmid=10703547 |s2cid=33096004 }}
* {{cite journal |author1=Brooks T. M. |author2=Mittermeier R. A. |author3=Gerlach J. |author4=Hoffmann M. |author5=Lamoreux J. F. |author6=Mittermeier C. G. |author7=Pilgrim J. D. |author8=Rodrigues A. S. L. | year = 2006 | title = Global Biodiversity Conservation Priorities | journal = Science | volume = 313 | issue = 5783|pages=58–61 |bibcode = 2006Sci...313...58B |doi = 10.1126/science.1127609 |pmid=16825561 |s2cid=5133902 }}
* {{cite journal |author1=Kareiva P. |author2=Marvier M. |year=2003 |title=Conserving Biodiversity Coldspots |url=http://www.nau.edu/~envsci/sisk/courses/env440/readings/Kareiva+et+al+2003+Am+Sci.pdf |journal=American Scientist |volume=91 |issue=4 |pages=344–351 |doi=10.1511/2003.4.344 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060906162035/http://www.nau.edu/~envsci/sisk/courses/env440/readings/Kareiva%20et%20al%202003%20Am%20Sci.pdf |archive-date=September 6, 2006 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Manlik |first1=Oliver. |title=Reproductive Sciences in Animal Conservation |chapter=The Importance of Reproduction for the Conservation of Slow-Growing Animal Populations |journal=Reproductive Sciences in Animal Conservation. Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology |volume=1200|year=2019 |pages=13–39 |doi=10.1007/978-3-030-23633-5_2|pmid=31471793 |isbn=978-3-030-23633-5 |series=Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology |s2cid=201756810 }}
* {{cite journal |author=McCallum M. L. |year=2008 |title=Amphibian Decline or Extinction? Current Declines Dwarf Background Extinction Rate |url=https://www.herpconbio.org/~herpconb/McCallum/amphibian%20extinctions.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081217133741/https://www.herpconbio.org/~herpconb/McCallum/amphibian%20extinctions.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-date=2008-12-17 |journal=Journal of Herpetology |volume=41 |issue=3 |pages=483–491 |doi=10.1670/0022-1511(2007)41[483:ADOECD]2.0.CO;2 |s2cid=30162903 }}
* {{cite journal |author=McCallum M. L. |year=2015 |title=Vertebrate biodiversity losses point to a sixth mass extinction|url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10531-015-0940-6?zanpid=20487846442748446727 |journal=Biodiversity and Conservation |volume=24 |issue=10 |pages=2497–2519 |doi=10.1007/s10531-015-0940-6 |s2cid=254285797 }}
* {{cite journal |doi=10.1007/s10531-021-02140-8 |title=Turtle biodiversity losses suggest coming sixth mass extinction |date=2021 |last1=McCallum |first1=Malcolm L. |journal=Biodiversity and Conservation |volume=30 |issue=5 |pages=1257–1275 |s2cid=233903598 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Myers |first1=Norman |last2=Mittermeier |first2=Russell A. |last3=Mittermeier |first3=Cristina G. |last4=da Fonseca |first4=Gustavo A. B. |last5=Kent |first5=Jennifer |title=Biodiversity hotspots for conservation priorities |journal=Nature |volume=403 |issue=6772 |pages=853–8 |year=2000 |pmid=10706275 |doi=10.1038/35002501 |bibcode=2000Natur.403..853M |s2cid=4414279 }}
* {{cite journal |author1=Brooks T. M. |author2=Mittermeier R. A. |author3=Gerlach J. |author4=Hoffmann M. |author5=Lamoreux J. F. |author6=Mittermeier C. G. |author7=Pilgrim J. D. |author8=Rodrigues A. S. L. | year = 2006 | title = Global Biodiversity Conservation Priorities | journal = Science | volume = 313 | issue = 5783|pages=58–61 |bibcode = 2006Sci...313...58B |doi = 10.1126/science.1127609 |pmid=16825561 |s2cid=5133902 }}
* {{cite journal |author1=Kareiva P. |author2=Marvier M. |year=2003 |title=Conserving Biodiversity Coldspots |url=http://www.nau.edu/~envsci/sisk/courses/env440/readings/Kareiva+et+al+2003+Am+Sci.pdf |journal=American Scientist |volume=91 |issue=4 |pages=344–351 |doi=10.1511/2003.4.344 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060906162035/http://www.nau.edu/~envsci/sisk/courses/env440/readings/Kareiva%20et%20al%202003%20Am%20Sci.pdf |archive-date=September 6, 2006 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Mccallum |first1=Malcolm L. |last2=Bury |first2=Gwendolyn W. |title=Google search patterns suggest declining interest in the environment |journal=Biodiversity and Conservation |volume=22 |issue=6–7 |year=2013 |pages=1355–67 |doi=10.1007/s10531-013-0476-6 |s2cid=15593201 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Myers |first1=Norman |last2=Mittermeier |first2=Russell A. |last3=Mittermeier |first3=Cristina G. |last4=da Fonseca |first4=Gustavo A. B. |last5=Kent |first5=Jennifer |title=Biodiversity hotspots for conservation priorities |journal=Nature |volume=403 |issue=6772 |pages=853–8 |year=2000 |pmid=10706275 |doi=10.1038/35002501 |bibcode=2000Natur.403..853M |s2cid=4414279 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Wake |first1=D. B. |last2=Vredenburg |first2=V. T. |title=Are we in the midst of the sixth mass extinction? A view from the world of amphibians |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume=105 |issue=Suppl 1 |pages=11466–73 |year=2008 |pmid=18695221 |pmc=2556420 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0801921105 |bibcode=2008PNAS..10511466W |doi-access=free }}
'''Textbooks'''
*{{Cite book |author1=Groom, Martha J. |author2=Meffe, Gary K. |author3=Carroll, C. Ronald. |title=Principles of Conservation Biology |publisher=Sinauer Associates |location=Sunderland, Mass |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-87893-597-0 }}
*{{Cite book |editor=Norse, Elliott A. |editor2=Crowder, Larry B. |title=Marine conservation biology: the science of maintaining the sea's biodiversity |publisher=Island Press |location=Washington, DC |year=2005 |isbn=978-1-55963-662-9 }}
*{{Cite book |author=Primack, Richard B. |title=A primer of Conservation Biology |publisher=Sinauer Associates |location=Sunderland, Mass |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-87893-728-8 |url=https://archive.org/details/primerofconserva00rich }}
*{{Cite book |author=Primack, Richard B. |title=Essentials of Conservation Biology |publisher=Sinauer Associates |location=Sunderland, Mass |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-87893-720-2 }}
*{{Cite book |author1=Wilcox, Bruce A. |author2=Soulé, Michael E. |author3=Soulé, Michael E. |title=Conservation Biology: an evolutionary-ecological perspective |publisher=Sinauer Associates |location=Sunderland, Mass |year=1980 |isbn=978-0-87893-800-1 }}
*{{Cite book |author1=Kleiman, Devra G. |author2=Thompson, Katerina V. |author3=Baer, Charlotte Kirk |title=Wild Mammals in Captivity |publisher=University of Chicago Press |location=Chicago, Illinois |year=2010 |isbn=978-0-226-44009-5}}
*{{cite book |author1=Scheldeman, X. |author2=van Zonneveld, M. |year=2010 |title=Training Manual on Spatial Analysis of Plant Diversity and Distribution |publisher=Bioversity International |url=http://www.bioversityinternational.org/training/training_materials/gis_manual.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110927164904/http://www.bioversityinternational.org/training/training_materials/gis_manual.html |archive-date=2011-09-27 }}
*{{cite book |author1=Sodhi, Navjot S. |author2=Ehrlich, Paul R. |year=2010 |title= Conservation biology for all |publisher= Oxford University Press |url= http://www.mongabay.com/conservation-biology-for-all.html}} A free textbook for download.
*{{cite book | author= Sutherland, W. |editor1-first=William J |editor1-last=Sutherland |editor2-first=Lynn V |editor2-last=Dicks |editor3-first=Nancy |editor3-last=Ockendon |editor4-first=Rebecca K |editor4-last=Smith |year=2015 |title= What Works in Conservation |publisher= Open Book Publishers |doi=10.11647/OBP.0060 |isbn=978-1-78374-157-1 |url= http://www.openbookpublishers.com/product/347/what-works-in-conservation|display-authors=etal |doi-access=free }} A free textbook for download.
'''General non-fiction'''
*{{Cite book |last=Christy |first=Bryan |title=The Lizard King: The true crimes and passions of the world's greatest reptile smugglers |publisher=Twelve |location=New York |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-446-58095-3 |url=https://archive.org/details/lizardkingtruecr00chri }}
*{{cite web |last=Nijhuis |first=Michelle |url=https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/conservationists-triage-determine-which-endangered-species-to-save/ |title=Conservationists use triage to determine which species to save and not: Like battlefield medics, conservationists are being forced to explicitly apply triage to determine which creatures to save and which to let go |date=July 23, 2012 |work=Scientific American |access-date=2017-05-07}}
'''Periodicals'''
* ''Animal Conservation'' [http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/10.1111/%28ISSN%291469-1795]
* ''[[Biological Conservation (journal)|Biological Conservation]]''
* ''Conservation'' [http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/10.1111/%28ISSN%291936-6779], a quarterly magazine of the [[Society for Conservation Biology]]
* ''[[Conservation and Society]]''
* ''[[Conservation Biology (journal)|Conservation Biology]]'', a [[peer-reviewed]] [[Academic journal|journal]] of the [[Society for Conservation Biology]]
* ''[[Conservation Letters]]''
* ''[[Diversity and Distributions]]''
* ''[[Ecology and Society]]''
'''Training manuals'''
*{{Cite book |author1=White, James Emery |author2=Kapoor-Vijay, Promila |title=Conservation biology: a training manual for biological diversity and genetic resources |publisher=Commonwealth Science Council, Commonwealth Secretariat |location=London |year=1992 |isbn=978-0-85092-392-6 }}
== External links ==
* [https://consbio.org/ Conservation Biology Institute (CBI)]
* [https://www.unep-wcmc.org/ United Nations Environment Programme - World Conservation Monitoring Centre (UNEP-WCMC)]
* [https://www.amnh.org/research/center-for-biodiversity-conservation The Center for Biodiversity and Conservation] - (American Museum of Natural History)
* {{cite SEP |url-id=conservation-biology |title=Conservation Biology |last=Sarkar |first=Sahotra}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060909070826/http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/cgi-local/DHI/dhi.cgi?id=dv1-59 Dictionary of the History of Ideas]
* [http://www.conservationevidence.com Conservationevidence.com] - Free access to conservation studies
{{Conservation of species|state=expanded}}
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[[Category:Conservation biology| ]]
[[Category:Landscape ecology]]
[[Category:Environmental conservation|*]]
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[[Category:Philosophy of biology]] |
Gap analysis (conservation) | '''Gap analysis''' is a tool used in [[wildlife conservation]] to identify gaps in conservation lands (e.g., [[protected area]]s and [[nature reserve]]s) or other wildlands where significant plant and animal species and their habitat or important ecological features occur.<ref>Scott, J.M. and Schipper, J. 2006. Gap analysis: a spatial tool for conservation planning. Pp. 518-519 in M.J. Groom, G.K. Meffe, C. Ronald Carroll and Contributors. ''Principles of Conservation Biology'' (3rd ed.). Sunderland, MA: Sinauer.</ref>
Conservation managers or scientists can use it as a basis for providing recommendations to improve the representativeness of nature reserves or the effectiveness of protected areas so that these areas provide the best value for conserving [[biodiversity|biological diversity]]. With the information that a gap analysis yields, the boundaries of protected areas may be designed to subsume 'gaps' containing significant populations of wildlife species that can enhance the long-term survival of a larger [[metapopulation]] of the species already within the managed or protected area, or to include a diversity of wildlife species or [[ecosystem]]s that merit protection but are inadequately represented in an existing protected area network. Gap assessments can be done using the [[geographic information system]]: land maps that delineate topography, biological and geological features ([[forest cover]], plains, rivers, etc.), boundaries, land ownership and use are overlaid with the distribution of wildlife species. How much of the species' distribution fall within or without the conservation lands, or within a highly exploited area etc. can be identified.
At its simplest, a gap analysis is an assessment of the extent to which a protected area system meets protection goals set by a nation or region to represent its biological diversity. Gap analyses can vary from simple exercises based on a spatial comparison of biodiversity with existing protected areas to complex studies that need detailed data gathering and analysis, mapping and use of software decision packages.
==Gap types==
Gap analyses generally consider a range of different “gaps” in a protected area network:
<ref>[[Clem Tisdell|Tisdell, C.]], Wilson, C. and Swarna Nantha, H. 2005. Policies for saving a rare Australian glider: economics and ecology. ''Biological Conservation'' 123(2): 237-248.</ref><ref>Fearnside, P.M. and Ferraz, J. 1995. A conservation gap analysis of Brazil's Amazonian vegetation. ''Conservation Biology'' 9(5): 1134-1147.</ref>
*Representation gaps: either no representations of a particular species or ecosystem in any protected area, or not enough examples of the species or ecosystem represented to ensure long-term protection.
*Ecological gaps: while the species or ecosystem occurs in the protected area system, occurrence is either of inadequate ecological condition, or the protected area(s) fail to address species' movements or specific ecological conditions needed for long-term survival or ecosystem functioning.
*Management gaps: protected areas exist but management regimes (management objectives, governance types, or management effectiveness) do not provide full security for particular species or ecosystems given local conditions.
==U.S. Gap Analysis Project==
{{Main|Gap Analysis Project}}
The gap analysis process itself was conceived in the 1980s, by [[J. Michael Scott]], at the [[University of Idaho]]. He developed methods to assess endangered birds in [[Hawaii]] and began by mapping the distribution of each species individually. Then he combined data on individual species to create a map of species richness throughout the island. Until this approach was developed there was no broad scale way to assess the level of protection given to areas rich in biodiversity. The results of this analysis led to creation of the [[Hakaiau Forest National Wildlife Refuge]], in one of the areas of highest species richness. In the late 1980s, Scott and other researchers at the University of Idaho Cooperative Fish and Wildlife Research Unit initiated an Idaho Gap Analysis Project as a first pilot project under the auspices of the [[U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service]]. Following two years of methods development, the program was launched in 1989 as part of the [[U.S. Geological Survey]] under the title Gap Analysis Program (GAP). GAP is now known as the [[Gap Analysis Project]].<ref>{{USGS|title=History|url=https://www.usgs.gov/programs/gap-analysis-project/history|author=Gap Analysis Project|accessdate=April 16, 2022}}</ref>
The Gap Analysis Project mission is to provide state, regional, and national biodiversity assessments of the conservation status of native vertebrate species, aquatic species, and natural land cover types and to facilitate the application of this information to land management activities. The stated goal of GAP is “keeping common species common”. GAP partners in the development of four core datasets: a detailed map of the terrestrial ecosystems of the United States; maps of predicted habitat distributions for the terrestrial vertebrate species for the U.S.; distribution models for aquatic species; and the Protected Areas Database of the U.S.<ref>{{USGS|title=Mission|url=https://www.usgs.gov/programs/gap-analysis-project/mission|author=Gap Analysis Project|accessdate=April 16, 2022}}</ref>
==Critiques and limitations==
===Threat indicators, scale dependence & the 'modifiable areal unit problem'===
Indicators of human threats, such as population growth, land use, and road density have been proposed to enhance gap analysis and further prioritize which ‘gaps’ are most immediately threatened. However, because species responses to threats vary, gap analysis can only portray potential threats. Indicators of conservation value, such as species richness, have no inherent spatial scale. Thus, the optimal scale range for the [[minimum mapping unit]] (MMU) is determined on a case-by-case basis, compromising scientific credibility with data availability and cost effectiveness. [[Scale dependence]] of the MMU as a variant of the ‘[[modifiable areal unit problem]]’, or MAUP.<ref>Stoms, David M. 1994. “Scale dependence of species richness maps.” ''Professional Geographer''. 46(3): 346-358.</ref> The larger the MMU, the more species it will contain, either over-generalizing species richness by using large units or increasing statistical [[uncertainty]] for habitat distributions by using small units. Scale dependence introduces [[statistical error]] in spatial analysis.
===Mapping uncertainty===
Predicted species habitat distributions in GAP data contain numerous errors of commission (attributing presence where a species is absent) and errors of omission (attributing absence where a species is present) resulting in large composite error when map layers are combined. Despite this fact, species distribution maps produced by gap analysis rarely incorporate error into the visual representation. In gap analysis applications, it can result in dramatically different conservation recommendations.<ref>Flather, Curtis H., Kenneth R. Wilson, Denis J. Dean, and William C. McComb. (1997). “Identifying gaps in conservation networks: of indicators and uncertainty in geographic-based analyses.” ''Ecological Applications''. 7(2): 531-542.</ref> In addition, residual multiscale sampling effects can be identified using a statistical covariation measure, such as [[sensitivity analysis]].
===The ‘shifting baseline syndrome’===
The baseline for all National GAP projects is determined by the satellite data used to determine the vegetation cover that predicts species habitat distribution, which already includes a large percentage of anthropogenic land uses. First, because historic species distribution is not known, gap analysis results are a mere fraction of any species original habitat. Also, the static nature of gap analysis currently is not able to show the dynamic response capacity of species to change or species viability over time.<ref>Jennings, Michael J. (2000). “Gap analysis: concepts, methods, and recent results.” ''Landscape Ecology''. 15: 5-20.</ref> [[shifting baseline syndrome|Shifting baselines]] require that gap analysis incorporates a case-by-case consideration of management goals and definitions of conservation success.
==References==
{{reflist}}
==External links==
*[https://gapanalysis.usgs.gov/viewers/ Web viewers for various North American gap data sets] compiled by the [[USGS]]
{{conservation of species}}
[[Category:Environmental conservation]] |
Overexploitation | {{Short description|Depleting a renewable resource}}[[File:Surexploitation morue surpêcheEn.jpg|thumb|300px|right|[[Atlantic cod]] stocks were severely overexploited in the 1970s and 1980s, leading to their [[Collapse of the Atlantic northwest cod fishery|abrupt collapse in 1992]].<ref name=Frank>{{cite journal |first1=Kenneth T. |last1=Frank |first2=Brian |last2=Petrie |first3=Jae S. |last3=Choi |first4=William C. |last4=Leggett |year=2005 |title=Trophic Cascades in a Formerly Cod-Dominated Ecosystem |journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]] |volume=308 |pages=1621–1623 |doi=10.1126/science.1113075 |pmid=15947186 |issue=5728 |bibcode=2005Sci...308.1621F |s2cid=45088691}}</ref>]]
'''Overexploitation''', also called '''overharvesting''', refers to harvesting a [[renewable resource]] to the [[point of diminishing returns]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Ehrlich |first1=Paul R. |title=Population, Resources, Environment: Issues in Human Ecology |last2=Ehrlich |first2=Anne H. |date=1972 |publisher=[[W. H. Freeman and Company]] |isbn=0716706954 |edition=2nd |page=127}}</ref> Continued overexploitation can lead to the destruction of the resource, as it will be unable to replenish. The term applies to [[natural resource]]s such as [[Aquifer|water aquifers]], [[Pasture|grazing pasture]]s and [[forests]], wild [[medicinal plant]]s, [[fish stocks]] and other [[wildlife]].
In [[ecology]], overexploitation describes one of the five main activities threatening global [[biodiversity]].<ref name=Wilcoveetal>{{cite journal |last1=Wilcove |first1=D. S. |first2=D. |last2=Rothstein |first3=J. |last3=Dubow |first4=A. |last4=Phillips |first5=E. |last5=Losos |year=1998 |title=Quantifying threats to imperiled species in the United States |journal=[[BioScience]] |volume=48 |issue=8 |pages=607–615 |doi=10.2307/1313420 |jstor=1313420 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Ecologists use the term to describe populations that are harvested at an unsustainable rate, given their natural rates of mortality and capacities for reproduction. This can result in extinction at the population level and even extinction of whole species. In [[conservation biology]], the term is usually used in the context of human economic activity that involves the taking of biological resources, or organisms, in larger numbers than their populations can withstand.<ref>Oxford. (1996). Oxford Dictionary of Biology. Oxford University Press.</ref> The term is also used and defined somewhat differently in [[fisheries]], [[hydrology]] and [[natural resource management]].
Overexploitation can lead to resource destruction, including [[extinction]]s. However, it is also possible for overexploitation to be sustainable, as [[#Fisheries|discussed below]] in the section on fisheries. In the context of fishing, the term [[overfishing]] can be used instead of overexploitation, as can [[overgrazing]] in [[stock management]], [[overlogging]] in [[forest management]], [[overdrafting]] in [[aquifer]] management, and [[endangered species]] in species monitoring. Overexploitation is not an activity limited to humans. Introduced predators and herbivores, for example, can overexploit native [[flora]] and [[fauna]].
== History ==
[[File:Giant Haasts eagle attacking New Zealand moa.jpg|thumb|right|When the giant flightless birds called [[moa]] were overexploited to the point of extinction,<ref name=Holdaway /> the giant [[Haast's eagle]] that preyed on them also became extinct.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Tennyson |first1=A. |last2=Martinson |first2=P. |year=2006 |title=Extinct Birds of New Zealand |publisher=Te Papa Press |location=Wellington, New Zealand |isbn=978-0-909010-21-8}}</ref>]]
Concern about overexploitation is relatively recent, though overexploitation itself is not a new phenomenon. It has been observed for millennia. For example, ceremonial cloaks worn by the Hawaiian kings were made from the [[mamo]] bird; a single cloak used the feathers of 70,000 birds of this now-extinct species. The [[dodo]], a flightless bird from [[Mauritius]], is another well-known example of overexploitation. As with many island species, it was naive about certain predators, allowing humans to approach and kill it with ease.<ref>{{cite news |first=Jonathan |last=Fryer |date=2002-09-14 |title=Bringing the dodo back to life |work=[[BBC News]] |access-date=2006-09-07 |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/programmes/from_our_own_correspondent/2255991.stm}}</ref>
From the earliest of times, [[hunting]] has been an important human activity as a means of survival. There is a whole history of overexploitation in the form of overhunting. The [[overkill hypothesis]] ([[Quaternary extinction event]]s) explains why the [[megafauna]]l extinctions occurred within a relatively short period. This can be traced to [[human migration]]. The most convincing evidence of this theory is that 80% of the North American large mammal species disappeared within 1000 years of the arrival of humans on the western hemisphere continents.<ref>Paul S. Martin</ref> The fastest ever recorded extinction of [[megafauna]] occurred in [[New Zealand]], where by 1500 AD, just 200 years after settling the islands, ten species of the giant [[Moa|moa birds]] were hunted to extinction by the [[Māori people|Māori]].<ref name=Holdaway>{{cite journal |last1=Holdaway |first1=R. N. |last2=Jacomb |first2=C. |year=2000 |title=Rapid Extinction of the Moas (Aves: Dinornithiformes): Model, Test, and Implications |journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]] |url=http://www.esf.edu/efb/gibbs/efb413/moa.pdf |volume=287 |issue=5461 |pages=2250–2254 |doi=10.1126/science.287.5461.2250 |pmid=10731144 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130527164824/http://www.esf.edu/efb/gibbs/efb413/moa.pdf |archive-date=2013-05-27 |bibcode=2000Sci...287.2250H}}</ref> A second wave of extinctions occurred later with European settlement.
In more recent times, overexploitation has resulted in the gradual emergence of the concepts of [[sustainability]] and [[sustainable development]], which has built on other concepts, such as [[sustainable yield]],<ref>{{cite journal |last=Larkin |first=P. A. |year=1977 |title=An epitaph for the concept of maximum sustained yield |journal=Transactions of the American Fisheries Society |volume=106 |issue=1 |pages=1–11 |doi=10.1577/1548-8659(1977)106<1:AEFTCO>2.0.CO;2 }}</ref> [[eco-development]],<ref>{{cite journal |last=Lubchenco |first=J. |year=1991 |title=The Sustainable Biosphere Initiative: An ecological research agenda |journal=[[Ecology (journal)|Ecology]] |volume=72 |issue=2 |pages=371–412 |doi=10.2307/2937183 |jstor=2937183 |s2cid=53389188 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Lee |first=K. N. |year=2001 |chapter=Sustainability, concept and practice of |editor-first=S. A. |editor-last=Levin |title=Encyclopedia of Biodiversity |volume=5 |pages=553–568 |publisher=[[Academic Press]] |location=San Diego, CA |isbn=978-0-12-226864-9}}</ref> and [[deep ecology]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Naess |first=A. |year=1986 |chapter=Intrinsic value: Will the defenders of nature please rise? |editor-first=M. E. |editor-last=Soulé |title=Conservation Biology: The Science of Scarcity and Diversity |pages=153–181 |publisher=Sinauer Associates |location=Sunderland, MA |isbn=978-0-87893-794-3}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |editor-last=Sessions |editor-first=G. |year=1995 |title=Deep Ecology for the 21st Century: Readings on the Philosophy and Practice of the New Environmentalism |publisher=Shambala Books |location=Boston |isbn=978-1-57062-049-2}}</ref>
{{clear}}
== Overview ==
Overexploitation does not necessarily lead to the destruction of the resource, nor is it necessarily unsustainable. However, [[resource depletion|depleting]] the numbers or amount of the resource can change its quality. For example, [[Livistona rotundifolia|footstool palm]] is a wild palm tree found in Southeast Asia. Its leaves are used for thatching and food wrapping, and overharvesting has resulted in its leaf size becoming smaller.
=== Tragedy of the commons ===
{{Main | Tragedy of the commons}}
[[File:Cows on Selsley Common - geograph.org.uk - 192472.jpg|thumb|left|Cows on [[Selsley Common]]. The [[tragedy of the commons]] is a useful parable for understanding how overexploitation can occur.]]
In 1968, the journal ''[[Science (journal)|Science]]'' published an article by [[Garrett Hardin]] entitled "The Tragedy of the Commons".<ref name=hardin68>{{cite journal |first=Garrett |last=Hardin |title=The Tragedy of the Commons |journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]] |volume=162 |issue=3859 |year=1968 |pages=1243–1248 |doi=10.1126/science.162.3859.1243 |pmid=5699198 |bibcode=1968Sci...162.1243H |doi-access=free}} Also available at http://www.garretthardinsociety.org/articles/art_tragedy_of_the_commons.html.</ref> It was based on a parable that [[William Forster Lloyd]] published in 1833 to explain how individuals innocently acting in their own self interest can overexploit, and destroy, a resource that they all share.<ref name="Lloyd 1833">{{Cite book |title=Two Lectures on the Checks to Population |last=Lloyd |first=William Forster |publisher=[[Oxford University]] |year=1833 |url=https://archive.org/details/twolecturesonch00lloygoog |access-date=2016-03-13}}</ref>{{Pages needed|date=May 2019}} Lloyd described a simplified hypothetical situation based on medieval [[land tenure]] in Europe. [[Herder]]s share [[common land]] on which they are each entitled to [[Grazing|graze]] their cows. In Hardin's article, it is in each herder's individual interest to graze each new cow that the herder acquires on the common land, even if the [[carrying capacity]] of the common is exceeded, which damages the common for all the herders. The self-interested herder receives all of the benefits of having the additional cow, while all the herders share the damage to the common. However, all herders reach the same rational decision to buy additional cows and graze them on the common, which eventually destroys the common. Hardin concludes:
<blockquote>
Therein is the tragedy. Each man is locked into a system that compels him to increase his herd without limit—in a world that is limited. Ruin is the destination toward which all men rush, each pursuing his own interest in a society that believes in the freedom of the commons. Freedom in a commons brings ruin to all.<ref name=hardin68 />{{rp|1244}}
</blockquote>
In the course of his essay, Hardin develops the theme, drawing in many examples of latter day commons, such as [[national park]]s, the atmosphere, oceans, rivers and [[fish stocks]]. The example of fish stocks had led some to call this the "tragedy of the fishers".<ref>{{cite book |first=Samuel |last=Bowles |title=Microeconomics: Behavior, Institutions, and Evolution |url=https://archive.org/details/microeconomicsbe00bowl |url-access=limited |publisher=[[Princeton University Press]] |pages=[https://archive.org/details/microeconomicsbe00bowl/page/n41 27]–29 |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-691-09163-1}}</ref> A major theme running through the essay is the growth of [[World population|human populations]], with the [[Earth]]'s finite resources being the general common.
The tragedy of the commons has intellectual roots tracing back to [[Aristotle]], who noted that "what is common to the greatest number has the least care bestowed upon it",<ref>{{cite book |last=Ostrom |first=E. |year=1992 |chapter=The rudiments of a theory of the origins, survival, and performance of common-property institutions |editor-first=D. W. |editor-last=Bromley |title=Making the Commons Work: Theory, Practice and Policy |location=San Francisco |publisher=ICS Press}}</ref> as well as to [[Hobbes]] and his ''[[Leviathan (Hobbes book)|Leviathan]]''.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Feeny |first=D. |year=1990 |title=The Tragedy of the Commons: Twenty-two years later |journal=Human Ecology |volume=18 |issue=1 |pages=1–19 |doi=10.1007/BF00889070 |pmid=12316894 |s2cid=13357517 |display-authors=etal}}</ref> The opposite situation to a tragedy of the commons is sometimes referred to as a [[tragedy of the anticommons]]: a situation in which rational individuals, acting separately, collectively waste a given resource by underutilizing it.
The tragedy of the commons can be avoided if it is appropriately regulated. Hardin's use of "commons" has frequently been misunderstood, leading Hardin to later remark that he should have titled his work "The tragedy of the unregulated commons".<ref>{{cite news |url=http://search.japantimes.co.jp/cgi-bin/fe20060726sh.html |title=Will commons sense dawn again in time? |work=The Japan Times Online}}</ref>
== Sectors ==
=== Fisheries ===
{{see|Overfishing|Sustainable fishery}}
[[File:Bluefin-big.jpg|thumb|right|The [[Atlantic bluefin tuna]] is currently overexploited. Scientists say 7,500 tons annually is the sustainable limit, yet the fishing industry continue to harvest 60,000 tons.]]
In [[wild fisheries]], overexploitation or [[overfishing]] occurs when a [[Fish stocks|fish stock]] has been fished down "below the size that, on average, would support the long-term [[maximum sustainable yield]] of the fishery".<ref>{{Cite web |title=NOAA fisheries glossary |url=https://repository.library.noaa.gov/view/noaa/12856 |access-date=2021-06-13 |website=repository.library.noaa.gov |publisher=[[NOAA]]}}</ref> However, overexploitation can be sustainable.<ref>[Source?]</ref>
When a fishery starts harvesting fish from a previously unexploited stock, the [[Biomass (ecology)|biomass]] of the fish stock will decrease, since harvesting means fish are being removed. For sustainability, the rate at which the fish replenish biomass through reproduction must balance the rate at which the fish are being harvested. If the harvest rate is increased, then the stock biomass will further decrease. At a certain point, the maximum harvest yield that can be sustained will be reached, and further attempts to increase the harvest rate will result in the collapse of the fishery. This point is called the [[maximum sustainable yield]], and in practice, usually occurs when the fishery has been fished down to about 30% of the biomass it had before harvesting started.<ref>Bolden, E.G., Robinson, W.L. (1999), [https://books.google.com/books?id=PL6r1Ir_x_oC&q=%22Wildlife+ecology+and+management%22 ''Wildlife ecology and management''] 4th ed. Prentice-Hall, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ. {{ISBN|0-13-840422-4}}</ref>
It is possible to fish the stock down further to, say, 15% of the pre-harvest biomass, and then adjust the harvest rate so the biomass remains at that level. In this case, the fishery is sustainable, but is now overexploited, because the stock has been run down to the point where the sustainable yield is less than it could be.
Fish stocks are said to "collapse" if their biomass declines by more than 95 percent of their maximum historical biomass. [[Atlantic cod]] stocks were severely overexploited in the 1970s and 1980s, leading to their abrupt collapse in 1992.<ref name="Frank"/> Even though fishing has ceased, the cod stocks have failed to recover.<ref name=Frank/> The absence of cod as the [[apex predator]] in many areas has led to [[trophic cascade]]s.<ref name=Frank/>
About 25% of world fisheries are now overexploited to the point where their current biomass is less than the level that maximizes their sustainable yield.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Grafton |first1=R.Q. |last2=Kompas |first2=T. |last3=Hilborn |first3=R.W. |author3-link=Ray Hilborn |year=2007 |title=Economics of Overexploitation Revisited |journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]] |volume=318 |issue=5856 |page=1601 |doi=10.1126/science.1146017 |bibcode=2007Sci...318.1601G |pmid=18063793 |s2cid=41738906}}</ref> These depleted fisheries can often recover if fishing pressure is reduced until the stock biomass returns to the optimal biomass. At this point, harvesting can be resumed near the maximum sustainable yield.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Rosenberg |first1=A.A. |year=2003 |title=Managing to the margins: the overexploitation of fisheries |journal=[[Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment]] |volume=1 |issue=2 |pages=102–106 |doi=10.1890/1540-9295(2003)001[0102:MTTMTO]2.0.CO;2}}</ref>
The [[tragedy of the commons]] can be avoided within the context of fisheries if [[fishing effort]] and practices are regulated appropriately by [[fisheries management]]. One effective approach may be assigning some measure of ownership in the form of [[individual transferable quota]]s (ITQs) to fishermen. In 2008, a large scale study of fisheries that used ITQs, and ones that did not, provided strong evidence that ITQs help prevent collapses and restore fisheries that appear to be in decline.<ref>[https://www.newscientist.com/channel/earth/dn14762-guaranteed-fish-quotas-halt-commercial-freeforall.html New Scientist: Guaranteed fish quotas halt commercial free-for-all]</ref><ref>[http://www.economist.com/science/displayStory.cfm?source=hptextfeature&story_id=12253181 A Rising Tide: Scientists find proof that privatising fishing stocks can avert a disaster] The Economist, 18th Sept, 2008.</ref>
=== Water resources ===
{{see|Overdrafting|Water scarcity}}
Water resources, such as [[lake]]s and [[aquifer]]s, are usually renewable resources which naturally recharge (the term [[fossil water]] is sometimes used to describe aquifers which do not recharge). Overexploitation occurs if a water resource, such as the [[Ogallala Aquifer]], is mined or extracted at a rate that exceeds the recharge rate, that is, at a rate that exceeds the practical sustained yield. Recharge usually comes from area streams, rivers and lakes. An aquifer which has been overexploited is said to be [[Overdrafting|overdrafted]] or depleted. Forests enhance the recharge of [[aquifer]]s in some locales, although generally forests are a major source of aquifer depletion.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.wrm.org.uy/deforestation/UNreport.html |title=Underlying Causes of Deforestation: UN Report |website=World Rainforest Movement |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010411092448/http://wrm.org.uy/deforestation/UNreport.html |archive-date=2001-04-11}}</ref><ref name = "Conrad2008">{{cite web |url=http://www.azstarnet.com/sn/byauthor/244797 |last=Conrad |first=C. |title=Forests of eucalyptus shadowed by questions |date=2008-06-21 |work=[[Arizona Daily Star]] |access-date=2010-02-07 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081206103926/http://www.azstarnet.com/sn/byauthor/244797 |archive-date=2008-12-06}}</ref> Depleted aquifers can become polluted with contaminants such as [[nitrate]]s, or permanently damaged through subsidence or through saline intrusion from the ocean.
This turns much of the world's underground water and lakes into finite resources with peak usage debates similar to [[peak oil|oil]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.uswaternews.com/archives/arcsupply/6worllarg2.html |title=World's largest aquifer going dry |date= February 2006 |publisher=U.S. Water News Online |access-date=2010-12-30 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060913031104/http://www.uswaternews.com/archives/arcsupply/6worllarg2.html |archive-date=2006-09-13}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.earth-policy.org/Updates/2005/Update47_data.htm |title=Disappearing Lakes, Shrinking Seas: Selected Examples |last1=Larsen |first1= J. |publisher=Earth Policy Institute |date=2005-04-07 |access-date=2009-01-26 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060903213215/http://www.earth-policy.org/Updates/2005/Update47_data.htm |archive-date=2006-09-03}}</ref> These debates usually centre around agriculture and suburban water usage but generation of electricity from nuclear energy or coal and tar sands mining is also water resource intensive.<ref>http://www.epa.gov/cleanrgy/water_resource.htm{{dead link|date=May 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> A modified [[Hubbert curve]] applies to any resource that can be harvested faster than it can be replaced.<ref name="Palaniappan2008">{{cite web |first1=Meena |last1=Palaniappan |first2=Peter H. |last2=Gleick |name-list-style=amp |year=2008 |title=The World's Water 2008-2009 Ch 1. |url=http://www.worldwater.org/data20082009/ch01.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090320104604/http://www.worldwater.org/data20082009/ch01.pdf |archive-date=2009-03-20 |access-date=2009-01-31 |publisher=[[Pacific Institute]]}}</ref> Though Hubbert's original analysis did not apply to renewable resources, their overexploitation can result in a [[Hubbert peak|Hubbert-like peak]]. This has led to the concept of [[peak water]].
=== Forestry ===
{{see|Overlogging}}
[[File:Gordon River Clearcut.jpg|thumb|right|Clear cutting of old growth forests in Canada.]]
[[Forest]]s are overexploited when they are [[Logging|logged]] at a rate faster than [[reforestation]] takes place. Reforestation competes with other land uses such as food production, livestock grazing, and living space for further economic growth. Historically utilization of forest products, including timber and fuel wood, have played a key role in human societies, comparable to the roles of water and cultivable land. Today, developed countries continue to utilize timber for building houses, and wood pulp for [[paper]]. In developing countries almost three billion people rely on wood for heating and cooking.<ref>http://atlas.aaas.org/pdf/63-66.pdf {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110724210638/http://atlas.aaas.org/pdf/63-66.pdf |date=2011-07-24 }} Forest Products</ref> Short-term economic gains made by [[Deforestation|conversion of forest]] to agriculture, or overexploitation of wood products, typically leads to loss of long-term income and long term biological productivity. [[West Africa]], [[Madagascar]], [[Southeast Asia]] and many other regions have experienced lower revenue because of overexploitation and the consequent declining timber harvests.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://rainforests.mongabay.com/0905.htm|title=Destruction of Renewable Resources}}</ref>
{{clear}}
== Biodiversity ==
[[File:Maldivesfish2.jpg|thumb|left|The rich diversity of [[marine life]] inhabiting [[coral reef]]s attracts [[Bioprospecting|bioprospectors]]. Many coral reefs are overexploited; threats include coral mining, [[cyanide fishing|cyanide]] and [[blast fishing]], and [[overfishing]] in general.]]
Overexploitation is one of the main threats to global [[biodiversity]].<ref name=Wilcoveetal /> Other threats include [[pollution]], [[introduced species|introduced]] and [[invasive species|invasive]] species, [[habitat fragmentation]], [[habitat destruction]],<ref name=Wilcoveetal /> [[Hybrid (biology)|uncontrolled hybridization]],<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.27.1.83 |title=Extinction by Hybridization and Introgression |year=1996 |last1=Rhymer |first1=Judith M. |last2=Simberloff |first2=Daniel |journal=[[Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics]] |volume=27 |pages=83–109 |jstor=2097230}}</ref> [[climate change]],<ref name = "Kannan2009">{{cite journal |last1=Kannan |first1=R. |last2=James |first2=D. A. |title=Effects of climate change on global biodiversity: a review of key literature |journal=Tropical Ecology |volume=50 |issue=1 |pages=31–39 |date=2009 |issn=0564-3295 |url=http://www.tropecol.com/pdf/open/PDF_50_1/05Kannan.pdf |access-date=2014-05-21}}</ref> [[ocean acidification]]<ref name=Mora>{{cite journal |last1=Mora |first1=C. |title=Biotic and Human Vulnerability to Projected Changes in Ocean Biogeochemistry over the 21st Century |journal=[[PLOS Biology]] |volume=11 |issue=10 |pages=e1001682 |year=2013 |doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.1001682 |display-authors=etal |pmid=24143135 |pmc=3797030 |doi-access=free }}</ref> and the driver behind many of these, [[human overpopulation]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Dumont |first1=E. |year=2012 |title=Estimated impact of global population growth on future wilderness extent. |journal=[[Earth System Dynamics Discussions]] |volume=3 |issue=1 |pages=433–452 |doi=10.5194/esdd-3-433-2012 |bibcode=2012ESDD....3..433D|url=https://esd.copernicus.org/preprints/3/433/2012/esdd-3-433-2012.pdf |doi-access=free }}</ref>
One of the key health issues associated with biodiversity is drug discovery and the availability of medicinal resources.<ref>(2006) "Molecular Pharming" GMO Compass Retrieved November 5, 2009, From {{cite web |url=http://www.gmocompass.org/eng/search/ |title=GMO Compass |access-date=2010-02-04 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130503025248/http://www.gmocompass.org/eng/search/ |archive-date=2013-05-03 }}</ref> A significant proportion of drugs are [[natural product]]s derived, directly or indirectly, from biological sources. Marine ecosystems are of particular interest in this regard.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Roopesh |first=J. |year=2008 |title=Marine organisms: Potential Source for Drug Discovery |journal=Current Science |volume=94 |issue=3 |pages=292 |url=http://www.ias.ac.in/currsci/feb102008/292a.pdf |display-authors=etal}}</ref> However, unregulated and inappropriate [[bioprospecting]] could potentially lead to overexploitation, ecosystem degradation and [[Biodiversity loss|loss of biodiversity]].<ref name = "Dhillion">{{cite journal |title=Bioprospecting: Effects on Environment and Development |journal=[[Ambio]] |date=September 2002 |first1=S. S. |last1=Dhillion |last2=Svarstad |first2=H. |last3=Amundsen |first3=C. |last4=Bugge |first4=H. C. |volume=31 |issue=6 |pages=491–493 |jstor=4315292 |doi=10.1639/0044-7447(2002)031[0491:beoead]2.0.co;2 |pmid=12436849}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Cole |first=Andrew |year=2005 |title=Looking for new compounds in sea is endangering ecosystem |journal=[[British Medical Journal|BMJ]] |volume=330 |issue=7504 |pages=1350 |doi=10.1136/bmj.330.7504.1350-d |pmid=15947392 |pmc=558324}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cohabnet.org/en_issue4.htm |title=COHAB Initiative - on Natural Products and Medicinal Resources |publisher=Cohabnet.org |access-date=2009-06-21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171025100247/http://cohabnet.org/en_issue4.htm |archive-date=2017-10-25 |url-status=dead}}</ref>
{{clear}}
== Endangered and extinct species ==
{{see|Endangered species|Holocene extinction}}
[[File:Overgrazing.JPG|thumb|right|It is not just humans that overexploit resources. [[Overgrazing]] can be caused by native fauna, as shown in the upper right. However, past human overexploitation (leading to elimination of some predators) may be behind the situation.]]
Species from all groups of fauna and flora are affected by overexploitation.
All living organisms require resources to survive. Overexploitation of these resources for protracted periods can deplete natural stocks to the point where they are unable to recover within a short time frame. Humans have always harvested food and other resources they have needed to survive. Human populations, historically, were small, and methods of collection limited to small quantities. With an exponential increase in [[human population]], expanding markets and increasing demand, combined with improved access and techniques for capture, are causing the [[exploitation of natural resources|exploitation]] of many species beyond sustainable levels.<ref>Redford 1992, Fitzgibon ''et al.'' 1995, Cuarón 2001.</ref> In practical terms, if continued, it reduces valuable resources to such low levels that their exploitation is no longer sustainable and can lead to the [[extinction]] of a species, in addition to having dramatic, unforeseen [[keystone species|effects]], on the [[ecosystem]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Frankham |first1=R. |last2=Ballou |first2=J. D. |last3=Briscoe |first3=D. A. |year=2002 |title=Introduction to Conservation Genetics |location=New York |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |isbn=978-0-521-63014-6}}</ref> Overexploitation often occurs rapidly as markets open, utilising previously untapped resources, or locally used species.
[[File:Conuropsis carolinensisAWP026AA2.jpg|thumb|left|The [[Carolina parakeet]] was hunted to extinction.]]
This is more prevalent when looking at [[island ecology]] and the species that inhabit them, as islands can be viewed as the world in miniature. Island [[Endemism|endemic]] populations are more prone to [[extinction]] from overexploitation, as they often exist at low densities with reduced reproductive rates.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Dowding |first1=J. E. |last2=Murphy |first2=E. C. |year=2001 |title=The Impact of Predation be Introduced Mammals on Endemic Shorebirds in New Zealand: A Conservation Perspective |journal=Biological Conservation |volume=99 |issue=1 |pages=47–64 |doi=10.1016/S0006-3207(00)00187-7}}</ref> A good example of this are island snails, such as the Hawaiian ''[[Achatinella]]'' and the French Polynesian ''[[Partula (gastropod)|Partula]]''. Achatinelline snails have 15 species listed as extinct and 24 critically endangered<ref>{{cite web |title=IUCN Red List |year=2003b |url=http://www.iucnredlist.org/search/search.php?freetext=Achatinella&modifier=phrase&criteria=wholedb&taxa_species=1&redlistCategory%5B%5D=allex&country%5B%5D=all&aquatic%5B%5D=all®ions%5B%5D=all&habitats%5B%5D=all&threats%5B%5D=all&Submit.x=97&Submit.y=2}}</ref> while 60 species of partulidae are considered extinct with 14 listed as critically endangered.<ref>{{cite web |title=IUCN Red List |year=2003c |url=http://www.iucnredlist.org/search/search.php?freetext=Partula&modifier=phrase&criteria=wholedb&taxa_species=1&redlistCategory%5B%5D=allex&country%5B%5D=all&aquatic%5B%5D=all®ions%5B%5D=all&habitats%5B%5D=all&threats%5B%5D=all&Submit.x=95&Submit.y=4 |access-date=9 December 2003}}</ref> The [[World Conservation Monitoring Centre|WCMC]] have attributed over-collecting and very low lifetime fecundity for the extreme vulnerability exhibited among these species.<ref>WCMC. (1992). McComb, J., Groombridge, B., Byford, E., Allan, C., Howland, J., Magin, C., Smith, H., Greenwood, V. and Simpson, L. (1992). World Conservation Monitoring Centre. Chapman and Hall.</ref>
As another example, when the humble [[Erinaceus europaeus|hedgehog]] was introduced to the Scottish island of [[Uist]], the population greatly expanded and took to consuming and overexploiting shorebird eggs, with drastic consequences for their breeding success. Twelve species of [[Bird|avifauna]] are affected, with some species numbers being reduced by 39%.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Jackson |first1=D. B. |last2=Fuller |first2=R. J. |last3=Campbell |first3=S. T. |title=Long-term Population Changes Among Breeding Shorebirds in the Outer Hebrides, Scotland, In Relation to Introduced Hedgehogs (''Erinaceus europaeus'') |journal=Biological Conservation |volume=117 |issue=2 |year=2004 |pages=151–166 |doi=10.1016/S0006-3207(03)00289-1}}</ref>
Where there is substantial human migration, civil unrest, or war, controls may no longer exist. With civil unrest, for example in the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Congo]] and [[Rwanda]], firearms have become common and the breakdown of food distribution networks in such countries leaves the resources of the natural environment vulnerable.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Jones |first=R. F. |year=1990 |title=Farewell to Africa |journal=Audubon |volume=92 |pages=1547–1551}}</ref> Animals are even killed as target practice, or simply to spite the government. Populations of large primates, such as [[gorilla]]s and [[Common chimpanzee|chimpanzee]]s, [[ungulate]]s and other mammals, may be reduced by 80% or more by hunting, and certain species may be eliminated altogether.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wilkie |first1=D. S. |first2=J. F. |last2=Carpenter |year=1999 |title=Bushmeat hunting in the Congo Basin: An assessment of impacts and options for migration |journal=Biodiversity and Conservation |volume=8 |issue=7 |pages=927–955 |doi=10.1023/A:1008877309871 |s2cid=27363244}}</ref> This decline has been called the [[bushmeat|bushmeat crisis]].
=== Vertebrates ===
Overexploitation threatens one-third of endangered [[vertebrates]], as well as other groups. Excluding edible fish, the illegal [[wildlife trade|trade in wildlife]] is valued at $10 billion per year. Industries responsible for this include the trade in [[bushmeat]], the trade in [[Chinese medicine]], and the [[fur trade]].<ref>Hemley 1994.</ref> The Convention for International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora, or [[CITES]] was set up in order to control and regulate the trade in endangered animals. It currently protects, to a varying degree, some 33,000 species of animals and plants. It is estimated that a quarter of the endangered vertebrates in the United States of America and half of the endangered mammals is attributed to overexploitation.<ref name=Wilcoveetal /><ref>{{cite book |last=Primack |first=R. B. |year=2002 |title=Essentials of Conservation Biology |edition=3rd |location=Sunderland |publisher=Sinauer Associates |isbn=978-0-87893-719-6}}</ref>
==== Birds ====
{{see|List of extinct birds in the wild|List of extinct bird species since 1500}}
Overall, 50 bird species that have become extinct since 1500 (approximately 40% of the total) have been subject to overexploitation,<ref>The LUCN Red List of Threatened Species (2009).</ref> including:
* [[Pinguinus impennis|Great Auk]] – the penguin-like bird of the north, was hunted for its [[feathers]], meat, fat and oil.
* [[Carolina parakeet]] – The only parrot species native to the eastern United States, was hunted for [[crop protection]] and its feathers.
==== Mammals ====
{{see|List of recently extinct mammals}}
* The international trade in fur: [[chinchilla]], [[vicuña]], [[giant otter]] and numerous cat species
==== Fish ====
{{see|List of recently extinct fishes}}
* [[Fishkeeping|Aquarium hobbyist]]s: [[tropical fish]]
==== Various ====
* [[Novelty pet]]s: snakes, parrots, primates and [[big cat]]s<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.rspca.org.uk/documents/1494939/7712578/The+Exotic+Pet-demic%3A+UK%27s+ticking+timebomb+exposed.pdf/075754a7-fa68-f9bf-66b4-ccb0d559db28?t=1631617196174|title=THE EXOTIC PET-DEMIC/UK'S TICKING TIMEBOMB EXPOSED|date=September 2021|publisher=[[Born Free Foundation]] and the [[Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals]]}}</ref>
* [[Chinese medicine]]: [[bear]]s, [[tiger]]s, [[rhino]]s, [[seahorse]]s, [[Asian black bear]] and [[saiga antelope]]<ref>{{cite news |last=Collins |first=Nick |title=Chinese medicines contain traces of endangered animals |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/health/men_shealth/9200397/Chinese-medicines-contain-traces-of-endangered-animals.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120412224539/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/health/men_shealth/9200397/Chinese-medicines-contain-traces-of-endangered-animals.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=April 12, 2012 |work=[[The Daily Telegraph]] |date=2012-04-12}}</ref>
=== Invertebrates ===
{{see|List of recently extinct invertebrates}}
* [[Insect collector]]s: [[butterflies]]
* [[Conchology|Shell collectors]]: Marine [[mollusc]]s
=== Plants ===
{{see|List of recently extinct plants}}
* [[Horticulturist]]s: New Zealand mistletoe (''[[Trilepidea adamsii]]''), [[orchids]], [[cacti]] and many other plant species
{{clear}}
== Cascade effects ==
[[Image:Kelp forest.jpg|thumb|left|Overexploiting [[sea otter]]s resulted in [[cascade effect]]s which destroyed [[kelp forest]] ecosystems.]]
Overexploitation of species can result in knock-on or [[cascade effect]]s. This can particularly apply if, through overexploitation, a habitat loses its [[apex predator]]. Because of the loss of the top predator, a [[Overpopulation in wild animals|dramatic increase]] in their [[prey]] species can occur. In turn, the unchecked prey can then overexploit their own food resources until population numbers dwindle, possibly to the point of extinction.
A classic example of cascade effects occurred with [[sea otters]]. Starting before the 17th century and not phased out until 1911, sea otters were hunted aggressively for their exceptionally warm and valuable pelts, which could fetch up to $2500 US. This caused cascade effects through the [[kelp forest]] ecosystems along the Pacific Coast of North America.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Estes |first1=J. A. |first2=D. O. |last2=Duggins |first3=G. B. |last3=Rathbun |year=1989 |title=The ecology of extinctions in kelp forest communities |journal=Conservation Biology |volume=3 |issue=3 |pages=251–264 |doi=10.1111/j.1523-1739.1989.tb00085.x |url=https://zenodo.org/record/1230655}}</ref>
One of the sea otters’ primary food sources is the [[sea urchin]]. When hunters caused sea otter populations to decline, an [[ecological release]] of sea urchin populations occurred. The sea urchins then overexploited their main food source, [[kelp]], creating urchin barrens, areas of seabed denuded of kelp, but carpeted with urchins. No longer having food to eat, the sea urchin became [[locally extinct]] as well. Also, since kelp forest ecosystems are homes to many other species, the loss of the kelp caused other cascade effects of secondary extinctions.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Dayton |first1=P. K. |first2=M. J. |last2=Tegner |first3=P. B. |last3=Edwards |first4=K. L. |last4=Riser |year=1998 |title=Sliding baselines, ghosts, and reduced expectations in kelp forest communities |journal=Ecol. Appl. |volume=8 |issue=2 |pages=309–322 |doi=10.1890/1051-0761(1998)008[0309:SBGARE]2.0.CO;2}}</ref>
In 1911, when only one small group of 32 sea otters survived in a remote cove, an international treaty was signed to prevent further exploitation of the sea otters. Under heavy protection, the otters multiplied and repopulated the depleted areas, which slowly recovered. More recently, with declining numbers of fish stocks, again due to overexploitation, [[Orcinus orca|killer whales]] have experienced a food shortage and have been observed feeding on sea otters, again reducing their numbers.<ref>{{cite book |last=Krebs |first=C. J. |year=2001 |title=Ecology |edition=5th |location=San Francisco |publisher=Benjamin Cummings |isbn=978-0-321-04289-7}}</ref>
{{clear}}
== See also ==
{{colbegin}}
* [[Carrying capacity]]
* [[Common-pool resource]]
* [[Conservation biology]]
* [[Defaunation]]
* [[Deforestation]]
* [[Ecosystem management]]
* [[Exploitation of natural resources]]
* [[Extinction]]
* [[Human overpopulation]]
* [[Inverse commons]]
* [[Over-consumption]]
* [[Overpopulation in wild animals]]
* [[Paradox of enrichment]]
* [[Planetary boundaries]]
* [[Social dilemma]]
* [[Sustainability]]
* [[Tyranny of small decisions]]
{{colend}}
== References ==
{{reflist|30em}}
== Further reading ==
* [[FAO]] (2005) [https://books.google.com/books?id=sZiFyqG9Wx8C&q=overexploitation+fisheries Overcoming factors of unsustainability and overexploitation in fisheries] Fisheries report 782, Rome. {{ISBN|978-92-5-105449-9}}
* [https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2022/jul/08/climate-crisis-biodiversity-decline-overexploited-planet-change-to-survive-aoe We’ve overexploited the planet, now we need to change if we’re to survive]. [[Patrick Vallance]] for ''The Guardian''. July 8, 2022.
{{Human impact on the environment|state=expanded}}
{{modelling ecosystems|expanded=none}}
{{Extinction}}
{{Natural resources}}
{{Population}}
{{Doomsday}}
[[Category:Ecology]]
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
[[Category:Fisheries science]]
[[Category:Environmental issues]] |
International parrot trade | [[File:Amazona dufresniana -two captive-8a-2c.jpg|thumb|right|Captive [[blue-cheeked amazon]] parrots]]
The '''international trade in parrots''' is a lucrative enterprise, and forms an important part of the international [[wildlife trade]]. As [[parrot]]s have become increasingly endangered, many countries have placed restrictions on the trade and/or prohibited the trade altogether. Despite the restriction on trade in many countries however, the market still operates both legally and illegally. A big factor that attempts to keep the control in international trade is CITES. The Convention of International Trade in Endangered Species of Wildlife Fauna and Flora was established in 1975, and consists of 184 parties which includes 183 countries along with the European Union. CITES offers three different degrees of protection for around 38,000 species around the world.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last1=Romero-Vidal |first1=Pedro |last2=Carrete |first2=Martina |last3=Hiraldo |first3=Fernando |last4=Blanco |first4=Guillermo |last5=Tella |first5=José L. |date=January 2022 |title=Confounding Rules Can Hinder Conservation: Disparities in Law Regulation on Domestic and International Parrot Trade within and among Neotropical Countries |journal=Animals |language=en |volume=12 |issue=10 |pages=1244 |doi=10.3390/ani12101244 |pmid=35625090 |pmc=9137931 |issn=2076-2615 |doi-access=free }}</ref>
Approximately 2,600 of the more than 9,600 bird species in existence are subject to trade,<ref name=Latin>
'''[[Food and Agriculture Organization|FAO]].''' 2011. ''[http://www.fao.org/docrep/013/i0708e/i0708e00.pdf Trade in Wild Birds and Related Bird Movements in Latin America and the Caribbean]'' Animal Production and Health Paper No. 166. Rome.
</ref>{{rp|3}} and 20% of these species belong to the order Psittaciformes (parrots).<ref name=Latin/>{{rp|3}} In 2009, 3.9% of households in the United States owned birds, which equated to 11,199,000 pet birds in total,<ref name=Weston>
{{cite journal
|url=http://birdpop.net/pubs/files/weston/2009/552_Weston2009.pdf
|first1=M.K.|last1=Weston
|first2=M.A.|last2=Memon
|title=The Illegal Parrot Trade in Latin America and its Consequences to Parrot Nutrition, Health and Conservation
|journal=Bird Populations
|publisher=The Institute for Bird Populations
|year=2009
|volume=9
|pages=76–83
}}</ref> and 75% of these belonged to the [[Psittaciformes|Psittaciforme order]].<ref name=Weston/>{{rp|77}}
== CITES ==
CITES organization aims to restrict the import and export of endangered species.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=CITES – Encyclopedia of Parrots |url=https://parrots.lars-bodin.dk/information/cites/ |access-date=2023-11-03 |language=en-US}}</ref> In appendix I CITES lists species are threatened by extinction, and that trade within these species is only permitted in exceptional circumstances.<ref name=":0" /> Appendix II species listed are not immediately threatened by extinction but trading must be controlled.<ref name=":0" /> Appendix III are species that are protected in at least one country.<ref name=":0" /> Specifically for appendix I CITES restricts the trading of wild birds, species within can only be traded if a permit is granted.<ref name=":0" /> In a study done in Singapore in 2016, they found that 23% (54,207) of CITES Appendix I, II, and III listed birds and 35.2% (78,406) of CITES Appendix I, II, and III listed Parrots were not re-exported after their arrival.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last1=Aloysius |first1=Scott Li Meng |last2=Yong |first2=Ding Li |last3=Lee |first3=Jessica G. |last4=Jain |first4=Anuj |date=March 2020 |title=Flying into extinction: Understanding the role of Singapore's international parrot trade in growing domestic demand |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/bird-conservation-international/article/flying-into-extinction-understanding-the-role-of-singapores-international-parrot-trade-in-growing-domestic-demand/16430B7F412A6ABDA7E407CEE7774E13 |journal=Bird Conservation International |language=en |volume=30 |issue=1 |pages=139–155 |doi=10.1017/S0959270919000182 |s2cid=196688171 |issn=0959-2709|doi-access=free }}</ref> Tracking were parrots go after they have been imported and exported can help determine weather or not the birds are being breed at the locations that are importing, or weather they are being sold as pets.<ref name=":1" />
==International trade==
The pet trade is a large contributor to the legal and illegal sides of wild animal consumption every year. There are many ways that legal wild life trade are regulated to try and ensure sustainable biodiversity.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Zhang |first=Jun |title=Latin America's Export Trade Prospect of Agricultural Products in China |journal=Contemporary Economics}}</ref> However, illegal trade is still an immense issue today. It's estimated that pet trade is worth, at a global level, $30.6-42.8 billion annually.<ref name=":2" />><ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last1=Tow |first1=Jia Hao |last2=Symes |first2=William S. |last3=Carrasco |first3=Luis Roman |date=2021-10-12 |title=Economic value of illegal wildlife trade entering the USA |journal=PLOS ONE |language=en |volume=16 |issue=10 |pages=e0258523 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0258523 |issn=1932-6203 |pmc=8510001 |pmid=34637471 |bibcode=2021PLoSO..1658523T |doi-access=free }}</ref> It is also estimated that $8.6-20.8 of the total is obtained through illegal trade. All over the world animals are being captured, breed, transported, and sold.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3" /> There are two main ways that Parrots are brought into trade. The first is that they will be caught from the wild and then transported to places where they are then sold. The second being that they are captively breed from wild populations, and are then sold into the trade. With both of these during the capture, transport and breeding process the mortality rate of birds is high.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last1=Pires |first1=Stephen F. |last2=Schneider |first2=Jacqueline L. |last3=Herrera |first3=Mauricio |date=2016-03-01 |title=Organized crime or crime that is organized? The parrot trade in the neotropics |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s12117-015-9259-7 |journal=Trends in Organized Crime |language=en |volume=19 |issue=1 |pages=4–20 |doi=10.1007/s12117-015-9259-7 |s2cid=255516461 |issn=1936-4830}}</ref>
When looking wild caught and also captive breed animals involved in the wildlife trade. Birds are among the highest in the number of species that are involved in trade and also the ones that have a large number of threatened species are affected by the pet trade.<ref name=":4" /> Birds are one of the most commonly traded taxonomic groups worldwide, with ca. 4000 of both wild-caught and captive-bred origin species sold and kept as pets.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ribeiro |first1=Joana |last2=Reino |first2=Luís |last3=Schindler |first3=Stefan |last4=Strubbe |first4=Diederik |last5=Vall-llosera |first5=Miquel |last6=Araújo |first6=Miguel Bastos |last7=Capinha |first7=César |last8=Carrete |first8=Martina |last9=Mazzoni |first9=Sabrina |last10=Monteiro |first10=Miguel |last11=Moreira |first11=Francisco |last12=Rocha |first12=Ricardo |last13=Tella |first13=José L. |last14=Vaz |first14=Ana Sofia |last15=Vicente |first15=Joana |date=2019-10-01 |title=Trends in legal and illegal trade of wild birds: a global assessment based on expert knowledge |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s10531-019-01825-5 |journal=Biodiversity and Conservation |language=en |volume=28 |issue=12 |pages=3343–3369 |doi=10.1007/s10531-019-01825-5 |s2cid=199445653 |issn=1572-9710}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Chan |first1=David Tsz Chung |last2=Poon |first2=Emily Shui Kei |last3=Wong |first3=Anson Tsz Chun |last4=Sin |first4=Simon Yung Wa |date=2021-10-01 |title=Global trade in parrots – Influential factors of trade and implications for conservation |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2351989421003346 |journal=Global Ecology and Conservation |volume=30 |pages=e01784 |doi=10.1016/j.gecco.2021.e01784 |s2cid=239683716 |issn=2351-9894|doi-access=free }}</ref> In fact, approximately a third (>400) of all globally threatened bird species are thought to be affected by overexploitation for food or cage bird trade.
===Top exporters===
The greatest number of parrots came from [[Latin America]]n countries (mostly [[Guyana]], [[Suriname]] and [[Argentina]]).<ref name=Reynolds>
{{cite book
|title=Conservation of Exploited Species
|first=John D.
|last=Reynolds
|publisher=Cambridge University Press
|year=2001
|isbn=978-0-521-78733-8
|url-access=registration
|url=https://archive.org/details/conservationofex0000unse
}}</ref> The top bird exporting countries are:
* [[Argentina]]
* [[Tanzania]]
* [[Senegal]]
* [[Indonesia]]<ref>
{{cite book
|url=http://xa.yimg.com/kq/groups/17427827/622761750/name/Etnoornithologi.pdf
|last=Tidemann|first=Sonia
|title=Ethno-ornithology: Birds, Indigenous Peoples, Culture and Society
|publisher=Earthscan
|year=2009
|isbn=978-1-84407-783-0
|page=82
}}</ref>
===Top importers===
The largest importers of parrots are:<ref name = Latin/>
* The [[European Union]]
* The United States
* [[Singapore]]
* [[Central America]]
* The [[Caribbean]]
Prior to 1992, the United States was the largest importer, but after the Wild Bird Conservation Act was passed in 1992, the European Union emerged as the leading importer.<ref name=Latin/> In the 2000-2003 period, the EU imported 2.8 million wild bird species, accounting for 93% of imports worldwide.<ref name=Latin/>
The chart below graphs the gross exports of true parrots, members of the family Psittacidae, a subtaxon of the order Psittaciformes.
[[File:Parrot Export Chart.png|thumb|center|600px|Gross exports of true parrots<ref>
{{cite web
|url=http://www.cites.org/eng/resources/trade.shtml
|title=CITES trade database
|accessdate=2011-11-15
}} Data excludes some genera in the family Psittacidae, including ''Pesoporous'', ''Poicephalus'', ''Tangnathus'', Strigops, Rhynchopsitta, ''Purpureicephalus'', ''Psittrichus'', ''Psittinus'', ''Triclaria'', and ''Touit''.</ref>]]
However, the statistics greatly underestimate the quantity of birds channeled into the pet trade. Mortalities that occur prior to export are excluded.<ref name=Latin/> An estimated 60% of the birds taken from the wild for trade may perish before reaching the market and many die in transport.<ref>
{{cite book
|title=Neotropical Wildlife Use and Conservation
|chapter=The Psittacine Trade in Mexico
|first1=E.
|last1=Inigo
|first2=M.
|last2=Ramos
|editor1-first=John G.
|editor1-last=Robinson
|editor2-first=Kent H.
|editor2-last=Redford
|publisher=The University of Chicago Press
|year=1991
|isbn=978-0-226-72258-0
|url-access=registration
|url=https://archive.org/details/neotropicalwildl0000unse
}}</ref>
The parrot trade has grown in Latin America, due to the wide availability of species in this area and the high global demand for exotic pets. The trade regulations vary between countries and are difficult to enforce, which has led to this continued practice despite the issues it causes. There is a lack of knowledge about the husbandry of exotic pets, particularly parrots, leading to inadequate care in captivity and illnesses, such as hypovitaminosis A disorder, which can be fatal. Additionally, the escape and owner release of these birds into the wild can also threaten species by establishing non-native populations.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Weston |first1=MK |last2=Memon |first2=MA |date=2009 |title=The illegal parrot trade in Latin America and its consequences to parrot nutrition, health and conservation. |journal=Bird Populations |volume=9 |issue=1 |pages=76–83}}</ref>
==Trade in the United States==
Although most parrots in the United States are imported (see chart below), some appear to be captured domestically. Florida's wild [[blue-and-yellow macaw]]s are not native to the state and therefore are not protected under Florida law.<ref name="Buder">{{cite journal | last=Buder |first=Emily |date=15 May 2018 |title=The Legal 'Pet-Poaching' Problem |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/video/index/560441/parrot-macaws-miami/ |journal=The Atlantic |access-date=27 September 2021}}</ref> Pam Wright explained, "Florida's wild parrots are being poached, sold on the internet, and it's perfectly legal."<ref>{{cite news | url=https://weather.com/science/nature/news/2018-06-09-florida-parrots-poached-sold-internet-legal | title=Florida's Wild Parrots Are Being Poached, Sold On the Internet, and It's Perfectly Legal | date=9 June 2018}}</ref> In the documentary ''Parrots in Peril'', Neil Losin argues, "Wherever you find wild animals that have commercial value in the pet trade—cities included—poaching can become a problem".<ref name="Buder"/>
[[File:U.S parrot trade chart.png|thumb|center|600px|United States parrot trade<ref name = US>[http://www.usitc.gov/ "HTS – 0106320000: General Customs Value by General Customs Value for ALL Countries.", USITC Interactive Tariff and Trade Database, Accessed November 2011]</ref>]]
==Legal rules and restrictions regarding Psittacidae trade==
The Wild Bird Conservation Act (WBCA)<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.fws.gov/international/DMA_DSA/Permits/web_list_wbca.html
|title=Wild Bird Conservation Act
|publisher=US Fish and Wildlife Service
|accessdate=21 February 2012
|archive-date=7 July 2012
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120707065143/http://www.fws.gov/international/DMA_DSA/Permits/web_list_wbca.html
|url-status=dead
}}</ref> was enacted on October 23, 1992, to protect exotic bird species from international trade. The Act maintains that wild-caught birds may only be imported into the United States if they are produced in accordance with service-approved management plans for sustainable use of the species.<ref name = US/> After the WBCA, the number of parrots imported in the US declined from over 100,000 annually to only hundreds annually.<ref name=Reynolds/>
The [[European Union]] placed a temporary ban on wild bird imports in October 2005 after imported birds died from the [[Influenza A virus subtype H5N1|H5N1 bird flu]]. The ban was made permanent in 2007, allowing only captive-bred birds from approved countries to be imported.<ref>
{{cite news
|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/6253543.stm
|title=EU to ban imports of wild birds
|work=BBC News
|date=11 January 2007
}}</ref>
The [[Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species]] (CITES) protects certain species from the effects of international trade. Several true parrots from the genus [[Ara (genus)|''Ara'']] ([[great green macaw]], [[blue-throated macaw]], [[scarlet macaw]], [[military macaw]]), are all protected under Appendix 1 of CITES, meaning that commercial international trade in wild-sourced birds is prohibited.<ref>“Appendices 1,2, and 3” Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora, 2010</ref>
==Trade in Mexico==
Although it is difficult to account for the exact number of birds trafficked each year, a comprehensive survey of parrot trappers by [[Defenders of Wildlife]], a national nonprofit organization in Mexico, estimates that anywhere from 65,000 to 78,500 birds are captured and traded annually. The same report indicates that [[Psittacidae]] populations have declined as much as 30% in Mexico over the past century due to a combination of habitat loss and overexploitation of the trade of these animals.<ref name = Guzman>
{{cite report
|title=The Illegal Parrot Trade in Mexico
|url=http://www.defenders.org/resources/publications/programs_and_policy/international_conservation/the_illegal_parrot_trade_in_mexico.pdf
|page=9
|first1=Juan Carlos Cantu|last1=Guzman
|first2=Saldana Maria Elena|last2=Sanchez
|first3=Manuel|last3=Grosselet
|first4=Jesus Siliva|last4=Gamez
|publisher=[[Defenders of Wildlife]]
|location=Mexico
|year=2007
}}</ref>
===History===
Although declining parrot populations in Mexico are a modern worry, the [[Psittacine]] trade is deeply rooted in the country's history and culture. The [[Aztecs]] often kept parrots and macaws as pets, and their feathers were used to make ceremonial tokens. Smaller tribes taken over by the Aztec empire often provided their conquerors with Macaw feathers as a form of tribute and a symbol of submission.<ref name = Guzman/>
The Aztecs, who occupied Mesoamerica, also most likely traded Psittacidae feathers and animals with [[Pueblo]] peoples living in modern-day New Mexico.<ref name = Watson>
{{cite journal
|first1=Adam S.|last1=Watson
|first2=Stephen|last2=Plog
|first3=Brendan J.|last3=Culleton
|first4=Partricia A.|last4=Gilman
|title=Early Procurement of Scarlet Macaws and the Emergence of Social Complexity in Chaco Canyon, NM
|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
|publisher=[[National Academy of Sciences]]
|year=2015
|volume=112
|issue=27|pages=8239–8243
|doi = 10.1073/pnas.1509825112 |pmid=26100874 |pmc=4500242
|bibcode=2015PNAS..112.8238W|doi-access=free
}}</ref> It is evident that a culture of internal and international trade of these birds existed even before the Spanish conquest. The international parrot trade increased as [[spanish colonization]] opened the region to new trade routes.<ref name = Guzman/>
However, the illegal trade and smuggling of these birds only became recognized as an environmental issue and subsequently legislated in the 20th century.<ref name = Valdez>
{{cite journal
|title=Wildlife Conservation and Management in Mexico
|url=http://faculty.weber.edu/jcavitt/WildlifeManagementMaterials/Readings/MexicoWildlifeLaws.pdf
|first1=Raul|last1=Valdez
|first2=Juan C.|last2=Guzman-Aranda
|first3=Fransisco J.|last3=Abarca
|first4=Luis A.|last4=Tarango-Arámbula
|first5=Fernando|last5=Clemente
|journal=[[Wildlife Society Bulletin]]
|year=2006
|volume=34
|issue=2
|page=273
|doi=10.2193/0091-7648(2006)34[270:WCAMIM]2.0.CO;2
|s2cid=85750850
}}</ref>
===Export===
In September 1982 Mexico banned the commercial export of Psittacines, but because demand still existed in the United States, trade across the border continued illegally.<ref name = Gobbi>
{{cite report
|title=Parrot Smuggling Across the Texas-Mexico Border
|url=http://www.traffic.org/species-reports/traffic_species_birds3.pdf
|page=9
|first1=José|last1=Gobbi
|first2=Debra|last2=Rose
|first3=Gina|last3=De Ferrari
|first4=Leonora|last4=Sheeline
|publisher=[[Traffic USA]]
|location=Washington, DC
|year=1996
}}</ref> Throughout the 1980s the majority of birds captured in Mexico were smuggled across the U.S. border to be sold as [[exotic pets]].<ref name = Guzman1>
{{cite report
|title=The Illegal Parrot Trade in Mexico
|url=http://www.defenders.org/resources/publications/programs_and_policy/international_conservation/the_illegal_parrot_trade_in_mexico.pdf
|page=10
|first1=Juan Carlos Cantu|last1=Guzman
|first2=Saldana Maria Elena|last2=Sanchez
|first3=Manuel|last3=Grosselet
|first4=Jesus Siliva|last4=Gamez
|publisher=[[Defenders of Wildlife]]
|location=Mexico
|year=2007
}}</ref> Beginning in the 1990s two major factors prompted the decrease of the flow of these birds into the U.S. First, the passage of the Wild Bird Conservation Act in the United States in 1992 led to a dramatic increase in the regulation of exotic birds entering the United States, naturally followed by a decrease in trade.<ref name="Cornell University Law School">{{cite web
|url=https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/16/4902
|title=16 US Code 4902- Statement of Purpose
|publisher=Cornell University Law School
|accessdate=24 November 2015
}}</ref> Second, the Wild Bird Conservation Act authorized the creation of captive breeding centers in the United States.<ref name="Cornell University Law School"/> Although captive bred birds are usually more expensive due to the costs of being raised in captivity, Americans looking for exotic pets are generally able to afford these higher prices. The sale of captive bred parrots has largely overtaken that of illegal exotics in the U.S.<ref name = Pires>
{{cite journal
|title=The Illegal Parrot Trade in Mexico
|first1=Stephen F.|last1=Pires
|journal=Global Crime
|publisher=[[Routledge]]
|year=2012
|volume=13
|issue=3
|page=178
|doi=10.1080/17440572.2012.700180
|s2cid=144452354}}</ref> A common misconception is that animal trafficking in Mexico today is fueled by demand from the United States similar to that of the drug trade. However, it has been determined that internal trade of Psittacines within Mexico is now actually far more detrimental and widespread than international [[smuggling]].<ref name = Guzman1/>
===Illegal Trade Within Mexico===
The regulation of the parrot trade in Mexico has proven to be a problematic process. Until 2003, the parrot trade was authorized on a species by species basis. The number of species that could be legally trapped and sold had steadily declined since 1979, and in 2003 the [[Mexican government]] banned the trade of all Psittacines. However, in 2006 permits were once again issued for the capture and trade of select species. Although some trade in Psittacines was legal between 2006 and 2008, the absence of law enforcement for wildlife crimes meant that even trade in authorized species was usually perpetrated illegally.<ref name = Guzman22>
{{cite report
|title=The Illegal Parrot Trade in Mexico
|url=http://www.defenders.org/resources/publications/programs_and_policy/international_conservation/the_illegal_parrot_trade_in_mexico.pdf
|pages=9–10
|first1=Juan Carlos Cantu|last1=Guzman
|first2=Saldana Maria Elena|last2=Sanchez
|first3=Manuel|last3=Grosselet
|first4=Jesus Siliva|last4=Gomez
|publisher=[[Defenders of Wildlife]]
|location=Mexico
|year=2007
}}</ref> Before 2008, many parrots were captured and sold by bird trapper and salesman unions. These unions were often registered with the state, and agreed to terms that attempted to protect parrot populations in return for official trapping authorizations. Although these stipulations aimed to protect Psittacine populations, they proved to be largely ineffective in practice.<ref name = Guzman33>
{{cite report
|title=The Illegal Parrot Trade in Mexico
|url=http://www.defenders.org/resources/publications/programs_and_policy/international_conservation/the_illegal_parrot_trade_in_mexico.pdf
|page=25
|first1=Juan Carlos Cantu|last1=Guzman
|first2=Saldana Maria Elena|last2=Sanchez
|first3=Manuel|last3=Grosselet
|first4=Jesus Siliva|last4=Gamez
|publisher=[[Defenders of Wildlife]]
|location=Mexico
|year=2007
}}</ref> For instance, federal law mandated that capture of authorized parrot species had to be performed inside [[Unidades de Manejo para la Conservación de la Vida Silvestre|UMA]]’s, or Wildlife Conservation, Management, and Sustainable Utilization Units, which are areas of land registered with the federal Office of wildlife regulated under a specific species management plan.<ref name = Valdez1>
{{cite journal
|title=Wildlife Conservation and Management in Mexico
|url=http://faculty.weber.edu/jcavitt/WildlifeManagementMaterials/Readings/MexicoWildlifeLaws.pdf
|first1=Raul|last1=Valdez
|first2=Juan C.|last2=Guzman-Aranda
|first3=Fransisco J.|last3=Abarca
|first4=Luis A.|last4=Tarango-Arámbula
|first5=Fernando|last5=Clemente
|journal=[[Wildlife Society Bulletin]]
|year=2006
|volume=34
|issue=2
|page=273
|doi=10.2193/0091-7648(2006)34[270:WCAMIM]2.0.CO;2
|s2cid=85750850
}}</ref>
The law also set quotas and other specific rules for trappers within these UMA's. However, the Mexican wildlife law enforcement agency, PROFEPA, was too understaffed and underfunded to enforce these laws. It was not capable of monitoring each UMA for illicit activity. Instead, it visited a select group of predetermined UMA's each year, and performed inspections of UMA's where illegal activity had been reported.<ref name = Guzman3>
{{cite report
|title=The Illegal Parrot Trade in Mexico
|url=http://www.defenders.org/resources/publications/programs_and_policy/international_conservation/the_illegal_parrot_trade_in_mexico.pdf
|page=55
|first1=Juan Carlos Cantu|last1=Guzman
|first2=Saldana Maria Elena|last2=Sanchez
|first3=Manuel|last3=Grosselet
|first4=Jesus Siliva|last4=Gamez
|publisher=[[Defenders of Wildlife]]
|location=Mexico
|year=2007
}}</ref> In 2005 only 54 out of the 6,446 UMA's in Mexico received visits from wildlife regulatory agencies. An absence of a concrete body of knowledge regarding Psitaccine populations and the activity of trappers within these areas meant that quotas were often exceeded and authorizations were bypassed. Consequently, it has been demonstrated that as much as 75% of the parrot trade, even in authorized species, was being perpetrated illegally.<ref name = Guzman43>
{{cite report
|title=The Illegal Parrot Trade in Mexico
|url=http://www.defenders.org/resources/publications/programs_and_policy/international_conservation/the_illegal_parrot_trade_in_mexico.pdf
|page=55
|first1=Juan Carlos Cantu|last1=Guzman
|first2=Saldana Maria Elena|last2=Sanchez
|first3=Manuel|last3=Grosselet
|first4=Jesus Siliva|last4=Gamez
|publisher=[[Defenders of Wildlife]]
|location=Mexico
|year=2007
}}</ref>
A 2006 report by Cantu et al. report demonstrated that the illegal trade of Psittacines actually ''increased'' when [[trapping]] was authorized by government agencies. This was because illegal activity was much more easily concealed under the auspices of legal trade.<ref name = Guzman4>
{{cite report
|title=The Illegal Parrot Trade in Mexico
|url=http://www.defenders.org/resources/publications/programs_and_policy/international_conservation/the_illegal_parrot_trade_in_mexico.pdf
|page=89
|first1=Juan Carlos Cantu|last1=Guzman
|first2=Saldana Maria Elena|last2=Sanchez
|first3=Manuel|last3=Grosselet
|first4=Jesus Siliva|last4=Gamez
|publisher=[[Defenders of Wildlife]]
|location=Mexico
|year=2007
}}</ref> The report suggested that the Mexican government stop issuing trapping authorizations for all species of parrots and [[macaws]],<ref name = Guzman4/> and so a ban on the Psittacine trade was placed into effect in October 2008.<ref>
{{cite web
|url=https://www.animallaw.info/statute/mx-bird-parrot-ban-decree-which-article-60-2-general-law-wildlife
|title=General Law of Wildlife Article 602
|publisher=Michigan State Animal Legal and Historical Center
|accessdate=28 November 2015
}}</ref>
Although this ban might be successful in deterring some of the organized trade in Psittacines, the illegal parrot trade is still a major problem today.<ref name = Pires2>
{{cite journal
|title=The Illegal Parrot Trade: A Literature Review
|first1=Stephen F.|last1=Pires
|journal=Global Crime
|publisher=[[Routledge]]
|year=2012
|volume=13
|issue=3
|page=178
|doi=10.1080/17440572.2012.700180
|s2cid=144452354}}</ref> Psittacines are poached from the wild by opportunistic peasants who use the animals they sell as a primary or secondary source of income.<ref name = Moreto>
{{cite journal
|title=Preventing Wildlife Crime: Solutions that can overcome the tragedy of the commons'
|first1=Stephen F.|last1=Pires
|first2=William D.|last2=Moreto
|journal=European Journal on Criminal Policy and Research
|publisher=[[Springer Science and Business Media]]
|year=2011
|volume=17
|issue=2
|page=104
|doi=10.1007/s10610-011-9141-3
|s2cid=144855203|id={{ProQuest|916897879}}
}}</ref> This [[poaching]] is difficult to trace or regulate because it is widespread and performed without any sort of record-keeping.<ref name = Guzman2>
{{cite report
|title=The Illegal Parrot Trade in Mexico
|url=http://www.defenders.org/resources/publications/programs_and_policy/international_conservation/the_illegal_parrot_trade_in_mexico.pdf
|page=21
|first1=Juan Carlos Cantu|last1=Guzman
|first2=Saldana Maria Elena|last2=Sanchez
|first3=Manuel|last3=Grosselet
|first4=Jesus Siliva|last4=Gamez
|publisher=[[Defenders of Wildlife]]
|location=Mexico
|year=2007
}}</ref> The captured parrots are often sold to middlemen called itinerant fences who travel to different locations to purchase parrots from villagers and later sell them to open air markets located in more densely populated areas.<ref name = Pires2/>
PROFEPA attempts to combat the illegal parrot trade using several methods including directly attending to reports regarding illegal activity; making scheduled inspections of markets, pet shops, zoos, and UMA's; pinpointing identified locations for sale and transport; and patrolling ports, airports, and borders. However, these efforts do not make a significant impact. Much of PROFEPA's enforcement activity is concentrated on the point of sale, but the high rate of mortality in trafficked parrots means that intervention efforts often occur too late to save the smuggled birds. The agency also lacks the resources to conduct raids on warehouses and markets that are used to store and sell parrots. Even when these operations can be implemented, PROFEPA is hindered by insiders who tip off the bird traders so that they can hide their animals before the raids occur. (new info, defenders, 54) Because of its ineffective system of management, it has been estimated that PROFEPA's seizures of wildlife represent only 2% of the total annual Psittacine trade.<ref name="Guzman53">{{cite report
|title=The Illegal Parrot Trade in Mexico
|url=http://www.defenders.org/resources/publications/programs_and_policy/international_conservation/the_illegal_parrot_trade_in_mexico.pdf
|page=55
|first1=Juan Carlos Cantu|last1=Guzman
|first2=Saldana Maria Elena|last2=Sanchez
|first3=Manuel|last3=Grosselet
|first4=Jesus Siliva|last4=Gamez
|publisher=[[Defenders of Wildlife]]
|location=Mexico
|year=2007
}}</ref>
===Solutions To Illegal Trade===
Today, the illegal parrot trade continues because it is a low risk, high reward criminal activity.<ref name = Stephen>
{{cite journal
|title=The Heterogenicity of Illegal Parrot Markets: An Analysis of Seven Neotropical Open Air Markets
|doi=10.1007/s10610-014-9246-6
|first1=Stephen F.|last1=Pires
|journal=European Journal on Criminal Policy and Research
|publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media|Springer]]
|year=2015
|volume=21
|pages=151–166
|s2cid=154596917
}}</ref> Intervention is problematic because there is a limited body of knowledge regarding the topic, and records kept by government agencies are sparse.<ref name="Clarkeandpires1">{{cite journal
|title=Are Parrots Craved? An Analysis of Parrot Poaching in Mexico
|first1=Stephen S.|last1=Pires
|first2=Ronald V.|last2=Clarke
|journal=Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency
|publisher=[[SAGE Publications|SAGE]]
|year=2012
|volume=49
|pages=122–146
|doi=10.1177/0022427810397950
|s2cid=145534061}}</ref>
A 2006 report by Cantu. et al. is one of the only comprehensive and concentrated bodies of knowledge regarding the extent of the Psittacine trade in Mexico. This report is largely based on interviews with bird traders and union leaders, and attempts to organize data collected by a variety of Mexican agencies regarding the issue. However, the document is limited by a lack of concrete evidence specifically regarding the number of birds taken from the wild each year, and relies on interviews and speculation to fill in the gaps left by the absence of scientific data. It advocates for an increase in Psittacine [[population studies]] to regulate trade and to be able to formulate effective measures for reducing the exploitation of Psittacine populations.<ref name="Clarkeandpires1"/> Because of the widespread and disorganized nature of the Psitaccine trade, literature suggests that improved enforcement of current regulatory methods is not feasible due to the financial limitations of PROFEPA and other wildlife administration agencies.<ref name="Clarkeandpires1"/>
Alternative forms of prevention were suggested in several different studies. A 2011 report by Pires and Moreto advocates a system of situational crime prevention in which enforcement is targeted on a community basis. They write, “…in areas where parrot poaching is concentrated, possible solutions to poaching include: removing ladders from trees, keeping a watch out by citizens/police during breeding periods, shutting down illegal pet markets, and [[CCTV]] for the most poached species.”<ref name = Moreto1>
{{cite journal
|title=Preventing Wildlife Crime: Solutions that can overcome the tragedy of the commons'
|first1=Stephen F.|last1=Pires
|first2=William D.|last2=Moreto
|journal=European Journal on Criminal Policy and Research
|publisher=[[Springer Science and Business Media]]
|year=2011
|volume=17
|issue=2
|page=110
|doi=10.1007/s10610-011-9141-3
|s2cid=144855203|id={{ProQuest|916897879}}
}}</ref>
They conclude that a concentration of resources in the areas where they are most needed would prove most effective in reducing illegal trade.<ref name = Moreto1/>
A similar study by Pires and Clarke suggests that campaigns to build national pride for the Psitaccines of Mexico could be effective in lowering trafficking rates, but they acknowledge that the campaign may not be successful due to [[Mexico]]’s large urban population and diversity of parrot species. A more comprehensive and concrete suggestion, also by Pires and Clarke, is to promote and invest in ecotourist lodges that partner with local communities in order to conserve Psittacine populations by using them to attract tourists who stimulate the local economy. If these lodges were effective in providing adequate support to surrounding communities, it is foreseeable that the parrot trade in those areas would decrease as opportunistic trappers realize the value of psittacines as a [[natural resource]]. Need based trapping would decline as primary or secondary incomes would become dependent on the [[ecotourism]] business.<ref name="Clarke">{{cite report
|title=Are Parrots Craved? An Analysis of Parrot Poaching in Mexico
|url=http://jrc.sagepub.com/content/49/1/122
|first1=Stephen S.|last1=Pires
|first2=Ronald V.|last2=Clarke
|journal=Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency
|publisher=[[SAGE Publications|SAGE]]
|year=2012
|volume=49
|page=130
}}</ref>
==Illegal market==
Smuggling reached its peak in the 1980s when an estimated 50,000 to 150,000 [[neotropical parrot]]s were smuggled annually into the United States.<ref name = Carlos>
{{cite report
|title=The Illegal Parrot Trade in Mexico
|url=http://www.defenders.org/resources/publications/programs_and_policy/international_conservation/the_illegal_parrot_trade_in_mexico.pdf
|page=9
|first1=Juan Carlos Cantu|last1=Guzman
|first2=Saldana Maria Elena|last2=Sanchez
|first3=Manuel|last3=Grosselet
|first4=Jesus Siliva|last4=Gamez
|publisher=[[Defenders of Wildlife]]
|location=Mexico
|year=2007
}}</ref>
===Sample market prices===
* A [[Lear's macaw]] sells for approximated [[USD|$]]60,000-$90,000<ref name = Wyler>
{{cite report
|url=https://fpc.state.gov/documents/organization/102621.pdf
|title=International Illegal Trade in Wildlife: Threats and U.S. Policy
|first1=Liana|last1=Sun Wyler
|first2=Pervaze A.|last2=Sheikh
|publisher=[[Congressional Research Service]]
|page=CRS-7
|year=2008
}}</ref>
* [[Hyacinth macaw]]s sell for $5000–$12,000 per mature breeding pair<ref name=Wyler />
* Captive bred [[blue-and-yellow macaw]] were sold for around $1,800 dollars in the United States in the early 1980s, and for $650 to $900 in the early 1990s<ref name=Carlos />
* Live birds and bird eggs are the second most common major seizure by the [[Australian Customs Service]]<ref>
{{cite journal
|title=Wildlife across our borders: a review of the illegal trade in Australia
|first1=Erika|last1=Alacs
|first2=Arthur|last2=Georges
|journal=Australian Journal of Forensic Sciences
|volume=40|issue=2|pages=147–160|year=2008
|doi=10.1080/00450610802491382|s2cid=57018987}}</ref>
* The price of a blue and gold macaw could be as high as $1200 in the early 1990s<ref>
{{cite report
|title=Making a Killing or Making a Living: Wildlife Trade, Trade Controls, and Rural Livelihoods
|first1=Dilys|last1=Roe
|first2=Teresa|last2=Mulliken
|first3=Simon|last3=Milledge
|first4=Josephine|last4=Mremi
|first5=Simon|last5=Mosha
|first6=Maryanne|last6=Grieg-Gran
|url=http://pubs.iied.org/pdfs/9156IIED.pdf
|page=12
|publisher=[[International Institute for Environment and Development]]
|docket=Biodiversity and Livelihoods Issues No. 6
}}</ref>
==See also==
*[[Environmental agreements]]
*[[Wildlife Enforcement Monitoring System]]
*[[Wildlife conservation]]
*[[Wildlife management]]
*[[Wildlife smuggling]]
*[[CITES]]
*[[Poaching]]
==References==
{{reflist}}
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
[[Category:Animal trade|Parrots]]
[[Category:Parrots]] |
Island restoration | {{more footnotes|date=August 2011}}
[[File:Redonda by sea 1, 2023.jpg|thumb|[[Redonda]], an island in [[Antigua and Barbuda]], where restoration efforts have taken place.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-02 |title=Destructive wild goats ruled the island of Redonda for over a century. Now, it's being reborn. |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/article/raveous-wild-goats-ruled-this-island-for-over-a-century-being-reborn |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210418093532/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/article/raveous-wild-goats-ruled-this-island-for-over-a-century-being-reborn |url-status=dead |archive-date=April 18, 2021 |access-date=2022-03-27 |website=Science |language=en}}</ref>]]
The '''ecological restoration of islands''', or '''island restoration''', is the application of the principles of [[ecological restoration]] to [[island]]s and island groups. Islands, due to their isolation, are home to many of the world's [[endemic (ecology)|endemic]] species, as well as important breeding grounds for [[seabird]]s and some [[marine mammal]]s. Their ecosystems are also very vulnerable to human [[disturbance (ecology)|disturbance]] and particularly to [[introduced species]], due to their small size. Island groups, such as [[New Zealand]] and [[Hawaii]], have undergone substantial [[extinction]]s and losses of [[Habitat (ecology)|habitat]]. Since the 1950s several organisations and government agencies around the world have worked to restore islands to their original states; New Zealand has used them to hold natural populations of species that would otherwise be unable to survive in the wild. The principal components of island restoration are the removal of introduced species and the reintroduction of native species.
==Islands, endemism and extinction==
Isolated islands have been known to have greater levels of endemism since the 1970s when the theory of [[island biogeography]], formulated by [[Robert MacArthur]] and [[E.O. Wilson]], was developed. This higher occurrence of endemism is because isolation limits immigration of new species to the island, allowing new species to evolve separately from others on the mainland. For example, 71% of [[Biodiversity of New Zealand|New Zealand]]'s bird species (prior to human arrival) were endemic. As well as displaying greater levels of endemism, island species have characteristics that make them particularly vulnerable to human disturbance.
Many island species evolved on small islands, or even restricted habitats on small islands. Small populations are vulnerable to even modest hunting, and restricted habitats are vulnerable to loss or modification of said habitat. More importantly, island species are often ecologically naive, that is they have not evolved alongside a predator, or have lost appropriate behavioural responses to [[predator]]s. This often resulted in flightlessness, or unusual levels of [[island tameness|tameness]]. This made many species susceptible to hunting (it is thought, for example, that [[moa]]s were hunted to extinction in a few short generations) and to predation by introduced species. Some, such as the [[dodo]], are thought to have become extinct because of the pressure of both humans and introduced animals. One estimate of birds in the [[Pacific]] islands puts the extinctions at 2000 species. Between 40 and 50% of the bird species of New Zealand have become extinct since 200 AD.
[[Image:Takahe and chick.jpg|thumb|230px|right|[[Takahē]] have bred after translocation to restored islands, like these on [[Kapiti Island]].]]
The field of island restoration is usually credited with having been started in New Zealand in the 1960s, but other smaller projects, such as the restoration of [[Nonsuch Island]] in [[Bermuda]] (which began in 1962) have been going on for almost as long. Nevertheless, the program undertaken by the [[New Zealand Department of Conservation|Department of Conservation]] (DOC) is one of the largest in the world. It began on [[Cuvier Island]], where ecologists removed stock, [[goat]]s, [[feral cats]] and finally, in 1993, [[Pacific rat]]s. The success of the project resulted in similar projects around New Zealand. The advantages to the DOC were considerable; in addition to protecting species endemic to smaller islands, like the [[magenta petrel]], islands near the mainland, once restored, could act as habitat for species of birds that were unable to survive on the mainland. Species like the [[takahē]], where the remaining wild population was at considerable risk from feral cats and dogs, could be moved to these islands to safeguard the species.
===Eradication of introduced alien species===
One important aspect of island restoration is the removal of [[invasive species|invasive alien species]]. Since these species are most often the reason that native fauna and flora is threatened, their removal is essential to the restoration project. From 1673 until 2009, 786 successful invasive vertebrate eradication have been recorded and in the last few decades the frequency of eradications and the size of islands from which invasive vertebrates have been eradicated has increased. A definitive list of past island restoration efforts exists as the Database of Island Invasive Species Eradications.<ref>{{cite web|title=Database of Island Invasive Species Eradications (DIISE)|url=http://diise.islandconservation.org/ |publisher=[[Island Conservation)]]|access-date=9 January 2019}}</ref> In addition a list of the current invasive species present on the world's islands exists as the Threatened Island Database<ref>{{cite web|title=Threatened Island Biodiversity database (TIB)|url=http://tib.islandconservation.org/ |publisher=[[Island Conservation)]]|access-date=9 January 2019}}</ref>
Islands are particularly suitable for restoration as once cleared of an introduced species they can be kept cleared of these species by virtue of being an island. Species removal is intensive and expensive, and methods used must be carefully chosen as to not create too much impact on non-target species. Feral cats, goats and three species of rats are among the most damaging species introduced to islands (Moors & Atkinson 1984). The differences in size, lifestyle and behaviour preclude the use of the same techniques for all of them, but with many species a range of techniques needs to be used in order to ensure success. Larger animals, such as goats and pigs, can be effectively hunted; in the case of [[Round Island (Mauritius)|Round Island]], in [[Mauritius]], all the goats were eliminated by a single marksman. On larger islands ecologists use a [[Judas goat]], where a radio collared goat is released into the wild. This goat is then followed and groups it joins are removed. To remove cats a combination of techniques is needed: hunting, trapping and poisoning. Cats are more difficult to hunt than goats and pigs, requiring the use of experienced hunters and night hunting.
Trapping is ineffective for rats, given their sheer numbers, and the only method that works is [[poison]]ing, which can be delivered into the field by broadcasting (by hand or from the air) or by the maintenance of bait stations. This method has been employed around the world, in the [[Falkland Islands]], in the tropical Pacific, and off New Zealand, where over 40 islands have been cleared. This method is not without problems, especially if the rats share the island with other, native species of rodent that might take the bait as well, as has happened on [[Anacapa Island]] in the [[Channel Islands of California|Channel Islands]] and Rat Island ([[Hawadax Island|Hawadax]])<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.seabirdrestoration.org/pdf/RatIslandReview.pdf|title=THE RAT ISLAND RAT ERADICATION PROJECT: A CRITICAL EVALUATION OF NONTARGET MORTALITY. PREPARED FOR ISLAND CONSERVATION THE NATURE CONSERVANCY and the U.S. FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE, ALASKA MARITIME NATIONAL WILDLIFE REFUGE. PREPARED BY THE ORNITHOLOGICAL COUNCIL. Final report issued December 2010.|date=2010}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://drive.google.com/file/d/0BwdOUBgcb_baeXlYTzZ0X05hWFU/view|title=US Fish and Wildlife Service, Office of Law Enforcement, Report of Investigation #2009703127R001|date=2009}}</ref> in the Aleutian archipelago. In the Pacific poison intended for rats was taken by land [[crab]]s instead; the crabs were not affected by the poison but frustrated attempts to clear the rats.
The removal of invasive [[weed]]s is, in most cases, more difficult than removing animal species. One such eradication was that of [[sandbur]], ''Cencrus echinatus'', an introduced [[grass]] on [[Laysan]]. The grass, introduced to Laysan around 1961, had taken over 30% of the island by 1991, displaced the native [[bunchgrass]], and reduced the breeding habitat of two endemic threatened species, the [[Laysan duck]] and [[Laysan finch]], as well as those of several [[seabird]]s. The removal took ten years, with controlled spraying for the first year, then individual removal of plants, then, when few plants were being found, sifting of the sands around plants to remove seeds. The cost of the eradication program was $150,000 per year.
Invasive vertebrate eradication has many benefits besides conservation of species and has been found to align with 13 UN [[Sustainable Development Goals]] and 42 associated targets encompassing marine and terrestrial biodiversity conservation, promotion of local and global partnerships, economic development, climate change mitigation, human health and sanitation and sustainable production and consumption.<ref name="de WitZilliacus2020">{{cite journal|last1=de Wit|first1=Luz A|last2=Zilliacus|first2=Kelly M|last3=Quadri|first3=Paulo|last4=Will|first4=David|last5=Grima|first5=Nelson|last6=Spatz|first6=Dena|last7=Holmes|first7=Nick|last8=Tershy|first8=Bernie|last9=Howald|first9=Gregg R|last10=Croll|first10=Donald A|title=Invasive vertebrate eradications on islands as a tool for implementing global Sustainable Development Goals|journal=Environmental Conservation|volume=47|issue=3|year=2020|pages=139–148|issn=0376-8929|doi=10.1017/S0376892920000211|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Pursuing Sustainable Development for Island Communities by Removing Invasive Species|url=https://www.islandconservation.org/sustainable-development-communities-removing-invasive-species/|publisher=Island Conservation|access-date=13 August 2020|date=13 August 2020}}</ref>
====Strategies====
There are three strategies to reduce the numbers of the introduced animals in order to lighten the problems caused by them: exclusion, control, and eradication.
Exclusion is removal of introduced species in limited areas and focused on a local impact.
Control has a meaning of mitigation by reducing the numbers of introduced species down to ecologically and economically less harmful level. Since it is not complete wiping out strategy, this has to be taken constantly and repeatedly. This strategy is said to be feasible but less cost effective due to its incompleteness.
Eradication is the complete removal of all the individuals of the population, down to the last potentially reproducing individual, or the reduction of their population density below sustainable levels<ref>Myers, J. H., Simberloff, D., Kuris, A. M. & Carey, J. R. (2000). Eradication revisited : dealing with exotic species. Trends in Ecology & Evolution 15, 316–320.</ref> (J. H. Myerset al., 2000). For islands, it is usually the best strategy as it gives permanent effects, which potentially means most cost effective. However, it is still logistically and economically high cost. Also, this strategy is sometimes hard to accomplish depending on the environment of island and the alien species.<ref name=autogenerated1>Courchamp, F., Chapuis, J., and Pascal, M. (2003). Mammal invaders on islands: impact, control and control impact. Cambridge Philosophical Society. 78, 347-383.</ref> [[Island Conservation]] exclusively focuses on the eradication of invasive vertebrate species from islands. Up until 2021, the organization had deployed teams to protect 1,195 populations of 487 species and subspecies on 64 islands.<ref>{{cite web|title=Island Conservation Mission and History|url=https://www.islandconservation.org/mission-and-history//|access-date=20 March 2021}}</ref>
====Methods====
Fencing is used for excluding the alien mammals. This method intends to limit the area for the mammals before control or eradication.
Shooting is often used for large animals to control them. This method has meanings of gaining food supply and recreation. It requires accessibility in the field and experience for the hunters. Also, to maintain the effect, it requires good amount of manpower for long time, so it can be costly.
Trapping is designed for medium-sized mammals which are hard to shoot at. This method is usually only for reduction not eradication. The advantage of this method is that it can be selective since it is possible to exclude or reduce the possibility of trapping native animals. However, trapping requires limited area to cover and limited population to capture.
Poisoning is very effective for small species. However, there are some disadvantages of this method. It is possible that untargeted animals take the poison. It is also necessary to consider the secondary poisoning that other animals are affected by poisoned species. This method can be costly if the area to cover is large.<ref name=tny20141223>
{{cite magazine |last1=Kolbert|first1=Elizabeth |title=The Big Kill : New Zealand's crusade to rid itself of mammals |url=http://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2014/12/22/big-kill |access-date=23 December 2014 |magazine=The New Yorker |date=23 December 2014 }}</ref>
Pathogen Introduction (parasitism) is one of the biological methods to eradicate alien species. It is very effective for limited species, but the viruses and bacteria need to be specified clearly for use.<ref name=tny20141223/>
Predator introduction is another biological method to eradicate the introduced species. It is less costly and environmentally clean, but it can cause greater problems, because it is possible that the introduced predator targets the native animals instead of alien species and its existence and its parasites can be new problems.{{citation needed|date=December 2014}}
Competitor introduction is also a biological method to eradicate introduced carnivores. It can be very effective with good amount of information. In the end, the competitor has to be removed as well.
Virus vectored immune-contraception is one of the newest method that is to infect introduced animals with genetically engineered viruses. This method is considered environmentally clean, low cost, selective, and ethical. However, it is not fully operational and the effect comes slowly.<ref name=autogenerated1 />
===Restoration of former habitat===
In many cases the removal of introduced species is sufficient to allow a return to a pre-disturbance state, but generally active management, often in the form of replanting native flora and reintroduction of extirpated fauna is needed to achieve restoration goals. Planting of native species helps to replenish species that were either grazed or out competed. Species of animal can be translocated either from existing populations, or from captive bred populations. These reintroductions need to be carefully managed, particularly in the case of [[endangered species]], where the potential benefits need to be weighed against the possibility of failure. Not all translocations succeed, and it may be necessary to help the reintroduced animals along with supplementary feeding or other kinds of management.
One other important aspect of restoration is prevention, that is, keeping invasive species from returning to a cleared island. This can be achieved by restricting access to the island in question (reducing possible instances of invasion) to more stringent quarantine methods. For example, in order to prevent invasive weeds from returning to Laysan, people working on the island must bring entirely new clothes to the island, which must be frozen prior to arrival.
==Opposition to island restoration==
Prior to the initial efforts to remove rats from New Zealand's offshore islands there was a great deal of skepticism as to the feasibility of island restoration amongst ecologists and conservation workers. However, as the techniques have improved and larger islands have been restored, most of the initial criticisms from within the field have been dropped, in particular as the costs of eradication are often much lower than continuous pest control.
Outside of the field of conservation there has been some opposition from other interested groups, particularly from the [[animal rights]] movement, which contends that the [[animal welfare|welfare]] of the pests in question is not adequately addressed in island restoration plans. Because a broad spectrum of pest removal techniques needs to be used, including leg traps, animal rights campaigners accuse ecologists of cruelty, and indifference to non-targeted species that also take bait or are trapped, and suggest that more humane methods such as capture and [[Animal sterilization (surgical procedure)|sterilization]] be used instead (something those working in island restoration contend would be too expensive, and potentially ineffective as in [[Kangaroo Island#Conservation|Kangaroo Island]] [[koala]]s). Some also defend the rights of the introduced species to exist as well. Others, including scientists affiliated with the animal rights movement, accept that when the choice is between the future of a species and a population of pests, the future of a species must take priority (with the caveat that the extermination is conducted as humanely as possible).
Opposition to island restoration has not led to the abandonment of many projects but has delayed several, particularly through court action. Groups sometimes adopt different approaches; opponents of [[hedgehog]] removal in the [[Outer Hebrides]] offered bounties for live hedgehogs removed from the islands and relocated in their natural habitat. Invasive plants can also generate strong feelings. The removal of ''[[Eucalyptus]]'' trees from [[Angel Island (California)|Angel Island]] in [[San Francisco Bay]] faced considerable opposition.
==Island restoration projects==
Island restoration has been attempted in many countries since the 1960s, and has met with varying degrees of success. The following examples highlight some of the factors that influence projects. A comprehensive list of projects can be found on the Database of Island Invasive Species Eradications.<ref>{{cite web|title=DIISE|url=http://diise.islandconservation.org/|publisher=Island Conservation|access-date=18 June 2016}}</ref>
=== Round Island ===
[[Île Ronde, Mauritius|Round Island]] (Île Ronde in French) is a tropical island 22.5 kilometres north of [[Mauritius]], with an area of 1.69 square kilometres and a maximum elevation of 280 metres.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.mauritian-wildlife.org/application/index.php?tpid=30&tcid=82|title=Welcome to the Mauritian Wildlife Foundation (MWF) - In The Field - Mauritius - Round Island|last=Foundation|first=Mauritian Wildlife|website=www.mauritian-wildlife.org|language=en-US|access-date=2018-09-09}}</ref> Compared to other [[Mascarene Islands|Mascarene islands]] and islets, Round Island remained relatively pristine until goats and rabbits were introduced in the 19th century (goats were introduced between 1846 and 1868, whilst rabbits were present in large numbers before 1810).<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|title=Lost land of the dodo : an ecological history of Mauritius, Réunion & Rodrigues|last=S.)|first=Cheke, A. S. (Anthony|date=2008|publisher=Yale University Press|others=Hume, Julian P. (Julian Pender)|isbn=9780300141863|location=New Haven|oclc=216936090}}</ref> These herbivores, along with other factors, such as sporadic logging and frequent cyclones, led to the eventual dwindling of the island's forests and dependent fauna. In turn, this led to soil erosion by wind and rain, impeding forest regeneration, acting as a [[Positive feedback|positive feedback mechanism]] that caused rapid deforestation of the island. In 1957, however, Round Island was officially made a nature reserve, and in 1979 and 1986 was rid of goats (shooting) and rabbits (poisoning), respectively, after several unsuccessful attempts.<ref name=":0" />
Since removal of the introduced herbivores, the Round Island plant community has recovered dramatically. This is especially stark for three of the endemic tree species, ''Latania loddigesii'', ''Pandanus vandermeerschii'' and ''Hyophorbe lagenicaulis'', which constituted a large portion of the Round Island forest historically. This has led to six reptile species (five of which were [[critically endangered]]) recovering in tandem with the plant community; these are the skinks ''Leiolopisma telfaririi'' and ''Scelotes bojerii'', the geckos ''Phelsuma guentheri'', ''P. ornata'' and ''Nactus serpensinsula'', and the snake C''asarea dussumerii.''<ref>{{Cite journal|date=1994-01-01|title=Changes in the vegetation and reptile populations on Round Island, Mauritius, following eradication of rabbits|journal=Biological Conservation|language=en|volume=67|issue=1|pages=21–28|doi=10.1016/0006-3207(94)90004-3|issn=0006-3207|last1=North|first1=S.G.|last2=Bullock|first2=D.J.|last3=Dulloo|first3=M.E.}}</ref>
The Round Island restoration program represents one of the longest-running projects of its kind in the world, since its conservation status was confirmed in 1957. Much of the current conservation work on Round Island is conducted by the [[Mauritian Wildlife Foundation]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.mauritian-wildlife.org/application/index.php?tpid=1&tcid=1|title=Welcome to the Mauritian Wildlife Foundation (MWF) - Home|last=Foundation|first=Mauritian Wildlife|website=www.mauritian-wildlife.org|language=en-US|access-date=2018-09-09}}</ref> and [[Durrell Wildlife Conservation Trust]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.durrell.org/wildlife/|title=Durrell Wildlife Conservation Trust {{!}} Home|website=Durrell|language=en-GB|access-date=2018-09-09}}</ref> and revolves around maintaining soil levels, reforestation of the island, and eradication of remaining invasive plants and invertebrates.
===Aleutian Islands===
[[Image:Fox with auklet.jpg|200px|thumb|Arctic fox with [[least auklet]]]]
The [[Aleutian Islands]], prior to the 18th century, lacked any terrestrial predators, but from the mid-18th century [[Arctic fox]]es were introduced to act as a source for the [[fur trade]], a practice that continued into the early 20th century. This introduction decimated the birds of the chain, particularly [[seabird]]s like the [[whiskered auklet]]. The reduction in seabirds, in turn, had effects on the [[ecology]] of the islands, as many of the plants were dependent on the guano from nesting birds acting as a fertilizer. In the early 1950s managers of the Aleutian Islands Reservation became aware of the damage, and an eradication program began. Since then over 80 islands have been cleared of non-native foxes (only six islands remain) and bird populations have rebounded. Whiskered auklets, which numbered 25,000 in 1974, had increased to 116,000 in 2003.
===Campbell Island===
[[Campbell Island, New Zealand|Campbell Island]] is a sub [[Antarctic]] island 700 km south of New Zealand that became infested with [[Norway rat|rats]] in the 19th century. Several endemic birds, including the [[Campbell teal]] and [[Campbell snipe]], only survived on small rocky islets just off the island, and the populations were perilously low. Several teals were taken into captivity for [[ex-situ conservation]], but once they had bred in captivity there was no-where else to return them to until the island was cleared of rats. The DOC's plan to remove rats from the island was one of the most ambitious attempted, as the island was so remote, the rat populations had the highest density of rats anywhere in the world, the weather treacherous and, at 113 km<sup>2</sup>, it was the largest island at that point where eradication had been attempted. The poison had to be dropped in the winter, to minimize disturbance to nesting seabirds and reduce the chance of [[bird strike]] for the pilots. After several experiments, the eradication began in 2001. In 2003 trackers with dogs were unable to find any rats. Soon after the island was cleared it was possible to return the teals to the island. [[Snipe]] have self-reintroduced to the island and have begun breeding.
=== South Georgia ===
Rats, brought to [[South Georgia Island]] as stowaways on sealing and whaling ships in the late 18th century,<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.sgisland.gs/index.php/%28e%29Eradication_Of_Rodents?useskin=env|title=Eradication of Rodents|publisher=South Georgia and South Sandwich Islands|access-date= |url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150803043220/http://www.sgisland.gs/index.php/(e)Eradication_Of_Rodents?useskin=env|archive-date=2015-08-03}}</ref> have caused much damage to native wildlife, destroying tens of millions of ground-nesting birds’ eggs and chicks. While previously the island's glaciers formed a natural barrier to the spread of rats, these glaciers are now slowly melting as the climate warms.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.antarctica.ac.uk/bas_research/science/climate/overview.php|title=Climate Change - Overview|publisher=British Antarctic Survey|access-date= |url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150708074958/http://www.antarctica.ac.uk//bas_research/science/climate/overview.php|archive-date=2015-07-08}}</ref> In 2011, scientists instituted a four-year programme to entirely eradicate the rats and mice, in what would be by far the largest rodent eradication attempt in the world to date.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/environment/article7052509.ece|title=South Georgia to poison millions of rats|last=Hastings|first=Chris|date=7 March 2010|work=Times Online}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/environment/nature/ecologists-turn-exterminators-in-the-great-rat-hunt-1917801.html|title=Ecologists turn exterminators in the great rat hunt|last=Connor|first=Steve|date=8 March 2010|work=The Independent}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-13282806|title='Success' in South Georgia rat eradication|last=Amos|first=Jonathan|date=4 May 2011|work=BBC}}</ref> The project was led by zoologist Anthony Martin of [[University of Dundee|The University of Dundee]] who stated, "This is a man-induced problem and it's about time that man put right earlier errors."<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-23143430|title=South Georgia rat removal hits milestone|last=Hogenboom|first=Melissa|date=4 July 2013|work=BBC|access-date=3 July 2013}}</ref> In July 2013, the success of the main phase of the extermination of the rats, which took place in May that year, was announced. 180 tonnes of rat poison, [[brodifacoum]], were dropped over 70% of the island, in what was the world's largest ever operation of this kind.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/215555ea-e3ea-11e2-b35b-00144feabdc0.html#axzz2Y3xemB5L|archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221211231252/https://www.ft.com/content/215555ea-e3ea-11e2-b35b-00144feabdc0#axzz2Y3xemB5L|archive-date=2022-12-11|url-access=subscription|url-status=live|title=Rats removed from South Georgia in biggest mass poisoning|last=Cookson|first=Clive|date=July 3, 2013|website=Financial Times|access-date=2016-04-08}}</ref> Another 95t of rat poison was planned to be dropped by three helicopters in January 2015.<ref>{{citation|last=Sarsfield|first=Kate|title=Habitat Restoration Project gears up for final phase of airborne rodent eradication programme|date=3 December 2014|url=http://www.flightglobal.com/news/articles/habitat-restoration-project-gears-up-for-final-phase-of-airborne-rodent-eradication-406709/|work=[[Flightglobal]]|publisher=Reed Business Information|access-date=4 December 2014}}</ref> In June 2015 the eradication programme concluded, apparently successfully, with the island believed "very likely" to be rat free. Monitoring will continue for a further two or three years.<ref>[https://www.independent.co.uk/environment/nature/rare-birds-return-to-remote-south-georgia-island-after-successful-rat-eradication-programme-10345864.html "Rare birds return to remote South Georgia island after successful rat eradication programme"], ''The Independent'', 25 June 2015</ref>
==Notes==
{{reflist}}
==References==
* Courchamp, F., Chapuis, J., and Pascal, M. (2003). Mammal invaders on islands: impact, control and control impact. Cambridge Philosophical Society. 78, 347-383.
* Myers, J. H., Simberloff, D., Kuris, A. M. & Carey, J. R. (2000). Eradication revisited : dealing with exotic species. Trends in Ecology & Evolution 15, 316–320.
==Further reading==
* Atkinson, I A E, (1988). ''[https://newzealandecology.org/nzje/1759 Presidential address: Opportunities for Ecological Restoration]''. New Zealand Journal of Ecology '''11''': 1-12
* Flint, E. & Rehkemper, G. (2002) [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/267935164_Control_and_eradication_of_the_introduced_grass_Cenchrus_echinatus_at_Laysan_Island_Central_Pacific_Ocean ''Control and eradication of the introduced grass, ''Cenchrus echinatus'', at Laysan Island, Central Pacific Ocean'']. Turning the tide: the eradication of invasive species (proceedings of the international conference on eradication of island invasives) (Occasional Paper of the IUCN Species Survival Commission No. '''27'''. Veitch, C. R. and Clout, M.N., eds).
*Kettmann, M. ( April 29, 2003) ''Death for Life on Anacapa island'', The Santa Barbara Independent
* Moors, P.J.; Atkinson, I.A.E. (1984). ''Predation on seabirds by introduced animals, and factors affecting its severity.''. In ''Status and Conservation of the World's Seabirds''. Cambridge: ICBP. {{ISBN|0-946888-03-5}}.
* Nogales, Manuel ''et al.'' (2004). ''[https://ccal.ucsc.edu/wp-content/uploads/2017/03/Nogales_2004.pdf A review of feral cat eradication on islands]''. ''Conservation Biology''. '''18''' (2), 310-319.
*Williams, J.C., Byrd G.V.& Konyukhov, N.B. (2003) "[http://www.marineornithology.org/PDF/31_2/31_2_175-180.pdf ''Whiskered Auklets ''Aethia pygmaea'', foxes, humans and how to right a wrong'']''." ''Marine Ornithology'' '''31''': 175-180.''
* [[David B. Wingate|Wingate, D.B.]] (1985) ''The restoration of Nonsuch Island as a living museum of Bermuda's precolonial terrestrial biome.'' In ''Conservation of Island Birds''. ICBP Technical Publication. {{ISBN|0-946888-04-3}}
* [http://www.seabirdrestoration.org/pdf/RatIslandReview.pdf THE RAT ISLAND RAT ERADICATION PROJECT: A CRITICAL EVALUATION OF NONTARGET MORTALITY]. PREPARED FOR ISLAND CONSERVATION THE NATURE CONSERVANCY and the U.S. FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE, ALASKA MARITIME NATIONAL WILDLIFE REFUGE. PREPARED BY THE ORNITHOLOGICAL COUNCIL. Final report issued December 2010.
* [https://drive.google.com/file/d/0BwdOUBgcb_baeXlYTzZ0X05hWFU/view US Fish and Wildlife Service, Office of Law Enforcement, Report of Investigation #2009703127R001]
==See also==
{{portal|Ecology|Islands}}
*[[Island ecology]]
*[[Restoration ecology]]
==External links==
* [http://diise.islandconservation.org/ Database of Island Invasive Species Eradications (DIISE)]
* [http://tib.islandconservation.org/ Threatened Island Biodiversity database (TIB)]
*[http://www.aphis.usda.gov/wildlife_damage/ USDA - APHIS - Wildlife Services]
*[http://www.islandconservation.org/ Island Conservation]
* [http://www.islas.org.mx/ Conservación de Islas]
*[https://www.doc.govt.nz/about-us/science-publications/conservation-publications/land-and-freshwater/land/ecosystem-restoration-on-mainland-nz/principles-of-restoration/ New Zealand Department of Conservation Ecological Restoration]
*[http://www.hear.org/articles/turningthetide/ IUCN Proceedings of the International Conference on Eradication of Island Invasives]
*[http://currents.ucsc.edu/04-05/03-28/foxes.asp UC Santa Cruz: Impact of Foxes in Alaska]
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/4724821.stm BBC News: New Zealand's pest eradication on islands]
*[https://www.nature.scot/professional-advice/land-and-sea-management/managing-wildlife/uist-wader-research UK SNH Uist Wader Project: impact of hedgehogs on wading bird breeding success]
{{conservation of species}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Island Restoration}}
[[Category:Island restoration| ]]
[[Category:Islands]]
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
[[Category:Endemism]] |
Planet Earth: The Future | {{about|the BBC Four documentary series|the BBC One series|Planet Earth (2006 TV series)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2021}}
{{Infobox television
| image = Planet Earth - The Future.jpg
| alt_name =
| genre = [[Nature documentary]]
| writer =
| director =
| presenter =
| narrated = Simon Poland
| composer = [[George Fenton]]<br>[[David Poore]]
| country = United Kingdom
| language = English
| num_episodes = 3
| executive_producer =
| producer = [[Fergus Beeley]]
| location =
| runtime = 60 minutes
| company = [[BBC Natural History Unit]]
| channel = [[BBC Four]]
| first_aired = {{start date|2006|11|26|df=yes}}
| last_aired = {{end date|2006|12|10|df=yes}}
| related = ''[[Planet Earth (2006 TV series)|Planet Earth]]''
}}
'''''Planet Earth: The Future''''' is a 2006 [[BBC]] [[documentary]] series on the environment and conservation, produced by the [[BBC Natural History Unit]] as a companion to the multi-award-winning [[nature documentary]] ''[[Planet Earth (2006 TV series)|Planet Earth]]''. The programmes were originally [[Broadcasting|broadcast]] on [[BBC Four]] immediately after the final three episodes of ''Planet Earth'' on [[BBC One]]. Each episode highlights the conservation issues surrounding some of the [[species]] and environments featured in ''Planet Earth'', using interviews with the film-makers and eminent figures from the fields of [[science]], [[conservation (ethic)|conservation]], [[politics]], and [[theology]]. The programmes are narrated by Simon Poland and the series producer was [[Fergus Beeley]].
==Background==
When the first episodes of ''Planet Earth'' were broadcast in the [[UK]], the producers were criticised by some green campaigners for glossing over the [[environmental problem]]s faced by the planet. Executive producer [[Alastair Fothergill]] defended the approach, explaining that a heavy-handed environmental message would not work on primetime [[BBC One]]. However, the ''Planet Earth'' film crews witnessed first-hand scenes of [[environmental degradation]] and the increasing scarcity of wildlife in some of the shooting locations. This experience formed the basis of ''Planet Earth - The Future'', which was designed to engage viewers in a mature debate about [[environmental issues]].
The following year, the BBC commissioned ''[[Saving Planet Earth]]'', the second overtly conservation-themed series to be shown on [[BBC One]]. The first BBC series to deal comprehensively with conservation was ''[[State of the Planet]]'' in 2000.
==Episodes==
{|class="wikitable plainrowheaders" style="background: ; width:75%;"
|-
! style="background: #00B050; width: 12%; color: #000000;" | Episode
! style="background: #00B050; color: #000000;" | Title
! style="background: #00B050; width: 20%; color: #000000;" | Original air date
|-
{{Episode list
|EpisodeNumber = 1
|Title = Saving Species
|OriginalAirDate = {{Start date|2006|11|26|df=y}}
|ShortSummary = The first programme asks if there really is an [[extinction]] crisis facing certain species. Alastair Fothergill, executive producer of ''Planet Earth'', admits that making the series was a bittersweet experience since some creatures were filmed with the knowledge that their continued existence is under threat. David Attenborough believes that conservation of the [[natural environment|natural world]] is something that can unite humanity if people know enough about it. Cameraman Martyn Colbeck relates that every single day during a six-week [[Africa]]n visit to film for "Jungles", he and his crew were awakened by the sound of gunshots. [[Poaching]] can quickly wipe out a population, and David Greer of the [[World Wide Fund for Nature]] explains that in 2005 his team confiscated 70 guns in the area – a 700% increase from 1999. Other featured animals at risk include the [[walia ibex]], the [[snow leopard]], the [[boto]], and [[saiga antelope]]. The attack of a [[polar bear]] on a [[walrus]] colony on dry land in "Ice Worlds" was a rare occurrence. Footage from a 1997 ''[[BBC Wildlife Specials|BBC Wildlife Special]]'' shows the bears hunting smaller prey on sea ice. Species have always become extinct, but now, the viewer is told, the rate of extinction is accelerating (see [[Holocene extinction]]) and it will "really reach biblical proportions within a few decades." Mankind is urged to respect [[biodiversity]]: it is estimated that if a monetary value could be put on all that the world's [[ecosystem]]s do for humanity, it would total some [[US$]]30 trillion.
|LineColor = 00B050
}}{{Episode list
|EpisodeNumber = 2
|Title = Into the Wilderness
|OriginalAirDate = {{Start date|2006|12|03|df=y}}
|ShortSummary = The second part looks at man's potential effect on the world's areas of [[wilderness]]. As the [[human population]] has grown, only a quarter of Earth's land now remains uninhabited (aside from [[Antarctica]]). Although around 12% is protected, this may not be enough – providing such places are not just 'enclosures' and bordering territories are also managed. [[Ethiopia]]'s [[Semien Mountains]] are increasingly encroached upon for farming land, and this example leads to the question of [[Human overpopulation|overpopulation]]. Some interviewees argue that it is not just about numbers: how humans consume their [[natural resources]] is also important. However, others believe that the world would be greatly more sustainable if the population level was reduced to about half its current level. [[Jonathon Porritt]] believes that this could be achieved simply: by good education on [[family planning]]. Consumption of [[fresh water]] is highlighted: there are now 40,000 more dams in existence than in 1950. The controversy over drilling for oil in the [[Arctic National Wildlife Refuge]] is discussed by both its advocates and opponents. [[E. O. Wilson]]'s concept of [[Biophilia hypothesis|biophilia]] is discussed, and David Attenborough believes that a child's innate love of wildlife, for whatever reason, is being lost in adulthood. An answer to [[deforestation]] is found in [[Costa Rica]], where farmers are paid to allow their pasture to revert to forest for its water [[ecosystem services]]. This episode also deals with [[climate change]] and related [[global warming]], which is now happening at a faster rate than ever before.
|LineColor = 00B050
}}{{Episode list
|EpisodeNumber = 3
|Title = Living Together
|OriginalAirDate = {{Start date|2006|12|10|df=y}}
|ShortSummary = The last episode deals with the future of conservation. It begins by looking at previous efforts. The 'Save The Whales' campaign, which started in the 1960s, is seen to have had a limited effect, as [[whaling]] continues and fish stocks also decline. In the 1990s, as head of the [[Kenya Wildlife Service]], [[Richard Leakey]] took on the poachers by employing armed units. Although it was successful in saving [[elephant]]s, the policy was detrimental to the [[Maasai people]], who were forced from their land. The need for "fortress" areas is questioned, and the recently highlighted [[Raja Ampat]] [[coral reef]] in [[Indonesia]] is an example. The more [[tourism]] it generates, the greater the potential for damage – and inevitable coastal construction. [[Sustainable development]] is viewed as controversial, and one contributor perceives it to currently be a "contradiction in terms". [[Trophy hunting]] is also contentious. Those that support it argue that it generates wealth for local economies, while its opponents point to the reducing numbers of species such as the [[markhor]]. [[Ecotourism]] is shown to be beneficial, as it is in the interests of its providers to protect their environments. However, in some areas, such as the [[Borneo]] [[rainforest]]s, the great diversity of species is being replaced by [[monoculture]]s. The role of both [[Religion and environmentalism|religion]] and the media in conservation is argued to be extremely important. Contributors to the programme admit a degree of worry about the future, but also optimism.
|LineColor = 00B050
}}
|}
==Participants==
The following is an alphabetical list of the interviewees featured in the series, with their titles and professions as credited on screen:
* Neville Ash, [[World Conservation Monitoring Centre]], [[UN Environment Programme]]
* [[David Attenborough]], broadcaster
* Ulises Blanco, farmer
* Mark Brownlow, producer, ''Planet Earth''
* Martyn Colbeck, cameraman, ''Planet Earth''
* [[James Connaughton]], senior [[Council on Environmental Quality|White House environmental advisor]]
* Huw Cordey, producer, ''Planet Earth''
* [[Robert Costanza]], professor of [[ecological economics]], [[University of Vermont]]
* [[Ahmed Djoghlaf]], executive secretary, [[Convention on Biological Diversity]], UN Environment Programme
* Betsy Dresser, senior vice president, [[Audubon Nature Institute]]
* [[Johan Eliasch]], entrepreneur
* Simon Evans, big [[Game (food)|game]] hunter
* [[Alastair Fothergill]], series producer, ''Planet Earth''
* David Greer, park advisor, [[World Wide Fund for Nature]]
* Chadden Hunter, wildlife biologist
* [[Tony Juniper]], executive director, [[Friends of the Earth]]
* Peyton Knight, [[National Center for Public Policy Research]]
* Marek Kryda, consultant, [[Animal Welfare Institute]], [[Poland]]
* James Leape, Director General, [[Worldwide Fund for Nature]] (WWF International)
* Moisés Léon, Tropical Science Center{{clarify|date=April 2012}}
* [[Mark Linfield]], producer, ''Planet Earth''
* [[James Lovelock]], independent scientist and proponent of the [[Gaia hypothesis]]
* Barbara Maas, chief executive, Care for the Wild International
* [[Wangari Maathai|Professor Wangari Maathai]], founder, [[Green Belt Movement]]
* [[Richard Mabey]], writer
* Jeffrey A. McNeely, chief scientist, [[World Conservation Union]]
* Nisar Malik, [[conservation movement|conservationist]]
* Tony Martin, [[Natural Environment Research Council]]
* [[Robert May, Baron May of Oxford|Professor Robert M. May]], [[University of Oxford]]
* E.J. Milner-Gulland, [[Imperial College London]]
* [[Russell Mittermeier]], president, [[Conservation International]]
* Henry Ndede, chairman, Friends of [[Nairobi National Park]], Kenya
* Craig Packer, ecologist
* Martin Palmer, chief executive, [[Alliance of Religions and Conservation]]
* [[Roger Payne]], president, [[Ocean Alliance]]
* [[Jonathon Porritt]], chair, [[Sustainable Development Commission]], UK
* [[Sandra Postel]], author and global water analyst
* Mark Stanley Price, chief executive, [[Durrell Wildlife Conservation Trust]]
* Carlos Quesada, [[University of Costa Rica]]
* Adam Ravetch, cameraman & Arctic wildlife specialist
* [[M. Sanjayan]], Lead Scientist, [[The Nature Conservancy]]
* [[Clare Short]], former [[Secretary of State for International Development]]
* Sakana Ole Turede, chair, Kitengela Pastoral Land Owners Association, [[Kenya]]
* Jan Kees Vis, director of [[sustainable agriculture]], [[Unilever]]
* [[Robert Watson (scientist)|Robert Watson]], chief scientist, [[World Bank]]
* [[Rowan Williams]], [[Archbishop of Canterbury]]
* [[E. O. Wilson]], professor Emeritus, [[Harvard University]]
==DVD and book==
* All three episodes of ''Planet Earth - The Future'' are included as a bonus feature on the fifth disc of the British and [[NTSC#North America|North American]] versions of the ''Planet Earth'' DVD box set (BBCDVD1883 in the UK). It was omitted from the [[HD DVD]] and [[Blu-ray Disc|Blu-ray]] sets because of the mixture of [[Standard-definition television|standard]] and [[high-definition television|high-definition]] footage.
* An accompanying book, ''Planet Earth - The Future: What the Experts Say'' ({{ISBN|978-0-563-53905-6}}), was published by [[BBC Books]] on 5 October 2006.<ref>{{cite book|title= Planet Earth - The Future: What the Experts Say|id= {{ASIN|0563539054|country=uk}}}}</ref> The editors are Rosamund Kidman-Cox and [[Fergus Beeley]], and [[Jonathon Porritt]] wrote the foreword.
==See also==
* ''[[Planet Earth (2006 TV series)|Planet Earth]]'', the television series which spawned ''Planet Earth - The Future''
* ''[[Earth (2007 film)|Earth]]'', the associated feature film released in 2007
* ''[[Saving Planet Earth]]'', a BBC series highlighting the plight of [[endangered species]] broadcast in 2007
* [[Media coverage of climate change]]
* [[Effects of global warming]]
==References==
{{reflist}}
==External links==
* {{IMDb title|1108512|Planet Earth: The Future}}
{{BBC Natural History Unit}}
[[Category:2006 British television series debuts]]
[[Category:2006 British television series endings]]
[[Category:BBC television documentaries]]
[[Category:Documentary films about nature]]
[[Category:Documentary films about environmental issues]]
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
[[Category:Planet Earth (franchise)]] |
Greenprinting | '''Greenprinting''' relates to the [[Conservation (ethic)|conservation]] of land. Greenprinting is the creation of conservation scenarios that help communities make informed conservation decisions.<ref>{{cite web |title=Living Melbourne: Greenprinting a Metropolis |url=https://www.nature.org/en-us/what-we-do/our-insights/perspectives/living-melbourne--greenprinting-a-metropolis/#:~:text=Greenprinting%20is%20the%20process%20of,green%20space%20provide%20to%20communities |website=The Nature Conservatory |access-date=14 March 2024}}</ref>
Greenprinting can galvanize public support and encourage partners to work toward common conservation goals. Greenprinting often involves use of state-of-the-art maps and models created with [[Geographic Information System]] ([[GIS]]) software that combines layers of spatial and [[demographic]] information to guide [[growth management]] efforts.
== Publications ==
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070108043102/http://www.tpl.org/tier3_cd.cfm?content_item_id=10648&folder_id=175 Local Greenprinting for Growth]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20110101020710/http://www.tpl.org/tier3_cd.cfm?content_item_id=20161&folder_id=3130 The Trust For Public Land - Greenprinting Case Studies]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20110101041448/http://www.tpl.org/tier3_cd.cfm?content_item_id=21160&folder_id=264 The Trust for Public Land - Greenprinting for Growth in Texas]
* [http://www.visionnorthtexas.org/documents/greenprinting_tplpresentation.pdf Vision North Texas Greenprinting Project Presentation Jan 27th 2007]
* [http://www.visionnorthtexas.org/documents/greenprinting/VNT_2007_Greenprint_Results_Report_update_31808.pdf Vision North Texas Greenprinting Project Status Report March 20th 2008]
==External links==
* [http://www.tpl.org The Trust for Public Land]
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
[[Category:Environmental planning]]
[[Category:Parks]]
{{planning-stub}} |
Habitats Directive | {{Use British English|date=May 2019}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2018}}
{{Short description|European Union directive on the conservation of natural habitats and of wild fauna and flora}}
The '''Habitats Directive''' (more formally known as '''Council Directive 92/43/EEC on the Conservation of natural habitats and of wild fauna and flora''')<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/HTML/?uri=CELEX:31992L0043&from=EN|title=Council Directive 92/43/EEC of 21 May 1992 on the conservation of natural habitats and of wild fauna and flora |website=Eur-Lex |access-date=9 March 2020}}</ref> is a [[European Union directive|directive]] adopted by the [[European Community]] in 1992 as a response to the [[Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats|Berne Convention]]. The European Community was reformed as the [[European Union]] the following year, but the directive is still recognised.
The Habitats Directive required national governments to specify areas that are expected to be ensuring the conservation of flora and fauna species. This led to the setting up of a network of [[protected area]]s across the EU, along with '[[Special Areas of Conservation]]', which together with the existing [[Special Protection Area]]s, became the so-called [[Natura 2000]] network established to protect species and habitats.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://ec.europa.eu/environment/nature/natura2000/index_en.htm|title=Natura 2000 - Environment |publisher=[[European Commission]] |website=ec.europa.eu|access-date=2020-03-09}}</ref>
This directive is one of the main pillars of the European Union's system of wildlife and nature conservation, another being the [[Birds Directive]].<ref name=EUwebsite>{{cite web |url=https://ec.europa.eu/environment/nature/legislation/habitatsdirective/index_en.htm |title=The Habitats Directive |website=Europa |publisher=European Commission |access-date=26 June 2013}}</ref><ref name=JNCC-EUlaw>{{cite web |url=http://www.jncc.gov.uk/page-1372 |title=Joint Nature Conservation Committee – European Legislation |publisher=Government of the United Kingdom |access-date=26 June 2013}}</ref> The Habitats Directive, together with the Birds Directive, are also called the "nature directives".<ref>{{cite web | url=http://inspire.ec.europa.eu/codelist/ReferenceSpeciesSchemeValue/natureDirectives | title=Nature directives }}</ref>
The Habitats Directive consists of 24 articles of legislation to which all member states must comply. Article 17 of the directive sets the terms and standards for reporting on both the habitats and species listed in the annexes by the individual EU member countries. It stipulates a report from each member country on the state of nature every six years.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=reporting>{{cite web |url=https://ec.europa.eu/environment/nature/knowledge/rep_habitats/index_en.htm |title=Habitats Directive reporting |website=Europa |publisher=European Commission |access-date=29 September 2020}}</ref> The first preliminary reports were due in 2001 (but only published in 2004),<ref name=reporting/> the first actual assessments were due in 2007 (published 2009),<ref name=reporting/><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/HTML/?uri=CELEX:31992L0043&from=EN |title=Council Directive 92/43/EEC of 21 May 1992 on the conservation of natural habitats and of wild fauna and flora |website=Eur-Lex |access-date=9 March 2020}}</ref> the second in 2013 (published 2015), and the third set of assessment reports were due in 2019 (published 2020).<ref name=reporting/> The assessments of conservation status differ markedly from those of the [[IUCN Red List]]. The aim in the case of the EU conservation status is to assess the distance from a defined favourable situation, as opposed to the distance from extinction. There are three classes of conservation status: favourable (FV), unfavourable-inadequate (U1) and unfavourable-bad (U2).<ref>{{cite report |author=Douglas Evans |author2=Marita Arvela |date=July 2011 |title=Assessment and reporting under Article 17 of the Habitats Directive Explanatory Notes & Guidelines for the period 2007-2012 |url=https://circabc.europa.eu/sd/a/2c12cea2-f827-4bdb-bb56-3731c9fd8b40/Art17%20-%20Guidelines-final.pdf |publisher=European Topic Centre on Biological Diversity |page=8, 9 |access-date=29 September 2020}}</ref>
The annexes of the directive outline the protected habitats and species:<ref name=":0" />
*Annex I covers habitats,
*Annex II species requiring designation of [[Special Areas of Conservation]],
*Annex IV species in need of strict protection, and
*Annex V species in which member countries may decide for themselves how to manage the population.
==History==
{{Unreferenced section|date=January 2018}}
From 1988 to 1992, the policy was given importance at the national level by policy experts, scientists and ecologists; later on in the 1990s this spawned further political, social and administrative discussions among the relevant countries.
Due to differences in nature conservation traditions, national problems have arisen in the implementation of the directive. Since member states in the [[Southern Europe|south]] and [[Eastern Europe|east of Europe]] participated less in nature policies, these states experienced problems with the EU provisions. In [[Germany]], [[Austria]], [[Italy]] and [[Belgium]], the observation of conflicts between various government layers have caused prolonged delays in the management of nature policies. On the other hand, in member states such as the [[United Kingdom]] and [[Sweden]], positive outcomes have developed due to stakeholder involvement, pro-active authorities, agencies responsible for implementation and public participation.{{Citation needed|date=May 2019}}
According to one 2014 report there are increasing incompatibilities with the Natura 2000 policy on economic development.<ref>Suvi Borgström, Frederik H. Kistenkas, 'The Compatibility of the Habitats Directive with the Novel EU Green Infrastructure Policy' (2014) 23 European Energy and Environmental Law Review, Issue 2, pp. 36–44. http://www.kluwerlawonline.com/abstract.php?id=EELR2014004</ref>
==Annex I==
Annex I lists the specific [[habitat]]s which have been designated as the a [[Special Area of Conservation]], to which a common EU-wide legislation applies. Certain habitats among those are furthermore designated as "priority habitat types". Habitats in the EU are given codes. An area or habitat can combine two habitats, and be designated as for example code 35.2 × 64.1 - Open grassland with ''[[Corynephorus]]'' and ''[[Agrostis]]'' (35.2), in combination with continental dunes (64.1). Example Annex I habitats are:
Open sea and tidal areas
*Sea cliffs and shingle or stony beaches
*Atlantic and continental salt marshes and salt meadows
*[[Mediterranean]] and thermo-Atlantic salt marshes and salt meadows
*Salt and gypsum continental steppes
Dunes
*Sea dunes of the Mediterranean coast
*Continental dunes, old and decalcified
Standing and running freshwater
*Sections of water courses with natural or semi-natural dynamics (minor, average and major beds) where the water quality shows no significant deterioration
Matorral
*Mediterranean arborescent [[matorral]]
*Thermo-Mediterranean and pre-steppe brush
*[[Phrygana]]
Grasslands
*Natural grasslands
*Semi-natural dry grasslands and scrubland facies
*Sclerophyllous grazed forests ([[dehesa]]s)
*Semi-natural tall-herb humid meadows
*Mesophile grasslands
Bogs, mires and fens
*Sphagnum acid bogs
*Calcareous fens
Rocky areas and caves
*Scree, chasmophytic vegetation on rocky slopes
*Other rocky habitats
Forests - Only (sub-)natural
*Forests of temperate Europe
*Mediterranean deciduous forests
*Mediterranean sclerophyllous forests
*Alpine and subalpine coniferous forests
*Mediterranean mountainous coniferous forests
The full list of habitats is distributed over 9 main categories.<ref>{{Cite web|title=EUR-Lex - 01992L0043-20130701 - EN - EUR-Lex|url=https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX%3A01992L0043-20130701|access-date=2021-01-03|website=eur-lex.europa.eu|language=en}}</ref>
==Annex II==
Annex II lists species which determine if an area is a [[Special Area of Conservation]]. These include:<ref name=":0" />
===Animals===
====Mammals====
*[[Pyrenean desman]] (''Galemys pyrenaicus'')
*Bats: ''[[Rhinolophus blasii]]'', [[Rhinolophus euryale|''R. euryale'']], [[Rhinolophus ferrumequinum|''R. ferrumequinum'']], [[Rhinolophus hipposideros|''R. hipposideros'']], [[Rhinolophus mehelyi|''R. mehelyi'']], ''[[Barbastella barbastellus]]'', ''[[Miniopterus schreibersi]]'', ''[[Myotis bechsteini]]'', [[Myotis blythi|''M. blythi'']], [[Myotis capaccinii|''M. capaccinii'']], [[Myotis dasycneme|''M. dasycneme'']], [[Myotis emarginatus|''M. emarginatus'']], [[Myotis myotis|''M. myotis'']]
*Rodents: ''[[Spermophilus citellus]]'', ''[[Castor fiber]]'', ''[[Microtus cabrerae]]''
*Carnivores: Lynx (''[[Lynx lynx]]''), otter (''[[Lutra lutra]]'') and ''[[Mustela lutreola]]''
*[[Grey seal]] and [[harbour seal]]
*natural populations of wild goats (''[[Capra aegagrus]]'')
*natural populations of wild sheep (''[[Ovis ammon musimon]]'') on [[Corsica]] and [[Sardinia]].
*[[Rupicapra rupicapra|''Rupicapra rupicapra balcanica'']]
*the dolphin ''[[Tursiops truncatus]]'' and the harbour porpoise ''[[Phocoena phocoena]]''
====Reptiles and amphibians====
*Land tortoises: ''[[Testudo hermanni]]'', [[Testudo graeca|''T. graeca'']] and [[Testudo marginata|''T. marginata'']]
*Freshwater turtles: ''[[Emys orbicularis]]'', ''[[Mauremys caspica]]'' and [[Mauremys leprosa|''M. leprosa'']]
*Lizards: ''[[Iberolacerta monticola|Lacerta monticola]]'', [[Lacerta schreiberi|''L. schreiberi'']], [[Gallotia galloti|''Gallotia galloti insulanagae'']], ''[[Podarcis lilfordi]]'', [[Podarcis pityusensis|''P. pityusensis'']], ''[[Chalcides occidentalis]]'' (a skink) and ''[[Phyllodactylus europaeus]]'' (a gecko)
*Snakes: ''[[Elaphe quatuorlineata]]'', [[Elaphe situla|''E. situla'']] and ''[[Vipera ursinii]]''
*Salamanders: ''[[Chioglossa lusitanica]]'', ''[[Mertensiella luschani]]'', ''[[Salamandrina terdigitata]]'', ''[[Triturus cristatus]]'', [[olm]] (''Proteus anguinus''), ''[[Speleomantes ambrosii]]'', [[Speleomantes flavus|''S. flavus'']], [[Speleomantes genei|''S. genei'']], [[Speleomantes imperialis|''S. imperialis'']] and [[Speleomantes supramontes|''S. supramontes'']]
*Toads: ''[[Bombina bombina]]'' and [[Bombina variegata|''B. variegata'']]
*Frogs: ''[[Rana latastei]]'', ''[[Discoglossus jeanneae]]'', [[Discoglossus montalentii|''D. montalentii'']] and [[Discoglossus sardus|''D. sardus'']]
====Fish====
*All ''[[Eudontomyzon]]'' species, ''[[Lampetra fluviatilis]]'', [[Lampetra planeri|''L. planeri'']], ''[[Lethenteron zanandrai]]'', ''[[Petromyzon marinus]]''
*''[[Aphanius iberus]]'' and [[Aphanius fasciatus|''A. fasciatus'']]
*only natural populations of ''[[Hucho hucho]]''
*only freshwater populations of salmon (''[[Salmo salar]]''), the trout [[Salmo marmoradus|''S. marmoradus'']] and [[Salmo macrostigma|''S. macrostigma'']]
*the [[Cyprinidae|cyprid]] fish ''[[Alburnus vulturius]]'', [[Alburnus albidus|''A. albidus'']], ''[[Anaecypris hispanica]]'', ''[[Aspius aspius]]'', ''[[Barbus plebejus]]'', [[Barbus meridionalis|''B. meridionalis'']], [[Barbus capito|''B. capito'']], [[Barbus comiza|''B. comiza'']], ''[[Chalcalburnus chalcoides]]'', ''[[Chondrostoma soetta]]'', [[Chondrostoma polylepis|''Ch. polylepis'']], [[Chondrostoma genei|''Ch. genei'']], [[Chondrostoma lusitanicum|''Ch. lusitanicum'']], [[Chondrostoma toxostoma|''Ch. toxostoma'']], ''[[Gobio albipinnatus]]'', [[Gobio uranoscopus|''G. uranoscopus'']], ''[[Iberocypris palaciosi]]'', ''[[Leuciscus lucomonis]]'', [[Leuciscus souffia|''L. souffia'']], all species of ''[[Phoxinellus]]'', ''[[Rutilus pigus]]'', [[Rutilus rubilio|''R. rubilio'']], [[Rutilus arcasii|''R. arcasii'']], [[Rutilus macrolepidotus|''R. macrolepidotus'']], [[Rutilus lemmingii|''R. lemmingii'']], [[Rutilus friesii|''R. friesii meidingeri'']], [[Rutilus alburnoides|''R. alburnoides'']], [[Rhodeus sericeus|''Rhodeus sericeus amarus'']], ''[[Scardinius graecus]]''
*the [[Cobitidae]] loaches ''[[Cobitis conspersa]]'', [[Cobitis larvata|''C. larvata'']], [[Cobitis trichonica|''C. trichonica'']], [[Cobitis taenia|''C. taenia'']], ''[[Misgurnis fossilis]]'', ''[[Sabanejewia aurata]]''
*of the perches: ''[[Gymnocephalus schraetzer]]'' and all ''[[Zingel]]'' species except [[Zingel asper|''Z. asper'']] and [[Zingel zingel|''Z. zingel'']]
*[[Gobiidae]]: ''[[Pomatoschistus canestrini]]'', ''[[Padogobius panizzai]]'', [[Padogobius nigricans|''P. nigricans'']]
*the [[Cottus (fish)|freshwater sculpins]] ''[[Cottus ferruginosus]]'', [[Cottus gobio|''C. gobio'']], [[Cottus petiti|''C. petiti'']]
*all ''[[Alosa]]'' species, the river herrings or scads.
*[[Aristotle's catfish]] (''Silurus aristotelis'')
====Crustaceans====
*the freshwater crayfish ''[[Austropotamobius pallipes]]''
====Insects====
*the beetles ''[[Buprestis splendens]]'', ''[[Cerambyx cerdo]]'', ''[[Cucujus cinnaberinus]]'', ''[[Dytiscus latissimus]]'', ''[[Graphoderus bilineatus]]'', ''[[Limoniscus violaceus]]'', ''[[Lucanus cervus]]'' and ''[[Morimus funereus]]''
*the butterflies ''[[Coenonympha oedippus]]'', ''[[Erebia calcaria]]'', [[Erebia christi|''E. christi'']], ''[[Eriogaster catax]]'', ''[[Euphydryas aurinia]]'', ''[[Graellsia isabellae]]'', ''[[Hypodryas maturna]]'', ''[[Lycaena dispar]]'', ''[[Maculinea nausithous]]'', [[Maculinea teleius|''M. teleius'']], ''[[Melanagria arge]]'', ''[[Papilio hospiton]]'', ''[[Plebicula golgus]]''
*the praying mantis ''[[Apteromantis aptera]]''
*the dragonflies ''[[Coenagrion hylas]]'', [[Coenagrion mercuriale|''C. mercuriale'']], ''[[Cordulegaster trinacriae]]'', ''[[Gomphus graslinii]]'', ''[[Leucorrhina pectoralis]]'', ''[[Lindenia tetraphylla]]'', ''[[Macromia splendens]]'', ''[[Ophiogomphus cecilia]]'', ''[[Oxygastra curtisii]]''
*the grasshopper ''[[Baetica ustulata]]''
====Molluscs====
*[[Gastropods]] (snails): ''[[Caseolus calculus]]'', [[Caseolus commixta|''C. commixta'']], [[Caseolus sphaerula|''C. sphaerula'']], ''[[Discula leacockiana]]'', [[Discula tabellata|''D. tabellata'']], ''[[Discus defloratus]]'', [[Discus guerinianus|''D. guerinianus'']], ''[[Elona quimperiana]]'', ''[[Geomalacus maculosus]]'', ''[[Geomitra moniziana]]'', ''[[Idiomela subplicata]]'' (as ''Helix subplicata''), ''[[Leiostyla abbreviata]]'', [[Leiostyla cassida|''L. cassida'']], [[Leiostyla corneocostata|''L. corneocostata'']], [[Leiostyla gibba|''L. gibba'']], [[Leiostyla lamellosa|''L. lamellosa'']], ''[[Vertigo angustior]]'', [[Vertigo genesii|''V. genesii'']], [[Vertigo geyeri|''V. geyeri'']], [[Vertigo moulinsiana|''V. moulinsiana'']]
*Bivalves: ''[[Margaritifera margaritifera]]'' and ''[[Unio crassus]]''
===Plants===
Mosses and liverworts: ''[[Bruchia vogesiaca]]'', ''[[Buxbaumia viridis]]'', ''[[Dichelyma capillaceum]]'', ''[[Dicranum viride]]'', ''[[Distichophyllum carinatum]]'', ''[[Drepanocladus vernicosus]]'', ''[[Jungermannia handelii]]'', ''[[Mannia triandra]]'', ''[[Meesia longiseta]]'', ''[[Nothothylas orbicularis]]'', ''[[Orthotrichum rogeri]]'', ''[[Petalophyllum ralfsii]]'', ''[[Riccia breidleri]]'', ''[[Riella helicophylla]]'', ''[[Scapania massolongi]]'', ''[[Sphagnum pylaisii]]'', ''[[Tayloria rudolphiana]]''
Ferns and allies
*the ferns ''[[Asplenium jahandiezii]]'', ''[[Culcita macrocarpa]]'', ''[[Trichomanes speciosum]]'' and ''[[Woodwardia radicans]]''
*the water ferns ''[[Marsilea batardae]]'', [[Marsilea quadrifolia|''M. quadrifolia'']] and [[Marsilea strigosa|''M. strigosa'']]
*''[[Botrychium simplex]]'' and ''[[Ophioglossum polyphyllum]]''
*the squillworts ''[[Isoetes boryana]]'' and [[Isoetes malinverniana|''I. malinverniana'']]
Monocots
*[[Alismataceae]]: ''[[Caldesia parnassifolia]]'' and ''[[Luronium natans]]''
*''[[Allium grosii]]''
*''[[Eleocharis carniolica]]''
*''[[Juncus valvatus]]''
*''[[Hyacinthoides vicentina]]''
*''[[Leucojum nicaeense]]''
*Daffodils: ''[[Narcissus asturiensis]]'', [[Narcissus calcicola|''N. calcicola'']], [[Narcissus cyclamineus|''N. cyclamineus'']], [[Narcissus fernandesii|''N. fernandesii'']], [[Narcissus humilis|''N. humilis'']], [[Narcissus pseudonarcissus|''N. pseudonarcissus'' subsp. ''nobilis'']], [[Narcissus scaberulus|''N. scaberulus'']], [[Narcissus triandrus|''N. triandrus'' subsp. ''capax'']] and [[Narcissus viridiflorus|''N. viridiflorus'']]
*Grasses: ''[[Avenula hackelii]]'', ''[[Bromus grossus]]'', ''[[Coleanthus subtilis]]'', ''[[Festuca brigantina]]'', [[Festuca duriotagana|''F. duriotagana'']], [[Festuca elegans|''F. elegans'']], [[Festuca henriquesii|''F. henriquesii'']], [[Festuca sumilusitanica|''F. sumilusitanica'']], ''[[Gaudinia hispanica]]'', [[Holcus setiglumis|''Holcus setiglumis'' subsp. ''duriensis'']], ''[[Micropyropsis tuberosa]]''. ''[[Pseudarrhenatherum pallens]]'' and ''[[Puccinellia pungens]]''
*Orchids: ''[[Cypripedium calceolus]]'' and ''[[Liparis loeselii]]''
*Cretan date palm (''[[Phoenix theophrasti]]'')
Dicots
*[[Apiaceae]]: ''[[Angelica palustris]]'', ''[[Apium repens]]'', ''[[Athamanta cortiana]]'', ''[[Eryngium alpinum]]'', ''[[Petagnia saniculifolia]]'', ''[[Rouya polygama]]'' and ''[[Thorella verticillatinundata]]''
*''[[Aldrovanda vesiculosa]]''
*[[Asteraceae]]: ''[[Centaurea corymbosa]]'', [[Centaurea gadorensis|''C. gadorensis'']], [[Centaurea kartschiana|''C. kartschiana'']], [[Centaurea micrantha|''Centaurea micrantha'' subsp. ''herminii'']], [[Centaurea pulvinata|''C. pulvinata'']], [[Centaurea rothmalerana|''C. rothmalerana'']], [[Centaurea vicentina|''C. vicentina'']], ''[[Crepis granatensis]]'', ''[[Erigeron frigidus]]'', ''[[Hymenostemma pseudanthemis]]'', ''[[Leontodon microcephalus]]'', [[Leontodon boryi|''L. boryi'']], ''[[Leuzea longifolia]]'', ''[[Ligularia sibirica]]'', ''[[Santolina impressa]]'', [[Santolina semidentata|''S. semidentata'']] and ''[[Senecio nevadensis]]''
*[[Boraginaceae]]: ''[[Myosotis lusitanica]]'', [[Myosotis rehsteineri|''M. rehsteineri'']], [[Myosotis retusifolia|''M. retusifolia'']], ''[[Omphalodes kuzinskyana]]'' and ''[[Solenanthus albanicus]]''
*[[Brassicaceae]]: ''[[Alyssum pyrenaicum]]'', ''[[Arabis sadina]]'', ''[[Biscutella vincentina]]'', ''[[Boleum asperum]]'', ''[[Brassica glabrescens]]'', [[Brassica insularis|''B. insularis'']], ''[[Coincya cintrana]]'', ''[[Diplotaxis ibicensis]]'', [[Diplotaxis vicentina|''D. vicentina'']], ''[[Erucastrum palustre]]'', [[Iberis procumbens|''Iberis procumbens'' subsp. ''microcarpa'']], ''[[Ionopsidium savianum]]'', ''[[Sisymbrium cavanillesianum]]'' and [[Sisymbrium supinum|''S. supinum'']]
*[[Campanulaceae]]: ''[[Asyneuma giganteum]]'', [[Jasione crispa|''Jasione crispa'' subsp. ''serpentinica'']] and [[Jasione lusitanica|''J. lusitanica'']]
*[[Caryophyllaceae]]: ''[[Arenaria provincialis]]'', [[Dianthus cintranus|''Dianthus cintranus'' subsp. ''cintranus'']], [[Dianthus marizii|''D. marizii'']], [[Dianthus rupicola|''D. rupicola'']], ''[[Herniaria algarvica]]'', [[Herniaria berlengiana|''H. berlengiana'']], [[Herniaria maritima|''H. maritima'']], ''[[Moehringia tommasinii]]'', ''[[Petrocoptis grandiflora]]'', [[Petrocoptis montsicciana|''P. montsicciana'']], [[Petrocoptis pseudoviscosa|''P. pseudoviscosa'']], ''[[Silene cintrana]]'', [[Silene hifacensis|''S. hifacensis'']], [[Silene longicilia|''S. longicilia'']] and [[Silene mariana|''S. mariana'']]
*''[[Centranthus trinervis]]''
*[[Cistaceae]]: ''[[Cistus palhinhae]]'', ''[[Halimium verticillatum]]'', ''[[Helianthemum alypoides]]'' and [[Helianthemum caput-felis|''H. caput-felis'']]
*''[[Daphne petraea]]''
*''[[Erodium paularense]]''
*''[[Euphorbia transtagana]]''
*[[Fabaceae]]: ''[[Anthyllis hystrix]]'', ''[[Astragalus alopecurus]]'' (as ''Astragalus centralpinus''), [[Astragalus tremolsianus|''A. tremolsianus'']], ''[[Genista dorycnifolia]]'', [[Genista holopetala|''G. holopetala'']], [[Melilotus segetalis|''Melilotus segetalis'' subsp. ''fallax'']] and ''[[Trifolium saxatile]]''
*[[Gentianaceae]]: ''[[Gentiana ligustica]]'' and ''[[Gentianella angelica]]''
*[[Lamiaceae]]: ''[[Dracocephalum austriacum]]'', ''[[Nepeta dirphya]]'', ''[[Origanum dictamnus]]'', [[Sideritis incana|''Sideritis incana'' subsp. ''glauca'']], [[Sideritis javalambrensis|''S. javalambrensis'']], [[Sideritis serrata|''S. serrata'']], ''[[Teucrium lepicephalum]]'', [[Teucrium turredanum|''T. turredanum'']] and ''[[Thymus carnosus]]''
*[[Malvaceae]]: ''[[Kosteletzkya pentacarpos]]''
*''[[Najas flexilis]]''
*[[Paeoniaceae]]: ''[[Paeonia cambessedesii]]'', [[Paeonia parnassica|''P. parnassica'']] and [[Paeonia clusii|''P. clusii'' subsp. ''rhodia'']]
*''[[Pinguicula nevadensis]]''
*''[[Plantago algarbiensis]]'' and [[Plantago almogravensis|''P. almogravensis'']]
*[[Plumbaginaceae]]: ''[[Armeria berlengensis]]'', [[Armeria negleta|''A. negleta'']], [[Armeria pseudarmeria|''A. pseudarmeria'']], [[Armeria soleirolii|''A. soleirolii'']], [[Armeria velutina|''A. velutina'']], [[Limonium dodartii|''Limonium dodartii'' subsp. ''lusitanicum'']], [[Limonium lanceolatum|''L. lanceolatum'']] and [[Limonium multiflorum|''L. multiflorum'']]
*[[Polygonaceae]]: ''[[Polygonum praelongum]]'' and ''[[Rumex rupestris ]]''
*[[Primulaceae]]: ''[[Androsace mathildae]]'', [[Androsace pyrenaica|''A. pyrenaica'']], ''[[Primula palinuri]]'' and ''[[Soldanella villosa]]''
*[[Ranunculaceae]]: ''[[Adonis distorta]]'', ''[[Aquilegia bertolonii]]'', ''[[Aquilegia kitaibelii|A. kitaibelii]]'' and ''[[Pulsatilla patens]]''
*[[Rosaceae]]: ''[[Potentilla delphinensis]]''
*[[Saxifragaceae]]: ''[[Saxifraga berica]]'', [[Saxifraga florulenta|''S. florulenta'']], [[Saxifraga hirculus|''S. hirculus'']] and [[Saxifraga tombeanensis|''S. tombeanensis'']]
*[[Scrophulariaceae]]: ''[[Antirrhinum charidemi]]'', [[Chaenorrhinum serpyllifolium|''Chaenorrhinum serpyllifolium'' subsp. ''lusitanicum'']], ''[[Euphrasia marchesettii]]'', ''[[Linaria algarviana]]'', [[Linaria coutinhoi|''L. coutinhoi'']], [[Linaria flava|''L. flava'']], [[Linaria tonzigii|''L. tonzigii'']], ''[[Odontites granatensis]]'', ''[[Verbascum litigiosum]]'' and ''[[Veronica micrantha]]''
*''[[Thesium ebracteatum]]''
*''[[Viola jaubertiana]]''
*Willow: [[Salix salviifolia|''Salix salviifolia'' subsp. ''australis'']]
*''[[Zelkova abelicea]]''
===Priority species===
There are also a number of priority species:<ref name=":0" />
====Animals====
*[[Microtus oeconomus|Dutch tundra vole]] (''Microtus oeconomus arenicola'')
*Wolf (''Canis lupus''): Spanish populations: only those south of the [[Duero]]; Greek populations: only those south of the [[39th parallel north|39th parallel]])
*Brown bear
*[[Iberian lynx]]
*Monk seal (''[[Monachus monachus]]'')
*[[Corsican red deer]] (''Cervus elaphus corsicanus'')
*Pyrenean ibex (''[[Capra pyrenaica pyrenaica]]'')
*Apennine chamois (''[[Rupicarpa ornata]]'')
*[[Loggerhead sea turtle]] (''Caretta caretta'')
*the lizard ''[[Gallotia simonyi]]''
*the viper ''[[Vipera schweizeri]]''
*Fire salamander ([[Salamandra salamandra|''Salamandra salamandra aurorae'']])
*Majorcan midwife toad (''[[Alytes muletensis]]'')
*the frog [[Pelobates fuscus|''Pelobates fuscus insubricus'']]
*the sturgeons ''[[Acipenser naccarii]]'' and ''[[Acipenser sturio]]''
*the fish ''[[Valencia hispanica]]''
*some of the [[anadromous]] populations in certain sectors of the North Sea of ''[[Coregonus oxyrhynchus]]''
*the [[Cyprinidae|cyprid]] fish ''[[Ladigesocypris ghigii]]''
*the beetles ''[[Carabus olympiae]]'', ''[[Osmoderma eremita]]'' and ''[[Rosalia alpina]]''
*the butterfly ''[[Euplagia quadripunctaria]]'' (under the synonym ''Callimorpha quadripunctata'')
====Plants====
*the fern ''[[Dryopteris corleyi]]''
*the moss ''[[Bryoerythrophyllum machadoanum]]''
*the liverwort ''[[Marsupella profunda]]''
*the spruce ''[[Abies nebrodensis]]''
*''[[Androcymbium rechingeri]]''
*''[[Asphodelus bento-rainhae]]''
*''[[Muscari gussonei]]''
*the daffodil ''[[Narcissus nevadensis]]''
*''[[Carex panormitana]]''
*''[[Dioscorea chouardii]]'' (as ''Borderea chouardii'')
*Grasses: ''[[Stipa austroitalica]]'', [[Stipa bavarica|''S. bavarica'']] and [[Stipa veneta|''S. veneta'']]
*Orchids: ''[[Cephalanthera cucullata]]'' and ''[[Ophrys lunulata]]''
*[[Apiaceae]]: ''[[Angelica heterocarpa]]'', ''[[Apium bermejoi]]'', ''[[Bupleurum capillare]]'', [[Bupleurum kakiskalae|''B. kakiskalae'']], ''[[Eryngium viviparum]]'', ''[[Laserpitium longiradium]]'', ''[[Naufraga balearica]]'', ''[[Oenanthe conioides]]'' and ''[[Seseli intricatum]]''
*[[Asteraceae]]: ''[[Anthemis glaberrima]]'', ''[[Artemisia granatensis]]'', ''[[Aster pyrenaeus]]'', [[Aster sorrentinii|''A. sorrentinii'']], ''[[Carduus myriacanthus]]'', ''[[Centaurea alba]]'' subsp. ''heldreichii'' and subsp. ''princeps'', [[Centaurea attica|''C. attica'' subsp. ''megarensis'']], [[Centaurea balearica|''C. balearica'']], [[Centaurea borjae|''C. borjae'']], [[Centaurea citricolor|''C. citricolor'']], [[Centaurea horrida|''C. horrida'']], [[Centaurea kalambakensis|''C. kalambakensis'']], [[Centaurea lactiflora|''C. lactiflora'']], [[Centaurea niederi|''C. niederi'']], [[Centaurea peucedanifolia|''C. peucedanifolia'']], [[Centaurea pinnata|''C. pinnata'']], ''[[Crepis crocifolia]]'', ''[[Jurinea cyanoides]]'', [[Jurinea fontqueri|''J. fontqueri'']], ''[[Lamyropsis microcephala]]'', ''[[Leontodon siculus]]'' and ''[[Senecio elodes]]''
*''[[Atropa baetica]]''
*''[[Bassia saxicola]]''
*[[Boraginaceae]]: ''[[Anchusa crispa]]'', ''[[Lithodora nitida]]'', ''[[Omphalodes littoralis]]'' and ''[[Symphytum cycladense]]''
*[[Brassicaceae]]: ''[[Biscutella neustriaca]]'', ''[[Brassica macrocarpa]]'', ''[[Coincya rupestris]]'', ''[[Coronopus navasii]]'', ''[[Diplotaxis siettiana]]'', ''[[Iberis arbuscula]]'' and ''[[Ionopsidium acaule]]''
*''[[Campanula sabatia]]''
*[[Caryophyllaceae]]: ''[[Arenaria nevadensis]]'', ''[[Gypsophila papillosa]]'', [[Herniaria latifolia|''Herniaria latifolia'' subsp. ''litardierei'']], ''[[Silene hicesiae]]'', [[Silene holzmanii|''S. holzmanii'']], [[Silene orphanidis|''S. orphanidis'']], [[Silene rothmaleri|''S. rothmaleri'']] and [[Silene velutina|''S. velutina'']]
*[[Convolvulaceae]]: ''[[Convolvulus argyrothamnus]]'' and [[Convolvulus fernandesii|''C. fernandesii'']]
*[[Cistaceae]]: ''[[Tuberaria major]]''
*''[[Daphne rodriguezii]]''
*''[[Euphorbia margalidiana]]''
*[[Fabaceae]]: ''[[Astragalus algarbiensis]]'', [[Astragalus aquilanus|''A. aquilanus'']], [[Astragalus maritimus|''A. maritimus'']], [[Astragalus verrucosus|''A. verrucosus'']], ''[[Cytisus aeolicus]]'', ''[[Ononis hackelii]]'' and ''[[Vicia bifoliolata]]''
*[[Gentianaceae]]: ''[[Centaurium rigualii]]'' and [[Centaurium somedanum|''C. somedanum'']]
*[[Geraniaceae]]: ''[[Erodium astragaloides]]'' and [[Erodium rupicola|''E. rupicola'']]
*''[[Euphorbia margalidiana]]''
*''[[Hypericum aciferum]]''
*[[Lamiaceae]]: ''[[Micromeria taygetea]]'', ''[[Nepeta sphaciotica]]'', ''[[Thymus camphoratus]]'' and [[Thymus cephalotos|''T. cephalotos'']]
*''[[Linum muelleri]]''
*''[[Lythrum flexuosum]]''
*[[Plumbaginaceae]]: ''[[Armeria helodes]]'', [[Armeria rouyana|''A. rouyana'']], ''[[Limonium insulare]]'', [[Limonium pseudolaetum|''L. pseudolaetum'']] and [[Limonium strictissimum|''L. strictissimum'']]
*[[Primulaceae]]: ''[[Primula apennina]]''
*[[Ranunculaceae]]: ''[[Aconitum corsicum]]'', [[Aquilegia pyrenaica|''Aquilegia pyrenaica'' subsp. ''cazorlensis'']], ''[[Consolida samia]]'' and ''[[Ranunculus weyleri]]''
*''[[Reseda decursiva]]''
*''[[Ribes sardum]]'' a currant from Saridnia
*[[Rubiaceae]]: ''[[Galium litorale]]'' and [[Galium viridiflorum|''G. viridiflorum'']]
*''[[Salicornia veneta]]''
*[[Scrophulariaceae]]: ''[[Euphrasia genargentea]]'', ''[[Globularia stygia]]'', ''[[Linaria ficalhoana]]'', [[Linaria hellenica|''L. hellenica'']], [[Linaria ricardoi|''L. ricardoi'']], [[Linaria tursica|''L. tursica'']] and ''[[Veronica oetaea]]''
*''[[Viola hispida]]''
===Macaronesia===
There is a separate list for plants from [[Macaronesia]].
*''[[Isoestes azorica]]''
*''[[Marsilea azorica]]''
*''[[Carex malato-belizii]]''
*Grasses: ''[[Deschampsia maderensis]]'', ''[[Phalaris maderensis]]''
*''[[Scilla maderensis]]''
*''[[Semele maderensis]]''
*Orchids: ''[[Goodyera macrophylla]]''
*[[Apiaceae]]: ''[[Ammi trifoliatum]]'', ''[[Bupleurum handiense]]'', ''[[Chaerophyllum azoricum]]'', ''[[Ferula latipinna]]'', ''[[Melanoselinum decipiens]]'', ''[[Monizia edulis]]'', ''[[Oenanthe divaricata]]'' and ''[[Sanicula azorica]]''
*''[[Arceuthobium azoricum]]''
*[[Asteraceae]]: ''[[Andryala crithmifolia]]'', ''[[Argyranthemum thalassophylum]]''. [[Argyranthemum winterii|''A. winterii'']], ''[[Atractylis preauxiana]]'', ''[[Calendula maderensis]]'', ''[[Cheirolophus duranii]]'', [[Cheirolophus ghomerytus|''Ch. ghomerytus'']], [[Cheirolophus junonianus|''Ch. junonianus'']], [[Cheirolophus massonianus|''Ch. massonianus'']], ''[[Cirsium latifolium]]'', ''[[Helichrysum gossypinum]]'', [[Helichrysum oligocephala|''H. oligocephala'']], ''[[Phagnalon benettii]]'', ''[[Stemmacantha cynaroides]]'' and ''[[Sventenia bupleuroides]]''
*''[[Beta patula]]''
*''[[Caralluma burchardii]]''
*[[Boraginaceae]]: ''[[Echium candicans]]'', ''[[Myosotis azorica]]'' and [[Myosotis maritima|''M. maritima'']]
*[[Brassicaceae]]: ''[[Crambe laevigata]]'' and ''[[Sinapidendron rupestre]]''
*[[Campanulaceae]]: ''[[Musschia aurea]]''
*[[Cistaceae]]: ''[[Cistus chinamadensis]]''
*[[Crassulaceae]]: ''[[Aeonium gomeraense]]'', [[Aeonium saundersii|''A. saundersii'']], ''[[Aichryson dumosum]]'', ''[[Monanthes wildpretii]]'' and ''[[Sedum brissemoretii]]''
*[[Caryophyllaceae]]: ''[[Spergularia azorica]]''
*''[[Erica azorica]]''
*''[[Euphorbia lambii]]'' and [[Euphorbia stygiana|''E. stygiana'']]
*[[Fabaceae]]: ''[[Anthyllis lemanniana]]'', ''[[Lotus callis-viridis]]'' and ''[[Vicia dennesiana]]''
*''[[Frangula azorica]]''
*''[[Kunkeliella subsucculenta]]''
*[[Lamiaceae]]: ''[[Sideritis infernalis]]'', [[Sideritis marmorea|''S. marmorea'']], ''[[Teucrium abutiloides]]'' and [[Teucrium betonicum|''T. betonicum'']]
*''[[Maytenus umbellata]]''
*[[Oleaceae]]: ''[[Jasminum azoricum]]'' and ''[[Picconia azorica]]''
*''[[Plantago malato-belizii]]''
*[[Plumbaginaceae]]: ''[[Limonium dendroides]]''
*''[[Rumex azoricus]]''
*[[Rosaceae]]: ''[[Bencomia sphaerocarpa]]'', ''[[Dendriopterium pulidoi]]'', ''[[Marcetella maderensis]]'', [[Prunus lusitanica|''Prunus lusitanica'' subsp. ''azorica'']] and ''[[Sorbus maderensis]]''
*''[[Scabiosa nitens]]''
*[[Scrophulariaceae]]: ''[[Euphrasia grandiflora]]'', ''[[Isoplexis isabelliana]]'', ''[[Odontites holliana]]'' and ''[[Sibthorpia peregrina]]''
*''[[Viola paradoxa]]''
====Macaronesian priority species====
*Mosses: ''[[Echinodium spinosum]]'' and ''[[Thamnobryum fernandesii]]''
''[[Androcymbium psammophilum]]''
*[[Asteraceae]]: ''[[Argyranthemum lidii]]'', ''[[Atractylis arbuscula]]'', ''[[Lactuca watsoniana]]'', ''[[Onopordum nogalesii]]'', [[Onopordum carduelinum|''O. carduelinum'']], ''[[Pericallis hadrosoma]]'' and ''[[Tanacetum ptarmiciflorum]]''
*[[Boraginaceae]]: ''[[Echium gentianoides]]''
*[[Brassicaceae]]: ''[[Crambe arborea]]'', [[Crambe sventenii|''C. sventenii'']] and ''[[Parolinia schizogynoides]]''
*[[Campanulaceae]]: ''[[Azorina vidalii]]'' and ''[[Musschia wollastonii]]''
*''[[Ceropegia chrysantha]]''
*[[Cistaceae]]: ''[[Helianthemum bystropogophyllum]]''
*[[Convolvulaceae]]: ''[[Convolvulus caput-medusae]]'', [[Convolvulus lopez-socasii|''C. lopez-socasii'']] and [[Convolvulus massonii|''C. massonii'']]
*''[[Euphorbia handiensis]]''
*[[Fabaceae]]: ''[[Anagyris latifolia]]'', ''[[Dorycnium spectabile]]'', ''[[Lotus azoricus]]'', ''[[Lotus kunkelii]]'', ''[[Teline rosmarinifolia]]'' and [[Teline salsoloides|''T. salsoloides'']]
*''[[Geranium maderense]]''
*[[Lamiaceae]]: ''[[Sideritis cystosiphon]]'' and [[Sideritis discolor|''S. discolor'']]
*''[[Myrica rivas-martinezii]]''
*''[[Pittosporum coriaceum]]''
*[[Plumbaginaceae]]: ''[[Limonium arborescens]]'', [[Limonium spectabile|''L. spectabile'']] and [[Limonium sventenii|''L. sventenii'']]
*[[Rosaceae]]: ''[[Bencomia brachystachya]]'' and ''[[Chamaemeles coriacea]]''
*''[[Sambucus palmensis]]''
*''[[Solanum lidii]]''
*[[Scrophulariaceae]]: ''[[Euphrasia azorica]]'', ''[[Globularia ascanii]]'', [[Globularia sarcophylla|''G. sarcophylla'']] and ''[[Isoplexis chalcantha]]''
==Annex III==
This annex explains the criteria which are used to select sites which are eligible to be recognised as important for Europe, or as [[Special Areas of Conservation]]. The process consists of two stages. The first stage is to assess the importance at a national level, based on the habitats and species listed in Annex I and II. The second stage is to assess the importance for Europe as a whole, again based on the two earlier annexes.<ref name=":0" />
==Annex IV==
Annex IV lists species of interest to Europe which are in need of strict protection.
===Mammals===
*Insectivores: [[Pyrenean desman]] (''Galemys pyrenaicus''), ''[[Erinaceus algirus]]'' and ''[[Crocidura canariensis]]''
*All species of [[Microchiroptera]]
*Rodents: Beaver (''[[Castor fiber]]''), ''[[Cricetus cricetus]]'', porcupine (''[[Hystrix cristata]]''), ''[[Sicista betulina]]'', suslik (''[[Citellus citellus]]''), ''[[Sciurus anomalus]]'', ''[[Microtus cabrerae]]'', [[Tundra vole|Dutch tundra vole]] (''Microtus oeconomus arenicola''), and all species of [[Gliridae]] except ''[[Glis glis]]'' and ''[[Eliomys quercinus]]''
*Carnivores: Grey wolf (except Spanish populations north of the Duero and Greek populations north of the 39th parallel), brown bear (''[[Ursus arctos]]''), otter {''[[Lutra lutra]]''}, ''[[Mustela lutreola]]'', wild cat (''[[Felis silvestris]]''), lynx (''[[Lynx lynx]]''), Iberian lynx (''[[Lynx pardinus]]'') and monk seal (''[[Monachus monachus]]'')
*Hoofed animals: [[Corsican red deer]] (''Cervus elaphus corsicanus''), natural populations of wild goats (''[[Capra aegagrus]]''), natural populations of wild sheep (''[[Ovis ammon musimon]]'') on [[Corsica]] and [[Sardinia]], Balcan ([[Rupicapra rupicapra|''Rupicapra rupicapra balcanica'']]) and Apennine chamois ([[Rupicapra ornata|''R. ornata'']])
*[[Cetacean]]s: All species
===Reptiles and amphibians===
Turtles
*Tortoises: ''[[Testudo hermanni]]'', [[Testudo graeca|''T. graeca'']] and [[Testudo marginata|''T. marginata'']]
*Sea turtles: ''[[Caretta caretta]]'', ''[[Chelonia mydas]]'', ''[[Lepidochelys kempii]]'', ''[[Eretmochelys imbricata]]'' and ''[[Dermochelys coriacea]]''
*Freshwater turtles: ''[[Emys orbicularis]]'', ''[[Mauremys caspica]]'' and [[Mauremys leprosa|''M. leprosa'']]
Lizards
*''[[Algyroides fitzingeri]]'', [[Algyroides marchi|''A. marchi'']], [[Algyroides moreoticus|''A. moreoticus'']] and [[Algyroides nigropunctatus|''A. nigropunctatus'']]
*''[[Chamaeleo chamaeleon]]''
*''[[Gallotia atlantica]]'', [[Gallotia galloti|''G. galloti'']] (including specifically the subspecies ''insulanagae''), [[Gallotia simonyi|''G. simonyi'']] and [[Gallotia stehlini|''G. stehlini'']]
*Geckoes: ''[[Cyrtopodion kotschyi]]'', ''[[Phyllodactylus europaeus]]'', ''[[Tarentola angustimentalis]]'', [[Tarentola boettgeri|''T. boettgeri'']], [[Tarentola delalandii|''T. delalandii'']] and [[Tarentola gomerensis|''T. gomerensis'']].
*''[[Lacerta agilis]]'', [[Lacerta bedriagae|''L. bedriagae'']], [[Lacerta danfordi|''L. danfordi'']], [[Lacerta dugesi|''L. dugesi'']], [[Lacerta graeca|''L. graeca'']], [[Lacerta horvathi|''L. horvathi'']], [[Iberolacerta monticola|''L. monticola'']], [[Lacerta schreiberi|''L. schreiberi'']], [[Lacerta trilineata|''L. trilineata'']] and [[Lacerta viridis|''L. viridis'']]
*''[[Ophisaurus apodus]]''
*''[[Ophisops elegans]]''
*''[[Podarcis erhardii]]'', [[Podarcis filfolensis|''P. filfolensis'']], [[Podarcis hispanica|''Podarcis hispanica atrata'']], [[Podarcis lilfordi|''P. lilfordi'']], [[Podarcis melisellensis|''P. melisellensis'']], [[Podarcis milensis|''P. milensis'']], [[Podarcis muralis|''P. muralis'']], [[Podarcis peloponnesiaca|''P. peloponnesiaca'']], [[Podarcis pityusensis|''P. pityusensis'']], [[Podarcis sicula|''P. sicula'']], [[Podarcis taurica|''P. taurica'']], [[Podarcis tiliguerta|''P. tiliguerta'']] and [[Podarcis wagleriana|''P. wagleriana'']]
*Skinks: ''[[Ablepharus kitaibelli]]'', ''[[Chalcides bedriagai]]'', [[Chalcides occidentalis|''Ch. occidentalis'']], [[Chalcides ocellatus|''Ch. ocellatus'']], [[Chalcides sexlineatus|''Ch. sexlineatus'']], [[Chalcides viridianus|''Ch. viridianus'']] and ''[[Ophiomorus punctatissimus]]''
*''[[Stellio stellio]]''
Snakes
*''[[Coluber caspius]]'', [[Coluber hippocrepis|''C. hippocrepis'']], [[Coluber jugularis|''C. jugularis'']], [[Coluber laurenti|''C. laurenti'']], [[Coluber najadum|''C. najadum'']], [[Coluber nummifer|''C. nummifer'']] and [[Coluber viridiflavus|''C. viridiflavus'']]
*''[[Coronella austriaca]]''
*''[[Eirenis modesta]]''
*''[[Elaphe longissima]]'', [[Elaphe quatuorlineata|''E. quatuorlineata'']] and [[Elaphe situla|''E. situla'']]
*''[[Eryx jaculus]]''
*[[Natrix natrix|''Natrix natrix cetti'']], [[Natrix natrix|''N. natrix corsa'']] and [[Natrix tessellata|''N. tessellata'']]
*''[[Telescopus falax]]''
*''[[Vipera ammodytes]]'', [[Vipera schweizeri|''V. schweizeri'']], [[Vipera seoanni|''V. seoanni'']] (except Spanish populations), [[Vipera ursinii|''V. ursinii'']] and [[Vipera xanthina|''V. xanthina'']]
Salamanders:
*''[[Chioglossa lusitanica]]''
*''[[Euproctus asper]]'', [[Euproctus montanus|''E. montanus'']] and [[Euproctus platycephalus|''E. platycephalus'']]
*[[Olm]] (''Proteus anguinus'')
*''[[Salamandra atra]]'', [[Salamandra salamandra|''S. salamandra aurorae'']], [[Salamandra lanzai|''S. lanzai'']] and [[Salamandra luschani|''S. luschani'']]
*''[[Salamandrina terdigitata]]''
*''[[Speleomantes ambrosii]]'', [[Speleomantes flavus|''S. flavus'']], [[Speleomantes genei|''S. genei'']], [[Speleomantes imperialis|''S. imperialis'']], [[Speleomantes italicus|''S. italicus'']] and [[Speleomantes supramontes|''S. supramontes'']]
*''[[Triturus carnifex]]'', [[Triturus cristatus|''T. cristatus'']], [[Triturus italicus|''T. italicus'']], [[Triturus karelinii|''T. karelinii'']] and [[Triturus marmoratus|''T. marmoratus'']]
Toads and frogs:
*''[[Alytes cisternasii]]'', [[Alytes muletensis|''A. muletensis'']] and [[Alytes obstetricans|''A. obstetricans'']]
*''[[Bombina bombina]]'' and [[Bombina variegata|''B. variegata'']]
*''[[Bufo calamita]]'' and [[Bufo viridis|''B. viridis'']]
*''[[Discoglossus galganoi]]'', [[Discoglossus jeanneae|''D. jeanneae'']], [[Discoglossus montalentii|''D. montalentii'']], [[Discoglossus pictus|''D. pictus'']] and [[Discoglossus sardus|''D. sardus'']]
*Treefrogs: ''[[Hyla arborea]]'', [[Hyla meridionalis|''H. meridionalis'']] and [[Hyla sarda|''H. sarda'']]
*''[[Pelobates cultripes]]'', [[Pelobates fuscus|''P. fuscus'']] and [[Pelobates syriacus|''P. syriacus'']]
*''[[Rana arvalis]]'', [[Rana dalmatina|''R. dalmatina'']], [[Rana graeca|''R. graeca'']], [[Rana iberica|''R. iberica'']], [[Rana latastei|''R. latastei'']] and [[Rana lessonae|''R. lessonae'']]
===Fish===
*Perches: ''[[Zingel asper]]''
*Sturgeons: ''[[Acipenser naccarii]]'' and [[Acipenser sturio|''A. sturio'']]
*''[[Coregonus oxyrhynchus]]'' (anadromous populations in certain sectors of the North Sea)
*''[[Valencia hispanica]]''
===Insects===
*Beetles: ''[[Buprestis splendens]]'', ''[[Carabus olympiae]]'', ''[[Cerambyx cerdo]]'', ''[[Cucujus cinnaberinus]]'', ''[[Dytiscus latissimus]]'', ''[[Graphoderus bilineatus]]'', ''[[Osmoderma eremita]]'' and ''[[Rosalia alpina]]''
*Dragonflies: ''[[Aeshna viridis]]'', ''[[Cordulegaster trinacriae]]'', ''[[Gomphus graslinii]]'', ''[[Leucorrhina albifrons]]'', [[Leucorrhina caudalis|''L. caudalis'']], [[Leucorrhina pectoralis|''L. pectoralis'']], ''[[Lindenia tetraphylla]]'', ''[[Macromia splendens]]'', ''[[Ophiogomphus cecilia]]'', ''[[Oxygastra curtisii]]'', ''[[Stylurus flavipes]]'' and ''[[Sympecma braueri]]''
*Grasshoppers: ''[[Baetica ustulata]]'' and ''[[Saga pedo]]''
*Lepidoptera: ''[[Apatura metis]]'', ''[[Coenonympha hero]]'', [[Coenonympha oedippus|''C. oedippus'']], ''[[Erebia calcaria]]'', [[Erebia christi|''E. christi'']], [[Erebia sudetica|''E. sudetica'']], ''[[Eriogaster catax]]'', ''[[Fabriciana elisa]]'', ''[[Hypodryas maturna]]'', ''[[Hyles hippophaes]]'', ''[[Lopinga achine]]'', ''[[Lycaena dispar]]'', ''[[Maculinea arion]]'', [[Maculinea nausithous|''M. nausithous'']], [[Maculinea teleius|''M. teleius'']], [[Melanagria arge|''M. arge'']], ''[[Papilio alexanor]]'', [[Papilio hospiton|''P. hospiton'']], ''[[Parnassius apollo]]'', [[Parnassius mnemosyne|''P. mnemosyne'']], ''[[Plebicula golgus]]'', ''[[Proserpinus proserpina]]'' and ''[[Zerynthia polyxena]]''
*Mantids: ''[[Apteromantis aptera]]''
===Spiders===
*''[[Macrothele calpeiana]]''
===Molluscs===
*[[Gastropod]]s (snails): ''[[Patella feruginea]]'', ''[[Caseolus calculus]]'', [[Caseolus commixta|''C. commixta'']], [[Caseolus sphaerula|''C. sphaerula'']], ''[[Discula leacockiana]]'', [[Discula tabellata|''D. tabellata'']], [[Discula testudinalis|''D. testudinalis'']], [[Discula turricula|''D. turricula'']], ''[[Discus defloratus]]'', [[Discus guerinianus|''D. guerinianus'']], ''[[Elona quimperiana]]'', ''[[Geomalacus maculosus]]'', ''[[Geomitra moniziana]]'', ''[[Helix subplicata]]'', ''[[Leiostyla abbreviata]]'', [[Leiostyla cassida|''L. cassida'']], [[Leiostyla corneocostata|''L. corneocostata'']], [[Leiostyla gibba|''L. gibba'']] and [[Leiostyla lamellosa|''L. lamellosa'']]
*Bivalves: ''[[Lithophaga lithophaga]]'', ''[[Pinna nobilis]]'', ''[[Margaritifera auricularia]]'' and ''[[Unio crassus]]''
===Echinoderms===
*''[[Centrostephanus longispinus]]''
===Plants===
Annex IV contains all the plant species listed in Annex II (except the mosses and lichens), plus the plant taxa listed below:
*Ferns: ''[[Asplenium hemionitis]]''
*''[[Dracaena draco]]''
*[[Iridaceae]]: ''[[Crocus etruscus]]'', ''[[Iris boissieri]]'' and [[Iris marisca|''I. marisca'']]
*[[Liliaceae]]: ''[[Androcymbium europeum]]'', ''[[Bellevalia hackelli]]'', ''[[Colchicum corsicum]]'', [[Colchicum cousturieri|''C. cousturieri'']], ''[[Fritillaria conica]]'', [[Fritillaria drenovskii|''F. drenovskii'']], [[Fritillaria gussichiae|''F. gussichiae'']], [[Fritillaria obliqua|''F. obliqua'']], [[Fritillaria rhodocanakis|''F. rhodocanakis'']], ''[[Ornithogalum reverchonii]]'', ''[[Scilla beirana]]'' and [[Scilla odorata|''S. odorata'']]
*''[[Narcissus longispathus]]'' and [[Narcissus triandrus|''N. triandrus'']]
*Orchids: ''[[Ophrys argolica]]'', ''[[Orchis scopulorum]]'' and ''[[Spiranthes aestivalis]]''
*[[Apiaceae]]: ''[[Bunium brevifolium]]''
*''[[Aquilegia alpina]]''
*[[Asteraceae]]: [[Argyranthemum pinnatifidum|''Argyranthemum pinnatifidum'' subsp. ''succulentum'']], ''[[Helichrysum sibthorpii]]'', ''[[Picris willkommii]]'', ''[[Santolina elegans]]'', ''[[Senecio caespitosus]]'', [[Senecio lagascanus|''S. lagascanus'' subsp. ''lusitanicus'']] and ''[[Wagenitzia lancifolia]]''
*''[[Berberis maderensis]]''
*''[[Campanula morettiana]]'' and ''[[Physoplexis comosa]]''
*''[[Euphorbia nevadensis]]''
*[[Gesneriad]]s: ''[[Ramonda heldreichii]]'' (as ''Jankaea heldreichii'') and ''[[Ramonda serbica]]''
*[[Lamiaceae]]: ''[[Rosmarinus tomentosus]]'', ''[[Teucrium charidemi]]'', ''[[Thymus capitellatus]]'' and [[Thymus villosus|''T. villosus'' subsp. ''villosus'']]
*''[[Mandragora officinarum]]''
*''[[Moehringia fontqueri]]''
*''[[Murbeckiella sousae]]''
*[[Primulaceae]]: ''[[Androsace cylindrica]]'', ''[[Primula glaucescens]]'' and [[Primula spectabilis|''P. spectabilis'']]
*''[[Saxifraga cintrana]]'', [[Saxifraga portosanctana|''S. portosanctana'']], [[Saxifraga presolanensis|''S. presolanensis'']], [[Saxifraga valdensis|''S. valdensis'']] and [[Saxifraga vayredana|''S. vayredana'']]
*[[Scrophulariaceae]]: ''[[Antirrhinum lopesianum]]'' and ''[[Lindernia procumbens]]''
*''[[Sideroxylon marmulano]]''
*''[[Thymelaea broterana]]''
*''[[Viola athois]]'', [[Viola cazorlensis|''V. cazorlensis'']] and [[Viola delphinanth|''V. delphinanth'']]
==Annex V==
Annex V details the species which are of 'interest' to the European Union, of which the taking or exploitation of wild may be subject to the management decisions of the individual countries concerned.<ref name=":0" /> This largely concerns plants or animals in which the hunting or gathering was/is an economic activity.
Mammals
*Carnivores: golden jackal ([[European jackal|''Canis aureus moreoticus'']]), Spanish populations north of the Duera and Greek populations north of the 39th parallel of the grey wolf, ''[[Martes martes]]'', ''[[Mustela putorius]]'', all species of [[Phocidae]] (seals) not mentioned in Annex IV, ''[[Genetta genetta]]'' and ''[[Herpestes ichneumon]]''
*[[Mountain hare]] (''Lepus timidus'')
*Hoofed mammals: ''[[Capra ibex]]'', [[Capra pyrenaica|''C. pyrenaica'']] (except ''C. pyrenaica pyrenaica'') and ''[[Rupicapra rupicapra]]'' (except R. rupicapra balcanica and R. ornata)
Amphibians
*''[[Rana esculenta]]'', [[Rana perezi|''R. perezi'']], [[Rana ridibunda|''R. ridibunda'']] and [[Rana temporaria|''R. temporaria'']]
Fish
*Lampreys: ''[[Lampetra fluviatilis]]'' and ''[[Lethenteron zanandrai]]''
*All sturgeon species not mentioned in Annex IV
*[[Salmonidae]]: ''[[Thymallus thymallus]]'', ''[[Hucho hucho]]'', ''[[Salmo salar]]'' (only when in fresh water) and all ''[[Coregonus]]'' spp. (except ''[[Coregonus oxyrhynchus]]'' - anadromous populations in certain sectors of the North Sea)
*Cyprinids: all ''[[Barbus]]'' spp.
*[[Perciformes]]: ''[[Gymnocephalus schraetzer]]'' and ''[[Zingel zingel]]''
*All ''[[Alosa]]'' spp.
*Catfish: ''[[Silurus aristotelis]]''
Other
*Corals: ''[[Corallium rubrum]]''
*Molluscs: ''[[Helix pomatia]]'', ''[[Margaritifera margaritifera]]'', ''[[Microcondylaea compressa]]'' and ''[[Unio elongatulus]]''
*''[[Hirudo medicinalis]]''
*Crabs: ''[[Astacus astacus]]'', ''[[Austropotamobius pallipes]]'' and [[Austropotamobius torrentium|''A. torrentium'']]
*Lobster: ''[[Scyllarides latus]]''
*Moth: ''[[Graellsia isabellae]]''
Plants
*Red algae: ''[[Lithothamnium coralloides]]'' and ''[[Phymatholithon calcareum]]''
*Lichens: ''[[Cladonia]]'' subgenus ''Cladina''
*Mosses: ''[[Leucobryum glaucum]]'', all ''[[Sphagnum]]'' species except ''[[Sphagnum pylasii]]''
*:Clubmosses: all ''[[Lycopodium]]'' spp. (see [[lycopodium powder]])
*''[[Galanthus nivalis]]'', ''[[Narcissus bulbocodium]]'' and [[Narcissus juncifolius|''N. juncifolius'']]
*''[[Iris lusitanica]]''
*''[[Lilium rubrum]]''
*''[[Ruscus aculeatus]]''
*[[Asteraceae]]: ''[[Arnica montana]]'', ''[[Artemisia eriantha]]'', [[Artemisia genipi|''A. genipi'']], [[Doronicum plantagineum|''Doronicum plantagineum'' subsp. ''tournefortii'']] and ''[[Leuzea rhaponticoides]]''
*[[Brassicaceae]]: ''[[Alyssum pintadasilvae]]'', [[Malcolmia lacera|''Malcolmia lacera'' subsp. ''graccilima'']] and [[Murbeckiella pinnatifida|''Murbeckiella pinnatifida'' subsp. ''herminii'']]
*[[Gentianaceae]]: ''[[Gentiana lutea]]''
*[[Lamiaceae]]: [[Teucrium salviastrum|''Teucrium salviastrum'' subsp. ''salviastrum'']]
*[[Fabaceae]]: ''[[Anthyllis lusitanica]]'', [[Dorycnium pentaphyllum|''Dorycnium pentaphyllum'' subsp. ''transmontana'']] and ''[[Ulex densus]]''
*[[Plumbaginaceae]]: ''[[Armeria sampaio]]''
*[[Rosaceae]]: [[Rubus genevieri|''Rubus genevieri'' subsp. ''herminii'']]
*[[Scrophulariaceae]]: ''[[Anarrhinum longipedicelatum]]'', ''[[Euphrasia mendonçae]]''<!---obviously wrong spelling, but now found all over EU documentation--->, [[Scrophularia grandiflora|''Scrophularia grandiflora'' subsp. ''grandiflora'']], [[Scrophularia berminii|''S. berminii'']] and [[Scrophularia sublyrata|''S. sublyrata'']]
==Annex VI==
This annex compiles the types of capture and killing (i.e. hunting) which are prohibited in the European Community (and now the European Union), as well as prohibited modes of transport (while hunting). These can vary according to form of life.<ref name=":0" /> Birds are covered by the older [[Birds Directive]].
*Mammals, for example, may not be hunted using explosives, gassing or smoking out burrows, poisons and poisoned or anaesthetic bait, tape recorders, artificial light sources, mirrors and other dazzling devices, blind or mutilated animals used as live decoys, non-selective nets or traps, crossbows and semi-automatic or automatic machine guns with a magazine capable of holding more than two rounds of ammunition. Other prohibited hunting devices are those to illuminate targets, electrical and/or electronic devices capable of killing or stunning and sighting scopes for night shooting with an electronic image magnifier or image converter.<ref name=":0" />
*Fish may not be caught using poisons or explosives.<ref name=":0" />
It is furthermore illegal to hunt wildlife in the European Union from an aircraft or moving motor vehicle.<ref name=":0" />
==See also==
{{Portal|Environment}}
*[[List of European Union directives]]
*[[Conservation movement]]
*[[Environmental protection]]
*[[Environmentalism]]
*[[Lagoon]]
==References==
{{Reflist}}
==External links==
*[http://ec.europa.eu/environment/nature/legislation/habitatsdirective/index_en.htm The Habitats Directive online at the EU's website]
*[http://conventions.coe.int/Treaty/Commun/QueVoulezVous.asp?NT=104&CM=2&DF=9/4/2006&CL=ENG Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats, Bern (1982)]
*[http://www.oapen.org/download?type=document&docid=439862 The Habitats Directive by Keulen, M. van (2002)]
{{Authority control}}
[[Category:European Union directives]]
[[Category:European Union and the environment]]
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
[[Category:Environmental law in the European Union]]
[[Category:1992 in law]]
[[Category:1992 in the environment]]
[[Category:1992 in the European Economic Community]] |
Riparian buffer | {{Short description|Vegetated area near a stream, usually forested}}
[[File:Riparian buffer on Bear Creek in Story County, Iowa.JPG|thumb|right|A riparian buffer of vegetation lining a farm creek in [[Story County, Iowa]]]]
A '''riparian buffer''' or '''stream buffer''' is a [[vegetation|vegetated]] area (a "[[buffer strip]]") near a [[stream]], usually [[forest]]ed, which helps shade and partially protect the stream from the impact of adjacent [[land use]]s. It plays a key role in increasing [[water quality]] in associated streams, [[river]]s, and [[lake]]s, thus providing environmental benefits. With the decline of many [[aquatic ecosystems]] due to [[agriculture]], [[Riparian zone|riparian]] buffers have become a very common [[conservation ethic|conservation]] practice aimed at increasing water quality and reducing [[water pollution|pollution]].
== Benefits ==
Riparian buffers act to intercept [[sediment]], [[nutrient]]s, [[pesticide]]s, and other materials in [[surface runoff]] and reduce nutrients and other [[pollutants]] in shallow [[Subsurface flow|subsurface water flow]].<ref>U.S. Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS). (2006).
[ftp://ftp-fc.sc.egov.usda.gov/NHQ/practice-standards/standards/391.pdf "National Conservation Practice Standard: Riparian Forest Buffer."] Code 391. January 2006.</ref> They also serve to provide [[habitat]] and [[wildlife corridor]]s in primarily agricultural areas. They can also be key in reducing [[erosion]] by providing [[stream bank]] stabilization. Large scale results have demonstrated that the expansion of riparian buffers through the deployment of plantations systems can effectively reduce nitrogen emissions to water and soil loss by wind erosion, while simultaneously providing substantial environmental co-benefits, having limited negative effects on current agricultural production.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Englund |first1=Oskar |last2=Börjesson |first2=Pål |last3=Mola-Yudego |first3=Blas |last4=Berndes |first4=Göran |last5=Dimitriou |first5=Ioannis |last6=Cederberg |first6=Christel |last7=Scarlat |first7=Nicolae |title=Strategic deployment of riparian buffers and windbreaks in Europe can co-deliver biomass and environmental benefits |journal=Communications Earth & Environment |date=2021 |volume=2 |issue=1 |page=176 |doi=10.1038/s43247-021-00247-y |bibcode=2021ComEE...2..176E |s2cid=237310600 |doi-access=free }}</ref>
=== Water quality benefits ===
Riparian buffers intercept sediment and nutrients. They counteract [[eutrophication]] in downstream lakes and ponds which can be detrimental to aquatic habitats because of large [[fish kill]]s that occur upon large-scale eutrophication. Riparian buffers keep chemicals, like pesticides, that can be harmful to aquatic life out of the water. Some pesticides can be especially harmful if they [[bioaccumulate]] in the organism, with the chemicals reaching harmful levels once they are ready for human consumption. Riparian buffers also stabilise the bank surrounding the water body which is important since erosion can be a major problem in agricultural regions when cut (eroded) banks can take land out of production. Erosion can also lead to [[sedimentation]] and [[siltation]] of downstream lakes, ponds, and reservoirs. Siltation can greatly reduce the life span of [[reservoir]]s and the [[dam]]s that create the reservoirs.
=== Habitat benefits ===
Riparian buffers can act as crucial habitat for a large number of species, especially those who have lost [[habitat]] due to agricultural land being put into production. The habitat provided by the buffers also double as corridors for species that have had their habitat fragmented by various land uses. By adding this vegetated area of land near a water source, it increases [[biodiversity]] by allowing species an area to re-establish after being displaced due to non-conservation land use. With this re-establishment, the number of native species and biodiversity in general can be increased. The large [[tree]]s in the first zone of the riparian buffer provide shade and therefore cooling for the water, increasing productivity and increasing habitat quality for aquatic species. When branches and stumps ([[large woody debris]]) fall into the stream from the riparian zone, more stream habitat features are created. [[Carbon]] is added as an energy source for [[Biota (ecology)|biota]] in the stream.
=== Economic benefits ===
Buffers increase land value and allow for the production of profitable alternative crops. Vegetation such as [[black walnut]] and [[hazelnut]], which can be profitably harvested, can be incorporated into the riparian buffer. Lease fees for hunting can also be increased as the larger habitat means that the land will be more sought-after for hunting purposes. Designing buffer zones based on their hydrological function instead of a traditionally used fixed width method, can be economically beneficial in forestry practices.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Tiwari |first1=T. |last2=Lundström |first2=J. |last3=Kuglerová |first3=L. |last4=Laudon |first4=H. |last5=Öhman |first5=K. |last6=Ågren |first6=A. M. |title=Cost of riparian buffer zones: A comparison of hydrologically adapted site-specific riparian buffers with traditional fixed widths |journal=Water Resources Research |date=February 2016 |volume=52 |issue=2 |pages=1056–1069 |doi=10.1002/2015WR018014|bibcode=2016WRR....52.1056T |doi-access=free }}</ref>
== Design ==
[[File:Late Winter Afternoon in Munson Park Wetlands.webm|thumb|Ground level view of riparian buffer between Munson Pond (off camera left) and an agricultural operation (off camera right), in [[Kelowna|Kelowna, British Columbia]]]]
A riparian buffer is usually split into three different zones, each having its own specific purpose for filtering runoff and interacting with the adjacent aquatic system. Buffer design is a key element in the effectiveness of the buffer. It is generally recommended that native species be chosen to plant in these three zones, with the general width of the buffer being {{convert|50|ft|m}} on each side of the stream.<ref>{{cite newsletter|last1=Dosskey |first1=M. |last2=Schultz |first2=D. |last3=Isenhart |first3=T. |title=Riparian Buffers for Agricultural Land |url=https://fs.usda.gov/nac/documents/agroforestrynotes/an03rfb02.pdf |date=January 1997 |work=Agroforestry Notes |issue=3 |publisher=National Agroforestry Center, US Forest Service |location=Lincoln, NE}}</ref>
;Zone 1
:This zone should function mainly to shade the water source and act as a bank stabilizer. The zone should include large native tree species that grow fast and can quickly act to perform these tasks. Although this is usually the smallest of the three zones and absorbs the fewest contaminants, most of the contaminants have been eliminated by Zone 2 and Zone 3.<ref name="Maryland Cooperative Extension 1998">{{cite report |author=Maryland Cooperative Extension |title=Riparian Forest Buffer Design, Establishment, and Maintenance |publisher=University of Maryland |date=1998}}</ref>
;Zone 2
:Usually made up of native [[shrubs]], this zone provides a habitat for wildlife, including nesting areas for [[bird]] species. This zone also acts to slow and absorb contaminants that Zone 3 has missed. The zone is an important transition between grassland and forest.<ref name="Maryland Cooperative Extension 1998"/>
;Zone 3
:This zone is important as the first line of defense against contaminants. It consists mostly of native [[grass]]es and serves primarily to slow water runoff and begin to absorb contaminants before they reach the other zones. Although these grass strips should be one of the widest zones, they are also the easiest to install.<ref name="Maryland Cooperative Extension 1998"/>
;Streambed Zone
:The streambed zone of the riparian area is linked closely to Zone 1. Zone 1 provides fallen limbs, trees, and tree roots that in turn slow water flow, reducing erosional processes associated with increased water flow and flooding. This woody debris also increases habitat and cover for various aquatic species.
The US National Agroforestry Center has developed a filter strip design tool called AgBufferBuilder, which is a GIS-based computer program for designing vegetative filter strips around agricultural fields that utilizes terrain analysis to account for spatially non-uniform runoff.
== Forest management ==
[[Logging]] is sometimes recommended as a management practice in riparian buffers, usually to provide economic incentive. However, some studies have shown that logging can harm wildlife populations, especially birds. A study by the University of Minnesota found that there was a correlation between the harvesting of timber in riparian buffers and a decline in bird populations.<ref>Journal of Wildlife Management; Apr 2005, Vol. 69 Issue 2, p689-698, 10p</ref> Therefore, logging is generally discouraged as an environmental practice, and left to be done in designated logging areas.
== Conservation incentives ==
The [[Conservation Reserve Program]] (CRP), a farming assistance program in the [[United States]], provides many incentives to landowners to encourage them to install riparian buffers around water systems that have a high chance of non-point water pollution and are highly erodible. For example, the [[Nebraska]] system of Riparian Buffer Payments offers payments for the cost of setup, a sign up bonus, and annual rental payments.
These incentives are offered to agriculturists to compensate them for their economic loss of taking this land out of production. If the land is highly erodible and produces little economic gain, it can sometimes be more economic to take advantage of these CRP programs.<ref>University of Nebraska Cooperative Extension. "Benefits of Riparian Forest Buffers (Streamside Plantings of Trees, Shrubs and Grasses)." University Press, Lincoln, NE.</ref>
== Effectiveness ==
Riparian buffers have undergone much scrutiny about their effectiveness, resulting in thorough testing and monitoring. A study done by the [[University of Georgia]], conducted over a nine-year period, monitored the amounts of fertilizers that reached the watershed from the source of the application. It found that these buffers removed at least 60% of the [[nitrogen]] in the runoff, and at least 65% of the [[phosphorus]] from the fertilizer application. The same study showed that the effectiveness of the Zone 3 was much greater than that of both Zone 1 and 2 at removing contaminants.<ref>Durham, Sharon. "Riparian Buffers Effective." Southeast Farm Press. 4 Feb 2004. p26</ref> But another study in 2017 did not find efficiency (or a very limiting capacity) for reducing [[glyphosate]] and [[AMPA]] leaching to streams; spontaneous herbaceous vegetation RBS is as efficient as ''[[Salix]]'' plantations and measures of glyphosate in runoff after a year, suggest an unexpected persistence and even a capacity of RBS to potentially favor glyphosate infiltration up to 70 cm depth in the soil.<ref name=study2017effic>Hénault-Ethier, L., Lucotte, M., Moingt, M., Paquet, S., Maccario, S., Smedbol, É., ... & Labrecque, M. (2017). ''[https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0048969717309397#f0030 Herbaceous or Salix miyabeana ‘SX64’narrow buffer strips as a means to minimize glyphosate and aminomethylphosphonic acid leaching from row crop fields]''. Science of the Total Environment, 598, 1177-1186.</ref>{{Clarify|reason=This does not give context on what is being discussed—specifically, what is spontaneous herbaceous vegetation and RBS?|date=October 2019}}
== Long-term sustainability ==
After the initial installation of the riparian buffer, relatively little maintenance needs to be performed to keep the buffer in good condition. Once the trees and grasses reach maturity, they regenerate naturally and make a more effective buffer. The sustainability of the riparian buffer makes it extremely attractive to landowners, since they do relatively little work and still receive payments. Riparian buffers have the potential to be the most effective ways to protect aquatic biodiversity, water quality and manage water resources in developing countries that lack the funds to install water treatment and supply systems in midsize and small towns.
== Species selection ==
Species selection based on an area in Nebraska, as an example:
;In Zone 1
: Cottonwood, Bur Oak, Hackberry, Swamp White Oak, Siberian Elm, Honeylocust, Silver Maple, Black Walnut, and Northern Red Oak.<ref name="NRDTree">Nebraska Association of Resources Districts (2003). [http://www.nrdnet.org/trees/pdfs/tree_book.pdf "Conservation Trees for Nebraska."]</ref>
;In Zone 2
: [[Prunus mandshurica|Manchurian apricot]], Silver Buffaloberry, Caragana, Black Cherry, Chokecherry, Sandcherry, Peking Cotoneaster, Midwest Crabapple, Golden Currant, Elderberry, Washington Hawthorn, American Hazel, Amur Honeysuckle, Common Lilac, Amur Maple, American Plum, and Skunkbush Sumac.<ref name="NRDTree" />
;In Zone 3
: Western Wheatgrass, Big Bluestem, Sand Bluestem, Sideoats Grama, Blue Grama, Hairy Grama, Buffalo Grass, Sand Lovegrass, Switchgrass, Little Bluestem, Indiangrass, Prairie Cordgrass, Prairie Dropseed, Tall Dropseed, Needleandthread, Green Needlegrass.
== See also ==
{{div col|colwidth=22em}}
*[[Agricultural wastewater treatment]]
*[[Agroforestry]]
*[[Ecoscaping]]
*[[Erosion control]]
*[[Nonpoint source pollution]]
{{div col end}}
== References ==
{{Reflist|30em}}
== External links ==
{{Commonscat}}
*[https://www.fs.usda.gov/nac/practices/riparianforestbuffers.shtml National Agroforestry Center (USDA)]
*[https://www.fs.usda.gov/nac/resources/tools/AgBufferBuilder.shtml Filter Strip Design Tool (AgBufferBuilder; USDA)]
*[https://www.fs.usda.gov/nac/resources/tools/riparian-bibliography.shtml Extensive Riparian Buffer bibliography]
{{conservation of species}}
[[Category:Agricultural soil science]]
[[Category:Agroforestry]]
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
[[Category:Environmental soil science]]
[[Category:Environmental terminology]]
[[Category:Forest management]]
[[Category:Habitat]]
[[Category:Habitats]]
[[Category:Hydrology]]
[[Category:Riparian zone]]
[[Category:Sustainable agriculture]]
[[Category:Sustainable design]]
[[Category:Water and the environment]]
[[Category:Water pollution]]
[[Category:Articles containing video clips]] |
Conservation headland | A '''conservation headland''' is a strip along the edge of an [[agricultural]] field, where [[pesticide]]s are sprayed only in a selective manner. This increases the number and type of [[weed]] and insect species present, and benefits the bird species that depend on them. The [[grey partridge]] is one such bird.
Conservation headlands were introduced in the 1980s by scientists working for [[Game & Wildlife Conservation Trust]] in [[Great Britain]]. Trials have taken place in southern [[Sweden]].
*See also: [[beetle bank]]
==External links==
*[http://www.gwct.org.uk/education__advice/english_entry_level_stewardship/habitat_issues/336.asp Game & Wildlife Conservation Trust information on Conservation Headlands]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20041118061536/http://www.rspb.org.uk/countryside/farming/advice/farmhabitats/headlands/index.asp RSPB information on Conservation Headlands]
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
{{environment-stub}} |
Conservation photography | {{Short description|Photography genre}}
[[File:Management sign.JPG|thumb|Photo of [[Natural resource management|Management sign]] encouraging [[wildlife conservation]]]]
[[File:Ansel Adams and camera.jpg|thumb|Ansel Easton Adams (1902–1984), an American [[photographer]] and [[environmentalist]], photo by [[J. Malcolm Greany]]]]
'''Conservation photography''' is the active use of the [[photographic process]] and its products, within the parameters of [[photojournalism]], to [[advocate]] for [[Conservation biology|conservation]] outcomes.
Conservation photography combines [[nature photography]] with the proactive, issue-oriented approach of [[documentary photography]] as an agent for protecting [[nature]] and improving the [[biosphere]] and [[natural environment]]. Conservation Photography furthers [[Nature conservation|environmental conservation]], [[wildlife conservation]], [[habitat conservation]] or cultural conservation by expanding public awareness of issues and stimulating remedial action.
==History==
[[File:Carleton E. Watkins - Mt. Broderick, Nevada Fall - SFM.95.98 01 d02.jpg|thumb|Photo by [[Carleton Watkins|Carleton E. Watkins]] (1829–1916) of Mt. Broderick and Nevada Fall (700 ft.) at Yosemite Valley in 1861]]
[[File:Ansel Adams-Half Dome, Apple Orchard, Yosemite.jpg|thumb|Photo by [[Ansel Adams]] of Yosemite Half Dome, Apple Orchard, trees with snow on branches in April 1933]]
Photography has developed as a powerful medium to empower conservation. Photography has served this role since the 1860s, although not widely acknowledged as such.<ref>{{Citation | url=http://www.conservationphotography.info/ | author=Carleton Ward Jr. | title=Conservation Photography | publisher=University of Florida | work=Master of Science Thesis | year=2008 | access-date=2012-02-27}}</ref> A notable example are the powerful images of [[Carleton Watkins]] which were successfully used to stimulate the establishment of [[Yosemite National Park]] in 1864 and [[William Henry Jackson]] and [[Ansel Adams]] who advocated for expansion and continued funding of the park.
Renewed emphasis on photography-for-conservation arose at the beginning of the 21st century, primarily in response to the human-caused [[environmental crisis]], recognizing that the global pattern of [[ecosystem]] degradation was not sustainable.
The modern field of conservation photography was formalized in October 2005 with the founding of the [[International League of Conservation Photographers]] by photographer [[Cristina Mittermeier]], during the 8th [[World Wilderness Congress]] in [[Anchorage, Alaska]]. Prior to 2005 "conservation photography" was not widely recognized as a discipline.
==Definition==
[[File:Seashell vendor.jpeg|thumb|Photo of a vendor in Tanzania in 2000 selling to tourists [[threatened species]] [[seashell]]s which have been taken alive from the sea, killing the animal inside.]]
Conservation and photography appear as two distinct fields, but their combined impact can be profound. Simply put, conservation photography is photography that empowers or enables conservation.
According to the photographer, [[Joel Sartore]], "the typical nature photograph shows a butterfly on a pretty flower. The conservation photograph shows the same thing, but with a bulldozer coming at it in the background. This doesn't mean there's no room for beautiful pictures, in fact we need beautiful images just as much as the issues. It does mean that the images exist for a reason; to save the Earth while we still can."
The serious conservation photographer brings to their work a deep empathy for the natural world. Proper use of the resulting images has the power to bring about positive change.
Conservation photographs fall into two broad categories, both of which are equally valuable:
*The snapshot: upon seeing a striking scene one pulls out a cell phone or point-and-shoot camera, and snaps some quick framed pictures without expending too much time or effort.
*The carefully crafted image:: One sees the same scene, but instead of quickly shooting it and moving on, they take a series of skillfully crafted, high-quality images that tell the story in a more powerful way. Dramatic framing enhances the influence of a picture.
Such photographs have a stronger impact on the audience. One may also proactively seek opportunities to take crafted conservation pictures. Determined effort can result in excellent photo stories that can move people's hearts and minds.<ref name="CI"/>
==Applications==
[[File:Gp-esso.jpg|thumb|Photo of [[Greenpeace]] protest against [[Esso]] /[[ExxonMobil in 2003]]]]
[[File:2011 flooding in Ayutthaya Province-EO-1 merged.jpg|thumb|True-colour [[satellite image]] showing [[flood]]ing in Ayutthaya and Pathum Thani Provinces in Central [[Thailand]] (right), compared to before the flooding (left) in 2011]]
In order to create an impact, conservation pictures should be put to work for specific causes. Though not every picture may find an immediate use, a carefully catalogued archive of conservation pictures can help increase impact of conservation related news stories, provide material for public awareness campaigns, including [[internet activism]] and sometimes serve as [[Investigative journalism]] evidence in court proceedings. Images of [[habitat destruction]], especially in [[protected area]]s, can be important as legal evidence against the activity.
;Specialty fields
Several specialty fields benefit from their use of conservation photography, these include:
* [[Conservation movement]], to protect animals, fungi, plants and their habitats
** [[Conservation biology]], the science of the protection and management of biodiversity
** [[Conservation genetics]] - "an interdisciplinary science that aims to apply genetic methods to the conservation and restoration of biodiversity."
** [[Conservation (ethic)]], an ethic of resource use, allocation, and protection, especially of the natural environment
** [[Conservation organization]] typically an environmental organization
** [[Conservation movement|Conservationist]], a person who advocates for conservation of animals, fungi, plants and their habitats
** [[Energy conservation]], the reduction of non-renewable energy consumption
** [[Habitat conservation]], a land management practice that seeks to conserve, protect and restore, habitat areas for wild animals, fungi and plants
** [[Water conservation]], reducing the use of water to protect the environment
** [[Wetland conservation]], protecting wetlands to conserve their ecological processes
** [[Wildlife management]], multidisciplinary practices, including conservation of species and their habitats
** [[Conservation authority (Canada)]]
** [[Marine conservation]], the protection and preservation of ecosystems in oceans and seas
** [[Soil conservation]], management strategies for prevention of soil being eroded from the earth’s surface or becoming chemically altered
* [[Conservation-restoration]], the profession devoted to the preservation of cultural resources
** [[Art conservation]], protecting works of art
** [[Photograph conservation]]
** [[Architectural conservation]]
;Subjects
Some subjects of conservation photography include:
[[File:Illegallogginginchiangmai.jpg|thumb|Photo of Illegal logging in [[Thailand]] was taken from the roadside in [[Chiang Mai Province]] in 2011]]
*Destruction/construction activity inside a protected area.
*Commercial activity in ecologically sensitive zones (ESZs) – the areas immediately bordering national parks and reserves
*[[Illegal logging]] or [[mining]] activity
*[[Habitat fragmentation]] or destruction, ranging from individual tree felling to land clearing for a large hydroelectric project.
*[[Forest fire]]s.
*Cattle / goats inside protected areas.
*New roads inside or near a protected area.
[[File:Roadkill kangaroo.jpg|thumb|Photo of [[roadkill]]ed [[kangaroo]] in [[Australia]]]]
*Evidence of [[poaching]] or [[hunting]], such as empty gun shells, snares, jaw traps, skinned carcass etc.
*[[Road kill]]s.
*[[Wildlife]] kept as pets.
*[[Tourism]] and its impacts.
*Harvest of [[Non-timber forest product|forest produce]].
*Public exhibitions or appearances of [[environmental activist]]s
*[[Human-wildlife conflict]] events or results<ref name="CI">
{{citation
|url=http://www.conservationindia.org/resources/beyond-the-pretty-picture
|title=Beyond The Pretty Picture — Giving Back To Nature Through Photography
|work=RESOURCES » TOOLKIT
|author=Shekar Dattatri and Ramki Sreenivasan
|publisher=Conservation India
|date=2011-12-13
|access-date=2012-02-27
}}</ref>
==Organizations==
There are many [[environmental organization]]s that effectively use conservation photography to help advocate their goals. Just a few are:
*[[ARKive]] is a global initiative with the mission of "promoting the conservation of the world's threatened species, through the power of wildlife imagery", which it does by locating and gathering films, photographs and audio recordings of the world's [[species]] into a centralised [[Digital data|digital]] [[archive]]. Its current priority is the completion of audio-visual profiles for the c. 17,000 species on the [[IUCN Red List]] of [[threatened species]].<ref name="about">{{cite web|url=http://www.arkive.org/about/|title=About ARKive|work=ARKive|access-date=12 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110701182614/http://www.arkive.org/about/|archive-date=2011-07-01|url-status=dead}}</ref>
*[[Sanctuary Asia]] is [[India]]'s first and one of its leading [[Environmentalism|environmental]] [[news magazine]]s. It was founded in 1981 to raise awareness among [[Indian people]] of their disappearing [[natural heritage]]. The magazine is attractively packaged<ref>Various authors, India, pp. 76; [[Lonely Planet]] Publications, 2005</ref> with colored photographs. The ''Sanctuary Photo Library''' is a melting pot of natural history visuals, information and resources used to produce some of the finest wildlife and nature calendars, posters, slide shows, exhibitions and other products available in India.
*[[Sierra club]] maintains a publishing imprint, [[Sierra Club Books]], publishing books on environmental issues, wilderness photographic essays, nature guides, and other related subjects. They publish the Sierra Club Calendars, perennial bestsellers, featuring photographs by well-known nature photographers such as [[Galen Rowell]].
*The [[International League of Conservation Photographers]] (iLCP) is a nonprofit organization dedicated to furthering environmental and cultural conservation through ethical photography.
==References==
{{reflist}}
==External links ==
* {{Commons category inline}}
{{Conservation of species}}
{{Photography subject}}
{{Environmental humanities}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Conservation Photography}}
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
[[Category:Photojournalism]]
[[Category:Stock photography]]
[[Category:Types of journalism]]
[[Category:Journalism occupations]]
[[Category:Photography by genre]] |
Site-based conservation | {{unreferenced|date=April 2022}}
'''Site-based conservation''' is an approach to [[nature conservation]] that relies on the designation of important or representative examples of sites supporting key habitats or species, such as [[Key Biodiversity Areas]] (KBAs) or [[Important Bird Area]]s (IBAs). Whilst a rational way of ensuring that the very best resources are protected, it is open to a number of criticisms:
* It tends to focus resources and protection on only the best sites.
* With a changing climate, the best sites now may not be the best ones to protect for the future.
* Wildlife is ignorant of lines drawn on maps by humans.
On balance, site-based conservation is an essential part of nature conservation, along with initiatives such as environmental subsidies and planning controls that protect biodiversity across the whole landscape (the broad and shallow approach), and the more holistic ideas of [[landscape-scale conservation]].
{{conservation of species}}
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
{{environment-stub}} |
Soil conservation | {{Short description|Preservation of soil nutrients}}
[[File:Mmerosionrazorback.jpg|thumb|upright=1.25|Erosion barriers on disturbed slope, [[Marin County, California]]]]
[[File:Contour plowing.jpg|thumb|upright=1.25|[[Contour plowing]] in [[Pennsylvania]] in 1938. The rows formed slow surface water run-off during rainstorms to prevent [[soil erosion]] and allow the water time to [[infiltration (hydrology)|infiltrate]] into the soil.]]
'''Soil conservation''' is the prevention of loss of the topmost layer of the soil from [[erosion]] or prevention of reduced fertility caused by over usage, [[Soil acidification|acidification]], salinization or other chemical [[soil contamination]].
[[Slash-and-burn]] and other [[unsustainable]] methods of [[subsistence farming]] are practiced in some lesser developed areas. A consequence of deforestation is typically large-scale [[erosion]], loss of soil nutrients and sometimes total [[desertification]]. Techniques for improved soil conservation include [[crop rotation]], [[cover crop]]s, [[Tillage#Conservation tillage|conservation tillage]] and planted [[windbreak]]s, affect both [[erosion]] and [[fertility]]. When plants die, they decay and become part of the soil. Code 330 defines standard methods recommended by the U.S. [[Natural Resources Conservation Service]]. Farmers have practiced soil conservation for millennia. In Europe, policies such as the Common Agricultural Policy are targeting the application of best management practices such as reduced [[tillage]], winter cover crops,<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Panagos |first1=Panos |last2=Borrelli |first2=Pasquale |last3=Meusburger |first3=Katrin |last4=Alewell |first4=Christine |last5=Lugato |first5=Emanuele |last6=Montanarella |first6=Luca |title=Estimating the soil erosion cover-management factor at the European scale |journal=Land Use Policy |volume=48 |pages=38–50 |doi=10.1016/j.landusepol.2015.05.021 |year=2015|doi-access=free }}</ref> plant residues and grass margins in order to better address soil conservation. [[Political]] and economic action is further required to solve the erosion problem. A simple [[governance]] [[hurdle]] concerns how we value the land and this can be changed by cultural adaptation.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Panagos |first1=Panos |last2=Imeson |first2=Anton |last3=Meusburger |first3=Katrin |last4=Borrelli |first4=Pasquale |last5=Poesen |first5=Jean |last6=Alewell |first6=Christine |date=2016-08-01 |title=Soil Conservation in Europe: Wish or Reality? |journal=Land Degradation & Development |language=en |volume=27 |issue=6 |pages=1547–1551 |doi=10.1002/ldr.2538 |issn=1099-145X|doi-access=free }}</ref> [[Soil carbon]] is a [[carbon sink]], playing a role in [[climate change mitigation]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Amelung|first1=W.|last2=Bossio|first2=D.|last3=de Vries|first3=W.|last4=Kögel-Knabner|first4=I.|last5=Lehmann|first5=J.|last6=Amundson|first6=R.|last7=Bol|first7=R.|last8=Collins|first8=C.|last9=Lal|first9=R.|last10=Leifeld|first10=J.|last11=Minasny|first11=B.|date=2020-10-27|title=Towards a global-scale soil climate mitigation strategy|journal=Nature Communications|language=en|volume=11|issue=1|pages=5427|doi=10.1038/s41467-020-18887-7|pmid=33110065|pmc=7591914|bibcode=2020NatCo..11.5427A |issn=2041-1723|doi-access=free}}</ref>
==Methods==
=== Contour ploughing ===
[[Contour ploughing]] orients furrows following the [[contour line]]s of the farmed area. Furrows move left and right to maintain a constant altitude, which reduces [[Surface runoff|runoff]]. Contour plowing was practiced by the ancient [[Phoenicia]]ns for slopes between two and ten percent.<ref>''Predicting Euler erosion by water, a guide to conservation planning in the Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation'', [[United States Department of Agriculture]], Agricultural Research Service, Agricultural handbook no. 703 (1997)</ref> Contour plowing can increase crop yields from 10 to 50 percent, partially as a result of greater soil retention.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/contourfarmingbo23unit|title=Contour farming boosts yields: a farmer's guide in laying out key contour lines and establishing grassed seeds for the ways of life|last=United States. Department of Agriculture|first=National Agricultural Library|date=1943-01-01|publisher=[Washington, D.C.] : U.S. Dept. of Agriculture}}</ref>
=== Terrace farming ===
[[terrace (agriculture)|Terracing]] is the practice of creating nearly level areas in a hillside area. The terraces form a series of steps each at a higher level than the previous. Terraces are protected from erosion by other soil barriers. Terraced farming is more common on small farms. This involves creating a series of flats terraced levels on a sloping field.
=== Keyline design ===
[[Keyline design]] is the enhancement of contour farming, where the total watershed properties are taken into account in forming the [[contour line]]s.
=== Perimeter runoff control ===
[[File:Runoff and filtersoxx.ogv|thumb|350px|Stormwater management animation]]
Tree, [[shrub]]s and [[ground-cover]] are effective perimeter treatment for [[soil erosion]] prevention, by impeding surface flows. A special form of this perimeter or inter-row treatment is the use of a "grass way" that both [[Channel (geography)|channel]]s and dissipates runoff through surface friction, impeding [[surface runoff]] and encouraging infiltration of the slowed surface water.<ref>''Perimeter landscaping of Carneros Business Park'', Lumina Technologies, Santa Rosa, Ca., prepared for Sonoma County, Ca. (2002)</ref>
===Windbreaks===
Windbreaks are sufficiently dense rows of [[tree]]s at the [[Windward and leeward|windward]] exposure of an agricultural field subject to [[wind]] [[erosion]].<ref>Wolfgang Summer, ''Modelling Soil Erosion, Sediment Transport and Closely Related Hydrological Processes'' entry by Mingyuan Du, Peiming Du, Taichi Maki and Shigeto Kawashima, "Numerical modeling of air flow over complex terrain concerning wind erosion", International Association of Hydrological Sciences publication no. 249 (1998) {{ISBN|1-901502-50-3}}</ref> [[Evergreen]] [[species]] provide year-round protection; however, as long as [[foliage]] is present in the seasons of bare [[soil]] surfaces, the effect of [[deciduous]] trees may be adequate.
=== Cover crops/crop rotation ===
Cover crops such as [[nitrogen-fixing]] [[legume]]s, white turnips, radishes and other species are rotated with cash crops to blanket the soil year-round and act as [[green manure]] that replenishes nitrogen and other critical nutrients. Cover crops also help to suppress weeds.<ref name=":0">{{Cite news
|url= https://www.nytimes.com/2015/03/10/science/farmers-put-down-the-plow-for-more-productive-soil.html |title=Farmers Put Down the Plow for More Productive Soil |last=Goode |first=Erica |date=March 10, 2015 |newspaper=[[The New York Times]] |edition=New York |page=D1 |issn=0362-4331 |oclc=1645522 |access-date=April 5, 2015}}</ref>
=== Soil-conservation farming ===
Soil-conservation farming involves [[no-till farming]], "green manures" and other soil-enhancing practices which make it hard for the soils to be equalized. Such farming methods attempt to mimic the biology of [[barren lands]]. They can revive damaged soil, minimize erosion, encourage plant growth, eliminate the use of nitrogen fertilizer or fungicide, produce above-average yields and protect crops during droughts or flooding. The result is less labor and lower costs that increase farmers’ profits. No-till farming and cover crops act as sinks for nitrogen and other nutrients. This increases the amount of [[soil organic matter]].<ref name=":0" />
Repeated plowing/tilling degrades soil, killing its beneficial fungi and earthworms. Once damaged, soil may take multiple seasons to fully recover, even in optimal circumstances.<ref name=":0" />
Critics argue that no-till and related methods are impractical and too expensive for many growers, partly because it requires new equipment. They cite advantages for conventional tilling depending on the geography, crops and soil conditions. Some farmers have contended that no-till complicates pest control, delays planting and that post-harvest residues, especially for corn, are hard to manage.<ref name=":0" />
=== Reducing the use of pesticides ===
{{See also|Organic food#Environmental sustainability|Sustainable food system}}
The use of pesticides can contaminate the soil, and nearby vegetation and water sources for a long time. They affect soil structure and (biotic and abiotic) composition.<ref>{{cite web |title=Soil Conservation Guide: Importance and Practices |url=https://online.maryville.edu/blog/soil-conservation/ |website=Maryville Online |access-date=3 December 2022 |date=26 February 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Baweja |first1=Pooja |last2=Kumar |first2=Savindra |last3=Kumar |first3=Gaurav |title=Soil Health |chapter=Fertilizers and Pesticides: Their Impact on Soil Health and Environment |series=Soil Biology |date=2020 |volume=59 |pages=265–285 |doi=10.1007/978-3-030-44364-1_15 |publisher=Springer International Publishing |isbn=978-3-030-44363-4 |s2cid=219811822 |language=en}}</ref> Differentiated taxation schemes are among the options investigated in the academic literature to reducing their use.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Finger |first1=Robert |last2=Möhring |first2=Niklas |last3=Dalhaus |first3=Tobias |last4=Böcker |first4=Thomas |title=Revisiting Pesticide Taxation Schemes |journal=Ecological Economics |date=April 2017 |volume=134 |pages=263–266 |doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2016.12.001|hdl=20.500.11850/128036 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>
{{Excerpt|Pesticide|Alternatives}}
=== Salinity management===
[[File:Aralship2.jpg|thumb|Salt deposits on the former bed of the [[Aral Sea]]]]
{{Main|Soil salinity control}}
[[Salinity]] in soil is caused by irrigating with salty water. Water then evaporates from the soil leaving the salt behind. Salt breaks down the soil structure, causing infertility and reduced growth.{{Citation needed|date=September 2023}}
The [[ions]] responsible for salination are: [[sodium]] (Na<sup>+</sup>), [[potassium]] (K<sup>+</sup>), [[calcium]] (Ca<sup>2+</sup>), [[magnesium]] (Mg<sup>2+</sup>) and [[chlorine]] (Cl<sup>−</sup>). Salinity is estimated to affect about one third of the earth's [[arable land]].<ref>Dan Yaron, ''Salinity in Irrigation and Water Resources'', Marcel Dekker, New York (1981) {{ISBN|0-8247-6741-1}}</ref> Soil salinity adversely affects crop [[metabolism]] and erosion usually follows.
Salinity occurs on [[drylands]] from [[Irrigation| overirrigation]] and in areas with shallow saline water tables. Over-irrigation deposits salts in upper soil layers as a byproduct of soil [[infiltration (hydrology)|infiltration]]; irrigation merely increases the rate of salt deposition. The best-known case of shallow [[saline water]] table [[capillary action]] occurred in [[Egypt]] after the 1970 construction of the [[Aswan Dam]]. The change in the [[groundwater]] level led to high salt concentrations in the water table. The continuous high level of the [[water table]] led to [[soil salination]].
Use of [[humic acid]]s may prevent excess salination, especially given excessive irrigation.{{Citation needed|reason=this claim appears speculative. Sourcing is needed .|date=February 2019}} Humic acids can fix both [[anion]]s and [[cation]]s and eliminate them from [[root|root zones]].{{Citation needed|reason=dubious claim need sourcing. The ability of humic acid to fix solutes is not expected to work on a scale that is practical for salinity management. Solutes occur at tons per acre, humic acids are applied at pounds per acre. The limits of stoichiometry mean that only pounds per acre of salts will be fixed by adding pounds per acre of very expensive humic acids.|date=February 2019}}
Planting species that can tolerate saline conditions can be used to lower water tables and thus reduce the rate of capillary and evaporative enrichment of surface salts. Salt-tolerant plants include [[saltbush]], a plant found in much of [[North America]] and in the [[Mediterranean]] regions of [[Europe]].
=== Soil organisms ===
[[File:K 1033CR08-9 Yellow fungus on stalk.jpeg|thumb|upright|Yellow fungus, a [[mushroom]] that assists in organic decay]]
When worms excrete [[feces]] in the form of [[Vermicompost|casts]], a balanced selection of minerals and plant nutrients is made into a form accessible for [[root]] uptake. [[Earthworm]] casts are five times richer in available [[nitrogen]], seven times richer in available [[phosphate]]s and eleven times richer in available [[potash]] than the surrounding upper {{Convert|150|mm}} of soil. The weight of casts produced may be greater than 4.5 kg per worm per year. By burrowing, the earthworm improves soil [[poros]]ity, creating channels that enhance the processes of aeration and drainage.<ref>Bill Mollison, ''Permaculture: A Designer's Manual'', Tagari Press, (December 1, 1988), 576 pages, {{ISBN|0908228015}}. Increases in porosity enhance infiltration and thus reduce adverse effects of [[surface runoff]].</ref>
Other important soil organisms include [[nematodes]], [[mycorrhiza]] and [[bacteria]]. A quarter of all the animal species live underground. According to the 2020 [[Food and Agriculture Organization|Food and Agriculture Organization’s]] report "State of knowledge of [[soil biodiversity]] – Status, challenges and potentialities", there are major gaps in knowledge about biodiversity in soils.<ref>{{Cite book|last=FAO, ITPS, GSBI, SCBD and EC|date=2020|title=State of knowledge of soil biodiversity – Status, challenges and potentialities. Summary for policy makers|url=http://www.fao.org/documents/card/en/c/CB1929EN/|access-date=2020-12-04|website=www.fao.org|doi=10.4060/cb1929en |isbn=978-92-5-133583-3 |s2cid=240627544 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|last=Carrington|first=Damian|date=2020-12-04|title=Global soils underpin life but future looks 'bleak', warns UN report|language=en-GB|work=The Guardian|url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2020/dec/04/global-soils-underpin-life-but-future-looks-bleak-warns-un-report|access-date=2020-12-04|issn=0261-3077}}</ref>
Degraded soil requires [[synthetic fertilizer]] to produce high yields. Lacking structure increases erosion and carries nitrogen and other pollutants into rivers and streams.<ref name=":0" />
Each one percent increase in soil organic matter helps soil hold 20,000 gallons more water per acre.<ref name=":0" />
===Mineralization===
To allow plants full realization of their [[phytonutrient]] potential, active [[mineralization (biology)|mineralization]] of the soil is sometimes undertaken. This can involve adding crushed rock or chemical soil supplements. In either case the purpose is to [[combat]] [[mineral]] depletion. A broad range of minerals can be used, including common substances such as [[phosphorus]] and more exotic substances such as [[zinc]] and [[selenium]]. Extensive research examines the phase transitions of minerals in soil with aqueous contact.<ref>Arthur T. Hubbard, ''Encyclopedia of Surface and Colloid Science Vol 3'', Santa Barbara, California Science Project, Marcel Dekker, New York (2004) {{ISBN|0-8247-0759-1}}</ref>
Flooding can bring significant [[sediments]] to an [[alluvial]] plain. While this effect may not be desirable if floods endanger life or if the sediment originates from productive land, this process of addition to a [[floodplain]] is a natural process that can rejuvenate soil chemistry through mineralization.{{Citation needed|date=September 2023}}
==See also==
<!-- Please keep entries in alphabetical order & add a short [[WP:SEEALSO]] -->
{{Div col|colwidth=20em|small=yes}}
* [[Agroecology]]
* [[Conservation biology]]
* [[Ecology]]
* [[Environmental protection]]
* [[Environmental soil science]]
* [[Green Revolution]]
* [[Habitat conservation]]
* [[Keyline design]]
* [[Korean natural farming]]
* [[Land degradation]]
* [[Liming (soil)]]
* [[Microorganism]]
* [[Mycorrhizal fungi and soil carbon storage]]
* [[Natural resource]]
* [[No-till farming]]
* [[Restoration ecology]]
* [[Sediment transport]]
* [[Slash-and-burn]]
* [[Soil contamination]]
* [[Soils retrogression and degradation]]
* [[Soil steam sterilization]]
* [[Surface runoff]]
* [[Sustainable agriculture]]
* [[Sustainable gardening]]
* [[Sustainable landscaping]]
* [[Tillage erosion]]
{{div col end}}
<!-- please keep entries in alphabetical order -->
==References==
{{Reflist|30em|refs=
<!-- <ref name="Pesticide sustaining">{{cite book|title=Sustaining the Earth|last=Miller|first=G. Tyler|publisher=Thompson Learning, Inc.|year=2004|isbn=9780495556879|edition=6th|location=Pacific Grove, CA|pages=211–216|chapter=Ch. 9. Biodiversity|oclc=52134759|name-list-style=vanc}}</ref> -->
}}
== Further reading ==
* {{cite book |editor1-last=Moorberg |editor1-first=Colby J. |title=Soil and Water Conservation: An Annotated Bibliography |date=2019 |publisher=NPP eBooks |isbn=978-1-944548-26-1}}
** [https://kstatelibraries.pressbooks.pub/soilandwater/ Online book] (the most current version of the text)
** [https://newprairiepress.org/ebooks/30 Download book] – Kindle, Nook, Apple, Kobo, and PDF
{{Sustainability}}
{{Natural resources}}{{Soil science topics}}{{Authority control}}
{{Portal bar|Environment|Ecology|Earth sciences|Biology}}
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
[[Category:Land management]]
[[Category:Regional science]]
[[Category:Environmental soil science]]
[[Category:Soil]]
[[Category:Soil improvers]]
[[Category:Sustainable agriculture]]
[[Category:Landscape architecture]]
[[Category:Horticulture]]
[[Category:Natural resource management]]
[[hu:Talajvédelem]] |
Stewardship cessation | {{One source|date=May 2007}}
'''Stewardship cessation'''<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nInjCgAAQBAJ&q=The+technology+underlying+the+product+(for+example,+that+of+a+uniquely+flavoured+tea)+may+be+quite+marginal+but+the+process+of+creating+and+managing+its+life+as+a&pg=PA91|title=Proceedings of IAC-MEM 2015 in Vienna|last=group of authors|publisher=Czech Institute of Academic Education z.s., 2015|year=2015|isbn=9788090579156|pages=91}}</ref> is a concept useful in [[system engineering]]. Certain [[systems]] remain hazardous for a considerable period after their useful life, and will usually be managed to ensure that the public and the environment is not exposed to the hazard. It is incumbent on the [[systems designer]] to consider the outcome should this stewardship be discontinued for any reason, and to design a system which is as robust as possible in the event of stewardship cessation.
==Examples==
===Nuclear industry===
The most obvious example is the [[Nuclear power|nuclear]] industry, and the [[radioactive waste]] it generates which will be a hazard for many centuries. In the present era, most high level waste is in still in currently managed facilities, but various methods are being considered for disposal. Most of the proposed disposal methods are designed to put the waste in a place so isolated from the environment that (it is hoped) immediate stewardship cessation would be safe and appropriate. However, many people are more comfortable with systems where the waste is still accessible, so that if there is an unforeseen problem with the disposal method, the waste can still be accessed to rectify the problem. These systems will still require some level of stewardship, but the system designer must consider that this may not be available for the hundreds of years required.
===Satellites===
Another example is when [[geostationary]] [[telecommunication|communication]]s satellites reach the end of their useful lives. Stewardship cessation will occur hopefully in a planned manner, where the operator will move the [[satellite]] to a somewhat higher orbit to minimise the risk that the satellite will be a collision hazard to other satellites in the geostationary arc (graveyard burn). Unplanned stewardship cessation will occur if telecommand access to the satellite's systems is cut off due to a failure, for instance in the telecommand receivers.
==Reasons==
Reasons for stewardship cessation include:
*Illegal or inappropriate disposal by the last user
*Budgetary constraints from government or other body
*Total societal breakdown or partial sociocultural change leading to a reduction in the perceived need for stewardship or simply to negligence
*[[Climate change]] putting the system beyond reach (under sea or ice)
*[[Global war]]
*Other catastrophe (e.g. epidemic) reducing the number of available stewards below the threshold necessary to maintain a continuous stewardship system
*For remotely operated systems, loss of communication with the remote segment of the system.
==See also==
*[[Technology life cycle]]
==References==
<references />
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
[[Category:Systems engineering]] |
Umbrella effect (ecology) | #REDIRECT [[Umbrella species]]
{{R from merge}}
[[Category:Environmental conservation]] |
Sustainable yield | {{More citations needed|date=April 2008}}
The '''sustainable yield''' is a form of [[sustainability]] that refers to the maximum harvest that does not deplete or [[Overexploitation|over-harvest]] where the [[renewable resource]] can not grow back.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Sustainability {{!}} Description, Theories, & Practices {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/science/sustainability |access-date=2023-05-06 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref> In the simplest terms, sustainable yield is the largest amount of resource that humans can take or use without causing damage or allowing for a decline to happen in the specific population. In more formal terms, the sustainable yield of [[natural capital]] is the [[ecological yield]] that can be extracted without reducing the base of capital itself, i.e. the [[Economic surplus|surplus]] required to maintain [[ecosystem services]] at the same or increasing level over time. The term only refers to resources that are renewable in nature as extracting non-renewable resources will always diminish the natural capital. The sustainable yield of a given resource will generally vary over time with the [[ecosystem]]'s needs to maintain itself, e.g. a [[forest]] that has recently suffered a [[blight]] or [[flooding]] or [[fire]] will require more of its own ecological yield to sustain and re-establish a mature forest. While doing so, the sustainable yield may be much less. The term sustainable yield is most commonly used in [[forestry]], [[Fishery|fisheries]], and [[groundwater]] applications.
A sustainable yield is calculated by the [[carrying capacity]] divided by 2.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Takashina |first1=Nao |last2=Mougi |first2=Akihiko |date=October 2015 |title=Maximum sustainable yields from a spatially-explicit harvest model |journal=Journal of Theoretical Biology |volume=383 |pages=87–92 |doi=10.1016/j.jtbi.2015.07.028 |pmid=26254215 |arxiv=1503.00997 |bibcode=2015JThBi.383...87T |s2cid=5211753 }}</ref> At half of the carrying capacity, the population can be harvested and quickly recover, allowing for more resources. Although this calculation seems easy, it is not because it is difficult to calculate the carrying capacity of a population in nature since it is almost always based on estimations.
== Importance ==
Understanding sustainable yield is essential to nature since it indicates how much a population can produce and what humans can glean from without causing fundamental problems in the specie's population. If the population is harvested above its [[maximum sustainable yield]], it can eventually risk extinction.<ref>{{Cite web |last=PEW |date=April 2012 |title=MSY - Maximum Sustainable Yield |url=https://www.pewtrusts.org/-/media/assets/2015/03/turning_the_tide_msy_explained.pdf |access-date=2023-05-01 |website=pewtrusts.org}}</ref>
== Forestry ==
Sustainable yield is an important component of sustainable [[forest management]]. In the forestry context it is the largest amount of harvest activity that can occur without degrading the productivity of the stock.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Elbakidze |first1=Marine |last2=Andersson |first2=Kjell |last3=Angelstam |first3=Per |last4=Armstrong |first4=W. Glen |last5=Axelsson |first5=Robert |last6=Doyon |first6=Frederik |last7=Hermansson |first7=Martin |last8=Jacobsson |first8=Jonas |last9=Pautov |first9=Yurij |date=March 2013 |title=Sustained Yield Forestry in Sweden and Russia: How Does it Correspond to Sustainable Forest Management Policy? |url= https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s13280-012-0370-6 |journal=AMBIO |language=en |volume=42 |pages=160-173 |doi=10.1007/s13280-012-0370-6 |bibcode=2013AMBIO..42..160E}}</ref>The idea of sustainable yield of forests had shifted focus from only output, to include maintaining production capacity and maintaining the natural renewal capacity of forest vegetation.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Wiersum |first=K. Freerk |date=May 1995 |title=200 years of sustainability in forestry: Lessons from history |url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/BF02471975 |journal=Environmental Management |language=en |volume=19 |issue=3 |pages=321–329 |doi=10.1007/BF02471975 |bibcode=1995EnMan..19..321W |s2cid=153325794 |issn=0364-152X}}</ref> One of the first federal written laws to warrant that future generations will have a sufficient wood supply and regulate the wood harvest rate was the O & C Act.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Sustained Yield Forestry |url=http://www.oandc.org/o-c-lands/sustained-yield-forestry/ |access-date=2023-05-07 |website=Association of O&C Counties |language=en}}</ref> The O & C Act is a positive environmental impact since it helps maintain a viable, sustainable yield, and it ensures that trees will continue to be a significant part of the natural landscape everywhere and continue to supply wildlife habitats, carbon storage, and recreational activities.
== Fishery ==
[[File:Net fishing professionally 0544990019 KALFA.jpg|thumb|Fishery management utilizes the concept of sustainable yield to determine how much fish can be removed, so that the population remains sustainable.]]
This concept is important in [[Fisheries management|fishery management]], in which sustainable yield is defined as the number of fish that can be extracted without reducing the base of fish stock, and the [[maximum sustainable yield]] is defined as the amount of fish that can be extracted under given environmental conditions.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Ricker|first=W.E.|date=1975|title=Computation and Interpretation of Biological Statistics of Fish Populations|journal=Bulletin of the Fisheries Research Board of Canada|volume=191}}</ref> In fisheries, the basic natural capital or virgin population, must decrease with extraction. At the same time productivity increases. Hence, sustainable yield would be within the range in which the natural capital together with its production are able to provide satisfactory yield.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Reynolds|first1=John D.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=W8WldjwSjZYC&q=sustainable+yield+in+fisheries&pg=PA42|title=Conservation of Exploited Species|last2=Mace|first2=Georgina M.|last3=Redford|first3=Kent H.|last4=Robinson|first4=John G.|date=2001-10-18|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-78733-8|language=en}}</ref> It may be very difficult to quantify sustainable yield, because every dynamic ecological conditions and other factors not related to harvesting induce changes and fluctuations in both, the natural capital and its productivity.<ref name=":0" />
== Groundwater Application ==
In the case of [[groundwater]] there is a safe yield of water extraction per unit time, beyond which the [[aquifer]] risks the state of [[overdrafting]] or even depletion. Depletion of an aquifer, or a decline in groundwater levels has the potential to cause [[Subsidence|land subsidence]] which can cause sinkholes.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Land Subsidence {{!}} U.S. Geological Survey |url=https://www.usgs.gov/special-topics/water-science-school/science/land-subsidence#:~:text=The%20probable%20cause%20was%20declining,,%20sinkholes,%20and%20thawing%20permafrost. |access-date=2023-05-07 |website=www.usgs.gov}}</ref> In order to calculate this safe yield of water extraction in the area, a lot of considerations need to be taken into account. The first is the water budget, figuring out and understanding where water is used by humans, getting recharged, and being lost due to possible maintenance issues and natural phenomena. Another consideration is changing technology. Technology allows for possible gains in supply, for example, [[desalination]] technology, turning saltwater into drinking water. The other considerations include temporal, spatial, and monetary aspects, which all cause changes in the water system that change the amount of usable water.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Maimone |first=Mark |date=2004 |title=Defining and Managing Sustainable Yield |url=https://ponce.sdsu.edu/maimone_gw2004_809.pdf |journal=Ground Water |volume=42 |issue=6 |pages=809–814|doi=10.1111/j.1745-6584.2004.tb02739.x |pmid=15584295 |bibcode=2004GrWat..42..809M |s2cid=29594099 }}</ref>
==See also==
* [[Sustainable yield in fisheries]]
* [[Maximum sustainable yield]]
* [[Hans Carl von Carlowitz]], who pioneered the mathematics behind sustained yield with his 1713 treatise
==References==
{{reflist}}
== Notes ==
{{Sustainability}}
{{forestry}}
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
[[Category:Renewable resources]] |
Nature Farming | "'''Nature Farming'''" was established in 1936 by [[Mokichi Okada]], the founder of the [[Church of World Messianity]], an agricultural system originally called {{nihongo|"no fertilizer farming"|[[:ja:自然農法|自然農法]]|shizen nōhō}}.<ref>Sustainable Agriculture: Definition and Terms. Special Reference Briefs Series no. SRB 99-02, September 1999. Compiled by: Mary V. Gold, Alternative Farming Systems Information Center, U.S. Department of Agriculture</ref>
Offshoots such as the Sekai Kyusei Kyo, promoting ‘Kyusei nature farming’, and the Mokichi Okada Association formed after his death to continue promoting the work in Japan and South-East Asia.<ref>Setboonsarng, S. and Gilman, J. 1999. Alternative Agriculture in Thailand and Japan. HORIZON Communications, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut.</ref>
ZZ2, a farming conglomerate in South Africa has translated the term to [[Afrikaans]], "Natuurboerdery".<ref>{{Cite thesis|last=Silent|first=Taurayi|title=An investigation of natuurboerdery (natural farming) approach : a ZZ2 case study|date=March 2011|publisher=Stellenbosch : University of Stellenbosch|url=http://scholar.sun.ac.za/handle/10019.1/6694|language=en-ZA}}</ref>
According to the International Nature Farming Research Center in [[Nagano Prefecture|Nagano]], Japan,<ref>Scientific Proof of Mokichi Okada's Nature Farming Theories by Xu, Hui-lian. Agricultural Experiment Station, International Nature Farming Research Center, Nagano</ref> it is based on the theories that:
* [[Fertilizer]]s pollute the soil and weaken its power of production.
* [[Pest (organism)|Pests]] would break out from the excessive use of fertilizers
* The difference in disease incidence between resistant and susceptible plants is attributed to nutritional conditions inside the body.
* Vegetables and fruits produced by nature farming taste better than those by [[Industrial agriculture|chemical farming]].
The term is sometimes used for an alternative farming philosophy of [[Masanobu Fukuoka]].
==Natural Farming==
{{Main|Natural Farming}}
Another Japanese farmer and philosopher, [[Masanobu Fukuoka]], conceived of an alternative farming system in the 1930s separately from Okada and used the same Japanese characters to describe it.<ref name="NATURE FARMING-Xu1">{{cite book|last=Xu|first=Hui-Lian|title=NATURE FARMING In Japan|type=Monograph|year=2001|publisher=Research Signpost|location=T. C. 37/661(2), Fort Post Office, Trivandrum - 695023, Kerala, India.|isbn=81-308-0111-6}}</ref> This is generally translated in English as "[[Natural Farming]]" although agriculture researcher Hu-lian Xu claims that "nature farming" is the correct literal translation of the Japanese term.<ref name="NATURE FARMING-Xu1" />
==See also==
* [[No-dig gardening]]
* [[No-till farming]]
==Bibliography==
* 自然農法解說 / Shizen nōhō kaisetsu by Mokichi Okada. Publisher: 榮光社出版部 Eikōsha Shuppanbu, Tōkyō 1951.
==References==
{{Reflist}}
==External links==
*{{Official website|http://www.infrc.or.jp/}}
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
[[Category:Organic farming]]
[[Category:Agriculture and the environment]]
[[Category:Rural community development]]
[[Category:Systems ecology]]
{{agriculture-stub}} |
Natural farming | {{Short description|Sustainable farming approach}}
[[File:Masanobu-Fukuoka.jpg|right|thumbnail|Masanobu Fukuoka, originator of the natural farming method]]
'''Natural farming''' ([[:ja:自然農法|自然農法]], shizen nōhō),<ref name="One–Straw_Translator's_Notes">1975 {{in lang|ja}} {{nihongo2|自然農法-わら一本の革命}} {{in lang|en}} 1978 re-presentation ''The One-Straw Revolution: An Introduction to Natural Farming''.</ref> also referred to as "the Fukuoka Method", "the natural way of farming", or "do-nothing farming", is an [[ecological farming]] approach established by [[Masanobu Fukuoka]] (1913–2008). Fukuoka, a Japanese [[farmer]] and philosopher, introduced the term in his 1975 book ''[[The One-Straw Revolution]]''. The title refers not to lack of effort, but to the avoidance of manufactured inputs and equipment. Natural farming is related to fertility farming, [[organic farming]], [[sustainable agriculture]], [[agroecology]], [[agroforestry]], [[ecoagriculture]] and [[permaculture]], but should be distinguished from [[biodynamic agriculture]].
The system works along with the natural biodiversity of each farmed area, encouraging the complexity of living organisms—both plant and animal—that shape each particular ecosystem to thrive along with food plants.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.finalstraw.org/life-and-death/|title=Life and Death in the Field {{!}} Final Straw – Food {{!}} Earth {{!}} Happiness|website=www.finalstraw.org|date=29 May 2016 |language=en|access-date=2017-04-16}}</ref> Fukuoka saw farming both as a means of producing food and as an aesthetic or spiritual approach to life, the ultimate goal of which was, "the cultivation and perfection of human beings".<ref>{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1016/j.futures.2009.08.001| title = Linking foresight and sustainability: An integral approach| journal = Futures| volume = 42| pages = 59–68| year = 2010| last1 = Floyd | first1 = J. | last2 = Zubevich | first2 = K. }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |title=Agriculture: A Fundamental Principle |last=Hanley |first=Paul |journal=Journal of Bahá'í Studies |volume=3 |issue=1 |year=1990 |url=https://www.bahai-studies.ca/journal/files/jbs/3.1%20Hanley.pdf |access-date=April 28, 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130327202848/http://www.bahai-studies.ca/journal/files/jbs/3.1%20Hanley.pdf |archive-date=March 27, 2013 }}</ref> He suggested that farmers could benefit from closely observing local conditions.<ref name="Duncan1996">{{cite book|author=Colin Adrien MacKinley Duncan|title=The Centrality of Agriculture: Between Humankind and the Rest of Nature|url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=c0ZcTTXw9a8C}}|year=1996|publisher=McGill-Queen's Press - MQUP|isbn=978-0-7735-6571-5}}</ref> Natural farming is a closed system, one that demands no human-supplied inputs and mimics nature.<ref>Trees on Organic Farms, Mirret, Erin Paige. North Carolina State University, 2001</ref>
Fukuoka's natural farming practice rejected the use of modern technology, and after twenty-five years, his farm demonstrated consistently comparable yields to that of the most technologically advanced farms in Japan, doing so without the pollution, soil loss, energy consumption, and [[environmental degradation]] inherent in these modern types of farming. One of the main prompts of natural farming, is to ask why we should apply modern technology to the process of growing food, if nature is capable of achieving similar yields without the negative side-effects of these technologies.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Fukuoka|first=Masanobu|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/759171802|title=Sowing seeds in the desert : natural farming, global restoration, and ultimate food security|date=2012|publisher=Chelsea Green Pub|others=Larry Korn|isbn=978-1-60358-418-0|location=White River Junction, Vt.|pages=xix|oclc=759171802}}</ref> Such ideas radically challenged conventions that are core to modern agro-industries; instead of promoting importation of nutrients and chemicals, he suggested an approach that takes advantage of the local environment.<ref name="stock and morse">{{cite book|author1=Stephen Morse|author2=Michael Stockin|title=People and Environment: Development for the Future|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=nPeHlOh0y_UC}}|year=1995|publisher=Taylor & Francis Group|isbn=978-1-85728-283-2}}</ref> Although natural farming is sometimes considered a subset of organic farming, it differs greatly from conventional [[organic farming]],<ref>{{cite book |title=Participating in Nature: Thomas J. Elpel's Field Guide to Primitive Living Skills |last=Elpel |first=Thomas J. |date=November 1, 2002 |publisher=HOPS Press |isbn=1892784122}}</ref> which Fukuoka considered to be another modern technique that disturbs nature.<ref>[http://www.jef.or.jp/backnumber/162th_promenade.pdf What Does Natural Farming Mean?] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110720070520/http://www.jef.or.jp/backnumber/162th_promenade.pdf |date=2011-07-20 }} by Toyoda, Natsuko</ref>
Fukuoka claimed that his approach prevents [[water pollution]], [[biodiversity loss]] and [[soil erosion]], while providing ample amounts of food, and there is a growing body of scientific work in fields like [[agroecology]] and [[regenerative agriculture]], that lend support to these claims.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Science {{!}} Agroecology Knowledge Hub {{!}} Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations|url=http://www.fao.org/agroecology/knowledge/science/en/|access-date=2021-11-27|website=www.fao.org|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Hilmi|first=Angela|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1012884027|title=Agroecology : reweaving a new landscape|date=2018|isbn=978-3-319-68489-5|location=Cham|oclc=1012884027}}</ref><ref name="Reddystudies2010">{{cite book|author1=Priya Reddy|author2=Prescott College Environmental studies|title=Sustainable Agricultural Education: An Experiential Approach to Shifting Consciousness and Practices|url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=dtE8MwEACAAJ}}|year=2010|publisher=Prescott College|isbn=978-1-124-38302-6}}</ref>
== Masanobu Fukuoka's principles ==
In principle, practitioners of natural farming maintain that it is not a ''technique'' but a ''view'', or a way of seeing ourselves as a [[Nature connectedness|part of nature]], rather than separate from or above it.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.finalstraw.org/masanobu-fukuoka-and-natural-farming/|title=Masanobu Fukuoka and Natural Farming {{!}} Final Straw – Food {{!}} Earth {{!}} Happiness|website=www.finalstraw.org|language=en|access-date=2017-04-11}}</ref> Accordingly, the methods themselves vary widely depending on culture and local conditions.
Rather than offering a structured method, Fukuoka distilled the natural farming mindset into five principles:<ref name="Norberg-HodgeGoering2001">{{cite book|author1=Helena Norberg-Hodge|author2=Peter Goering|author3=John Page|title=From the Ground Up: Rethinking Industrial Agriculture|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=I4sQTjNulnQC|date=1 January 2001|publisher=Zed Books|isbn=978-1-85649-994-1}}</ref>
# No [[tillage]]
# No [[fertilizer]]
# No [[pesticide]]s or [[herbicide]]s
# No [[weeding]]
# No [[pruning]]
[[File:Production still from "Final Straw, Food, Earth, Happiness" shows rice harvesting on a natural farm.jpg|alt=A young man helps harvest rice by hand at a natural farm in a production still from the film "Final Straw: Food, Earth, Happiness"|thumb|A young man helps harvest rice by hand at a natural farm, in this production still from the film "[http://www.finalstraw.org/ Final Straw: Food, Earth, Happiness]"]]
Though many of his plant varieties and practices relate specifically to Japan and even to local conditions in [[Humid subtropical climate|subtropical]] western [[Shikoku]], his philosophy and the governing principles of his farming systems have been applied widely around the world, from Africa to the [[temperate]] northern hemisphere.
Principally, natural farming minimises human labour and adopts, as closely as practical, nature's production of foods such as [[rice]], [[barley]], [[daikon]] or [[citrus]] in biodiverse agricultural [[ecosystem]]s. Without [[plow]]ing, [[seeds]] [[germination|germinate]] well on the surface if site conditions meet the needs of the seeds placed there. Fukuoka used the presence of [[spiders]] in his fields as a [[key performance indicator]] of [[sustainability]].{{citation needed|date=February 2012}}
Fukuoka specifies that the ground remain covered by [[weed]]s, [[white clover]], [[alfalfa]], [[herbaceous]] [[legume]]s, and sometimes deliberately sown [[herbaceous plant]]s. [[Ground cover]] is present along with grain, vegetable crops and [[orchards]]. Chickens run free in orchards and [[ducks]] and [[carp]] populate rice fields.<ref>1975 {{in lang|ja}} {{nihongo2|自然農法-わら一本の革命}} {{in lang|en}} 1978 re-presentation ''The One-Straw Revolution: An Introduction to Natural Farming''</ref>
Periodically ground layer plants including weeds may be cut and left on the surface, returning their nutrients to the soil, while suppressing weed growth. This also facilitates the sowing of seeds in the same area because the dense ground layer hides the seeds from animals such as birds.
For summer rice and winter barley grain crops, ground cover enhances [[nitrogen fixation]]. [[Straw]] from the previous crop [[mulch]]es the [[topsoil]]. Each grain crop is sown before the previous one is harvested by [[broadcast seeding|broadcasting]] the seed among the standing crop. Later, this method was reduced to a single direct seeding of clover, barley and rice over the standing heads of rice.<ref name="Fukuoka1987">{{cite book|author=Masanobu Fukuoka|title=The Natural Way of Farming: The Theory and Practice of Green Philosophy|url={{google books|plainurl=y |id=L3M_AAAAYAAJ}}|year=1987|publisher=Japan Publications|isbn=978-0-87040-613-3}}</ref> The result is a denser crop of smaller, but highly productive and stronger plants.
Fukuoka's practice and philosophy emphasised small scale operation and challenged the need for mechanised farming techniques for high productivity, efficiency and [[economies of scale]]. While his family's farm was larger than the Japanese average, he used one field of grain crops as a small-scale example of his system.
== Yoshikazu Kawaguchi ==
[[File:Natural farmer Yoshikazu Kawaguchi.jpg|thumb|Yoshikazu Kawaguchi at Akame Natural Farm School]]
Widely regarded as the leading practitioner of the second-generation of natural farmers, [[Yoshikazu Kawaguchi]] is the instigator of Akame Natural Farm School, and a related network of volunteer-based "no-tuition" natural farming schools in Japan that numbers 40 locations and more than 900 concurrent students.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=(Japan))|first1=Hokazono, S.(Mie Univ., Tsu|last2=K.|first2=Ohara|date=2007-01-01|title=The role of a learning site for urban residents hoping to do farming: Focusing on the spread of 'natural farming' by the Akame Natural Farming School|url=http://agris.fao.org/agris-search/search.do?recordID=JP2008004433|journal=Journal of Rural Problems (Japan)|language=ja|issn=0388-8525}}</ref> Although Kawaguchi's practice is based on Fukuoka's principles, his methods differ notably from those of Fukuoka. He re-states the core values of natural farming as:
# Do not plow the fields
# Weeds and insects are not your enemies
# There is no need to add fertilizers
# Adjust the foods you grow based on your local climate and conditions
Kawaguchi's recognition outside of Japan has become wider after his appearance as the central character in the documentary ''[[Final Straw: Food, Earth, Happiness]]'', through which his interviews were translated into several languages.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.finalstraw.org|title=Final Straw – Food - Earth - Happiness|website=www.finalstraw.org}}</ref> He is the author of several books in Japan, though none have been officially translated into English.
Since 2016, Kawaguchi is no longer directly instructing at the Akame school which he founded. He is still actively teaching however, holding open farm days at his own natural farm in Nara prefecture.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/37510039 |title='Body and Earth Are Not Two': Kawaguchi Yoshikazu's NATURAL FARMING and American Agriculture Writers|website=ResearchGate|language=en|access-date=2017-04-16}}</ref>
== No-till ==
{{more citations needed section|date=February 2012}}
Natural farming recognizes soils as a fundamental natural asset. Ancient soils possess physical and chemical attributes that render them capable of generating and supporting life abundance. It can be argued that tilling actually degrades the delicate balance of a climax soil:
# Tilling may destroy crucial physical characteristics of a soil such as ''[[water potential|water suction]]'', its ability to send moisture upwards, even during dry spells. The effect is due to pressure differences between soil areas. Furthermore, tilling most certainly destroys [[soil horizon]]s and hence disrupts the established flow of nutrients. A study suggests that reduced tillage preserves the crop residues on the top of the soil, allowing organic matter to be formed more easily and hence increasing the [[total organic carbon]] and nitrogen when compared to conventional tillage. The increases in organic carbon and nitrogen increase aerobic, facultative anaerobic and [[anaerobic organism|anaerobic]] [[bacteria]] populations.<ref>{{cite book| title=Principles and Applications of Soil Microbiology| last1=Sylvia |first1=D.M. |last2=Fuhrmann |first2=J.J. |last3=Hartel |first3=P.G. |last4=Zuberer |first4=D.A.| publisher=Prentice Hall| location=New Jersey| year=1999| isbn=0130941174| pages=39–41 |url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=tLjwAAAAMAAJ|p=39}}}}</ref>
# Tilling over-pumps oxygen to local soil residents, such as [[bacteria]] and [[fungi]]. As a result, the chemistry of the soil changes. Biological decomposition accelerates and the [[microbiota (microbiology)|microbiota]] mass increases at the expense of other organic matter, adversely affecting most plants, including trees and vegetables. For plants to thrive a certain quantity of organic matter (around 5%) must be present in the soil.
# Tilling uproots all the plants in the area, turning their roots into food for bacteria and fungi. This damages their ability to aerate the soil. Living roots drill millions of tiny holes in the soil and thus provide oxygen.<!-- just oxygen? --> They also create room for beneficial [[insect]]s and [[annelid]]s (the phylum of [[worm]]s). Some types of roots contribute directly to soil fertility by funding a [[mutualism (biology)|mutualistic relationship]] with certain kinds of bacteria (most famously the [[rhizobium]]) that can fix nitrogen.
Fukuoka advocated avoiding any change in the [[natural landscape]]. This idea differs significantly from some recent permaculture practice that focuses on permaculture design, which may involve the change in landscape. For example, [[Sepp Holzer]], an Austrian permaculture farmer, advocates the creation of terraces on slopes to control soil erosion. Fukuoka avoided the creation of terraces in his farm, even though terraces were common in China and Japan in his time. Instead, he prevented soil erosion by simply growing trees and shrubs on slopes.
== Other forms of natural farming ==
[[File:P-14 lady beetle.jpg|thumb|right|[[Ladybird]]s consume [[aphid]]s and are considered beneficial by natural farmers that apply [[biological control]].]]Although the term "natural farming" came into common use in the English language during the 1980s with the translation of the book ''One Straw Revolution'', the natural farming mindset itself has a long history throughout the world, spanning from historical Native American practices to modern day urban farms.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thenatureofcities.com/2015/09/16/a-restaurant-and-garden-serving-up-connections-to-urban-nature/|title=Social Practice Artwork: A Restaurant and Garden Serving up Connections to Urban Nature|last=Lydon|first=Patrick|date=2015-09-16|website=The Nature of Cities|access-date=2017-04-11}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://sociecity.org/post/2015/urban-empathy-garden/|title=Artwork / Urban Empathy Garden {{!}} SocieCity|website=sociecity.org|language=en-US|access-date=2017-04-11|date=2015-06-23}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite book|jstor=10.1525/j.ctt1ppfn4|title=Tending the Wild: Native American Knowledge and the Management of California's Natural Resources|last=ANDERSON|first=M. KAT|date=2005-01-01|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=9780520238565|edition=1|chapter=Native American Knowledge and the Management of California's Natural Resources}}</ref>
Some variants, and their particularities include:
=== Fertility farming ===
In 1951, [[Frank Newman Turner|Newman Turner]] advocated the practice of "fertility farming", a system featuring the use of a cover crop, no tillage, no chemical fertilizers, no pesticides, no weeding and no composting. Although Turner was a commercial farmer and did not practice random seeding of [[seed balls]], his "fertility farming" principles share similarities with Fukuoka's system of natural farming. Turner also advocated a "natural method" of [[animal husbandry]].<ref>{{cite book| author=Newman Turner| title=Fertility Farming| isbn=978-1601730091| year=1951| publisher=Faber and Faber Limited| url=http://www.journeytoforever.org/farm_library/turner/turnerToC.html}}</ref>
=== Native American ===
Recent research in the field of [[traditional ecological knowledge]] finds that for over one hundred centuries, Native American tribes worked the land in strikingly similar ways to today's natural farmers. Author and researcher M. Kat Anderson writes that "According to contemporary Native Americans, it is only through interaction and relationships with native plants that mutual respect is established."<ref name=":0" />
=== Nature Farming (Mokichi Okada) ===
{{main|Nature Farming}}
Japanese farmer and philosopher [[Mokichi Okada]], conceived of a "no fertilizer" farming system in the 1930s that predated Fukuoka. Okada used the same [[Chinese characters]] as Fukuoka's "natural farming" however, they are translated into English slightly differently, as [[nature farming]].<ref name="NATURE FARMING-Xu1">{{cite book|url=http://www.ressign.com/UserBookDetail.aspx?bkid=460&catid=140|title=NATURE FARMING In Japan|last=Xu|first=Hui-Lian|publisher=Research Signpost|year=2001 |location=T. C. 37/661(2), Fort Post Office, Trivandrum - 695023, Kerala, India |type=Monograph|isbn=81-308-0111-6 |access-date=6 March 2011}}</ref> Agriculture researcher Hu-lian Xu claims that "nature farming" is the correct literal translation of the Japanese term.<ref name="NATURE FARMING-Xu1" />
=== Rishi Kheti ===
In [[India]], natural farming of Masanobu Fukuoka was called "Rishi Kheti" by practitioners like Partap Aggarwal.<ref name="Mr. Fukuoka news article 2010 Mumbai India">[http://www.dnaindia.com/lifestyle/report_masanobu-fukuoka-the-man-who-did-nothing_1426864 "Masanobu Fukuoka: The man who did nothing By Malvika Tegta"] "DNA Daily News and Analysis". "Published: Sunday, Aug 22, 2010, 2:59 IST". "Place: Mumbai", India. (Retrieved 1 December 2010)</ref><ref name="Nature Farmers-India Rishi Keti">[http://www.satavic.org/rishikheti.htm "Natural farming succeeds in Indian village By Partap C Aggarwal" in the 1980s] [http://www.satavic.org/media.htm ''Satavic Farms''] (India), "Slowly, bit by bit, we found ourselves close to what is called ‘natural farming’, pioneered in Japan by Masanobu Fukuoka. At Rasulia we called it 'rishi kheti' (agriculture of the sages)."</ref> The Rishi Kheti use cow products like buttermilk, milk, curd and its waste urine for preparing growth promoters. The Rishi Kheti is considered to be non-violent farming<ref>{{Cite web|title=Introductory Agriculture: Student Handbook NSQF Level 1 Class IX|url=http://cbseacademic.nic.in/web_material/Curriculum/Vocational/2018/Introductory%20Agriculture%20IX%20(408).pdf|page=121}}</ref> without any usage of chemical fertilizer and pesticides. They obtain high quality{{citation needed|date=July 2019}} natural or organic produce having medicinal values. Today still a small number of farmers in Madhya Pradesh, Punjab, Maharashtra and Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu use this farming method in India.{{citation needed|date=November 2014}}
===Zero Budget Farming===
{{Main|Zero Budget Natural Farming}}
Zero Budget Farming is a variation on natural farming developed in, and primarily practiced in southern India. It is also called spiritual farming. The method involves [[mulching]], [[intercropping]], and the use of several preparations which include [[cow dung]]. These preparations, generated on-site, are central to the practice, and said to promote microbe and earthworm activity in the soil.<ref>{{cite web|title=Zero Budget Natural Farming in India|url=http://www.fao.org/3/a-bl990e.pdf|publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations|access-date=25 January 2018}}</ref> Indian agriculturist [[Subhash Palekar]] has researched and written extensively on this method.
== See also ==<!-- New links in alphabetical order please -->
{{Portal|Systems science|Ecology}}
{{Div col|colwidth=30em}}
* [[Agrarianism]]
* [[Agroecology]]
* [[Biomimicry]]
* [[Conservation agriculture]]
* [[Ecoagriculture]]
* [[Ethnobotany]]
* [[Forest gardening]]
* [[Green manure]] (plants)
* [[Holzer Permaculture]]
* [[Hydroculture]]
* [[Korean natural farming]]
* [[No-dig gardening]]
* [[No-till farming]]
* [[Seed saving]]
{{div col end}}
==References==
{{Reflist|2}}
== External links ==
* [http://www.finalstraw.org/ Final Straw: Food, Earth, Happiness] documentary exploring the natural farming philosophy in Korea, Japan, and USA (2015)
* [https://natural-farming.org/en/ The Natural Farming Center of Greece]
{{agriculture}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Natural farming}}
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
[[Category:Organic farming]]
[[Category:Agriculture and the environment]]
[[Category:Permaculture concepts]]
[[Category:Agroforestry]]
[[Category:Organic farming in Asia| ]] |
National Resources Inventory | The '''National Resources Inventory''' (NRI) is a periodic assessment of the status and changing conditions of the soil, water, and related resources on private land conducted by [[USDA]]’s [[Natural Resources Conservation Service]] (NRCS). The survey has been conducted at 5-year intervals since 1977, most recently in 2007, though a 2010 mid-cycle data release occurred in December 2013. NRCS released initial results from the 1997 survey in late 1999. The 2010 report includes comparison of the data relative to 1982.
Summary pages exist for [[soil erosion]], land use status and trends, development of non-federal rural land, and rangeland.
==External links==
* [https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/wps/portal/nrcs/main/national/technical/nra/nri/ NRI website] (contains results from the 2010 survey, as well as archived results from 1997.
== References ==
* {{CRS|article = Report for Congress: Agriculture: A Glossary of Terms, Programs, and Laws, 2005 Edition|url = http://ncseonline.org/nle/crsreports/05jun/97-905.pdf|author= Jasper Womach}}
[[Category:United States Department of Agriculture]]
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
[[Category:Natural resource management]]
{{soil-stub}}
{{mining-stub}} |
Myth of superabundance | {{Short description|Belief that earth has more than wanted natural resources}}
{{Multiple issues|
{{Globalize|1=article|2=United States|date=December 2020}}
{{Peacock|date=December 2020}}
{{POV|date=December 2020}}
{{Original research|date=December 2020}}
{{Primary sources|date=December 2020}}
}}
The '''myth of superabundance''' is the belief that [[Earth]] has more than sufficient [[natural resources]] to satisfy humanity's wants, and that no matter how much of these resources humanity uses, the planet will continuously replenish the supply. The term was coined by US politician [[Stewart Udall]] — a member of the [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic Party]] — in 1964 in his book ''The Quiet Crisis'', though the idea had existed previously among 19th-century US [[conservation movement|conservationist]]s.
Udall described the myth as the belief that there was "so much land, so much water, so much timber, so many birds and beasts"<ref name=Udall/>{{rp|22}} that humans did not envision a time where the planet would not replenish what had been sowed. The myth of superabundance began to circulate during [[Thomas Jefferson]]'s presidency at the beginning of the nineteenth century and persuaded many Americans to exploit natural resources as they pleased with no concern of possible long-term consequences.<ref name=Udall/> According to historian of the [[North American West]] George Colpitts, "no theme became as integral to [[Manifest destiny|western promotion]] as natural abundance."<ref name=Colpitts/>{{rp|104}} Especially with respect to the American West after 1890, promotional literature encouraged migration by invoking the idea that God had provided an abundant environment where no person or family would fail if they sought to farm or otherwise live off the land.<ref name=Colpitts/>
At that time, [[environmental science]] and the study of [[ecology]] barely allowed for the possibility of animal [[extinction]] and did not provide tools for measuring [[biomass]] or the limits of natural resources; therefore many [[Land speculation|speculators]], [[settler]]s, and other parties were unaware of the potential impact of unsustainable practices that led to various extinctions, the [[Dust Bowl]] phenomenon, and other [[environmental catastrophe]]s.
== 18th century manifestations in the US==
In 1784, [[John Filson]] wrote ''The Discovery, Settlement And present State of [[Kentucky]]'',<ref name=Filson/> which included the chapter "The Adventures of Colonel [[Daniel Boone|Daniel Boon]]". This work represents an early instance of the myth of superabundance, enticing settlers to Kentucky based on its abundance of resources.<ref name=Udall/>
== 19th century manifestations in the US ==
Udall described the impacts of the myth on natural resources as "The Big Raid on resources".<ref name=Udall/>{{rp|54}} Udall describes the need for [[logging|lumber]] in a growing nation for [[fuel]], housing, and paper as the first big raid on the Earth's natural resources that began to expose the myth of superabundance. It was only late in the nineteenth century that people became aware of empty hillsides and blackened woods from the [[lumber industry]]. [[Petroleum]] followed, as it was widely believed that [[Fossil fuel|oil]] was constantly made inside the Earth, and so, like everything else, was inexhaustible. Then came [[seal hunting]], with a population that was estimated to be approximately five million cut in half by 1866.<ref name=Udall/> The [[Fur Seal Treaty]] (1911) saved the seals from becoming the first major [[marine species]] to become extinct as a consequence of the myth of superabundance.
The [[passenger pigeon]] was the largest wildlife species known to humanity in the early nineteenth century, when the bird's population was estimated at five billion. By the early 20th century, due to [[overhunting]] and [[habitat destruction]] brought about by the [[Wood industry|timber industry]], the species had become extinct, the last passenger pigeon having died in the Cincinnati Zoo.<ref name=IUCN/>
The [[American bison|American buffalo]] was threatened by the myth of superabundance. They were considered to be the largest and most valuable resource because just about every piece of them was usable. The big kill of the buffalo began at the end of the [[American Civil War|Civil War]] when armies began killing the animals in an attempt to starve the [[Plains Indians]]. Railroad men wanted them killed in order to create more profit for the hides. Buffalo were killed for their tongues and hides, and some hunters simply wanted them as [[Trophy hunting|trophies]]. Pleas of protection for the buffalo were ignored, nearly wiping out the species.<ref name=Udall/>
During the [[Great Leap Forward]] in [[China]] in 1958 economic planners reduced the acreage space for planting [[wheat]] and [[grain]]s, trying to force farmers and [[Farmworker|agricultural laborers]] into accepting new forms of [[Industrial sector|industry]]. As a result, production of wheat and grain was slowed dangerously, and floods in [[Southern China|the South]] and droughts in the [[North China|North]] struck in 1959, helping create the conditions that led to the [[Great Chinese Famine]].<ref name=Mokyr/>
=== US conservationists warnings ===
[[George Perkins Marsh]], who wrote ''[[Man and Nature]]'' in 1864, rejected the idea that any resource could be indefinitely exploited. Perkins had been witness to natural destruction and its impact on present prosperity. He believed that nature should not be exploited for economic or political gain. He was, after all, "forest born".<ref name=Udall/>{{rp|72}} Man's role as a catalyst of change in the natural world intrigued him. He believed that progress was entirely possible and necessary if only men used wisdom in the [[Natural resource management|management of resources]]. He cast doubt around the myth of superabundance<ref name=Marsh/> and helped make way for [[John Muir]] in 1874.
Muir, who had grown up surrounded by [[wilderness]], believed that wildlife and nature could provide people with a heightened sense of abilities and experiences of awe that could not be found elsewhere.<ref name="Udall" /> He advocated for the preservation of what he believed to be America's most beautiful nature, building on steps already taken by [[Frederick Law Olmsted]], a young landscape architect who designed [[Central Park]] in [[New York City]]. Olmsted had persuaded [[United States Congress|Congress]] to pass a bill preserving much of [[Yosemite Valley]], which [[Abraham Lincoln|President Lincoln]] had then approved in 1864. In 1872, [[Ulysses S. Grant|President Grant]] signed the [[Yellowstone National Park|Yellowstone Park]] Bill, which saved over two million acres of wildlife.<ref name="Udall" />
== Early successes ==
{{unreferenced section|date=February 2023}}
Muir saw [[overgrazing]] destruction in Yosemite, in those parts which were not under protection. It was a result of nearby [[Sheep husbandry|sheep farmers]] and their herds.<ref group=Notes>Overgrazing would later spark a feud of conflicting beliefs between Muir and Glifford Pinchot, the Department of Agriculture’s Chief Forester, who were actually friends. They clashed over sheep-grazing practices, because Pinchot believed that controlled grazing was useful in the forest preserves, but Muir believed that it was a bad practice to use at all. Pinchot is known to have later rescinded his argument, saying that Muir was indeed, right.</ref> In 1876, Muir wrote an article "God’s First Temples – How Shall We Preserve Our Forests", which he published in the newspaper, pleading for help with protection of the forests. At first, he failed against the overriding ideal of the myth of superabundance, but he did inspire bills in the 1880s that sought to enlarge Yosemite's reservation.
Muir formed the [[Sierra Club]], a group of [[Mountaineering|mountaineers]] and conservationists like him who had responded to his many articles. [[Sierra Club|The Sierra Club]]'s first big fight came as a counter-attack on lumbermen and [[Cowboy|stockmen]] who wanted to monopolize some of Yosemite County. Yosemite Valley, which was still owned by the state, was mismanaged and natural reserves like the meadows and [[Mirror Lake (California)|Mirror Lake]], which was dammed for [[irrigation]], were still being destroyed even under supposed protection. In 1895, Muir and the Sierra Club began a battle that would span over ten years, fighting for natural management of Yosemite Valley. [[Theodore Roosevelt]] met with Muir in 1903 and was instantly fascinated with Muir's passion for the wilderness. Roosevelt approved Muir's argument for Yosemite Valley, and so the Sierra Club took their decade–long campaign to [[Sacramento, California|Sacramento]], where they won against the California legislature in 1905. With Roosevelt on Muir's side, Yosemite Valley became part of Yosemite National Park and was allowed natural management.
== 20th century manifestations ==
According to Udall the myth of superabundance was replaced in the 20th century by the ''myth of scientific supremacy'': the belief that science can eventually find a solution to any problem.<ref name=Udall/>{{rp|178}} This leads to behaviors which, while recognizing that resources are not infinite, still fail to properly preserve those resources, putting the problem off to future generations to solve through science.<ref name=Udall/> "Present the repair bill to the next generation" is their silent motto.<ref name=Udall/>{{rp|178}} George Perkins Marsh had said that conservation's greatest enemies were "greed and shortsightedness".<ref name=Udall/>{{rp|178}}
== Next steps ==
Patsy Hallen wrote in the article, "The Art of Impurity" that an ethics development must occur in which respect for nature and our radical dependency on it can take place. [[Great chain of being|Humans see themselves as superior to nature]], and yet are in a constant state of continuity with it. Hallen argues that humanity cannot afford such an irrational state of mind and ecological denial if it expects to prosper in the future.<ref name=Hallen/>
== See also ==
{{col div|colwidth=30em}}
* [[Carrying capacity]]
* [[John L. McKenzie]]
* [[Peak oil]]
* [[Overexploitation]]
* [[Planetary boundaries]]
* [[Precautionary principle]]
* [[Stewart Udall]]
*''[[To Autumn]]'' (poem)
{{colend}}
==Notes==
{{reflist|group=Notes}}
== References ==
{{reflist|refs=
<ref name=IUCN>
{{cite iucn |author=BirdLife International |date=2019 |title=''Ectopistes migratorius'' |volume=2019 |page=e.T22690733A152593137 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2019-3.RLTS.T22690733A152593137.en |access-date=12 November 2021}}
</ref>
<ref name=Colpitts>
{{cite book
|last=Colpitts|first=George
|title=Game in the Garden: A Human History of Wildlife in Western Canada to 1940
|year=2002
|publisher=UBC Press
|location=Vancouver
|isbn=0774809620
}}
</ref>
<ref name=Marsh>
{{cite book
|last=Marsh|first=George Perkins
|title=Man and Nature
|year=1965
|publisher=Belknap Press of Harvard University Press
|location=Cambridge, Massachusetts
|isbn=0-674-54452-8
}}</ref>
<ref name=Udall>
{{cite book
|last=Udall|first=Stuart, L.
|title=The Quiet Crisis and the Next Generation
|year=1988
|publisher=Gibbs Smith Publisher
|location=Salt Lake City
|isbn=087905333X
}}
</ref>
<ref name=Filson>
{{cite journal
|last=Filson|first=John|authorlink=John Filson
|title=The Discovery, Settlement and Present State of Kentucke
|journal=Electronic Texts in American Studies|year=1784
|url=http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/etas/3/
}}
</ref>
<ref name=Mokyr>
{{cite book
|last=Ed, Mokyr|first=Joel
|title=The Oxford Encyclopedia of Economic History
|url=https://archive.org/details/oxfordencycloped0000unse|url-access=registration|year=2003
|publisher=Oxford University Press
}}
</ref>
<ref name=Hallen>
{{cite news
|last=Hallen|first=Patsy
|title=The Art of Impurity in Ethics and the Environment
|year=2003
|publisher=Indiana University Press
|volume=8
|issue=1
|jstor=40339057
}}
</ref>
}}
{{conservation of species}}
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
[[Category:Environmental issues]]
[[Category:Scarcity]]
[[Category:Obsolete scientific theories]] |
Dead hedge | {{Short description|Artificial barrier constructed from foliage}}
[[File:Takkenwal.jpg|thumb|260px|A dead hedge used as a roadside boundary]]
A '''dead hedge''' is a barrier constructed from cut branches, [[sapling]]s, and [[foliage]]. The material can be gathered from activities such as [[pruning]] or clearing, and in traditional forms of [[woodland management]],<ref name=RHS>{{cite web |title=Dead wood and compost heap habitats |url=https://www.rhs.org.uk/advice/garden-health/wildlife/dead-wood-compost-heap-habitats |website=www.rhs.org.uk |publisher=[[Royal Horticultural Society]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210223155349if_/https://www.rhs.org.uk/advice/garden-health/wildlife/dead-wood-compost-heap-habitats |archive-date=23 February 2021 |language=en-gb}}</ref> such as [[coppicing]]. Its [[ecological succession]] can be a [[beetle bank]] or [[hedge]].
==Restoration ecology and biological pest control==
In coppicing, dead hedges are useful for keeping compartments of a coppice tidy, and keeping the public from certain areas. At the same time, they can provide excellent [[habitat]]s and [[Wildlife corridor|corridor]]s for wildlife [[habitat conservation]] and [[restoration ecology]]. They offer habitats for insects such as beetles, and [[Refuge (ecology)|shelter]] and feeding opportunities for small mammals<ref name=RHS/> and birds.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://handbooks.btcv.org.uk/handbooks/content/chapter/65 |title=Hedging |work=BTCV handbook |author=[[BTCV]] |accessdate=2008-01-20}}{{Dead link|date=February 2021}}</ref> Dead hedges can be used to create habitats for natural 'biological control agents' to provide [[biological pest control]].{{Cn|date=January 2021}} They have roles in the tending of [[natural landscape]]s, [[wildlife gardening]], and [[organic gardening]].
[[File:Dead hedge in Meephill Copice April 2019 3.jpg|thumb|274x274px|A dead hedge that has been freshly built after [[coppicing]] (at Meephill Coppice, Worcestershire, England).]]
==Agriculture==
Dead hedges can provide enclosures for livestock.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.northwichcommunitywoodlands.org.uk/events-hedgelaying.shtml |accessdate=2008-01-20 |work=Northwich Community Woodlands |title=Hedge-laying - alive and well in the Northwich Community Woodlands |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20071110021455/http://www.northwichcommunitywoodlands.org.uk/events-hedgelaying.shtml |archivedate=November 10, 2007 }}</ref> They can also play a role in [[biological pest control]] (for example, in [[organic farming]] and [[sustainable agriculture]]).{{Cn|date=January 2021}}
Dead hedges provide a [[carbon footprint|carbon-efficient]] way of recycling [[biomass]], without the need for transport or burning.{{Cn|date=January 2021}}
==Gallery==
<gallery>
File:Syke Barrien 0032.JPG |A dead hedge on farmland (at [[Barrien station|Barrien]] near Syke, Germany).
File:Klövensteen Waldweg mit Benjeshecke 01.jpg |A dead hedge can be seen bordering this forest path in [[Klövensteen]], near Hamburg, Germany.
File:Dead hedge Royal Fort Gardens, Bristol.jpg |This dead hedge in [[Royal Fort Gardens]], Bristol (England) is being used as a boundary to a [[Habitat conservation|protected wildlife habitat]].
File:Kingfisher Pool, Myton Fields - geograph.org.uk - 1196614.jpg |The dead hedge alongside this cycleway is protecting a [[Pond|wildlife pond]] among the 'Kingfisher Pools' at [[St Nicholas' Park, Warwick]], England.
File:Benjeshecke_(Illingen)_2020-05-21_(01).jpg |A dead hedge in a private [[wildlife garden]] (in [[Illingen, Saarland]], Germany).
File:Benjeshecke.jpg |This dead hedge is made from small conifer branches placed around freshly planted saplings (in Hundorf near [[Schwerin]], Germany).
</gallery>
==See also==
* [[Beetle bank]]
* [[Biodiversity]]
* [[Coarse woody debris]]
* [[Hedge laying]]
* [[Hibernaculum (zoology)]]
* [[Insect hotel]]
* [[Windrow]] (dead hedges may be thought of as "tidy wind-rows")<ref>{{cite book |vauthors=Oaks R |title=Coppicing and coppice crafts: a comprehensive guide |date=2012 |publisher=Crowood |isbn=978-1-84797-467-9 |pages=119 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iwg9BAAAQBAJ&pg=PT119 |language=en}}</ref>
==References==
{{Reflist}}
==External links==
{{Commons category|Dead hedges}}
[[Category:Agricultural terminology]]
[[Category:Habitat management equipment and methods]]
[[Category:Biological pest control]]
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
{{Horticulture-stub}}
{{Agri-stub}} |
Defaunation | {{short description|Loss or extinctions of animals in the forests}}
[[File:1970- Decline in species populations - Living Planet Index.svg |thumb |The World Wildlife Fund’s Living Planet Report 2022 found that wildlife populations declined by an average 69% since 1970.<ref name=LivingPlanetIndex_2018>{{cite web |title=Living Planet Index, World |url=https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/global-living-planet-index |publisher=Our World in Data |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231008181057/https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/global-living-planet-index |archive-date=8 October 2023 |date=13 October 2022 |quote=Data source: World Wildlife Fund (WWF) and Zoological Society of London |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=WEforum_20221017>{{cite web |last1=Whiting |first1=Kate |title=6 charts that show the state of biodiversity and nature loss - and how we can go 'nature positive' |url=https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2022/10/nature-loss-biodiversity-wwf/ |publisher=World Economic Forum |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230925025824/https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2022/10/nature-loss-biodiversity-wwf/ |archive-date=25 September 2023 |date=17 October 2022 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=LPI_by_Region_1970>Regional data from {{cite web |title=How does the Living Planet Index vary by region? |url=https://ourworldindata.org/living-planet-index-region |publisher=Our World in Data |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230920042759/https://ourworldindata.org/living-planet-index-region |archive-date=20 September 2023 |date=13 October 2022 |quote=Data source: Living Planet Report (2022). World Wildlife Fund (WWF) and Zoological Society of London. - |url-status=live}}</ref>]]
'''Defaunation''' is the global, local, or functional [[extinction]] of animal populations or species from [[ecological communities]].<ref name="def ant">{{cite journal |vauthors=Dirzo R, Young HS, Galetti M, Ceballos G, Isaac NJ, Collen B |title=Defaunation in the Anthropocene |journal= [[Science (journal)|Science]]|date= 2014|doi= 10.1126/science.1251817 |pmid= 25061202 |volume= 345| issue=6195 |pages=401–406 |url=http://www.uv.mx/personal/tcarmona/files/2010/08/Science-2014-Dirzo-401-6-2.pdf|bibcode= 2014Sci...345..401D|s2cid=206555761 }}</ref> The [[Human overpopulation|growth of the human population]], combined with advances in harvesting technologies, has led to more intense and efficient exploitation of the environment.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|title = Essentials of Conservation Biology|last = Primack|first = Richard|publisher = Sinauer Associates, Inc. Publishers|year = 2014|isbn = 9781605352893|location = Sunderland, MA USA|pages = 217–245}}</ref> This has resulted in the [[depletion of natural resources|depletion]] of large vertebrates from ecological communities, creating what has been termed "[[empty forest]]".<ref name=Harrison2016>{{cite journal | vauthors = Harrison R, Sreekar R, Brodie JF, Brook S, Luskin M | display-authors = 2 | title = Impacts of hunting on tropical forests in Southeast Asia | journal = Conservation Biology | volume = 30 | issue = 5 | pages = 972–981 | date = September 2016 | doi = 10.1111/cobi.12785 | pmid = 27341537 | s2cid = 3793259 }}</ref><ref name=":1" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Vignieri|first=Sacha |date = 2014 | title =Vanishing fauna|journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]]|volume=345|issue=6195| pages =392–395 |doi= 10.1126/science.345.6195.392|pmid=25061199 | bibcode=2014Sci...345..392V|doi-access=free}}</ref> Defaunation differs from [[extinction]]; it includes both the disappearance of species and declines in abundance.<ref name=":5">{{Cite web|title = Tracking and combatting our current mass extinction|url = https://arstechnica.com/science/2014/07/tracking-and-combatting-our-current-mass-extinction/|website = Ars Technica|date = 25 July 2014|access-date = 2015-11-30}}</ref> Defaunation effects were first implied at the Symposium of Plant-Animal Interactions at the University of Campinas, Brazil in 1988 in the context of [[Neotropical realm|Neotropical]] forests.<ref name="eco and evo" /> Since then, the term has gained broader usage in conservation biology as a global phenomenon.<ref name="def ant" /><ref name="eco and evo">Dirzo, R. and Galetti, M. "[https://www.academia.edu/download/31402133/Galetti_Dirzo.pdf Ecological and Evolutionary Consequences of Living in a Defaunated World.]{{dead link|date=July 2022|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}" ''Biological Conservation'' 163 (2013): 1-6.</ref>
It is estimated that more than 50 percent of all [[wildlife]] has been lost in the last 40 years.<ref>{{Cite news | url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/report-wildlife-numbers-drop-by-half-since-1970-1412085197 | title=Wildlife Numbers Drop by Half Since 1970, Report Says| newspaper=Wall Street Journal| date=30 September 2014| last1=Naik| first1=Gautam}}</ref> In 2016, it was estimated that by 2020, 68% of the world's wildlife would be lost.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2016/oct/27/world-on-track-to-lose-two-thirds-of-wild-animals-by-2020-major-report-warns|title=World on track to lose two-thirds of wild animals by 2020, major report warns|last=Carrington|first=Damian|date=2016-10-26|work=The Guardian|access-date=2017-04-12|language=en-GB|issn=0261-3077}}</ref> In [[South America]], there is believed to be a 70 percent loss.<ref>Ceballos, G.; Ehrlich, A. H.; Ehrlich, P. R. (2015). ''The Annihilation of Nature: Human Extinction of Birds and Mammals''. Baltimore, Maryland: Johns Hopkins University Press. pp. 135 {{ISBN|1421417189}} – via Open Edition.</ref> A 2021 study found that only around 3% of the planet's terrestrial surface is ecologically and [[fauna|faunally]] intact, with healthy populations of native animal species and little to no human footprint.<ref>{{cite news |last=Carrington |first=Damian |date=April 15, 2021 |title=Just 3% of world's ecosystems remain intact, study suggests |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2021/apr/15/just-3-of-worlds-ecosystems-remain-intact-study-suggests |work=The Guardian |location= |access-date=April 18, 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Plumptre|first1=Andrew J. |last2=Baisero |first2=Daniele |display-authors=etal. |date=2021 |title=Where Might We Find Ecologically Intact Communities? |url= |journal=Frontiers in Forests and Global Change |volume=4 |issue= |pages= |doi=10.3389/ffgc.2021.626635|doi-access=free |hdl=10261/242175 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>
In November 2017, over 15,000 scientists around the world issued a second [[World Scientists' Warning to Humanity|warning to humanity]], which, among other things, urged for the development and implementation of policies to halt "defaunation, the [[poaching]] crisis, and the exploitation and [[wildlife trade|trade of threatened species]]."<ref>{{cite journal|vauthors=Ripple WJ, Wolf C, Newsome TM, Galetti M, Alamgir M, Crist E, Mahmoud MI, Laurance WF|title=World Scientists' Warning to Humanity: A Second Notice|journal=[[BioScience]]|date=13 November 2017|volume=35|issue=12|pages=1026–1028|doi=10.1093/biosci/bix125|doi-access=free|hdl=11336/71342|hdl-access=free}}</ref>
== Drivers ==
=== Overexploitation ===
{{main|overexploitation}}
[[File:Rhino poaching.jpg|thumb|Rhino poaching]]The intensive hunting and harvesting of animals threatens endangered vertebrate species across the world.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=van Uhm |first1=D.P. |title=A green criminological perspective on environmental crime: the anthropocentric, ecocentric and biocentric impact of defaunation |journal=Revue Internationale de Droit Pénal |date=2017 |volume=87 |issue=1 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/313502962}}</ref><ref name=":1" /> Game [[vertebrate]]s are considered valuable products of tropical forests and savannas. In Brazilian Amazonia, 23 million vertebrates are killed every year;<ref>{{Cite journal|title = Effects of Subsistence Hunting on Vertebrate Community Structure in Amazonian Forests|journal = Conservation Biology|date = 2000-02-01|issn = 1523-1739|pages = 240–253|volume = 14|issue = 1|doi = 10.1046/j.1523-1739.2000.98485.x|first = Carlos A.|last = Peres|s2cid = 85726080}}</ref> [[Primate|large-bodied primates]], [[tapir]]s, [[White-lipped peccary|white-lipped peccaries]], [[Armadillo|giant armadillos]], and [[tortoise]]s are some of the animals most sensitive to harvest.<ref name=":0" /> [[Overhunting]] can reduce the local population of such species by more than half, as well as reducing [[population density]]. Populations located nearer to villages are significantly more at risk of depletion.<ref name=":0">Peres, Carlos A., and Hilton S. Nascimento. "[https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Carlos_Peres/publication/226584770_Impact_of_game_hunting_by_the_Kayapo_of_south-eastern_Amazonia_Implications_for_wildlife_conservation_in_tropical_forest_indigenous_reserves/links/0912f50c262d0e43f9000000.pdf Impact of Game Hunting by the Kayapo´ of South-eastern Amazonia: Implications for Wildlife Conservation in Tropical Forest Indigenous Reserves.]" ''Biodiversity and Conservation'' 15.8 (2006): 2627-653.</ref> Abundance of local game species declines as density of local settlements, such as villages, increases.<ref>Altrichter, M., and Boaglio, G., "[https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Mariana_Altrichter/publication/222127957_Distribution_and_relative_abundance_of_peccaries_in_the_Argentine_Chaco_Associations_with_human_factors/links/54d16af80cf25ba0f0413879.pdf Distribution and Relative Abundance of Peccaries in the Argentine Chaco: Associations with Human Factors.]" ''Biological Conservation'' 116.2 (2004): 217-25.</ref>
[[File:Number of African elephants.svg|thumb|"There were around 10,000,000 African elephants at the beginning of the 20th century, and now there are only about 450,000 remaining. In several countries, all elephant populations have gone EX, and the great beasts are now absent from many large regions of other countries they once occupied."—Gerardo Ceballos and [[Paul R. Ehrlich]]<ref>{{cite journal |last1= Ceballos|first1=Gerardo|last2=Ehrlich|first2=Paul R.|date=2023 |title=Mutilation of the tree of life via mass extinction of animal genera|url= |journal=[[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America]]|volume=120 |issue=39 |pages=e2306987120|doi=10.1073/pnas.2306987120|access-date=|doi-access=free|pmc=10523489}}</ref>]]
[[Hunting]] and [[poaching]] may lead to local population declines or [[extinction]] in some species.<ref>Redford, K. H. (1992). ''The empty forest.'' ''BioScience'' 42(6): 412–422.</ref> Most affected species undergo pressure from multiple sources but the scientific community is still unsure of the complexity of these interactions and their feedback loops.<ref name="def ant" /><ref>Sreekar, R., Huang, G., Zhao, J., Pasion, B.O. et al. "The use of species–area relationships to partition the effects of hunting and deforestation on bird extirpations in a fragmented landscape" ''Diversity and Distributions'', Vol. 21. No. 4 (2015). pp. 441-450. [https://doi.org/10.1111/ddi.12292].</ref>
One case study in Panama found an inverse relationship between poaching intensity and abundance for 9 of 11 mammal species studied.<ref name="poachers alter" /> In addition, preferred game species experienced greater declines and had higher spatial variation in abundance.<ref name="poachers alter">Wright, S. J., Zeballos, H., Domínguez, I., Gallardo, M. M., Moreno, M. C. and Ibáñez, R. "[http://stri.si.edu/sites/publications/PDFs/2000_Cons_Biol.pdf Poachers Alter Mammal Abundance, Seed Dispersal, and Seed Predation in a Neotropical Forest.]" ''Conservation Biology'' 14.1 (2000): 227-239.</ref>
=== Habitat destruction and fragmentation ===
[[File:Lacanja burn.JPG|thumb|Lacanja burn shows deforestation]]
Human population growth results in changes in [[land-use]], which can cause natural [[habitat]]s to become [[habitat fragmentation|fragmented]], altered, or destroyed.<ref name=":1" /> Large mammals are often more vulnerable to extinction than smaller animals because they require larger [[home range]]s and thus are more prone to suffer the effects of [[deforestation]]. Large species such as [[elephant]]s, [[rhinoceros]]es, large [[primate]]s, [[tapir]]s and [[Peccary|peccaries]] are the first animals to disappear in fragmented [[rainforest]]s.<ref>Kinnaird, M. F., Sanderson, E. W., O'Brien, T. G., Wibisono, H. T. and Woolmer, G., "[https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Eric_Sanderson2/publication/227602224_Deforestation_Trends_in_a_Tropical_Landscape_and_Implications_for_Endangered_Large_Mammals/links/0912f5108705b72742000000.pdf Deforestation Trends in a Tropical Landscape and Implications for Endangered Large Mammals.]" ''Conservation Biology'' (2003) 17: 245–257.</ref>
A case study from [[Amazonian Ecuador]] analyzed two [[oil-road]] management approaches and their effects on the surrounding wildlife communities. The free-access road had forests that were cleared and fragmented and the other had enforced access control. Fewer species were found along the first road with density estimates being almost 80% lower than at the second site that which had minimal disturbance.<ref name="oil roads">Suárez, E., Morales, M., Cueva, R., Utreras Bucheli, V., Zapata-Ríos, G., Toral, E., Torres, J., Prado, W. and Vargas Olalla, J., "[https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Galo_Zapata-Rios/publication/229528550_Oil_Industry_Wild_Meat_Trade_and_Roads_Indirect_Effects_of_Oil_Extraction_Activities_in_a_Protected_Area_in_North-Eastern_Ecuador/links/02e7e528ccfdcbb399000000/Oil-Industry-Wild-Meat-Trade-and-Roads-Indirect-Effects-of-Oil-Extraction-Activities-in-a-Protected-Area-in-North-Eastern-Ecuador.pdf Oil Industry, Wild Meat Trade and Roads: Indirect Effects of Oil Extraction Activities in a Protected Area in North-Eastern Ecuador.]" ''Animal Conservation'' 12 (2009): 364–373.</ref> This finding suggests that disturbances affected the local animals' willingness and ability to travel between patches.
[[File:Sugarcane Deforestation, Bolivia, 2016-06-15 by Planet Labs.jpg|thumb|right|Fishbone deforestation pattern. This was found in [[Bolivia]] and is visible from satellite]]
[[Habitat fragmentation|Fragmentation]] lowers populations while increasing extinction risk when the remaining [[habitat]] size is small.<ref name=":2" /> When there is more unfragmented land, there is more habitat for more diverse species. A larger land patch also means it can accommodate more species with larger [[home range]]s. However, when patch size decreases, there is an increase in the number of isolated fragments which can remain unoccupied by local [[fauna]]. If this persists, species may become extinct in the area.<ref name=":2">Rybicki, J., "[http://izt.ciens.ucv.ve/ecologia/Archivos/ECO_POB%202013/ECOPO2_2013/Ecological%20effects%20of%20environ.%20change/Rybicki%20y%20Hanski%202013.pdf Species–area Relationships and Extinctions Caused by Habitat Loss and Fragmentation.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191110201636/http://izt.ciens.ucv.ve/ecologia/Archivos/ECO_POB%25202013/ECOPO2_2013/Ecological%2520effects%2520of%2520environ.%2520change/Rybicki%2520y%2520Hanski%25202013.pdf |date=2019-11-10 }}" ''Ecology Letters'' 16 (2013): 27-38.</ref>
A study on [[deforestation of the Amazon rainforest|deforestation in the Amazon]] looked at two patterns of [[habitat fragmentation]]: "fish-bone" in smaller properties and another unnamed large property pattern. The large property pattern contained fewer fragments than the smaller fish-bone pattern. The results suggested that higher levels of fragmentation within the fish-bone pattern led to the [[loss of species]] and decreased diversity of large vertebrates.<ref>Saunders, D. A., Hobbs, R. J. and Margules, C. R., "[https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Denis_Saunders/publication/227638151_Saunders_D_Hobbs_R_Margules_C_Biological_Consequences_of_Ecosystem_Fragmentation_A_Review_Conservation_Biology/links/53d20be10cf2a7fbb2e9620f/Saunders-D-Hobbs-R-Margules-C-Biological-Consequences-of-Ecosystem-Fragmentation-A-Review-Conservation-Biology.pdf Biological Consequences of Ecosystem Fragmentation: A Review.]" ''Conservation Biology'' 5 (1991): 18–32.</ref> Human impacts, such as the fragmentation of forests, may cause large areas to lose the ability to maintain [[biodiversity]] and [[ecosystem function]] due to loss of key ecological processes.<ref>Jorge, M. L. S. P., Galetti, M., Ribeiro, M. C., Ferraz, K.M.P.M.B. "[https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Malu_Jorge/publication/256669321_Mammal_defaunation_as_surrogate_of_trophic_cascades_in_hotspot/links/00b7d52aafdb4d98da000000.pdf Mammal Defaunation as Surrogate of Trophic Cascades in A Biodiversity Hotspot.]" ''Biological Conservation'' 163 (2013): 49–57.</ref> This can consequently cause changes within environments and skew evolutionary processes.<ref name="eco and evo" />
In North America, wild bird populations have declined by 29%, or around three billion, since 1970, largely as the result of anthropogenic causes such as [[habitat loss]] for human use, the primary driver of the decline, along with widespread use of [[neonicotinoid]] insecticides and the proliferation of domesticated cats allowed to roam outdoors.<ref>{{cite news |last= Deaton|first=Jeremy|date=September 19, 2019|title=U.S., Canada have lost 3 billion birds since 1970. Scientists say 'nature is unraveling.'|url=https://www.nbcnews.com/mach/science/u-s-canada-have-lost-3-billion-birds-scientists-say-ncna1055961|work=[[NBC News]] |access-date=September 20, 2019}}</ref>
=== Invasive species ===
Human influences, such as [[colonization]] and agriculture, have caused species to become distributed outside of their native ranges.<ref name=":1" /> Fragmentation also has cascading effects on native species, beyond reducing habitat and [[resource availability]]; it leaves areas vulnerable to non-native invasions. [[Invasive species]] can out-compete or directly prey upon native species, as well as alter the habitat so that native species can no longer survive.<ref name=":1" /><ref name="oil roads"/><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Jeschke |first1=Jonathan M. |last2=Bacher |first2=Sven |last3=Blackburn |first3=Tim M. |last4=Dick |first4=Jaimie T. A. |last5=Essl |first5=Franz |last6=Evans |first6=Thomas |last7=Gaertner |first7=Mirijam |last8=Hulme |first8=Philip E. |last9=Kühn |first9=Ingolf |last10=Mrugała |first10=Agata |last11=Pergl |first11=Jan |last12=Pyšek |first12=Petr |last13=Rabitsch |first13=Wolfgang |last14=Ricciardi |first14=Anthony |last15=Richardson |first15=David M. |last16=Sendek |first16=Agnieszka |last17=Vilà |first17=Montserrat |author-link17=Montserrat Vilà |last18=Winter |first18=Marten |last19=Kumschick |first19=Sabrina |title=Defining the Impact of Non‐Native Species |journal=Conservation Biology |date=October 2014 |volume=28 |issue=5 |pages=1188–1194 |doi=10.1111/cobi.12299|pmid=24779412 |pmc=4282110 }}</ref>
In extinct animal species for which the cause of [[extinction]] is known, over 50% were affected by invasive species. For 20% of extinct animal species, invasive species are the only cited cause of extinction. Invasive species are the second-most important cause of extinction for mammals.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Clavero |first1=M |last2=Garciaberthou |first2=E |title=Invasive species are a leading cause of animal extinctions |journal=Trends in Ecology & Evolution |date=March 2005 |volume=20 |issue=3 |pages=110 |doi=10.1016/j.tree.2005.01.003|pmid=16701353 |hdl=10256/12285 |url=http://dugi-doc.udg.edu:8080/bitstream/handle/10256/12285/InvasiveSpeciesLeading.pdf?sequence=1}}</ref>
== Global patterns ==
Tropical regions are the most heavily impacted by defaunation.<ref name="def ant" /><ref name=":1" /><ref name="eco and evo" /> These regions, which include the [[Brazilian Amazon]], the [[Congo Basin]] of Central Africa, and [[Indonesia]], experience the greatest rates of overexploitation and [[habitat degradation]].<ref name=":5" /> However, specific causes are varied, and areas with one endangered group (such as birds) do not necessarily also have other endangered groups (such as mammals, insects, or amphibians).<ref>{{cite news|title=Press release: Global map shows new patterns of extinction risk|url=http://www3.imperial.ac.uk/newsandeventspggrp/imperialcollege/newssummary/news_2-11-2006-10-49-47|work=Imperial College London and the Natural Environment Research Council|date=2 November 2006}}</ref>
Deforestation of the Brazilian Amazon leads to habitat fragmentation and overexploitation. Hunting pressure in the Amazon rainforest has increased as traditional hunting techniques have been replaced by modern weapons such as shotguns.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":3" /> Access roads built for mining and logging operations fragment the forest landscape and allow hunters to move into forested areas which previously were untouched.<ref name=":3" /> The bushmeat trade in Central Africa incentivizes the overexploitation of local fauna.<ref name=":1" /> Indonesia has the most endangered animal species of any area in the world.<ref name=":6">{{Cite web|title = Endangered Species in Indonesia - Australian Science|url = http://www.australianscience.com.au/environmental-science/endangered-species-in-indonesia/|website = Australian Science|access-date = 2015-11-30|language = en-US|first = Ivanovic|last = Josip|date = 30 August 2011}}</ref> International trade in wild animals, as well as extensive logging, mining and agriculture operations, drive the decline and extinction of numerous species.<ref name=":6" />
== Ecological impacts ==
=== Genetic loss ===
[[Inbreeding]] and [[genetic diversity]] loss often occur with endangered species populations because they have small and/or declining populations. Loss of genetic diversity lowers the ability of a population to deal with change in their environment and can make individuals within the community [[homogeneous]]. If this occurs, these animals are more susceptible to [[disease]] and other occurrences that may target a specific [[genome]]. Without genetic diversity, one disease could eradicate an entire species. Inbreeding lowers reproduction and [[survival rate]]s. It is suggested that these genetic factors contribute to the extinction risk in threatened/endangered species.<ref>Frankham, R., "Genetics and Conservation Biology." C. R. ''Biologies'' 326 (2003): S22-S29.</ref>
=== Seed dispersal ===
==== Effects on plants and forest structure ====
The consequences of defaunation can be expected to affect the plant community. There are three non-mutually exclusive conclusions as to the consequences on tropical forest plant communities:
# If seed dispersal agents are targeted by hunters, the effectiveness and amount of dispersal for those plant species will be reduced<ref name="eco and evo" /><ref>Fedriani JM, D Ayllón, T Wiegand, and V. Grimm. 2020. Intertwined effects of defaunation, increased tree mortality, and density compensation on seed dispersal. Ecography 43: 1352-1363.</ref>
# The [[species composition]] of the [[seedling]] and [[sapling]] layers will be altered by hunting,<ref name="eco and evo" /> and
# Selective hunting of medium/large-sized animals instead of small-sized animals will lead to different seed predation patterns, with an emphasis on smaller seeds<ref name="eco and evo" /><ref name="Galetti 2–7">{{Cite journal|title = Defaunation affects the populations and diets of rodents in Neotropical rainforests|journal = Biological Conservation|date = 2015-10-01|pages = 2–7|volume = 190|doi = 10.1016/j.biocon.2015.04.032|first1 = Mauro|last1 = Galetti|first2 = Roger|last2 = Guevara|first3 = Carolina L.|last3 = Neves|first4 = Raisa R.|last4 = Rodarte|first5 = Ricardo S.|last5 = Bovendorp|first6 = Marcelo|last6 = Moreira|first7 = John B.|last7 = Hopkins III|first8 = Justin D.|last8 = Yeakel|hdl = 11449/171874|hdl-access = free}}</ref>
One recent study analyzed seedling density and composition from two areas, Los Tuxtlas and Montes Azules. Los Tuxtlas, which is affected more by human activity, showed higher seedling density and a smaller average number of different species than in the other area. Results suggest that an absence of vertebrate dispersers can change the structure and diversity of forests.<ref>Dirzo, R. and Miranda, A. "Altered Patterns of Herbivory and Diversity in the Forest Understory: A Case Study of the Possible Consequences of Contemporary Defaunation." In: ''Plant-Animal Interactions: Evolutionary ecology in tropical and temperate regions''. P. W. Price, T. M. Lewinsohn, G. W. Fernandes & W. W. Benson (Eds.). Wiley and Sons Pub. New York pp: 273-287.</ref> As a result, a plant community that relies on animals for dispersal could potentially have an altered [[biodiversity]], species [[Dominance (ecology)|dominance]], survival, [[demography]], and spatial and genetic structure.<ref>Beaune, David. "[https://www.researchgate.net/profile/David_Beaune/publication/256303581_Seed_dispersal_strategies_and_the_threat_of_defaunation_in_a_Congo_forest/links/00b4952246469ee96c000000.pdf Seed Dispersal Strategies and the Threat of Defaunation in a Congo Forest]." ''Biodiversity and Conservation'' 22.1 (2013): 225-38.</ref>
Poaching is likely to alter plant composition because the interactions between game and plant species varies in strength. Some game species interact strongly, weakly, or not at all with species. A change in plant [[species composition]] is likely to be a result because the net effect removal of game species varies among the plant species they interact with.<ref name="poachers alter"/>
==== Effects on small-bodied seed dispersers and predators ====
As large-bodied vertebrates are increasingly lost from seed-dispersal networks, small-bodied seed dispersers (i.e. bats, birds, dung beetles) and seed predators (i.e. rodents) are affected. Defaunation leads to reduced species diversity.<ref>{{Cite journal|title = Seed predation in a human-modified tropical landscape|journal = Journal of Tropical Ecology|date = 2015-07-01|issn = 1469-7831|pages = 379–383|volume = 31|issue = 4|doi = 10.1017/S026646741500019X|first1 = Jenny|last1 = Zambrano|first2 = Rosamond|last2 = Coates|first3 = Henry F.|last3 = Howe|s2cid = 87170069}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|title = Selective defaunation affects dung beetle communities in continuous Atlantic rainforest|journal = Biological Conservation|date = 2013-07-01|pages = 79–89|volume = 163|series = Special Issue: Defaunation's impact in terrestrial tropical ecosystems|doi = 10.1016/j.biocon.2013.04.004|first1 = Laurence|last1 = Culot|first2 = Emilie|last2 = Bovy|first3 = Fernando|last3 = Zagury Vaz-de-Mello|first4 = Roger|last4 = Guevara|first5 = Mauro|last5 = Galetti}}</ref> This is due to relaxed competition; small-bodied species normally compete with large-bodied vertebrates for food and other resources. As an area becomes defaunated, dominant small-bodied species take over, crowding out other similar species and leading to an overall reduced species diversity.<ref name="Galetti 2–7"/> The loss of species diversity is reflective of a larger [[Biodiversity loss|loss of biodiversity]], which has consequences for the maintenance of [[ecosystem services]].<ref name=":1" />
The quality of the physical habitat may also suffer. Bird and bat species (many of who are small bodied seed dispersers) rely on [[Geophagy|mineral licks]] as a source of sodium, which is not available elsewhere in their diets. In defaunated areas in the Western Amazon, mineral licks are more thickly covered by vegetation and have lower water availability. Bats were significantly less likely to visit these degraded mineral licks.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|title = Defaunation of tropical forests reduces habitat quality for seed-dispersing bats in Western Amazonia: an unexpected connection via mineral licks|journal = Animal Conservation|date = 2014-02-01|issn = 1469-1795|pages = 44–51|volume = 17|issue = 1|doi = 10.1111/acv.12055|first1 = S. J.|last1 = Ghanem|first2 = C. C.|last2 = Voigt|s2cid = 85597982}}</ref> The degradation of such licks will thus negatively affect the health and reproduction of bat populations.<ref name=":3" />
Defaunation has negative consequences for seed dispersal networks as well. In the western Amazon, birds and bats have separate diets and thus form separate [[Guild (ecology)|guilds]] within the network.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|title = Partitioning of seed dispersal services between birds and bats in a fragment of the Brazilian Atlantic Forest|journal = Zoologia (Curitiba)|issn = 1984-4670|pages = 245–255|volume = 31|issue = 3|doi = 10.1590/S1984-46702014000300006|first1 = Raissa|last1 = Sarmento|first2 = Cecília P.|last2 = Alves-Costa|first3 = Adriana|last3 = Ayub|first4 = Marco A. R.|last4 = Mello|year = 2014|doi-access = free}}</ref> It is hypothesized that large-bodied vertebrates, being generalists, connect separate guilds, creating a stable, [[Ecological resilience|resilient]] network. Defaunation results in a highly modular network in which specialized frugivores instead act as the connector hubs.<ref name=":4" />
===Food webs===
According to a 2022 study published in ''[[Science (journal)|Science]]'', terrestrial mammal [[food web]] links have declined by 53% over the past 130,000 years as a result of human population expansion and accompanying defaunation.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Fricke|first1=Evan C. |last2=Hsieh |first2=Chia |display-authors=etal. |date=August 25, 2022 |title=Collapse of terrestrial mammal food webs since the Late Pleistocene |journal=Science |volume=377 |issue=6609 |pages=1008–1011 |doi=10.1126/science.abn4012|pmid=36007038 |s2cid=251843290 }}</ref>
===Ecosystem services===
{{main|ecosystem services}}
Changes in predation dynamics, seed predation, seed dispersal, carrion removal, dung removal, vegetation trampling, and other ecosystem processes as a result of defaunation can affect ecosystem supporting and regulatory services, such as [[nutrient cycling]] and [[decomposition]], crop pollination, [[pest control]], and [[water quality]].<ref name="def ant" />
=== Conservation ===
Efforts against defaunation include [[wildlife overpass]]es<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal|last1=Pell|first1=Stuart|last2=Jones|first2=Darryl|date=2015-04-01|title=Are wildlife overpasses of conservation value for birds? A study in Australian sub-tropical forest, with wider implications|journal=Biological Conservation|volume=184|pages=300–309|doi=10.1016/j.biocon.2015.02.005}}</ref> and [[riparian corridor]]s.<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal|last1=Şekercioğlu|first1=Çağan H.|last2=Loarie|first2=Scott R.|last3=Oviedo-Brenes|first3=Federico|last4=Mendenhall|first4=Chase D.|last5=Daily|first5=Gretchen C.|last6=Ehrlich|first6=Paul R.|date=2015-12-01|title=Tropical countryside riparian corridors provide critical habitat and connectivity for seed-dispersing forest birds in a fragmented landscape|journal=Journal of Ornithology|language=en|volume=156|issue=1|pages=343–353|doi=10.1007/s10336-015-1299-x|s2cid=14503270|issn=2193-7192}}</ref> Both of these can be otherwise known as [[wildlife crossing]] mechanisms. Wildlife overpasses are specifically used for the purpose of protecting many animal species from the roads.<ref name=":7" /> Many countries use them and they have been found to be very effective in protecting species and allowing forests to be connected.<ref name=":7" /> These overpasses look like bridges of forest that cross over many roads, like a walk bridge for humans, allowing animals to migrate from one side of the forest to the other safely since the road cut off the original connectivity.<ref name=":7" /> It was concluded in a study done by Pell and Jones, looking at bird use of these corridors in Australia, that many birds did, in fact, use these corridors to travel from one side of forest to the other and although they did not spend much time in the corridor specifically, they did commonly use them.<ref name=":7" /> Riparian corridors are very similar to overpasses they are just on flat land and not on bridges, however, they also work as connective "bridges" between fragmented pieces of forest. One study done connected the corridors with bird habitat and use for seed dispersal.<ref name=":8" /> The conclusions of this study showed that some species of birds are highly dependent on these corridors as connections between forest, as flying across the open land is not ideal for many species.<ref name=":8" /> Overall both of these studies agree that some sort of connectivity needs to be established between fragments in order to keep the forest ecosystem in the best health possible and that they have in fact been very effective.<ref name=":7" /><ref name=":8" />
== Marine ==
Defaunation in the [[marine biology|ocean]] has occurred later and less intensely than on land. A relatively small number of marine species have been driven to extinction. However, many species have undergone local, ecological, and commercial extinction.<ref name="mar def">McCauley, D. J., Pinsky, M. L., [[Stephen R. Palumbi|Palumbi, S. R.]], Estes, J. A., Joyce, F. H., and Warner, R. R., "[http://escholarship.org/uc/item/1gj9w82r.pdf Marine defaunation: Animal loss in the global ocean.]" ''[[Science (journal)|Science]]'' 347 (2015): 12555641.</ref> Most large marine animal species still exist, such that the size distribution of global species assemblages has changed little since the Pleistocene, but individuals of each species are smaller on average, and [[overfishing]] has caused reductions in genetic diversity. Most extinctions and population declines to date have been driven by human overexploitation.<ref>Dulvy, N. K., Pinnegar, J. K., and Reynolds, J. D. "[http://www.dulvy.com/uploads/2/1/0/4/21048414/dulvy_holoceneextinctions2009.pdf Holocene extinctions in the sea.]" Pages 129-150 Turvey., S. T., editor. Holocene Extinctions. Oxford University Press, New York.</ref>
Overfishing has reduced populations of oceanic [[sharks]] and [[Batoidea|rays]] by 71% since 1970, with more than three quarters of species facing extinction.<ref>{{cite news |last=Einhorn |first=Catrin |date=January 27, 2021 |title=Shark Populations Are Crashing, With a 'Very Small Window' to Avert Disaster |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2021/01/27/climate/sharks-population-study.html |work=[[The New York Times]] |location= |access-date=January 31, 2021}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Pacoureau|first1=Nathan|last2=Rigby|first2=Cassandra L.|last3=Kyne|first3=Peter M.|last4=Sherley|first4=Richard B.|last5=Winker|first5=Henning|last6=Carlson|first6=John K.|last7=Fordham|first7=Sonja V.|last8=Barreto|first8=Rodrigo|last9=Fernando|first9=Daniel|last10=Francis|first10=Malcolm P.|last11=Jabado|first11=Rima W.|date=January 2021|title=Half a century of global decline in oceanic sharks and rays|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-020-03173-9|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=589|issue=7843|pages=567–571|doi=10.1038/s41586-020-03173-9|pmid=33505035|bibcode=2021Natur.589..567P|hdl=10871/124531|s2cid=231723355|issn=1476-4687|hdl-access=free}}</ref>
===Consequences===
Marine defaunation has a wide array of effects on ecosystem structure and function. The loss of animals can have both top-down (cascading) and bottom-up effects,<ref>Myers, R. A., [[Julia K. Baum|Baum, J. K.]], Shepherd, T. D., Powers, S. P., and Peterson, C. H. "[http://people.umass.edu/bethanyb/GCE/Myers%20et%20al.,%202007%20sharks.pdf Cascading effects of the loss of apex predatory sharks from a coastal ocean] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160509183756/http://people.umass.edu/bethanyb/GCE/Myers%20et%20al.,%202007%20sharks.pdf |date=2016-05-09 }}". ''Science'' 315 (2007):1846–1850.</ref><ref>Cury, P. M., Boyd, I. L., Bonhommeau, S., Anker-Nilssen, T., Crawford, R. J., Furness, R. W., ... & Sydeman, W. J., "[http://archimer.ifremer.fr/doc/00056/16770/14307.pdf Global seabird response to forage fish depletion—one-third for the birds]". ''Science'', 334(2011), 1703-1706.</ref> as well as consequences for [[biogeochemical cycling]] and [[ecosystem stability]].
Two of the most important ecosystem services threatened by marine defaunation are the provision of food and coastal storm protection.<ref name="mar def" />
==See also==
*[[Anthropocene]]
*[[Anthropocentrism]]
*[[Bushmeat]]
*[[Holocene extinction]]
*[[Human impact on the environment]]
*[[Human overpopulation]]
*[[Insect population decline]]
==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}
==Further reading==
*{{cite journal |last1= Benítez-López|first1=A.|last2= Alkemade|first2=R.|last3=Schipper|first3=A. M. |last4= Ingram|first4=D. J.|last5= Verweij|first5= P. A.|last6= Eikelboom|first6=J. A. J.|last7= Huijbregts|first7=M. A. J.|date=April 14, 2017 |title=The impact of hunting on tropical mammal and bird populations|url= http://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/10058583/7/Ingram%20aaj1891_ArticleContent_v3.pdf|journal= [[Science (journal)|Science]]|volume=356 |issue=6334 |pages=180–83|doi=10.1126/science.aaj1891|pmid=28408600|bibcode=2017Sci...356..180B|hdl=1874/349694|s2cid=19603093}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Finn|first1=Catherine|last2=Grattarola|first2=Florencia |last3=Pincheira-Donoso|first3=Daniel |date=2023 |title=More losers than winners: investigating Anthropocene defaunation through the diversity of population trends|url= |journal=Biological Reviews|volume= |issue= |pages= |doi=10.1111/brv.12974|access-date=|doi-access=free}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Fricke|first1=Evan C |last2=Ordonez|first2=Alejandro |last3=Rogers|first3=Haldre S|last4=Svenning|first4= Jens-Christian|date=2022 |title=The effects of defaunation on plants' capacity to track climate change|url= |journal=Science|volume=375 |issue=6577 |pages=210–214 |doi=10.1126/science.abk3510|pmid=35025640|s2cid=245933147 }}
*{{cite journal |last1= Hallmann|first1=Caspar A.|last2= Sorg|first2=Martin|last3= Jongejans|first3=Eelke|last4= Siepel|first4=Henk|last5= Hofland|first5=Nick|last6= Schwan|first6=Heinz|last7=Stenmans|first7=Werner
|last8= Müller|first8=Andreas|last9= Sumser|first9=Hubert|last10= Hörren|first10=Thomas|last11= Goulson|first11=Dave|last12= de Kroon|first12=Hans|date=October 18, 2017|title=More than 75 percent decline over 27 years in total flying insect biomass in protected areas|journal=[[PLOS One]]|volume=12 |issue=10|pages=e0185809|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0185809|pmid=29045418|pmc=5646769|bibcode=2017PLoSO..1285809H|doi-access=free}}
*{{cite journal |last1= Young|first1=Hillary S.|last2=McCauley|first2=Douglas J.|last3=Galetti|first3=Mauro |last4= Dirzo|first4=Rodolfo|author-link4=Rodolfo Dirzo|date=2016 |title=Patterns, Causes, and Consequences of Anthropocene Defaunation|url= |journal=[[Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics]]|volume=47 |issue= |pages=333–358|doi=10.1146/annurev-ecolsys-112414-054142|access-date=}}
==External links==
* [http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20090713085836/http://news.mongabay.com/2008/0520-interview_dirzo.html Mongobay.com : ''Defaunation, like deforestation, threatens global biodiversity: Interview with Rodolfo Dirzo''] (archived 13 July 2009)
{{human impact on the environment}}
{{Population}}
{{Global catastrophic risks}}
[[Category:Ecology]]
[[Category:Biodiversity]]
[[Category:Environmental conservation]] |
Landscape-scale conservation | {{Short description|Holistic approach to landscape management}}
[[File:Little Malvern Hills panorama.jpg|thumb|upright=1.7|Landscape scale conservation attempts to reconcile competing pressures on the designated [[Areas of Outstanding Natural Beauty]] across the United Kingdom.<ref name="Phillips 2005"/>]]
'''Landscape-scale conservation''' is a [[holistic]] approach to [[landscape]] management, aiming to reconcile the competing objectives of [[nature conservation]] and economic activities across a given landscape. Landscape-scale conservation may sometimes be attempted because of [[climate change]]. It can be seen as an alternative to [[site based conservation]].
Many global problems such as [[poverty]], [[food security]], [[climate change]], [[water scarcity]], [[deforestation]] and [[biodiversity loss]] are connected.<ref name="LSLB" /><ref name="learning" /> For example, lifting people out of poverty can increase consumption and drive climate change.<ref name="Stern">{{cite book |last1=Stern |first1=N |title=The Economics of Climate Change: the Stern Review |date=2007 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge UK}}</ref> [[agricultural expansion|Expanding agriculture]] can exacerbate [[water scarcity]] and drive [[habitat loss]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Tilman |first1=D |title=Global environmental impacts of agricultural expansion: the need for sustainable and efficient practices |journal=Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA |volume=96 |issue=11 |pages=5995–6000 |doi=10.1073/pnas.96.11.5995 |pmid=10339530 |pmc=34218 |date=1999-05-25|bibcode=1999PNAS...96.5995T |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Laurance |first1=W F |last2=Sayer |first2=J |last3=Cassman |first3=KG |title=Agricultural expansion and its impacts on tropical nature |journal=Trends in Ecology & Evolution |date=2014 |volume=29 |issue=2 |pages=107–116 |doi=10.1016/j.tree.2013.12.001 |pmid=24388286}}</ref> Proponents of landscape management argue that as these problems are interconnected, coordinated approaches are needed to address them, by focussing on how landscapes can generate multiple benefits. For example, a river basin can supply water for towns and [[agriculture]], timber and food crops for people and industry, and habitat for biodiversity; and each one of these users can have impacts on the others.<ref name="LSLB" /><ref name="learning" /><ref name="Hart">{{cite journal |last1=Hart |first1=A K |last2=McMichael |first2=P |last3=Milder |first3=J C |last4=Scherr |first4=Sara J |title=Multi-functional landscapes from the grassroots? The role of rural producer movements |journal=Agriculture and Human Values |date=2015 |volume=33 |issue=2 |pages=305–322 |doi=10.1007/s10460-015-9611-1|s2cid=153211771 }}</ref>
Landscapes in general have been recognised as important units for conservation by intergovernmental bodies,<ref name="SBSTTA report" /> government initiatives,<ref name="GMS BLL" /><ref name="IINDC" /> and research institutes.<ref name="CIFOR landscapes pg" />
Problems with this approach include difficulties in monitoring, and the proliferation of definitions and terms relating to it.<ref name="learning" />
== Definitions ==
[[File:Maintenance Burn (16917515735).jpg|thumb|[[Bureau of Land Management]] [[Controlled burn|using fire to maintain a landscape]] in Western [[Oregon]]]]
There are many overlapping terms and definitions,<ref name="Reed" /><ref>{{Cite news |url=https://forestsnews.cifor.org/23834/landscape-approach-defies-simple-definition-and-thats-good?fnl=en |title='Landscape approach' defies simple definition — and that's good |date=2014-08-27 |work=CIFOR Forests News |access-date=2017-09-20 |language=en-US}}</ref> but many terms have similar meanings.<ref name="learning" /><ref name="Minang" /> A [[sustainable]] landscape, for example, meets "the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs."<ref name="LSLB">{{cite book |last1=Denier |first1=L. |last2=Scherr |first2=S. |last3=Shames |first3=S. |last4=Chatterton |first4=P. |last5=Hovani |first5=L. |last6=Stam |first6=N. |title=The Little Sustainable Landscapes Book |date=2015 |publisher=Global Canopy Programme |location=Oxford |url=http://globalcanopy.org/sustainablelandscapes}}</ref>
Approaching conservation by means of landscapes can be seen as "a conceptual framework whereby [[Project stakeholder|stakeholder]]s in a landscape aim to reconcile competing social, economic and environmental objectives". Instead of focussing on a single use of the land it aims to ensure that the interests of different stakeholders are met.<ref name="LSLB"/>
The starting point for all landscape-scale conservation schemes must be an understanding of the character of the landscape. Landscape character goes beyond [[wikt:aesthetic|aesthetic]]. It involves understanding how the landscape functions to support communities, cultural heritage and development, the economy, as well as the wildlife and natural resources of the area. Landscape character requires careful assessment according to accepted methodologies. Landscape character assessment will contribute to the determination of what scale is appropriate in which landscape. "Landscape scale" does not merely mean acting at a bigger scale: it means conservation is carried out at the correct scale and that it takes into account the human elements of the landscape, both past and present.
== History ==
[[File:Schotse hooglander.JPG |thumb |[[Highland cattle|Highland cow]] helping to maintain the landscape near [[Hilversum]] in the Netherlands]]
The word 'landscape' in English is a loanword from [[Dutch language|Dutch]] ''landschap'' introduced in the 1660s and [[Landscape painting|originally meant a painting]]. The meaning a "tract of land with its distinguishing characteristics" was derived from that in 1886. This was then used as a verb as of 1916.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.etymonline.com/word/landscape |title=landscape {{!}} Origin and meaning of landscape |last=Harper |first=Douglas |date=2019 |website=Online Etymology Dictionary |publisher=Douglas Harper |access-date=24 October 2019}}</ref>
The German [[geographer]] [[Carl Troll]] coined the German term ''Landschaftsökologie''–thus '[[landscape ecology]]' in 1939.<ref>Troll, C. 1939. Luftbildplan und ökologische Bodenforschung (Aerial photography and ecological studies of the earth). Zeitschrift der Gesellschaft für Erdkunde, Berlin: 241-298.</ref> He developed this terminology and many early concepts of landscape ecology as part of this work, which consisted of applying [[aerial photograph]] interpretation to studies of interactions between environment, agriculture and vegetation.
In the UK conservation of landscapes can be said to have begun in 1945 with the publication of the ''Report to the Government on National Parks in England and Wales''. The [[National Parks and Access to the Countryside Act 1949]] introduced the legislation for the creation [[Areas of Outstanding Natural Beauty]] (AONB).<ref name="AONB story">{{cite web|url=http://www.landscapesforlife.org.uk/aonb-story.html|title=NAAONB|access-date=16 February 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170829080922/http://www.landscapesforlife.org.uk/aonb-story.html|archive-date=29 August 2017}}</ref><ref name=Gov>{{cite web|url= https://www.gov.uk/guidance/areas-of-outstanding-natural-beauty-aonbs-designation-and-management|title=Areas of outstanding natural beauty (AONBs): designation and management|work=gov.uk}}</ref> [[Northern Ireland]] has the same system after adoption of the Amenity Lands (NI) Act 1965.<ref>[http://www.doeni.gov.uk/niea/protected_areas_home/aonb.htm Northern Ireland Environment Agency] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140902035244/http://www.doeni.gov.uk/niea/protected_areas_home/aonb.htm |date=2 September 2014 }}</ref> The first of these AONB were defined in 1956, with the last being created in 1995.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tamarvalley.org.uk/about/what-is-the-tamar-valley-aonb/|title=Tamar Valley - What is the Tamar Valley AONB?|website=www.tamarvalley.org.uk|access-date=16 February 2018}}</ref>
The [[Permanent European Conference for the Study of the Rural Landscape]] was established in 1957.<ref>Baker, Alan R.H. (1988) Historical Geography and the Study of the European Rural Landscape. ''Geografiska Annaler'' 70B (1) 5-16.</ref><ref>Helmfrid, Staffan (2004) The Permanent European Conference and the Study of the Rural Landscape. In Palang, Hannes (red.) (2004). ''European rural landscapes: persistence and change in a globalising environment''. Boston: Kluwer Academic Publishers, p. 467 -</ref> The [[European Landscape Convention]] was initiated by the Congress of Regional and Local Authorities of the [[Council of Europe]] (CLRAE) in 1994, was adopted by the Committee of Ministers of the [[Council of Europe]] in 2000,<ref name="Explanatory Report">[http://conventions.coe.int/Treaty/en/Reports/Html/176.htm Explanatory Report], Art. 4.</ref> and came into force in 2004.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.coe.int/t/dg4/cultureheritage/heritage/Landscape/Publications/ATEP-93_bil.pdf |title= Eighth Council of Europe Workshops for the implementation of the European Landscape Convention, Landscape and driving forces |author = Council of Europe – Cultural heritage, Landscape and Spatial planning Division and Swedish National Heritage Board |date= 2009 | publisher= Malmö, Sweden | access-date = 7 July 2012}}</ref>
The conservation community began to take notice of the science of landscape ecology in the 1980s.<ref name="learning">{{cite journal |last1=Reed |first1=J. |last2=Van Vianen |first2=J. |last3=Deakin |first3=E. L. |last4=Barlow |first4=J. |last5=Sunderland |first5=T. |title=Integrated landscape approaches to managing social and environmental issues in the tropics: learning from the past to guide the future |journal=Global Change Biology |date=2016 |doi=10.1111/gcb.13284 |pmid=26990574 |volume=22 |issue=7 |pages=2540–2554|bibcode=2016GCBio..22.2540R |url=https://researchonline.jcu.edu.au/49345/1/49345_Reed%20et%20al_2016.pdf |doi-access=free }}</ref>
Efforts to develop concepts of landscape management that integrate international social and economic development with biodiversity conservation began in 1992.<ref name="learning" />
Landscape management now exists in multiple iterations and alongside other concepts<ref name="learning" /><ref name="Reed">{{cite journal |last1=Reed |first1=J. |last2=Deakin |first2=E. |last3=Sunderland |first3=T. |title=What are 'Integrated Landscape Approaches' and how effectively have they been implemented in the tropics: a systematic map protocol |journal=Environmental Evidence |date=2015 |volume=4 |issue=2 |url=http://www.cifor.org/library/5422/what-are-integrated-landscape-approaches-and-how-effectively-have-they-been-implemented-in-the-tropics-a-systematic-map-protocol/ |issn=2047-2382}}</ref><ref name="Scherr Shames Friedman 2013">{{cite journal |last1=Scherr |first1=Sara J. |last2=Shames |first2=S. |last3=Friedman |first3=R. |title=Defining Integrated Landscape Management for Policy Makers |journal=Ecoagriculture Policy Focus |date=2013 |issue=10 |url=http://ecoagriculture.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/DefiningILMforPolicyMakers.pdf}}</ref><ref name="Minang">{{cite book |last1=Minang |first1=P. A. |last2=van Noordwijk |first2=M. |last3=Freeman |first3=O. E. |last4=Mbow |first4=C. |last5=de Leeuw |first5=J. |last6=Catacutan |first6=D. |title=Climate-Smart Landscapes: Multifunctionality In Practice |date=2015 |publisher=World Agroforestry Center (ICRAF) |location=[[Nairobi]]}}</ref> such as [[watershed management]], [[landscape ecology]]<ref name="Sayer">{{cite journal |last1=Sayer |first1=J. |title=Reconciling conservation and development: are landscapes the answer? |journal=Biotropica |date=2009 |volume=41 |issue=6 |doi=10.1111/j.1744-7429.2009.00575.x |pages=649–652|s2cid=85171847 }}</ref> and [[cultural landscape]]s.<ref name=IIED>{{cite web |title=Indigenous Biocultural Territories |url=http://www.biocultural.iied.org/indigenous-biocultural-territories |publisher=IIED}}</ref><ref>UNESCO (2012) Operational Guidelines for the Implementation of the World Heritage Convention [https://whc.unesco.org/archive/opguide12-en.pdf]. UNESCO World Heritage Centre. Paris. Page 14.</ref>
==International==
The [[UN Environment Programme]] stated in 2015 that the landscape approach embodies [[ecosystem management]]. UNEP uses the approach with the Ecosystem Management of Productive Landscapes project.<ref name="UNEPEMPL">{{cite web|title=Ecosystems Management of Productive Landscapes |url=https://unepempl.wordpress.com/about/|publisher=UN Environment Programme |date=2015-04-08}}</ref> The scientific committee of the [[Convention on Biological Diversity]] also considers the perspective of a landscape the most important scale for improving sustainable use of biodiversity.<ref name="SBSTTA report">{{cite web|last1=Convention on Biological Diversity|first1=SBSTTA |title=Report on how to improve sustainable use of biodiversity in a landscape perspective (UNEP/CBD/SBSTTA/15/13)|url=https://www.cbd.int/doc/meetings/sbstta/sbstta-15/official/sbstta-15-13-en.pdf |website=Convention on Biological Diversity}}</ref> There are global fora on landscapes.<ref>{{cite web|title=Global Landscape Forum - the Investment Case speakers|url=http://www.landscapes.org/london-2016/speakers/|website=Global Landscape Forum}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=2014 Global Landscapes Forum Final Report|url=http://www.landscapes.org/publication/2014-global-landscapes-forum-final-report/|website=Global Landscapes Forum}}</ref> During the Livelihoods and Landscapes Strategies programme the [[International Union for Conservation of Nature]] applied this approach to locations worldwide, in 27 landscapes in 23 different countries.<ref>{{cite report |date=2012 |title=Livelihoods and Landscapes Strategy - Results and Reflections |url=https://cmsdata.iucn.org/downloads/lls_final_report_public_1.pdf |publisher=IUCN |page=4 |isbn=978-2-8317-1548-3 |access-date=20 October 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150417065128/https://cmsdata.iucn.org/downloads/lls_final_report_public_1.pdf |archive-date=17 April 2015 }}</ref>
Examples of landscape approaches can be global<ref name="Reed" /><ref name="Minang" /><ref>Landscapes for People Food and nature case studies http://peoplefoodandnature.org/analysis/all-publications/case-studies/</ref> or continental, for example in Africa,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Milder |first1=J C |last2=Hart |first2=A K |last3=Dobie |first3=P |last4=Minai |first4=J |last5=Zaleski |first5=C |title=Integrated landscape initiatives for African agriculture, development, and conservation: a region-wide assessment |journal=World Development |date=2014 |volume=54 |pages=68–80 |doi=10.1016/j.worlddev.2013.07.006}}</ref> Oceania<ref>{{cite web |url=https://livelihoodsandlandscapes.com/about/ |title=Livelihoods and Landscapes |author=<!--Not stated--> |publisher=Australian Centre for International Agriculture Research |access-date=20 October 2019}}</ref> and Latin America.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Estrada-Carmona |first1=N |last2=Hart |first2=A K |last3=Declerk |first3=F A J |last4=Harvey |first4=C A |last5=Milder |first5=J C |title=Integrated landscape management for agriculture, rural livelihoods, and ecosystem conservation: an assessment of experience from Latin America and the Caribbean |journal=Landscape and Urban Planning |date=2014 |volume=129 |pages=1–11 |doi=10.1016/j.landurbplan.2014.05.001|doi-access=free }}</ref> The [[European Agricultural Fund for Rural Development]] plays an important part in funding landscape conservation in Europe.<ref>Deutscher Verband für Landschaftspflege (DVL) e. V. (2008): Natur als Motor ländlicher Entwicklung, DVL Schriftenreihe „Landschaft als Lebensraum", Heft 14</ref>
=== Relevance to international commitments ===
Some argue landscape management can address the [[Sustainable Development Goals]].<ref name="learning" /><ref name="SDG briefing">{{cite press release |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |title=Integrated Landscape Management: The Means of Implementation for the Sustainable Development Goals - Policy Brief |url=http://peoplefoodandnature.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/ILM-for-the-SDGs-Two-Page-Statement-Sept-21-2015-FINAL-FINAL.pdf |agency=Landscapes for People Food and Nature |date=2015 |access-date=2019-10-19}}</ref><ref name="Reed J 2015">Reed J, van Vianen J, Sunderland T. 2015. From global complexity to local reality: Aligning implementation pathways for the Sustainable Development Goals and landscape approaches. Infobrief No. 129. Bogor, Indonesia: Center for International Forestry Research.</ref> Many of these goals have potential synergies or trade-offs: some therefore argue that addressing these goals individually may not be effective, and landscape approaches provide a potential framework to manage them. For example, increasing areas of irrigated agricultural land to end hunger could have adverse impacts on terrestrial ecosystems or sustainable water management.<ref name="Reed J 2015"/> Landscape approaches intend to include different sectors, and thus achieve the multiple objectives of the Sustainable Development Goals – for example, working within catchment area of a river to enhance agricultural productivity, flood defence, biodiversity and carbon storage.<ref name="LSLB" />
Climate change and agriculture are intertwined<ref>Beddington J, Asaduzzaman M, Fernandez A, Clark M, Guillou M, Jahn M, Erda L, Mamo T, Van Bo N, Nobre CA, Scholes R, Sharma R, Wakhungu J. 2011. Achieving food security in the face of climate change: Summary for policy makers from the Commission on Sustainable Agriculture and Climate Change. CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS), Copenhagen, Denmark https://cgspace.cgiar.org/bitstream/handle/10568/35589/climate_food_commission-final-mar2012.pdf?sequence=1,</ref> so production of food and climate mitigation can be a part of landscape management.<ref name="Smart ag">{{cite journal |last1=Scherr |first1=S |last2=Shames |first2=S |last3=Friedman |first3=R |title=From climate-smart agriculture to climate-smart landscapes |journal=Agriculture & Food Security |date=2012 |volume=1 |issue=12 |page=12 |doi=10.1186/2048-7010-1-12|doi-access=free }}</ref> The agricultural sector accounts for around 24% of [[Anthropogenic greenhouse gases|anthropogenic emissions]]. Unlike other sectors that emit greenhouse gases, agriculture and forestry have the potential to mitigate climate change by reducing or removing [[greenhouse gas emission]]s, for example by [[reforestation]] and landscape restoration.<ref>Smith P., M. Bustamante, H. Ahammad, H. Clark, H. Dong, E. A. Elsiddig, H. Haberl, R. Harper, J. House, M. Jafari, O. Masera, C. Mbow, N. H. Ravindranath, C. W. Rice, C. Robledo Abad, A. Romanovskaya, F. Sperling, and F. Tubiello, 2014: Agriculture, Forestry and Other Land Use (AFOLU). In: Climate Change 014: Mitigation of Climate Change. Contribution of Working Group III to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Edenhofer, O., R. Pichs-Madruga, Y. Sokona, E. Farahani, S. Kadner, K. Seyboth, A. Adler, I. Baum, S. Brunner, P. Eickemeier, B. Kriemann, J. Savolainen, S. Schlömer, C. von Stechow, T. Zwickel and J.C. Minx (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA.</ref> Advocates of landscape management argue that '[[climate-smart agriculture]]' and [[Reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation|REDD+]] can draw on landscape management.<ref name="Smart ag"/>
[[File:Kali_Gandaki_Valley227,_Nepal.JPG|thumb|upright|The marketing of products from specific landscapes can assist conservation. This is apple juice from [[Tukuche]] village in the [[Kali Gandaki Gorge]], [[Nepal]]]]
==Regional==
===Germany===
Because a large proportion of the biodiversity of Germany was able to invade from the south and east after human activities altered the landscape, maintaining such artificial landscapes is an integral part of nature conservation.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.lpv-augsburg.de/landschaftspflege/ |title=Landschaftspflege |author=<!--Not stated--> |website=Landschaftspflegeverband Stadt Augsburg |publisher=Landschaftspflegeverbands Augsburg |language=de |access-date=31 July 2013}}</ref> The full name of the main nature conservation law in Germany, the ''Bundesnaturschutzgesetzes'', is thus titled in its entirety ''Gesetz über Naturschutz und Landschaftspflege'',<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.buzer.de/gesetz/8972/index.htm |title=BNatSchG Bundesnaturschutzgesetz |author=<!--Not stated--> |date=2006 |publisher=Gesetz über Naturschutz und Landschaftspflege |language=de |access-date=19 October 2019}}</ref> where [[:de:Landschaftspflege|''Landschaftspflege'']] translates literally to "landscape maintenance" (see reference for more).<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.dict.cc/german-english/Landschaftspflege.html |title=Landschaftspflege |last=Hemetsberger |first=Paul |date=2019 |website=dict.cc English-German Dictionary |publisher=Paul Hemetsberger |access-date=19 October 2019}}</ref> Related concepts are [[:de:Landschaftsschutz|''Landschaftsschutz'']], "landscape protection/conservation",<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.dict.cc/?s=Landschaftsschutz |title=Landschaftsschutz |last=Hemetsberger |first=Paul |date=2019 |website=dict.cc English-German Dictionary |publisher=Paul Hemetsberger |access-date=19 October 2019}}</ref> and [[:de:Landschaftsschutzgebiet|''Landschaftsschutzgebiet'']], a "nature preserve", or literally a (legally) "protected landscape area".<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.dict.cc/german-english/Landschaftsschutzgebiet.html |title=Landschaftsschutzgebiet |last=Hemetsberger |first=Paul |date=2019 |website=dict.cc English-German Dictionary |publisher=Paul Hemetsberger |access-date=19 October 2019}}</ref> The ''[[:de:Deutscher Verband für Landschaftspflege|Deutscher Verband für Landschaftspflege]]'' is the main organisation which protects landscapes in Germany. It is an umbrella organisation which coordinates the regional landscape protection organisations of the different [[States of Germany|German states]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.lpv.de/ |title=Deutsche Verband für Landschaftspflege e.V. |author=<!--Not stated--> |date=2019 |publisher=Deutsche Verband für Landschaftspflege |access-date=20 October 2019}}</ref><ref name="DVL2000">{{cite book |date=2000 |title=Fortbildung zum Geprüften Natur- und Landschaftspfleger/zur Geprüften Natur und Landschaftspflegerin – Tätigkeit, Einsatzbereiche und Perspektiven in der Landschaftspflege, BfN-Skripten 24 |location=Bonn – Bad Godesberg |publisher=Deutscher Verband für Landschaftspflege (DVL) e. V. }}</ref> Classically, there are four methods which can be done in order to conserve landscapes:<ref>{{cite book |last=Hundsdorfer |first=M. |date=1988 |title=Studien zur Wirtschafts- und Organisationslehre der Landespflege Heft 2 - Aktive Landschaftspflege – Inhalte, Durchführung, Erhebung von Planungsdaten und Kostenkalkulation |location=Munich |publisher=Lehrstuhl für Wirtschaftslehre des Gartenbaues der TU München-Weihenstephan }}</ref><ref name="Jedicke96">Jedicke et al. (1996): Praktische Landschaftspflege – Grundlagen und Maßnahmen. Eugen Ulmer, Hohenheim</ref> maintenance,<ref name="DVL2000" /> improvement,<ref name="DVL2000" /> protection<ref name="DVL2000" /><ref name="Baals2010">Baals, C.(2010): Qualitätsmanagement in der aktiven Landschaftspflege – unter Berücksichtigung ihrer Entwicklung im Freistaat Bayern. Herbert Utz Verlag – Wissenschaft, München</ref> and redevelopment.<ref name="Baals2010" /> The marketing of products such as meat from alpine meadows or apple juice from traditional [[Orchard#Central Europe|''Streuobstwiese'']] can also be an important factor in conservation.<ref name="DVL2000" /> Landscapes are maintained by three methods: biological - such as [[conservation grazing|grazing by livestock]], manually (although this is rare due to the high cost of labour) and commonly mechanically.<ref name="Jedicke96"/>
===The Netherlands===
{{multiple image
|image1 =HYMAC 370C.FR.jpg
|image2 =EresusSandaliatusHogeVeluwe.JPG
|footer=The ladybird spider, ''[[Eresus sandaliatus]]'' lives on inland shifting [[dunes]], created by [[deforestation|forest clearance]] and [[overgrazing]] on poor, sandy soils. Today [[backhoe loader]]s can scrape off topsoil, maintaining the low-nutrient soil that such heath and dune species need.<ref>{{cite report |author=Michel Riksen |author2=Laurens Sparrius |author3=Marijn Nijssen |author4=Marcel d'Anjou |date=2011 |title=Stuifzanden Advies voor beheer en herstel van stuifzanden |url=https://www.natuurkennis.nl/Uploaded_files/Publicaties/obn-brochure-stuifzanden.4f9fea.pdf |publisher=Kennisnetwerk Ontwikkeling + Beheer Natuurkwaliteit (O+BN) |page=22 |language=nl |access-date=21 October 2019}}</ref>
}}
''Staatsbosbeheer'', the Dutch governmental forest service, considers landscape management an important part of managing their lands.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.staatsbosbeheer.nl/over-staatsbosbeheer/dossiers/landschap/visie-en-beleid |title=Visie en beleid Landschap |author=<!--Not stated--> |date=2019 |publisher=Staatsbosbeheer |language=nl |access-date=17 October 2019 |quote=Landschappelijk en cultuurhistorische beheer heeft daarmee een volwaardige plaats in ons terreinbeheer.}}</ref><ref>{{cite report |author=Moniek Nooren |date=March 2006 |title=Landschap leeft! Visie op ontwikkeling en beheer van het landschap bij Staatsbosbeheer |url=https://www.staatsbosbeheer.nl/-/media/08-dossiers/landschap/visie-landschap-leeft.pdf?la=nl-nl&hash=DC9F5CE7866FB6B75B6BD39A88F1EB0DC4D4E944 |publisher=Staatsbosbeheer |pages=1–40 |language=nl |access-date=17 October 2019}}</ref> [[:nl:Landschapsbeheer Nederland|''Landschapsbeheer Nederland'']] is an umbrella organisation which promotes and helps fund the interests of the different provincial landscape management organisations, which between them include 75,000 volunteers and 110,000 hectares of protected nature reserves.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.landschappen.nl/organisatie/over-landschappennl/ |title=Over LandschappenNL |date=2019 |publisher=LandschappenNL |language=nl |access-date=17 October 2019}}</ref> Sustainable landscape management is being researched in the Netherlands.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.vhluniversity.com/research/delta-areas-and-resources-applied-research-centre/sustainable-landscape-management |title=Sustainable Landscape Management |author=<!--Not stated--> |publisher=Van Hall Larenstein |access-date=17 October 2019}}</ref>
===Peru===
An example of a producer movement managing a multi-functional landscape is the Potato Park in [[Pisac District|Písac]], Peru, where local communities protect the ecological and cultural diversity of the 12,000ha landscape.<ref name="Hart"/><ref name=IIED/>
[[File:Papa andina.jpg|thumb|A variety of Peruvian potatoes from the [[Andes]]]]
===Sweden===
{{See also |Agricultural landscape of southern Öland}}
In Sweden, the Swedish National Heritage Board, or ''Riksantikvarieämbetet'', is responsible for landscape conservation.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.raa.se/kulturarv/landskap/landskapsvard/ |title=Landskapsvård |author=<!--Not stated--> |publisher=Riksantikvarieämbetet |language=sv |access-date=17 October 2019}}</ref> Landscape conservation can be studied at the Department of Cultural Conservation (at [[:sv:Dacapo|Dacapo Mariestad]]) of the University of Gothenburg, in both Swedish and English.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://utbildning.gu.se/program/programinriktning/?programid=N1TLH |title=Trädgårdens och landskapsvårdens hantverk, kandidatprogram, 180 hp |author=<!--Not stated--> |publisher=Göteborgs Universitetet |language=sv |access-date=17 October 2019}}</ref>
===Thailand===
An example of cooperation between very different actors is from the [[Doi Mae Salong]] watershed in northwest Thailand, a Military Reserved Area under the control of the [[Royal Thai Armed Forces]]. Reforestation activities led to tension with local [[Hill tribe (Thailand)|hill tribes]]. In response, an agreement was reached with them on land rights and use of different parts of the reserve.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Fisher |first1=R J |last2=Kugel |first2=C |last3=Rattanasorn |first3=T |title=Unusual partnerships: lessons for landscapes and livelihoods from the Doe Mae Salong landscape, Thailand. |url=https://portals.iucn.org/library/node/10215 |website=IUCN |isbn=978-2-8317-1498-1 |year=2012}}</ref>
{{wide image|2014 June 1, Mae Fa Luang District.jpg|750px|[[Doi Mae Salong]] landscape in Thailand is managed by agreement between the [[Royal Thai Armed Forces|army]] and local [[Hill tribe (Thailand)|hill tribes]].}}
===United Kingdom===
Among the leading exponents of UK landscape scale conservation are the [[Areas of Outstanding Natural Beauty]] (AONB). There are 49 AONB in the UK. The [[International Union for Conservation of Nature]] has categorised these regions as "category 5 protected areas" and in 2005 claimed the AONB are administered using what the IUCN coined the "protected landscape approach".<ref name="Phillips 2005">"Protected Areas in the United Kingdom" by Phillips, A. and Partington, R. in "The Protected Landscape Approach: Linking Nature, Culture and Community" Brown, J, Mitchell, N & Beresford, M (Eds) (2005) IUCN, Gland, Switzerland. pp 119-130.</ref> In Scotland there is a similar system of [[national scenic area]]s.<ref name=SNH>{{cite web|url=https://www.nature.scot/professional-advice/safeguarding-protected-areas-and-species/protected-areas/national-designations/national-scenic-areas/|title=National Scenic Areas|publisher=Scottish Natural Heritage|access-date=2018-01-17}}</ref>
The UK [[Biodiversity Action Plan]] protects semi-natural grasslands, among other habitats, which constitute landscapes maintained by [[extensive agriculture|low-intensity grazing]]. Agricultural environment schemes reward farmers and land managers financially for maintaining these habitats on registered agricultural land. Each of the four
countries in the UK has its own individual scheme.<ref>{{cite report |author=James M. Bullock |author2=Richard G. Jefferson |author3=Tim H. Blackstock |author4=Robin J. Pakeman |author5=Bridget A. Emmett |author6=Richard J. Pywell |author7=J. Philip Grime |author8=Jonathan Silvertown |date=June 2011 |title=UK National Ecosystem Assessment: Technical Report |url=http://uknea.unep-wcmc.org/ |chapter=Chapter 6 - Semi-natural Grasslands |chapter-url=http://uknea.unep-wcmc.org/LinkClick.aspx?fileticket=Y4pLIpagaf0%3d&tabid=82 |publisher=UN Environment Programme World Conservation Monitoring Centre |pages=162, 165, 167 |access-date=17 October 2019}}</ref>
Studies have been carried out across the UK looking at much wider range of habitats. In [[Wales]] the [[Plynlimon|Pumlumon]] Large Area Conservation Project focusses on upland conservation in areas of marginal agriculture and forestry.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.montwt.co.uk/pumlumon.html|title = Pumlumon Project | Montgomeryshire Wildlife Trust}}</ref> The North [[Somerset]] Levels and [[moorland|Moors]] Project addresses wetlands.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.avonwildlifetrust.org.uk/level1/level2/project_nslm.htm |title=North Somerset Levels and Moors Project |access-date=2007-03-28 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070428170209/http://www.avonwildlifetrust.org.uk/level1/level2/project_nslm.htm |archive-date=2007-04-28 }}</ref>
===Other===
[[File:Kiiji, Haratani village 02.jpg|thumb|The landscape to the left is known as ''[[satoyama]]''; a traditional human-influenced secondary forest bordering agricultural fields in Japan. The [[Satoyama#Conservation|''satoyama'' conservation movement]] spread in the 1980s in Japan and by 2001 there were more than 500 environmental groups involved.<ref>Takeuchi Kazuhiko, Wahitani Izumi and Tsunekawa Atsushi (2001). Satoyama: The Traditional Rural Landscape of Japan. University Tokyo Press 133–135 {{ISBN|4-13-060301-9}}</ref>]]
Landscape approaches have been taken up by governments in for example the [[Greater Mekong Subregion]] project<ref name="GMS BLL">{{cite web|title=Biodiversity Landscapes and Livelihoods|url=http://www.gms-eoc.org/biodiversity-conservation-corridors-initiative|website=Greater Mekong Subregion - Core Environment Program}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=GMS Workshop on Landscape Approaches|url=http://www.gms-eoc.org/events/gms-workshop-on-landscape-approaches|website=Greater Mekong Subregion - Core Environment Program}}</ref> and in Indonesia's [[Paris Agreement|climate change commitments]],<ref name="IINDC">{{cite web |last1=Republic of Indonesia |title=Intended Nationally Determined Contribution |url=http://www4.unfccc.int/submissions/INDC/Published%20Documents/Indonesia/1/INDC_REPUBLIC%20OF%20INDONESIA.pdf |date=2015 |website=UNFCCC submissions}}</ref> and by international research bodies such as the [[Center for International Forestry Research]],<ref name="CIFOR landscapes pg">{{cite web |last1=Center for International Forestry Research (CIFOR)|url=http://www.cifor.org/sustainable-landscapes/ |website=Sustainable Landscapes|title=Sustainable Landscapes}}</ref> which convenes the Global Landscapes Forum.<ref name="GLF homepage">{{cite web|url=http://www.landscapes.org/|website=Global Landscapes Forum |title=Home}}</ref>
The [[Mount Kailash]] region is where the [[Indus River]], the [[Karnali River]] (a major tributary of the [[Ganges River]]), the [[Brahmaputra River]] and the [[Sutlej]] river systems originate. With assistance from the International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development, the three surrounding countries (China, India and Nepal) developed an integrated management approach to the different conservation and development issues within this landscape.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Wallrapp |first1=C |title=Transboundary landscape management in the Kailash Sacred Landscape |url=http://peoplefoodandnature.org/blog/transboundary-landscape-management-in-the-kailash-sacred-landscape/ |publisher=Landscapes for People Food and Nature |date=2015-12-03}}</ref>
Six countries in [[West Africa]] in the [[Volta River]] basin using the 'Mapping Ecosystems Services to Human well-being' toolkit, use landscape modelling of alternative scenarios for the riparian buffer to make land-use decisions such as conserving hydrological [[ecosystem services]] and meeting national [[Sustainable development goals|SDG commitments]].<ref>{{cite web |last1=Wood |first1=S |last2=Jones |first2=S |title=Balancing multiple SDG-related outcomes of riparian buffers in the Volta Basin |url=http://peoplefoodandnature.org/blog/balancing-multiple-sdg-related-outcomes-of-riparian-buffers-in-the-volta-basin/ |publisher=Landscapes for People Food and Nature |date=2015-11-27}}</ref>
==Variations==
===Ecoagriculture===
In a 2001 article published by Sara J. Scherr and Jeffrey McNeely,<ref name=McNeely2001>{{cite book |last1=McNeely |first1=Jeffrey A. |last2=Scherr |first2=Sara J. |title=Common Ground, Common Future |date=2001 |url=http://www.ecoagriculturepartners.org/documents/reports/FinalPrintingReport2.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080516213355/http://www.ecoagriculturepartners.org/documents/reports/FinalPrintingReport2.pdf |archive-date=2008-05-16 }}</ref> soon expanded into a book,<ref name=McNeely2003>{{cite book |last1=McNeely |first1=Jeffrey A. |last2=Scherr |first2=Sara J. |title=Ecoagriculture: Strategies to Feed the World and Save Wild Biodiversity |publisher=[[Island Press]] |date=2003 |isbn=978-1-55963-645-2 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/ecoagriculturest0000mcne }}</ref> Scherr and McNeely introduced the term "ecoagriculture" to describe their vision of rural development while advancing the environment, claim that agriculture is the dominant influence on wild species and habitats, and point to a number of recent and potential future developments they identified as beneficial examples of land use.<ref name=McNeely2001/><ref name=Scherr2013>{{cite journal |last1=Scherr |first1=Sara J. |last2=Shames |first2=S. |last3=Friedman |first3=R. |title=Defining Integrated Landscape Management for Policy Makers |journal=Ecoagriculture Policy Focus |date=2013 |issue=10 |url=http://ecoagriculture.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/DefiningILMforPolicyMakers.pdf}}</ref> They incorporated the non-profit [[EcoAgriculture Partners]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ecoagriculture.org |title=EcoAgriculture Partners |access-date=14 October 2019}}</ref> in 2004 to promote this vision, with Scherr as President and CEO, and McNeely as an independent governing board member. Scherr and McNeely edited a second book in 2007.<ref name="Scherr 2007">{{cite book | last=Scherr | first=Sara | title=Farming with nature: the science and practice of ecoagriculture | publisher=[[Island Press]] | location=Washington | year=2007 | isbn=978-1-59726-128-9 | oclc=427509919 }}</ref> Ecoagriculture had three elements in 2003.<ref name=McNeely2003/>
===Integrated landscape management===
In 2012 Scherr invented a new term, integrated landscape management(ILM), to describe her ideas for developing entire regions, not at just a farm or plot level.<ref name=Scherr2013/><ref name="LSLB"/> Integrated landscape management is a way of managing [[sustainable]] landscapes by bringing together multiple stakeholders with different land use objectives. The integrated approach claims to go beyond other approaches which focus on users of the land independently of each other, despite needing some of the same resources.<ref name="LSLB" /> It is promoted by the conservation NGOs [[Worldwide Fund for Nature]], Global Canopy Programme, [[The Nature Conservancy]], The Sustainable Trade Initiative, and EcoAgriculture Partners.<ref name="LSLB" /> Promoters claim that integrated landscape management will maximise collaboration in planning, policy development and action regarding the interdependent [[Sustainable Development Goals]].<ref name="SDG briefing" /> It was defined by four elements in 2013:<ref name="Scherr">{{cite journal|last1=Scherr|first1=S J|last2=Shames|first2=S|last3=Friedman|first3=R|title=Defining Integrated Landscape Management for Policy Makers|journal=Ecoagriculture Policy Focus|date=2013|issue=10|url=http://ecoagriculture.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/DefiningILMforPolicyMakers.pdf}}</ref>
# Large scale: It plans land uses at the landscape scale. Wildlife population dynamics and watershed functions can only be understood at the landscape scale. Assuming short-term trade-offs may lead to long-term synergies, conducting analyses over long time periods is advocated.
# Emphasis on synergies: It tries to exploit "synergies" among conservation, agricultural production, and rural livelihoods.
# Emphasis on collaboration: It can not be achieved by individuals. The management of landscapes require different land managers with different environmental and socio-economic goals to achieve conservation, production, and livelihood goals at a landscape scale.
# Importance of both conservation and agricultural production: bringing conservation into the agricultural and rural development discourse by highlighting the importance of ecosystem services in supporting agricultural production. It supports conservationists to more effectively conserve nature within and outside protected areas by working with the agricultural community by developing conservation-friendly livelihoods for rural land users.
By 2016 it had five elements, namely:
# stakeholders come together for cooperative dialogue and action;
# they exchange information systematically and discuss perspectives to achieve a shared understanding of the landscape conditions, challenges and opportunities;
# collaborative planning to develop an agreed action plan;
# implementation of the plan;
# monitoring and dialogue to adapt management.<ref name="LSLB"/>
===Ecosystem approach===
The [[ecosystem approach]], promoted by the [[Convention on Biological Diversity]], is a strategy for the integrated [[ecosystem management]] of land, water, and living resources for conservation and sustainability.<ref>{{cite web|title=Ecosystem Approach Introduction|date=23 August 2021|url=https://www.cbd.int/ecosystem/|publisher=CBD}}</ref>
===Ten Principles===
This approach includes continual learning and [[adaptive management]]: including monitoring, the expectation that actions take place at multiple scales and that landscapes are multifunctional (e.g. supplying both goods, such as timber and food, and services, such as water and biodiversity protection). There are multiple stakeholders, and it assumes they have a common concern about the landscape, negotiate change with each other, and their rights and responsibilities are clear or will become clear.<ref name="Ten P">{{cite journal|last1=Sayer|first1=J|last2=Sunderland|first2=T|last3=Ghazoul|first3=J|display-authors=etal|title=Ten principles for a landscape approach to reconciling agriculture, conservation, and other competing land uses|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA|date=2013|volume=110|issue=21|pages=8349–8356|doi=10.1073/pnas.1210595110|pmid=23686581|url=http://www.cifor.org/publications/pdf_files/articles/ASunderland1302.pdf|pmc=3666687|bibcode=2013PNAS..110.8349S|doi-access=free}}</ref>
==Criticisms==
A literature review identified five main barriers, as follows:<ref name="learning" />
# Terminology confusion: the variety of definitions creates confusion and resistance to engage. This resistance has emerged, often independently, from different fields.<ref name="Reed" /><ref name="learning" /> As stated by Scherr ''et al''.: "People are talking about the same thing ... This can lead to fragmentation of knowledge, unnecessary re-invention of ideas and practices, and inability to mobilize action at scale. ... this rich diversity is often simply overwhelming: they receive confusing messages"<ref name="Scherr" /> This problem is not unique to landscape approaches: since the 1970s it has been recognised that the constant emergence of new terminology can be harmful if they promote rhetoric at the expense of action.<ref name="ODI">{{cite journal|last1=Overseas Development Institute|title=Integrated Rural Development|journal=ODI Briefing Paper|date=1979|issue=4|url=https://www.odi.org/sites/odi.org.uk/files/odi-assets/publications-opinion-files/6626.pdf}}</ref> Because landscapes approaches develop from, and aim to integrate, a wide variety of sectors, makes it vulnerable to overlapping definitions and parallel concepts.<ref name="Scherr" /> Like other approaches to conservation, it may be a fad.<ref name="fads">{{cite journal|last1=Redford|first1=K|last2=Padoch|first2=C|last3=Sunderland|first3=T|title=Fads, funding and forgetting in three decades of conservation|journal=Conservation Biology|date=2013|volume=27|issue=3|pages=437–438|doi=10.1111/cobi.12071|pmid=23692015|doi-access=free}}</ref>
# Time lags: substantial time and resources are invested in developing and planning, while resources are inadequate for implementation.<ref name="learning" /><ref name="Sayer" />
# Operating silos: Each sector pursues its goals without giving consideration to the others. This may arise because of a lack in established objectives, operating norms and funding that effectively bridge different sectors.<ref name="learning" /> Working across sectors at the landscape scale requires a range of skills, different from those traditionally used by conservation organisations.<ref name="Sayer" />
# Engagement: Stakeholders may not desire to be engaged in the process,<ref name="LSLB" /><ref name="Reed" /> engagement may be trivial or inaccessible,<ref name="learning" /> and the discussions may hinder efficient decision-making.<ref name="LSLB" />
# Monitoring: There is lack of monitoring to check whether the objectives have been achieved.<ref name="learning" />
==See also==
{{Portal|Agriculture and Agronomy|Agropedia|Earth sciences|Ecology|Trees}}
* [[Agriculture in Concert with the Environment]]
* [[Agroecology]]
* [[Agroforestry]]
* [[Anthropogenic biome]]
* [[Conservation development]]
* [[Ecosystem approach]]
* [[Global biodiversity]]
* [[Landscape ecology]]
* [[Multifunctional landscape]]
* [[Working landscape]]
* [[Landscape Institute]]
* [[Landscape urbanism]]
* [[Polder model]]
* [[Sustainable forest management]]
* [[Sustainable landscaping]]
* [[Topocide]]
* [[Watershed management]]
==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}
==External links==
*[http://www.civilscape.eu/ CIVILSCAPE - We are the landscape people!] (CIVILSCAPE)
*[http://www.landscape-europe.net/index.php/home Landscape Europe]
*[http://landscapecharacter.org.uk/ Landscape Character Network]
{{conservation of species}}
{{Sustainability}}
{{Authority control}}
[[Category:Landscape ecology]]
[[Category:Natural resource management]]
[[Category:Sustainable design]]
[[Category:Environmental conservation]] |
Latent extinction risk | In [[conservation biology]], '''latent extinction risk''' is a measure of the potential for a species to become threatened.
Latent risk can most easily be described as the difference, or discrepancy, between the current observed extinction risk of a species (typically as quantified by the [[IUCN Red List]]) and the theoretical extinction risk of a species predicted by its biological or [[Biological life cycle|life history]] characteristics.<ref name="10.1073/pnas.0510541103">{{citation|last1=Cardillo|first1=M.|last2=Mace|first2=G. M.|last3=Gittleman|first3=J. L.|last4=Purvis|first4=A.|title=Latent extinction risk and the future battlegrounds of mammal conservation|year=2006|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|volume=103|issue=11|pages=4157–61|doi=10.1073/pnas.0510541103|pmid=16537501|pmc=1449663|bibcode=2006PNAS..103.4157C|doi-access=free}}.</ref>
==Calculation==
Because latent risk is the discrepancy between current and predicted risks, estimates of both of these values are required (See [[population modeling]] and [[population dynamics]]). Once these values are known, the latent extinction risk can be calculated as ''Predicted Risk - Current Risk = Latent Extinction Risk.''
When the latent extinction risk is a positive value, it indicates that a species is currently less threatened than its biology would suggest it ought to be. For example, a species may have several of the characteristics often found in threatened species, such as large body size, small geographic distribution, or low reproductive rate, but still be rated as "least concern" in the IUCN Red List. This may be because it has not yet been exposed to serious threatening processes such as [[Habitat conservation|habitat degradation]].
Conversely, negative values of latent risk indicate that a species is already more threatened than its biology would indicate, probably because it inhabits a part of the world where it has been exposed to extreme endangering processes. Species with severely low negative values are usually listed as an [[endangered species]] and have associated recovery and conservation plans.<ref name="10.1073/pnas.0510541103" />
==Limits==
One of the issues associated with latent extinction risk is its difficulty to calculate because of the limited availability of data for predicting extinction risk across large numbers of species. Hence, the only study of latent risk to date <ref name="10.1073/pnas.0510541103" /> has focused on mammals, which are one of the best-studied groups of organisms.
==Effects on conservation==
A study of latent extinction risk in mammals identified a number of "hotspots" where the average value of latent risk for mammal species was unusually high.<ref name="10.1073/pnas.0510541103" /> This study suggested that these areas represented an opportunity for proactive conservation efforts, because these could become the "future battlegrounds of mammal conservation" if levels of human impact increase. Unexpectedly, the hotspots of mammal latent risk include large areas of Arctic America, where overall mammal diversity is not high, but where many species have the kind of biological traits (such as large body size and slow reproductive rate) that could render them extinction-prone. Another notable region of high latent risk for mammals is the island chain of Indonesia and Melanesia, where there are large numbers of restricted-range endemic species.
Because it is much more cost-effective to prevent species declines before they happen than to attempt to rescue species from the brink of extinction, latent risk hotspots could form part of a global scheme to prioritize areas for conservation effort, together with other kinds of priority areas such as biodiversity hotspots.
<ref>{{citation|last1=Cardillo|first1=M.|first2=G. M.|last2=Mace|first3=K. E.|last3=Jones|first4=J.|last4=Bielby|first5=O. R. P.|last5=Bininda-Emonds|first6=W.|last6=Sechrest|first7=C. D. L.|last7=Orme|first8=A.|last8=Purvis|title=Multiple causes of high extinction risk in large mammal species|year=2005|journal=Science|volume=309|issue=5738|pages=1239–41|doi=10.1126/science.1116030|pmid=16037416|bibcode=2005Sci...309.1239C|citeseerx=10.1.1.327.7340|s2cid=378183}}.</ref><ref>{{citation|last1=McKenzie|first1=N. L.|first2=A. A.|last2=Burbidge|first3=A.|last3=Baynes|first4=R. N.|last4=Brereton|first5=C. R.|last5=Dickman|first6=G.|last6=Gordon|first7=L. A.|last7=Gibson|first8=P. W.|last8=Menkhorst|first9=A. C.|last10=Williams|first10=M. R.|last11=Woinarski|first11=J. C. Z.|last9=Robinson|title=Analysis of factors implicated in the recent decline of Australia's mammal fauna|year=2007|journal=Journal of Biogeography|volume=34|issue=4|pages=597–611|doi=10.1111/j.1365-2699.2006.01639.x|s2cid=84254399 |display-authors=8}}.</ref>
==References==
{{reflist}}
{{Extinction}}
{{Threatened species}}
{{Conservation of species}}
[[Category:Ecological metrics]]
[[Category:Extinction]]
[[Category:Environmental conservation]] |
Community-based conservation | {{Short description|Conservation movement emerging in the 1980s}}
'''Community-based conservation''' is a [[conservation movement]] that emerged in the 1980s, in response to escalating protests and subsequent dialogue with local communities affected by international attempts to protect the [[biodiversity]] of the earth. These contentions were a reaction against traditional 'top down' conservation practices, whereby governments or large organisations exert control at a local level, which were perceived as disregarding the interests of local inhabitants.<ref>Brockington, D. (2002) Fortress Conservation: The Preservation of the Mkomazi Game Reserve, Tanzania. International African Institute, Oxford( {{ISBN|0-253-34079-9}})</ref> This stems from the [[Western culture|Western]] idea on which the conservation movement was founded, of [[nature]] being separate from [[culture]]. The objective of community-based conservation is to actively involve and give some control to members of local communities in conservation efforts which may affect them, and incorporate improvement to the lives of local people while conserving areas through the creation of national parks or wildlife refuges.<ref>Gezon, Lisa. (1997) Institutional structure and the effectiveness of integrated conservation and development projects: case study from Madagascar, Human Organization 56(4), pp. 462–470 (ISSN 0093-2930)</ref>
==History==
The conflicts that led to the growth of community-based conservation are indicative of the historical connection between European colonialism and 'classical' conservation. The classical 'national park' model of conservation, first established through the creation of Yellowstone National Park in 1872 and Yosemite National Park in 1890, aimed to preserve what European settlers perceived as 'pristine natural wilderness'. However, this perception largely ignored the widespread anthropogenic changes to these landscapes generated by indigenous land management, and also justified the expulsion of those indigenous peoples. <ref>Cholchester, M. (2004) Conservation Policy and Indigenous Peoples. Environmental Science & Policy 7(3), pp.145-153</ref> Thus, classical conservation created protected areas based on a highly exclusionary model of protectionism, with an estimated 20 million people displaced from their land.<ref>Veit, P. G., Benson, C. (2004) When Parks and People Collide. Carnegie Council for Ethics in International Affairs. 16 Oct. 2009</ref> This conservation strategy was used widely until the 1970s when indigenous people started to fight for their rights and land. In 1975 the [[International Union for Conservation of Nature]] (IUCN) and the World Parks Congress recognized the rights of indigenous people and to recognize their rights of the protected areas.<ref>Cholchester, M. (2004) Conservation Policy and Indigenous Peoples. Environmental Science & Policy 7(3), pp.145-153</ref> More policy changes came about that increased the rights of indigenous people. Community-based conservation came into action from these changes.
==Strategies==
One strategy of community-based conservation is co-management or joint management of a protected area. Co-management combines local peoples’ [[traditional knowledge]] of the environment with modern scientific knowledge of scientists.<ref>WPC Recommendation 25 Co-management of Protected Areas, World Parks Congress (2003) {{cite web |url=http://www.cceia.org/resources/publications/dialogue/2_11/section_2/4449.html |title=Archived copy |accessdate=2009-12-11 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20060927164214/http://www.cceia.org/resources/publications/dialogue/2_11/section_2/4449.html |archivedate=2006-09-27 }}</ref><ref>Child, B.;Jones, B. (2006), Practical tools for community conservation in southern Africa, Participatory Learning and Action 55 (ISSN 1357-938X)
</ref> This combination of knowledge can lead to increased biodiversity and better management of the protected area.
After thoroughly researching an area, having a solid grasp of the ecosystem can result in different strategies to pursue. Engaging the community is crucial, including building partnerships with scientists, researchers, students, children, parents, and government officials etc. It is important to take into account power dynamics within networks and among groups at various levels of organization, as well as considerations of global and local commons, in order to adequately address biodiversity and livelihood needs.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Berkes |first=Fikret |date=2007-09-25 |title=Community-based conservation in a globalized world |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0702098104 |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume=104 |issue=39 |pages=15188–15193 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0702098104 |issn=0027-8424|pmc=2000555 }}</ref>
==See also==
*[[Community-based management]]
*[[Conservation community]]
*[[Indigenous and community conserved area]]
*[[Communal Wildlife Conservancies in Namibia]]
==References==
{{Reflist}}
{{Conservation of species}}
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
[[Category:Community]] |
Subnational rank | '''SRANK''' or '''Subnational Rank''' seeks to ascertain the rarity of [[species]] within subnational boundaries (such as a [[province]] or [[State (administrative division)|state]]).
Below is the ranking definitions used by the [[Ontario]] [[Ministry of Natural Resources (Ontario)|Ministry of Natural Resources]], and will vary by province or state. This ranking system is widely used by the conservation data centres in each of the provinces and states. Refer to NatureServe for the overall ranking system used by conservation data centres (CDCs) across North America as well as the actual S-ranks of all the species evaluated. OMNR is one such CDC.
* '''SX — Presumed Extirpated''' Species or community is believed to be extirpated from the province or state. Not located despite intensive searches of historical sites and other appropriate habitat, and virtually no likelihood that it will be rediscovered.
* '''SH — Possibly Extirpated (Historical)''' Species or community occurred historically in the province or state, and there is some possibility that it may be rediscovered. Its presence may not have been verified in the past 20–40 years. A species or community could become SH without such a 20-40 year delay if the only known occurrences in a province or state were destroyed or if it had been extensively and unsuccessfully looked for. The SH rank is reserved for species or communities for which some effort has been made to relocate occurrences, rather than simply using this status for all elements not known from verified extant occurrences.
* '''S1 — Critically Imperiled''' Critically imperiled in the province or state because of extreme rarity (often 5 or fewer occurrences) or because of some factor(s) such as very steep declines making it especially vulnerable to extirpation from the province or state.
* '''S2 — Imperiled''' Imperiled in the province or state because of rarity due to very restricted range, very few populations (often 20 or fewer), steep declines, or other factors making it very vulnerable to extirpation from the province or state.
* '''S3 — Vulnerable''' Vulnerable in the province or state due to a restricted range, relatively few populations (often 80 or fewer), recent and widespread declines, or other factors making it vulnerable to extirpation.
* '''S4 — Apparently Secure''' Uncommon but not rare; some cause for long-term concern due to declines or other factors.
* '''S5 — Secure''' Common, widespread, and abundant in the state or province.
* '''SNR — Unranked''' Province or state conservation status not yet assessed.
* '''SU — Unrankable''' Currently unrankable due to lack of information or due to substantially conflicting information about status or trends.
* '''SNA — Not Applicable''' A conservation status rank is not applicable because the species is not a suitable target for conservation activities.
* '''S#S# — Range Rank''' A numeric range rank (e.g., S2S3) is used to indicate any range of uncertainty about the status of the species or community. Ranges cannot skip more than one rank (e.g., SU is used rather than S1S4).
A similar ranking system is used for the "G-ranks" and "N-ranks" which are the Global (G) and National (N) status ranks for species. Again refer to NatureServe.org for additional details.
== External links ==
* [http://www.mnr.gov.on.ca/MNR/index.html Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources (OMNR)/ ''Ministère des richesses naturelles de l'Ontario (MRNO)'']
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060615010752/http://nhic.mnr.gov.on.ca/nhic_.cfm OMNR Natural Heritage Information Centre / ''MRNO Centre d'information des heritages naturelles'']
* Nature Serve www.natureserve.org
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
[[Category:Population ecology]] |
Biodiversity hotspot | {{Short description|Biodiverse region under threat}}
A '''biodiversity hotspot''' is a [[ecoregion|biogeographic region]] with significant levels of [[biodiversity]] that is threatened by human habitation.<ref name=hotspots>{{cite web|url=http://www.bsienvis.nic.in/Database/Biodiversity-Hotspots-in-India_20500.aspx|title=Biodiversity Hotspots in India|website=www.bsienvis.nic.in}}</ref><ref name=conservation>{{cite web|url=http://www.conservation.org/How/Pages/Hotspots.aspx|title=Why Hotspots Matter|website=Conservation International}}</ref> [[Norman Myers]] wrote about the concept in two articles in ''The Environmentalist'' in 1988 <ref>{{cite journal|last=Myers|first=N.|journal=Environmentalist|volume=8|pages=187–208|year=1988|title=Threatened biotas: "Hot spots" in tropical forests|issue=3|doi=10.1007/BF02240252|pmid=12322582|bibcode=1988ThEnv...8..187M |s2cid=2370659}}</ref> and 1990,<ref>Myers, N. The Environmentalist 10 243-256 (1990)</ref> after which the concept was revised following thorough analysis by Myers and others into “Hotspots: Earth’s Biologically Richest and Most Endangered Terrestrial Ecoregions”<ref>Russell A. Mittermeier, Norman Myers and Cristina Goettsch Mittermeier, ''Hotspots: Earth's Biologically Richest and Most Endangered Terrestrial Ecoregions,'' Conservation International, 2000 {{ISBN|978-968-6397-58-1}}</ref> and a paper published in the journal ''Nature'', both in 2000.<ref name="MyersMittermeier2000"/>
To qualify as a biodiversity hotspot on Myers' 2000 edition of the hotspot map, a region must meet two strict criteria: it must contain at least 1,500 species of [[vascular plant]]s (more than 0.5% of the world's total) as [[Endemism|endemics]], and it has to have lost at least 70% of its primary vegetation.<ref name="MyersMittermeier2000">{{cite journal|last1=Myers|first1=Norman|last2=Mittermeier|first2=Russell A.|last3=Mittermeier|first3=Cristina G.|last4=da Fonseca|first4=Gustavo A. B.|last5=Kent|first5=Jennifer|journal=Nature|volume=403|issue=6772|year=2000|pages=853–858|title=Biodiversity hotspots for conservation priorities|url=https://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v403/n6772/pdf/403853a0.pdf|issn=0028-0836|doi=10.1038/35002501|pmid=10706275|bibcode=2000Natur.403..853M|s2cid=4414279}}</ref> Globally, 36 zones qualify under this definition.<ref name="auto">{{cite web|title=Biodiversity hotspots defined|url=https://www.cepf.net/our-work/biodiversity-hotspots/hotspots-defined|website=Critical Ecosystem Partnership Fund|publisher=Conservation International|access-date=10 August 2020}}</ref> These sites support nearly 60% of the world's plant, bird, mammal, reptile, and amphibian [[species]], with a high share of those species as endemics. Some of these hotspots support up to 15,000 endemic plant species, and some have lost up to 95% of their natural habitat.<ref name="auto"/>
Biodiversity hotspots host their diverse ecosystems on just 2.4% of the planet's surface.<ref name=conservation/> Ten hotspots were originally identified by Myer;<ref name=hotspots/> the current 36 used to cover more than 15.7% of all the land but have lost around 85% of their area.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.e-education.psu.edu/geog30/book/export/html/393|title=Biodiversity Hotspots|website=www.e-education.psu.edu}}</ref> This [[habitat destruction|loss of habitat]] is why approximately 60% of the world's terrestrial life lives on only 2.4% of the land surface area. Caribbean Islands like Haiti and Jamaica are facing serious pressures on the populations of endemic plants and vertebrates as a result of rapid deforestation. Other areas include the Tropical Andes, Philippines, Mesoamerica, and Sundaland, which, under the current levels at which deforestation is occurring, will likely lose most of their plant and vertebrate species.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Brooks|first1=Thomas M.|last2=Mittermeier|first2=Russell A.|last3=Mittermeier|first3=Cristina G.|last4=da Fonseca|first4=Gustavo A. B.|last5=Rylands|first5=Anthony B.|last6=Konstant|first6=William R.|last7=Flick|first7=Penny|last8=Pilgrim|first8=John|last9=Oldfield|first9=Sara|last10=Magin|first10=Georgina|last11=Hilton-Taylor|first11=Craig|date=August 2002|title=Habitat Loss and Extinction in the Hotspots of Biodiversity|url=https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1523-1739.2002.00530.x|journal=Conservation Biology|volume=16|issue=4|pages=909–923|doi=10.1046/j.1523-1739.2002.00530.x|bibcode=2002ConBi..16..909B |s2cid=44009934|issn=0888-8892}}</ref>
==Hotspot conservation initiatives==
Only a small percentage of the total land area within biodiversity hotspots is now protected. Several international organizations are working to conserve biodiversity hotspots.
* [[Critical Ecosystem Partnership Fund]] (CEPF) is a global program that provides funding and technical assistance to nongovernmental organizations in order to protect the Earth's richest regions of plant and animal diversity, including biodiversity hotspots, high-biodiversity wilderness areas and important marine regions.
* The [[World Wide Fund for Nature]] has devised a system called the "[[Global 200|Global 200 Ecoregions]]", the aim of which is to select priority ecoregions for conservation from fourteen terrestrial, three freshwater, and four marine habitat types. They are chosen for species richness, endemism, taxonomic uniqueness, unusual ecological or evolutionary phenomena, and global rarity. All biodiversity hotspots contain at least one Global 200 Ecoregion.
* [[Birdlife International]] has identified 218 “[[Endemic Bird Areas]]” (EBAs) each of which holds two or more bird species found nowhere else. Birdlife International has identified more than 11,000 Important Bird Areas<ref>[http://www.birdlife.org/datazone/sites/index.html] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070808183125/http://www.birdlife.org/datazone/sites/index.html|date=August 8, 2007}}</ref> all over the world.
* [[Plant life International]] coordinates programs aiming to identify and manage [[Important Plant Areas]].
* [[Alliance for Zero Extinction]] is an initiative of scientific organizations and conservation groups who co-operate to focus on the most threatened endemic species of the world. They have identified 595 sites, including many ''Birdlife’s Important Bird Areas''.
* The [[National Geographic Society]] has prepared a world map<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.biodiversityhotspots.org/xp/hotspots/Documents/cihotspotmap.pdf|title=Conservation International|publisher=The Biodiversity Hotspots|date=2010-10-07|access-date=2012-06-22|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120327075212/http://www.biodiversityhotspots.org/xp/hotspots/Documents/cihotspotmap.pdf|archive-date=2012-03-27}}</ref> of the hotspots and ArcView shapefile and metadata for the Biodiversity Hotspots<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.biodiversityhotspots.org/xp/hotspots/Documents/hotspots_revisited_2004.zip|title=Conservation International|publisher=The Biodiversity Hotspots|date=2010-10-07|access-date=2012-06-22|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120320054336/http://www.biodiversityhotspots.org/xp/hotspots/Documents/hotspots_revisited_2004.zip|archive-date=2012-03-20}}</ref> including details of the individual endangered fauna in each hotspot, which is available from [[Conservation International]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.biodiversityhotspots.org/xp/Hotspots/resources/pages/maps.aspx|title=Resources|publisher=Biodiversityhotspots.org|date=2010-10-07|access-date=2012-06-22|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120324024634/http://www.biodiversityhotspots.org/xp/Hotspots/resources/pages/maps.aspx|archive-date=2012-03-24}}</ref>
* The [[Compensatory Afforestation Fund Act, 2016|Compensatory Afforestation Management and Planning Authority]] (CAMPA) seeks to control the destruction of forests in India.
==Distribution by region==
[[File:Biodiversity Hotspots.svg|thumb|upright=1.3|Biodiversity hotspots. Original proposal in green, and added regions in blue.<ref>{{cite web|title=Biodiversity Hotspots|url=https://www.e-education.psu.edu/geog30/node/393|website=GEOG 30N: Environment and Society in a Changing World|publisher=John A. Dutton e-Education Institute, College of Earth and Mineral Sciences, [[Pennsylvania State University]]|access-date=3 August 2022}}</ref>]]
A majority of biodiversity exists within the tropics; likewise, most biodiversity hotspots are within the tropics.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Harvey|first1=Michael G.|last2=Bravo|first2=Gustavo A.|last3=Claramunt|first3=Santiago|last4=Cuervo|first4=Andrés M.|last5=Derryberry|first5=Graham E.|last6=Battilana|first6=Jaqueline|last7=Seeholzer|first7=Glenn F.|last8=McKay|first8=Jessica Shearer|last9=O’Meara|first9=Brian C.|last10=Faircloth|first10=Brant C.|last11=Edwards|first11=Scott V.|last12=Pérez-Emán|first12=Jorge|last13=Moyle|first13=Robert G.|last14=Sheldon|first14=Frederick H.|last15=Aleixo|first15=Alexandre|date=2020-12-11|title=The evolution of a tropical biodiversity hotspot|url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.aaz6970|journal=Science|language=en|volume=370|issue=6522|pages=1343–1348|doi=10.1126/science.aaz6970|pmid=33303617 |bibcode=2020Sci...370.1343H |hdl=10138/329703 |s2cid=228084618 |issn=0036-8075|hdl-access=free}}</ref> Of the 36 biodiversity hotspots, 15 are classified as old, climatically-buffered, infertile landscapes (OCBILs). <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://academic.oup.com/biolinnean/article/133/2/266/6118895|access-date=2023-03-23}}</ref> These areas have been historically isolated from interactions with other climate zones, but recent human interaction and encroachment have put these historically safe hotspots at risk. OCBILs have mainly been threatened by the relocation of indigenous groups and military actions as the infertile ground has previously dissuaded human populations.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Hopper|first1=Stephen D.|last2=Silveira|first2=Fernando A. O.|last3=Fiedler|first3=Peggy L.|date=2016-06-01|title=Biodiversity hotspots and Ocbil theory|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s11104-015-2764-2|journal=Plant and Soil|language=en|volume=403|issue=1|pages=167–216|doi=10.1007/s11104-015-2764-2|bibcode=2016PlSoi.403..167H |s2cid=254948226 |issn=1573-5036}}</ref> The conservation of OCBILs within biodiversity hotspots has started to garner attention because current theories believe these sites provide not only high levels of biodiversity, but they have relatively stable lineages and the potential for high levels of speciation in the future. Because these sites are relatively stable, they can be classified as [[Refugium (population biology)|refugia]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hopper|first=Stephen D.|date=2009-09-01|title=OCBIL theory: towards an integrated understanding of the evolution, ecology and conservation of biodiversity on old, climatically buffered, infertile landscapes|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s11104-009-0068-0|journal=Plant and Soil|language=en|volume=322|issue=1|pages=49–86|doi=10.1007/s11104-009-0068-0|bibcode=2009PlSoi.322...49H |s2cid=28155038 |issn=1573-5036}}</ref>
'''[[Northern America|North]] and [[Central America]]'''
* [[California Floristic Province]] (8)
* [[Madrean pine–oak woodlands]] (26)
* [[Mesoamerica]] (2)
* North American [[Coastal Plain]] (36)<ref>{{cite web|title=North American Coastal Plain|publisher=Critical Ecosystem Partnership Fund|url=https://www.cepf.net/our-work/biodiversity-hotspots/north-american-coastal-plain|access-date=7 February 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|first1=Reed F.|last1=Noss|first2=William J.|last2=Platt|first3=Bruce A.|last3=Sorrie|first4=Alan S.|last4=Weakley|first5=D. Bruce|last5=Means|first6=Jennifer|last6=Costanza|first7=Robert K.|last7=Peet|title=How global biodiversity hotspots may go unrecognized: lessons from the North American Coastal Plain|journal=Diversity and Distributions|year=2015|volume=21|issue=2|pages=236–244|doi=10.1111/ddi.12278|bibcode=2015DivDi..21..236N |url=http://repository.lib.ncsu.edu/bitstream/1840.2/2642/1/Noss%20et%20al%202014%20Coastal%20Plain%20hotspot%20D%26D.pdf|doi-access=free}}</ref>
'''The [[Caribbean]]'''
* [[Caribbean Islands]] (3)
'''[[South America]]'''
* [[Atlantic Forest]] (4)
* [[Cerrado]] (6)
* [[Valdivian temperate rain forests|Chilean Winter Rainfall-Valdivian Forests]] (7)
* [[Tumbes–Chocó–Magdalena]] (5)
* [[Tropical Andes]] (1)
'''[[Europe]]'''
* [[Mediterranean Basin]] (14)
'''[[Africa]]'''
* [[Cape Floristic Region]] (12)
* [[Coastal Forests of Eastern Africa]] (10)
* [[Eastern Afromontane]] (28)
* [[Guinean Forests of West Africa]] (11)
* [[Horn of Africa]] (29)
* [[Ecoregions of Madagascar|Madagascar]] [[Mascarene Islands|and the Indian Ocean Islands]] (9)
* [[Maputaland-Pondoland-Albany]] (27)
* [[Succulent Karoo]] (13)
'''[[Central Asia]]'''
* [[Mountains of Central Asia]] (31)
'''[[South Asia]]'''
* [[Eastern Himalaya]] (32)
* [[Indo-Burma]], [[Wildlife of Bangladesh|Bangladesh]], [[Wildlife of India|India]] and [[Myanmar]] (19)
* [[Western Ghats]] and [[Wildlife of Sri Lanka|Sri Lanka]] (21)
'''[[Southeast Asia]] and [[Asia-Pacific]]'''
* [[East Melanesian Islands]] (34)
* [[Biodiversity of New Caledonia|New Caledonia]] (23)
* [[Biodiversity of New Zealand|New Zealand]] (24)
* [[Ecoregions of the Philippines|Philippines]] (18)
* [[Oceanian realm|Polynesia-Micronesia]] (25)
* [[Eastern Australian temperate forests]] (35)
* [[Southwest Australia]] (22)
* [[Sundaland]], [[Fauna of Indonesia|Indonesia]] and [[Nicobar islands]] of [[Wildlife of India|India]] (16)
* [[Wallacea]] of [[Fauna of Indonesia|Indonesia]] (17)
'''[[East Asia]]'''
* [[Ecoregions of Japan|Japan]] (33)
* [[Mountains of Southwest China]] (20)
'''[[Western Asia|West Asia]]'''
* [[Caucasus]] (15)
* [[Irano-Anatolian]] (30)
==Criticism==
The high profile of the biodiversity hotspots approach has resulted in some criticism. Papers such as Kareiva & Marvier (2003)<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Kareiva|first1=Peter|last2=Marvier|first2=Michelle|title=Conserving Biodiversity Coldspots: Recent calls to direct conservation funding to the world's biodiversity hotspots may be bad investment advice|journal=American Scientist|date=2003|volume=91|issue=4|pages=344–351|doi=10.1511/2003.4.344|jstor=27858246|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/27858246|access-date=10 May 2022|issn=0003-0996}}</ref> have argued that the biodiversity hotspots:
* Do not adequately represent other forms of species richness (e.g. total species richness or threatened species richness).
* Do not adequately represent taxa other than vascular plants (e.g. vertebrates and fungi).
* Do not protect smaller scale richness hotspots.
* Do not make allowances for changing [[land use]] patterns. Hotspots represent regions that have experienced considerable [[habitat destruction|habitat loss]], but this does not mean they are experiencing ongoing habitat loss. On the other hand, regions that are relatively intact (e.g. the [[Amazon basin]]) have experienced relatively little [[land loss]], but are currently losing habitat at tremendous rates.
* Do not protect [[ecosystem services]].
* Do not consider [[phylogenetic diversity]].<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Daru|first1=Barnabas H.|last2=van der Bank|first2=Michelle|last3=Davies|first3=T. Jonathan|year=2014|title=Spatial incongruence among hotspots and complementary areas of tree diversity in southern Africa|journal=[[Diversity and Distributions]]|volume=21|issue=7|pages=769–780|doi=10.1111/ddi.12290|s2cid=18417574|doi-access=free}}</ref>
A recent series of papers has pointed out that biodiversity hotspots (and many other priority region sets) do not address the concept of cost.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Possingham|first1=Hugh P.|last2=Wilson|first2=Kerrie A.|title=Turning up the heat on hotspots|journal=Nature|date=August 2005|volume=436|issue=7053|pages=919–920|doi=10.1038/436919a|pmid=16107821|s2cid=4398455|language=en|issn=1476-4687|doi-access=free}}</ref> The purpose of biodiversity hotspots is not simply to identify regions that are of high biodiversity value, but to prioritize conservation spending. The regions identified include some in the developed world (e.g. the [[California Floristic Province]]), alongside others in the developing world (e.g. [[Madagascar]]). The cost of land is likely to vary between these regions by an order of magnitude or more, but the biodiversity hotspot designations do not consider the conservation importance of this difference. However, the available resources for conservation also tend to vary in this way.
==See also==
{{div col}}
* {{annotated link|Biodiversity}}
* {{annotated link|Conservation biology}}
* {{annotated link|Crisis ecoregion}}
* {{annotated link|Ecoregion}}
* {{annotated link|Global 200}}
* {{annotated link|Hawaiian honeycreeper conservation}}
* {{annotated link|High-Biodiversity Wilderness Area}}
* {{annotated link|Hope spot}}: biodiversity hotspots in the open sea
* {{annotated link|Key Biodiversity Area}}
* {{annotated link|Megadiverse countries}}
* {{annotated link|Protected area}}
* {{annotated link|Wilderness}}
{{div col end}}
==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}
==Further reading==
* [https://archive.today/20080521135926/http://publishing.royalsociety.org/biodiversity-hotspots Dedicated issue of ''Philosophical Transactions B'' on Biodiversity Hotspots. Some articles are freely available.]
* Spyros Sfenthourakis, Anastasios Legakis: ''Hotspots of endemic terrestrial invertebrates in Southern Greece''. Kluwer Academic Publishers, 2001
==External links==
{{Wiktionary}}
*[http://www.biodiversitya-z.org/areas/9/ A-Z of Areas of Biodiversity Importance: Biodiversity Hotspots]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20070101130955/http://www.biodiversityhotspots.org/xp/Hotspots/ Conservation International's Biodiversity Hotspots project]
*[http://www.awdconservancy.org/ African Wild Dog Conservancy's Biodiversity Hotspots Project]
*[http://www.biodiversityofindia.org/index.php?title=Biodiversity_hotspots_in_India Biodiversity hotspots in India]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20120926034031/http://savingspecies.org/2012/stunning-new-biodiversity-maps-show-where-to-prioritize-conservation/ New biodiversity maps color-coded to show hotspots]
*[https://zenodo.org/record/3261807#.XXua0ShKh9M Shapefile of the Biodiversity Hotspots (v2016.1)]
{{Biodiversity of South Africa|biohot}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Biodiversity Hotspot}}
[[Category:Biodiversity]]
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
[[Category:International environmental organizations]] |
Cave conservation | '''Cave conservation''' is the protection and restoration of [[cave]]s to prevent or minimise the effects of human activities.
Some caves have delicate features that can be disturbed by changes in light levels, humidity, temperature or air flow. Caves that have lighting that remains on are prone to having algae grow within the cave changing the appearance and ecology. [[Speleothems]] grow as a result of water both on cave surfaces and the humidity of the cave air. Changes to these because of a high number of visitors, changes to the cave air flow and changes to the [[hydrology]] will alter speleothem development.
Speleothems can have a slow growth rate and therefore removing them as souvenirs or breakage due to movement within the cave will be visible for a long time, often throughout several generations of human interaction.
The use of [[calcium carbide]] for lamps has led to soot marks and deposits of discarded spent carbide. Using electric lamps avoids these problems.
==Cave conservation by region==
===New Zealand===
The [[New Zealand Speleological Society]] (NZSS), a recreational caving organisation, promotes cave conservation by its members. The [[Department of Conservation (New Zealand)|Department of Conservation]] (DoC) is responsible for caves on land under its administration and has developed a management policy for caves and [[karst]]. DoC publish a "Caving care code" which is in turn based in part on the caving ethics of NZSS.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.doc.govt.nz/templates/page.aspx?id=38542|title=Minimising your impact - Caving care code|last=DoC|publisher=Department of Conservation|accessdate=2008-10-03}}</ref>
===United Kingdom===
The [[British Cave Research Association]] administers the United Kingdom Cave Conservation Emergency Fund (UKCCEF), a charitable fund for protection of caves and cave features. The aims are:
* To assist in the publication of material intended to promote the conservation of caves and features therein or the conservation of a specific site or group of caves
* To assist with the physical protection of features within a specific cave or group of caves
* To assist in works designed to maintain access to a cave or part of a cave, but not solely to assist exploration
* To assist in the purchase of land or property where such acquisition is intended to ensure the protection of, or maintenance of access to, a cave or caves.<ref>[http://bcra.org.uk/ukccef/ ukccef info<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>
The [[National Caving Association]] has a Cave Conservation Code with the following recommendations:<ref>[http://www.caveinfo.org.uk/nca/canda/concode.htm Conservation Code<!-- Bot generated title -->] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080415231401/http://www.caveinfo.org.uk/nca/canda/concode.htm |date=2008-04-15 }}</ref>
*Cave with care and within your abilities
*Keep to marked routes and do not cross conservation tapes and barriers
*Protect cave wildlife and do not disturb bats
*Do not pollute the cave, leave nothing behind
*Archaeological and other remains should not be disturbed
*Do not interfere with scientific equipment
*Set a good example for others to follow
*Avoid touching or damaging formations
*Take nothing but photographs
*Comply with any access requirements
*Respect the rights and privacy of land owners
===United States===
The [[National Speleological Society]] believes:
* Caves have unique scientific, recreational, and scenic values
* These values are endangered by both carelessness and intentional vandalism
* These values, once gone, cannot be recovered
* The responsibility for protecting caves must be formed by those who study and enjoy them.
* A common phrase on ethical caving: "Take nothing but pictures, leave nothing but footprints, waste nothing but time."
Also involved in cave conservation are the:
* [[Butler Cave Conservation Society]]
* [[Cave Research Foundation]]
* [http://scci.org Southeastern Cave Conservancy]
===India===
The [[National Cave Research and Protection Organization]] is formed to protect the caves and explore the caves scientifically to know them better.
==References==
{{Reflist}}
==External links==
{{commonscat|Cave conservation}}
*[http://www.ackma.org/ Australasian Cave and Karst Management Association Inc. (ACKMA)]
*[http://bcra.org.uk/ukccef/ United Kingdom Cave Conservation Emergency Fund]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20080513070334/http://cavern.org/acca/accahome.html American Cave Conservation Association]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20091104064355/http://www.caves.org/committee/conservation/ National Speleological Society] - cave conservation page
*[http://www.caves.res.in National Cave Research and Protection Organization]
{{Caves}}
{{Subterranea}}
[[Category:Caves]]
[[Category:Environmental conservation]] |
Buffer zone | {{about|buffer zones in general|use relating to abortion|Legal protection of access to abortion|the Karachi neighbourhood|Buffer Zone, Karachi}}
{{Short description|Intermediate region, typically between belligerent entities}}
[[File:Cyprus BufferZoneInBlue.png|right|thumb|Map of the [[Cyprus Buffer Zone|current buffer zone in Cyprus]], between the [[Cyprus|Republic of Cyprus]] in the south and the [[Northern Cyprus|Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus]] in the north]]
[[File:Заграждение, КСП и ДОТ на белорусско-польской границе 01.jpg|right|thumb|Modern buffer zone on the Belarus-Poland border in [[Brest, Belarus|Brest]] with a [[Security alarm#Security electric fence|security electric fence]], a ploughed trace-control strip to show signs of passage, and a [[Pillbox (military)|pillbox]].]]
A '''buffer zone''' is a neutral [[wikt:zone|zonal]] area that lies between two or more bodies of land, usually pertaining to [[country|countries]]. Depending on the type of buffer zone, it may serve to separate regions or conjoin them.
Common types of buffer zones are [[demilitarized zone]]s, [[border zone]]s and certain restrictive easement zones and [[Green Belt|green belts]]. Such zones may be comprised by a sovereign state, forming a [[buffer state]].
Buffer zones have various purposes, politically or otherwise. They can be set up for a multitude of reasons, such as to prevent violence, protect the environment, shield residential and commercial zones from industrial accidents or natural disasters, or even isolate prisons. Buffer zones often result in large uninhabited regions that are themselves noteworthy in many increasingly developed or crowded parts of the world.{{examples|date=October 2013}}
== Conservation ==
[[File:Lake Hiawatha shoreline restoration sign.jpg|thumb|Sign marking the buffer zone of a habitat restoration project at [[Lake Hiawatha]] in Minneapolis, Minnesota.]]
For use in nature conservation, a buffer zone is often created to enhance the protection of areas under management for their [[biodiversity]] importance. The buffer zone of a [[protected area]] may be situated around the periphery of the region or may be a connecting zone within it that links two or more protected areas, therefore increasing their dynamics and conservation productivity. A buffer zone can also be one of the [[IUCN Protected Area Management Categories|protected area categories]] (e.g. category V or VI of IUCN Protected Area) or a classification scheme (e.g. NATURA 2000) depending on the conservation objective.<ref>[http://www.biodiversitya-z.org/areas/10/ A–Z of Areas of Biodiversity Importance: Buffer Zones]</ref> The term 'buffer zone' initially gained prominence in the conservation of natural and cultural heritage through its usage in the establishment of [[UNESCO]]'s World Heritage Convention, and the term was intended to be used as follows:
{{cquote|A buffer zone serves to provide an additional layer of protection to a [[World Heritage Site|World Heritage property]]. The concept of a buffer zone was first included in the ''Operational Guidelines for the implementation of the World Heritage Convention'' in 1977. In the most current version of the ''Operational Guidelines'' of 2005 the inclusion of a buffer zone into a nomination of a site to the World Heritage List is strongly recommended but not mandatory.|cquote}}
—[[World Heritage Convention]]<ref>{{cite web
|url= https://whc.unesco.org/en/events/473/
|title= International Expert meeting on World Heritage and buffer zones
|access-date= 24 Nov 2010
|publisher= [[UNESCO]] [[World Heritage Convention]]
|quote= Background and contents
}}</ref>
The buffer zone is one of the [[Best management practice for water pollution|Best Management Practices]] (BMPs). A buffer zone is intended to avert the effect of negative environmental or human influences, whether or not it embodies natural or cultural value itself.<ref>Martin, Oliver, and Piatti, Giovanna (ed.) ''World Heritage and Buffer Zones'', International Expert Meeting on World Heritage and Buffer Zones Davos, Switzerland 11 – 14 March 2008 (Paris: UNESCO, 2009)</ref> The importance and function of a buffer zone and the necessary protective measures derived thereof is a relatively new concept in conservation science and can differ greatly for each site.<ref>Ebregt, Arthur and de Greve, Pol, ''Buffer Zones and their Management: Policy and Best Practices for Terrestrial Ecosystems in Developing Countries'' (Wageningen: Netherlands Ministry of Foreign Affairs, 2000)</ref>
== Ecological functions of conservation ==
=== Water quality improvement ===
The [[water quality|quality of surface water]] in many countries is getting worse due to the misuse of land.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Carpenter |first1=S. R .|last2=Caraco |first2=N. F. |last3=Correll |first3=D. L. |last4=Howarth |first4=R. W. |last5=Sharpley |first5=A. N. |last6=Smith |first6=V. H. |date=August 1998 |title=Nonpoint Pollution of Surface Waters with Phosphorus and Nitrogen |journal=Ecological Applications |volume=8 |issue=3 |pages=559 |doi=10.2307/2641247 |issn=1051-0761 |jstor=2641247|hdl=1813/60811|url=https://ecommons.cornell.edu/bitstream/1813/60811/1/Carpenter_et_al-1998-Ecological_Applications.pdf|hdl-access=free }}</ref> Although the buffer zone occupies a small area, it greatly improves the quality of water in the agricultural [[wikt:drainage basin|watershed]] due to its filtering effect on nutrients in the underground water and surface water.
Because farmland is sprayed with large amounts of pesticides, some of which can seep into surface water, fish and other aquatic life can be negatively affected, which in turn can lead to environmental damage. Vegetation buffer has been proved to be an effective filter for sediment, especially for sediment-bound pesticides.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Syversen|first1=Nina|last2=Bechmann|first2=Marianne|date=May 2004|title=Vegetative buffer zones as pesticide filters for simulated surface runoff|journal=Ecological Engineering|volume=22|issue=3|pages=175–184|doi=10.1016/j.ecoleng.2004.05.002|issn=0925-8574}}</ref> When pesticides are sprayed in excess, a vegetation buffer can be built to reduce the penetration of pesticides into surface water. The buffer zone also prevents heavy metals or toxins from spreading to [[protected area]]s.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Deroanne-Bauvin|first1=J|last2=Delcarte|first2=E|last3=Impens|first3=R|date=January 1987|title=Monitoring of lead deposition near highway: A ten years study|journal=Science of the Total Environment|volume=59|pages=257–266|doi=10.1016/0048-9697(87)90447-5|bibcode=1987ScTEn..59..257D|issn=0048-9697}}</ref>
=== Riverbank stabilization ===
When riverbanks are low due to plant roots entering the interior of the riverbank vertically, the sediment of riverbank is affected by the action of said plant roots, and the ability to resist erosion is higher than that without plant roots. But when the riverbanks are higher, the roots of the plants do not penetrate deeply into the soil, and the lakeshore soil is not very strong. Herbaceous plants can play a role to some extent, but in the long term, vegetation buffer zone can effectively solve the problem of water level rise and water erosion.
The adsorption capacity of a buffer zone can reduce the speed of [[surface runoff]] and increase the effective water content of soil. Through increasing [[soil organic matter]] content and improving soil structure, a buffer zone can have a positive effect on soil water storage performance. In addition, plant roots make the soil stronger, withstand waves and rainstorm, mitigate the erosion of riverbanks by [[flood]]s, and effectively control the erosion of the beach.
=== Wildlife food and habitat ===
[[File:Riparian buffer on Bear Creek in Story County, Iowa.JPG|thumb|upright|A riparian buffer in Story County, Iowa, protecting a creek]]
[[Riparian buffer]] zones have been used in many areas to protect the habitats of many animals which are being devastated by increased human activity. The areas around the buffer zone can form the habitat of many animals, and plants can become food for small [[aquatic animal]]s. The buffer zone itself can also support the life activities of various [[amphibian]]s and [[bird]]s. Plants and animals can [[migration (ecology)|migrate]] or spread in response to these buffer zones, thus increasing the [[biodiversity]] in the area.
A 1998 study shows that the species and number of animals and plants in riparian zones are higher than in other ecosystems.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Sturtevant|first=Brian R |date=October 1998 |title=A model of wetland vegetation dynamics in simulated beaver impoundments |journal=Ecological Modelling |volume=112 |issue=2–3 |pages=195–225 |doi=10.1016/s0304-3800(98)00079-9 |issn=0304-3800}}</ref> Because of their ability to provide abundant water, soft soil and stable climate, small animals such as ''[[Mouse-eared bat|Myotis]]'' and ''[[Marten|Martes]]'' prefer to live along riverbanks rather than in hilly areas.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Doyle |first=A. T. |date=1990-02-20 |title=Use of Riparian and Upland Habitats by Small Mammals |journal=Journal of Mammalogy |volume=71 |issue=1 |pages=14–23 |doi=10.2307/1381312 |issn=1545-1542 |jstor=1381312}}</ref> The buffer zone can also provide a good environment for upland habitat, which is in line with the living conditions of freshwater [[turtle]]s, making them more dependent on the wetland environment.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Burke |first1=Vincent J. |last2=Gibbons |first2=J. Whitfield |date=December 1995|title=Terrestrial Buffer Zones and Wetland Conservation: A Case Study of Freshwater Turtles in a Carolina Bay|journal=Conservation Biology |volume=9 |issue=6 |pages=1365–1369 |doi=10.1046/j.1523-1739.1995.09061365.x |bibcode=1995ConBi...9.1365B |issn=0888-8892}}</ref> The protection level of the buffer zones will affect the habitat range of amphibians and [[reptile]]s, and the environmental management of the wetland habitat around buffer zone is extremely important.
=== Providing aesthetic value ===
As an important part of riparian zone, the vegetation buffer zones form a variety of [[landscape]], and the landscape pattern of combining land and water improves the aesthetic value of river basin landscape. The riparian buffer is rich in plant resources, and the wetland, grassland and forest ecosystem make the landscape more beautiful. In addition, some recreational facilities can be built in the buffer zone to provide better living conditions for residents or tourists and improve people's quality of life.
In the buffer zone, trees up to 6 meters tall greatly enhance the aesthetic value of the landscape.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Borin |first1=Maurizio |last2=Passoni |first2=Matteo |last3=Thiene |first3=Mara |last4=Tempesta |first4=Tiziano |date=January 2010 |title=Multiple functions of buffer strips in farming areas |journal=European Journal of Agronomy |volume=32 |issue=1 |pages=103–111 |doi=10.1016/j.eja.2009.05.003 |issn=1161-0301}}</ref> These tall trees have luxuriant branches and leaves, especially their upright posture, making them of higher ornamental value. Some colorful landscape tree species can be planted on both sides of rivers with tourism and sightseeing value to improve the aesthetic value of the place. The establishment of vegetation in the buffer zone can increase green land, improve [[forest cover]]age, beautify the environment and visual effect, improve people's living environment, enrich humanistic landscape, and enhance aesthetic value. By emphasizing the importance of the buffer zone, local residents can be encouraged to participate in the protection and management of the buffer zone, and set up checkpoints around the buffer zone to make it more secure and effective.
==See also==
* [[Buffer state]]
* [[Buffer strip]]
* [[Demilitarized zone]] (DMZ)
* [[European Green Belt]]
* [[March (territory)|March]]
* [[Seam Zone]]
* [[Shatter belt (geopolitics)]]
* [[United Nations Buffer Zone in Cyprus]]
== References ==
{{reflist}}
== External links==
*{{cite web
|url = https://www.theidioms.com/buffer-zone/
|title = Buffer Zone
|access-date = 28 Sep 2020
|date = November 28–29, 2006
|work = Theidioms.com
|publisher = The Idioms Dictionary
}}
*{{cite web
|url= https://whc.unesco.org/documents/publi_wh_papers_25.pdf
|title= World Heritage and Buffer Zones Patrimoine mondial et zones tampons
|access-date= 24 Nov 2010
|format= PDF/Adobe Acrobat 3.76 MB
|work= International Expert Meeting on World Heritage and Buffer Zones, Davos, Switzerland 11–14 March 2008
|publisher= World Heritage Centre
|quote= Buffer zones are an important tool for conservation of properties inscribed on the World Heritage List. All along the history of implementation of the World Heritage Convention, the protection of the “surroundings” of the inscribed properties was considered an essential component of the conservation strategy, for cultural and natural sites alike.
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Buffer Zone}}
[[Category:Political terminology]]
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
[[Category:Borders]] |
Common species | {{About|an ecological term||Common (disambiguation)}}
'''Common species''' and '''uncommon species''' are designations used in [[ecology]] to describe the population status of a species. Commonness is closely related to [[abundance (ecology)|abundance]]. Abundance refers to the frequency with which a species is found in controlled samples; in contrast, species are defined as common or uncommon based on their overall presence in the environment. A species may be locally abundant without being common.
However, "common" and "uncommon" are also sometimes used to describe levels of abundance, with a common species being less abundant than an abundant species, while an uncommon species is more abundant than a rare species.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.npwrc.usgs.gov/resource/birds/stcroix/methods.htm|work=Birds of the St. Croix River Valley: Minnesota and Wisconsin|title=Methods, Terminology, and Nomenclature|author=Northern Prairie Wildlife Research Center|accessdate=2006-12-31|year=2006|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20061222235623/http://www.npwrc.usgs.gov/resource/birds/stcroix/methods.htm|archivedate=2006-12-22}}</ref>
Common species are frequently regarded as being at low risk of extinction simply because they exist in large numbers, and hence their conservation status is often overlooked. While this is broadly logical, there are several cases of once common species being driven to extinction such as the [[passenger pigeon]] and the [[Rocky Mountain locust]], which numbered in the billions and trillions respectively before their demise. Moreover, a small proportional decline in a common species results in the loss of a large number of individuals, and the contribution to ecosystem function that those individuals represented. A recent paper argued that because common species shape ecosystems, contribute disproportionately to ecosystem functioning, and can show rapid population declines, conservation should look more closely at how the trade-off between species extinctions and the depletion of populations.<ref name=gaston>Gaston, K.J. & Fuller, R.A. 2008. Commonness, population depletion and conservation biology. Trends in Ecology and Evolution, 23, 14-19. {{doi|10.1016/j.tree.2007.11.001}}</ref>
==See also==
*[[Rare species]]
*[[Abundance (ecology)]]
==Notes==
<references/>
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
[[Category:Environmental terminology]]
[[Category:Ecology terminology]] |
Marxan | [[File:Marxan logo.jpg|thumb|Marxan logo]]
'''MARXAN''' is a family of software designed to aid systematic [[Nature reserve|reserve]] design on [[Conservation biology|conservation]] planning. With the use of stochastic optimisation routines ([[Simulated Annealing]]) Marxan generates spatial reserve systems that achieve particular biodiversity representation goals with reasonable optimality. Over the years, Marxan has grown from its standard two zone application to consider more complex challenges like incorporating connectivity, probabilities and multiple zones. Along the way, Marxan’s user community has also built plug-ins and interfaces to assist with planning projects.
Computationally, Marxan provides solutions to a conservation version of the 0-1 [[knapsack problem]], where the objects of interest are potential reserve sites with given biological attributes. The simulated annealing algorithm attempts to minimise the total cost of the reserve system, while achieving a set of conservation goals (typically that a certain percentage of each geographical/biological feature is represented by the reserve system).
== History ==
Marxan is a portmanteau acronym, fusing '''MAR'''ine, and SPE'''XAN''', itself an acronym for '''SP'''atially '''EX'''plicit '''AN'''nealing. It was a product of Ian R. Ball's PhD thesis, while he was a student at the [[University of Adelaide]] in 2000, and was supervised and funded by Professor [[Hugh Possingham]], the state of Queensland's (Australia) current Chief Scientist who holds a [[Federation Fellowship]] at the [[University of Queensland]]. It was an extension of the existing SPEXAN program.
In 2018, the vision of “Democratizing Marxan” began. Through the [https://biopama.org/ Biodiversity and Protected Areas Management programme (BIOPAMA)], funded by the European Union, the Joint Research Centre worked closely with The Nature Conservancy to prototype a web-based Marxan platform that improves accessibility to non-experts and supports our common vision of providing accessible tools for evidence-based conservation planning. This led to a partnership with Microsoft in 2020, which aims to scale Marxan’s infrastructure for global accessibility and empowering users with the tools and data they need to make smarter decisions for the planet. In late 2020 and early 2021 Microsoft's Azure Quantum team made [https://cloudblogs.microsoft.com/quantum/2021/03/09/modernizing-conservation-planning-software-for-broader-global-impact/#:~:text=Using%20techniques%20inspired%20by%20quantum%20methods%2C%20the%20Azure,the%20conservation%20planning%20space%3A%20The%20Marxan%20planning%20engine. several open source contributions to Marxan] resulting in increased performance when running on multi-core machines and cloud environments. The resulting [https://github.com/Marxan-source-code/marxan version 4 of Marxan] is now available from [https://marxansolutions.org/ marxansolutions.org].
== Applications ==
[[File:Image for website.png|thumb|Example Marxan outputs - selection frequency (the summed solution of each planning unit across all runs in a Marxan analysis). Figure 7 from McGowan et al. 2013,<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = McGowan J, Hines E, Elliott M, Howar J, Dransfield A, Nur N, Jahncke J | title = Using seabird habitat modeling to inform marine spatial planning in central California's National Marine Sanctuaries | journal = PLOS ONE | volume = 8 | issue = 8 | pages = e71406 | date = 2013-08-13 | pmid = 23967206 | pmc = 3742767 | doi = 10.1371/journal.pone.0071406 | bibcode = 2013PLoSO...871406M | doi-access = free }}</ref> a comparison of Marxan results prioritizing conservation of seabird habitat alone (scenario 1) and with the inclusion of human activities (scenario 2), shown by the cell selection frequency for 10, 30, and 50% conservation targets.]]
MARXAN is the most widely used systematic reserve planning software in the world,<ref>Ball, I. R., Possingham, H. P., & Watts, M. E. (2009). Marxan and relatives: Software for spatial conservation prioritization. In A. Moilanen, K. A. Wilson, & H. P. Possingham (Eds.), Spatial conservation prioritisation: Quantitative methods and computational tools (pp. 185–210). Oxford University Press.</ref> and has been used to create the marine reserve network on the [[Great Barrier Reef]], in [[Queensland]], [[Australia]], the largest marine protected area in the world.<ref>{{cite web | publisher = Environment News Service | work = International Daily Newswire | date = 2004 | title = Fish Boats Barred From One-Third of Great Barrier Reef | url = http://www.ens-newswire.com/ens/jul2004/2004-07-01-06.asp | access-date = 28 May 2006 }}</ref> It has been used for many other marine and terrestrial reserve planning applications.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.ecology.uq.edu.au/index.html?page=29781 | title = Ecology Centre MARXAN Homepage }}</ref>
* [[Channel Islands of California]]<ref>Airame S. 2005. Channel Islands National Marine Sanctuary: advancing the science and policy of marine protected areas. In: A Scholz and D Wright (Eds). ''Place matters: geospatial tools for marine science, conservation, and management in the Pacific Northwest''. Corvallis, OR: Oregon State University Press.</ref>
* [[Gulf of Mexico]]<ref>{{cite book | vauthors = Chatwin A, Huggins A, Kramer P, Wear S, Zenny N, Jeo R | chapter = The greater Caribbean marine ecoregional assessment. Chapter IV. 1. Part IV: conservation initiatives in the Caribbean. Caribbean marine biodiversity: the known and the unknown. | veditors = Miloslavich P, Klein E | title = Census of Marine Life Caribbean. | publisher = DEStech Publications Inc. | location = Lancaster | date = 2005 | pages = 293–8 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20060523043432/http://www.intecmar.usb.ve/CoMLCaribbean/Summaries/summary_TNC.htm | archive-date = 2006-05-23 | chapter-url = http://www.intecmar.usb.ve/CoMLCaribbean/Summaries/summary_TNC.htm }}</ref>
* [[Galapagos Islands]]
* [[South Australia]]<ref>{{cite web |title = Selection Frequencies of Cells in the Australian South-East Marine Region |url = http://www.marine.csiro.au/nddq/ndd_search.Browse_Citation?txtSession=184 |work = Neptune - the National Oceans Office Data Directory |archive-url=https://archive.today/20041222042932/http://www.marine.csiro.au/nddq/ndd_search.Browse_Citation?txtSession=184 |archive-date=22 December 2004 |url-status=dead}}</ref>
* [[British Columbia]]<ref>{{cite web | url = http://depts.washington.edu/mpanews/MPA57.htm | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160303181925/http://depts.washington.edu/mpanews/MPA57.htm | archive-date = 3 March 2016 | title = Using Computer Software To Design Marine Reserve Networks: Planners Discuss Their Use Of Marxan | work = MPA News }}</ref>
* [[Connecticut]]/[[New York (state)|New York]]
* [[Central Coast of California]]
* [[Baltic Sea]]<ref>{{cite journal | author = Helsinki Commission. | title = Towards an ecologically coherent network of well-managed Marine Protected Areas–Implementation report on the status and ecological coherence of the HELCOM BSPA network. | journal = Baltic Sea Environment Proceedings B | date = 2010 | volume = 124A | page = 147 | url = http://www.helcom.fi/stc/files/Publications/Proceedings/bsep124A.pdf | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110717130731/http://www.helcom.fi/stc/files/Publications/Proceedings/bsep124A.pdf | archive-date=2011-07-17 }}</ref>
Beyond protected area network design, MARXAN has been applied to hundreds of conservation planning challenges, from designing optimal poaching patrols for game reserves and identifying where to conserve essential ecosystem services, to helping with transboundary ocean planning and understanding where transnational collaborations might best be prioritized to achieve conservation goals. While it would be almost impossible to list all of MARXAN's applications, here are a few examples beyond protected area network design. For software specific examples, see the Software section.
* '''Restoration activities''' in the Atlantic Forest, Brazil,<ref>{{cite journal| vauthors = Crouzeilles R, Beyer HL, Mills M, Grelle CE, Possingham HP |date=2015|title=Incorporating habitat availability into systematic planning for restoration: a species-specific approach for Atlantic Forest mammals |journal=Diversity and Distributions|language=en|volume=21|issue=9|pages=1027–1037|doi=10.1111/ddi.12349|issn=1472-4642|doi-access=free}}</ref> in the Yucatan Peninsula in the Mexican Caribbean,<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Adame MF, Hermoso V, Perhans K, Lovelock CE, Herrera-Silveira JA | title = Selecting cost-effective areas for restoration of ecosystem services | language = es | journal = Conservation Biology | volume = 29 | issue = 2 | pages = 493–502 | date = April 2015 | pmid = 25199996 | doi = 10.1111/cobi.12391 | hdl = 10072/124929 | hdl-access = free }}</ref> in the Murray–Darling Basin in South Australia,<ref>{{cite journal| vauthors = Jellinek S |date=2017|title=Using prioritisation tools to strategically restore vegetation communities in fragmented agricultural landscapes |journal=Ecological Management & Restoration|language=en|volume=18|issue=1|pages=45–53|doi=10.1111/emr.12224|issn=1442-8903|hdl=11343/291727|hdl-access=free}}</ref> and southwestern Alberta, Canada<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Braid AC, Nielsen SE | title = Prioritizing Sites for Protection and Restoration for Grizzly Bears (Ursus arctos) in Southwestern Alberta, Canada | journal = PLOS ONE | volume = 10 | issue = 7 | pages = e0132501 | date = 2015-07-13 | pmid = 26168055 | pmc = 4500459 | doi = 10.1371/journal.pone.0132501 | bibcode = 2015PLoSO..1032501B | doi-access = free }}</ref>
* '''Provision of ecosystem services''' in Central Coast ecoregion of California, United States,<ref name="pmid17076586"/> Telemark in southern Norway,<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Schröter M, Remme RP | title = Spatial prioritisation for conserving ecosystem services: comparing hotspots with heuristic optimisation | journal = Landscape Ecology | volume = 31 | issue = 2 | pages = 431–450 | date = February 2016 | pmid = 26843784 | pmc = 4722056 | doi = 10.1007/s10980-015-0258-5 }}</ref> and Vermont, United States<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Watson KB, Galford GL, Sonter LJ, Koh I, Ricketts TH | title = Effects of human demand on conservation planning for biodiversity and ecosystem services | journal = Conservation Biology | volume = 33 | issue = 4 | pages = 942–952 | date = August 2019 | pmid = 30614054 | pmc = 6850574 | doi = 10.1111/cobi.13276 }}</ref>
* '''Understanding trade-offs''' between competing objectives in the Andes of Bolivia,<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Fastré C, Possingham HP, Strubbe D, Matthysen E | title = Identifying trade-offs between biodiversity conservation and ecosystem services delivery for land-use decisions | journal = Scientific Reports | volume = 10 | issue = 1 | pages = 7971 | date = May 2020 | pmid = 32409694 | pmc = 7224365 | doi = 10.1038/s41598-020-64668-z | bibcode = 2020NatSR..10.7971F }}</ref> and Central Kalimantan, Indonesia<ref name = "Law_2017">{{cite journal| vauthors = Law EA, Bryan BA, Meijaard E, Mallawaarachchi T, Struebig MJ, Watts ME, Wilson KA |date=2017|title=Mixed policies give more options in multifunctional tropical forest landscapes |journal=Journal of Applied Ecology|language=en|volume=54|issue=1|pages=51–60|doi=10.1111/1365-2664.12666|issn=1365-2664|doi-access=free|hdl=10536/DRO/DU:30102070|hdl-access=free}}</ref>
*'''Identifying management priorities''' in the Danube River Basin, Europe,<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Domisch S, Kakouei K, Martínez-López J, Bagstad KJ, Magrach A, Balbi S, Villa F, Funk A, Hein T, Borgwardt F, Hermoso V, Jähnig SC, Langhans SD | display-authors = 6 | title = Social equity shapes zone-selection: Balancing aquatic biodiversity conservation and ecosystem services delivery in the transboundary Danube River Basin | journal = The Science of the Total Environment | volume = 656 | pages = 797–807 | date = March 2019 | pmid = 30530149 | doi = 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.11.348 | bibcode = 2019ScTEn.656..797D | doi-access = free | hdl = 10810/44159 | hdl-access = free }}</ref> and South Africa's grassland biome<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Egoh BN, Reyers B, Rouget M, Richardson DM | title = Identifying priority areas for ecosystem service management in South African grasslands | journal = Journal of Environmental Management | volume = 92 | issue = 6 | pages = 1642–50 | date = June 2011 | pmid = 21334134 | doi = 10.1016/j.jenvman.2011.01.019 | hdl = 2263/15971 | hdl-access = free }}</ref>
*'''Law enforcement activities''' in the Greater Virunga Landscape, in central Africa,<ref>{{cite journal| vauthors = Plumptre AJ, Fuller RA, Rwetsiba A, Wanyama F, Kujirakwinja D, Driciru M, Nangendo G, Watson JE, Possingham HP | display-authors = 6 |date=2014|title=Efficiently targeting resources to deter illegal activities in protected areas |journal=Journal of Applied Ecology|language=en|volume=51|issue=3|pages=714–725|doi=10.1111/1365-2664.12227|issn=1365-2664|doi-access=free}}</ref> and the Patos Lagoon estuary along the Brazilian coast<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Duarte de Paula Costa M, Mills M, Richardson AJ, Fuller RA, Muelbert JH, Possingham HP | title = Efficiently enforcing artisanal fisheries to protect estuarine biodiversity | journal = Ecological Applications | volume = 28 | issue = 6 | pages = 1450–1458 | date = September 2018 | pmid = 29944185 | doi = 10.1002/eap.1744 | url = https://eprints.utas.edu.au/30081/1/131775%20-%20Efficiently%20enforcing%20artisanal%20fisheries%20to%20protect%20estuarine%20biodiversity.pdf }}</ref>
MARXAN has been used extensively by [[The Nature Conservancy]], and is a major part of the systematic planning tools being used in the Global Marine Initiative. The [[World Wildlife Fund]] used MARXAN to define a Global set of Marine Protected Areas, the ''Roadmap to Recovery'', which they used to petition the UN about the creation of open ocean marine reserve networks.
The software has also been used in terrestrial applications, such as:
* The North American [[Wildlands Project]].
* Selecting priority areas for Global Mammal Assemblages.<ref name="pmid16040704">{{cite journal | vauthors = Ceballos G, Ehrlich PR, Soberón J, Salazar I, Fay JP | title = Global mammal conservation: what must we manage? | journal = Science | volume = 309 | issue = 5734 | pages = 603–7 | date = July 2005 | pmid = 16040704 | doi = 10.1126/science.1114015 | bibcode = 2005Sci...309..603C | s2cid = 44377512 }}</ref>
* Planning the conservation of [[ecosystem services]].<ref name="pmid17076586">{{cite journal | vauthors = Chan KM, Shaw MR, Cameron DR, Underwood EC, Daily GC | title = Conservation planning for ecosystem services | journal = PLOS Biology | volume = 4 | issue = 11 | pages = e379 | date = October 2006 | pmid = 17076586 | pmc = 1629036 | doi = 10.1371/journal.pbio.0040379 | doi-access = free }}</ref>
* The Great Sand Hills of Saskatchewan Regional Environmental Study <ref>{{cite web | title = Great Sand Hills Environmental Study | url = http://www.environment.gov.sk.ca/Default.aspx?DN=8663b7a6-5eb3-4e0b-b59b-0a0c81fdbc9f | work = The Government of Saskatchewan |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080729080500/http://www.environment.gov.sk.ca/Default.aspx?DN=8663b7a6-5eb3-4e0b-b59b-0a0c81fdbc9f|archive-date = 2008-07-29}}</ref>
== Software ==
=== Marxan ===
Marxan is the most widely used decision-support software for conservation planning globally, and has been used to build marine and terrestrial conservation systems covering approximately 5% of the Earth’s surface. Marxan supports the design of cost-efficient networks that meet conservation targets for biodiversity.
=== Marxan with Zones ===
Marxan with Zones has the same functionality as Marxan but extends on the range of problems the software can solve and allows for the incorporation of multiple costs and zones into a systematic planning framework. Applications could be zoning for marine protected areas with various protection levels or landscapes that balance agriculture, biodiversity protection, and sustainable forestry zones. Marxan with Zones assigns each planning unit in a study region to a particular zone in order to meet a number of ecological, social and economic objectives at a minimum total cost.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Watts ME, Ball IR, Stewart RS, Klein CJ, Wilson K, Steinback C, Lourival R, Kircher L, Possingham HP | display-authors = 6 |date=2009-12-01|title=Marxan with Zones: Software for optimal conservation based land- and sea-use zoning |journal=Environmental Modelling & Software|language=en|volume=24|issue=12|pages=1513–1521|doi=10.1016/j.envsoft.2009.06.005|issn=1364-8152 }}</ref> Some example locations where it has been used to inform decisions includes Raja Ampat, Indonesia,<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Grantham HS, Agostini VN, Wilson J, Magubhai S, Hidayat N, Muljadi A, Muhajir RC, Mongdong M, Beck MW, Possingham HP | display-authors = 6 |date=2013-03-01|title=A comparison of zoning analyses to inform the planning of a marine protected area network in Raja Ampat, Indonesia |journal=Marine Policy|language=en|volume=38|pages=184–194|doi=10.1016/j.marpol.2012.05.035|issn=0308-597X }}</ref> Tun Mustapha Park in Sabah, Malaysia,<ref>{{cite journal| vauthors = Jumin R, Binson A, McGowan J, Magupin S, Beger M, Brown CJ, Possingham HP, Klein C |date=October 2018|title=From Marxan to management: ocean zoning with stakeholders for Tun Mustapha Park in Sabah, Malaysia |journal=Oryx|language=en|volume=52|issue=4|pages=775–786|doi=10.1017/S0030605316001514|issn=0030-6053|doi-access=free}}</ref> Central Kalimantan, Indonesia,<ref name = "Law_2017" /> and Indonesian Borneo.<ref>{{cite journal| vauthors = Venter O, Possingham HP, Hovani L, Dewi S, Griscom B, Paoli G, Wells P, Wilson KA |date=2013|title=Using systematic conservation planning to minimize REDD+ conflict with agriculture and logging in the tropics |journal=Conservation Letters|language=en|volume=6|issue=2|pages=116–124|doi=10.1111/j.1755-263X.2012.00287.x |doi-access=free}}</ref>
=== Marxan with Connectivity ===
Marxan with Connectivity is an extension of the Marxan software family that allows for more sophisticated connectivity considerations in spatial planning. For example, sites may be connected through processes such as larval dispersal, animal migrations, and genetic flows which are desirable objectives in conservation plans. Marxan with Connectivity has been applied in freshwater, marine, terrestrial and land-sea systems to conserve sites that may be spatially distanced but ecologically connected. Some examples include planning for threatened loggerhead sea turtles (Caretta caretta) in the Mediterranean,<ref>{{cite journal| vauthors = Mazor T, Beger M, McGowan J, Possingham HP, Kark S |date=2016|title=The value of migration information for conservation prioritization of sea turtles in the Mediterranean |journal=Global Ecology and Biogeography|language=en|volume=25|issue=5|pages=540–552|doi=10.1111/geb.12434|issn=1466-8238|url=http://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/105068/1/Mazor%20et%20al.pdf}}</ref> and accounting for river connectivity in the Guadiana River basin in the southwestern Iberian Peninsula.<ref>{{cite journal| vauthors = Hermoso V, Linke S, Prenda J, Possingham HP |date=2011|title=Addressing longitudinal connectivity in the systematic conservation planning of fresh waters | journal=Freshwater Biology|language=en|volume=56|issue=1|pages=57–70|doi=10.1111/j.1365-2427.2009.02390.x|issn=1365-2427|hdl=10272/4384|hdl-access=free}}</ref> It has been recently operationalized through ‘Marxan Connect’ - a new open source, open access Graphical User Interface (GUI) tool designed to assist conservation planners with the appropriate use of data on ecological connectivity in protected area network planning.<ref>{{cite journal| vauthors = Daigle RM, Metaxas A, Balbar AC, McGowan J, Treml EA, Kuempel CD, Possingham HP, Beger M |date=2020|title=Operationalizing ecological connectivity in spatial conservation planning with Marxan Connect |journal=Methods in Ecology and Evolution|language=en|volume=11|issue=4|pages=570–579|doi=10.1111/2041-210X.13349|issn=2041-210X|doi-access=free|hdl=10536/DRO/DU:30135307|hdl-access=free}}</ref>
=== Marxan with Probability ===
Marxan with Probability (MarProb) is Marxan with an additional objective function term that incorporates the probability of a site being destroyed at some point in the future. This function helps plan for persistence in protected area networks (see Game et al. 2008<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Game ET, Watts ME, Wooldridge S, Possingham HP | title = Planning for persistence in marine reserves: a question of catastrophic importance | journal = Ecological Applications | volume = 18 | issue = 3 | pages = 670–80 | date = April 2008 | pmid = 18488626 | doi = 10.1890/07-1027.1 | url = https://espace.library.uq.edu.au/view/UQ:161584/UQ161584_OA.pdf }}</ref>). Some examples where it has been used includes planning for Iberian herptile conservation while accounting for uncertainty in their predicted distributions due to climate change,<ref>{{cite journal|date=2011-07-01|title=Conservation planning under climate change: Toward accounting for uncertainty in predicted species distributions to increase confidence in conservation investments in space and time |journal=Biological Conservation|language=en|volume=144|issue=7|pages=2020–2030|doi=10.1016/j.biocon.2011.04.024|issn=0006-3207| vauthors = Carvalho SB, Brito JC, Crespo EG, Watts ME, Possingham HP }}</ref> and accounting for the inherent uncertainty associated with coral reef habitat maps in conservation planning, in the Kubulau District fisheries management area, Fiji.<ref>{{cite journal|date=2013-06-01|title=Incorporating uncertainty associated with habitat data in marine reserve design |journal=Biological Conservation|language=en|volume=162|pages=41–51|doi=10.1016/j.biocon.2013.03.003|issn=0006-3207| vauthors = Tulloch VJ, Possingham HP, Jupiter SD, Roelfsema C, Tulloch AI, Klein CJ |url=https://espace.library.uq.edu.au/view/UQ:306560/UQ306560OA.pdf }}</ref>
=== Companion Tools ===
==== Zonae Cogito ====
Zonae Cogito is a freely available software package that help manage and visualise Marxan projects.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Segan DB, Game ET, Watts ME, Stewart RR, Possingham HP |date=2011-12-01|title=An interoperable decision support tool for conservation planning |journal=Environmental Modelling & Software|language=en|volume=26|issue=12|pages=1434–1441|doi=10.1016/j.envsoft.2011.08.002|issn=1364-8152 |url=https://espace.library.uq.edu.au/view/UQ:265709/UQ265709_OA.pdf}}</ref> The interface streamlines and simplifies the development and evaluation of alternative planning scenarios, allows direct editing to input files, calibrates parameters, and helps users easily access important output files for evaluation.
==== CLUZ ====
CLUZ (Conservation Land-Use Zoning software) is a QGIS plug-in that allows users to design protected area networks and other conservation landscapes and seascapes.<ref>{{cite journal| vauthors = Smith R |date=2019-01-31|title=The CLUZ plugin for QGIS: designing conservation area systems and other ecological networks |journal=Research Ideas and Outcomes|language=en|volume=5|pages=e33510|doi=10.3897/rio.5.e33510|issn=2367-7163|doi-access=free}}</ref> It can be used for on-screen planning and also acts as a link for the Marxan conservation planning software. It was developed by Bob Smith and funded by the UK Government’s Darwin Initiative.<ref>{{cite web | url = https://www.darwininitiative.org.uk/ | title = Darwin Initiative | work = UK Government }}</ref>
==== Marxan toolboxes ====
Helpful tools developed by Trevor Wiens from Apropos Information Systems are available for both ArcGIS and QGIS users.<ref>{{cite web | url = https://qgis.org/en/site/forusers/download.html | title = Open Source Desktop GIS | work = qgis.org }}</ref>
==== Prioritizr ====
Systematic Conservation Prioritization in [[R (programming language)|R]] – The prioritizr R package<ref>{{cite web | url = https://github.com/prioritizr/prioritizr | title = prioritizr R package | work = GitHub | date = 11 May 2021 }}</ref> uses integer linear programming (ILP) techniques to provide a flexible interface for building and solving conservation planning problems. It supports a broad range of objectives, constraints, and penalties that can be used to custom-tailor conservation planning problems to the specific needs of a conservation planning exercise. Once built, conservation planning problems can be solved using a variety of commercial and open-source exact algorithm solvers. In contrast to the algorithms conventionally used to solve conservation problems, such as heuristics or simulated annealing, the exact algorithms used here are guaranteed to find optimal solutions. Furthermore, conservation problems can be constructed to optimize the spatial allocation of different management actions or zones, meaning that conservation practitioners can identify solutions that benefit multiple stakeholders. Finally, this package has the functionality to read input data formatted for the ''Marxan'' conservation planning program, and find much cheaper solutions in a much shorter period of time than ''Marxan''.
== References ==
{{reflist}}
== External links ==
* {{cite web | url = https://marxansolutions.org/ | title = MARXAN Homepage, information and download }}
* {{cite web | url = http://pacmara.org/tikiwiki/tiki-index.php?page=Marxan+Resources+and+Training | title = Marxan resources and training materials, PacMARA Marxan course information }}
* {{cite web | url = http://depts.washington.edu/mpanews/MPA57.htm | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160303181925/http://depts.washington.edu/mpanews/MPA57.htm | archive-date = 3 March 2016 | title = Using Computer Software To Design Marine Reserve Networks: Planners Discuss Their Use Of Marxan | work = MPA News }}
* {{cite report | vauthors = Gordon SN, Johnson KN, Reynolds KM, Crist P, Brown N | title = Decision support systems for forest biodiversity evaluation of current systems and future needs. Final Report-Project A-10 | publisher = National Commission on Science and Sustainable Forestry. | url = http://ncseonline.org/NCSSF/DSS/Documents/search/detail.cfm?key=MARXAN | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070927215653/http://ncseonline.org/NCSSF/DSS/Documents/search/detail.cfm?key=MARXAN | archive-date = 2007-09-27 }}
{{Conservation of species}}
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
[[Category:Decision support systems]]
[[Category:Protected areas]] |
Debt-for-nature swap | '''Debt-for-nature swaps''' are financial transactions in which a portion of a [[developing nation]]'s foreign debt is forgiven in exchange for local investments in environmental conservation measures.
==History==
The debt-for-nature swaps concept was first given birth by [[Thomas Lovejoy]] of the [[World Wildlife Fund]] in 1987 as an opportunity to deal with the problems of developing-nation indebtedness and its consequent deleterious effect on the environment.<ref name=Visser>{{cite journal |last1=Visser |first1=Dana R. |first2=Guillermo A. |last2=Mendoza |year=1994 |title=Debt-for-Nature Swaps in Latin America |journal=Journal of Forestry |volume=92 |issue=6 |pages=13–6 |url=http://www.ingentaconnect.com/openurl?genre=article&issn=0022-1201&volume=92&issue=6&spage=13&epage=16&aulast=Visser }}</ref> In the wake of the [[Latin American debt crisis]] that resulted in steep reductions to the environmental conservation ability of highly indebted nations, Lovejoy suggested that ameliorating debt and promoting conservation could be done at the same time. Since the first swap occurred between [[Conservation International]] and Bolivia in 1987, many national governments and conservation organizations have engaged in debt-for-nature swaps. Most swaps occur in tropical countries, which contain many [[biodiversity|diverse species]] of flora and fauna.<ref name=Reilly>{{cite book |last1=Reilly |first1=William |year=2006 |chapter=Using International Finance to Further Conservation: The First 15 Years of Debt-for-Nature Swaps |pages=197–214 |chapter-url={{Google books|HuPwt987R7gC|page=197|plainurl=yes}} |title=Sovereign Debt at the Crossroads: Challenges and Proposals for Resolving the Third World Debt Crisis |publisher=Oxford University Press |editor1-first=Chris |editor1-last=Jochnick |editor2-first=Fraser A. |editor2-last=Preston |isbn=978-0-19-803752-1 }}</ref> Also, countries that have engaged in debt-for-nature swaps typically have several threatened or endangered species, experience rapid [[deforestation]], and have relatively stable, often democratic, political systems.<ref name=Deacon>{{cite journal |doi=10.2307/3147074 |jstor=3147074 |title=The Structure of an Environmental Transaction: The Debt-for-Nature Swap |journal=Land Economics |volume=73 |issue=1 |pages=1–24 |year=1997 |last1=Deacon |first1=Robert T |last2=Murphy |first2=Paul }}</ref> Since 1987, debt-for-nature agreements have generated over US$1 billion for conservation in developing countries.<ref name=Sheikh>{{cite web |first=Pervaze A. |last=Sheikh |date=March 30, 2010 |title=Debt-for-Nature Initiatives and the Tropical Forest Conservation Act: Status and Implementation |url=https://www.cbd.int/financial/debtnature/g-inventory2010.pdf |publisher=Congressional Research Service }}</ref>
==Process==
The financing mechanism for debt-for-nature swaps is an agreement among the funder(s), the national government of the debtor country, and the conservation organization(s) using the funds. The national government of the indebted country agrees to a payment schedule on the amount of the debt forgiven, usually paid through the nation’s central bank, in local currency or ponds. The process is shown in Figure 1.
Participation in debt-for-nature swaps has been restricted primarily to countries where the risk of default on debt payments is high.<ref name=Greiner>{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/j.landusepol.2006.07.001 |title=Supporting on-farm biodiversity conservation through debt-for-conservation swaps: Concept and critique |journal=Land Use Policy |volume=24 |issue=2 |pages=458–71 |year=2007 |last1=Greiner |first1=Romy |last2=Lankester |first2=Allyson }}</ref> In these circumstances, the funder can purchase the debt at well below its [[face value]].
[[File:Debt-for-nature.png|thumb|Figure 1: The general mechanics of a debt-for-nature swap.]]
==Types==
In a '''commercial debt-for-nature swap''' or '''three-party debt-for-nature swap''', a [[non-governmental organization]] (NGO) acts as the funder/donor and purchases debt titles from commercial banks on the [[secondary market]]. Since the late 1980s, organizations such as [[Conservation International]], [[The Nature Conservancy]], and the [[World Wildlife Fund]] have participated in international debt-for-nature swaps. The NGO transfers the debt title to the debtor country, and in exchange the country agrees to either enact certain environmental policies or endow a government bond in the name of a conservation organization, with the aim of funding conservation programs. In total, recorded third-party debt-for-nature swaps have generated nearly US$140 million in conservation funding from 1987-2010 (see Table 1).<ref name=Sheikh />
'''Bilateral debt-for-nature swaps''' take place between two governments. In a bilateral swap, a creditor country forgives a portion of the public bilateral debt of a debtor nation in exchange for environmental commitments from that country.<ref name=Deacon /> An example of a bilateral swap occurred when the U.S. Government, under the Enterprise for the Americas Initiative, forgave a portion of Jamaica's official debt obligations and allowed the payments on the balance to go into national funds that finance environmental conservation. These funds established the Environmental Foundation of Jamaica in 1993. '''Multilateral debt-for-nature swaps''' are similar to bilateral swaps but involve international transactions of more than two national governments. Recorded bilateral and multilateral debt-for-nature swaps have generated nearly US$900 million in total conservation funding from 1987-2010 (see Table 1).<ref name=Sheikh /> A closely related form of debt swap is a debt-for-efficiency swap.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1057/ejdr.2013.34 |title=Financing the Clean Development Mechanism through Debt-for-Efficiency Swaps? Case Study Evidence from a Uruguayan Wind Farm Project |journal=The European Journal of Development Research |volume=26 |issue=1 |pages=142–59 |year=2013 |last1=Cassimon |first1=Danny |last2=Prowse |first2=Martin |last3=Essers |first3=Dennis |s2cid=53524876 |url=http://lup.lub.lu.se/record/5152380 |hdl=10067/910030151162165141 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>
==Participation and yields==
The following table shows the countries which have received funds from swaps and the total recorded funds generated by each kind of swap.<br />
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+'''Table 1. Recorded DFNS Transactions by Country, Conservation Funds Generated, 1987-2010 (Millions US$)'''<ref name=Sheikh />
|-
! scope="col" width="100"| Country !!scope="col" width="100"| Three-party Swap Funding !!scope="col" width="100"| Non-US Bilateral and Multilateral Swap Funding!!scope="col" width="100"| US Bilateral Swap Funding !! scope="col" width="100"|Total
|-
| Argentina || || ||$3.1||$3.1
|-
| Bangladesh || || ||$8.5||$8.5
|-
| Belize || || ||$9.0||$9.0
|-
| Bolivia ||$3.1||$9.6||$21.8||$34.5
|-
| Botswana || || ||$8.3||$8.3
|-
| Brazil ||$2.2|| || ||$2.2
|-
| Bulgaria || ||$16.2|| ||$16.2
|-
| Cameroon|| ||$25.0|| ||$25.0
|-
| Chile|| || ||$18.7||$18.7
|-
| Colombia|| ||$12.0||$51.6||$63.6
|-
| Costa Rica||$42.9||$43.3||$26.0||$112.2
|-
| Dominican Republic||$0.6|| || ||$0.6
|-
| Ecuador||$7.4||$10.8|| ||$18.2
|-
| Egypt|| ||$29.6|| ||$29.6
|-
| El Salvador|| ||$6.0||$55.2||$61.2
|-
| Ghana||$1.1|| || ||$1.1
|-
| Guatemala||$1.4|| ||$24.4||$25.8
|-
| Guinea Bissau|| ||$0.4|| ||$0.4
|-
| Honduras|| ||$21.4|| ||$21.4
|-
| Indonesia|| || ||$30.0||$30.0
|-
| Jamaica||$0.4|| ||$37.5||$37.9
|-
| Jordan|| ||$45.5|| ||$45.5
|-
| Madagascar||$30.9||$14.8|| ||$45.8
|-
| Mexico||$4.2||$0.0|| ||$4.2
|-
| Nicaragua|| ||$2.7|| ||$2.7
|-
| Nigeria||$0.1|| || ||$0.1
|-
| Panama|| || ||$20.9||$20.9
|-
| Paraguay|| || ||$7.4||$7.4
|-
| Peru||$12.2||$52.7||$58.4||$123.3
|-
| Philippines||$29.1||$21.9||$8.3||$59.3
|-
| Poland||$0.1||$141.0|| ||$141.1
|-
| Syria|| ||$15.9|| ||$15.9
|-
| Tanzania|| ||$18.7|| ||$18.7
|-
| Tunisia|| ||$1.6|| ||$1.6
|-
| Uruguay|| || ||$7.0||$7.0
|-
| Vietnam|| ||$10.4|| ||$10.4
|-
| Zambia||$2.5|| || ||$2.5
|-
| Total by Swap Type||$138.1||$499.6||$396.2||$1,033.9
|}
===Funders===
[[Nature Conservancy]], [[Leonardo DiCaprio|Leonardo DiCaprio Foundation]], Oak Foundation and [[Global Environment Facility]] have previously provided funds to pay to the debts.<ref>{{Cite web | url=http://www.undp.org/content/sdfinance/en/home/solutions/debt-for-nature-swaps.html | title=Debt for nature swaps | access-date=2017-10-23 | archive-date=2018-01-02 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180102123551/http://www.undp.org/content/sdfinance/en/home/solutions/debt-for-nature-swaps.html | url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web | url=https://www.leonardodicaprio.org/ldf-supports-first-ever-debt-for-nature-swap-in-seychelles/ | title=LDF Supports First Ever Debt-for-Nature Swap in Seychelles | access-date=2017-10-23 | archive-date=2016-09-17 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160917013402/http://leonardodicaprio.org/ldf-supports-first-ever-debt-for-nature-swap-in-seychelles/ | url-status=dead }}</ref>
==Benefits==
Debt for nature swaps have often been described as agreements in which all parties benefit and that there are no disadvantages. The benefits to the debtor country, creditor, and conservation organizations are outlined below.
===For debtors===
Through a debt-for-nature swap, a debtor country reduces its total outstanding external debt. The debtor country is able to buy back part of its debt in more favorable terms and pay for conservation initiatives rather than debt service.<ref name="Potier">{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/0264-8377(91)90034-G |title=Debt-for-nature swaps |journal=Land Use Policy |volume=8 |issue=3 |pages=211–3 |year=1991 |last1=Potier |first1=Michael }}</ref> This leads to higher international purchasing power for the debtor country.<ref name="Cassimon">{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2010.10.001 |title=The pitfalls and potential of debt-for-nature swaps: A US-Indonesian case study |journal=Global Environmental Change |volume=21 |issue=1 |pages=93–102 |year=2011 |last1=Cassimon |first1=Danny |last2=Prowse |first2=Martin |last3=Essers |first3=Dennis |url=http://lup.lub.lu.se/record/5152375 |hdl=10067/798940151162165141 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> Also, some argue that converting outstanding debts in USD to local currency debts lowers the long-term debt burden on developing countries.<ref name=Sheikh /><ref name=Greiner /> Additionally, debt-for-nature terms enable long-term planning and funding.<ref name=Greiner />
If the country is interested in funding conservation, debt-for-nature swaps provide an additional source of funds for that purpose. In contrast to [[debt-for-equity swap]]s, debt-for-nature swaps do not compromise national sovereignty since no property exchange takes place.<ref name=Potier />
Environmental benefits to the debtor country include but are not limited to:
* promoting [[sustainable development|responsible resource use]]
* helping to preserve [[biodiversity]]
* maintaining [[ecosystem services]]
* reducing [[deforestation]]<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1111/j.1573-7861.2011.01245.x |title=Do Commercial Debt-for-Nature Swaps Matter for Forests? A Cross-National Test of World Polity Theory |journal=Sociological Forum |volume=26 |issue=2 |pages=381–410 |year=2011 |last1=Shandra |first1=John M |last2=Restivo |first2=Michael |last3=Shircliff |first3=Eric |last4=London |first4=Bruce }}</ref>
Investment in conservation also demonstrates economic returns. For example, Costa Rica has put debt-for-nature funds to good use in establishing and improving parks and preserves, and it has seen marked improvements in tourism, improved water quality, and increased energy output even in the short term.<ref name=Potier />
===For creditors===
Creditors see debt-for-nature swaps as a method to rid themselves of high-risk claims. By selling the debt claim, they can re-invest the proceeds from the sale in higher-performing ventures. Creditors faced with low-performance loans may also seek to limit their exposure, that is, to avoid further lending to debtor countries until their loans are serviced.<ref name=Greiner/>
===For conservation organizations===
Debt-for-nature agreements are a long-term source of funding for conservation initiatives, so both international organizations acting as donors and local organizations using funds are able to further their goals of conservation. The donor organizations also purchase the debt at a value below its face value and usually redeem it above its market value. In this way, swaps are thought to generate conservation funds at a discount.<ref name=Greiner />
==Decline==
The decline in the number of debt-for-nature swaps in recent years likely results in part from the higher prices of commercial debt in secondary markets.<ref name=Cassimon /><ref name=Resor>{{cite journal |last1=Resor |first1=J.P. |year=1997 |title=Debt-for-nature swaps: a decade of experience and new directions for the future |journal=Unasylva |url=http://www.fao.org/docrep/w3247e/w3247e06.htm }}</ref> In the late 1980s and early 1990s, conservation organizations could purchase relatively large debt obligations on the secondary market at highly discounted rates. During this period, conservation organizations and national governments negotiated swaps at a rate of approximately five agreements per year. Since 2000, the number of swap agreements has dropped to about two per year.<ref name=Sheikh />
Additionally, other agreements for [[debt restructuring]] and cancellation, such as the Heavily Indebted Poor Countries (HIPC) initiative, lower a developing country’s debt obligation by much more than the relatively small contribution debt-for-nature swaps make.<ref name=Sheikh />
Also, debt-for-nature swaps have undergone thorough critique by skeptics; these criticisms may have contributed to the decline of the debt-for-nature financing mechanism.
==Criticism==
===Overstated financial benefits===
Debt-for-nature swaps produce only minor debt reductions and generate far less funding than the face value of the debt purchased in the secondary market.<ref name=Cassimon /> The amount of public debt relieved by debt-for-nature swaps, even in the countries that participate in swaps regularly, accounts for less than 1% of total external debt.<ref name=Didia>{{cite journal |doi=10.1080/00213624.2001.11506382 |title=Debt-for-Nature Swaps, Market Imperfections, and Policy Failures as Determinants of Sustainable Development and Environmental Quality |journal=Journal of Economic Issues |volume=35 |issue=2 |pages=477–86 |year=2016 |last1=Didia |first1=Dal |s2cid=156065544 }}</ref>
Also, if the indebted country does not engage in conservation in the absence of a debt-for-nature agreement, the swap may not provide the indebted country a [[welfare economics|social welfare improvement]] or any [[fiscal space]] in the national budget.<ref name=Cassimon /><ref name=Garvie>{{cite journal |last1=Garvie |first1=Devon A. |year=2002 |title=When are Debt for Nature Swaps Welfare—Improving? |journal=International Review of Economics and Business |volume=49 |issue=2 |pages=165–73 |url=http://econ.queensu.ca/faculty/garvie/mini/garviedfns.pdf }}</ref> The government of the indebted country is still responsible for payment of the debt, albeit to a conservation organization rather than to the creditor. Also, the funds produced through the agreement may replace other forms of aid, debt assistance, or conservation funding.
===Misdirection of funds===
Critics of debt-for-nature swaps argue that they do not generate funds where the needs are greatest.<ref name=Didia /> Early in the history of debt-for-nature swaps, nearly three-quarters of the total funds generated went to Costa Rica, while other countries with needs equal to or exceeding those of Costa Rica did not receive any.<ref name=Kraemer>{{cite journal |doi=10.1177/107049659300200203 |title=Policy Responses to Tropical Deforestation: Are Debt-for-Nature Swaps Appropriate? |journal=The Journal of Environment & Development |volume=2 |issue=2 |pages=41–65 |year=1993 |last1=Kraemer |first1=Moritz |last2=Hartmann |first2=Jörg |s2cid=151041138 }}</ref> Brazil, for example, has had limited involvement in debt-for-nature swaps though it has experienced rapid deforestation.<ref name=Sheikh />
===Environmental degradation and external debt===
Research has shown that debt relief alone does not spur environmental conservation. Though debt shows a positive correlation with deforestation levels, most researchers believe that highly indebted countries lack political institutions and enforcement structures that would limit [[environmental degradation]].<ref name=Didia /> Heavily indebted countries may engage in high levels of deforestation due to shortsighted policies.<ref name=Bhattarai>{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/S0305-750X(01)00019-5 |title=Institutions and the Environmental Kuznets Curve for Deforestation: A Crosscountry Analysis for Latin America, Africa and Asia |journal=World Development |volume=29 |issue=6 |pages=995–1010 |year=2001 |last1=Bhattarai |first1=Madhusudan |last2=Hammig |first2=Michael }}</ref> Some suggest that the solutions to environmental degradation are effective political institutions, democracy, property rights, and market structures,<ref name=Didia /> and this development theory matches many of the principles of the [[Washington Consensus]]. Others suggest that primarily wealth creation and increased income have a positive impact on environmental conservation.<ref name=Bhattarai /> This approach considers an environmental [[Kuznets curve]], by which environmental degradation increases, reaches a tipping point, then decreases as income or wealth increases.
===Insufficient funding of environmental protection===
Ultimately, the responsibility of conservation lies with the local non-governmental organization implementing the protection measures. Debt-for-nature swaps are only effective when the conservation organizations are respected by local residents, have a good financial management capacity, and have a good relationship with government and other non-governmental organizations.<ref name=Potier /><ref name=Resor />
===Impacts on the poor===
Debt for nature swaps are usually actioned by an indebted nation's elite, not the peasantry who may traditionally have owned or at least used the land in question. Land rights are often expressed in different ways and ownership takes many forms. Some early debt-for-nature swaps tended to overlook the people living on the land set aside for conservation.<ref name=Choudry>{{cite web |last=Choudry |first=Aziz |date=October 2003 |title=Conservation International: Privatizing Nature, Plundering Biodiversity |work=Seedling |url=https://www.grain.org/es/article/entries/406-conservation-international-privatizing-nature-plundering-biodiversity }}</ref> Subsequent swaps have sought to include local residents, especially indigenous peoples, in the decision making process and the management of lands.<ref name=Reilly /> Although "seeking" to include does not mean that local residents have been included. Reports of recent debt swap cases in Madagascar, for instance, indicate local resentment towards conservation projects.<ref name=Eurozine>{{cite web |first=Maarja |last=Kaaristo |title=The reluctant anthropologist | website=eurozine.com | date=29 July 2007 | url=http://www.eurozine.com/articles/2008-02-28-bloch-en.html | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160131133942/http://www.eurozine.com/articles/2008-02-28-bloch-en.html | archive-date=January 31, 2016 | url-status=dead}}</ref>
===Meddling in the internal affairs===
It was feared that the however well-intentioned environmental protection programs could be perceived as middlesome and imperialistic.<ref name="ecocolonialism">{{cite journal |last1=Dillon |first1=Nina M. |title=The Feasibility of Debt-For-Nature Swaps |journal=North Carolina Journal of International Law and Commercial Regulation |date=1991 |volume=16 |pages=127 |url=https://heinonline.org/HOL/LandingPage?handle=hein.journals/ncjint16&div=15&id=&page= |access-date=28 August 2022}}</ref> The establishment of [[national parks]] in Africa has in some cases led to the impoverishment and displacement of local populations.<ref name=safeafricans>{{cite journal |last1=Nelson |first1=Robert H. |title=Environmental Colonialism: "Saving" Africa from Africans |journal=The Independent Review |date=2003 |volume=8 |issue=1 |pages=65–86 |jstor=24562597 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/24562597 |issn=1086-1653}}</ref> This kind of intervention was labeled as environmental or [[eco-colonialism]].<ref name="ecocolonialism"/><ref name=safeafricans/>
==See also==
* [[Green Imperialism]]
==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
[[Category:Environmentalism]]
[[Category:Debt]] |
Exclosure | {{Short description|Area protected from livestock grazing}}
{{Distinguish|Enclosure}}
[[File:Ruba Dirho.jpg|thumb|Ruba Dirho exclosure in [[Tigray Region|Tigray]]]]
[[File:Bee exclosure.jpg|thumb|An insect exclosure used to investigate pollination. A specific bee species is inserted into the exclosure with no other pollinators present.]]
An '''exclosure''', in an area being used extensively for grazing, is a limited area from which unwanted [[browsing (herbivory)|browsing]] animals, such as domestic [[cattle]] or wildlife such as [[deer]], are excluded by fencing or other means.<ref>{{cite journal |last1= Cleemput |first1= Stijn |last2= Muys |first2= Bart |last3= Kleinn |first3= Christoph |last4= Janssens |first4= Marc J.J. |date= 2004|title= Biomass estimation techniques for enclosures in a semi-arid area: a case study in Northern Ethiopia |url= http://www.tropentag.de/2004/abstracts/full/3.pdf |access-date= 19 Aug 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1= Ubuy|first1= Mengesteab Hailu |last2= Eid |first2= Tron |last3= Bollandsås |first3= Ole Martin |last4= Birhane |first4= Emiru |date= 21 May 2018|title= Aboveground biomass models for trees and shrubs of exclosures in the drylands of Tigray, northern Ethiopia |journal= Journal of Arid Environments|volume= 156 |pages= 9–18|doi= 10.1016/j.jaridenv.2018.05.007|doi-access= free |bibcode= 2018JArEn.156....9U }}</ref>
==Environmental protection==
Most commonly, exclosures are areas that are set aside for regreening.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Aerts |first1=R |last2=Nyssen |first2=J|last3=Mitiku Haile |title= On the difference between "exclosures" and "enclosures" in ecology and the environment |journal=Journal of Arid Environments |date=2009|volume=73 |issue=8 |pages= 762–763 |doi=10.1016/j.jaridenv.2009.01.006 |bibcode=2009JArEn..73..762A |url=https://lirias.kuleuven.be/handle/123456789/239842 }}</ref> Wood harvesting and livestock range are not allowed there.
=== Effects on environment ===
The establishment of an exclosure has positive effects on:
* [[biodiversity]]<ref name="ALN2019">{{cite book |last1=Aerts |first1=R. |last2=Lerouge |first2=F. |last3=November |first3=E. |title=Birds of forests and open woodlands in the highlands of Dogu'a Tembien. In: Geo-trekking in Ethiopia's Tropical Mountains - The Dogu'a Tembien District |date=2019 |publisher=SpringerNature |isbn=978-3-030-04954-6 |url=https://www.springer.com/gp/book/9783030049546}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mastewal Yami |first1=and colleagues |title= Impact of Area Enclosures on Density and Diversity of Large Wild Mammals: The Case of May Ba'ati, Douga Tembien Woreda, Central Tigray, Ethiopia |journal=East African Journal of Sciences |date=2007|volume=1 |pages=1–14 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Aerts |first1=R |last2=Lerouge |first2=F |last3=November |first3=E |last4=Lens |first4=L |last5=Hermy |first5=M |last6=Muys |first6=B |title=Land rehabilitation and the conservation of birds in a degraded Afromontane landscape in northern Ethiopia |journal=Biodiversity and Conservation |date=2008 |volume=17 |pages=53–69 |doi=10.1007/s10531-007-9230-2 |s2cid=37489450 |url=https://lirias.kuleuven.be/handle/123456789/145812 }}</ref>
* [[water infiltration]]
* protection from flooding<ref>{{cite journal |last1= Descheemaeker|first1= K. and colleagues| title= Runoff on slopes with restoring vegetation: A case study from the Tigray highlands, Ethiopia. |journal= Journal of Hydrology |date=2006 |volume=331 |issue=1–2 |pages=219–241 |doi= 10.1016/j.still.2006.07.011|bibcode= 2006JHyd..331..219D|url= https://biblio.ugent.be/publication/378900|hdl= 1854/LU-378900 |hdl-access= free }}</ref>
* [[sediment]] deposition<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Descheemaeker |first1=K. and colleagues |title= Sediment deposition and pedogenesis in exclosures in the Tigray Highlands, Ethiopia. |journal=Geoderma |date=2006 |volume=132 |issue= 3–4|pages=291–314 |doi=10.1016/j.geoderma.2005.04.027 |bibcode=2006Geode.132..291D }}</ref>
* [[carbon sequestration]]<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wolde Mekuria |first1=and colleagues |title= Restoration of Ecosystem Carbon Stocks Following Exclosure Establishment in Communal Grazing Lands in Tigray, Ethiopia |journal= Soil Science Society of America Journal |date=2011 |volume=75 |issue=1 |pages=246–256|doi=10.2136/sssaj2010.0176 |bibcode=2011SSASJ..75..246M }}</ref>
=== Economic benefits ===
In developing countries, people commonly have economic benefits from these exclosures through grass harvesting, beekeeping and other [[non-timber forest product]]s.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bedru Babulo |first1=and colleagues |title= Economic valuation methods of forest rehabilitation in exclosures |journal=Journal of the Drylands |date=2006 |volume=1 |pages=165–170 }}</ref> The local inhabitants also consider it as “land set aside for future generations”.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Jacob |first1=M. and colleagues | title= Exclosures as Primary Option for Reforestation in Dogu'a Tembien. In: Geo-trekking in Ethiopia's Tropical Mountains - The Dogu'a Tembien District |date=2019 |publisher=SpringerNature |isbn=978-3-030-04954-6 |url=https://www.springer.com/gp/book/9783030049546}}</ref>
=== Carbon credits ===
Exclosures have as an additional benefit that the surrounding communities may receive [[carbon credit]]s for the [[Carbon sequestration|sequestered]] CO<sub>2</sub>,<ref name="chapter">{{cite book |last1=Reubens |first1=B. and colleagues | title= Research-based development projects in Dogu'a Tembien. In: Geo-trekking in Ethiopia's Tropical Mountains - The Dogu'a Tembien District |date=2019 |publisher=SpringerNature |isbn=978-3-030-04954-6 |url=https://www.springer.com/gp/book/9783030049546}}</ref> as part of a [[carbon offset]] programme.<ref name="vivo">[https://www.planvivo.org/project-network/ethiotrees-tembien-highlands/ EthioTrees on Plan Vivo website]</ref>
In the [[Tigray Region]], in [[Ethiopia]], several exclosures are managed by the [[EthioTrees]] project. The revenues are then reinvested in the villages, according to the priorities of the communities;<ref name="davines">[https://www.davines.com/blogs/projects/ethiotrees EthioTrees on Davines website]</ref> it may be for an additional class in the village school, a water pond, conservation in the exclosures, or a store for [[incense]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Moens |first1=T |title=Geo-trekking in Ethiopia's Tropical Mountains |last2=Lanckriet |first2=S |last3=Jacob |first3=M |chapter=Boswellia Incense in the Giba River Gorge |date=2019 |publisher=Springer Nature |pages=293–300 |doi=10.1007/978-3-030-04955-3_19 |series=GeoGuide |isbn=978-3-030-04954-6 |s2cid=199113310 }}</ref>
==Range management==
Exclosures are sometimes constructed by government agencies that manage livestock use on public lands—a practice in which private owners of cattle pay, though often only a nominal sum, for the right to graze their livestock on the public lands.{{fact|date=January 2020}}
[[File:Exclusion plot on Island Saddle.jpg|thumb|An exclusion plot on [[Island Saddle]] in the [[South Island]] of New Zealand. Introduced browsing mammals often have a detrimental effect on New Zealand's native vegetation.]]
==Experimental sites==
One purpose of the exclosure is to determine how the area would develop (in [[biodiversity]], vegetation height, [[ecology|ecological]] characteristics, etc.) if grazing were not conducted.{{fact|date=January 2020}}
==Protection of humans==
Another purpose is to demarcate an area safe for humans by excluding potentially deadly animals. For example, a beach may have a shark net around it to prevent sharks from attacking human swimmers. Another example is at wild animal preserves which provide fenced in areas for humans to safely watch lions, tigers, or other large predators.{{fact|date=January 2020}}
==See also==
*[[Predator proof fence]]
==References==
{{Reflist}}
==External links==
*{{cite journal |last1=Aerts |first1=R. |last2=Nyssen |first2=J. |last3=Haile |first3=M. |title=On the difference between 'exclosures' and 'enclosures' in ecology and the environment |journal=Journal of Arid Environments |date=1 August 2009 |volume=73 |issue=8 |pages=762–763 |doi=10.1016/j.jaridenv.2009.01.006 |bibcode=2009JArEn..73..762A |url=https://lirias.kuleuven.be/handle/123456789/239842 }}
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20100610211330/http://tpyoung.ucdavis.edu/KLEE/index.html The Kenya Long-term Exclosure Experiment] - An exclosure experiment in Africa with both livestock and wildlife.
*[http://www.mikehudak.com/PhotoEssays/BurntCreek2002/index.html Burnt Creek Exclosure] - photos of a [[Bureau of Land Management]] exclosure in the [[Pahsimeroi River|Pahsimeroi River Valley]] of [[Idaho]]
[[Category:Land management]]
[[Category:Environmental conservation]] |
Biophilia hypothesis | {{See also|Ecological empathy}}{{Short description|Idea that humans innately seek connections with the natural world}}
The '''biophilia hypothesis''' (also called BET) suggests that humans possess an innate tendency to seek connections with [[nature]] and other forms of life. [[E. O. Wilson|Edward O. Wilson]] introduced and popularized the hypothesis in his book, ''Biophilia'' (1984).<ref>{{cite book|last=Wilson|first=Edward O.|title=Biophilia|year=1984|publisher=[[Harvard University Press]]|location=[[Cambridge, Massachusetts|Cambridge, MA]]|isbn=0-674-07442-4|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/biophilia00wils}}</ref> He defines biophilia as "the urge to affiliate with other forms of life".<ref>Kellert & Wilson 1995, p. 416.</ref>
== Natural affinity for living systems ==
"Biophilia" is an innate affinity of life or living systems. The term was first used by [[Erich Fromm]] to describe a [[Erich Fromm|psychological orientation]] of being attracted to all that is alive and vital.<ref>{{cite book|last=Fromm|first=Erich|title=The Heart of Man|url=https://archive.org/details/heartofmanitsgen00from|url-access=registration|year=1964|publisher=[[Harper & Row]]}}</ref> Wilson uses the term in a related sense when he suggests that biophilia describes "the connections that human beings subconsciously seek with the rest of life." He proposed the possibility that the deep affiliations humans have with other life forms and nature as a whole are rooted in our biology. Both positive and negative (including phobic) affiliations toward natural objects (species, phenomenon) as compared to artificial objects are evidence for biophilia.
Although named by Fromm, the concept of biophilia has been proposed and defined many times over. [[Aristotle]] was one of many to put forward a concept that could be summarized as "love of life". Diving into the term ''philia'', or friendship, Aristotle evokes the idea of reciprocity and how friendships are beneficial to both parties in more than just one way, but especially in the way of happiness.<ref>Santas, Aristotelis. "Aristotelian Ethics And Biophilia." Ethics & The Environment 19.1 (2014): 95-121. https://www.academia.edu/13211214/Aristotelian_Ethics_and_Biophilia</ref>
The hypothesis has since been developed as part of theories of [[evolutionary psychology]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/28181961 |title=The Biophilia hypothesis |date=1993 |others=Stephen R. Kellert, Edward O. Wilson |isbn=1-55963-148-1 |location=Washington, D.C. |oclc=28181961}}</ref> Taking on an evolutionary perspective people are drawn towards life and nature can be explained in part due to our evolutionary history of residing in natural environments, only recently in our history have we shifted towards an urbanized lifestyle.<ref name=":0" /> These connections to nature can still be seen in people today as people gravitate towards, identify with, and desire to connect with nature.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Riechers |first1=Maraja |last2=Martín-López |first2=Berta |last3=Fischer |first3=Joern |date=2022 |title=Human–nature connectedness and other relational values are negatively affected by landscape simplification: insights from Lower Saxony, Germany |journal=Sustainability Science |language=en |volume=17 |issue=3 |pages=865–877 |doi=10.1007/s11625-021-00928-9 |s2cid=233187431 |issn=1862-4065|doi-access=free }}</ref> These connections are not limited to any one component part of nature, in general people show connections to a wide range of natural things including plants, animals, and environmental landscapes.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Frumkin |first=Howard |date=2001 |title=Beyond toxicity: human health and the natural environment |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0749379700003172 |journal=American Journal of Preventive Medicine |language=en |volume=20 |issue=3 |pages=234–240 |doi=10.1016/S0749-3797(00)00317-2|pmid=11275453 }}</ref> One possible explanation is that our ancestors who had stronger connections to nature would hold an evolutionary advantage over less connected people as they would have better knowledge and therefore access to food, water, and shelter. In a broader and more general sense research has suggested that our modern urban environments are not suited for minds that evolved in natural environments.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Buss |first=David M. |date=2000 |title=The evolution of happiness. |url=http://doi.apa.org/getdoi.cfm?doi=10.1037/0003-066X.55.1.15 |journal=American Psychologist |language=en |volume=55 |issue=1 |pages=15–23 |doi=10.1037/0003-066X.55.1.15 |pmid=11392858 |issn=1935-990X}}</ref>
Human preferences toward things in [[nature]], while refined through experience and culture, are hypothetically the product of biological evolution. For example, adult mammals (especially humans) are generally attracted to baby mammal faces and find them [[Cuteness|appealing]] across species. The large eyes and small features of any young mammal face are far more appealing than those of the mature adults. Similarly, the hypothesis helps explain why<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-05-19 |title=Affiliate Program |url=https://betvisa1.in/affiliate-program/ |access-date=2022-08-15 |language=en-US}}</ref> ordinary people care for and sometimes risk their lives to save domestic and wild animals, and keep plants and flowers in and around their homes. In the book ''Children and Nature: Psychological, Sociocultural, and Evolutionary Investigations'' edited by Peter Kahn and Stephen Kellert,<ref name="childrennature">{{cite book|title=Children and nature: psychological, sociocultural, and evolutionary investigations|first1=Peter |last1=Kahn|first2=Stephen |last2=Kellert|year=2002 |publisher=[[MIT Press]]|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RCjdKjI_qIcC&pg=PA153|isbn=0-262-11267-1 |page=153}}</ref> the importance of animals, especially those with which a child can develop a nurturing relationship, is emphasized particularly for early and middle childhood. Chapter 7 of the same book reports on the help that animals can provide to children with [[Autistic Spectrum|autistic-spectrum]] disorders.<ref>{{Cite book|chapter=Animals in Therapeutic Education: Guides into the Liminal State|first=Aaron|last=Katcher|title=Children and Nature: Psychological, Sociocultural, and Evolutionary Investigations|year=2002|editor1-last=Kahn|editor1-first=Peter H.|editor2-last=Kellert|editor2-first=Stephen R|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RCjdKjI_qIcC&pg=PA179|publisher=MIT Press|isbn=0-262-11267-1|access-date=January 30, 2013}}</ref>
== Biophilic design ==
{{main|Biophilic design}}In [[architecture]], biophilic design is a [[sustainable design]] strategy that incorporates reconnecting people with the natural environment.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Söderlund |first1=Jana |last2=Newman |first2=Peter |last3=Söderlund |first3=Jana |last4=Newman |first4=Peter |date=2015 |title=Biophilic architecture: a review of the rationale and outcomes |url=http://www.aimspress.com/rticle/doi/10.3934/environsci.2015.4.950 |journal=AIMS Environmental Science |language=en |volume=2 |issue=4 |pages=950–969 |doi=10.3934/environsci.2015.4.950 |issn=2372-0352|hdl=20.500.11937/8179 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> It may be seen as a necessary complement to [[Sustainable architecture|green architecture]], which decreases the environmental impact of the built world but does not address human reconnection with the natural world.<ref name="kellert-film">{{cite web | url=http://www.stephenrkellert.net/biophilic-design.html | title=Biophilic Design: The Architecture of Life | work=www.stephenrkellert.net | access-date=29 February 2016 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160306072842/http://www.stephenrkellert.net/biophilic-design.html | archive-date=6 March 2016 | url-status=dead | df=dmy-all }}</ref>
Caperna and Serafini<ref>Caperna A., Serafini S. (2015). [https://www.acco.be/nl-be/items/9789462920880/Architecture-and-sustainability--critical-perspectives-for-integrated-design Biourbanism as new epistemological perspective between Science, Design and Nature] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200321082826/https://www.acco.be/nl-be/items/9789462920880/Architecture-and-sustainability--critical-perspectives-for-integrated-design |date=2020-03-21 }}. In Architecture & Sustainability: Critical Perspectives. "Generating sustainability concepts from an architectural perspective", KU Leuven - Faculty of Engineering, Belgium). {{ISBN|9789462920880}}</ref> define biophilic design as that kind of architecture, which is able to supply our inborn need of connection to life and to the vital processes. Biophilic space has been defined as the environment that strengthens life and supports the sociological and psychological components.<ref>Caperna, A., Tracada, E. (2012). [http://derby.openrepository.com/derby/handle/10545/294089 Biourbanism for a Healthy City. Biophilia and sustainable urban theories and practices] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180524082448/http://derby.openrepository.com/derby/handle/10545/294089 |date=2018-05-24 }}. Bannari Amman Institute of Technology (BIT), Sathyamangalam, India, 3–5 September 2012</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Joye |first=Yannick |date=2007 |title=Architectural Lessons from Environmental Psychology: The Case of Biophilic Architecture |url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1037/1089-2680.11.4.305 |journal=Review of General Psychology |language=en |volume=11 |issue=4 |pages=305–328 |doi=10.1037/1089-2680.11.4.305 |s2cid=14485090 |issn=1089-2680}}</ref> These spaces can have positive health effects on people including reducing mental health issues in stressful spaces such as prisons,<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Söderlund |first1=Jana |last2=Newman |first2=Peter |date=2017 |title=Improving Mental Health in Prisons Through Biophilic Design |url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0032885517734516 |journal=The Prison Journal |language=en |volume=97 |issue=6 |pages=750–772 |doi=10.1177/0032885517734516 |s2cid=149435309 |issn=0032-8855}}</ref> reducing chronic pain,<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Huntsman |first1=Dorothy Day |last2=Bulaj |first2=Grzegorz |date=2022-02-16 |title=Healthy Dwelling: Design of Biophilic Interior Environments Fostering Self-Care Practices for People Living with Migraines, Chronic Pain, and Depression |journal=International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health |language=en |volume=19 |issue=4 |pages=2248 |doi=10.3390/ijerph19042248 |issn=1660-4601 |pmc=8871637 |pmid=35206441|doi-access=free }}</ref> improving memory, and lowering blood pressure.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Yin |first1=Jie |last2=Zhu |first2=Shihao |last3=MacNaughton |first3=Piers |last4=Allen |first4=Joseph G. |last5=Spengler |first5=John D. |date=2018 |title=Physiological and cognitive performance of exposure to biophilic indoor environment |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0360132318300064 |journal=Building and Environment |language=en |volume=132 |pages=255–262 |doi=10.1016/j.buildenv.2018.01.006}}</ref> Examples of this being studied in medical settings include having a window looking out to see living plants is also shown to help speed up the healing process of patients in hospitals.<ref>{{cite web |title=How Hospital Gardens Help Patients Heal |website=[[Scientific American]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230621074523/https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/nature-that-nurtures/ |archive-date=2023-06-21 |url-status=live |url=https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/nature-that-nurtures/}}</ref> Similarly, having plants in the same room as patients in hospitals also speeds up their healing process.<ref>{{cite journal| pmid=19715461 | doi=10.1089/acm.2009.0075 | volume=15 | title=Ornamental indoor plants in hospital rooms enhanced health outcomes of patients recovering from surgery | year=2009 | journal=J Altern Complement Med | pages=975–80 | last1 = Park | first1 = SH | last2 = Mattson | first2 = RH| issue=9 }}</ref>
== Biophilia and conservation ==
Because of our technological advancements and more time spent inside buildings and cars disconnects us from nature, biophilic activities and time spent in nature may be strengthening our connections as humans to nature, so people continue to have strong urges to reconnect with nature.
The concern for a lack of connection with the rest of nature outside of us, is that a stronger disregard for other plants, animals and less appealing wild areas could lead to further ecosystem degradation and species loss. Therefore, reestablishing a connection with nature has become more important in the field of conservation.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Miller |first1=James R. |title=Biodiversity conservation and the extinction of experience |journal=Trends in Ecology & Evolution |date=1 August 2005 |volume=20 |issue=8 |pages=430–434 |doi=10.1016/j.tree.2005.05.013 |pmid=16701413 |s2cid=11639153 |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0169534705001643 |issn=0169-5347}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last1=Rogers|first1=Kara|title=Biophilia Hypothesis|url=http://www.britannica.com/science/biophilia-hypothesis|website=[[Encyclopædia Britannica Online]] |access-date=10 Feb 2015}}</ref><ref>Milstein, T. & Castro-Sotomayor, J. (2020). Routledge Handbook of Ecocultural Identity. London, UK: Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781351068840</ref> Examples would be more available green spaces in and around cities, more classes that revolve around nature and implementing smart design for greener cities that integrate ecosystems into them such as biophilic cities. These cities can also become part of wildlife corridors to help with migrational and territorial needs of other animals.<ref>{{cite web|title=Biophilic Cities | url=http://biophiliccities.org|website=Biophilic Cities|access-date=10 Mar 2015}}</ref>
==Biophilia in fiction==
Canadian author [[Hilary Cunningham Scharper|Hilary Scharper]] explicitly adapted [[E. O. Wilson|E.O. Wilson]]'s concept of biophilia for her ecogothic novel, ''Perdita''.<ref>{{Cite web|title = Arousing Biophilia|url = http://arts.envirolink.org/interviews_and_conversations/EOWilson.html|website = arts.envirolink.org|access-date = 2015-11-03|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160304081136/http://arts.envirolink.org/interviews_and_conversations/EOWilson.html|archive-date = 2016-03-04|url-status = dead}}</ref> In the novel, Perdita (meaning "the lost one") is a [[mythology|mythological figure]] who brings biophilia to humanity.
==Biophilia and technology==
American philosopher Francis Sanzaro has put forth the claim that because of advances in technological connectivity, especially the internet of things (IOT), our world is becoming increasingly driven by the biophilia hypothesis, namely, the desire to connect to forms of life.<ref>See Sanzaro's extended treatment of how algorithms are helping fuel techno-biophilia, "[https://www.amazon.com/Society-Elsewhere-Gravest-Threat-Humanity/dp/1785354701 Society Elsewhere: Why the Gravest Threat to Humanity Will Come From Within]."</ref> Sanzaro applies Wilson's theories to trends in artificial intelligence and psychoanalysis and argues that technology is not an antithesis to nature, but simply another form of seeking intimacy with nature.
== See also ==
* [[Biocultural evolution]]
* [[Biomimetics]]
* [[Deep ecology]]
* [[Ecopsychology]]
* [[Environmental psychology]]
* [[Healthy building]]
* [[Nature deficit disorder]]
* [[Ecosexuality]]
==References==
{{reflist|30em}}
==External links==
{{Wikiversity|Human-animal bond}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20140420131338/http://www.wilderdom.com/evolution/BiophiliaHypothesis.html Edward O. Wilson's Biophilia Hypothesis]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20090803114304/http://www.canada.com/vancouversun/news/westcoasthomes/story.html?id=80606332-50e8-42d7-bb11-9f92a2dc3045 Biophilia, biomimicry, and sustainable design]
* [http://www.terrapinbrightgreen.com/report/economics-of-biophilia/ The Economics of Biophilia] - Terrapin Bright Green
* ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20050403152846/http://biophile.co.za/biophilia Biophilia]'', website for ''Biophilia'' magazine
*[https://www.researchgate.net/publication/286055566_Biophilic_design_patterns_Emerging_nature-based_parameters_for_health_and_well-being_in_the_built_environment "Biophilic Design Patterns: Emerging Nature-Based Parameters for Health and Well-Being in the Built Environment"] by Catherine O. Ryan, William D Browning, Joseph O Clancy, Scott L Andrews, Namita B Kallianpurkar (ArchNet-''International Journal of Architectural Research'')
* [http://www.terrapinbrightgreen.com/report/14-patterns/ 14 Patterns of Biophilic Design] - Terrapin Bright Green
* [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2760412 "Biophilia: Does Visual Contact with Nature Impact on Health and Well-Being?"] - National Center for Biotechnology Information
* [http://www.slideshare.net/antcap/biophilic-design-by-antonio-caperna "Biophilic Architecture and Biophilic Design"] by Antonio Caperna, International Society of Biourbanism
* [http://derby.openrepository.com/derby/handle/10545/294089 "Biourbanism for a healthy city: biophilia and sustainable urban theories and practices"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180524082448/http://derby.openrepository.com/derby/handle/10545/294089 |date=2018-05-24 }} by Antonio Caperna and Eleni Tracada, University of Derby (UK) - UDORA Repository
* [http://www.biourbanism.org/introduction-to-biophilic-design/ "Introduction to Biophilic Biophilic Design"] by Antonio Caperna, International Society of Biourbanism
* [https://journalofbiourbanism.org/2018/03/20/jbu-volume-vi-12-2017/ "Biophilic Design"], Journal of Biourbanism Volume VI (1&2/2017) by Antonio Caperna Editor in Chief, International Society of Biourbanism
{{Environmentalism}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Biophilia Hypothesis}}
[[Category:Biophilia hypothesis| ]]
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
[[Category:Environmental psychology]]
[[Category:Evolutionary psychology]]
[[Category:Hypotheses]]
[[Category:Biological hypotheses]] |
Floristic Quality Assessment | {{short description|Ecological integrity assessment}}
'''Floristic Quality Assessment''' (FQA) is a tool used to assess an area's ecological integrity based on its plant [[species composition]].<ref name=fqa1995/> Floristic Quality Assessment was originally developed in order to assess the likelihood that impacts to an area "would be irreversible or irretrievable...to make standard comparisons among various open land areas, to set [[conservation (ethic)| conservation]] priorities, and to monitor site management or [[habitat restoration|restoration]] efforts."<ref name=swink1994/> The concept was developed by [[Gerould Wilhelm]] in the 1970s in a report on the natural lands of [[Kane County, Illinois]].<ref name=wilhelm1977/> In 1979 Wilhelm and [[Floyd Swink]] codified this "scoring system" <ref name="Young">{{cite book|last1=Young|first1=Dick|date=1994|title=Kane County Wild Plants And Natural Areas, 2nd edition|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/31441931|page=4|publisher=Kane County Forest Preserve District|oclc=31441931 }}</ref>
for the 22-county Chicago Region.<ref name=swink1979/>
==Coefficient of conservatism==
[[File:North American Regions with C-values for their flora.tif|thumb|Regions with C-values assigned to their flora ({{as of|2019|lc=y}})<ref name=spyreas2019/>]]
Each plant species in a region is assigned a '''coefficient of conservatism''', also known as a '''C-value''', ranging between 0 and 10.<ref name=fqa1995 /> A plant species with a higher score (e.g. 10) has a ''lower'' tolerance to [[environmental degradation]] such as [[overgrazing]] or [[land development|development]] and therefore is naturally restricted to undisturbed, [[remnant natural area|remnant habitats]]. Non-native plants are either assigned a C-value of 0 or are excluded from assessments.<ref name=freyman2016/> In the Chicago Region, 84% of the native plant species have a C-value of 4 or greater.<ref name=fotcr2017/> Plants with a C-value of 4 or greater rarely naturally move from a remnant area to surrounding degraded land.<ref name=fotcr2017 /> For example, the federally [[Endangered species|endangered]] ''[[Dalea foliosa]]'' has a '''C-value''' of 10.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://peterchen.nicerweb.com/pix/PRAIRIE/|title=Russell R. Kirt Prairie Plant Gallery, College of DuPage|last1=Chen|first1=Peter}}</ref>
C-values are assigned within specific ecological and geographic regions by [[botanist|botanical experts]] familiar with the species' [[autecology]] within the respective regions.<ref name=matthews2015/> {{As of|February 2018}}, there were more than 50 different FQA databases ranging from the [[Gulf Coastal Plain]] to western [[Washington (state)|Washington]], though most databases represented regions in the eastern and central United States and Canada.<ref name=universalfqa>{{cite web |url=http://universalfqa.org |title=Universal FQA|access-date=2018-02-16}}</ref><ref name=spyreas2019>{{Cite journal|last=Spyreas|first=Greg|date=2019|title=Floristic Quality Assessment: a critique, a defense, and a primer|journal=Ecosphere|language=en|volume=10|issue=8|pages=e02825|doi=10.1002/ecs2.2825|bibcode=2019Ecosp..10E2825S |issn=2150-8925|doi-access=free}}</ref>
The '''mean C-value''' (<math> \bar{C}</math>) is calculated based on an inventory of plants. An area with a native mean C-value of 3.5 or higher likely has "sufficient floristic quality to be of at least marginal natural area quality."<ref name="swink1994" /> Remnant natural areas with mean C-values of 4.0 or greater are [[environmental mitigation|unmitigable]].<ref name="fotcr2017" />
==Floristic Quality Index==
The '''Floristic Quality Index''' (FQI, or '''Rating Index''' according to Swink and Wilhelm<ref name="swink1994" />{{rp|855}}) is calculated by multiplying the mean C value by the square root of the total number of species:
<math> \bar{C}\sqrt{n}</math>
For example, the FQI for [https://www2.illinois.gov/dnr/INPC/Pages/Area2KaneNelsonLakeMarsh.aspx Nelson Lake Marsh] was 78 in 1994 <ref name="Young"/>{{rp|186}} and that for [[Russell R. Kirt Prairie]] was about 30 in 1999.<ref name="Sixteen">{{cite journal|last1=Kirt|first1=Russell R.|editor1-last=Bernstein|editor1-first=Neil P.|editor2-last=Ostrander|editor2-first=Laura J.|date=2001|title=A Sixteen Year Assessment of Vegetational Changes in Prairie Seed Broadcast and Seedling Transplant Sites|url=https://digicoll.library.wisc.edu/cgi-bin/EcoNatRes/EcoNatRes-idx?type=article&id=EcoNatRes.NAPC17&did=EcoNatRes.NAPC17.RKirt|journal=Proceedings of the Seventeenth North American Prairie Conference|pages=98–106|publisher=University of Wisconsin Digital Collections}}</ref>
==References==
{{Reflist|refs=
<ref name=fotcr2017>{{cite book |last1=Wilhelm |first1=Gerould |last2=Rericha |first2=Laura |author-link2=Laura Rericha |date=2017 |title=Flora of the Chicago Region: A Floristic and Ecological Synthesis}}</ref>
<ref name=fqa1995>{{cite report |first1=Gerould |last1=Wilhelm |author-link1=Gerould Wilhelm |first2=Linda |last2=Masters |date=June 1995 |title=Floristic Quality Assessment in the Chicago Region and Application Computer Programs |publisher=The Morton Arboretum}}</ref>
<ref name=freyman2016>{{cite journal |last1=Freyman |first1=William A. |last2=Master |first2=Linda A. |last3=Packard |first3=Stephen |date=2016 |title=The Universal Floristic Quality Assessment (FQA) Calculator: an online tool for ecological assessment and monitoring |journal=Methods in Ecology and Evolution |volume=7 |issue= 3|pages=380–383 |doi=10.1111/2041-210X.12491 |bibcode=2016MEcEv...7..380F |doi-access=free }}</ref>
<ref name=matthews2015>{{cite journal |last1=Matthews |first1=Jeffrey W. |last2=Spyreas |first2=Greg |last3=Long |first3=Colleen M. |title=A null model test of Floristic Quality Assessment: Are plant species' Coefficients of Conservatism valid? |journal=Ecological Indicators |date=May 2015 |volume=52 |pages=1–7 |doi=10.1016/j.ecolind.2014.11.017}}</ref>
<ref name=swink1979>{{cite book |last1=Swink |first1=Floyd |last2=Wilhelm |first2=Gerould |date=1979 |title=Plants of the Chicago Region, 3rd Edition}}</ref>
<ref name=swink1994>{{cite book |last1=Swink |first1=Floyd |author-link1=Floyd Swink |last2=Wilhelm |first2=Gerould |date=1994 |title=Plants of the Chicago Region, 4th Edition}}</ref>
<ref name=wilhelm1977>{{cite report |first1=Gerould S. |last1=Wilhelm |date=1977 |title=Ecological assessment of open land areas in Kane County, Illinois |publisher=Kane County Urban Development Division}}</ref>
}}
==External links==
* [http://universalfqa.org Universal FQA]
[[Category:Biodiversity]]
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
[[Category:Community ecology]]
[[Category:Measurement of biodiversity]]
[[Category:Index numbers]]
[[Category:Summary statistics for categorical data]] |
Perceptual trap | [[File:Perceptual Trap.png|thumb|350px|right|Conceptual representation (2x2 table) of [[source–sink dynamics|sources and sinks]], [[ecological traps]], and perceptual traps. Adapted from Patten and Kelly (2010)<ref name=Patten/>]]
A '''perceptual trap''' is an [[ecology|ecological]] scenario in which [[environmental change]], typically [[Human impact on the environment|anthropogenic]], leads an organism to avoid an otherwise high-quality [[habitat]]. The concept is related to that of an [[ecological trap]], in which environmental change causes preference towards a low-quality habitat.
==History==
In a 2004 article discussing [[source–sink dynamics]], James Battin did not distinguish between high-quality habitats that are preferred or avoided, labelling both "sources".<ref name=Battin>Battin, J. (2004) [http://courses.nres.uiuc.edu/nres407/Readings/battin_ecological%20traps.pdf "When good animals love bad habitats: ecological traps and the conservation of animal populations"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110813074823/http://courses.nres.uiuc.edu/nres407/Readings/battin_ecological%20traps.pdf |date=2011-08-13 }} (PDF), ''Conservation Biology,'' '''18''': 1482–1491</ref> The latter scenario, in which a high-quality habitat is avoided, was first recognised as an important phenomenon in 2007 by Gilroy and Sutherland,<ref name=Gilroy>Gilroy, J. J., and W. J. Sutherland. (2007) "Beyond ecological traps: perceptual errors and undervalued resources," ''Trends in Ecology and Evolution,'' '''22''': 351–356</ref> who described them as "undervalued resources". The term "perceptual trap" was first proposed by Michael Patten and Jeffrey Kelly in a 2010 article.<ref name=Patten>Patten, M.A., and Kelly, J.F. (2010) "Habitat selection and the perceptual trap," ''Ecological Applications,'' '''20''': 2148–2156.</ref> Hans Van Dyck<ref name=VanDyck>Van Dyck, H. (2012) "Changing organisms in rapidly changing anthropogenic landscapes: the significance of the 'Umwelt'-concept and functional habitat for animal conservation," ''Evolutionary Applications,'' '''5(2)''': : 144–153.</ref> argues that the term is misleading because perception is also a major component in other cases of trapping.
==Description==
Animals use discrete environmental cues to select habitat.<ref name=Kristan>Kristan, W. B. (2003) "The role of habitat selection behavior in population dynamics: source–sink systems and ecological
traps," ''Oikos,'' '''103''': 457–468</ref> A perceptual trap occurs if change in an environmental cue leads an organism to avoid a high-quality habitat.<ref name=Patten/> It differs, therefore, from simple habitat avoidance, which may be a correct decision given the habitat's quality.<ref name=Patten/> The concept of a perceptual trap is related to that of an [[ecological trap]], in which environmental change causes preference towards a low-quality habitat.<ref name=Patten/> There is expected to be strong [[natural selection]] against ecological traps, but not necessarily against perceptual traps, as [[Allee effect]]s may restrict a population’s ability to establish itself.<ref name=Patten/>
==Examples==
[[File:Lesser Prairie Chicken.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Patten and Kelly<ref name=Patten/> propose that a perceptual trap is acting on populations of the [[lesser prairie chicken]]]]
To support the concept of a perceptual trap, Patten and Kelly<ref name=Patten/> cited a study of the [[lesser prairie chicken]] (''Tympanuchus pallidicinctus''). The species' natural environment, [[shinnery oak]] [[grassland]], is often treated with the [[herbicide]] [[tebuthiuron]] to increase grass cover for [[grazing|cattle grazing]].<ref name=Patten/> Herbicide treatment resulted in less shrub cover, a habitat cue that caused female lesser prairie-chickens to avoid the habitat in favour of untreated areas. However, females who nested in herbicide-treated areas achieved comparable nesting successes and [[clutch size]]s to those in untreated areas.<ref name=Patten/> Patten and Kelly suggest that the adverse effects of tebuthiuron treatment on nesting success are countered by various effects, such as greater nest concealment through increased grass cover.<ref name=Patten/> Therefore, female birds are erroneously avoiding a high-quality habitat. Patten and Kelly<ref name=Patten/> also cited as a possible perceptual trap the cases of the [[spotted towhee]] (''Pipilo maculatus'') and [[rufous-crowned sparrow]] (''Aimophila ruficeps''), which tend to avoid habitat fragments, even though birds nesting in habitat fragments achieve increased nesting success due to a reduction in [[snake]] predation.<ref name=Patten2>Patten, M. A., and D. T. Bolger (2003) "Variation in top-down control of avian reproductive success across a fragmentation gradient", ''Oikos,'' '''101''':479–488</ref>
==See also==
* [[Ecological trap]]
* [[Source–sink dynamics]]
* [[Type I and type II errors]]
==References==
{{reflist}}
[[Category:Environmental terminology]]
[[Category:Biology terminology]]
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
[[Category:Ecology]]
[[Category:Landscape ecology]] |
Category:Marine conservation | {{Commons category|Marine conservation}}
{{portal|Environment|Marine life|Oceans}}
{{Cat main|Marine conservation}}
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
[[Category:Oceans]] |
Index of conservation articles | {{Short description|none}}
This is an '''index of conservation topics'''. It is an alphabetical index of articles relating to [[conservation biology]] and conservation of the [[natural environment]].
{{horizontal TOC}}
==A==
* [[Abiotic stress]] - [[Adaptive management]] - [[Adventive plant]] - [[Aerial-seeding]] - [[Agreed Measures for the Conservation of Antarctic Fauna and Flora]] - [[Agroecology]] - [[American Prairie Foundation]] - [[Anti-whaling]] - [[Assisted migration]] - [[Assisted migration of forests in North America]]
==B==
* [[Biodegradation]] - [[Biodiversity]] - [[Biodiversity action plan]] - [[Biodiversity hotspot]] - [[Biogenic]] - [[Biodiversity Outcomes Framework]] - [[Biogeographic realm]] - [[Biogeography]] - [[Bioinformatics]] - [[Biological integrity]] - [[Biomagnification]] - [[Biomaterial]] - [[Biome]] - [[Biomimicry]] - [[Biomonitoring]] - [[Biophilia hypothesis]] - [[Biophilic design]] - [[Biopiracy]] - [[Bioregion]] - [[Bioregionalism]] - [[Biosafety]] - [[Biosalinity]] - [[Biosecurity]] - [[Biosphere]] - [[Biosphere reserve]] - [[Biostatistics]] - [[Biosurvey]] - [[Biotechnology]] - [[Bioterrorism]] - [[Biotransference]] - [[Bird conservation]] - [[Blue-listed]] - [[Bottom trawling]] - [[Buffer zone]]
==C==
* [[Captive breeding]] - [[Cave conservation]] - [[Charismatic megafauna]] - [[CITES]] - [[Common species]] - [[Community-based conservation]] - [[Compassionate conservation]] - [[Conference of Governors]] - [[Conservation agriculture]] - [[Conservation area]] - [[Conservation authority (Canada)|Conservation authority]] - [[Conservation biology]] - [[Conservation Commons]] - [[Conservation community]] - [[Conservation dependent]] - [[Conservation designation]] - [[Conservation development]] - [[Conservation easement]] - [[Conservation ethic]] - [[Conservation grazing]] - [[Conservation headland]] - [[Conservation land trust]] – [[Conservation management system]] - [[Conservation movement]] - [[Conservation of American bison]] - [[Conservation park (disambiguation)|Conservation park]] - [[Conservation photography]] - [[Conservation psychology]] - [[Conservation-reliant species]] - [[Conservation status]] - [[Conservation welfare]] - [[Convention on Biological Diversity]] - [[COTES]] - [[Critically endangered species]] - [[Cross-boundary subsidy]] - [[Cross-fostering]] (conservation of resources)
==D==
* [[Data deficient]] - [[Debt-for-nature swap]] - [[Deforestation]]
==E==
* [[Ecoregion]] - [[Ecosystem restoration]] - [[Ecosystem services]] - [[Ecological crisis]] - [[Ecological island]] - [[Ecological niche]] - [[Ecological selection]] - [[Ecotone]] - [[Edge effect]] - [[Endangered species]] - [[Endangered species recovery plan]] - [[Endemic Bird Area]] - [[Endemism]] - [[Environmental stewardship]] - [[Evolutionarily Significant Unit]] - [[Extinction]] - [[Extinction event]] - [[Ex-situ conservation]] - [[Extinct in the wild]] - [[Extinction threshold]]
==F==
* [[Flagship species]] - [[Forest fragmentation]] - [[Fortress conservation]]
==G==
* [[Gaia theory (science)|Gaia theory]] - [[Gaia philosophy]] - [[Gaian (disambiguation)|Gaian]] - [[Game Warden]] - [[GPS Wildlife Tracking]] - [[GRANK]] - [[Gap analysis (conservation)|Gap analysis]] - [[Genetic pollution]] - [[Genetic erosion]] - [[Global strategy for plant conservation]] - [[Greenprinting]]
==H==
* [[Habitat (ecology)|Habitat]] - [[Habitat fragmentation]] - [[Habitat conservation]] - [[Habitat destruction]] - [[Habitat fragmentation]] - [[Habitats Directive]]
==I==
* [[Illegal logging]] - [[Important Bird Area]] - [[In-situ conservation]] - [[Index of biological integrity]] - [[Indianapolis Prize]] - [[Indigenous and community conserved area]] - [[The Institute for Bird Populations]] - [[Integrated Conservation and Development Project]] - [[Invader potential]] - [[Island restoration]]
==K==
* [[Keystone species]]
==L==
* [[Landscape-scale conservation]] - [[Lists of ecoregions by country]] - [[List of extinct birds]] - [[List of solar energy topics]] - [[List of threatened species of the Philippines]] - [[Local nature reserve]] - [[Logging]] - [[Latent extinction risk]] - [[Lower risk]]
==M==
* [[Marine Protected Area]] - [[Marine conservation]] - [[Marine park]] - [[Marine reserve]] - [[Marxan]] - [[Millennium Seed Bank Partnership]] - [[Minimal impact code]] - [[Mission blue butterfly habitat conservation]] - [[Monarch butterfly conservation in California]]
==N==
* [[National Cleanup Day]] - [[National Conservation Commission]] - [[National Conservation Exposition]] - [[National marine conservation area]] - [[National nature reserve]] - [[National park]] - [[NATURA 2000]] - [[Natural heritage]] - [[Natural monument]] – [[Nature reserve]] - [[Nest box]] - [[North American Game Warden Museum]]
==O==
* [[Old growth forest]] - Operation Wallacea
==P==
* [[Penguin sweater]] - [[Pollinator decline]] - [[Protected area]]
==R==
* [[Ramsar site]] - [[Rare species]] - [[Red-listed]] - [[Regional Forest Agreement]] - [[Regional Red List]] - [[Reforestation]] - [[Reintroduction]] - [[Resource management]] - [[Restoration ecology]] - [[Rewilding (conservation biology)|Rewilding]] - [[Roadless area conservation]]
==S==
* [[Scaling pattern of occupancy]] - [[Seedbank]] - [[Site based conservation]] - [[Site of Nature Conservation Interest]] - [[Site of Special Scientific Interest]] - [[Small population size]] - [[Soil salination]] - [[Soils retrogression and degradation]] - [[Solar air conditioning]] - [[Solar energy]] - [[Solar thermal energy]] - [[Shifting baseline syndrome]] - [[Soil conservation]] - [[Source-sink dynamics]] - [[Special Area of Conservation]] - [[Special Protection Area]] - [[Species richness]] - [[Species Survival Plan]] - [[Species of concern]] - [[Species translocation]] - [[Stewardship cessation]] [[Strict nature reserve]] - [[Subnational rank]] - [[Sustainability]] - [[Sustainable forest management]] - [[Sustainable habitat]] - [[Sustainable industries]] - [[Sustainable procurement]] - [[Sustainable seafood]] - [[Sustainable yield]]
==T==
* [[Terraforming]] - [[Terrestrial ecoregion]] - [[The Nature Conservancy]] - [[30 by 30]] - [[Threatened species]] - [[Trail ethics]] - [[Translocation (Wildlife conservation)|Translocation]]
==U==
* [[Urban biosphere reserve]]
==V==
* [[Variable retention]] - [[Vulnerability and susceptibility in conservation biology]] - [[Vulnerable species]]
==W==
* [[Water Conservation Order]] - [[Waterbar]] - [[Waterway restoration]] - [[Weed]] - [[Wetland conservation]] - [[Wilderness area]] - [[Wildlife corridor]] - [[Wildlife Conservation Society]] - [[Wildlife reserve]] - [[Wildlife trade]] - [[Woodland management]] - [[World Cleanup Day]] - [[World Commission on Protected Areas]] - [[World Conference on Breeding Endangered Species in Captivity as an Aid to their Survival]] - [[World Heritage Site]] - [[World Network of Biosphere Reserves]]
==Z==
* [[Zoo]] - [[Zoogeography]]
==Conventions, protocols, panels and summits==
* [[Biosafety protocol]] - [[Montreal]] 2000
* [[Convention on Biological Diversity]]
* [[Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals]]
* [[Convention on Fishing and Conservation of Living Resources of the High Seas]]
* [[Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora]] ([[CITES]])
* [[Convention on the Protection and Use of Transboundary Watercourses and International Lakes]]
* [[Convention on Wetlands of International Importance Especially As Waterfowl Habitat]] - [[Ramsar Convention]]
* [[Earth Summit 2002]] (World Summit on Sustainable Development), [[Johannesburg]] 2002
* [[Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change]]
* [[International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling]]
* [[International Seabed Authority]]
* [[International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture]]
* [[International Tropical Timber Agreement, 1983]]
* [[IUCN protected area categories]]
* [[IUCN Red List]]
* [[United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea]]
* [[World Commission on Protected Areas]] - WCPA
==United Nations bodies==
* [[UNEP World Conservation Monitoring Centre]] (WCMC)
* [[United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization]]
* [[United Nations Environment Programme]] (UNEP)
* [[United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change]]
==See also==
{{Portal|Environment}}
* [[Index of environmental articles]]
* [[List of endangered species]]
* [[List of environmental issues]]
* [[List of invasive species]]
* [[Environmental agreements]]
* [[Environmentalism]]
{{Conservation of species}}
{{Conservation organisations}}
{{Zoos}}
{{Lists of World Heritage Sites}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Index Of Conservation Articles}}
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
[[Category:Indexes of environmental topics|Conservation Articles]]
[[Category:Nature-related lists|Conservation Articles]] |
Nondegradation standard | In [[USDA|United States agricultural]] policy, a '''nondegradation standard''' is defined in the [[2002 Farm Bill]] provisions establishing the [[Conservation Security Program]] (CSP; P.L. 107-171, Sec. 2001) to mean the level of measures required to protect and prevent degradation of 1 or more natural resources, as determined by the [[Natural Resources Conservation Service]]. Participating farmers’ conservation security plans must address resources of concern and meet the appropriate nondegradation standard.
== References ==
*{{CRS|article = Report for Congress: Agriculture: A Glossary of Terms, Programs, and Laws, 2005 Edition|url = http://ncseonline.org/nle/crsreports/05jun/97-905.pdf|author= Jasper Womach}}
[[Category:United States Department of Agriculture]]
[[Category:Environmental conservation]] |
Maximum sustainable yield | {{Short description|Management concept}}
In [[population ecology]] and [[economics]], '''maximum sustainable yield''' ('''MSY''') is theoretically, the largest yield (or catch) that can be taken from a species' stock over an indefinite period. Fundamental to the notion of [[sustainable harvest]], the concept of MSY aims to maintain the population size at the point of maximum growth rate by harvesting the individuals that would normally be added to the population, allowing the population to continue to be productive indefinitely. Under the assumption of [[logistic function|logistic growth]], resource limitation does not constrain individuals' reproductive rates when populations are small, but because there are few individuals, the overall yield is small. At intermediate population densities, also represented by half the [[carrying capacity]], individuals are able to breed to their maximum rate. At this point, called the maximum sustainable yield, there is a surplus of individuals that can be harvested because growth of the population is at its maximum point due to the large number of reproducing individuals. Above this point, density dependent factors increasingly limit breeding until the population reaches carrying capacity. At this point, there are no surplus individuals to be harvested and yield drops to zero. The maximum sustainable yield is usually higher than the [[optimum sustainable yield]] and [[maximum economic yield]].
MSY is extensively used for [[fisheries management]]. Unlike the logistic ([[Milner Baily Schaefer|Schaefer]]) model,<ref name="Schaefer">{{Citation
| last = Schaefer
| first = Milner B.
| title = Some aspects of the dynamics of populations important to the management of commercial marine fisheries
| journal = Bulletin of the Inter-American Tropical Tuna Commission
| volume = 1
| issue = 2
| year = 1954
| pages = 27–56
| url = http://aquacomm.fcla.edu/3530/
| doi = 10.1007/BF02464432
| s2cid = 189885665
| edition = reprinted in Bulletin of Mathematical Biology, Vol. 53, No. 1/2, pp. 253-279, 1991
| hdl = 1834/21257
| hdl-access = free
}}</ref> MSY has been refined in most modern fisheries models and occurs at around 30% of the unexploited population size.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Bousquet | first1 = N. | last2 = Duchesne | first2 = T. | last3 = Rivest | first3 = L.-P. | year = 2008 | title = Redefining the maximum sustainable yield for the Schaefer population model including multiplicative environmental noise | url = http://mat.ulaval.ca/pages/duchesne/BDR.pdf | journal = Journal of Theoretical Biology | volume = 254 | issue = 1| pages = 65–75 | doi = 10.1016/j.jtbi.2008.04.025 | pmid = 18571675 | bibcode = 2008JThBi.254...65B }}</ref><ref name ="Thorpe">{{cite journal | last1 = Thorpe | first1 = R.B. | last2 = LeQuesne | first2 = W.J.F. | last3 = Luxford | first3 = F. | last4 = Collie | first4 = J.S. | last5 = Jennings | first5 = S. | year = 2015 | title = Evaluation and management implications of uncertainty in a multispecies size-structured model of population and community responses to fishing | journal = Methods in Ecology and Evolution | volume = 6 | issue = 1| pages = 49–58 | doi = 10.1111/2041-210X.12292 | pmid = 25866615 | pmc = 4390044 }}</ref> This fraction differs among populations depending on the life history of the species and the age-specific selectivity of the fishing method.
==History==
The concept of MSY as a fisheries management strategy developed in [[Belmar, New Jersey|Belmar]], [[New Jersey]], in the early 1930s.<ref name="Russell1931">{{cite journal|last1=Russell|first1=E. S.|title=Some theoretical Considerations on the "Overfishing" Problem|journal=ICES Journal of Marine Science|volume=6|issue=1|year=1931|pages=3–20|issn=1054-3139|doi=10.1093/icesjms/6.1.3}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Hjort | first1 = J. | last2 = Jahn | first2 = G. | last3 = Ottestad | first3 = P. | year = 1933 | title = The optimum catch | journal = Hvalradets Skrifter | volume = 7 | pages = 92–127 }}</ref><ref name="Graham1935">{{cite journal|last1=Graham|first1=M.|title=Modern Theory of Exploiting a Fishery, and Application to North Sea Trawling|journal=ICES Journal of Marine Science|volume=10|issue=3|year=1935|pages=264–274|issn=1054-3139|doi=10.1093/icesjms/10.3.264}}</ref> It increased in popularity in the 1950s with the advent of surplus-production models with explicitly estimate MSY.<ref name="Schaefer"/> As an apparently simple and logical management goal, combined with the lack of other simple management goals of the time, MSY was adopted as the primary management goal by several international organizations (e.g., [[International Whaling Commission|IWC]], [[Inter-American Tropical Tuna Commission|IATTC]],<ref>IATTC, Inter-American Tropical Tuna Commission</ref> [[International Commission for the Conservation of Atlantic Tunas|ICCAT]], [[Northwest Atlantic Fisheries Organization|ICNAF]]), and individual countries.<ref name="Mace">{{cite journal | last1 = Mace | first1 = P.M. | year = 2001 | title = A new role for MSY in single-species and ecosystem approaches to fisheries stock assessment and management | url = http://courses.washington.edu/susfish/2002/p.mace.pdf | journal = Fish and Fisheries | volume = 2 | pages = 2–32 | doi = 10.1046/j.1467-2979.2001.00033.x }}</ref>
Between 1949 and 1955, the U.S. maneuvered to have MSY declared the goal of international fisheries management (Johnson 2007). The international MSY treaty that was eventually adopted in 1955 gave foreign fleets the right to fish off any coast. Nations that wanted to exclude foreign boats had to first prove that its fish were overfished.<ref name="Botsford">{{cite journal | last1 = Botsford | first1 = L.W. | last2 = Castilla | first2 = J.C. | last3 = Peterson | first3 = C.H. | year = 1997 | title = The management of fisheries and marine ecosystems | journal = Science | volume = 277 | issue = 5325 | pages = 509–515 | doi = 10.1126/science.277.5325.509 }}</ref>
As experience was gained with the model, it became apparent to some researchers that it lacked the capability to deal with the real world operational complexities and the influence of [[Trophic level|trophic]] and other interactions. In 1977, [[Peter Anthony Larkin|Peter Larkin]] wrote its epitaph, challenging the goal of maximum sustained yield on several grounds: It put populations at too much risk; it did not account for spatial variability in productivity; it did not account for species other than the focus of the fishery; it considered only the benefits, not the costs, of fishing; and it was sensitive to political pressure.<ref name="Larkin">{{cite journal|last1=Larkin|first1=P. A.|title=An epitaph for the concept of maximum sustained yield|journal=Transactions of the American Fisheries Society|volume=106|issue=1|year=1977|pages=1–11|issn=0002-8487|doi=10.1577/1548-8659(1977)106<1:AEFTCO>2.0.CO;2}}</ref> In fact, none of these criticisms was aimed at sustainability as a goal. The first one noted that seeking the absolute MSY with uncertain parameters was risky. The rest point out that the goal of MSY was not holistic; it left out too many relevant features.<ref name="Botsford"/>
Some managers began to use more conservative quota recommendations, but the influence of the MSY model for [[fisheries management]] still prevailed. Even while the scientific community was beginning to question the appropriateness and effectiveness of MSY as a management goal,<ref name="Larkin"/><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Sissenwine | first1 = M.P. | year = 1978 | title = Is MSY an adequate foundation for optimum yield? | journal = Fisheries | volume = 3 | issue = 6| pages = 22–42 | doi = 10.1577/1548-8446(1978)003<0022:IMAAFF>2.0.CO;2 }}</ref> it was incorporated into the [[United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea|1982 United Nations Convention for the Law of the Sea]], thus ensuring its integration into national and international fisheries acts and laws.<ref name="Mace"/> According to Walters and Maguire, an ‘‘institutional juggernaut had been set in motion’’, climaxing in the early 1990s with the [[Collapse of the Atlantic northwest cod fishery|collapse of northern cod]].<ref name=Lessons />
== Modelling MSY ==
=== Population growth ===
{{see also|Population growth}}
The key assumption behind all [[sustainable harvest]]ing models such as MSY is that populations of organisms grow and replace themselves – that is, they are renewable resources. Additionally it is assumed that because the growth rates, survival rates, and reproductive rates increase when harvesting reduces [[population density]],<ref name="Russell1931"/> they produce a surplus of biomass that can be harvested. Otherwise, [[sustainable harvest]] would not be possible.
Another assumption of renewable resource harvesting is that populations of [[organisms]] do not continue to grow indefinitely; they reach an equilibrium population size, which occurs when the number of individuals matches the resources available to the population (i.e., assume classic [[logistic function|logistic growth]]). At this equilibrium population size, called the [[carrying capacity]], the population remains at a stable size.<ref name="ReferenceA">Milner-Gulland and Mace 1998, pp. 14-17.</ref>
[[Image:logisticpopulationgrowth2.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Figure 1]]
The logistic model (or [[logistic function]]) is a function that is used to describe bounded [[population growth]] under the previous two assumptions. The [[logistic function]] is bounded at both extremes: when there are not individuals to reproduce, and when there is an equilibrium number of individuals (i.e., at [[carrying capacity]]). Under the logistic model, population growth rate between these two limits is most often assumed to be [[sigmoid function|sigmoidal]] (Figure 1). There is scientific evidence that some populations do grow in a logistic fashion towards a stable equilibrium – a commonly cited example is the [[logistic growth]] of [[yeast]].
The equation describing logistic growth is:<ref name="ReferenceA"/>
:: <math> N_{t} = \frac{K}{1 + \frac{K-N_0}{N_0} e^{-rt}}</math> (equation 1.1)
The parameter values are:
:: <math> N_{t}</math>=The population size at time t
:: <math> K</math>=The carrying capacity of the population
:: <math> N_{0}</math>= The population size at time zero
:: <math> r</math>= the intrinsic rate of population increase (the rate at which the population grows when it is very small)
From the logistic function, the population size at any point can be calculated as long as <math> r</math>, <math> K</math>, and <math> N_{0}</math> are known.
[[Image:growthratevs.populationsize.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Figure 2]]
Differentiating equation 1.1 give an expression for how the rate of population increases as N increases. At first, the population growth rate is fast, but it begins to slow as the population grows until it levels off to the maximum growth rate, after which it begins to decrease (figure 2).
The equation for figure 2 is the differential of equation 1.1 ([[Pierre François Verhulst|Verhulst's]] 1838 [[Logistic function#In ecology: modeling population growth|growth model]]):<ref name="ReferenceA"/>
::<math> \frac{dN}{dt} = r N \left(1 - \frac {N}{K} \right)</math> (equation 1.2)
<math> \frac{dN}{dt}</math> can be understood as the change in population (N) with respect to a change in time (t). Equation 1.2 is the usual way in which logistic growth is represented mathematically and has several important features. First, at very low population sizes, the value of <math> \frac{N}{K}</math> is small, so the population growth rate is approximately equal to <math> rN</math>, meaning the population is growing exponentially at a rate r (the intrinsic rate of population increase). Despite this, the population growth rate is very low (low values on the y-axis of figure 2) because, even though each individual is reproducing at a high rate, there are few reproducing individuals present. Conversely, when the population is large the value of <math> \frac{N}{K}</math> approaches 1 effectively reducing the terms inside the brackets of equation 1.2 to zero. The effect is that the population growth rate is again very low, because either each individual is hardly reproducing or mortality rates are high.<ref name="ReferenceA"/> As a result of these two extremes, the population growth rate is maximum at an intermediate population or half the carrying capacity (<math>N= \frac{K}{2}</math>).
=== MSY model ===
[[Image:harvestingrates.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Figure 3]]
The simplest way to model harvesting is to modify the logistic equation so that a certain number of individuals is continuously removed:<ref name="ReferenceA"/>
:: <math> \frac{dN}{dt} = rN\left(1-\frac{N}{K}\right) - H </math> (equation 1.3)
Where H represents the number of individuals being removed from the population – that is, the harvesting rate. When H is constant, the population will be at equilibrium when the number of individuals being removed is equal to the population growth rate (figure 3). The equilibrium population size under a particular harvesting regime can be found when the population is not growing – that is, when <math> \frac{dN}{dt} = 0</math>. This occurs when the population growth rate is the same as the harvest rate:
:: <math> rN\left(1-\frac{N}{K}\right) = H </math>
Figure 3 shows how growth rate varies with population density. For low densities (far from carrying capacity), there is little addition (or "recruitment") to the population, simply because there are few organisms to give birth. At high densities, though, there is intense competition for resources, and growth rate is again low because the death rate is high. In between these two extremes, the population growth rate rises to a maximum value (<math> N_{MSY}</math>). This maximum point represents the maximum number of individuals that can be added to a population by natural processes. If more individuals than this are removed from the population, the population is at risk for decline to extinction.<ref name="Jennings">Jennings, S., Kaiser, M.J. and Reynolds, J.D. (2001), [https://books.google.com/books?id=_J_E8O33E2gC&q=%22Marine+Fisheries+Ecology%22 ''Marine Fisheries Ecology''] Blackwell Science Ltd. Malden, MA. {{ISBN|0-632-05098-5}}</ref> The maximum number that can be harvested in a sustainable manner, called the maximum sustainable yield, is given by this maximum point.
Figure 3 also shows several possible values for the harvesting rate, H. At <math>H_1</math>, there are two possible population equilibrium points: a low population size (<math>N_a</math>) and a high one (<math>N_b</math>). At <math>H_2</math>, a slightly higher harvest rate, however there is only one equilibrium point (at <math> N_{MSY}</math>), which is the population size that produces the maximum growth rate. With logistic growth, this point, called the maximum sustainable yield, is where the population size is half the carrying capacity (or <math> N = \frac{K}{2}</math>). The maximum sustainable yield is the largest yield that can be taken from a population at equilibrium.
In figure 3, if <math>H</math> is higher than <math>H_2</math>, the harvesting would exceed the population's capacity to replace itself at any population size (<math> H_3</math> in figure 3). Because harvesting rate is higher than the population growth rate at all values of <math>N</math>, this rate of harvesting is not sustainable.
An important feature of the MSY model is how harvested populations respond to environmental fluctuations or illegal offtake. Consider a population at <math>N_b</math> harvested at a constant harvest level <math>H_1</math>. If the population falls (due to a bad winter or illegal harvest) this will ease density-dependent population regulation and increase yield, moving the population back to <math>N_b</math>, a stable equilibrium. In this case, a negative feedback loop creates stability. The lower equilibrium point for the constant harvest level <math>H_1</math> is not stable however; a population crash or illegal harvesting will decrease population yield farther below the current harvest level, creating a [[positive feedback]] loop leading to extinction. Harvesting at <math>N_{MSY}</math> is also potentially unstable. A small decrease in the population can lead to a positive feedback loop and extinction if the harvesting regime (<math>H_2</math>) is not reduced. Thus, some consider harvesting at MSY to be unsafe on ecological and economic grounds.<ref name="Jennings"/><ref name="Milner-Gulland and Mace 1998">Milner-Gulland, E.J., Mace, R. (1998), [https://books.google.com/books?id=SfozQRjheekC&q=%22Conservation+of+biological+resources%22 ''Conservation of biological resources''] Wiley-Blackwell. {{ISBN|978-0-86542-738-9}}.</ref> The MSY model itself can be modified to harvest a certain percentage of the population or with constant effort constraints rather than an actual number, thereby avoiding some of its instabilities.<ref name="Jennings"/>
The MSY equilibrium point is semi-stable – a small increase in population size is compensated for, a small decrease to extinction if H is not decreased. Harvesting at MSY is therefore dangerous because it is on a knife-edge – any small population decline leads to a positive feedback, with the population declining rapidly to extinction if the number of harvested stays the same.<ref name="Jennings"/><ref name="Milner-Gulland and Mace 1998"/>
The formula for maximum sustained harvest (<math>H</math>) is one-fourth the maximum population or carrying capacity (<math>K</math>) times the intrinsic rate of growth (<math>r</math>).<ref>Bolden, E.G., Robinson, W.L. (1999), [https://books.google.com/books?id=PL6r1Ir_x_oC&q=%22Wildlife+ecology+and+management%22 ''Wildlife ecology and management''] 4th ed. Prentice-Hall, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ. {{ISBN|0-13-840422-4}}</ref>
<math> H = \frac{Kr}{4}</math>
=== For demographically structured populations ===
The principle of MSY often holds for age-structured populations as well.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Reed|first=William J.|date=1980-01-01|title=Optimum Age-Specific Harvesting in a Nonlinear Population Model|jstor=2556112|journal=Biometrics|volume=36|issue=4|pages=579–593|doi=10.2307/2556112}}</ref> The calculations can be more complicated, and the results often depend on whether density dependence occurs in the larval stage (often modeled as density dependent reproduction) and/or other life stages.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2HjvNbzWuTMC |title=Optimal Control of Age-structured Populations in Economy, Demography, and the Environment |last1=Boucekkine |first1=Raouf |last2=Hritonenko |first2=Natali |last3=Yatsenko |first3=Yuri |date=2013 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1136920936 }}</ref> It has been shown that if density dependence only acts on larva, then there is an optimal life stage (size or age class) to harvest, with no harvest of all other life stages.<ref name=":0" /> Hence the optimal strategy is to harvest this most valuable life-stage at MSY.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Getz|first=Wayne M.|date=1980-01-01|title=The ultimate-sustainable-yield problem in nonlinear age-structured populations|url=https://www.mysciencework.com/publication/show/157dcc9f75a6172a154d8c9da5c7e7bb|journal=Mathematical Biosciences|language=en|volume=48|issue=3–4|pages=279–292|doi=10.1016/0025-5564(80)90062-0|issn=0025-5564|access-date=2017-01-28|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170203111733/https://www.mysciencework.com/publication/show/157dcc9f75a6172a154d8c9da5c7e7bb|archive-date=2017-02-03|url-status=dead}}</ref> However, in age and stage-structured models, a constant MSY does not always exist. In such cases, cyclic harvest is optimal where the yield and resource fluctuate in size, through time.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Optimal Harvesting of Age-structured Fish Populations|journal=Marine Resource Economics|language=en-US|doi=10.5950/0738-1360-24.2.147|year=2009|volume=24|issue=2|pages=147–169|s2cid=153448834|last1=Tahvonen|first1=Olli}}</ref> In addition, environmental stochasticity interacts with demographically structured populations in fundamentally different ways than for unstructured populations when determining optimal harvest. In fact, the optimal biomass to be left in the ocean, when fished at MSY, can be either higher or lower than in analogous deterministic models, depending on the details of the density dependent recruitment function, if stage-structure is also included in the model.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Holden|first1=Matthew H.|last2=Conrad|first2=Jon M.|date=2015-11-01|title=Optimal escapement in stage-structured fisheries with environmental stochasticity|journal=Mathematical Biosciences|volume=269|pages=76–85|doi=10.1016/j.mbs.2015.08.021|pmid=26362229}}</ref>
=== Implications of MSY model ===
Starting to harvest a previously unharvested population will always lead to a decrease in the population size. That is, it is impossible for a harvested population to remain at its original carrying capacity. Instead, the population will either stabilize at a new lower equilibrium size or, if the harvesting rate is too high, decline to zero.
The reason why populations can be sustainably harvested is that they exhibit a density-dependent response.<ref name="Jennings"/><ref name="Milner-Gulland and Mace 1998"/> This means that at any population size below K, the population is producing a surplus yield that is available for harvesting without reducing population size. Density dependence is the regulator process that allows the population to return to equilibrium after a perturbation. The logistic equation assumes that density dependence takes the form of negative feedback.<ref name="Milner-Gulland and Mace 1998"/>
If a constant number of individuals is harvested from a population at a level greater than the MSY, the population will decline to extinction. Harvesting below the MSY level leads to a stable equilibrium population if the starting population is above the unstable equilibrium population size.
=== Uses of MSY ===
MSY has been especially influential in the management of renewable biological resources such as commercially important fish and wildlife. In fisheries terms, '''maximum sustainable yield''' (MSY) is the largest average catch that can be captured from a stock under existing environmental conditions.<ref>National Research Council (NRC). 1998. Improving Fish Stock Assessments. National Academy Press, Washington, D.C.</ref> MSY aims at a balance between too much and too little harvest to keep the population at some intermediate abundance with a maximum replacement rate.
Relating to MSY, the [[maximum economic yield]] (MEY) is the level of catch that provides the maximum net economic benefits or profits to society.<ref>Clark, C.W. (1990), ''Mathematical Bioeconomics: The Optimal Management of Renewable Resources'', 2nd ed. Wiley-Interscience, New York</ref><ref>National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS). 1996. OUr Living Oceans: Report on the Status of U.S. Living Marine Resources 1995. NOAA Technical Memorandum NMFS0F/SPO-19. NMFS, Silver Springs, Md.</ref> Like [[optimum sustainable yield]], MEY is usually less than MSY.
=== Limitations of MSY approach ===
Although it is widely practiced by state and federal government agencies regulating wildlife, forests, and fishing, MSY has come under heavy criticism by ecologists and others from both theoretical and practical reasons.<ref name="Milner-Gulland and Mace 1998"/> The concept of maximum sustainable yield is not always easy to apply in practice. Estimation problems arise due to poor assumptions in some models and lack of reliability of the data.<ref name="Mace"/><ref name="Townsend">Townsend, C.R., Begon, M., and Harper, J.L. (2008), [https://books.google.com/books?id=pQTNFYPgDdEC&q=%22Essentials+of+Ecology%22 ''Essentials of Ecology''] Blackwell Publishing. {{ISBN|978-1-4051-5658-5}}</ref> Biologists, for example, do not always have enough data to make a clear determination of the population's size and growth rate. Calculating the point at which a population begins to slow from competition is also very difficult. The concept of MSY also tends to treat all individuals in the population as identical, thereby ignoring all aspects of population structure such as size or age classes and their differential rates of growth, survival, and reproduction.<ref name="Townsend"/>
As a management goal, the static interpretation of MSY (i.e., MSY as a fixed catch that can be taken year after year) is generally not appropriate because it ignores the fact that fish populations undergo natural fluctuations (i.e., MSY treats the environment as unvarying) in abundance and will usually ultimately become severely depleted under a constant-catch strategy.<ref name="Townsend"/> Thus, most fisheries scientists now interpret MSY in a more dynamic sense as the [[maximum average yield]] (MAY) obtained by applying a specific harvesting strategy to a fluctuating resource.<ref name="Mace"/> Or as an optimal "escapement strategy", where escapement means the amount of fish that must remain in the ocean [rather than the amount of fish that can be harvested]. An escapement strategy is often the optimal strategy for maximizing expected yield of a harvested, stochastically fluctuating population.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Reed|first=William J|date=1979-12-01|title=Optimal escapement levels in stochastic and deterministic harvesting models|journal=Journal of Environmental Economics and Management|volume=6|issue=4|pages=350–363|doi=10.1016/0095-0696(79)90014-7}}</ref>
However, the limitations of MSY, does not mean it performs worse than humans using their best intuitive judgment. Experiments using students in natural resource management classes suggest that people using their past experience, intuition, and best judgement to manage a fishery generate far less long term yield compared to a computer using an MSY calculation, even when that calculation comes from incorrect population dynamic models.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Holden|first1=Matthew H.|last2=Ellner|first2=Stephen P.|date=2016-07-01|title=Human judgment vs. quantitative models for the management of ecological resources|journal=Ecological Applications|language=en|volume=26|issue=5|pages=1553–1565|doi=10.1890/15-1295|pmid=27755756|issn=1939-5582|arxiv=1603.04518|s2cid=1279459}}</ref>
For a more contemporary description of MSY and its calculation see <ref name="Maunder">{{cite book|doi=10.1016/B978-008045405-4.00522-X|chapter=Maximum Sustainable Yield|title=Encyclopedia of Ecology|pages=2292–2296|year=2008|last1=Maunder|first1=M.N.|isbn=9780080454054}}</ref>
==== Orange roughy ====
{{see also|Orange roughy}}
An example of errors in estimating the [[population dynamics]] of a species occurred within the New Zealand [[Orange roughy]] fishery. Early quotas were based on an assumption that the orange roughy had a fairly short lifespan and bred relatively quickly. However, it was later discovered that the [[orange roughy]] lived a long time and had [[k-selection|bred slowly]] (~30 years). By this stage stocks had been largely depleted.{{Citation needed|date=February 2011}}
== Criticism ==
The approach has been widely criticized as ignoring several key factors involved in fisheries management and has led to the devastating collapse of many fisheries. Among [[Conservation biology|conservation biologists]] it is widely regarded as dangerous and misused.<ref name=Epitaph>Larkin PA (1977) [https://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&q=cache:0ZITmBnzlDUJ:fiesta.bren.ucsb.edu/~gsd/595e/docs/22.%2520Larkin_Epitaph_Max_Sust_Yield.pdf+Larkin+1977+%22An+epitaph+for+the+concept+of+maximum+sustained+yield%22&hl=en&gl=nz&sig=AHIEtbSBFh-w5xzWiBK7rnHSLBmolsfaWA "An epitaph for the concept of maximum sustained yield"]{{dead link|date=January 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} ''Transactions of the American Fisheries Society'', '''106''': 1–11.</ref><ref name=Lessons>{{cite journal | last1 = Walters | first1 = C | author-link = Carl Walters | last2 = Maguire | first2 = J | year = 1996 | title = Lessons for stock assessment from the northern cod collapse | journal = Reviews in Fish Biology and Fisheries | volume = 6 | issue = 2| pages = 125–137 | doi = 10.1007/bf00182340 | s2cid = 20224324 }}</ref>
== Overfishing ==
{{see also|Overfishing}}
Across the world there is a crisis in the world's fisheries.<ref>[https://www.science.org/doi/abs/10.1126/science.1132294 sciencemag.org Worm, Boris, ''et. a;.'' "Impacts of Biodiversity Loss on Ocean Ecosystem Services," ''Science'', 3 November 2006.]</ref> In recent years an accelerating decline has been observed in the productivity of many important fisheries.<ref>Christy, F.T., and Scott, A.D. (1965), ''The common Wealth in Ocean Fisheries'', Johns Hopkins Press, Baltimore</ref> Fisheries which have been devastated in recent times include (but are not limited to) the great whale fisheries, the Grand Bank fisheries of the western Atlantic, and the Peruvian anchovy fishery.<ref name="Clark 1973">{{cite journal | last1 = Clark | first1 = C.W. | year = 1973 | title = The Economics of Overexploitation | url = http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/abstract/181/4100/630 | journal = Science | volume = 118 | issue = 4100| pages = 630–634 | doi = 10.1126/science.181.4100.630 | pmid = 17736970 | bibcode = 1973Sci...181..630C | s2cid = 30839110 }}</ref> Recent assessments by the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the state of the world's fisheries indicate a levelling off of landings in the 1990s, at about 100 million tons.<ref>FAO, Review of the State of World Marine Fishery Resources, FAO Technical Paper 335 (1994).</ref>
In addition, the composition of global catches has changed.<ref>[[Callum Roberts (biologist)|Roberts, C.]] (2007), ''The Unnatural History of the Sea'', Island Press. {{ISBN|978-1-59726-102-9}}</ref> As fishers deplete larger, long-lived predatory fish species such as cod, tuna, shark, and snapper, they move down to the next level – to species that tend to be smaller, shorter-lived, and less valuable.<ref name="Pauly1998">{{cite journal|last1=Pauly|first1=D.|title=Fishing Down Marine Food Webs|journal=Science|volume=279|issue=5352|year=1998|pages=860–863|issn=0036-8075|doi=10.1126/science.279.5352.860|pmid=9452385|bibcode=1998Sci...279..860P}}</ref>
Overfishing is a classic example of the [[tragedy of the commons]].<ref name="Clark 1973"/>
== Optimum sustainable yield ==
{{see also|Optimum sustainable yield}}
In [[population ecology]] and [[economics]], '''optimum sustainable yield''' is the [[Level of Effort|level of effort]] (LOE) that maximizes the difference between total revenue and total cost. Or, where marginal revenue equals marginal cost. This level of effort maximizes the economic profit, or rent, of the resource being utilized. It usually corresponds to an effort level lower than that of maximum sustainable yield.
In [[environmental science]], '''optimum sustainable yield''' is the largest economical yield of a renewable resource achievable over a long time period without decreasing the ability of the population or its environment to support the continuation of this level of yield.
==See also==
* ''[[All the Fish in the Sea: Maximum Sustainable Yield and the Failure of Fisheries Management]]''
* [[Ecological yield]]
* [[Fisheries management]]
* [[List of harvested aquatic animals by weight]]
* [[Maximum economic yield]] (MEY)
* [[Population dynamics]]
* [[Population dynamics of fisheries]]
==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}
{{fishery science topics|expanded=management}}
{{modelling ecosystems|expanded=none}}
[[Category:Fisheries science]]
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
[[Category:Economics of sustainability]]
[[Category:Renewable resources]]
[[Category:Sustainability metrics and indices]]
[[Category:Fishing and the environment]] |
Conservation movement | {{Short description|Social and political advocacy for protecting natural resources}}
{{Distinguish|Conservatism}}
{{For|specific types of conservation|Conservation (disambiguation)}}
{{Redirect|Conservationism|biological conservationism management|Conservation biology}}
{{Party politics}}
The '''conservation movement''', also known as '''[[nature conservation]]''', is a political, environmental, and social movement that seeks to manage and protect [[natural resource]]s, including animal, fungus, and plant species as well as their habitat for the future. Conservationists are concerned with leaving the environment in a better state than the condition they found it in.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Harding|first=Russ|title=Conservationist or Environmentalist?|url=http://www.mackinac.org/9852|url-status=live|access-date=2021-05-02|website=[[Mackinac Center for Public Policy]]|language=en|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081203181206/http://www.mackinac.org/9852 |archive-date=2008-12-03 }}</ref> [[Evidence-based conservation]] seeks to use high quality scientific evidence to make conservation efforts more effective.
The early conservation movement evolved out of necessity to maintain natural resources such as [[fisheries]], [[wildlife management]], [[water]], [[soil]], as well as [[conservation (ethic)|conservation]] and [[sustainable forestry]]. The contemporary conservation movement has broadened from the early movement's emphasis on use of sustainable yield of natural resources and preservation of [[wilderness]] areas to include preservation of [[biodiversity]]. Some say the conservation movement is part of the broader and more far-reaching [[environmental movement]], while others argue that they differ both in ideology and practice. Conservation is seen as differing from [[environmentalism]] and it is generally a conservative school of thought which aims to preserve natural resources expressly for their continued [[sustainable]] use by humans.<ref>{{cite book
| last = Gifford
| first = John C.
| title = Living by the Land
| publisher = Glade House
| year = 1945
| location = Coral Gables, Florida
| pages = 8
| asin = B0006EUXGQ }}</ref>
== History ==
{{See also|Timeline of environmental events}}
===Early history===
[[File:Sylva paper 1662.jpg|right|thumb| ''Sylva, or A Discourse of Forest-Trees and the Propagation of Timber in His Majesty's Dominions,'' title page of the first edition (1664)]]
The conservation movement can be traced back to [[John Evelyn]]'s work ''[[Sylva, or A Discourse of Forest-Trees and the Propagation of Timber|Sylva]]'', presented as a paper to the [[Royal Society]] in 1662. Published as a book two years later, it was one of the most highly influential texts on [[forestry]] ever published.<ref>[[John Evelyn]], ''Sylva, Or A Discourse of Forest Trees ... with an Essay on the Life and Works of the Author by John Nisbet'', Fourth Edition (1706), reprinted London: Doubleday & Co., 1908, V1, p. lxv; online edn, March 2007 [http://www.gutenberg.org/files/20778/20778-h/20778-h.htm], accessed 29 Dec 2012. This source (John Nisbet) states: "There can be no doubt that John Evelyn, both during his own lifetime and throughout the two centuries which have elapsed since his death in 1706, has exerted more individual influence, through his charming ''Sylva'', ... than can be ascribed to any other individual." Nisbet adds that "Evelyn was by no means the first [author] who wrote on [forestry]. That honour belongs to Master [[Anthony Fitzherbert|Fitzherbert]], whose ''Boke of Husbandrie'' was published in 1534" (V1, p. lxvi).</ref> Timbre resources in England were becoming dangerously depleted at the time, and Evelyn advocated the importance of conserving the forests by managing the rate of depletion and ensuring that the cut down trees get replenished.
The field developed during the 18th century, especially in [[Prussia]] and France where scientific forestry methods were developed. These methods were first applied rigorously in [[British India]] from the early 19th century. The government was interested in the use of [[forest produce]] and began managing the forests with measures to reduce the risk of wildfire in order to protect the "household" of nature, as it was then termed. This early ecological idea was in order to preserve the growth of delicate [[teak]] trees, which was an important resource for the [[Royal Navy]].
Concerns over teak depletion were raised as early as 1799 and 1805 when the Navy was undergoing a massive expansion during the [[Napoleonic War]]s; this pressure led to the first formal conservation Act, which prohibited the felling of small teak trees. The first forestry officer was appointed in 1806 to regulate and preserve the trees necessary for shipbuilding.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://edugreen.teri.res.in/explore/forestry/history.htm|title=History of forests in India|access-date=2013-10-13|archive-date=2018-09-04|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180904091500/http://edugreen.teri.res.in/explore/forestry/history.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref>
This promising start received a setback in the 1820s and 30s, when [[laissez-faire]] economics and complaints from private landowners brought these early conservation attempts to an end.
In 1837, American poet [[George Pope Morris]] published "Woodman, Spare that Tree!", a [[Romantic poetry|Romantic]] poem urging a lumberjack to avoid an [[Oak|oak tree]] that has sentimental value. The poem was set to music later that year by [[Henry Russell (musician)|Henry Russell]]. Lines from the song have been quoted by environmentalists.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/26401592|title=Best remembered poems|date=1992|publisher=Dover Publications|others=Martin Gardner|isbn=0-486-27165-X|location=New York|pages=118|language=English|oclc=26401592}}</ref>
===Origins of the modern conservation movement===
Conservation was revived in the mid-19th century, with the first practical application of scientific conservation principles to the forests of India. The conservation ethic that began to evolve included three core principles: that human activity damaged the [[Natural environment|environment]], that there was a [[civic duty]] to maintain the environment for future generations, and that scientific, empirically based methods should be applied to ensure this duty was carried out. Sir [[James Ranald Martin]] was prominent in promoting this ideology, publishing many medico-topographical reports that demonstrated the scale of damage wrought through large-scale deforestation and desiccation, and lobbying extensively for the institutionalization of forest conservation activities in [[British India]] through the establishment of [[Indian Forest Service|Forest Departments]].<ref>Stebbing, E.P (1922)''The forests of India'' vol. 1, pp. 72-81</ref> [[Edward Percy Stebbing]] warned of [[desertification]] of India. The [[Madras]] Board of Revenue started local conservation efforts in 1842, headed by [[Alexander Gibson (botanist)|Alexander Gibson]], a professional [[botany|botanist]] who systematically adopted a forest conservation program based on scientific principles. This was the first case of state management of forests in the world.<ref>{{cite book |last=Barton |first=Greg |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WDYlNljAP5AC|title=Empire Forestry and the Origins of Environmentalism|year=2002|publisher=Cambridge University Press|page=48|isbn=9781139434607 }}</ref>
These local attempts gradually received more attention by the British government as the unregulated felling of trees continued unabated. In 1850, the [[British Association]] in Edinburgh formed a committee to study forest destruction at the behest of [[Hugh Francis Cleghorn|Hugh Cleghorn]] a pioneer in the nascent conservation movement.
He had become interested in [[Sustainable forest management|forest conservation]] in [[Mysore]] in 1847 and gave several lectures at the Association on the failure of agriculture in India. These lectures influenced the government under [[Governor-General of India|Governor-General]] [[James Broun-Ramsay, 1st Marquess of Dalhousie|Lord Dalhousie]] to introduce the first permanent and large-scale forest conservation program in the world in 1855, a model that soon spread to [[British empire|other colonies]], as well the [[United States]]. In the same year, Cleghorn organised the [[Tamil Nadu Forest Department|Madras Forest Department]] and in 1860 the department banned the use [[shifting cultivation]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.hindu.com/mp/2007/11/05/stories/2007110550080500.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071108213227/http://www.hindu.com/mp/2007/11/05/stories/2007110550080500.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=November 8, 2007|title=A life for forestry|last=MUTHIAH|first=S. |date=Nov 5, 2007|work=[[The Hindu]]|access-date=2009-03-09}}</ref> Cleghorn's 1861 manual, ''The forests and gardens of South India'', became the definitive work on the subject and was widely used by forest assistants in the subcontinent.<ref name="Cleghorn">{{cite book|last=Cleghorn|first=Hugh Francis Clarke |title=The Forests and Gardens of South India |publisher=W. H. Allen|location=London|year= 1861|edition=Original from the University of Michigan, Digitized Feb 10, 2006|oclc= 301345427|url=http://www.worldcat.org/wcpa/oclc/301345427?page=frame&url=http%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D_ZbC9FY1JqIC%26checksum%3D374d90c92770a514a51708f07461f0b3&title=&linktype=digitalObject&detail=}}</ref> In 1861, the Forest Department extended its remit into the [[Punjab (British India)|Punjab]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Oliver|first=J.W.|title=The Indian Forester|publisher=R. P. Sharma, Business Manager, Indian Forester|location=Allahabad|year=1901|edition=Original from Harvard University, Digitized Apr 4, 2008|volume= v.27 |pages=617–623|chapter=Forestry in India|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2U8YAAAAYAAJ&q=%22Douglas+Hamilton%22+madras++-johnson+-elephant+-whale+-william+1862&pg=PA623}}</ref>
[[File:Sir William Schlich07.jpg|thumb|300px|left|Schlich, in the middle of the seated row, with students from the forestry school at Oxford, on a visit to the forests of Saxony in the year 1892]]
Sir [[Dietrich Brandis]], a [[Germany|German]] forester, joined the British service in 1856 as superintendent of the teak forests of Pegu division in eastern [[Myanmar|Burma]]. During that time Burma's [[teak]] forests were controlled by militant [[Karen people|Karen]] tribals. He introduced the "taungya" system,<ref>King KFS (1968). "Agro-silviculture (the taungya system)". University of Ibadan / Dept. of Forestry, Bulletin no. 1, 109</ref> in which Karen villagers provided labor for clearing, planting and weeding teak plantations. After seven years in Burma, Brandis was appointed Inspector General of Forests in India, a position he served in for 20 years. He formulated new forest legislation and helped establish research and training institutions. The [[Imperial Forest School]] at [[Dehradun]] was founded by him.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Weil|first1=Benjamin|title=Conservation, Exploitation, and Cultural Change in the Indian Forest Service, 1875-1927|journal=Environmental History|date=1 April 2006|volume=11|issue=2|pages=319–343|doi=10.1093/envhis/11.2.319|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/233861694}}</ref><ref>Madhav Gadgil and Ramachandra Guha, ''This Fissured Land: An Ecological History of India'' (1993)</ref>
Germans were prominent in the forestry administration of British India. As well as Brandis, [[Berthold Ribbentrop]] and [[Sir William P.D. Schlich]] brought new methods to Indian conservation, the latter becoming the Inspector-General in 1883 after Brandis stepped down. Schlich helped to establish the journal ''[[Indian Forester]]'' in 1874, and became the founding director of the first [[forestry]] school in England at [[Royal Indian Engineering College|Cooper's Hill]] in 1885.<ref>Burley, Jeffery, et al. 2009. "A History of Forestry at Oxford", ''British Scholar'', Vol. 1, No. 2., pp.236-261. Accessed: May 6, 2012.</ref> He authored the five-volume ''Manual of Forestry'' (1889–96) on [[silviculture]], [[forest management]], [[forest protection]], and forest utilization, which became the standard and enduring textbook for forestry students.
===Conservation in the United States===
[[File:Yellowstone 1871b.jpg|right|thumb|250px|[[Ferdinand Vandeveer Hayden|F. V. Hayden]]'s map of [[Yellowstone National Park]], 1871]]
{{Main|Conservation in the United States}}
The American movement received its inspiration from 19th century works that exalted the inherent value of nature, quite apart from human usage. Author [[Henry David Thoreau]] (1817–1862) made key philosophical contributions that exalted nature. Thoreau was interested in peoples' relationship with nature and studied this by living close to nature in a simple life. He published his experiences in the book ''[[Walden]],'' which argued that people should become intimately close with nature.<ref>{{Citation|author=Thoreau, Henry David|title=Walden|url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/1189910652|oclc=1189910652|access-date=2022-02-26}}</ref> The ideas of [[Dietrich Brandis|Sir Brandis]], [[Sir William P.D. Schlich]] and [[Carl A. Schenck]] were also very influential—[[Gifford Pinchot]], the first chief of the [[USDA Forest Service]], relied heavily upon Brandis' advice for introducing professional forest management in the U.S. and on how to structure the Forest Service.<ref>[http://www.asiaticsociety.org.bd/journals/Golden_jubilee_vol/articles/H_468%20(Brett%20M%20Benet).htm America has been the context for both the origins of conservation history and its modern form, environmental history] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120313144333/http://www.asiaticsociety.org.bd/journals/Golden_jubilee_vol/articles/H_468%20%28Brett%20M%20Benet%29.htm |date=2012-03-13 }}. Asiaticsociety.org.bd. Retrieved on 2011-09-01.</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Rawat |first=Ajay Singh |title=Indian Forestry: A Perspective|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5IZYFP15OscC&pg=PA85|year=1993|publisher=Indus Publishing|pages=85–88|isbn=9788185182780 }}</ref>
Both conservationists and preservationists appeared in political debates during the [[Progressive Era]] (the 1890s–early 1920s). There were three main positions.
* '''Laissez-faire:''' The laissez-faire position held that owners of private property—including lumber and mining companies, should be allowed to do anything they wished on their properties.<ref>Samuel P. Hays, ''Conservation and the Gospel of Efficiency: The Progressive Conservation Movement, 1890-1920'' (1959)</ref>
* '''Conservationists:''' The conservationists, led by future President [[Theodore Roosevelt]] and his close ally [[George Bird Grinnell]], were motivated by the wanton waste that was taking place at the hand of market forces, including logging and hunting.<ref>Benjamin Redekop, "Embodying the Story: The Conservation Leadership of Theodore Roosevelt" in ''Leadership'' (2015). DOI: 10.1177/1742715014546875. [http://cnu.edu/leadershipstudies/faculty/pdf/redekop-embodying_the_story_theodore_roosevelts_conservation_leadership.pdf online] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160114045519/http://cnu.edu/leadershipstudies/faculty/pdf/redekop-embodying_the_story_theodore_roosevelts_conservation_leadership.pdf |date=2016-01-14 }}</ref> This practice resulted in placing a large number of North American game species on the edge of extinction. Roosevelt recognized that the laissez-faire approach of the U.S. Government was too wasteful and inefficient. In any case, they noted, most of the natural resources in the western states were already owned by the federal government. The best course of action, they argued, was a long-term plan devised by national experts to maximize the long-term economic benefits of natural resources. To accomplish the mission, Roosevelt and Grinnell formed the [[Boone and Crockett Club]], whose members were some of the best minds and influential men of the day. Its contingency of conservationists, scientists, politicians, and intellectuals became Roosevelt's closest advisers during his march to preserve wildlife and habitat across North America.<ref>{{cite web|title=Archives of the Boone and Crockett Club|url=http://cdm16013.contentdm.oclc.org/cdm/compoundobject/collection/p16013coll13/id/1220/rec/1}}</ref>
* '''Preservationists:''' Preservationists, led by [[John Muir]] (1838–1914), argued that the conservation policies were not strong enough to protect the interest of the natural world because they continued to focus on the natural world as a source of economic production.
The debate between conservation and preservation reached its peak in the public debates over the construction of California's [[O'Shaughnessy Dam (California)|Hetch Hetchy dam]] in [[Yosemite National Park]] which supplies the water supply of San Francisco. Muir, leading the [[Sierra Club]], declared that the valley must be preserved for the sake of its beauty: "No holier temple has ever been consecrated by the heart of man."
President [[Theodore Roosevelt|Roosevelt]] put conservationist issues high on the national agenda.<ref>Douglas G. Brinkley, ''The Wilderness Warrior: Theodore Roosevelt and the Crusade for America'' (2009)</ref> He worked with all the major figures of the movement, especially his chief advisor on the matter, [[Gifford Pinchot]] and was deeply committed to conserving natural resources. He encouraged the [[Newlands Reclamation Act]] of 1902 to promote federal construction of dams to irrigate small farms and placed 230 million acres (360,000 mi<sup>2</sup> or 930,000 km<sup>2</sup>) under federal protection. Roosevelt set aside more federal land for [[national park]]s and [[nature preserve]]s than all of his predecessors combined.<ref>W. Todd Benson, ''President Theodore Roosevelt's Conservations Legacy'' (2003)</ref>
[[File:TR-Enviro.JPG|thumb|250px|right|Roosevelt was a leader in conservation, fighting to end the waste of natural resources.]]
Roosevelt established the [[United States Forest Service]], signed into law the creation of five national parks, and signed the year 1906 [[Antiquities Act]], under which he proclaimed 18 new [[National monument (United States)|national monuments]]. He also established the first 51 [[bird reserve]]s, four [[game preserve]]s, and 150 [[United States National Forest|national forests]], including [[Shoshone National Forest]], the nation's first. The area of the United States that he placed under public protection totals approximately {{convert|230000000|acre|km2}}.
[[Gifford Pinchot]] had been appointed by McKinley as chief of Division of Forestry in the Department of Agriculture. In 1905, his department gained control of the national forest reserves. Pinchot promoted private use (for a fee) under federal supervision. In 1907, Roosevelt designated 16 million acres (65,000 km<sup>2</sup>) of new national forests just minutes before a deadline.<ref>Char Miller, ''Seeking the Greatest Good: The Conservation Legacy of Gifford Pinchot'' (2013)</ref>
In May 1908, Roosevelt sponsored the [[Conference of Governors]] held in the White House, with a focus on natural resources and their most efficient use. Roosevelt delivered the opening address: "Conservation as a National Duty".
In 1903 Roosevelt toured the Yosemite Valley with [[John Muir]], who had a very different view of conservation, and tried to minimize commercial use of water resources and forests. Working through the Sierra Club he founded, Muir succeeded in 1905 in having Congress transfer the [[Mariposa Grove]] and Yosemite Valley to the federal government.<ref>{{cite web|title=U.S. Statutes at Large, Vol. 26, Chap. 1263, pp. 650-52. "An act to set apart certain tracts of land in the State of California as forest reservations." [H.R. 12187]|url=http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/ampage?collId=amrvl&fileName=vl044//amrvlvl044.db&recNum=1&itemLink=r?ammem/consrvbib:@FIELD%28NUMBER%28vl044+v1512%29%29&linkText=0|work=Evolution of the Conservation Movement, 1850-1920|publisher=Library of Congress}}</ref> While Muir wanted nature preserved for its own sake, Roosevelt subscribed to Pinchot's formulation, "to make the forest produce the largest amount of whatever crop or service will be most useful, and keep on producing it for generation after generation of men and trees."<ref>Gifford Pinchot, ''Breaking New Ground,'' (1947) p. 32.</ref>
Theodore Roosevelt's view on conservationism remained dominant for decades; [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] authorised the building of many large-scale dams and water projects, as well as the expansion of the National Forest System to buy out sub-marginal farms. In 1937, the [[Pittman–Robertson Federal Aid in Wildlife Restoration Act]] was signed into law, providing funding for state agencies to carry out their conservation efforts.
[[File:Theodore Roosevelt with dead lion.jpg|thumb|Theodore Roosevelt with trophy killing]]
====Since 1970====
Environmental reemerged on the national agenda in 1970, with Republican [[Richard Nixon]] playing a major role, especially with his creation of the [[Environmental Protection Agency]]. The debates over the public lands and environmental politics played a supporting role in the decline of liberalism and the rise of modern environmentalism. Although Americans consistently rank environmental issues as "important", polling data indicates that in the voting booth voters rank the environmental issues low relative to other political concerns.
The growth of the Republican party's political power in the inland West (apart from the Pacific coast) was facilitated by the rise of popular opposition to public lands reform. Successful Democrats in the inland West and Alaska typically take more conservative positions on environmental issues than Democrats from the Coastal states. Conservatives drew on new organizational networks of think tanks, industry groups, and citizen-oriented organizations, and they began to deploy new strategies that affirmed the rights of individuals to their property, protection of extraction rights, to hunt and recreate, and to pursue happiness unencumbered by the federal government at the expense of resource conservation.<ref>* Turner, James Morton, "The Specter of Environmentalism": Wilderness, Environmental Politics, and the Evolution of the New Right. ''The Journal of American History'' 96.1 (2009): 123-47 [http://www.historycooperative.org/journals/jah/96.1/turner.html online at History Cooperative] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090703095241/http://www.historycooperative.org/journals/jah/96.1/turner.html |date=2009-07-03 }}</ref>
In 2019, convivial conservation was an idea proposed by Bram Büscher and Robert Fletcher. Convivial conservation draws on social movements and concepts like [[environmental justice]] and structural change to create a post-capitalist approach to conservation.<ref>{{Cite book|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/j.ctt183pdh2|title=Nature Inc.|date=2014-05-29|publisher=University of Arizona Press|doi=10.2307/j.ctt183pdh2|isbn=978-0-8165-9885-4|editor-last=Büscher|editor-first=Bram|editor-last2=Dressler|editor-first2=Wolfram|editor-last3=Fletcher|editor-first3=Robert}}</ref> Convivial conservation rejects both human-nature dichotomies and capitalistic political economies. Built on a politics of equity, structural change and environmental justice, convivial conservation is considered a radical theory as it focuses on the structural political-economy of modern nation states and the need to create structural change.<ref name=":4">Büscher, B. and Fletcher, R., 2019. Towards convivial conservation. ''Conservation & Society'', ''17''(3), pp.283-296. </ref> Convivial conservation creates a more integrated approach which reconfigures the nature-human configuration to create a world in which humans are recognized as a part of nature. The emphasis on nature as for and by humans creates a human responsibility to care for the environment as a way of caring for themselves. It also redefines nature as not only being pristine and untouched, but cultivated by humans in everyday formats. The theory is a long term process of structural change to move away from capitalist valuation in favor of a system emphasizing everyday and local living.<ref name=":4" /> Convivial conservation creates a nature which includes humans rather than excluding them from the necessity of conservation. While other conservation theories integrate some of the elements of convivial conservation, none move away from both dichotomies and capitalist valuation principles.
===== The five elements of convivial conservation =====
Source:<ref name=":4" />
# The promotion of nature for, to and by humans
# The movement away from the concept of conservation as saving only nonhuman nature
# Emphasis on the long-term democratic engagement with nature rather than elite access and tourism,
# The movement away from the spectacle of nature and instead focusing on the mundane ‘everyday nature’
# The democratic management of nature, with nature as commons and in context
=== Racism and the Conservation Movement ===
The early years of the environmental and conservation movements were rooted in the safeguarding of game to support the recreation activities of elite white men, such as hunting.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last=Hellegers |first=Desiree |date=December 2017 |title=The Rise of the American Conservation Movement: Power, Privilege and Environmental Protection by Dorceta E. Taylor |url=https://utpjournals.press/doi/10.3138/cjh.ach.52.3.rev22 |journal=Canadian Journal of History |language=en |volume=52 |issue=3 |pages=609–611 |doi=10.3138/cjh.ach.52.3.rev22 |issn=0008-4107}}</ref> This led to an economy to support and perpetuate these activities as well as the continued wilderness conservation to support the corporate interests supplying the hunters with the equipment needed for their sport.<ref name=":5" /> Game parks in England and the United States allowed wealthy hunters and fishermen to deplete wildlife, while hunting by Indigenous groups, laborers and the working class, and poor citizens--especially for the express use of sustenance--was vigorously monitored.<ref name=":5" /> Scholars have shown that the establishment of the U.S. national parks, while setting aside land for preservation, was also a continuation of preserving the land for the recreation and enjoyment of elite white hunters and nature enthusiasts.<ref name=":5" />
While Theodore Roosevelt was one of the leading activists for the conservation movement in the United States, he also believed that the threats to the natural world were equally threats to white Americans. Roosevelt and his contemporaries held the belief that the cities, industries and factories that were overtaking the wilderness and threatening the native plants and animals were also consuming and threatening the racial vigor that they believed white Americans held which made them superior.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book |author=Powell, Miles A. |url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/973532814 |title=Vanishing America : species extinction, racial peril, and the origins of conservation |publisher=Harvard University Press |year=2016 |isbn=978-0-674-97295-7 |oclc=973532814}}</ref> Roosevelt was a big believer that white male virility depended on wildlife for its vigor, and that, consequently, depleting wildlife would result in a racially weaker nation.<ref name=":2" /> This lead Roosevelt to support the passing of many immigration restrictions, eugenics legislations and wildlife preservation laws.<ref name=":2" /> For instance, Roosevelt established the first national parks through the Antiquities Act of 1906 while also endorsing the removal of Indigenous Americans from their tribal lands within the parks.<ref name=":6">Purdy, Jedediah (August 13, 2015). "Environmentalism's Racist History". ''The New Yorker''.</ref> This move was promoted and endorsed by other leaders of the conservation movement, including Frederick Law Olmsted, a leading landscape architect, conservationist, and supporter of the national park system, and Gifford Pinchot, a leading eugenicist and conservationist.<ref name=":6" /> Furthering the economic exploitation of the environment and national parks for wealthy whites was the beginning of ecotourism in the parks, which included allowing some Indigenous Americans to remain so that the tourists could get what was to be considered the full "wilderness experience".<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Merchant |first=Carolyn |date=2003-07-01 |title=Shades of Darkness: Race and Environmental History |url=https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.2307/3986200 |journal=Environmental History |language=en |volume=8 |issue=3 |pages=380–394 |doi=10.2307/3986200 |issn=1084-5453}}</ref>
Another long-term supporter, partner, and inspiration to Roosevelt, Madison Grant was a well known American eugenicist and conservationist.<ref name=":2" /> Grant worked alongside Roosevelt in the American conservation movement and was even secretary and president of the Boone and Crockett Club.<ref name=":3">{{Cite book |last=Peter. |first=Spiro, Jonathan |url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/227929377 |title=Defending the master race : conservation, eugenics, and the legacy of Madison Grant |date=2009 |publisher=University of Vermont Press |isbn=978-1-58465-715-6 |oclc=227929377}}</ref> In 1916, Grant published the book "The Passing of the Great Race, or The Racial Basis of European History", which based its premise on eugenics and outlined a hierarchy of races, with white, "Nordic" men at the top, and all other races below.<ref name=":3" /> The German translation of this book was used by Nazi Germany as the source for many of their beliefs<ref name=":3" /> and was even proclaimed by Hitler to be his "Bible".<ref name=":6" />
One of the first established conservation agencies in the United States is the National Audubon Society. Founded in 1905, its priority was to protect and conserve various waterbird species.<ref name=":02">{{Cite web |date=2015-01-09 |title=The History of Audubon |url=https://www.audubon.org/about/history-audubon-and-waterbird-conservation |access-date=2022-03-29 |website=Audubon |language=en}}</ref> However, the first state-level Audubon group was created in 1896 by Harriet Hemenway and Minna B. Hall to convince women to refrain from buying hats made with bird feathers- a common practice at the time.<ref name=":02" /> The organization is named after John Audubon, a naturalist and legendary bird painter.<ref name=":12">{{Cite web |date=2020-07-31 |title=The Myth of John James Audubon |url=https://www.audubon.org/news/the-myth-john-james-audubon |access-date=2022-03-29 |website=Audubon |language=en}}</ref> Audubon was also a slaveholder who also included many racist tales in his books.<ref name=":12" /> Despite his views of racial inequality, Audubon did find black and Indigenous people to be scientifically useful, often using their local knowledge in his books and relying on them to collect specimens for him.<ref name=":12" />
The ideology of the conservation movement in Germany paralleled that of the U.S. and England.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last=Landry |first=Marc |date=February 2010 |title=How Brown were the Conservationists? Naturism, Conservation, and National Socialism, 1900–1945 |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S0960777309990208/type/journal_article |journal=Contemporary European History |language=en |volume=19 |issue=1 |pages=83–93 |doi=10.1017/S0960777309990208 |issn=0960-7773}}</ref> Early German naturalists of the 20th century turned to the wilderness to escape the industrialization of cities. However, many of these early conservationists became part of and influenced the Nazi party. Like elite and influential Americans of the early 20th century, they embraced eugenics and racism and promoted the idea that Nordic people are superior.<ref name=":7" />
=== Conservation in Costa Rica ===
[[File:Areas Conservacion CR.svg|thumb|Figure 1. Costa Rica divided into different areas of conservation]]{{Excerpt|Conservation in Costa Rica}}
=== World Wide Fund for Nature ===
{{Main|World Wide Fund for Nature}}
{{Cquote|quote=You know, when we first set up WWF, our objective was to save endangered species from extinction. But we have failed completely; we haven't managed to save a single one. If only we had put all that money into condoms, we might have done some good.|author=[[Sir Peter Scott]], Founder of the [[World Wide Fund for Nature]]|source=''Cosmos Magazine'', 2010<ref>{{cite web|url=http://archive.cosmosmagazine.com/opinion/a-plague-people/|title=A plague of people|work=[[Cosmos (magazine)|Cosmos]]|date=13 May 2010|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161106130856/http://archive.cosmosmagazine.com/opinion/a-plague-people/|archive-date=6 November 2016|df=dmy-all}}</ref>}}
The [[World Wide Fund for Nature]] (WWF) is an [[Internationalism (politics)|international]] [[non-governmental organization]] founded in 1961, working in the field of the wilderness preservation, and the reduction of [[human impact on the environment]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last1=Troëng|first1=Sebastian|last2=Rankin|first2=Eddy|date=2005-01-01|title=Long-term conservation efforts contribute to positive green turtle Chelonia mydas nesting trend at Tortuguero, Costa Rica|journal=Biological Conservation|language=en|volume=121|issue=1|pages=111–116|doi=10.1016/j.biocon.2004.04.014|issn=0006-3207}}</ref> It was formerly named the "World Wildlife Fund", which remains its official name in [[Canada]] and the [[United States]].<ref name=":0" />
WWF is the world's largest [[environmental organization|conservation organization]] with over five million supporters worldwide, working in more than 100 countries, supporting around 1,300 conservation and environmental projects.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.panda.org/about_wwf/where_we_work/project/|title=WWF conservation projects around the world}}</ref> They have invested over $1 billion in more than 12,000 conservation initiatives since 1995.<ref name="WorldWildLife">{{cite web|title=WWF - Endangered Species Conservation|url=https://www.worldwildlife.org|website=World Wildlife Fund|access-date=18 April 2018}}</ref> WWF is a [[Foundation (nonprofit)|foundation]] with 55% of funding from individuals and bequests, 19% from government sources (such as the [[World Bank]], [[Department for International Development|DFID]], [[United States Agency for International Development|USAID]]) and 8% from corporations in 2014.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://wwf.panda.org/who_we_are/organization/|title=How is WWF run?|access-date=21 July 2011}}</ref><ref name="WWF-INT Annual Review">{{cite book |title = WWFN-International Annual Review|year = 2014|publisher = World Wide Fund for Nature|url = http://d2ouvy59p0dg6k.cloudfront.net/downloads/ar2014_v13_final_lr_sp.pdf|access-date = 17 September 2015|page = 37}}</ref>
WWF aims to "stop the degradation of the planet's natural environment and to build a future in which humans live in harmony with nature."<ref>{{cite web |url=https://wwf.panda.org/mission_principles_goals.cfm |title=WWF's Mission, Guiding Principles and Goals |author=<!--Not stated--> |date=<!--Not stated--> |website=WWF |access-date=2019-01-13 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190113210818/https://wwf.panda.org/mission_principles_goals.cfm| archive-date=2019-01-13}}</ref> The [[Living Planet Report]] is published every two years by WWF since 1998; it is based on a [[Living Planet Index]] and [[ecological footprint]] calculation.<ref name=":0" /> In addition, WWF has launched several notable worldwide campaigns including [[Earth Hour]] and [[Debt-for-Nature Swap]], and its current work is organized around these six areas: food, climate, freshwater, wildlife, forests, and oceans.<ref name=":0" /><ref name="WorldWildLife" />
==== "Conservation Far" approach ====
Institutions such as the WWF have historically been the cause of the displacement and divide between Indigenous populations and the lands they inhabit. The reason is because of the organization's historically colonial, paternalistic, and neoliberal approaches to conservation. Claus, in her article "Drawing the Sea Near: Satoumi and Coral Reef Conservation in Okinawa", expands on this approach, called "conservation far", in which access to lands is open to external foreign entities, such as researchers and/or tourists, but prohibited to local populations. The conservation initiatives are therefore taking place "far" away. This entity is largely unaware of the customs and values held by those within the territory surrounding nature and their role within it.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last=Claus |first=C. Anne |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1156432505 |title=Drawing the sea near : satoumi and coral reef conservation in Okinawa |date=2020 |isbn=978-1-4529-5947-4 |location=Minneapolis |oclc=1156432505}}</ref>
==== "Conservation Near" Approach ====
In Japan, the town of Shiraho had traditional ways of tending to nature that were lost due to colonization and militarization by the United States. The return to traditional sustainability practices constituted a “conservation near” approach. This engages those near in proximity to the lands in the conservation efforts.and holds them accountable for their direct effects on its preservation. While conservation-far drills visuals and sight as being the main interaction medium between people and the environment, conservation near includes a hands-on, full sensory experience permitted by conservation-near methodologies.<ref name=":1" /> An emphasis on observation only stems from a deeper association with intellect and observation. The alternative to this is more of a bodily or "primitive" consciousness, which is associated with lower-intelligence and people of color. A new, integrated approach to conservation is being investigated in recent years by institutions such as WWF.<ref name=":1" /> The socionatural relationships centered on the interactions based in reciprocity and empathy, making conservation efforts being accountable to the local community and ways of life, changing in response to values, ideals, and beliefs of the locals. Japanese seascapes are often integral to the identity of the residents and includes historical memories and spiritual engagements which need to be recognized and considered.<ref name=":1" /> The involvement of communities gives residents a stake in the issue, leading to a long-term solution which emphasizes sustainable resource usage and the empowerment of the communities. Conservation efforts are able to take into consideration cultural values rather than the foreign ideals that are often imposed by foreign activists.
==Evidence-based conservation==
{{Excerpt|Evidence-based conservation}}
== Areas of concern ==
[[File:Suojelutaulu.JPG|thumb|A conservation area's sign in the [[Finland|Finnish]] forest. It says, "A conservation area protected by law".]]
[[Deforestation]] and [[Human overpopulation|overpopulation]] are issues affecting all regions of the world. The consequent destruction of wildlife habitat has prompted the creation of conservation groups in other countries, some founded by local hunters who have witnessed declining wildlife populations first hand. Also, it was highly important for the conservation movement to solve problems of living conditions in the cities and the overpopulation of such places.
=== Boreal forest and the Arctic ===
The idea of incentive conservation is a modern one but its practice has clearly defended some of the sub Arctic wildernesses and the wildlife in those regions for thousands of years, especially by indigenous peoples such as the Evenk, Yakut, Sami, Inuit and Cree. The fur trade and hunting by these peoples have preserved these regions for thousands of years. Ironically, the pressure now upon them comes from non-renewable resources such as oil, sometimes to make synthetic clothing which is advocated as a humane substitute for fur. (See [[Raccoon dog]] for case study of the conservation of an animal through fur trade.) Similarly, in the case of the beaver, hunting and fur trade were thought to bring about the animal's demise, when in fact they were an integral part of its conservation. For many years children's books stated and still do, that the decline in the beaver population was due to the fur trade. In reality however, the decline in beaver numbers was because of habitat destruction and deforestation, as well as its continued persecution as a pest (it causes flooding). In Cree lands, however, where the population valued the animal for meat and fur, it continued to thrive. The Inuit defend their relationship with the seal in response to outside critics.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.icc.gl/UserFiles/File/sealskin/2006-03-07_icc_saelskind_pressemeddelse_eng.pdf|title=Inuit Ask Europeans to Support Its Seal Hunt and Way of Life|date=6 March 2006|access-date=12 July 2007 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070628204105/http://www.icc.gl/UserFiles/File/sealskin/2006-03-07_icc_saelskind_pressemeddelse_eng.pdf <!-- Bot retrieved archive --> |archive-date = 28 June 2007}}</ref>
=== Latin America (Bolivia) ===
The [[Izoceño people|Izoceño]]-[[Guaraní people|Guaraní]] of [[Santa Cruz Department (Bolivia)|Santa Cruz Department]], [[Bolivia]], is a tribe of hunters who were influential in establishing the Capitania del Alto y Bajo Isoso (CABI). CABI promotes economic growth and survival of the Izoceno people while discouraging the rapid destruction of habitat within Bolivia's [[Gran Chaco]]. They are responsible for the creation of the 34,000 square kilometre Kaa-Iya del Gran Chaco National Park and Integrated Management Area (KINP). The KINP protects the most biodiverse portion of the Gran Chaco, an ecoregion shared with Argentina, Paraguay and Brazil. In 1996, the [[Wildlife Conservation Society]] joined forces with CABI to institute wildlife and hunting monitoring programs in 23 Izoceño communities. The partnership combines traditional beliefs and local knowledge with the political and administrative tools needed to effectively manage habitats. The programs rely solely on voluntary participation by local hunters who perform self-monitoring techniques and keep records of their hunts. The information obtained by the hunters participating in the program has provided CABI with important data required to make educated decisions about the use of the land. Hunters have been willing participants in this program because of pride in their traditional activities, encouragement by their communities and expectations of benefits to the area.
=== Africa (Botswana) ===
In order to discourage illegal South African hunting parties and ensure future local use and sustainability, indigenous hunters in [[Botswana]] began lobbying for and implementing conservation practices in the 1960s. The Fauna Preservation Society of Ngamiland (FPS) was formed in 1962 by the husband and wife team: Robert Kay and June Kay, environmentalists working in conjunction with the Batawana tribes to preserve wildlife habitat.
The FPS promotes habitat conservation and provides local education for preservation of wildlife. Conservation initiatives were met with strong opposition from the Botswana government because of the monies tied to big-game hunting. In 1963, BaTawanga Chiefs and tribal hunter/adventurers in conjunction with the FPS founded [[Moremi Wildlife Reserve|Moremi National Park and Wildlife Refuge]], the first area to be set aside by tribal people rather than governmental forces. Moremi National Park is home to a variety of wildlife, including lions, giraffes, elephants, buffalo, zebra, cheetahs and antelope, and covers an area of 3,000 square kilometers. Most of the groups involved with establishing this protected land were involved with hunting and were motivated by their personal observations of declining wildlife and habitat.
== See also ==
{{Portal bar|Environment|Ecology|Politics|Society|Earth sciences|Energy}}
{{Columns-list|colwidth=22em|
* [[Australian Grains Genebank]]
* [[Conservation biology]]
* [[Conservation ethic]]
* [[Ecology]]
* [[Ecology movement]]
* [[Energy conservation]]
* [[Environmental history]]
* [[Environmental movement]]
* [[Environmental protection]]
* [[Environmentalism]]
* ''[[Evolution of the Conservation Movement, 1850–1920]]''
* [[Factor 10]]
* [[Forest protection]]
* [[Habitat conservation]]
* [[List of environmental organizations]]
* [[List of environment topics]]
* [[Marine conservation]]
* [[Natural environment]]
* [[Natural landscape]]
* [[Soil conservation]]
* [[Sustainability]]
* [[National Park Service|U.S. National Park Service]]
* [[Water conservation]]
* [[Wetland conservation]]
* [[Wildlife conservation]]
* [[Wildlife management]]
}}
==References==
{{Reflist}}
== Further reading ==
===World===
* Barton, Gregory A. ''Empire, Forestry and the Origins of Environmentalism,'' (2002), covers British Empire
* Clover, Charles. ''The End of the Line: How overfishing is changing the world and what we eat''. (2004) Ebury Press, London. {{ISBN|0-09-189780-7}}
* Haq, Gary, and Alistair Paul. ''Environmentalism since 1945'' (Routledge, 2013).
* Jones, Eric L. "The History of Natural Resource Exploitation in the Western World," ''Research in Economic History,'' 1991 Supplement 6, pp 235–252
* McNeill, John R. ''Something New Under the Sun: An Environmental History of the Twentieth Century'' (2000).
===Regional studies===
====Africa====
* Adams, Jonathan S.; McShane, Thomas O. ''Myth of Wild Africa: Conservation without Illusion'' (1992) 266p; covers 1900 to 1980s
* Anderson, David; Grove, Richard. ''Conservation in Africa: People, Policies & Practice'' (1988), 355pp
* Bolaane, Maitseo. "Chiefs, Hunters & Adventurers: The Foundation of the Okavango/Moremi National Park, Botswana". ''Journal of Historical Geography.'' 31.2 (Apr. 2005): 241–259.
* Carruthers, Jane. "Africa: Histories, Ecologies, and Societies," Environment and History, 10 (2004), pp. 379–406;
* Showers, Kate B. ''Imperial Gullies: Soil Erosion and Conservation in Lesotho'' (2005) 346pp
====Asia-Pacific====
* Bolton, Geoffrey. ''Spoils and Spoilers: Australians Make Their Environment, 1788-1980'' (1981) 197pp
* Economy, Elizabeth. ''The River Runs Black: The Environmental Challenge to China's Future'' (2010)
* Elvin, Mark. ''The Retreat of the Elephants: An Environmental History of China'' (2006)
* Grove, Richard H.; Damodaran, Vinita Jain; Sangwan, Satpal. ''Nature and the Orient: The Environmental History of South and Southeast Asia'' (1998) 1036pp
* Johnson, Erik W., Saito, Yoshitaka, and Nishikido, Makoto. "Organizational Demography of Japanese Environmentalism," ''Sociological Inquiry,'' Nov 2009, Vol. 79 Issue 4, pp 481–504
* [[Valmik Thapar|Thapar, Valmik]]. ''Land of the Tiger: A Natural History of the Indian Subcontinent'' (1998) 288pp
====Latin America====
* Boyer, Christopher. ''Political Landscapes: Forests, Conservation, and Community in Mexico''. Duke University Press (2015)
* [[Warren Dean|Dean, Warren]]. ''With Broadax and Firebrand: The Destruction of the Brazilian Atlantic Forest'' (1997)
* Evans, S. ''The Green Republic: A Conservation History of Costa Rica''. University of Texas Press. (1999)
* Funes Monzote, Reinaldo. ''From Rainforest to Cane Field in Cuba: An Environmental History since 1492'' (2008)
* Melville, Elinor G. K. ''A Plague of Sheep: Environmental Consequences of the Conquest of Mexico'' (1994)
* Miller, Shawn William. ''An Environmental History of Latin America'' (2007)
* Noss, Andrew and Imke Oetting. "Hunter Self-Monitoring by the Izoceño -Guarani in the Bolivian Chaco". ''Biodiversity & Conservation''. 14.11 (2005): 2679–2693.
* Simonian, Lane. ''Defending the Land of the Jaguar: A History of Conservation in Mexico'' (1995) 326pp
* Wakild, Emily. ''An Unexpected Environment: National Park Creation, Resource Custodianship, and the Mexican Revolution''. University of Arizona Press (2011).
====Europe and Russia====
* [[Lorenzo Arnone Sipari|Arnone Sipari, Lorenzo]], ''Scritti scelti di Erminio Sipari sul Parco Nazionale d'Abruzzo (1922–1933)'' (2011), 360pp.
* Barca, Stefania, and Ana Delicado. "Anti-nuclear mobilisation and environmentalism in Europe: A view from Portugal (1976–1986)." ''Environment and History'' 22.4 (2016): 497–520. [https://www.academia.edu/download/41270815/advance_access.pdf online]{{dead link|date=July 2022|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}
* Bonhomme, Brian. ''Forests, Peasants and Revolutionaries: Forest Conservation & Organization in Soviet Russia, 1917–1929'' (2005) 252pp.
* Cioc, Mark. ''The Rhine: An Eco-Biography, 1815–2000'' (2002).
* Dryzek, John S., et al. ''Green states and social movements: environmentalism in the United States, United Kingdom, Germany, and Norway'' (Oxford UP, 2003).
* Jehlicka, Petr. "Environmentalism in Europe: an east-west comparison." in ''Social change and political transformation'' (Routledge, 2018) pp. 112–131.
* Simmons, I.G. ''An Environmental History of Great Britain: From 10,000 Years Ago to the Present'' (2001).
* Uekotter, Frank. ''The greenest nation?: A new history of German environmentalism'' (MIT Press, 2014).
* Weiner, Douglas R. ''Models of Nature: Ecology, Conservation and Cultural Revolution in Soviet Russia'' (2000) 324pp; covers 1917 to 1939.
====United States====
* Bates, J. Leonard. "Fulfilling American Democracy: The Conservation Movement, 1907 to 1921", ''The Mississippi Valley Historical Review,'' (1957), 44#1 pp. 29–57. [https://www.jstor.org/pss/1898667 in JSTOR]
* Brinkley, Douglas G. ''The Wilderness Warrior: Theodore Roosevelt and the Crusade for America,'' (2009) [https://www.amazon.com/dp/0060565314/ excerpt and text search]
* Cawley, R. McGreggor. ''Federal Land, Western Anger: The Sagebrush Rebellion and Environmental Politics'' (1993), on conservatives
* Flippen, J. Brooks. ''Nixon and the Environment'' (2000).
* Hays, Samuel P. ''Beauty, Health, and Permanence: Environmental Politics in the United States, 1955–1985'' (1987), the standard scholarly history
** Hays, Samuel P. ''A History of Environmental Politics since 1945'' (2000), shorter standard history
* Hays, Samuel P. ''Conservation and the Gospel of Efficiency'' (1959), on Progressive Era.
* King, Judson. ''The Conservation Fight, From Theodore Roosevelt to the Tennessee Valley Authority'' (2009)
* Nash, Roderick. ''Wilderness and the American Mind,'' (3rd ed. 1982), the standard intellectual history
* {{Cite EB1922 |last=Pinchot |first=Gifford |author-link=Gifford Pinchot |wstitle=Conservation Policy |short=x}}
* Rothmun, Hal K. ''The Greening of a Nation? Environmentalism in the United States since 1945'' (1998)
* Scheffer, Victor B. ''The Shaping of Environmentalism in America'' (1991).
* Sellers, Christopher. ''Crabgrass Crucible: Suburban Nature and the Rise of Environmentalism in Twentieth-Century America'' (2012)
* Strong, Douglas H. ''Dreamers & Defenders: American Conservationists.'' (1988) [https://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=8516594 online edition] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071201192945/http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=8516594 |date=2007-12-01 }}, good biographical studies of the major leaders
* Taylor, Dorceta E. ''The Rise of the American Conservation Movement: Power, Privilege, and Environmental Protection'' (Duke U.P. 2016) x, 486 pp.
* Turner, James Morton, "The Specter of Environmentalism": Wilderness, Environmental Politics, and the Evolution of the New Right. ''The Journal of American History'' 96.1 (2009): 123-47 [https://web.archive.org/web/20090703095241/http://www.historycooperative.org/journals/jah/96.1/turner.html online at History Cooperative]
* Vogel, David. ''California Greenin': How the Golden State Became an Environmental Leader'' (2018) 280 pp [http://eh.net/?s=vogel+david online review]
===Historiography===
* Cioc, Mark, [[Björn-Ola Linnér]], and Matt Osborn, "Environmental History Writing in Northern Europe," ''Environmental History,'' 5 (2000), pp. 396–406
* Bess, Michael, Mark Cioc, and James Sievert, "Environmental History Writing in Southern Europe," ''Environmental History,'' 5 (2000), pp. 545–56;
* Coates, Peter. "Emerging from the Wilderness (or, from Redwoods to Bananas): Recent Environmental History in the United States and the Rest of the Americas," Environment and History, 10 (2004), pp. 407–38
* Hay, Peter. ''Main Currents in Western Environmental Thought'' (2002), standard scholarly history [https://www.amazon.com/dp/0253215110/ excerpt and text search]
* McNeill, John R. "Observations on the Nature and Culture of Environmental History," ''History and Theory,'' 42 (2003), pp. 5–43.
* Robin, Libby, and Tom Griffiths, "Environmental History in Australasia," ''Environment and History,'' 10 (2004), pp. 439–74
* Worster, Donald, ed. ''The Ends of the Earth: Perspectives on Modern Environmental History'' (1988)
== External links ==
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20080830075158/http://www.teara.govt.nz/TheBush/Conservation/ConservationAHistory/en A history of conservation in New Zealand]
* [http://nfb.ca/film/For_Future_Generations/ ''For Future Generations'', a Canadian documentary on conservation and national parks]
{{Sustainability}}{{Environmentalism}}{{Conservation of species}}{{Authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Conservation Movement}}
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
[[Category:Environmental ethics]]
[[Category:Environmental movements]]
[[el:Κίνημα Διατήρησης]]
[[fr:Conservation de la nature]]
[[sv:Naturskydd]] |
Rangeland management | {{Use mdy dates|date=June 2023}}
[[File:Range management graduate research student collecting line point intercept data .jpg|thumb|307x307px|Range Management [[Research assistant|graduate research assistant]] recording line point intercept data on southern [[New Mexico|New Mexican]] [[rangeland]].]]
'''Rangeland management''' (also '''range management''', '''range science''', or '''arid-land management''') is a [[natural science]] that centers around the study of [[rangeland]]s and the "conservation and sustainable management [of Arid-Lands] for the benefit of current societies and future generations".<ref>[http://www.rangelands.org/ Society for range Management. Society for Range Management, 2016. Web. 22 Apr. 2016.]</ref> Range management is defined by Holechek et al. as the "manipulation of rangeland components to obtain optimum combination of [[Ecosystem services|goods and services]] for society on a sustained basis".<ref>Holechek, Jerry L., Rex D. Pieper, and Carlton H. Herbel. Range Management: Principles and Practices (6th Edition). 6th ed. N.p.: Pearson, 2011. 5. Print.</ref>
==History==
The earliest form of Rangeland Management is not formally deemed part of the natural science studied today, although its roots can be traced to [[Nomad|nomadic grazing]] practices of the [[neolithic agricultural revolution]] when humans [[Domestication|domesticated]] plants and animals under pressures from population growth and environmental change.<ref>{{Cite book|title=An Ecological History of Agriculture 10,000 B.C.-A.D. 10,000|last=Vasey|first=Daniel A.|publisher=Iowa State University Press|year=1992|location=Ames, Iowa|pages=23}}</ref> Humans might even have altered the environment in times preceding the [[Neolithic]] through hunting of [[Big-game hunting|large-game]], whereby large losses of [[Grazing|grazing herbivores]] could have resulted in altered ecological states; meaning humans have been inadvertently managing land throughout prehistory.<ref>Stephen Wroe , Judith Field , Richard Fullagar , Lars S. Jermin. "Megafaunal extinction in the late Quaternary and the global overkill hypothesis." ''Alcheringa: An Australasian Journal of Palaeontology.'' Vol. 28, Iss. 1, (2004).</ref><ref>Mazoyer, Marcel, and Laurence Roudart. ''A History of World Agriculture: From the Neolithic Age to the Current Crisis''. New York: Monthly review Press, 2006. Print.</ref>
Rangeland management was developed in the United States in response to rangeland deterioration and in some cases, [[denudation]], due to [[overgrazing]] and other misuse of arid lands as demonstrated by the 20th century "[[Dust Bowl]]" and described in [[Garrett Hardin|Hardin]]'s 1968 "[[Tragedy of the Commons]]".<ref>Morris, Melvin S. "History of Range Management Education." Rangelands 3.3 (1981): 119-20. Print.</ref><ref>Talbot, M W., and F P. Cronemiller. "Some of the Beginnings of Range Management." Journal of Range Management 14.2 (1961): 95-102. Print</ref><ref>Nathan F. Sayre, William deBuys, Brandon T. Bestelmeyer, and Kris M. Havstad. "'The Range Problem' After a Century of Rangeland Science: New Research Themes for Altered Landscapes." Rangeland Ecol Manage 545-552: 65 (2012)</ref> Historically, the discipline focused on the manipulation of [[grazing]] and the proper use of rangeland vegetation for [[livestock]].<ref>Parker, Kenneth W., W R. Chapline, Lloyd W. Swift, George W. Craddock, and Donald R. Cornelius. "Arthur W. Sampson- Pioneer Range Scientist." Journal of Range Management 20.6 (1967): 245-351. Print.</ref>
==Modern application==
[[File:Rangeland Water Development May 1954 (9824825465).jpg|alt=Rangeland Water Development May 1954 (9824825465) We uncovered these photos from the early days of the BLM's Burns District. Located in eastern Oregon, the Burns District manages over three million acres of public lands starting at the Oregon-Nevada border and heading up to the Blue Mountains. Some highlights include Steens Moutain, the Donner and Blitzen National Wild and Scenic River, and the Diamond Craters Outstanding Natural Area. In total, Burns features 23 Wilderness Study Areas which protect the natural values of over one million acres|thumb|Burns District, [[Oregon]], [[Watering trough|rangeland water infrastructure]] development: May, 1954.]]
=== Global ===
Range management's focus has been expanded to include the host of [[ecosystem services]] that rangelands provide to humans world-wide. Key management components seek to optimize such goods and services through the protection and enhancement of [[soils]], [[riparian zones]], [[Drainage basin|watersheds]], and vegetation complexes, [[sustainably]] improving outputs of consumable range products such as [[red meat]], [[wildlife]], water, wood, [[fiber]], [[leather]], energy resource extraction, and [[outdoor recreation]], as well as maintaining a focus on the [[Grazing management|manipulation of grazing]] activities of large herbivores to maintain or improve animal and plant production.<ref>J. E. Herrick, J.R. Brown, B.T. Bestelmeyer, S.S. Andrews, G. Baldi, J. Davies, M. Duniway, K.M. Havstad, J.W. Karl, D.L. Karlen, D.P.C. Peters, J.N. Quinton, C. Riginos, P.L. Shaver, D. Stainaker, S. Twomlow. "Revolutionary Land Use Change in the 21st Century: Is (Rangeland) Science Relevant? Rangeland Ecol Manage 590-598: 65 (2012).</ref> With increasing levels of rangeland degradation, for example as evident through [[woody plant encroachment]], active rehabilitation efforts become part of rangeland management.<ref>Archer, S.R., Davies, K.W., Fulbright, T.E., Mcdaniel, K.C., Wilcox, B.P., Predick, K.I. 2011. [https://www.ars.usda.gov/research/publications/publication/?seqNo115=268913 Brush management as a rangeland conservation strategy: A critical evaluation]. In: Briske,D.D., editor. Conservation benefits of rangeland practices: Assessment, recommendations, and knowledge gaps. Washington, DC:USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service. p. 105-170.</ref>
[[Pastoralism]] has become a contemporary anthropological and ecological study as it faces many threats including fragmentation of land, conversion of rangeland into urban development, lack of grazing movement, impending threats on global diversity, damage to species with large terrain, decreases in shared public goods, decreased [[Animal migration|biological movements]], threats of a "tragedy of enclosures", limitation of key resources, reduced biomass and invasive plant species growth.<ref>Reid, Robin S.; Fernández-Giménes, María E.; Galvin, Kathleen A. "Dynamics and Resilience of Rangelands and Pastoral Peoples Around the Globe." ''Annu. Rev. Environ. Resource''. 39:217-249 (2014).</ref> Interest in contemporary pastoralist cultures like the [[Maasai people|Maasai]] has continued to increase, especially because the traditional syncreticly-adaptive ability of pastoralists could promise lessons in collaborative and [[adaptive management]] for contemporary pastoralist societies threatened by [[globalization]] as well as for contemporary non-pastoralist societies that are managing livestock on rangelands.<ref>Reid, Robin S.; Fernández-Giménes, María E.; Galvin, Kathleen A. "Dynamics and Resilience of Rangelands and Pastoral Peoples Around the Globe." ''Annu. Rev. Environ. Resource''. 39:217-249 (2014).</ref><ref>Briske, D.D.; Sayre, Nathan F.; Huntsoinger; Fernandez-Gimenez, M.; Budd, B.; Derner, J.D. "Origin, Persistence, and Resolution of the Rotational Grazing Debate: Integrating Human Dimensions Into Rangeland research." ''Rangeland Ecol Manage''. 64(4): 325-334 (2011).</ref>
[[File:Maasai man with cattle.jpg|thumb|593x593px|Maasai man herding cattle]]
=== United States of America ===
The United States Society for Range Management is "the professional society dedicated to supporting persons who work with rangelands and have a commitment to their sustainable use".<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.rangelands.org/|title=Society for Range Management|website=www.rangelands.org|access-date=2016-06-17}}</ref> The primary Rangeland Management publications include the ''Journal of Range Management'', ''Rangelands'', and ''Rangeland Ecology & Management''.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.rangelands.org/publications.shtml|title=Publications|website=www.rangelands.org|access-date=2016-06-17}}</ref>
As [[climate change]] continues to disrupt a host of rangeland functions,<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Polley|first1=H. Wayne|last2=Briske|first2=David D.|last3=Morgan|first3=Jack A.|last4=Wolter|first4=Klaus|last5=Bailey|first5=Derek W.|last6=Brown|first6=Joel R.|date=2013-09-01|title=Climate Change and North American Rangelands: Trends, Projections, and Implications|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1550742413500595|journal=Rangeland Ecology & Management|language=en|volume=66|issue=5|pages=493–511|doi=10.2111/REM-D-12-00068.1|issn=1550-7424|hdl=10150/642737|s2cid=55826305 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> the Society for Range Management has declared that it "is committed to promoting adaptation to and mitigation of climate change through the sponsorship of workshops, symposia, research and educational publications, and appropriate policy recommendations. The Society will strive to maximize opportunities and minimize challenges posed by climate change to promote productive rangeland ecosystems that ensure food security, human livelihoods, and continued delivery of diverse ecosystem services"."<ref>{{Cite web|title=SRM Climate Change Position Statement|url=http://rangelands.org/pdf/SRM-CC-Position-Statement-5-17-12R-FINAL%20APPROVED.PDF}}</ref> Emerging evidence suggests that rangelands are extremely vulnerable to the threats of climate change,<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Briske|first1=D. D.|last2=Fuhlendorf|first2=S. D.|last3=Smeins|first3=F. E.|date=2003|title=Vegetation Dynamics on Rangelands: A Critique of the Current Paradigms|journal=Journal of Applied Ecology|volume=40|issue=4|pages=601–614|doi=10.1046/j.1365-2664.2003.00837.x|jstor=3505834|issn=0021-8901|doi-access=}}</ref> as more severe [[Heat wave|heatwaves]], [[drought]]s, [[evaporation]], and catastrophic flood events will consequentially alter ecological states,<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Havstad|first1=K. M.|last2=Brown|first2=J. R.|last3=Estell|first3=R.|last4=Elias|first4=E.|last5=Rango|first5=A.|last6=Steele|first6=C.|date=2018-06-01|title=Vulnerabilities of Southwestern U.S. Rangeland-based animal agriculture to climate change|journal=Climatic Change|language=en|volume=148|issue=3|pages=371–386|doi=10.1007/s10584-016-1834-7|bibcode=2018ClCh..148..371H |issn=1573-1480|doi-access=free}}</ref> and negatively affect [[forage]] production,<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Augustine|first1=David J.|last2=Blumenthal|first2=Dana M.|last3=Springer|first3=Tim L.|last4=LeCain|first4=Daniel R.|last5=Gunter|first5=Stacey A.|last6=Derner|first6=Justin D.|date=2018|title=Elevated CO2 induces substantial and persistent declines in forage quality irrespective of warming in mixedgrass prairie|journal=Ecological Applications|language=en|volume=28|issue=3|pages=721–735|doi=10.1002/eap.1680|pmid=29297964|issn=1939-5582|doi-access=}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Izaurralde|first1=R. C.|last2=Thomson|first2=A. M.|last3=Morgan|first3=J. A.|last4=Fay|first4=P. A.|last5=Polley|first5=H. W.|last6=Hatfield|first6=J. L.|date=2011|title=Climate Impacts on Agriculture: Implications for Forage and Rangeland Production|url=https://acsess.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.2134/agronj2010.0304|journal=Agronomy Journal|language=en|volume=103|issue=2|pages=371–381|doi=10.2134/agronj2010.0304|s2cid=52257348 |issn=1435-0645}}</ref> both of which will negatively impact [[ecosystem function]]ing and the sustainable production of [[ecosystem service]]s. In an open letter to the [[White House]] in 2017, the president of the SRM offered [[Donald Trump|President Trump]] the society's support in seeking management strategies to mitigate climate-induced phenomenon like drought and [[Wildfire|forest fires]],<ref>{{Cite web|title=SRM 2017 Priorities Letter to President Trump|url=https://rangelands.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/03/SRM-2017-Priorities-Letter-to-President-Trump.pdf}}</ref> a subject which was brought to the national debate stage and which has received significant [[Climate change denial|push-back]] by [[Environmental policy of the Donald Trump administration|Trump and his administration.]]<ref>{{Cite news |last1=Aton|first1=Adam |work= E&E News |date=2020-09-30|title='Try to be serious.' Climate policy gets rare notice in chaotic presidential debate|url=https://www.science.org/content/article/try-be-serious-climate-policy-gets-rare-notice-chaotic-presidential-debate|access-date=2020-10-01|via=Science |language=en}}</ref> Likewise in 2021 the SRM and several other institutions sent an open letter to President Biden urging for more research and development funding to be provisioned toward agricultural and food systems research, especially as climate change threatened national security of agricultural resources.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Ag-Research-Letter-to-Congressional-Leadership|url=https://rangelands.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/11/Ag-Research-Letter-to-Congressional-Leadership-June-2021-TRANSMITTED.pdf |website=Society for Range Management |date=June 8, 2021}}</ref>
=== Australia ===
The [https://austrangesoc.com.au Australian Rangeland Society] is the peak group of rangeland professionals in Australia. It is an independent and non-aligned association of people interested in the management and sustainable use of rangelands.<ref>{{Cite web|title=About Us|url=https://austrangesoc.com.au/about-us/|access-date=23 February 2022|website=Australian Rangeland Society}}</ref> Rangeland Management publications from the Society include ''The Rangeland Journal'' <ref>{{Cite web|title=The Rangeland Journal|url=https://austrangesoc.com.au/about-us/the-rangeland-journal/|access-date=23 February 2022|website=Australian Rangeland Society}}</ref> and the ''Range Management Newsletter.''<ref>{{Cite web|title=Range Management Newsletter|url=https://austrangesoc.com.au/about-us/range-management-newsletter/|access-date=23 February 2022|website=Australian Rangeland Society}}</ref>
[[File:Grazing cattle, Oxley Creek Common, Rocklea, Queensland 02.jpg|thumb|Grazing cattle, Oxley Creek Common, Rocklea, Queensland, Australia]]
==Education and employment==
[[File:Rangeland monitoring - actual use studies (IA rangelandmonitor00unit).pdf|thumb|[[Bouteloua gracilis]] illustration on the cover of a rangeland monitoring guide book developed by the [[Bureau of Land Management]]<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/rangelandmonitor00unit|title=Rangeland monitoring: actual use studies|date=1984|location=Denver, CO |publisher=U.S. Bureau of Land Management, Denver Service Center}}</ref>]]
In the United States, the study of range science is commonly offered at [[Land-grant university|land-grant universities]] including [[New Mexico State University]], [[Colorado State University]], [[Oregon State University]], [[North Dakota State University]], [[South Dakota State University]], [[Texas A&M University]], [[Texas Tech University]], the [[University of Arizona]], the [[University of Idaho]], the [[University of Wyoming]], [[Utah State University]], and [[Montana State University]].<ref>[http://www.rangelands.org/education_universities.shtml Society for Range Management. Society for Range Management Universities and Colleges, 2016. Web. 22 Apr. 2016. ]</ref> The Range Science curriculum is strongly tied to [[animal science]], as well as [[plant ecology]], [[soil science]], [[wildlife management]], [[climatology]] and [[anthropology]]. Courses in a typical Range Science curriculum may include [[ethology]], range [[animal nutrition]], [[plant physiology]], [[plant ecology]], [[plant identification]], [[plant communities]], [[microbiology]], [[soil sciences]], [[fire control]], [[agricultural economics]], [[Wildlife management|wildlife ecology]], [[ranch management]], [[Socioeconomics]], [[cartography]], [[hydrology]], [[Ecophysiology]], and [[environmental policy]]. These courses are essential to entering a range science profession.
Students with degrees in range science are eligible for a host of technician-type careers working for the federal government under the [[Bureau of Land Management]], the [[United States Fish and Wildlife Service]], the [[Agricultural Research Service]], the [[United States Environmental Protection Agency]], the [[Natural Resources Conservation Service|NRCS]], or the [[US Forest Service]] as range conservationists, inventory technicians, range monitoring/animal science agents, field botanists, natural-resource technicians, vegetation/habitat monitors, [[Geographic information system|GIS]] programming assistants, general range technicians, and as [[Ecological technology|ecological]] assessors, as well as working in the private sector as range managers, [[Rancher|ranch managers]], producers, commercial consultants, mining and agricultural real estate agents, or as Range/ Ranch Consultants. Individuals who complete degrees at the [[Master's degree|M.S.]] or [[Doctor of Philosophy|P.h.D.]] level, can seek academic careers as [[professor]]s, [[Agricultural extension|extension specialists]], research assistants, and [[Adjunct professor|adjunct]] staff, in addition to a number of professional research positions for government agencies such as the [[US Department of Agriculture]] and other state run departments.<ref>[http://rangelands.org/jobs/listings.html#free Society for Range Management. Society for Range Management Jobs and Employment, 2016. Web. 22 Apr. 2016. ]</ref>
==See also==
*[[Conservation grazing]]
*[[Land management]]
*[[Natural Resources Conservation Service]]
*[[Range condition scoring]]
*[[Wildlife management]]
*[[Upland pasture]]
==References==
{{Reflist}}
{{Authority control}}
[[Category:Land management in the United States]]
[[Category:Natural sciences]]
[[Category:Environmental conservation]] |
World Charter for Nature | {{wikisource}}
The '''World Charter for Nature''' was adopted by [[United Nations]] member nation-states on October 28, 1982. It proclaims five "principles of conservation by which all human conduct affecting nature is to be guided and judged."
# Nature shall be respected and its essential processes shall not be impaired.
# The genetic viability on the earth shall not be compromised; the population levels of all life forms, wild and domesticated, must be at least sufficient for their survival, and to this end necessary habitats shall be safeguarded.
# All areas of the earth, both land and sea, shall be subject to these principles of conservation; special protection shall be given to unique areas, to representative samples of all the different types of ecosystems and to the habitats of rare or endangered species.
# Ecosystems and organisms, as well as the land, marine and atmospheric resources that are utilized by man, shall be managed to achieve and maintain optimum sustainable productivity, but not in such a way as to endanger the integrity of those other ecosystems or species with which they coexist.
# Nature shall be secured against degradation caused by warfare or other hostile activities.<ref>{{cite web|title=World Charter for Nature|url=https://www.un.org/documents/ga/res/37/a37r007.htm|publisher=United Nations|accessdate=25 August 2013|author=United Nations General Assembly|date=28 October 1982}}</ref>
The vote was 111 for, one against ([[United States]]), 18 abstentions.<ref>{{cite book | title = International Environmental Standards Handbook | author = Scott S. Olson | isbn = 1-56670-270-4 | year = 1999 | pages = 39 }}</ref>
== See also ==
* [[Declaration of the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment]] (16 June 1972)
** [A/35/141 Annex I]
* The [[Earth Charter]] (29 June 2000)
== References ==
<references/>
== External links ==
* [https://digitallibrary.un.org/record/39295 Text from UN.org]
* [http://sedac.ciesin.org/entri/texts/world.charter.for.nature.1982.html Full text]
* [https://books.google.com/books?id=68ap9hdp8D8C Monitoring Ecological Change] by Ian F. Spellerberg
[[Category:United Nations General Assembly resolutions]]
[[Category:1982 in the United Nations]]
[[Category:October 1982 events]]
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
{{International-law-stub}} |
Conservation psychology | {{More footnotes|date=August 2008}}
'''Conservation psychology''' is the scientific study of the reciprocal relationships between [[human]]s and the rest of [[nature]], with a particular focus on how to encourage [[conservation movement|conservation]] of the [[natural environment|natural world]].<ref name="Saunders">Saunders, C.D. 2003. The Emerging Field of Conservation Psychology. Human Ecology Review, Vol. 10, No, 2. 137–49.</ref> Rather than a specialty area within [[psychology]] itself, it is a growing field for scientists, researchers, and practitioners of all disciplines to come together and better understand the Earth and what can be done to preserve it. This network seeks to understand why humans hurt or help the environment and what can be done to change such behavior. The term "conservation psychology" refers to any fields of psychology that have understandable knowledge about the environment and the effects humans have on the natural world. Conservation psychologists use their abilities in "greening" psychology and make society [[ecologically sustainable]].<ref name="Myers">[http://www.ac.wwu.edu/~gmyers/cp/ Myers, Gene. ''Conservation Psychology''. WWU. January 20, 2002.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071219133545/http://www.ac.wwu.edu/~gmyers/cp/ |date=December 19, 2007 }}</ref> The science of conservation psychology is oriented toward [[environmental sustainability]], which includes concerns like the conservation of [[natural resources|resources]], conservation of [[ecosystem]]s, and quality of life issues for humans and other [[species]].<ref name="Saunders"/>
One common issue is a lack of understanding of the distinction between conservation psychology and the more-established field of [[environmental psychology]], which is the study of transactions between individuals and all their physical settings, including how people change both the built and the natural environments and how those environments change them.<ref>Gifford, R. 2007. Environmental Psychology: Principles and Practice (4th ed.). Colville, WA: Optimal Books.</ref> Environmental psychology began in the late 1960s (the first formal program with that name was established at the City University of New York in 1968), and is the term most commonly used around the world. Its definition as including human transactions with both the natural and built environments goes back to its beginnings, as exemplified in these quotes from three 1974 textbooks: "Environmental psychology is the study of the interrelationship between behavior and the built and natural environment"<ref>Bell, P.A., Fisher, J. D., & Loomis, R.J. 1974. Environmental Psychology. Philadelphia PA: Saunders (p. 6).</ref> and "...the natural environment is studied as both a problem area, with respect to [[environmental degradation]], and as a setting for certain recreational and psychological needs",<ref>Ittelson, W.H., Proshansky, H.M., Rivlin, L.G., Winkel, G.H. 1974. Environmental Psychology: An Introduction. New York: Hold, Rinehart, and Winston (p. 6),</ref> and a third that included a chapter entitled The Natural Environment and Behavior.<ref>Heimstra, N.W. & McFarling, L.H. 1974. Environmental Psychology. Monterey, CA: Brooks/Cole</ref>
Conservation psychology, proposed more recently in 2003 and mainly identified with a group of US academics with ties to zoos and environmental studies departments, began with a primary focus on the relations between humans and animals. Introduced in ecology, policy, and biology journals, some{{who|date=November 2019}} have suggested that it should be expanded to try to understand why humans feel the need to help or hurt the environment, along with how to promote conservation efforts.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Clayton|first=S|author2=Brook, A|title=Can Psychology Save the World? A Model for Conservation Psychology|journal=[[Analyses of Social Issues and Public Policy]] |date=Dec 2005|volume=5|issue=1|pages=87–102|doi=10.1111/j.1530-2415.2005.00057.x}}</ref>
==Pioneers in this field==
{{empty section|date=November 2019}}
== Who is involved ==
{{one source|section|date=November 2019}}
Psychologists from all fields including philosophy, biology, sociology, industrial and organizational, health, and consumer psychology, along with many other subfields like environmental education and [[conservation biology]] come together to put their knowledge to practice in educating others to work together and encourage a congruous relationship between humans and the environment around them. These psychologists work together with places such as zoos and aquariums. Zoos and aquariums may seem to only be places of recreation and fun but are actually trying hard to put positive messages out and to educate the public on the homes and needs of the animals that live there.<ref>{{cite book|last=Bitgood|first=Stephen C.|title=Environmental psychology in museums, zoos, and other exhibition centers|year=2002|publisher=John Wiley & Sons Inc|location=NJ|isbn=978-0-471-40594-8|pages=461–480}}</ref> They are trying to find ways to interact and teach the public the consequences of their day to day actions to the animals and the environment rather than simply viewing the animals. Psychologists and sociologists have been visiting workshops and think tanks at the zoos to evaluate if the animals are being viewed and shown to the best of their ability while still giving informative knowledge to the public.
==Research to consider==
What characterizes conservation psychology research is that in addition to descriptive and theoretical analyses, studies will explore how to cause the kinds of changes that lessen the impact of human behavior on the natural environment, and that lead to more sustainable and harmonious relationships.<ref>Zelezny, L.C. & Schultz, P.W. (eds.). 2000. Promoting environmentalism. Journal of Social Issues 56, 3, 365–578.</ref><ref>Werner, C.M. 1999. Psychological perspectives on sustainability. In E. Becker and T. Jahn (eds.), Sustainability and the Social Sciences: A Cross-Disciplinary Approach to Integrating Environmental Considerations into Theoretical Reorientation, 223–42. London: Zed Books.</ref> Some of the research being done with respect to conservation is estimating exactly how much land and water resources are being used by each human at this point along with projected future growth. Also important to consider is the partitioning of land for this future growth. Additionally, conservation efforts look at the positive and negative consequences for the biodiversity of plant and animal life after humans have used the land to their advantage. In addition to creating better conceptual models, more applied research is needed to: 1) identify the most promising strategies for fostering ways of caring about nature, 2) find ways to reframe debates and strategically communicate to the existing values that people have, 3) identify the most promising strategies for shifting the societal discourse about human–nature relationships, and 4) measure the success of these applications with respect to the conservation psychology mission.<ref name="Saunders"/> The ultimate success of conservation psychology will be based on whether its research resulted in programs and applications that made a difference with respect to environmental sustainability. We need to be able to measure the effectiveness of the programs in terms of their impact on behavior formation or behavior change, using tools developed by conservation psychologists.<ref name="Saunders"/>
== Present research and future planning ==
Conservation psychology research has broken down the four most important tenets of promoting positive conservation attitudes into "the four 'I's".<ref name="Van Vugt 169–173">{{cite journal|last=Van Vugt|first=Mark|title=Averting the Tragedy of the Commons: Using Social Psychological Science to Protect the Environment|journal=Current Directions in Psychological Science|date=1 June 2009|volume=18|issue=3|pages=169–173|doi=10.1111/j.1467-8721.2009.01630.x|citeseerx=10.1.1.331.8518}}</ref> These include: Information, Identity, Institutions, and Incentives. Research has been done in all four categories.
=== Information ===
Studies have shown that the way in which crises are presented is a key predictor for how people will react to them. When people hear that they personally can help to alleviate a crisis through their conservation efforts, just by simple actions with their personal energy use, they are more likely to conserve. However, if people are told that the other people around them are overusing energy, it increases selfish behavior and causes people to actually consume more.<ref name="SAUNDERS 702–705">{{cite journal|last=SAUNDERS|first=CAROL D. |author2=BROOK, AMARA T. |author3=EUGENE MYERS, OLIN|title=Using Psychology to Save Biodiversity and Human Well-Being|journal=Conservation Biology|date=1 June 2006|volume=20|issue=3|pages=702–705|doi=10.1111/j.1523-1739.2006.00435.x|pmid=16909560 |s2cid=40788902 }}</ref> Other studies show that when people believe in the efficacy of collective action, awareness of the predicament climate change places on society can lead to pro-environmental behaviour. Furthermore, when adequate support is provided for climate related emotions to be reflected on and processed, this leads to an increase in resilience and community engagement.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Kieft|first1=J.|last2=Bendell|first2=J|year=2021|title=The responsibility of communicating difficult truths about climate influenced societal disruption and collapse: an introduction to psychological research
|url=https://insight.cumbria.ac.uk/id/eprint/5950
|journal=Institute for Leadership and Sustainability (IFLAS) Occasional Papers
|volume=7|pages=1–39}}</ref>
Teaching people about the benefits of conservation, including easy ways to help conserve, is an effective way to inform about and promote more environmentally friendly behavior.<ref name="Huber 409–425">{{cite journal|last=Huber|first=Patrick R.|author2=Greco, Steven E. |author3=Thorne, James H. |title=Boundaries Make a Difference: The Effects of Spatial and Temporal Parameters on Conservation Planning*|journal=The Professional Geographer|date=24 June 2010|volume=62|issue=3|pages=409–425|doi=10.1080/00330121003788309|s2cid=130790846 }}</ref> Additionally, research has shown that making sure people understand more about the boundaries of land they can help preserve actually improves positive attitudes towards conservation. When people know more about local regions they can help protect, they will care more. Knowing more about the regions includes knowing the extent of the [[biodiversity]] in that region, and being sure that the ecosystem will remain healthy and protected. Cost analysis is another important factor. People do not want to take risks on valuable lands, which in places like California, could be worth billions.<ref name="Huber 409–425"/>
=== Identity ===
In general, people like to fit in and identify with their peer social groups. Studies have shown people identify more intimately with close friends and family, which is why conservation campaigns try to directly address the most people.<ref name="SAUNDERS 702–705"/> The "think of the children" argument for conservation follows this logic by offering a group everyone can relate to and feel close to. Studies have also shown that this need to fit in among peer social groups can be reinforced positively or negatively: giving positive feedback on energy bills for conserving in their homes encourages people to continue lower energy use. Examples of negative [[reinforcement]] include the use of negative press against companies infamous for heavy pollution.<ref name="Van Vugt 169–173"/>
Another interesting line of research looks at how people identify positively or negatively with certain issues. One relevant idea is the notion of "consistency attitudes". Studies have shown that people tend to take a good association they have, and then use this to make positive or negative links with other, related things. For example, if someone thinks it is a good idea to protect old Pacific forests, this will positively form a link to also want to protect smaller forests and even grasslands.<ref name="Bright 2301–2321">{{cite journal|last=Bright|first=Alan D.|author2=Barro, Susan C. |author3=Burtz, Randall T. |title=Attitudes Toward the Protection and Restoration of Natural Areas Across Three Geographic Levels: An Examination of Interattitude Consistency1|journal=Journal of Applied Social Psychology|date=1 November 2001|volume=31|issue=11|pages=2301–2321|doi=10.1111/j.1559-1816.2001.tb00177.x}}</ref> This same line of thinking can cause someone who supports the protection of old Pacific forests to start thinking negatively about the creation of more logging roads. Other studies on consistency attitudes have shown that, with one particular issue, people like to align their preferences with each other. This has been shown repeatedly while looking at political ideologies and racial attitudes, and studies have shown that this can also include environmental issues.<ref name="Bright 2301–2321"/> Finally, other studies have shown that how people identify an ecosystem geographically can affect their concern for it.<ref name="Bright 2301–2321"/> For instance, when people think of saving the rainforests, they often think of this as a global problem and support it more readily. However, lesser known but still significant local ecosystems remain ignored and unprotected.
=== Institutions ===
{{one source|section|date=November 2019}}
Another approach that has been considered is the use of organized institutions and government as the leaders for promoting conservation. However, these leaders can only be effective if they are trusted. Studies from previous crises where conserving resources was extremely necessary showed that people were more likely to obey energy restrictions and follow certain leaders when they felt they could trust the people directing them.<ref name="Van Vugt 169–173"/> That is, people are more likely to obey restrictions when they believe that they are being encouraged to act a certain way out of necessity and that they are not being misled.
=== Incentives ===
{{one source|section|date=November 2019}}
Incentivizing conservation through rewards and fines is another approach. Studies have shown that people who identify more with their community need less incentives to conserve than those who do not identify strongly with their surrounding community.<ref name="Van Vugt 169–173"/> For corporations, monetary incentives have been shown to work for companies showing some effort to make their buildings and practices more "green".<ref name="Van Vugt 169–173"/> Studies have also shown that doing something as simple as putting a water meter in homes has helped incentivize conservation by letting people track their energy consumption levels. Finally, studies have shown that when giving fines, it is better to start with very small and then raise it for repeated violations. If the fines are too high, the issue becomes too economic, and people start to mistrust the authorities enforcing the fines.<ref name="Van Vugt 169–173"/>
==Main concepts==
Conservation psychology assesses as a whole four different concepts. At the country's first Conservation Psychology conference these four things were discussed. The first is the main original topic of the field, and the other three are topics with a previous history in [[environmental psychology]].
The first topic being discussed is the connection of humans and animals. The Multi-Institutional Research Project (MIRP) works diligently on finding ways to develop a compassionate stance towards animals in the public eye. Many different questions were assessed to find answers to questions concerning ways to help develop loving attitudes for animals and the earth. With these questions and answers, effective educational and interpretive programs were made that would help review the progress.
The second concept that was discussed at the conference concerned connections of humans and places. A new language of conservation will be supported if there are abundant opportunities for meaningful interactions with the natural world in both urban and rural settings. Unfortunately, as biodiversity is lost, every generation has fewer chances to experience nature.<ref>Kahn, P.K., Jr. 1999. The human relationship with nature. Development and culture. Massachusetts Institute of Technology Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts.</ref><ref>Miller, J. 2006. Biodiversity conservation and the extinction of experience. Trends in Ecology & Evolution: in press.</ref> There were many questions asked concerning how humans in their everyday lives could be persuaded or educated well enough to make them want to join in programs or activities that help maintain biodiversity in their proximity. Local public and private organizations were asked to come together to help find ways to protect and manage local land, plants, and animals. Other discussions came to whether people on an individual or community level would voluntarily choose to become involved in maintaining and protecting their local biodiversity. These plus many other important questions were contemplated. Techniques in marketing are a key tool in helping people connect to their environment. If an identity could be connected from the environment to towns becoming more urbanized, maybe those living there would be more prone to keep it intact.
The third discussion covered the aspects of producing people who act [[environmentally friendly]]. Collectively, any activities that support sustainability, either by reducing harmful behaviors or by adopting helpful ones, can be called conservation behaviors. Achieving more sustainable relationships with nature will basically require that large numbers of people change their reproductive and consumptive behaviors.<ref name="Saunders"/> Any action, small or large, that helps the environment in any way is a good beginning to a future of generations who only practice environmentally friendly behavior. This may seem to be a far-fetched idea but with any help at all in educating those who do not know the repercussions of their actions could help achieve this. Approaches to encouraging a change in behavior were thought about carefully. Many do not want to change their way of life. A more simplistic lifestyle rather than their materialistic, current lives hurt their environment around them rather than help, but could people willingly change? To take public transportation rather than drive a car, recycling, turning off lights when they are not needed, all these things are very simple yet a nuisance to actually follow through with. Would restructuring tax-code help people to want to change their attitudes? Any concept to reach the goal of helping people act ecologically aware was discussed and approached. Some empirical evidence shows that simply "being the change you want to see in the world" can influence others to behave in more environmentally friendly ways as well.<ref>Sussman, R., & Gifford, R. (2013). Be the Change You Want to See: Modeling Food Composting in Public Places. Environment & Behavior, 45, 323-343, DOI: 10.1177/0013916511431274.</ref>
The fourth and final point at the first Conservation Psychology convention was the discussion of the values people have to their environment. Understanding our relationship to the natural world well enough so that we have a language to celebrate and defend that relationship is another research area for conservation psychology. According to the [[biophilia hypothesis]], the [[human]] species evolved in the company of other life forms, and we continue to rely physically, emotionally, and intellectually on the quality and richness of our affiliations with natural diversity.<ref name="Saunders"/> A healthy and diverse natural environment is considered an essential condition for human lives of satisfaction and fulfillment.<ref>Kellert, S.R. & Wilson E.O. (eds.). 1993. The Biophilia Hypothesis. Washington, DC: Island Press.</ref> Where did they get these values and are they ingrained to the point they cannot be changed? How can environmentally educated people convey value-based communication to a community, a nation, or even on a global level? National policy for this model is something that is desired but under such a strong political scrutiny this could be very challenging. Advocates for biodiversity and different programs came together to try to find methods of changing Americans' values concerning their environment and different methods to express and measure them.
==Connection of conservation in biology and psychology==
[[Conservation biology]] was originally conceptualized as a crisis-oriented discipline, with the goal of providing principles and tools for preserving biodiversity.<ref>Soule, M.E. (1987). History of the Society for Conservation Biology: How and why we got here. Conservation Biology, 1, 4–5.</ref> This is a branch of biology that is concerned with preserving genetic variation in plants and animals. This scientific field evolved to study the complex problems surrounding [[habitat destruction]] and species protection. The objectives of conservation biologists are to understand how humans affect biodiversity and to provide potential solutions that benefit both humans and non-human species. It is understood in this field that there are underlying fields of biology that could readily help to have a better understanding and contribute to conservation of biodiversity. Biological knowledge alone is not sufficient to solve conservation problems, and the role of the social sciences in solving these problems has become increasingly important.<ref>Mascia, M.B.; Brosius, J.P.; Dobson, T.A.; Forbes, B.C.; Horowitz, L.; McKean, M.A. & N.J. Turner. 2003. Conservation and the social sciences. Conservation Biology 17: 649–50.</ref> With the knowledge of conservation biology combined with other fields, much was thought to be gained. Psychology is defined as the scientific study of human thought, feeling, and behavior.<ref name="Myers"/> Psychology was one of the fields that could take its concepts and apply them to conservation. It was also always understood that in the field of psychology there could be much aid to be given, the field only had to be developed. Psychology can help in providing insight into moral reasoning and moral functioning, which lie in the heart of human–nature relationships.<ref name="Saunders"/>
==See also==
{{Portal|Environment}}
{{div col|colwidth=22em}}
* [[Biodiversity]]
* [[Conservation movement]]
* [[Conservation ethic]]
* [[Ecopsychology]]
* [[Environmental movement]]
* [[Environmental psychology]]
* [[Natural environment]]
* [[Sustainability]]
{{div col end}}
==References==
{{Reflist}}
==Notes==
* Brook, Amara; Clayton, Susan. Can Psychology Help Save the World? A Model for Conservation Psychology. ''Analyses of Social Issues and Public Policy'', Vol. 5, No. 1, 2005, pp. 87–102.
* [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/259286195_Environmental_Psychology_Overview De Young, R. (2013). "Environmental Psychology Overview." In Ann H. Huffman & Stephanie Klein [Eds.<nowiki>]</nowiki> ''Green Organizations: Driving Change with IO Psychology.'' (Pp. 17-33). NY: Routledge.]
* Exploring the Potential of Conservation Psychology. ''Human Ecology Review'', Vol 10. No. 2. 2003. pp. iii–iv.
* Kahn, P.K., Jr. 1999. The human relationship with nature. ''Development and culture''. Massachusetts Institute of Technology Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts.
* Kellert, S.R. & Wilson E.O. (eds.). 1993. ''The Biophilia Hypothesis''. Washington, DC: Island Press.
* Mascia, M.B.; Brosius, J.P.; Dobson, T.A.; Forbes, B.C.; Horowitz, L.; McKean, M.A. & N.J. Turner. 2003. Conservation and the social sciences. ''Conservation Biology'' 17: 649–50.
* Miller, J. 2006. Biodiversity conservation and the extinction of experience. ''Trends in Ecology & Evolution'': in press.
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20071219133545/http://www.ac.wwu.edu/~gmyers/cp/ Myers, Gene. ''Conservation Psychology''. WWU. January 20, 2002.]
* Myers, D.G. 2003. ''Psychology, 7th Edition''. New York: Worth Publishers.
* Saunders, C.D. 2003. The Emerging Field of Conservation Psychology. ''Human Ecology Review'', Vol. 10, No, 2. 137–49.
* Soule, M.E. (1987). History of the Society for Conservation Biology: How and why we got here. ''Conservation Biology'', 1, 4–5.
* Werner, C.M. 1999. Psychological perspectives on sustainability. In E. Becker and T. Jahn (eds.), ''Sustainability and the Social Sciences: A Cross-Disciplinary Approach to Integrating Environmental Considerations into Theoretical Reorientation'', 223–42. London: Zed Books.
* Zelezny, L.C. & Schultz, P.W. (eds.). 2000. Promoting environmentalism. ''Journal of Social Issues'' 56, 3, 365–578.
{{conservation of species|state=expanded}}
{{Environmental social science}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Conservation Psychology}}
[[Category:Ecology]]
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
[[Category:Environmental psychology]]
[[Category:Environmental social science]] |
Tourism with a Hand Lens | "'''Ecotourism with a Hand Lens'''" is a term coined by Dr. [[Ricardo Rozzi]]<ref>Rozzi, R., J. Armesto, B. Goffinet, W. Buck, F. Massardo, J. Silander, Jr., M.T.K. Arroyo, S. Russell, C.B. Anderson, L. Cavieres & J.B. Callicott (2008). Changing biodiversity conservation lenses: Insights from the subantarctic non-vascular flora of southern South America. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment 6:131-137</ref> and his colleagues to refer to a new speciality tourism being promoted in the Cape Horn Biosphere Reserve. Given the discovery of the archipelago's outstanding diversity of mosses, lichens and liverworts (5% of the world's total), Rozzi has called upon tourism operators to place this narrative into their offering for the region and take advantage of this biodiversity hotspot for non-vascular flora.<ref>Hargrove, E., M. T. K. Arroyo, P. H. Raven, and H. Mooney. 2008. Omora Ethnobotanical Park and the UNESCO Cape Horn Biosphere Reserve. Ecology and Society 13(2): 49. [online] URL: http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol13/iss2/art49/</ref>
In turn, Rozzi and the [[Omora Ethnobotanical Park]] have metaphorically called these small plant communities the '''"Miniature Forests of Cape Horn"''' to help the broader society understand the ecological role played by these tiny, but diverse, abundant and important organisms. In the Magellanic Subantarctic ecoregion, the Cape Horn Biosphere Reserve and the Chilean Antarctic Peninsula, the number of foreign
tourists has doubled in the last decade, with nature tourism being the principal attraction for visitors to the region. With the aim of preventing negative impacts of tourism activity on the biological and cultural diversity, and to contribute to sustainable tourism the Sub-Antarctic Biocultural Conservation Program at the Omora Ethnobotanical Park, in collaboration with local actors, has developed the field environmental philosophy methodological approach.<ref>Ricardo Rozzi, Ximena Arango, Francisca Massardo, Christopher Anderson, Kurt Heidinger, Kelli Moses. 2008. Field Environmental Philosophy and Biocultural Conservation: The Omora Ethnobotanical Park Educational Program. Environmental Ethics 30 (3): 325-336. [online] URL: {{cite web |url=http://www.secure.pdcnet.org/enviroethics/content/enviroethics_2008_0030_0003_0325_0336 |title=Ricardo Rozzi, Ximena Arango, Francisca Massardo, Christopher Anderson, Kurt Heidinger, Kelli Moses, Field Environmental Philosophy and Biocultural Conservation, Environmental Ethics (Philosophy Documentation Center) |accessdate=2012-03-05 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://archive.today/20120909135054/http://www.secure.pdcnet.org/enviroethics/content/enviroethics_2008_0030_0003_0325_0336 |archivedate=2012-09-09 }}</ref>
Field environmental philosophy methodology integrates ecological sciences and [[environmental ethics]] through a four-step cycle consisting of: (i) interdisciplinary ecological and philosophical research; (ii) composition of metaphors and communication of simple narratives; (iii) design of field activities guided with an ecological and an ethical orientation; and (iv) implementation of in situ conservation areas. Under the perspective of field environmental philosophy we have defined ecotourism as “an invitation to have a tour or trip to share and appreciate the oikos of the diverse human and nonhuman inhabitants, their habits and habitats.” <ref>Rozzi, R. J.J. Armesto, J. Gutierrez, F. Massardo, G. Likens et al. 2012. Integrating Ecology and Environmental Ethics: Earth Stewardship in the Southern End of the Americas. BioScience 62(3): 226-236</ref> This methodological approach is implemented with the activity of “ecotourism with a hand-lens” at Omora Park. "Ecotourism with a hand-lens” aims to demonstrate that when adequately planned and administered, ecotourism can contribute to biocultural conservation hand in hand with environmental, economic, and social sustainability.<ref>Galapagos and Cape Horn: Ecotourism or Greenwashing in Two Emblematic Latin American Archipelagoes? Ricardo Rozzi, Francisca Massardo, Felipe Cruz, Christophe Grenier, Andrea Muñoz & Eduard Mueller. 2010. Environmental Philosophy 7 (2): 1-32 (Special Issue on Ecotourism and Environmental Justice) http://secure.pdcnet.org/envirophil/content/envirophil_2010_0007_0002_0001_0032</ref>
"Tourism with a hand lens" has been likened to a nature-venerating ritual by the ethnographer [[Bron Taylor]] in his book ''[[Dark Green Religion]].''<ref>Taylor, Bron. 2010. ''Dark Green Religion: Nature Spirituality and the Planetary Future''. University of California Press, 171-73. {{ISBN|978-0-520-26100-6}}</ref>
<gallery>
Image:Children entering Omora Ethnobotanical Park.jpg|Children entering Omora Ethnobotanical Park
</gallery>
==References==
{{reflist|2}}
==External links==
*[http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol11/iss1/art43/ Omora Biocultural Conservation Approach: Ecology & Society 2006]
*[http://rchn.biologiachile.cl/suppmat/2010/1/MC_Rozzi_et_al_2010.pdf Field environmental philosophy and biocultural conservation at the Omora Ethnobotanical Park: Methodological approaches to broaden the ways of integrating the social component(“S”) in Long-Term Socio-Ecological Research (LTSER) Sites]
*[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LLvw0Ub0oKk ''TV UMAG'' Ecotourism with a Hand Lens - Ecoturismo con Lupa]
* [http://www.cipma.cl/images/stories/pdf/RAD%2024%20Rozzi.pdf ''Ecoturismo con lupa: integración de las ciencias ecológicas y la ética ambiental'']
*[http://www.umag.cl/facultades/williams/ Universidad de Magallanes (UMAG), Puerto Williams, Chile]
*[http://www.ieb-chile.cl/ Institute of Ecology and Biodiversity, Chile (IEB)]
*[http://www.chile.unt.edu/ Sub-Antarctic Biocultural Conservation Program, coordinated by UMAG & IEB in Chile, and the University of North Texas in the US]
*[http://www.cep.unt.edu/ Center for Environmental Philosophy]
[[Category:Sustainable tourism]]
[[Category:Environmental conservation]] |
Endangered species | {{Short description|Species of organisms facing a very high risk of extinction}}
{{Redirect|Endangered|other uses|Endangered (disambiguation)|and|Endangered species (disambiguation)|lists|Lists of IUCN Red List endangered species}}
{{EngvarB|date=June 2022}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2022}}
{{Conservation status}}
[[File:Golden lion tamarin portrait3.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Golden lion tamarin]], an endemic and one of the endangered species saved from extinction in Brazil]]
[[File:Trends in Endangered Species- A Visual Representation of Plant and Animal Conservation in Brazil (2014-2022).pdf|thumb|285x285px|A visual representation of the declining percentages of endangered plant and animal species in Brazil from 2014 to 2022. The sidebar graph highlights the contrast between plant and animal conservation efforts.]]
[[File:Gymnogyps californianus -Bitter Creek National Wildlife Refuge, California, USA -flying-8.jpg|thumb|upright|The [[California condor]] is a [[critically endangered]] species. Note the [[Bird ringing|wing tags]] used for population monitoring.]]
An '''endangered species''' is a [[species]] that is very likely to become [[extinct]] in the near future, either worldwide or in a particular political jurisdiction. Endangered species may be at risk due to factors such as [[habitat loss]], [[poaching]], and [[invasive species]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Why do animals and plants become endangered? {{!}} U.S. Geological Survey |url=https://www.usgs.gov/faqs/why-do-animals-and-plants-become-endangered |access-date=2024-01-14 |website=www.usgs.gov}}</ref> The [[International Union for Conservation of Nature]] (IUCN) [[IUCN Red List|Red List]] lists the global [[conservation status]] of many species, and various other agencies assess the status of species within particular areas. Many nations have [[Environmental law|law]]s that protect [[conservation-reliant species]] which, for example, forbid [[hunting]], restrict [[land development]], or create [[protected area]]s. Some endangered species are the target of extensive conservation efforts such as [[captive breeding]] and [[habitat restoration]].
Human activity is a significant cause in causing some species to become endangered.<ref>{{cite web|title=Giant Panda WWF|url=https://www.worldwildlife.org/species/giant-panda|accessdate = 19 September 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title = Grey Long-Eared Bat Mammal Society|url=https://www.mammal.org.uk/species-grey-long-eared-bat|accessdate = 19 September 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Endangered Species |url=https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/endangered-species/ |website=education.nationalgeographic.org |publisher=[[National Geographic]] |access-date=27 September 2023 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Tollefson |first1=Jeff |title=Humans are driving one million species to extinction |journal=Nature |date=6 May 2019 |volume=569 |issue=7755 |pages=171 |doi=10.1038/d41586-019-01448-4 |pmid=31065101 |bibcode=2019Natur.569..171T |s2cid=256768064 |language=en|doi-access=free }}</ref>
== Conservation status ==
{{Main|Conservation status}}
[[File:Pusa hispida saimensis ca 1956.jpg|thumb|upright|Photo of ''Pusa hispida saimensis'', also known as [[Saimaa ringed seal]], from 1956. Living only in [[Lake Saimaa]], [[Finland]], Saimaa ringed seals are among the most endangered seals in the world, having a total population of only about 400 individuals.<ref>{{cite web |title= Saimaa Ringed Seal |url= https://wwf.fi/en/saimaaringedseal/ |access-date= 22 December 2018 |archive-date= 25 December 2018 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20181225014047/https://wwf.fi/en/saimaaringedseal/ |url-status= live }}</ref>]]
The [[conservation status]] of a [[species]] indicates the likelihood that it will become [[extinct]]. Multiple factors are considered when assessing the status of a species; e.g., such statistics as the number remaining, the overall increase or decrease in the population over time, breeding success rates, or known threats.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.natureserve.org/infonatura/Lnsstatus.htm |title=NatureServe Conservation Status |date=April 2007 |publisher=NatureServe |access-date=2 June 2012 |archive-date=21 September 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130921055302/http://www.natureserve.org/infonatura/Lnsstatus.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> The [[IUCN Red List|IUCN Red List of Threatened Species]] is the best-known worldwide conservation status listing and ranking system.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.iucnredlist.org/about/red-list-overview |title=Red List Overview |date=February 2011 |publisher=IUCN |access-date=2 June 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120527175928/http://www.iucnredlist.org/about/red-list-overview |archive-date=May 27, 2012 }}</ref>
Over 50% of the world's species are estimated to be at risk of extinction,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.conservationandwildlife.com/threatened-species/ |title=Threatened Species |publisher=Conservation and Wildlife |access-date=2 June 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120913043721/http://www.conservationandwildlife.com/threatened-species |archive-date=September 13, 2012 }}</ref> but the frontier between categories such as 'endangered', 'rare', or 'locally extinct' species is often difficult to draw given the general paucity of data on most of these species. This is notably the case in the world Ocean where endangered species not seen for decades may go extinct unnoticed.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Briand |first1=Frederic |title=Species Missing in Action - Rare or Already Extinct? |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/233408388 |work=National Geographic |date=October 2012}}</ref>
Internationally, 195 countries have signed an accord to create [[Biodiversity Action Plan]]s that will protect endangered and other threatened species. In the United States, such plans are usually called [[Endangered Species Recovery Plan|Species Recovery Plan]]s.
== IUCN Red List ==
{{Main|Endangered species (IUCN status)}}
[[File:Panthera tigris altaica 13 - Buffalo Zoo.jpg|thumb|upright|The [[Siberian tiger]] is an Endangered (EN) [[Tiger#Subspecies|tiger subspecies]]. Three tiger subspecies are already extinct (see [[List of carnivorans by population]]).<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.sundarbantigerproject.info/viewpage.php?page_id=2 |title=The Tiger |publisher=Sundarbans Tiger Project |access-date=2 June 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120917192637/http://www.sundarbantigerproject.info/viewpage.php?page_id=2 |archive-date=17 September 2012 }}</ref>]]
[[File:AraGlaucogularisFull.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Blue-throated macaw]], a critically endangered bird]]
[[File:BrownSpiderMonkey (edit2).jpg|thumb|upright|[[Brown spider monkey]], a critically endangered mammal]]
[[File:Siamese Crocodiles.JPG|thumb|upright|[[Siamese crocodile]], a critically endangered reptile]]
[[File:Nicrophorus americanus - Sankt-Peterburg.jpg|thumb|upright|[[American burying beetle]], an endangered species of insect]]
[[File:Lepidochelys kempii.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Kemp's ridley sea turtle]], a critically endangered reptile]]
[[File:Mexican_Wolf_2_yfb-edit_1.jpg|thumb|upright|The [[Mexican wolf]], the most endangered subspecies of the North American [[grey wolf]]. Approximately 143 are living in the wild.]]
Though labeled a list, the [[IUCN Red List]] is a system of assessing the global conservation status of species that includes "Data Deficient" (DD) species – species for which more data and assessment is required before their situation may be determined – as well species comprehensively assessed by the IUCN's species assessment process.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |date=2018-02-07 |title=IUCN Red List of Threatened Species |url=https://www.iucn.org/resources/conservation-tools/iucn-red-list-threatened-species |access-date=2022-04-22 |website=IUCN |language=en}}</ref> The species under the index include: mammals, birds, amphibians, cycads, and corals. Those species of "[[Near-threatened species|Near Threatened]]" (NT) and "[[Least concern|Least Concern]]" (LC) status have been assessed and found to have relatively robust and healthy populations, though these may be in decline. Unlike their more general use elsewhere, the List uses the terms "endangered species" and "threatened species" with particular meanings: "Endangered" (EN) species lie between "[[Vulnerable species|Vulnerable]]" (VU) and "[[Critically Endangered species|Critically Endangered]]" (CR) species. In 2012, the IUCN Red List listed 3,079 animal and 2,655 plant species as endangered (EN) worldwide.<ref name=":0" />
== In Brazil ==
Brazil is one of the most [[Biodiversity|biodiverse]] countries in the world, if not the most. It houses not only the Amazon forest but the [[Atlantic Forest|Atlantic forest]], the savanna-like [[Cerrado]] among other [[Biomes in Brazil|biomes]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2016-05-21 |title=The top 10 most biodiverse countries |url=https://news.mongabay.com/2016/05/top-10-biodiverse-countries/ |access-date=2022-12-03 |website=Mongabay Environmental News |language=en-US}}</ref> Due to the high density of some of its well-preserved rainforests, [[Wildlife smuggling|wildlife trafficking]], which along with deforestation is one of the biggest endangerment drivers in Brazil, has become a challenge. Brazil has a broad legal system meant to protect the environment, including its [[Constitution of Brazil|Constitution]],<ref>{{Cite web |date=2010 |title=Brazilian Constitution of 1988 - Article 23 "The Union, the states, the federal district and the municipalities, in common, have the power: [...] VI – to protect the environment and to fight pollution in any of its forms; VII – to preserve the forests, fauna and flora |url=https://www.oas.org/es/sla/ddi/docs/acceso_informacion_base_dc_leyes_pais_b_1_en.pdf |access-date= |website=OAS (Organization of American States)}}</ref> as well as several federal, state and local government agencies tasked with protecting the [[fauna]] and [[flora]], fining individuals or companies linked to [[environmental crime]]s and confiscating illegally taken wildlife. Though such agencies can collect their data, each system operates relatively on its own when it comes to wildlife trafficking. However, both the agencies and the [[Non-governmental organization|NGO]]'s working in Brazil agree that the birds account for about 80% of trafficked species in the country.<ref>{{Cite web |title=A máfia dos bichos: Muito além de reality, tráfico de animais no Brasil tira 38 milhões de bichos da mata por ano e gira R$ 3 bi |url=https://www.uol.com.br/ecoa/reportagens-especiais/trafico-no-brasil-tira-por-ano-35-milhoes-de-animais-da-floresta-e-gira-r-3-bilhoes/ |access-date=2022-12-03 |website=www.uol.com.br |language=pt-br}}</ref>
The relation between wildlife smuggling, other environment crimes under the Brazilian law such as [[deforestation]], and endangered species is particularly intricate and troubling since the rarer the animal or plant gets the most targeted and valuable they become in the [[black market]], which leads to more endangered species in its turn.<ref>{{Cite web |last=KKIENERM |title=Wildlife, Forest & Fisheries Crime Module 1 Key Issues: Implications of Wildlife Trafficking |url=https://www.unodc.org/e4j/en/wildlife-crime/module-1/key-issues/implications-of-wildlife-trafficking.html |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=www.unodc.org |language=en}}</ref>
Additionally, some environment experts and scientists point to the disbanding of environment agencies and the repeal of laws in Brazil under the [[presidency of Jair Bolsonaro]] as one of the reasons behind a surge in the number of endangered species.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Magazine |first=Hakai |title=In COVID's Shadow, Illegal Fishing Flourishes |url=https://hakaimagazine.com/news/in-covids-shadow-illegal-fishing-flourishes/ |access-date=2022-12-06 |website=Hakai Magazine |language=en}}</ref> In one occasion during his presidency some fines totaling US$3.1 billion on environment criminals were revoked and at least one fine (related to [[Illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing|illegal fishing]]) imposed on Bolsonaro himself was cancelled and the agent who fined him was [[Demotion|demoted]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ato do governo Bolsonaro deve anular até R$ 16 bilhões em multas ambientais |url=https://noticias.uol.com.br/meio-ambiente/ultimas-noticias/redacao/2022/09/20/ibama-multa-ambiental-eduardo-bim-governo-bolsonaro-notificacao-por-edital.htm |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=noticias.uol.com.br |language=pt-br}}</ref>
In the past, Brazil has successfully saved the endemic [[golden lion tamarin]] from [[extinction]]. Massive campaigns to raise awareness among people by NGO's and governments, which included printing depictions of the golden lion tamarin in the [[Brazilian real|20 reais Brazilian banknotes]] (still in circulation), are credited with getting the species out of the [[Critically Endangered|critically endangered]] animals list.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Mico-leão-dourado é "case" de sucesso para preservação, mas vê nova ameaça |url=https://www.uol.com.br/ecoa/ultimas-noticias/2020/06/05/mico-leao-dourado-e-case-de-sucesso-para-preservacao-mas-ve-nova-ameaca.htm |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=www.uol.com.br |language=pt-br}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-06-01 |title=How Brazil is working to save the rare lion tamarins of the Atlantic Forest |url=https://news.mongabay.com/2022/06/how-brazil-is-working-to-save-the-rare-lion-tamarins-of-the-atlantic-forest/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=Mongabay Environmental News |language=en-US}}</ref>
== In the United States ==
There is data from the United States that shows a correlation between human populations and threatened and endangered species. Using species data from the Database on the Economics and Management of Endangered Species (DEMES) database and the period that the [[Endangered Species Act of 1973|Endangered Species Act]] (ESA) has been in existence, 1970 to 1997, a table was created that suggests a positive relationship between human activity and species endangerment.<ref>{{cite book|editor1-last=Shogren|editor1-first=Jason F.|editor2-last=Tschirhart|editor2-first=John |title=Protecting Endangered Species in the United States: Biological Needs, Political Realities, Economic Choices|year=2001 |url=https://archive.org/details/protectingendang00shog|url-access=limited|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=0521662109|pages=[https://archive.org/details/protectingendang00shog/page/n25 1]}}</ref>
'''Impact of Climate Change on Endangered Species'''
Carbon dioxide in our atmosphere is asserted to be one of the leading cause of animal endangerment. <blockquote>"If we can sufficiently reduce greenhouse gas emissions, many of them will still have a chance to survive and recover". NASA scientist James Hanson has warned that in order to maintain a climate similar to that under which human civilization developed and similar to that which so many organisms are adapted, we need to quickly reduce the carbon dioxide in our atmosphere to 350 parts per million (ppm). Before the industrial revolution, atmospheric carbon dioxide levels rarely rose above 280 ppm; during the 2014 calendar year, carbon dioxide levels fluctuated between 395 and 402" - US National Park Service.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.nps.gov/pore/learn/nature/climatechange_wildlife.htm#:~:text=Biologists%20are%20becoming%20more%20and,due%20to%20global%20climate%20change. |title=Climate Change Endangers Wildlife |access-date=14 September 2023 |publisher=US National Park Service |date=25 March 2020 }}</ref></blockquote>
[[File:U.S. Endangered Species Count by State.gif|thumb|A proportional symbol map of each state's endangered species count]]
===Endangered Species Act===
Under the [[Endangered Species Act of 1973]] in the United States, species may be listed as "endangered" or "threatened". The [[Salt Creek tiger beetle]] (''Cicindela nevadica lincolniana'') is an example of an endangered subspecies protected under the ESA. The [[US Fish and Wildlife Service]], as well as the [[National Marine Fisheries Service]] are held responsible for classifying and protecting endangered species. They are also responsible for adding a particular species to the list, which can be a long, controversial process.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wilcove |first1=D.S. |last2=Master |first2=L.L. |title=How Many Endangered Species are there in the United States? |journal=Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment |date=2005 |volume=3 |issue=8 |page=414 |doi=10.2307/3868657 |jstor=3868657 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/3868657 |access-date=2021-06-01 |archive-date=2021-06-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210602231055/https://www.jstor.org/stable/3868657 |url-status=live }}</ref>
Some endangered species laws are controversial. Typical areas of controversy include criteria for placing a species on the endangered species list and rules for removing a species from the list once its population has recovered. Whether restrictions on land development constitute a "taking" of land by the [[government]]; the related question of whether private landowners should be compensated for the loss of uses of their areas; and obtaining reasonable exceptions to protection laws. Also lobbying from [[hunting|hunters]] and various industries like the [[petroleum industry]], [[construction]] industry, and [[logging]], has been an obstacle in establishing endangered species laws.
The [[Presidency of George W. Bush|Bush administration]] lifted a policy that required federal officials to consult a wildlife expert before taking actions that could damage endangered species. Under the [[Obama administration]], this policy was reinstated.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2009-03-03|title=Reversing Bush Rule, Obama Resumes Safeguards for Endangered Species|url=https://www.pbs.org/newshour/science/science-jan-june09-speciesrule_03-03|access-date=2021-07-23|website=PBS NewsHour|language=en-us|archive-date=2019-09-03|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190903123529/https://www.pbs.org/newshour/science/science-jan-june09-speciesrule_03-03|url-status=live}}</ref>
Being listed as an endangered species can have negative effect since it could make a species more desirable for collectors and poachers.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Courchamp |first=Franck |author2=Elena Angulo |author3=Philippe Rivalan |author4=Richard J. Hall |author5=Laetitia Signoret |author6=Leigh Bull |author7=Yves Meinard |title=Rarity Value and Species Extinction: The Anthropogenic Allee Effect |journal=PLOS Biology |volume=4 |issue=12 |pages=e415 |doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.0040415 |pmid=17132047 |pmc=1661683 |year=2006 |doi-access=free }}</ref> This effect is potentially reducible, such as in China where commercially farmed turtles may be reducing some of the pressure to poach endangered species.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Dharmananda |first=Subhuti |title=Endangered Species issues affecting turtles and tortoises used in Chinese medicine |journal=PLOS Biology |volume=4 |issue=12 |pages=e415 |publisher=Institute for Traditional Medicine, Portland, Oregon |doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.0040415 |pmid=17132047 |pmc=1661683 |year=2006 |doi-access=free }}</ref>
Another problem with the listing species is its effect of inciting the use of the "shoot, shovel, and shut-up" method of clearing endangered species from an area of land. Some landowners currently may perceive a diminution in value for their land after finding an endangered animal on it. They have allegedly opted to kill and bury the animals or destroy habitat silently. Thus removing the problem from their land, but at the same time further reducing the population of an endangered species.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.reason.com/news/show/34933.html |title=Shoot, Shovel and Shut Up |work=Reasononline |publisher=Reason Magazine |date=2003-12-31 |access-date=2006-12-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090921131035/http://www.reason.com/news/show/34933.html |archive-date=2009-09-21 |url-status=dead }}</ref> The effectiveness of the [[Endangered Species Act of 1973|Endangered Species Act]] – which coined the term "endangered species" – has been questioned by business advocacy groups and their publications but is nevertheless widely recognized by wildlife scientists who work with the species as an effective recovery tool. Nineteen species have been delisted and recovered<ref>{{cite web |url=http://ecos.fws.gov/tess_public/DelistingReport.do |title=USFWS Threatened and Endangered Species System (TESS) |publisher=U. S. Fish & Wildlife Service |access-date=2007-08-06 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070728035106/http://ecos.fws.gov/tess_public/DelistingReport.do |archive-date=2007-07-28 }}</ref> and 93% of listed species in the northeastern United States have a recovering or stable population.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.esasuccess.org/reports/|title=ESA Successes|website=www.esasuccess.org|access-date=2007-01-24|archive-date=2010-02-10|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100210193041/http://www.esasuccess.org/reports/|url-status=live}}</ref>
Currently, 1,556 endangered species are under protection by government law. This approximation, however, does not take into consideration the species threatened with endangerment that are not included under the protection of laws like the Endangered Species Act. According to [[NatureServe conservation status|NatureServe's global conservation status]], approximately thirteen percent of vertebrates (excluding marine fish), seventeen percent of vascular plants, and six to eighteen percent of fungi are considered imperiled.<ref name="WM2005">Wilcove & Master 2005.</ref>{{refpages|415|16}} Thus, in total, between seven and eighteen percent of the United States' known animals, fungi and plants are near extinction.<ref name="WM2005" />{{refpage|416}} This total is substantially more than the number of species protected in the United States under the Endangered Species Act.
[[File:2010-bald-eagle-kodiak.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Bald eagle]]]]
[[File:American bison k5680-1.jpg|thumb|upright|[[American bison]]]]
Ever since humankind began hunting to preserve itself, over-hunting and fishing have been a large and dangerous problem. Of all the species who became extinct due to interference from humankind, the [[dodo]], [[passenger pigeon]], [[great auk]], [[Tasmanian tiger]] and [[Steller's sea cow]] are some of the more well known examples; with the [[bald eagle]], [[grizzly bear]], [[American bison]], [[Eastern timber wolf]] and [[sea turtle]] having been poached to near-extinction. Many began as food sources seen as necessary for survival but became the target of sport. However, due to major efforts to prevent extinction, the bald eagle, or ''[[Bald eagle|Haliaeetus leucocephalus]]'' is now under the category of Least Concern on the red list.<ref>{{cite iucn |author=BirdLife International |date=2016 |title=''Haliaeetus leucocephalus'' |volume=2016 |page=e.T22695144A93492523 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-3.RLTS.T22695144A93492523.en |access-date=11 November 2021}}</ref> A present-day example of the over-hunting of a species can be seen in the oceans as populations of certain whales have been greatly reduced. Large whales like the [[blue whale]], [[bowhead whale]], [[Fin whale|finback whale]], [[gray whale]], [[sperm whale]], and [[humpback whale]] are some of the eight whales which are currently still included on the Endangered Species List. Actions have been taken to attempt a reduction in whaling and increase population sizes. The actions include prohibiting all whaling in United States waters, the formation of the CITES treaty which protects all whales, along with the formation of the [[International Whaling Commission|International Whaling Commission (IWC)]]. But even though all of these movements have been put in place, countries such as [[Japan]] continue to hunt and harvest whales under the claim of "scientific purposes".<ref>{{cite journal |last=Freedman |first=Bill |title=Endangered species |journal=Gale |volume=46 |issue=44 |pages=25 |year=2008 |edition=4th|pmid=30399289 }}</ref> Over-hunting, climatic change and habitat loss leads in landing species in endangered species list. It could mean that extinction rates could increase to a large extent in the future.
== In Canada ==
Endangered species are addressed through Canada's [[Species at Risk Act]]. A species is deemed threatened or endangered when it is on the verge of extinction or [[Local extinction|extirpation]]. Once a species is deemed threatened or endangered, the Act requires that a recovery plan to be developed that indicates how to stop or reverse the species' population decline.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Canada |first=Environment and Climate Change |date=2018-02-26 |title=Species at Risk Act: recovery strategies |url=https://www.canada.ca/en/environment-climate-change/services/species-risk-public-registry/recovery-strategies.html |access-date=2022-08-01 |website=www.canada.ca}}</ref> As of 2021, the [[Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada|Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife In Canada]] (COSEWIC) has assessed 369 species as being endangered in Canada.
== In India ==
The World Wide Fund-India raises concern in the longevity of the following animal species: the Red Panda, the Bengal Tiger, the Ganges River Dolphin, the Asian Elephant.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Duffy |first1=Molly |title=The endangered animals of India |url=https://www.thegazette.com/kids-articles/the-endangered-animals-of-india/ |website=The Gazette |access-date=22 April 2022}}</ref>
India signed the [[Wildlife Protection Act of 1972|Wildlife Protection Act]] and the also joined the Convention on the International Trade in 1976, to prevent poaching from harming its wildlife.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Kabała |first1=Natasha |title=India's Wildlife Trade: Success and Failures of Protecting Endangered Species |url=https://www.stoppoaching-now.org/post/india-s-wildlife-trade-success-and-failures-of-protecting-endangered-species#:~:text=Wildlife%20Protection&text=Many%20endangered%20animals%2C%20including%20tigers,wild%20animals%20or%20animal%20parts. |website=Stop Poaching Now! |date=29 April 2019 |access-date=22 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201126151045/https://www.stoppoaching-now.org/post/india-s-wildlife-trade-success-and-failures-of-protecting-endangered-species |archive-date=26 November 2020 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
== Invasive species ==
{{Main|Introduced species}}
The introduction of non-indigenous species to an area can disrupt the ecosystem to such an extent that native species become endangered. Such introductions may be termed alien or invasive species. In some cases, the invasive species compete with the native species for food or prey on the natives. In other cases, a stable ecological balance may be upset by predation or other causes leading to unexpected species decline. New species may also carry diseases to which the native species have no exposure or resistance.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Chiras |first=Daniel D. |title=Invader Species |url=http://www.scholastic.com/browse/article.jsp?id=3753825 |journal=Grolier |year=2011 |series=Online |access-date=2015-03-04 |archive-date=2018-10-09 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181009013252/http://www.scholastic.com/browse/article.jsp?id=3753825 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
== Climate change ==
[[The World Wildlife Fund]] (WWF) emphasizes that our planet is warming at a rate faster than any time in the past 10,000 years, necessitating species to adapt to new climate patterns, such as variations in rainfall and longer, warmer summers.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |title=Impact of climate change on species |url=https://wwf.panda.org/discover/our_focus/wildlife_practice/problems/climate_change/ |access-date=2024-02-03 |website=wwf.panda.org |language=en}}</ref> For example, the [[United States Fish and Wildlife Service|U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service]] highlighted efforts to understand and mitigate the impact of climate change on species through scientific research, modeling, and conservation actions. This includes evaluating the current condition of species, their genetic variation, and how changes in their environment may affect their survival.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-01-04 |title=Protecting threatened and endangered species in a changing climate {{!}} U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service |url=https://www.fws.gov/story/2024-01/protecting-threatened-and-endangered-species-changing-climate |access-date=2024-02-03 |website=www.fws.gov |language=en}}</ref>
The [[International Union for Conservation of Nature]] (IUCN) reports that the approximately 1°C rise in mean global temperature due to human activities is causing serious impacts on species, including changes in abundance, genetic composition, behavior, and survival. The IUCN stresses the importance of environmental policies aimed at reducing CO2 emissions to lessen the impact of climate change on species. Tools like the IUCN Red List and guidelines for assessing species' vulnerability to climate change are vital for conservation efforts.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Species and climate change |url=https://www.iucn.org/resources/issues-brief/species-and-climate-change |access-date=2024-02-03 |website=www.iucn.org |language=en}}</ref>
In addition, climate change can lead to species disappearing from areas where they once thrived, or even going extinct. A study cited by WWF found that one in six species is at risk of extinction due to climate change if no action is taken. The phenomenon of species shifting their ranges in response to changing climates, finding new or shrinking habitats, illustrates the direct impact of global warming on biodiversity.<ref name=":1" />
For example the [[Emperor penguin|Emperor Penguins]], which rely on Antarctic sea ice for breeding, shelter, and food. The melting of ice sheets poses a direct threat to their survival. Similarly, the Mount Rainier [[white-tailed ptarmigan]], adapted to alpine mountaintops, faces habitat loss due to climate changes in snowfall patterns and rising temperatures. <ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-05-26 |title=Preventing Extinctions in a Changing Climate {{!}} U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service |url=https://www.fws.gov/story/2022-05/preventing-extinctions-changing-climate |access-date=2024-02-03 |website=www.fws.gov |language=en}}</ref>
== Conservation ==
[[File:Dhole.jpg|thumb|upright=0.7|The [[dhole]], Asia's most endangered [[top predator]], is on the edge of extinction.]]
===Captive breeding===
{{Main|Captive breeding}}
Captive breeding is the process of breeding rare or endangered species in human controlled environments with restricted settings, such as wildlife reserves, zoos, and other conservation facilities. Captive breeding is meant to save species from extinction and so stabilise the population of the species that it will not disappear.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://nationalzoo.si.edu/ConservationAndScience/EndangeredSpecies/CapBreedPops/default.cfm |title=Captive Breeding Populations – National Zoo |publisher=Nationalzoo.si.edu |access-date=2009-12-06 |archive-date=2009-10-15 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091015180848/http://nationalzoo.si.edu/ConservationAndScience/EndangeredSpecies/CapBreedPops/default.cfm |url-status=live }}</ref>
This technique has worked for many species for some time, with probably the oldest known such instances of captive mating being attributed to menageries of European and Asian rulers, an example being the [[Père David's deer]]. However, captive breeding techniques are usually difficult to implement for such highly mobile species as some migratory birds (e.g. cranes) and fishes (e.g. [[hilsa]]). Additionally, if the captive breeding population is too small, then inbreeding may occur due to a reduced [[gene pool]] and reduce [[immunity (medical)|resistance]].[[File:Status ESA LE.svg|upright=1.1|left|thumb|"Endangered" in relation to "threatened" under the ESA]]In 1981, the [[Association of Zoos and Aquariums]] (AZA) created a [[Species Survival Plan]] (SSP) to help preserve specific endangered and threatened species through captive breeding. With over 450 SSP Plans, some endangered species are covered by the AZA with plans to cover population management goals and recommendations for breeding for a diverse and healthy population, created by Taxon Advisory Groups. These programs are commonly created as a last resort effort. SSP Programs regularly participate in species recovery, veterinary care for wildlife disease outbreaks, and some other wildlife conservation efforts. The AZA's Species Survival Plan also has breeding and transfer programs, both within and outside of AZA – certified zoos and aquariums. Some animals that are part of SSP programs are [[giant pandas]], lowland gorillas, and [[California condors]].<ref>{{Cite web|url =https://www.aza.org/species-survival-plan-program/|archive-url =https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20090803071836/http://www.aza.org/species-survival-plan-program/|url-status =dead|archive-date =2009-08-03|title =Association of Zoos and Aquariums Species Survival Programs}}</ref>
===Private farming===
[[File:Ostafrikanisches Spitzmaulnashorn.JPG|thumb|upright=0.7|Black rhino]]
[[File:Thmac u0.gif|thumb|upright=0.7|[[Southern bluefin tuna]]]]
Whereas poaching substantially reduces endangered animal populations, legal, for-profit, private farming does the opposite. It has substantially increased the populations of the southern [[black rhinoceros]] and southern [[white rhinoceros]]. Richard Emslie, a scientific officer at the IUCN, said of such programs, "Effective law enforcement has become much easier now that the animals are largely privately owned... We have been able to bring local communities into conservation programs. There are increasingly strong economic incentives attached to looking after rhinos rather than simply poaching: from Eco-tourism or selling them on for a profit. So many owners are keeping them secure. The private sector has been key to helping our work."<ref>"[https://www.independent.co.uk/environment/nature/hes-black-and-hes-back-private-enterprise-saves-southern-africas-rhino-from-extinction-848482.html He's black, and he's back! Private enterprise saves southern Africa's rhino from extinction]" {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170926073032/http://www.independent.co.uk/environment/nature/hes-black-and-hes-back-private-enterprise-saves-southern-africas-rhino-from-extinction-848482.html |date=2017-09-26 }}, [[The Independent]], June 17, 2008</ref>
Conservation experts view the effect of China's [[turtle farming]] on the wild turtle populations of China and [[South-Eastern Asia]] – many of which are endangered – as "poorly understood".<ref name="scale">{{cite news |title=Evidence for the massive scale of turtle farming in China |last1=Shi |first1=Haitao |last2=Parham |first2=James F. |last3=Fan |first3=Zhiyong |last4=Hong |first4=Meiling |last5=Yin |first5=Feng |date=2008-01-01 |periodical=Oryx |publisher=Cambridge University Press |volume=42 |pages=147–150 |url=http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayFulltext?type=1&fid=1738732&jid=ORX&volumeId=42&issueId=01&aid=1738724 |doi=10.1017/S0030605308000562 |access-date=2009-12-26 |archive-date=2011-06-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110605040805/http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayFulltext?type=1&fid=1738732&jid=ORX&volumeId=42&issueId=01&aid=1738724 |url-status=live }}</ref> Although they commend the gradual replacement of turtles caught wild with [[Turtle farming|farm-raised turtles]] in the marketplace – the percentage of farm-raised individuals in the "visible" trade grew from around 30% in 2000 to around 70% in 2007<ref name="ff">"[http://www.fishfarmer-magazine.com/news/fullstory.php/aid/993/Turtle_farms_threaten_rare_species,_experts_say.html Turtle farms threaten rare species, experts say] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120218191219/http://www.fishfarmer-magazine.com/news/fullstory.php/aid/993/Turtle_farms_threaten_rare_species%2C_experts_say.html |date=2012-02-18 }}". ''Fish Farmer'', 30 March 2007. Their source is an article by James Parham, Shi Haitao and two other authors, published in February 2007 in the journal ''Conservation Biology''.</ref> – they worry that many wild animals are caught to provide farmers with breeding stock. The conservation expert Peter Paul van Dijk noted that turtle farmers often believe that animals caught wild are superior breeding stock. Turtle farmers may, therefore, seek and catch the last remaining wild specimens of some endangered turtle species.<ref name="ff"/>
In 2015, researchers in Australia managed to coax [[southern bluefin tuna]] to breed in landlocked tanks, raising the possibility that [[fish farming]] may be able to save the species from [[overfishing]].<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20091213010512/http://www.time.com/time/specials/packages/article/0,28804,1945379_1944416_1944425,00.html The Top 10 Everything of 2009: Top 10 Scientific Discoveries: 5. Breeding Tuna on Land], Time magazine, December 8, 2009.</ref>
== Gallery ==
<gallery widths="180px">
File: Sea otter cropped.jpg|Though endangered, the [[sea otter]] has a relatively large population.
File: Bison skull pile edit.jpg|1870s photo of [[American bison]] skulls. By 1890, overhunting had reduced the population to 750.
File:Pediocactus knowltonii fh 27 5 COL NM border in cultur B.jpg|[[Pediocactus knowltonii|Knowlton cactus]]
File:Caretta caretta01.jpg|[[Loggerhead sea turtle]]
File:Arowana.jpg|[[Asian arowana]]
File:Hawksbill Sea Turtle (Critically Endangered Species).jpg | [[Hawksbill sea turtle]]
File:Pelochelys_cantorii.jpg|[[Cantor's giant softshell turtle]]
</gallery>
== See also ==
* [[ARKive]]
* [[Biodiversity]]
* [[Center for Biological Diversity]]
* [[Conservation cloning]]
* [[Critically Endangered]]
* [[Ex situ conservation|''Ex situ'' conservation]]
* [[Genome sequencing of endangered species]]
* [[Habitat fragmentation]]
* [[Holocene extinction]]
* [[International Rhino Foundation]]
* [[International Union for Conservation of Nature]] (IUCN)
* [[Overexploitation]]
* [[Rare species]]
* [[Red Data Book of the Russian Federation]]
* [[Threatened species]]
* [[World Wide Fund for Nature]] (WWF)
===IUCN Red List===
* [[List of Chromista by conservation status]]
* [[List of endangered amphibians]]
* [[List of endangered arthropods]]
* [[List of endangered birds]]
* [[List of endangered fishes]]
* [[List of endangered insects]]
* [[List of endangered invertebrates]]
* [[List of endangered mammals]]
* [[List of endangered molluscs]]
* [[List of endangered plants]]
* [[List of endangered reptiles]]
* [[List of fungi by conservation status]]
* [[Lists of IUCN Red List endangered species]]
== References ==
{{Reflist}}
== Further reading ==
{{Refbegin}}
* Glenn, C. R. 2006. [http://earthsendangered.com "Earth's Endangered Creatures"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190915063352/http://earthsendangered.com/ |date=2019-09-15 }}.
* Ishwaran, N., & Erdelen, W. (2005, May). [http://jstor.org/stable/3868449 Biodiversity Futures] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151107005312/http://jstor.org/stable/3868449 |date=2015-11-07 }}, Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment, 3(4), 179.
* Kotiaho, J. S., Kaitala, V., Komonen, A., Päivinen, J. P., & Ehrlich, P. R. (2005, February 8). [https://www.jstor.org/stable/3374545 Predicting the Risk of Extinction from Shared Ecological Characteristics] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180913184903/https://www.jstor.org/stable/3374545 |date=2018-09-13 }}, proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 102(6), 1963–1967.
* Minteer, B. A., & Collins, J. P. (2005, August). [https://www.jstor.org/stable/3868567 Why we need an "Ecological Ethics"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180913184916/https://www.jstor.org/stable/3868567 |date=2018-09-13 }}, Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment, 3(6), 332–337.
* Raloff, J. (2006, August 5). [https://www.jstor.org/stable/4017054 Preserving Paradise] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180913190621/https://www.jstor.org/stable/4017054 |date=2018-09-13 }}, [[Science News]], 170(6), 92.
* Wilcove, D. S., & Master L. L. (2008, October). [https://www.jstor.org/stable/3868674 How Many Endangered Species are there in the United States?] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180913223300/https://www.jstor.org/stable/3868674 |date=2018-09-13 }} Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment, 3(8), 414–420.
* Freedman, Bill. "endangered species." Gale Encyclopedia of Science. Ed. K. Lee Lerner and Brenda Wilmoth Lerner. 4th ed. Detroit: Gale Group, 2008. Discovering Collection. Gale.
* Chiras, Daniel D. "Invader Species." Grolier Multimedia Encyclopedia. Grolier Online, 2011.
* "endangered Species." Current Issues: Macmillan Social Science Library. Detroit: Gale, 2010.
{{Refend}}
== External links ==
* [https://www.iucnredlist.org/search?redListCategory=en List of species with the category Endangered] as identified by the [[IUCN Red List of Threatened Species]]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20080820164159/http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/us/species.htm Endangered Species] from ''UCB Libraries GovPubs.''
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20190713215604/http://www.eswr.com/ Endangered Species & Wetlands Report] Independent print and online newsletter covering the ESA, wetlands and regulatory takings.
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20041108000216/http://ecos.fws.gov/tess_public/TESSBoxscore USFWS numerical summary of listed species in US and elsewhere]
* [https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-50788571 Extinction: A million species at risk, so what is saved?] [[BBC]]. December 28, 2019.
* [https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2022/aug/04/generally-ignored-species-face-twice-the-extinction-threat-warns-study-aoe 'Generally ignored' species face twice the extinction threat, warns study]. [[The Guardian]]. August 4, 2022
{{threatened species|state=expanded}}
{{Zoos}}
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{{Authority control}}
[[Category:Endangered species| ]]
[[Category:Biota by conservation status]]
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
[[Category:Habitat]]
[[Category:IUCN Red List]]
[[Category:IUCN Red List endangered species]] |
Category:Endangered species | {{Commons cat|Endangered species}}
{{Cat main|Endangered species}}
{{CatRel|Extinct species}}
[[Category:Biota by conservation status]]
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
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Monarch Watch | {{Short description|Volunteer science organization}}
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}}
[[File:Monarch Watch (18383721733).jpg|alt=Chip Taylor, Director of Monarch Watch, holding a monarch butterfly|thumb|Chip Taylor, Director of Monarch Watch, holding a monarch butterfly]]
'''Monarch Watch''' is a volunteer-based [[citizen science]] organization that tracks the fall migration of the [[monarch butterfly]].<ref>{{Cite book|title=Monarch butterfly biology & conservation|date=2004|publisher=Cornell University Press|others=Oberhauser, Karen Suzanne., Solensky, Michelle J.|isbn=978-0801441882|location=Ithaca|oclc=54046294|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/monarchbutterfly00mich}}</ref> It is self-described as "a nonprofit education, conservation, and research program based at the [[University of Kansas]] that focuses on the monarch butterfly, its habitat, and its spectacular fall [[Monarch butterfly migration|migration]]."<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=https://monarchwatch.org/about/index.htm|title=Monarch Watch : About Us : Introduction|last=jlovett@ku.edu|first=Jim Lovett -|website=monarchwatch.org|access-date=2018-10-07}}</ref>
==Organization==
The informal organization is largely supported by teachers and students participating in "classroom projects, collaborative research" among other opportunities.<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal|last=Williamson|first=Brad|last2=Taylor|first2=Orley|date=May 1996|title=Monarch migration|journal=The Science Teacher|volume=63|issue=5|pages=26|issn=0036-8555|via=ProQuest}}</ref> Its founder and director is Orley R. "Chip" Taylor, a "world-renowned expert on butterflies and their migration patterns."<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Cite news|title=Monarch Watch sets open house|last=Kealing|first=Jonathan|date=Sep 7, 2007|work=McClatchy - Tribune Business News|id={{ProQuest|462300037}}}}</ref> The organization creates and distributes tags to place on monarch butterflies in order to track their migration path from [[Canada]] and the [[United States]] to south-central [[Mexico]].<ref name=":22">{{Cite journal|last=Holzberg|first=Carol S.|date=Nov 1999|title=Monarch watch|journal=Technology & Learning|volume=20|issue=4|pages=46|issn=1053-6728|via=ProQuest}}</ref> The tagging method used is derived from the one that was developed by [[Canadians|Canadian]] scientist, [[Fred Urquhart]].<ref name=":12"/> The tagging process was adapted by Orley Taylor to minimize the damage to the butterflies. Color-coded tags are glued to a monarch butterfly's wing.<ref name=":12"/> Volunteers have tagged over 1.5 million monarchs in the last 26 years from Colorado to Canada.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://monarchwatch.org/blog/2018/08/03/a-message-to-all-taggers/|title=A Message to all Taggers|date=2018-08-03|work=Monarch Watch|access-date=2018-10-06|language=en-US}}</ref>
== Monarch Waystation Program ==
[[File:Monarch Waystation Sign.jpg|alt=Monarch Waystation Sign|thumb|Monarch Waystation Sign]]
The monarch butterfly is also known as the milkweed butterfly due to its subsistence on the [[Asclepias|milkweed plant]] for its habitat.<ref name=":12"/> Largely due to commercial farming practices, the habitats of monarch butterflies have declined.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://monarchwatch.org/waystations/|title=Monarch Watch : Monarch Waystation Program|last=jlovett@ku.edu|first=Jim Lovett -|website=monarchwatch.org|access-date=2018-10-07}}</ref> In an effort to mitigate the destruction of the monarch butterflies natural habitat, Monarch Watch has called for volunteers to plant milkweed wherever possible. Milkweed is essential to the life-cycle of the monarch butterfly as they lay their eggs on the underside of the plant's leaves.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last=Spangler|first=Holly|date=Mar 16, 2018|title=Farmers for Monarchs -- and milkweed?|journal=Western Farm Press|issn=1525-1217|via=ProQuest}}</ref> It is possible to register and certify a site that is designated as a "Monarch Waystation."<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://monarchwatch.org/waystations/certify.html|title=Monarch Watch : Monarch Waystation Program|last=jlovett@ku.edu|first=Jim Lovett -|website=monarchwatch.org|access-date=2018-10-07}}</ref> These sites can also be added to an interactive map that is monitored by Monarch Watch. The program also offers free milkweed plugs to people that engage in the creation of habitats for monarchs and pollinators.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.monarchwaystationnetwork.res.ku.edu/|title=Monarch Waystation Network|website=Monarch Waystation Network|language=en-US|access-date=2018-10-07}}</ref> Primary consideration is given to non-profits and schools. There is an application process to receive the milkweed from Monarch Watch.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://biosurvey.ku.edu/application-free-milkweed-nonprofits-and-schools|title=Free Milkweed for Schools and NonProfits Application|date=2016-11-22|work=Kansas Biological Survey|access-date=2018-10-07|language=en}}</ref>
== Bring Back the Monarchs Campaign ==
Monarch Watch is not only focused on tracking the fall migration of monarchs, but also on the [[Conservation movement|conservation]] of the monarch butterfly through the preservation and restoration of monarch habitats.<ref name=":4">{{Cite web|url=https://monarchwatch.org/about/index.htm|title=Bring Back The Monarchs|website=monarchwatch.org|language=en-US|access-date=2018-10-06}}</ref> The destruction of habitats has negatively affected the monarch butterfly population as well as that of other [[pollinator]]s.<ref name=":4" /> Habitat shrinkage has resulted in the extinction of several species of pollinators over the last 50 years.<ref name=":22"/> The monarch butterfly is also affected by parasites and the "declining winter habitat in Mexico."<ref name=":3" /> Monarch Watch's efforts in this arena are specifically referred to at the "Bring Back the Monarchs Campaign."<ref name=":4" /> The Bring Back the Monarchs Campaign is an offshoot of the Monarch Waystation Program.
=== Milkweed Market ===
Beyond offering free [[Asclepias|milkweed]] plugs, Monarch Watch also offers a shop by which an individual can purchase milkweed for the purpose of creating monarch habitats. The milkweed species offered to the buyer is contingent on the buyer's zip code, in an effort to ensure that only native milkweed is planted in the appropriate regional areas.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://monarchwatch.org/milkweed/market/|title=Monarch Watch Milkweed Market|website=monarchwatch.org|access-date=2018-10-07}}</ref>
== References ==
{{reflist}}
[[Category:Butterfly organizations]]
[[Category:Nature conservation organizations based in the United States]]
[[Category:Animal migration]]
[[Category:Conservation biology| ]]
[[Category:Landscape ecology|+]]
[[Category:Environmental conservation|*]]
[[Category:Habitat]]
[[Category:Philosophy of biology]]
[[Category:Nature conservation organizations based in Canada]]
[[Category:Nature conservation in Mexico]] |
Riparian zone | {{Use dmy dates|date=August 2023}}
{{Short description|Interface between land and a river or stream}}
{{Redirect|Riparian|the legal doctrine|riparian water rights}}
{{Distinguish|Ripuarian language}}
{{More footnotes needed|date=August 2009}}
[[File:Example of a riparian area.png|thumb|upright=1.5|A riparian area is the transition from the aquatic area to the upland area. Vegetation is expected to change from species adapted to wetter sites near the channel to species adapted to drier sites in the upland, with a mixture of species occurring in between. In this example, an assessment of riparian function would consider the riparian areas, mixed riparian/upland areas, and aquatic area in the reach. Not all riparian areas have all of these features.<ref>Dickard, M., M. Gonzalez, W. Elmore, S. Leonard, D. Smith, S. Smith, J. Staats, P. Summers, D. Weixelman, S. Wyman (2015). [https://www.blm.gov/sites/default/files/documents/files/TR_1737-15.pdf "Riparian area management: Proper functioning condition assessment for lotic areas"]. Technical Reference 1737-15. U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Land Management, Denver, CO.</ref>]]
A '''riparian zone''' or '''riparian area''' is the interface between land and a [[river]] or [[stream]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=Riparian Areas Environmental Uniqueness, Functions, and Values|url=https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/wps/portal/nrcs/detail/national/technical/?cid=nrcs143_014199#what|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200611200856/https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/wps/portal/nrcs/detail/national/technical/?cid=nrcs143_014199#what|archive-date=2020-06-11}}</ref> In some regions, the terms '''riparian woodland''', '''[[riparian forest]]''', '''[[riparian buffer]] zone,''' '''riparian corridor,''' and '''riparian strip''' are used to characterize a riparian zone. The word ''riparian'' is derived from [[Latin]] ''[[wiktionary:ripa|ripa]]'', meaning "[[bank (geography)|river bank]]".<ref name="Read Riparian Areas: Functions and Strategies for Management at NAP.edu">{{Cite book |url=https://www.nap.edu/read/10327/chapter/4 |title=Read "Riparian Areas: Functions and Strategies for Management" at NAP.edu |date=2002 |doi=10.17226/10327 |isbn=978-0-309-08295-2 |language=en}}</ref>
'''Riparian''' is also the proper nomenclature for one of the terrestrial [[biome]]s of the [[Earth]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-05-17 |title=Riparian Zone: Definition and Characteristics |url=https://biologydictionary.net/riparian-zone/ |access-date=2023-05-21 |website=Biology Dictionary |language=en-US}}</ref> Plant habitats and communities along the river margins and banks are called riparian vegetation, characterized by [[aquatic plant|hydrophilic plants]].<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://www.nap.edu/read/10327/chapter/3 |title=Read "Riparian Areas: Functions and Strategies for Management" at NAP.edu |date=2002 |doi=10.17226/10327 |isbn=978-0-309-08295-2 |language=en}}</ref> Riparian zones are important in [[ecology]], [[environmental resource management]], and [[civil engineering]]<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Burdon |first1=Francis J. |last2=Ramberg |first2=Ellinor |last3=Sargac |first3=Jasmina |last4=Forio |first4=Marie Anne Eurie |last5=de Saeyer |first5=Nancy |last6=Mutinova |first6=Petra Thea |last7=Moe |first7=Therese Fosholt |last8=Pavelescu |first8=Mihaela Oprina |last9=Dinu |first9=Valentin |last10=Cazacu |first10=Constantin |last11=Witing |first11=Felix |last12=Kupilas |first12=Benjamin |last13=Grandin |first13=Ulf |last14=Volk |first14=Martin |last15=Rîşnoveanu |first15=Geta |date=April 2020 |title=Assessing the Benefits of Forested Riparian Zones: A Qualitative Index of Riparian Integrity Is Positively Associated with Ecological Status in European Streams |journal=Water |language=en |volume=12 |issue=4 |pages=1178 |doi=10.3390/w12041178 |issn=2073-4441 |doi-access=free |hdl=1854/LU-8662065 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> because of their role in [[soil conservation]], their habitat [[biodiversity]], and the influence they have on [[terrestrial animal|terrestrial]] and [[semiaquatic]] [[fauna]] as well as [[aquatic ecosystem]]s, including [[grassland]]s, [[woodland]]s, [[wetland]]s, and even non-vegetative areas.<ref>{{Cite web |title=IUFRO: 8.01.05 - Riparian and coastal ecosystems / 8.01.00 - Forest ecosystem functions / 8.00.00 - Forest Environment |url=https://www.iufro.org/science/divisions/division-8/80000/80100/80105/ |access-date=2023-05-21 |website=www.iufro.org}}</ref>
Riparian zones may be natural or engineered for soil stabilization or [[Land rehabilitation|restoration]].<ref name=":4">{{Cite web |title=Riparian Ecosystem - an overview {{!}} ScienceDirect Topics |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/earth-and-planetary-sciences/riparian-ecosystem |access-date=2023-05-21 |website=www.sciencedirect.com}}</ref> These zones are important natural [[biofilter]]s, protecting aquatic environments from excessive [[sediment]]ation, polluted [[surface runoff]], and [[erosion]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Gregory |first1=Stanley V. |last2=Swanson |first2=Frederick J. |last3=McKee |first3=W. Arthur |last4=Cummins |first4=Kenneth W. |date=1991 |title=An Ecosystem Perspective of Riparian Zones |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1311607 |journal=BioScience |volume=41 |issue=8 |pages=540–551 |doi=10.2307/1311607 |issn=0006-3568 |jstor=1311607}}</ref> They supply shelter and food for many [[aquatic animal]]s and shade that limits stream temperature change.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Riparian zone - NatureSpots App - Let's explore Nature together |url=https://www.naturespots.net/habitats/freshwater/12769-riparian-zone |access-date=2023-05-22 |website=www.naturespots.net |language=en-GB}}</ref> When riparian zones are damaged by [[construction]], [[agriculture]] or [[silviculture]], biological restoration can take place, usually by human intervention in [[erosion control]] and revegetation.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Riparian Zone - an overview {{!}} ScienceDirect Topics |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/agricultural-and-biological-sciences/riparian-zone |access-date=2023-05-21 |website=www.sciencedirect.com}}</ref> If the area adjacent to a [[watercourse]] has standing water or saturated soil for as long as a season, it is normally termed a [[wetland]] because of its [[hydric soil]] characteristics. Because of their prominent role in supporting a [[biodiversity|diversity of species]],<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Ecology of Interfaces—Riparian Zones |url=http://www.nativefishlab.net/library/textpdf/19487.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181123141108/http://www.nativefishlab.net/library/textpdf/19487.pdf |archive-date=2018-11-23 |access-date=2020-06-11}}</ref> riparian zones are often the subject of national protection in a [[biodiversity action plan]]. These are also known as a "plant or vegetation waste buffer".<ref>{{Cite web |title=Riparian zone - NatureSpots App - Let's explore Nature together |url=https://www.naturespots.net/habitats/freshwater/12769-riparian-zone |access-date=2023-05-21 |website=www.naturespots.net |language=en-GB}}</ref>
Research shows that riparian zones are instrumental in [[water quality]] improvement for both surface runoff and water flowing into streams through subsurface or [[groundwater]] flow.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Dosskey |first1=Michael G. |last2=Vidon |first2=Philippe |last3=Gurwick |first3=Noel P. |last4=Allan |first4=Craig J. |last5=Duval |first5=Tim P. |last6=Lowrance |first6=Richard |date=April 2010 |title=The Role of Riparian Vegetation in Protecting and Improving Chemical Water Quality in Streams 1: T he R ole of R iparian V egetation in P rotecting and I mproving C hemical W ater Q uality in S treams |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1752-1688.2010.00419.x |journal=JAWRA Journal of the American Water Resources Association |language=en |volume=46 |issue=2 |pages=261–277 |doi=10.1111/j.1752-1688.2010.00419.x |s2cid=1485368}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Tomer |first1=Mark D. |last2=Dosskey |first2=Michael G. |last3=Burkart |first3=Michael R. |last4=James |first4=David E. |last5=Helmers |first5=Matthew J. |last6=Eisenhauer |first6=Dean E. |date=2005 |title=Placement of riparian forest buffers to improve water quality |url=https://www.fs.usda.gov/research/treesearch/21369 |journal=In: Brooks, K.N. And Ffolliot, P.F. (Eds) Moving Agroforestry into the Mainstream. Proc. 9th N. Am. Agroforest. Conf. Rochester, MN. 12–15 June 2005 |language=en}}</ref> Riparian zones can play a role in lowering nitrate contamination in surface runoff, such as manure and other [[fertilizer]]s from [[Field (agriculture)|agricultural fields]], that would otherwise damage [[ecosystem]]s and human health.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Pedraza |first1=Sara |last2=Clerici |first2=Nicola |last3=Zuluaga Gaviria |first3=Jennifer D. |last4=Sanchez |first4=Adriana |date=January 2021 |title=Global Research on Riparian Zones in the XXI Century: A Bibliometric Analysis |journal=Water |language=en |volume=13 |issue=13 |pages=1836 |doi=10.3390/w13131836 |issn=2073-4441 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Particularly, the attenuation of [[nitrate]] or [[denitrification]] of the nitrates from [[fertilizer]] in this buffer zone is important.<ref>{{Citation |last1=Chukwuka |first1=Azubuike Victor |title=Riparian-Buffer Loss and Pesticide Incidence in Freshwater Matrices of Ikpoba River (Nigeria): Policy Recommendations for the Protection of Tropical River Basins |date=2021-04-21 |url=https://www.intechopen.com/chapters/75214 |work=River Basin Management - Sustainability Issues and Planning Strategies |access-date=2023-05-21 |publisher=IntechOpen |language=en |isbn=978-1-83968-131-8 |last2=Ogbeide |first2=Ozekeke}}</ref> The use of wetland riparian zones shows a particularly high rate of removal of nitrate entering a stream and thus has a place in agricultural management.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Lowrance |first1=Richard |last2=Todd |first2=Robert |last3=Fail |first3=Joseph |last4=Hendrickson |first4=Ole |last5=Leonard |first5=Ralph |last6=Asmussen |first6=Loris |date=1984 |title=Riparian Forests as Nutrient Filters in Agricultural Watersheds |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1309729 |journal=BioScience |volume=34 |issue=6 |pages=374–377 |doi=10.2307/1309729 |issn=0006-3568 |jstor=1309729}}</ref> Also in terms of carbon transport from terrestrial ecosystems to aquatic ecosystems, riparian groundwater can play an important role.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ledesma |first1=José L. J. |last2=Grabs |first2=Thomas |last3=Bishop |first3=Kevin H. |last4=Schiff |first4=Sherry L. |last5=Köhler |first5=Stephan J. |date=August 2015 |title=Potential for long-term transfer of dissolved organic carbon from riparian zones to streams in boreal catchments |url=http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:uu:diva-259485 |journal=Global Change Biology |volume=21 |issue=8 |pages=2963–2979 |bibcode=2015GCBio..21.2963L |doi=10.1111/gcb.12872 |pmid=25611952 |doi-access=free}}</ref> As such, a distinction can be made between parts of the riparian zone that connect large parts of the landscape to streams, and riparian areas with more local groundwater contributions.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Leach |first1=J. A. |last2=Lidberg |first2=W. |last3=Kuglerová |first3=L. |last4=Peralta-Tapia |first4=A. |last5=Ågren |first5=A. |last6=Laudon |first6=H. |date=July 2017 |title=Evaluating topography-based predictions of shallow lateral groundwater discharge zones for a boreal lake-stream system |journal=Water Resources Research |volume=53 |issue=7 |pages=5420–5437 |bibcode=2017WRR....53.5420L |doi=10.1002/2016WR019804 |s2cid=134913198}}</ref>
== Characteristics ==
=== Key features of a typical riparian forest include ===
==== 1. Location and Hydrological Context ====
- Riparian forests are primarily situated alongside rivers or streams, with varying degrees of proximity to the water's edge.
- These ecosystems are intimately connected with dynamic water flow and soil processes, influencing their characteristics.
==== 2.Diverse Ecosystem Components ====
- Riparian forests feature a diverse combination of elements, including:
- Mesic terrestrial vegetation (vegetation adapted to moist conditions).
- Dependent animal life, relying on the riparian environment for habitat and resources.
- Local microclimate influenced by the presence of water bodies.
==== 3. Distinct Vegetation Structure ====
- The vegetation in riparian forests exhibits a multi-layered structure.
- Moisture-dependent trees are the dominant feature, giving these forests a unique appearance, especially in savanna regions.
- These moisture-dependent trees define the landscape, accompanied by a variety of mesic [[Understory|understorey]], shrub, and ground cover species.
==== 4. Floristic Composition ====
- Riparian forests often host plant species that have high moisture requirements.
- The flora typically includes species native to the region, adapted to the moist conditions provided by proximity to water bodies.
In summary, riparian forests are characterized by their location along waterways, their intricate interplay with water and soil dynamics, a diverse array of vegetation layers, and a plant composition favoring moisture-dependent species.[[File:Riparian strip.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|A well-preserved natural riparian strip on a tributary to [[Lake Erie]]]]
== Roles and functions ==
[[File:Pisuerga2.JPG|thumb|right|Thick riparian vegetation along the [[Pisuerga|Pisuerga River]] in [[Spain]]]]
Riparian zones dissipate stream energy.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Importance of Streamside Plants & Trees {{!}} Shore Stewards {{!}} Washington State University |url=https://shorestewards.cw.wsu.edu/faq/the-importance-of-streamside-plants-trees/ |access-date=2023-05-22 |website=Shore Stewards |language=en-US}}</ref> The [[meander]]ing curves of a river, combined with vegetation and root systems, slow the flow of water, which reduces soil erosion and flood damage.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Christos |date=2017-01-23 |title=What are Riparian Areas and Why are They Important? |url=https://tucanada.org/2017/01/23/what-are-riparian-areas-and-why-are-they-important/ |access-date=2023-05-22 |website=Trout Unlimited Canada |language=en-US}}</ref> Sediment is trapped, reducing suspended solids to create less [[turbidity|turbid]] water, replenish soils, and build stream banks.<ref name="Riparian Mitigation – Mitico">{{Cite web |title=Riparian Mitigation – Mitico |url=https://miticomo.com/mitigation/riparian-mitigation/ |access-date=2023-05-22 |language=en-US}}</ref> Pollutants are filtered from surface runoff, enhancing water quality via biofiltration.<ref name="Read Riparian Areas: Functions and Strategies for Management at NAP.edu" /><ref>{{Cite web |date=2016-08-18 |title=The Riparian Zone |url=https://slco.org/watershed/streams-101/the-riparian-zone/ |access-date=2023-05-22 |website=slco.org |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Swanson |first1=S. |last2=Kozlowski |first2=D. |last3=Hall |first3=R. |last4=Heggem |first4=D. |last5=Lin |first5=J. |date=2017-03-01 |title=Riparian proper functioning condition assessment to improve watershed management for water quality |url=https://www.jswconline.org/content/72/2/168 |journal=Journal of Soil and Water Conservation |language=en |volume=72 |issue=2 |pages=168–182 |doi=10.2489/jswc.72.2.168 |issn=0022-4561 |pmc=6145829 |pmid=30245529}}</ref>
The riparian zones also provide [[wildlife]] [[habitat]], increased biodiversity, and [[wildlife corridor]]s,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Riparian Habitat {{!}} Wildlife Heritage Foundation |url=https://www.wildlifeheritage.org/riparian-habitats-life-blood-for-the-overall-ecosystem/ |access-date=2023-05-22 |website=www.wildlifeheritage.org}}</ref> enabling aquatic and riparian organisms to move along river systems avoiding isolated communities.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Kjartanson |first=Meghan |title=Riparian zones |url=https://forestryandland.gov.scot/blog/riparian-zones |access-date=2023-05-22 |website=Forestry and Land Scotland |language=en-GB}}</ref> Riparian vegetation can also provide [[Fodder|forage]] for wildlife and livestock.<ref name="Riparian Mitigation – Mitico" />
Riparian zones are also important for the fish that live within rivers, such as brook and charr.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://www.nap.edu/read/10327/chapter/2 |title=Read "Riparian Areas: Functions and Strategies for Management" at NAP.edu |date=2002 |doi=10.17226/10327 |isbn=978-0-309-08295-2 |language=en}}</ref> Impacts on riparian zones can affect fish, and restoration is not always sufficient to recover fish populations.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Sievers |first1=Michael |last2=Hale |first2=Robin |last3=Morrongiello |first3=John R. |title=Do trout respond to riparian change? A meta-analysis with implications for restoration and management |journal=Freshwater Biology |date=March 2017 |volume=62 |issue=3 |pages=445–457 |doi=10.1111/fwb.12888|doi-access=free |bibcode=2017FrBio..62..445S |hdl=10072/409161 |hdl-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Sabo |first1=John L. |last2=Sponseller |first2=Ryan |last3=Dixon |first3=Mark |last4=Gade |first4=Kris |last5=Harms |first5=Tamara |last6=Heffernan |first6=Jim |last7=Jani |first7=Andrea |last8=Katz |first8=Gabrielle |last9=Soykan |first9=Candan |last10=Watts |first10=James |last11=Welter |first11=Jill |date=2005 |title=Riparian Zones Increase Regional Species Richness by Harboring Different, Not More, Species |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/3450987 |journal=Ecology |volume=86 |issue=1 |pages=56–62 |doi=10.1890/04-0668 |jstor=3450987 |bibcode=2005Ecol...86...56S |hdl=10161/8362 |issn=0012-9658|hdl-access=free }}</ref>
They provide native [[landscape]] irrigation by extending seasonal or perennial flows of water.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Chapter 8 : Riparian Zone {{!}} Friends of Reservoirs |url=https://www.friendsofreservoirs.com/science/best-management-practices-manual/chapter-8-riparian-zone/ |access-date=2023-05-22 |website=www.friendsofreservoirs.com}}</ref> Nutrients from terrestrial vegetation (e.g. [[plant litter]] and insect drop) are transferred to aquatic food webs, and are a vital source of energy in aquatic food webs.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Pusey |first1=Bradley J. |last2=Arthington |first2=Angela H. |date=2003 |title=Importance of the riparian zone to the conservation and management of freshwater fish: a review |url=https://www.publish.csiro.au/mf/mf02041 |journal=Marine and Freshwater Research |language=en |volume=54 |issue=1 |pages=1–16 |doi=10.1071/mf02041 |hdl=10072/6041 |issn=1448-6059|hdl-access=free }}</ref> The vegetation surrounding the stream helps to shade the water, mitigating [[thermal pollution|water temperature changes]]. Thinning of riparian zones has been observed to cause increased maximum temperatures, higher fluctuations in temperature, and elevated temperatures being observed more frequently and for longer periods of time.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Roon |first1=David A. |last2=Dunham |first2=Jason B. |last3=Groom |first3=Jeremiah D. |date=2021-02-16 |title=Shade, light, and stream temperature responses to riparian thinning in second-growth redwood forests of northern California |journal=PLOS ONE |language=en |volume=16 |issue=2 |pages=e0246822 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0246822 |issn=1932-6203 |pmc=7886199 |pmid=33592001 |bibcode=2021PLoSO..1646822R |doi-access=free }}</ref> Extreme changes in water temperature can have lethal effects on fish and other organisms in the area.<ref name=":0" /> The vegetation also contributes wood debris to streams, which is important to maintaining [[geomorphology]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Vidon |first1=Philippe G. F. |last2=Hill |first2=Alan R. |date=2004-06-15 |title=Landscape controls on the hydrology of stream riparian zones |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0022169404000150 |journal=Journal of Hydrology |language=en |volume=292 |issue=1 |pages=210–228 |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2004.01.005 |bibcode=2004JHyd..292..210V |issn=0022-1694}}</ref>
Riparian zones also act as important buffers against nutrient loss in the wake of natural disasters, such as hurricanes.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Establishment and restoration of riparian buffers — English |url=https://climate-adapt.eea.europa.eu/en/metadata/adaptation-options/establishment-and-restoration-of-riparian-buffer-s |access-date=2023-05-22 |website=climate-adapt.eea.europa.eu |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Riparian Buffers for Field Crops, Hay, and Pastures |url=https://extension.psu.edu/riparian-buffers-for-field-crops-hay-and-pastures |access-date=2023-05-22 |website=extension.psu.edu |language=en}}</ref> Many of the characteristics of riparian zones that reduce the inputs of nitrogen from agricultural runoff also retain the necessary nitrogen in the ecosystem after hurricanes threaten to dilute and wash away critical nutrients.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=McDowell |first=William H. |date=2001-12-01 |title=Hurricanes, people, and riparian zones: controls on nutrient losses from forested Caribbean watersheds |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S037811270100514X |journal=Forest Ecology and Management |series=New Directions in Tropical Forest Research |language=en |volume=154 |issue=3 |pages=443–451 |doi=10.1016/S0378-1127(01)00514-X |issn=0378-1127}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Riparian Buffers - an overview {{!}} ScienceDirect Topics |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/agricultural-and-biological-sciences/riparian-buffers |access-date=2023-05-22 |website=www.sciencedirect.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Wu |first1=Shaoteng |last2=Bashir |first2=Muhammad Amjad |last3=Raza |first3=Qurat-Ul-Ain |last4=Rehim |first4=Abdur |last5=Geng |first5=Yucong |last6=Cao |first6=Lei |date=2023 |title=Application of riparian buffer zone in agricultural non-point source pollution control—A review |journal=Frontiers in Sustainable Food Systems |volume=7 |doi=10.3389/fsufs.2023.985870 |issn=2571-581X |doi-access=free }}</ref>
From a social aspect, riparian zones contribute to nearby property values through amenity and views, and they improve enjoyment for footpaths and bikeways through supporting [[Greenway (landscape)#Foreshoreway|foreshoreway]] networks. Space is created for riparian sports such as fishing, swimming, and launching for vessels and paddle craft.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Importance of Riparian Buffers |url=https://dep.wv.gov/WWE/getinvolved/sos/Pages/RiparianMagic.aspx |access-date=2023-05-22 |website=dep.wv.gov |language=en}}</ref>
The riparian zone acts as a sacrificial erosion buffer to absorb impacts of factors including [[climate change]], increased runoff from [[urbanization]], and increased [[Wake (physics)|boat wake]] without damaging structures located behind a setback zone.<ref>{{Citation |last=Ma |first=Maohua |title=Riparian Buffer Zone for Wetlands |date=2016 |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-6172-8_53-7 |work=The Wetland Book: I: Structure and Function, Management and Methods |pages=1–9 |editor-last=Finlayson |editor-first=C. Max |access-date=2023-05-22 |place=Dordrecht |publisher=Springer Netherlands |language=en |doi=10.1007/978-94-007-6172-8_53-7 |isbn=978-94-007-6172-8 |editor2-last=Everard |editor2-first=Mark |editor3-last=Irvine |editor3-first=Kenneth |editor4-last=McInnes |editor4-first=Robert J.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Riparian vegetation {{!}} environmentdata.org |url=http://www.environmentdata.org/archive/vocabpref:21475 |access-date=2023-05-22 |website=www.environmentdata.org}}</ref>
"Riparian zones play a crucial role in preserving the vitality of streams and rivers, especially when faced with challenges stemming from catchment land use, including agricultural and urban development. These changes in land utilization can exert adverse impacts on the health of streams and rivers and, consequently, contribute to a decline in their reproductive rates."
== Role in logging ==
The protection of riparian zones is often a consideration in [[logging]] operations.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://extension.unh.edu/goodforestry/html/4-3.htm |access-date=27 August 2023 |title=Forest Management in Riparian Areas |website=extension.unh.edu}}</ref> The undisturbed soil, soil cover, and vegetation provide shade, plant litter, and woody material and reduce the delivery of [[soil erosion|soil eroded]] from the harvested area.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Singh |first1=Rinku |last2=Tiwari |first2=A. K. |last3=Singh |first3=G. S. |date=2021-04-01 |title=Managing riparian zones for river health improvement: an integrated approach |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s11355-020-00436-5 |journal=Landscape and Ecological Engineering |language=en |volume=17 |issue=2 |pages=195–223 |doi=10.1007/s11355-020-00436-5 |s2cid=234186133 |issn=1860-188X}}</ref> Factors such as soil types and [[root]] structures, [[Climate|climatic]] conditions, and vegetative cover determine the effectiveness of riparian buffering. Activities associated with logging, such as sediment input, introduction or removal of species, and the input of polluted water all degrade riparian zones.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Bren |first=L. J. |date=1993-10-01 |title=Riparian zone, stream, and floodplain issues: a review |url=https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0022-1694%2893%2990113-N |journal=Journal of Hydrology |language=en |volume=150 |issue=2 |pages=277–299 |doi=10.1016/0022-1694(93)90113-N |bibcode=1993JHyd..150..277B |issn=0022-1694}}</ref>
== Vegetation ==
[[File:Willow Creek, Trout Creek Mountains, Oregon.jpg|thumb|right|upright|Riparian zone along Trout Creek in the [[Trout Creek Mountains]], part of the Burns Bureau of Land Management District in southeastern [[Oregon]]. The creek provides critical habitat for [[trout]].]]
The assortment of riparian zone trees varies from those of wetlands and typically consists of plants that are either emergent aquatic plants, or [[herb]]s, [[tree]]s and [[shrub]]s that thrive in proximity to water.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Beavers Ecosystem in Toronto |url=https://prezi.com/cpep0dh6rcxg/beavers-ecoysystem-in-toronto/ |access-date=2023-05-22 |website=prezi.com |language=en}}</ref> In South Africa's fynbos biome, Riparian ecosystem are heavily invaded by alien [[Woody plant|woody plants]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ruwanza |first1=S. |last2=Gaertner |first2=M. |last3=Esler |first3=K. J. |last4=Richardson |first4=D. M. |date=2013-09-01 |title=The effectiveness of active and passive restoration on recovery of indigenous vegetation in riparian zones in the Western Cape, South Africa: A preliminary assessment |journal=South African Journal of Botany |volume=88 |pages=132–141 |doi=10.1016/j.sajb.2013.06.022 |issn=0254-6299|doi-access=free }}</ref> Riparian plant communities along lowland streams exhibit remarkable species diversity, driven by the unique environmental gradients inherent to these ecosystems.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Garssen |first1=Annemarie G. |last2=Verhoeven |first2=Jos T. A. |last3=Soons |first3=Merel B. |date=May 2014 |title=Effects of climate-induced increases in summer drought on riparian plant species: a meta-analysis |journal=Freshwater Biology |language=en |volume=59 |issue=5 |pages=1052–1063 |doi=10.1111/fwb.12328 |issn=0046-5070 |pmc=4493900 |pmid=26180267}}</ref>
== Riparian zones in Africa ==
Riparian forest can be found in Benin, West Africa. In Benin, where the savanna ecosystem prevails, "riparian forests" include various types of woodlands, such as [[semi-deciduous]] forests, dry forests, open forests, and [[Savanna|woodland savannas]]. These woodlands can be found alongside rivers and streams.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web |title=Home {{!}} Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations |url=http://www.fao.org/home/en |access-date=2023-09-23 |website=FAOHome |language=en}}</ref> In Nigeria, you can also discover riparian zones within the Ibadan region of Oyo state. Ibadan, one of the oldest towns in Africa, covers a total area of 3,080 square kilometers and is characterized by a network of perennial water streams that create these valuable riparian zones.<ref name=":2" /> In the research conducted by Adeoye et al. (2012) on land use changes in Southwestern Nigeria, it was observed that 46.18 square kilometers of the area are occupied by water bodies. Additionally, most streams and rivers in this region are accompanied by riparian forests. Nevertheless, the study also identified a consistent reduction in the extent of these riparian forests over time, primarily attributed to a significant deforestation rate.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last1=Borisade |first1=Tolulope Victor |last2=Odiwe |first2=Anthony Ifechukwude |last3=Akinwumiju |first3=Akinola Shola |last4=Uwalaka |first4=Nelson Obinna |last5=Orimoogunje |first5=Oluwagbenga Isaac |date=2021-09-01 |title=Assessing the impacts of land use on riparian vegetation dynamics in Osun State, Nigeria |journal=Trees, Forests and People |volume=5 |pages=100099 |doi=10.1016/j.tfp.2021.100099 |issn=2666-7193|doi-access=free }}</ref> In Nigeria, according to Momodu et al. (2011), there has been a notable decline of about 50% in the riparian forest coverage within the period of 1978 to 2000. This reduction is primarily attributed to alterations in land use and land cover. Additionally, their research indicates that if current trends continue, the riparian forests may face further depletion, potentially leading to their complete disappearance by the year 2040.<ref name=":3" /> Riparian zones can also be found in Cape Agulhas region of South Africa.<ref>{{Cite web |title=ScienceDirect.com {{!}} Science, health and medical journals, full text articles and books. |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/ |access-date=2023-09-26 |website=www.sciencedirect.com}}</ref> Riparian areas along South African rivers have experienced significant deterioration as a result of human activities. Similar to many other developed and developing areas worldwide, the extensive building of dams in upstream river areas and the extraction of water for irrigation purposes have led to diminished water flows and changes in the riparian environment.<ref name=":4" />
== North America ==
=== Water's edge ===
'''Herbaceous Perennial''':
{{div col|colwidth=25em}}
*''[[Peltandra virginica]]'' – Arrow Arum
*''[[Sagittaria lancifolia]]'' – Arrowhead
*''[[Carex stricta]]'' – Tussock Sedge
*''[[Iris virginica]]'' – Southern Blue Flag [[Iris (plant)|Iris]]
{{Div col end}}
=== Inundated riparian zone ===
'''Herbaceous Perennial''':<ref name=silvics>{{cite web|title=List of trees and plants |format=xls |access-date=2010-09-29 |url=http://charmeck.org/mecklenburg/county/SolidWaste/MasterComposters/NativePlants/Documents/treeslist.xls |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110718190816/http://charmeck.org/mecklenburg/county/SolidWaste/MasterComposters/NativePlants/Documents/treeslist.xls |archive-date=July 18, 2011 }}</ref>{{unreliable source?|reason=originally mislabeled as "USDA Silvics", which is a site on forestry; actually a government site giving a list of trees used in plantings?|date=September 2016}}
{{div col|colwidth=28em}}
*''[[Sagittaria latifolia]]'' – Duck Potato
*''[[Schoenoplectus tabernaemontani]]'' – Softstem [[Bulrush]]
*''[[Scirpus americanus]]'' – Three-square Bulrush
*''[[Eleocharis quadrangulata]]'' – Square-stem Spikerush
*''[[Eleocharis obtusa]]'' – [[Spikerush]]
{{Div col end}}
=== Western ===
In western North America and the Pacific coast, the riparian vegetation includes:
'''Riparian trees'''<ref name=cooke>{{cite book|last=Cooke|first=Sarah Spear|title=A Field Guide to the Common Wetland Plants of Western Washington and Northwestern Oregon|year=1997|publisher=Seattle Audubon Society|location=Seattle, Washington|isbn=978-0-914516-11-8}}</ref>
{{div col|colwidth=28em}}
*''[[Sequoia sempervirens]]'' – Coast Redwood
*''[[Thuja plicata]]'' – Western Redcedar
*''[[Abies grandis]]'' – Grand Fir
*''[[Picea sitchensis]]'' – Sitka Spruce
*''[[Chamaecyparis lawsoniana]]'' – Port Orford-cedar
*''[[Taxus brevifolia]]'' – Pacific Yew
*''[[Populus fremontii]]'' – Fremont Cottonwood
*''[[Populus trichocarpa]]'' – Black Cottonwood
*''[[Platanus racemosa]]'' – California Sycamore
*''[[Alnus rhombifolia]]'' – White Alder
*''[[Alnus rubra]]'' – Red Alder
*''[[Acer macrophyllum]]'' – Big-leaf Maple
*''[[Fraxinus latifolia]]'' – Oregon ash
*''[[Prunus emarginata]]'' – Bitter Cherry
*''[[Salix lasiolepis]]'' – Arroyo Willow
*''[[Salix lucida]]'' – Pacific Willow
*''[[Quercus agrifolia]]'' – Coast live oak
*''[[Quercus garryana]]'' – Garry oak
*''[[Populus tremuloides]]'' – Quaking Aspen
*''[[Umbellularia californica]]'' – California Bay Laurel
*''[[Cornus nuttallii]]'' – Pacific Dogwood
{{Div col end}}
'''Riparian shrubs'''<ref name=cooke />
{{div col|colwidth=28em}}
*''[[Acer circinatum]]'' – Vine Maple
*''[[Ribes|Ribes spp.]]'' – Gooseberies and Currants
*''[[Rosa pisocarpa]]'' – Swamp Rose or Cluster Rose
*''[[Symphoricarpos albus]]'' – Snowberry
*''[[Spiraea douglasii]]'' – Douglas spirea
*''[[Rubus|Rubus spp.]]'' – Blackberries, Raspberries, Thimbleberry, Salmonberry
*''[[Rhododendron occidentale]]'' – Western Azalea
*''[[Oplopanax horridus]]'' – Devil's Club
*''[[Oemleria cerasiformis]]'' – Indian Plum, Osoberry
*''[[Lonicera involucrata]]'' – Twinberry
*''[[Cornus stolonifera]]'' – Red-osier Dogwood
*''[[Salix|Salix spp.]]'' – Willows
{{Div col end}}
'''Other plants'''
{{div col|colwidth=28em}}
*''[[Polypodium]]'' – Polypody Ferns
*''[[Polystichum]]'' – Sword Ferns
*''[[Woodwardia]]'' – Giant Chain Ferns
*''[[Pteridium]]'' – Goldback Ferns
*''[[Dryopteris]]'' – Wood Ferns
*''[[Adiantum]]'' – Maidenhair Ferns
*''[[Carex|Carex spp.]]'' – Sedges
*''[[Juncus|Juncus spp.]]'' – Rushes
*''[[Festuca californica]]'' – California Fescue bunchgrass
*''[[Leymus condensatus]]'' – Giant Wildrye bunchgrass
*''[[Melica californica]]'' – California Melic bunchgrass
*''[[Mimulus|Mimulus spp.]]'' – Monkeyflower and varieties
*''[[Aquilegia|Aquilegia spp.]]'' – Columbine
{{Div col end}}
== Asia ==
In [[Asia]] there are different types of riparian vegetation,<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Zhao |first1=Qinghe |last2=Ding |first2=Shengyan |last3=Liu |first3=Qian |last4=Wang |first4=Shuoqian |last5=Jing |first5=Yaru |last6=Lu |first6=Mengwen |date=2020-08-13 |title=Vegetation influences soil properties along riparian zones of the Beijiang River in Southern China |url=https://peerj.com/articles/9699 |journal=PeerJ |language=en |volume=8 |pages=e9699 |doi=10.7717/peerj.9699 |s2cid=221653372 |issn=2167-8359|doi-access=free }}</ref> but the interactions between hydrology and ecology are similar as occurs in other geographic areas.<ref name=mission>{{cite web | title = Riparian Vegetation Along the Middle and Lower Zones of the Chalakkudy River, Kerala, India | publisher = Kerala Research Programme Centre for Development Studies | access-date = 2009-10-02 | url = http://krpcds.org/report/amita.pdf | url-status = dead | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090319060415/http://krpcds.org/report/amita.pdf | archive-date = 2009-03-19 }}</ref>
{{div col|colwidth=28em}}
*''[[Carex|Carex spp.]]'' – Sedges
*''[[Juncus|Juncus spp.]]'' – Rushes
{{Div col end}}
== Australia ==
[[File:Swamp Oak Forest.jpg|thumb|A riparian zone in [[Western Sydney]]|250px]]
Typical riparian vegetation in temperate New South Wales, [[Australia]] include:
{{div col|colwidth=28em}}
*''[[Acacia melanoxylon]]'' – Blackwood
*''[[Acacia pravissima]]'' – Ovens Wattle
*''[[Acacia rubida]]'' – Red Stem Wattle
*''[[Bursaria lasiophylla]]'' – Blackthorn
*''[[Callistemon citrinus]]'' – Crimson Bottlebrush
*''[[Callistemon sieberi]]'' – River Bottlebrush
*''[[Casuarina cunninghamiana]]'' – River She-Oak
*''[[Eucalyptus bridgesiana]]'' – Apple Box
*''[[Eucalyptus camaldulensis]]'' – River Red Gum
*''[[Eucalyptus melliodora]]'' – Yellow Box
*''[[Eucalyptus viminalis]]'' – Manna Gum
*''[[Kunzea ericoides]]'' – Burgan
*''[[Leptospermum obovatum]]'' – River Tea-Tree
*''[[Melaleuca ericifolia]]'' – Swamp Paperbark
{{Div col end}}
== Central Europe ==
Typical riparian zone trees in [[Central Europe]] include:
{{div col|colwidth=28em}}
*''[[Acer campestre]]'' – Field Maple
*''[[Acer pseudoplatanus]]'' – Sycamore Maple
*''[[Alnus glutinosa]]'' – Black Alder
*''[[Carpinus betulus]]'' – European Hornbeam
*''[[Fraxinus excelsior]]'' – European Ash
*''[[Juglans regia]]'' – Persian Walnut
*''[[Malus sylvestris]]'' – European Wild Apple
*''[[Populus alba]]'' – White Poplar
*''[[Populus nigra]]'' – Black Poplar
*''[[Quercus robur]]'' – Pedunculate Oak
*''[[Salix alba]]'' – White Willow
*''[[Salix × fragilis|Salix fragilis]]'' – Crack Willow
*''[[Tilia cordata]]'' – Small-leaved Lime
*''[[Ulmus laevis]]'' – European White Elm
*''[[Ulmus minor]]'' – Field Elm
{{Div col end}}
==Repair and restoration==
Land clearing followed by floods can quickly erode a riverbank, taking valuable grasses and soils downstream, and later allowing the sun to bake the land dry.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Types of erosion |url=https://www.qld.gov.au/environment/land/management/soil/erosion/types |access-date=2023-05-22 |website=www.qld.gov.au |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |last1=Dumbrovsky |first1=Miroslav |title=Optimization of Soil Erosion and Flood Control Systems in the Process of Land Consolidation |date=2012-11-21 |url=https://www.intechopen.com/chapters/37815 |work=Research on Soil Erosion |access-date=2023-05-22 |publisher=IntechOpen |language=en |isbn=978-953-51-0839-9 |last2=Korsun |first2=Svatopluk}}</ref> Riparian zones can be restored through relocation (of human-made products), rehabilitation, and time.<ref name=":1" /> [[Natural Sequence Farming]] techniques have been used in the [[Upper Hunter Shire|Upper Hunter]] Valley of [[New South Wales]], Australia, in an attempt to rapidly restore eroded farms to optimum productivity.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Fryirs |first1=Kirstie |last2=Brierley |first2=Gary J. |date=April 2010 |title=Antecedent controls on river character and behaviour in partly confined valley settings: Upper Hunter catchment, NSW, Australia |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2009.11.015 |journal=Geomorphology |volume=117 |issue=1–2 |pages=106–120 |doi=10.1016/j.geomorph.2009.11.015 |bibcode=2010Geomo.117..106F |issn=0169-555X}}</ref>
The Natural Sequence Farming technique involves placing obstacles in the water's pathway to lessen the energy of a flood, and help the water to deposit soil and [[Seep (hydrology)|seep]] into the flood zone.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Riverbank Restoration {{!}} Helping farmers in Scotland {{!}} Farm Advisory Service |url=https://www.fas.scot/environment/water-management/water-margins-2/riverbank-restoration/ |access-date=2023-05-22 |website=FAS |language=en-GB}}</ref> Another technique is to quickly establish [[ecological succession]] by encouraging fast-growing plants such as "weeds" ([[pioneer species]]) to grow.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Secondary Succession |url=https://www.vedantu.com/geography/secondary-succession |access-date=2023-05-22 |website=VEDANTU |language=en}}</ref> These may spread along the watercourse and cause [[environmental degradation]], but may stabilize the soil, place carbon into the ground, and protect the land from drying. The weeds will improve the streambeds so that trees and grasses can return, and later ideally replace the weeds.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Connell |first1=Joseph H. |last2=Slatyer |first2=Ralph O. |date=1977 |title=Mechanisms of Succession in Natural Communities and Their Role in Community Stability and Organization |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/2460259 |journal=The American Naturalist |volume=111 |issue=982 |pages=1119–1144 |doi=10.1086/283241 |jstor=2460259 |s2cid=3587878 |issn=0003-0147}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Ecological Succession |url=http://yennieapes.weebly.com/ecological-succession.html |access-date=2023-05-22 |website=Yennie Ho - Apes :*}}</ref> There are several other techniques used by government and non-government agencies to address riparian and streambed degradation, ranging from the installation of bed control structures such as log sills to the use of pin groynes or rock emplacement.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ecological Weed Control |url=https://www.ecofarmingdaily.com/ecological-weed-control/ |access-date=2023-05-22 |website=EcoFarming Daily |language=en-US}}</ref> Other possible approaches include control of invasive species, monitoring of herbivore activity, and cessation of human activity in a particular zone followed by natural re-vegetation.<ref name="sciencedirect.com">{{Cite journal |last1=González |first1=Eduardo |last2=Felipe-Lucia |first2=María R. |last3=Bourgeois |first3=Bérenger |last4=Boz |first4=Bruno |last5=Nilsson |first5=Christer |last6=Palmer |first6=Grant |last7=Sher |first7=Anna A. |date=2017-07-01 |title=Integrative conservation of riparian zones |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0006320716306887 |journal=Biological Conservation |series=Small Natural Features |language=en |volume=211 |pages=20–29 |doi=10.1016/j.biocon.2016.10.035 |bibcode=2017BCons.211...20G |issn=0006-3207}}</ref> Conservation efforts have also encouraged incorporating the value of [[ecosystem service]]s provided by riparian zones into management plans, as these benefits have traditionally been absent in the consideration and designing of these plans.<ref name="sciencedirect.com"/><ref>{{Cite web |date=2012-06-18 |title=Permaculture Design Principle 8 – Accelerating Succession and Evolution |url=https://deepgreenpermaculture.com/permaculture/permaculture-design-principles/8-accelerating-succession-and-evolution/ |access-date=2023-05-22 |website=Deep Green Permaculture |language=en-US}}</ref>
<gallery mode="packed" heights="160px">
File:Cottonwood Creek, BLM, Oregon, 1988.jpg|alt=A rocky, brown stream bank mostly bare of vegetation, with a few aspen trees in the background|Cottonwood Creek riparian area in southeastern [[Oregon]] before restoration, 1988
File:Cottonwood Creek, BLM, Oregon, 2000.jpg|alt=The same stream bank lined with short grasses, with more aspen trees in the background|Cottonwood Creek riparian area during recovery, 2000
File:Cottonwood Creek, BLM, Oregon, 2002.jpg|alt=The same stream bank lined with higher grasses that obscure most of the water, with a thicker aspen grove behind|Cottonwood Creek riparian area after restoration, 2002
</gallery>
==See also==
{{Portal|Environment|Ecology|Earth sciences|Wetlands}}
{{Div col|colwidth=20em}}
* [[Accropode]]
* [[Aquatic ecosystem]]
* [[Bioswale]]
* [[Bosque]]
* [[Canebrake]]
* [[Constructed wetland]]
* [[Endorheic basin]]
* [[Flood-meadow]]
* [[Floodplain]]
* [[Freshwater swamp forest]]
* [[Gallery forest]]
* [[Green belt]]
* [[Marsh]]
* [[Outwelling]]
* [[Riparian water rights]]
* [[Riparian-zone restoration]]
* [[Riprap]]
* [[Várzea forest]]
* [[Vernal pool]]
* [[Vulnerable waters]]
* [[Water-meadow]]
* [[Wetland]]
{{Div col end}}
{{Clear}}
==References==
{{Reflist}}
==Further reading==
{{Refbegin|40em}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Nakasone|first1= H.|last2= Kuroda|first2= H.|last3= Kato|first3= T. |last4 =Tabuchi |first4=T. |date=2003|title= Nitrogen removal from water containing high nitrate nitrogen in a paddy field (wetland)|journal=Water Science and Technology| volume=48|issue=10|pages=209–216|doi=10.2166/wst.2003.0576|pmid= 15137172}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Mengis|first1=M.|last2=Schif|first2=S. L.|last3=Harris|first3=M.|last4=English|first4=M. C.|last5=Aravena|first5=R.|last6=Elgood|first6=R. J.|last7=MacLean|first7=A.|title=Multiple Geochemical and Isotopic Approaches for Assessing Ground Water NO<sub>3</sub><sup>−</sup> Elimination in a Riparian Zone|journal=Ground Water|date=1999|volume=37|issue=3|pages=448–457|doi=10.1111/j.1745-6584.1999.tb01124.x|bibcode=1999GrWat..37..448M |s2cid=131501907 }}
*Parkyn, Stephanie. (2004). ''Review of Riparian Buffer Zone Effectiveness''. Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry (New Zealand), www.maf.govt.nz/publications.
* {{cite journal|last1=Tang|first1=C.|last2=Azuma|first2=K.|last3=Iwami|first3=Y.|last4=Ohji|first4=B.|last5=Sakura|first5=Y.|title=Nitrate behaviour in the groundwater of a headwater wetland, Chiba, Japan|journal=Hydrological Processes|date=2004|volume=18|issue=16|pages=3159–3168|doi=10.1002/hyp.5755|bibcode=2004HyPr...18.3159T|s2cid=129664003 }}
*[http://nac.unl.edu/tools/riparianbibliography.htm Riparian Bibliography, National Agroforestry Center] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150424001523/http://nac.unl.edu/tools/riparianbibliography.htm |date=2015-04-24 }}
*[http://nac.unl.edu/buffers/index.html Conservation Buffer Design Guidelines] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150512105645/http://nac.unl.edu/buffers/index.html |date=2015-05-12 }}
{{Refend}}
==External links==
{{Commons category|Riparian forests}}
*[http://nac.unl.edu/practices/riparianforestbuffers.htm Riparian Forest Buffers, National Agroforestry Center] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160529225708/http://nac.unl.edu/practices/riparianforestbuffers.htm |date=2016-05-29 }}
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20090319060415/http://krpcds.org/report/amita.pdf Dissertation on riparian vegetation of Chalakudy River]
*[https://archive.today/20121212224326/https://www.denix.osd.mil/denix/Public/ES-Programs/Conservation/Legacy/Riparian/riparian2.html Restoration strategies for riparian habitats, U.S. military]
*[http://www.blm.gov/or/programs/nrst/index.php# National Riparian Service Team, Bureau of Land Management]
*[http://riparianhabitatrestoration.ca/LAME/lvw.htm Riparian Habitat Restoration in the Las Vegas Wash]
*[http://www.health.state.nd.us/rrbrp/ Red River Basin Riparian Project]
*[http://www.ksre.ksu.edu/library/forst2/mf2724.pdf Riparian Forest Buffers, Kansas State University]{{dead link|date=April 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}
* {{Internet Archive short film|id=org.centerforagroforestry.practices.2|name=Agroforestry Practices – Riparian Forest Buffers (2004)}}
{{River morphology}}
{{Aquatic ecosystem topics}}
{{Biomes}}
{{Wetlands}}
{{Authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Riparian Zone}}
[[Category:Riparian zone| ]]
[[Category:Terrestrial biomes]]
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
[[Category:Hydrology]]
[[Category:Water streams]]
[[Category:Rivers]]
[[Category:Habitats]]
[[Category:Habitat]]
[[Category:Water and the environment]]
[[Category:Freshwater ecology]] |
Man and Nature | {{Short description|1864 book by George Perkins Marsh}}
{{Italic title}}
[[File:Title page Man and Nature.jpg|thumb|Title page 1864 edition]]
'''''Man and Nature: Or, Physical Geography as Modified by Human Action''''', first published in 1864, was written by American polymath scholar and diplomat [[George Perkins Marsh]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.washington.edu/uwpress/search/books/MARMAN.html|title=University of Washington Press - Books - Man and Nature|website=www.washington.edu|access-date=2017-12-02}}</ref> Marsh intended it to show that "whereas [others] think the earth made man, man in fact made the earth".<ref>G. P. Marsh, Man and Nature; or, Physical Geography as Modified by Human Action (New York 1864); Marsh to Spencer F. Baird, 21 May 1860, Baird Corr., Smithsonian Institution.</ref> As a result, he warned that man could destroy himself and the Earth if we don't restore and sustain [[natural resources|global resources]] and raise awareness about our actions. It is one of the first works to document the effects of human action on the [[Natural environment|environment]] and it helped to launch the modern [[conservation movement]].
Marsh is remembered by scholars as a profound and observant student of men, books and nature with a wide range of interests ranging from history to poetry and literature. His wide array of knowledge and great natural powers of mind gave him the ability to speak and write about every topic of inquire with the assertive authority of a genuine investigator. He initially got the idea for "man and Nature" from his observations in his New England home and his foreign travels devoted to similar inquiries.<ref>[https://www.nytimes.com/1864/07/25/news/man-nature-man-nature-physical-geography-modified-human-action-george-p-marsh.html "MAN AND NATURE.; MAN AND NATURE; or PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY, AS MODIFIED BY HUMAN ACTION. By GEORGE P. MARSH. 8vo. New-York: CHARLES SCRIENER"]. ''The New York Times''. 1864-07-25. [[International Standard Serial Number|ISSN]] [https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0362-4331 0362-4331]. Retrieved 2017-11-20.</ref> Marsh wrote the book in line with the view that human life and action is a transformative phenomenon, especially in relation to nature, and due to personal economic interests. He felt that men were too quick to lessen their sense of responsibility and he was "unwilling to leave the world worse than he found it".<ref>[https://www.nytimes.com/1864/07/25/news/man-nature-man-nature-physical-geography-modified-human-action-george-p-marsh.html MAN AND NATURE.; MAN AND NATURE; or PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY, AS MODIFIED BY HUMAN ACTION. By GEORGE P. MARSH. 8vo. New-York: CHARLES SCRIENER"]. ''The New York Times''. 1864-07-25. [[International Standard Serial Number|ISSN]] [https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0362-4331 0362-4331]. Retrieved 2017-11-20.</ref>
The book challenges the myth of the inexhaustibility of the earth and the belief that [[human impact on the environment]] is negligible by drawing similarities to the [[ancient civilization]] of the Mediterranean.<ref>[http://www.washington.edu/uwpress/search/books/MARMAN.html University of Washington Press - Books - Man and Nature"]. ''www.washington.edu''. Retrieved 2017-11-20.</ref> Marsh argued that ancient [[Mediterranean]] civilizations collapsed through [[environmental degradation]]. [[Deforestation]] led to eroded soils that led to decreased soil productivity. Additionally, the same trends could be found occurring in the United States. The book was one of the most influential books of its time, next to Charles Darwin's ''On the Origin of Species'', inspiring conservation and reform in the USA since it forebode what happened to an ancient civilisation when it [[resource depletion|depleted]] and exhausted its [[natural resources]].<ref>[http://www.environmentandsociety.org/mml/marsh-george-perkins-man-and-nature-or-physical-geography-modified-human-action "Marsh, George Perkins, Man and Nature; or, Physical Geography as Modified by Human Action | Environment & Society Portal"]. ''www.environmentandsociety.org''. Retrieved 2017-11-02.</ref> The book was instrumental in the creation of [[Adirondack Park]] in [[New York (state)|New York]] and the [[United States National Forest]]. [[Gifford Pinchot]], first Chief of the [[United States Forest Service]], called it "epoch making" and [[Stewart Udall]] wrote that it was "the beginning of land wisdom in this country."
The book is divided into six chapters.
* Introductory
* Transfer, Modification, and [[Local extinction|Extirpation]] of [[Plants|Vegetable]] and of [[Animal|Animal Species]]
* The [[Forests|Woods]]
* The [[Body of water|Waters]]
* The [[Soil|Sands]]
* Projected or Possible Geographical Changes by Man
==See also==
*[[Anthropocene]]
* ''[[Collapse: How Societies Choose to Fail or Succeed]]''
==References==
<references />
==Further reading==
* {{cite book|title=American Canopy: Trees, Forests, and the Making of a Nation|first=Eric|last=Rutkow|publisher=Scribner|pages=93–98|location=New York|date=2012|isbn=978-1-4391-9354-9}}
== External links ==
* [https://archive.org/search.php?query=%22Man%20and%20Nature%22%20AND%20marsh ''Man and Nature''] at [[Internet Archive]] (digital editions)
* [http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?ammem/consrvbib:@FIELD(NUMBER(vg07)) Full Text of Book from the Library of Congress]
[[Category:1864 non-fiction books]]
[[Category:1860s in the environment]]
[[Category:Environmental non-fiction books]]
[[Category:George Perkins Marsh]]
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
[[Category:Books about environmentalism]]
[[Category:Works about societal collapse]] |
Decline in insect populations | {{Short description|Ecological trend recorded since the late 20th century}}
{{Use British English|date=November 2021}}
[[File:Journal.pone.0185809.g004.PNG|thumb|An annual decline of 5.2% in flying insect [[biomass (ecology)|biomass]] found in nature reserves in Germany – about 75% loss in 26 years<ref name=Hallmann2017PLoS/>]]
[[Insect]]s are the most numerous and widespread [[class (biology)|class]] in the animal [[kingdom (biology)|kingdom]], accounting for up to 90% of all animal species.<ref name="number">{{cite book |author=Erwin, Terry L. |url=http://entomology.si.edu/StaffPages/Erwin/T's%20updated%20pub%20PDFs%2010Jan2014/121_1995_Biodiversity-at-its-utmost.pdf |title=Biodiversity at its utmost: Tropical Forest Beetles |year=1997 |pages=27–40 |access-date=16 December 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181109151957/https://entomology.si.edu/staffpages/Erwin/T's%20updated%20pub%20PDFs%2010Jan2014/121_1995_Biodiversity-at-its-utmost.pdf |archive-date=9 November 2018 |url-status=live}} In: {{cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/biodiversityiiun00reak |title=Biodiversity II |publisher=Joseph Henry Press, Washington, D.C. |year=1997 |isbn=9780309052276 |editor1=Reaka-Kudla, M.L. |editor2=Wilson, D. E. |editor3=Wilson, E. O. |url-access=registration}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Erwin |first=Terry L. |year=1982 |title=Tropical forests: their richness in Coleoptera and other arthropod species |url=https://repository.si.edu/bitstream/handle/10088/4383/Classic_papers_in_Foundations.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y |url-status=live |journal=The Coleopterists Bulletin |volume=36 |pages=74–75 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923014947/https://repository.si.edu/bitstream/handle/10088/4383/Classic_papers_in_Foundations.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y |archive-date=23 September 2015 |access-date=16 September 2018}}</ref> In the 2010s, reports emerged about the widespread '''decline in insect populations''' across multiple insect [[order (biology)|orders]]. The reported severity shocked many observers, even though there had been earlier findings of [[pollinator decline]]. There has also been anecdotal reports of greater insect abundance earlier in the 20th century. Many car drivers know this anecdotal evidence through the [[windscreen phenomenon]], for example.<ref name="Leather2017" /><ref name="SchwägerlYale2016" /> Causes for the decline in insect population are similar to those driving other [[biodiversity loss]]. They include [[habitat destruction]], such as [[intensive agriculture]], the use of [[pesticide]]s (particularly [[insecticide]]s), [[introduced species]], and – to a lesser degree and only for some regions – the [[effects of climate change]].<ref name="Sánchez-Bayo2019" /> An additional cause that may be specific to insects is [[light pollution]] (research in that area is ongoing).<ref name="OwensLewis2018" /><ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" />
Most commonly, the declines involve reductions in abundance, though in some cases entire species are going extinct. The declines are far from uniform. In some localities, there have been reports of increases in overall insect population, and some types of insects appear to be increasing in abundance across the world.<ref name="Vogel2017" /> Not all insect orders are affected in the same way; most affected are [[bee]]s, [[butterflies]], [[moth]]s, [[beetle]]s, [[dragonflies]] and [[damselflies]]. Many of the remaining insect groups have received less research to date. Also, comparative figures from earlier decades are often not available.<ref name="Vogel2017" /> In the few major global studies, estimates of the total number of insect species at risk of extinction range between 10% and 40%,<ref name="IPBES" /><ref name="Sánchez-Bayo2019" /><ref name="vanKlink2020" /><ref name="Isbell2022">{{Cite journal |last1=Isbell |first1=Forest |last2=Balvanera |first2=Patricia |last3=Mori |first3=Akira S |last4=He |first4=Jin-Sheng |last5=Bullock |first5=James M |last6=Regmi |first6=Ganga Ram |last7=Seabloom |first7=Eric W |last8=Ferrier |first8=Simon |last9=Sala |first9=Osvaldo E |last10=Guerrero-Ramírez |first10=Nathaly R |last11=Tavella |first11=Julia |last12=Larkin |first12=Daniel J |last13=Schmid |first13=Bernhard |last14=Outhwaite |first14=Charlotte L |last15=Pramual |first15=Pairot |date=18 July 2022 |title=Expert perspectives on global biodiversity loss and its drivers and impacts on people |url=https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/fee.2536 |journal=Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment |language=en |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=94–103 |doi=10.1002/fee.2536 |s2cid=250659953 |hdl-access=free |last16=Borer |first16=Elizabeth T |last17=Loreau |first17=Michel |last18=Crossby Omotoriogun |first18=Taiwo |last19=Obura |first19=David O |last20=Anderson |first20=Maggie |last21=Portales-Reyes |first21=Cristina |last22=Kirkman |first22=Kevin |last23=Vergara |first23=Pablo M |last24=Clark |first24=Adam Thomas |last25=Komatsu |first25=Kimberly J |last26=Petchey |first26=Owen L |last27=Weiskopf |first27=Sarah R |last28=Williams |first28=Laura J |last29=Collins |first29=Scott L |last30=Eisenhauer |first30=Nico |last31=Trisos |first31=Christopher H |last32=Renard |first32=Delphine |last33=Wright |first33=Alexandra J |last34=Tripathi |first34=Poonam |last35=Cowles |first35=Jane |last36=Byrnes |first36=Jarrett EK |last37=Reich |first37=Peter B |last38=Purvis |first38=Andy |last39=Sharip |first39=Zati |last40=O’Connor |first40=Mary I |last41=Kazanski |first41=Clare E |last42=Haddad |first42=Nick M |last43=Soto |first43=Eulogio H |last44=Dee |first44=Laura E |last45=Díaz |first45=Sandra |last46=Zirbel |first46=Chad R |last47=Avolio |first47=Meghan L |last48=Wang |first48=Shaopeng |last49=Ma |first49=Zhiyuan |last50=Liang |first50=Jingjing Liang |last51=Farah |first51=Hanan C |last52=Johnson |first52=Justin Andrew |last53=Miller |first53=Brian W |last54=Hautier |first54=Yann |last55=Smith |first55=Melinda D |last56=Knops |first56=Johannes MH |last57=Myers |first57=Bonnie JE |last58=Harmáčková |first58=Zuzana V |last59=Cortés |first59=Jorge |last60=Harfoot |first60=Michael BJ |last61=Gonzalez |first61=Andrew |last62=Newbold |first62=Tim |last63=Oehri |first63=Jacqueline |last64=Mazón |first64=Marina |last65=Dobbs |first65=Cynnamon |last66=Palmer |first66=Meredith S |hdl=10852/101242}}</ref> though all of these estimates have been fraught with controversy.<ref name=Komonen2019>{{cite journal |last1=Komonen |first1=Atte |last2=Halme |first2=Panu |last3=Kotiaho |first3=Janne S. |title=Alarmist by bad design: Strongly popularized unsubstantiated claims undermine credibility of conservation science |journal=Rethinking Ecology |volume=4 |date=19 March 2019 |pages=17–19 |doi=10.3897/rethinkingecology.4.34440|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name="Thomas2019" /><ref name="Desquilbet2020">{{Cite journal |last1=Desquilbet |first1=Marion |last2=Gaume |first2=Laurence |last3=Grippa |first3=Manuela |last4=Céréghino |first4=Régis |last5=Humbert |first5=Jean-François |last6=Bonmatin |first6=Jean-Marc |last7=Cornillon |first7=Pierre-André |last8=Maes |first8=Dirk |last9=Dyck |first9=Hans Van |last10=Goulson |first10=David |date=2020-12-18 |title=Comment on 'Meta-analysis reveals declines in terrestrial but increases in freshwater insect abundances' |journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]] |volume=370 |issue=6523 |pages=eabd8947 |doi=10.1126/science.abd8947 |issn=0036-8075 |pmid=33335036 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="Jähnig2021">{{cite journal |last1=Jähnig |first1=Sonja C. |last2=et. |first2=al. |year=2021 |title=Revisiting global trends in freshwater insect biodiversity |journal=[[Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Water]] |volume=8 |issue=2 |doi=10.1002/wat2.1506 |doi-access=free |hdl-access=free |hdl=1885/275614}}</ref>
Studies concur that in areas where insects are declining, their abundance had been diminishing for decades. Yet, those trends had not been spotted earlier, as there has historically been much less interest in studying insects in comparison to [[mammal]]s, [[bird]]s and other [[vertebrate]]s. One reason is the comparative lack of [[charismatic species]] of insects. In 2016, it was observed that while 30,000 insect species are known to inhabit [[Central Europe]], there are practically no specialists in the region devoted to full-time monitoring.<ref name="Leather2017" /> This issue of insufficient research is even more acute in the [[developing countries]]. As of 2021, nearly all of the studies on regional insect population trends come from [[Europe]] and the [[United States]], even though they account for less than 20% of insect species worldwide. In [[Africa]], [[Asia]] and [[South America]] there are hardly any observations of insects that span several decades. Such studies would be required to draw conclusions about population trends on a large scale.<ref name="Wagner2021">{{cite journal | publisher=[[National Academy of Sciences]] | last1=Wagner | first1=David L. | last2=Grames | first2=Eliza M. | last3=Forister | first3=Matthew L. | last4=Berenbaum | first4=May R. | last5=Stopak | first5=David | title=Insect decline in the Anthropocene: Death by a thousand cuts | journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences | volume=118 | issue=2 | date=2021-01-12 | pages=e2023989118 | issn=0027-8424 | pmid=33431573 | doi=10.1073/pnas.2023989118| pmc=7812858 | bibcode=2021PNAS..11823989W | doi-access=free }}</ref>
To respond to these declines, various governments have introduced conservation measures to help insects. For example, the German government started an ''Action Programme for Insect Protection'' in 2018.<ref name=FAO2019/><ref name=BMU/> The goals of this program include promoting insect habitats in the agricultural landscape, and reducing [[environmental impact of pesticides|pesticide use]], [[light pollution]], and pollutants in [[soil degradation|soil]] and water.<ref name="BMU" />
==Context==
[[File:Melanoplus spretusAnnReportAgExpStaUM1902B.jpg|thumb|A 1902 illustration of a [[Rocky Mountain locust]]. These insects were seen in swarms estimated at over 10 trillion members as late as 1875. Soon after, their population rapidly declined, with the last recorded sighting in 1902, and the species formally declared extinct in 2014.]]
The fossil record concerning insects stretches back hundreds of millions of years. It suggests there are ongoing background levels of both [[speciation|new species appearing]] and [[extinctions]]. Very occasionally, the record also appears to show mass extinctions of insects, understood to be caused by natural phenomena such as volcanic activity or meteor impact. The [[Permian–Triassic extinction event]] saw the greatest level of insect extinction, and the [[Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event|Cretaceous–Paleogene]] the second highest. Insect diversity has recovered after mass extinctions, as a result of periods in which new species originate with increased frequency, although the recovery can take millions of years.<ref name=fossil/>
Concern about a human-caused [[Holocene extinction]] has been growing since the late 20th century, although much of the early concern was not focused on insects. In a report on the world's [[invertebrate]]s, the [[Zoological Society of London]] suggested in 2012 that insect populations were in decline globally, affecting [[pollination]] and food supplies for other animals.<ref name=ZSL/><ref name=BorrellSA4Sept2012/><ref name="SchwägerlYale2016"/><ref name=NYTeditorial29Oct2017/> It estimated that about 20 percent of all invertebrate species were threatened with extinction, and that species with the least mobility and smallest ranges were most at risk.<ref name=ZSL/>
Studies finding insect decline have been available for decades—one study tracked a decline from 1840 to 2013—but it was the 2017 re-publication of the [[#Krefeld|German nature reserves study]]<ref name=Hallmann2017PLoS/> that saw the issue receive widespread attention in the media.<ref name=Leather2017/><ref name="SchwägerlYale2016"/> The press reported the decline with alarming headlines, including "Insect [[Apocalypse]]".<ref name=NYTeditorial29Oct2017/><ref name=JarvisNYT27Nov2018/> Ecologist [[Dave Goulson]] told ''The Guardian'' in 2017: "We appear to be making vast tracts of land inhospitable to most forms of life, and are currently on course for ecological [[Armageddon]]."<ref name=DCGuardian18Oct2017/> For many studies, factors such as [[Relative species abundance|abundance]], biomass, and [[species richness]] are often found to be declining for some, but not all locations; some species are in decline while others are not.<ref name="Thomas2019"/> The insects studied have mostly been butterflies and moths, bees, beetles, dragonflies, damselflies and [[stoneflies]]. Every species is affected in different ways by changes in the environment, and it cannot be inferred that there is a consistent decrease across different insect groups. When conditions change, some species adapt easily to the change while others struggle to survive.<ref name=Reckhaus2017/>
A March 2019 statement by the [[Entomological Society of America]] said there was not yet sufficient data to predict an imminent mass extinction of insects and that some of the extrapolated predictions might "have been extended well past the limits of the data or have been otherwise over-hyped".<ref name=FAQEntSocAm2019/> For some insect groups such as some butterflies, moths, bees, and beetles, declines in abundance and diversity have been documented in European studies. These have generally led to an overall pattern of decline, but there are variable trends for individual species within groups. For instance, a minority of British moths are becoming more common.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Boyes|first1=Douglas H.|last2=Fox|first2=Richard|last3=Shortall|first3=Chris R.|last4=Whittaker|first4=Robert J.|date=2019|title=Bucking the trend: the diversity of Anthropocene 'winners' among British moths|url=https://escholarship.org/uc/item/6hz0x33v|journal=[[Frontiers of Biogeography]]|volume=11|issue=3|doi=10.21425/F5FBG43862|s2cid=204900275 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Other areas have shown increases in some insect species, although trends in most regions are currently unknown. It is difficult to assess long-term trends in insect abundance or diversity because historical measurements are generally not known for many species. Robust data to assess at-risk areas or species is especially lacking for arctic and tropical regions and a majority of the southern hemisphere.<ref name=FAQEntSocAm2019/>
In March 2019 [[Chris D. Thomas]] and other scientists wrote in response to the apocalyptic "Insectageddon" predictions of Sánchez-Bayo, "we respectfully suggest that accounts of the demise of insects may be slightly exaggerated". They called for "joined-up thinking" in responding to insect declines, backed up by more robust data than were currently available.<ref name="Thomas2019" />
== Global estimates ==
[[File:Percent of insect species.svg|thumb|Insects with population trends documented by the [[International Union for Conservation of Nature]], for orders [[Collembola]], [[Hymenoptera]], [[Lepidoptera]], [[Odonata]], and [[Orthoptera]]]]A 2020 meta-analysis found that globally terrestrial insects appear to be declining in abundance at a rate of about 9% per decade, while the abundance of freshwater insects appears to be increasing by 11% per decade. The study analysed 166 long-term studies, involving 1676 different sites across the world. It found considerable variations in insect decline depending on locality – the authors considered this a hopeful sign, as it suggests local factors, including conservation efforts, can make a big difference. The article stated that the increase in freshwater insects may in part be due to efforts to clean up lakes and rivers, and may also relate to global warming and enhanced primary productivity driven by increased nutrient inputs.<ref name="vanKlink2020" /> However, the data selection and methodology of the article were criticised in several publications.<ref name="Desquilbet2020" /><ref name="Jähnig2021" />
In 2022, 66 researchers conducted a survey of 3331 biodiversity experts (meaning scientists who published a study on the subject of biodiversity over the past decade). This included 629 experts in terrestrial and freshwater [[invertebrate]]s: on average, they believed that around 30% (with an uncertainty range between 20 and 50%) of these species are or have been threatened with extinction (including the species which had already gone extinct since 1500). As insects account for the vast majority of the world's invertebrates, this figure by extension applies to them as well.<ref name="Isbell2022" />
A 2019 survey of 24 entomologists working on six continents found that on a scale of 0 to 10, with 10 being the worst, all the scientists rated the severity of the insect decline crisis as being between 8–10.<ref name="Hance2019" />
=== Global assessment report on biodiversity and ecosystem services ===
{{main|Global Assessment Report on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services}}
The [[Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services]] reported its assessment of global biodiversity in 2019. Its summary for insect life was that "Global trends in insect populations are not known but rapid declines have been well documented in some places. ... Local declines of insect populations such as wild bees and butterflies have often been reported, and insect abundance has declined very rapidly in some places even without large-scale [[land-use change]], but the global extent of such declines is not known. ... The proportion of insect species threatened with extinction is a key uncertainty, but available evidence supports a tentative estimate of 10 per cent."<ref name="IPBES" /> In 2022, some researchers had expressed concern about the apparent mismatch between this tentative IPBES estimate, and that of 629 experts on invertebrate biodiversity they surveyed, which was closer to 30%. They argued that more investigations into insects and other "hyperdiverse and understudied taxa" are urgently required to clarify the matter.<ref name="Isbell2022" />
== Causes ==
{{See also|Environmental impact of pesticides}}
=== Destruction and pollution ===
The causes of the declines in insect populations, and their relative importance, are not fully understood. They are likely to vary between different insect groups and geographical regions.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Wagner|first=David L.|date=2020-01-07|title=Insect Declines in the Anthropocene|journal=[[Annual Review of Entomology]]|volume=65|issue=1|pages=457–480|doi=10.1146/annurev-ento-011019-025151|pmid=31610138 |s2cid=204702504 |issn=0066-4170|doi-access=free}}</ref> A study placed these causes in the order of importance as follows: "(i) [[Habitat destruction|habitat loss]] and conversion to [[intensive agriculture]] and [[Urbanization|urbanisation]]; ii) pollution,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Eggleton |first1=Paul |year=2020 |title=The State of the World's Insects |journal=[[Annual Review of Environment and Resources]] |volume=45 |pages=61–82 |doi=10.1146/annurev-environ-012420-050035 |doi-access=free}}</ref> mainly that by synthetic pesticides and fertilisers; iii) biological factors, including pathogens and introduced species; and iv) climate change."<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Sánchez-Bayo |first=Francisco |last2=Wyckhuys |first2=Kris A.G. |date=2019 |title=Worldwide decline of the entomofauna: A review of its drivers |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0006320718313636 |journal=Biological Conservation |language=en |volume=232 |pages=8–27 |doi=10.1016/j.biocon.2019.01.020}}</ref>
[[Light pollution]] also plays a role.<ref name="OwensLewis2018" /><ref name=":0">[https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2019/nov/22/light-pollution-insect-apocalypse Light pollution is key 'bringer of insect apocalypse'] The Guardian, 2019</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last1=Boyes |first1=Douglas H. |last2=Evans |first2=Darren M. |last3=Fox |first3=Richard |last4=Parsons |first4=Mark S. |last5=Pocock |first5=Michael J. O. |date=August 2021 |title=Street lighting has detrimental impacts on local insect populations |journal=[[Science Advances]] |language=EN |volume=7 |issue=35 |bibcode=2021SciA....7.8322B |doi=10.1126/sciadv.abi8322 |pmc=8386932 |pmid=34433571}}</ref> Other factors that are thought to be important are [[introduced species]]<ref name="Wagner2010" /><ref name="Sánchez-Bayo2019" /> and [[eutrophication]] from fertilisers.
The use of increased quantities of [[insecticide]]s and [[herbicide]]s on crops have affected not only non-target insect species, but also the plants on which they feed.
For example, a review in 2017 commented on a large study in Germany about insect population decline as follows: "The authors of the German study were not able to link the observed decline to climate change or pesticide use; although agricultural intensification and the practices associated with it, were, however, suggested as likely to be involved in some way."<ref name=Leather2017/>
===Climate change===
Climate change and the introduction of exotic species (see [[climate change and invasive species]]) that compete with the [[Indigenous (ecology)|indigenous]] ones put the native species under stress, and as a result they are more likely to succumb to pathogens and parasites.<ref name="Reckhaus2017" /> Plants grow faster in presence of increased CO<sub>2</sub> (due to the [[CO2 fertilization effect|CO<sub>2</sub> fertilisation effect]]) but the resulting plant biomass contains fewer nutrients.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Welti |first1=Ellen A. R. |last2=Roeder |first2=Karl A. |last3=Beurs |first3=Kirsten M. de |last4=Joern |first4=Anthony |last5=Kaspari |first5=Michael |title=Nutrient dilution and climate cycles underlie declines in a dominant insect herbivore |journal=[[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences]] |date=31 March 2020 |volume=117 |issue=13 |pages=7271–7275 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1920012117 |pmid=32152101 |pmc=7132292 |bibcode=2020PNAS..117.7271W |language=en |issn=0027-8424|doi-access=free }}</ref> While some species such as [[flies]] and [[cockroach]]es might increase as a result,<ref name="Sánchez-Bayo2019" /> the total [[biomass (ecology)|biomass]] of insects is estimated to be decreasing by between about 0.9 to 2.5% per year.<ref name="MainNatGeographic14Feb2019" /><ref name="vanKlink2020" />
{{excerpt|Extinction risk from climate change#Insects|paragraphs=1-3|file=no}}
==Methodology==
Three principal metrics are used to capture and report on insect declines:
* ''Abundance'' – simply put the numerical total of individual insects. Depending on context, it can refer to the number of insects in a particular assembly, in a geographical area, or the sum total of insects globally (regardless of which species the individuals belong to).
* ''Biomass'' – the total weight of insects (again regardless of species).
* ''Biodiversity'' – the number of extant insect species. Depending on context, a reduction in biodiversity can mean certain species of insects have vanished locally, though it may mean species have gone totally extinct across the entire planet.<ref name=WagnerJ2020/><ref name=vanKlink2020/><ref name="Sánchez-Bayo2019"/>
Most of the individual studies tracking insect declines report just abundance, others just on biomass, some on both, and yet others report on all three metrics. Data directly related to diversity loss at global level is more sparse than for abundance or biomass declines. Estimates for diversity loss at a planetary level tend to involve extrapolating from abundance or biomass data; while studies sometimes show [[Local extinction|local extirpation]] of an insect species, actual world wide extinctions are challenging to discern. In a 2019 review, [[David L. Wagner|David Wagner]] noted that currently the [[Holocene extinction]] is seeing animal species loss at about 100–1,000 times the planet's normal background rate, and that various studies found a similar, or possibly even faster extinction rate for insects. Wagner opines that serious though this [[biodiversity loss]] is, it is the decline in abundance that will have the most serious ecological impact.<ref name=WagnerJ2020/><ref name=vanKlink2020/><ref name="Sánchez-Bayo2019"/><ref name=Dirzo2014/>
In theory it is possible for the three metrics to be independent. For instance, a decline in biomass might not involve a decrease in abundance or diversity if all that was happening was that typical insects were getting smaller. In practice though, abundance and biomass tend to be closely related, typically showing a similar level of decline. Change in biodiversity is often, though not always,
directly proportional to the other two metrics.<ref name=vanKlink2020/><ref name="Sánchez-Bayo2019"/> Some studies find cases where, in certain locations, change in biodiversity is inversely proportional to the other metrics. For example, a 42 year study of insects in the pristine Breitenbach stream near [[Schlitz, Hesse|Schlitz]], which is believed to have been unaffected by [[Human impact on the environment|anthropogenic]] decline related causes except for climate change, found that while abundance of insects decreased, biodiversity actually rose, especially during the first half of the study.<ref name= Baranov2020/>
== Survey results for specific regions ==
===United Kingdom===
The Rothamsted Insect Survey at [[Rothamsted Research]], [[Harpenden]], England, began monitoring insect suction traps across the UK in 1964. According to the group, these have produced "the most comprehensive standardised long-term data on insects in the world".<ref>{{cite web |title=About The Insect Survey |url=https://insectsurvey.com/about |publisher=Rothamsted Research}}</ref> The traps are "effectively upside-down [[Vacuum cleaner|Hoovers]] running 24/7, continually sampling the air for migrating insects", according to James Bell, the survey leader, in an interview in 2017 with the journal ''[[Science (journal)|Science]]''. Between 1970 and 2002, the insect biomass caught in the traps declined by over two-thirds in southern [[Scotland]], although it remained stable in England. The scientists speculate that insect abundance was already lost in England by 1970 (figures in Scotland were higher than in England when the survey began), or that [[aphid]]s and other pests increased there in the absence of their insect predators.<ref name="Vogel2017" />
A 2014 review noted: "Of all insects with [[International Union for Conservation of Nature|IUCN]]-documented population trends [203 insect species in five orders], 33% are declining, with strong variation among orders." In the UK, "30 to 60% of species per order have declining ranges". Insect pollinators, "needed for 75% of all the world's food crops", appear to be "strongly declining globally in both abundance and diversity", which has been linked in Northern Europe to the decline of plant species that rely on them. The study referred to the human-caused loss of [[vertebrate]]s and invertebrates as the "Anthropocene [[defaunation]]".<ref name="Dirzo2014" /><ref name="JarvisNYT27Nov2018" />
Anecdotal evidence for insect decline has been offered by those who recall apparently greater insect abundance in the 20th century. Entomologist [[Simon Leather]] recalls that, in the 1970s, windows of [[Yorkshire]] houses he visited on his early-morning paper round would be "plastered with tiger moths" attracted by the house's lighting during the night. [[Arctiinae (moth)|Tiger moths]] have now largely disappeared from the area.<ref name="McKieObserver17June2018" /> Another anecdote is recalled by environmentalist [[Michael McCarthy (journalist)|Michael McCarthy]] concerning the vanishing of the "moth snowstorms", a relatively common sight in the UK in the 1970s and earlier. Moth snowstorms occurred when moths congregated with such density that they could appear like a blizzard in the beam of automobile headlights.<ref name="McCarthyGuardian21Oct2017" />
In 2004 the [[Royal Society for the Protection of Birds]] organised a Big Bug Count, issuing "splatometers" to about 40,000 volunteers to help count the number of insects colliding with their [[vehicle registration plate|number plate]]s. They found an average of one insect per 5 miles (8 km), which was less than expected.<ref name="KnaptonTelegraph17June2018" /><ref name="BBC04" />
===Germany{{anchor|Krefeld}}===
[[File:Malaise trap, Germany.jpg|thumb|left|[[Malaise trap]]s in German nature reserves<ref name="Hallmann2017PLoS" />]]
In 2013 the [[Entomologischer Verein Krefeld|Krefeld Entomological Society]] reported a "huge reduction in the biomass of insects"<ref name="Leather2017" /> caught in [[malaise trap]]s in 63 [[list of nature parks in Germany|nature reserves in Germany]] (57 in [[Nordrhein-Westfalen]], one in [[Rheinland-Pfalz]] and one in [[Brandenburg]]).<ref name="Sorg2013" /><ref name="Bundestag2017p5">{{cite web |title=Zum Insektenbestand in Deutschland: Reaktionen von Fachpublikum und Verbänden auf eine neue Studie |url=https://www.bundestag.de/resource/blob/536702/5537cc08d8f54d93ac042fb36bde811e/wd-8-039-17-pdf-data.pdf |publisher=Wissenschaftliche Dienste, Deutscher Bundestag (German parliament) |date=13 November 2017 |page=5 |ref = {{sfnref|Deutscher Bundestag|2017}} }}</ref> A reanalysis published in 2017 suggested that, in 1989–2016, there had been a "seasonal decline of 76%, and mid-summer decline of 82%, in flying insect biomass over the 27 years of study". The decline was "apparent regardless of habitat type" and could not be explained by "changes in weather, land use, and habitat characteristics". The authors suggested that not only butterflies, moths and wild bees appear to be in decline, as previous studies indicated, but "the flying insect community as a whole".<ref name="Hallmann2017PLoS" /><ref name="Leather2017" /><ref name="Nature18Oct2017" /><ref name="Guarino18Oct2017" /><ref name="StagerNYT26May2018" />
Scientists stated in 2019: "In 2017, a 27-year long population monitoring study revealed a shocking 76% decline in flying insect biomass at several of Germany's protected areas (Hallmann et al., 2017). This represents an average 2.8% loss in insect biomass per year in habitats subject to rather low levels of human disturbance, which could either be undetectable or regarded statistically non-significant if measurements were carried out over shorter time frames. Worryingly, the study shows a steady declining trend over nearly three decades."<ref name="Sánchez-Bayo2019" />
According to ''[[The Economist]]'', the study was the "third most frequently cited scientific study (of all kinds) in the media in 2017". It "pushed the governments of Germany and the Netherlands into setting up programmes to protect insect diversity."<ref name="Economist23March2019" /> The British entomologist [[Simon Leather]] said that he hoped media reports, following the study, of an "ecological Armageddon" had been exaggerated; he argued that the Krefeld and other studies should be a wake-up call, and that more funding is needed to support long-term studies.<ref name="Leather2017" /><ref name="DCGuardian18Oct2017" /><ref name="McGraneNYT4Dec2017" /> The Krefeld study's authors were not able to link the decline to climate change or pesticides, he wrote, but they suggested that intensive farming was involved. While agreeing with their conclusions, he cautioned that "the data are based on biomass, not species, and the sites were not sampled continuously and are not globally representative".
=== Puerto Rico ===
A 2018 study of the [[El Yunque National Forest]] in [[Puerto Rico]] reported a decline in [[arthropod]]s, and in lizards, frogs, and birds ([[insectivore|insect-eating]] species) based on measurements in 1976 and 2012.<ref name="Lister2018" /><ref name="Sánchez-Bayo2019" /> The American entomologist [[David L. Wagner|David Wagner]] called the study a "clarion call" and "one of the most disturbing articles" he had ever read.<ref name="Guarino15Oct2018" /> The researchers reported "biomass losses between 98% and 78% for ground-foraging and canopy-dwelling arthropods over a 36-year period, with respective annual losses between 2.7% and 2.2%".<ref name="Sánchez-Bayo2019" /> The decline was attributed to a rise in the average temperature; tropical insect species cannot tolerate a wide range of temperatures.<ref name="Lister2018" /><ref name="Sánchez-Bayo2019" /><ref name="MainNatGeographic14Feb2019" /> The researchers were shocked by the results: "We couldn't believe the first results. I remember [in the 1970s] butterflies everywhere after rain. On the first day back [in 2012], I saw hardly any."<ref name="Economist23March2019" />
===Netherlands ===
In 2019 a study of butterfly numbers in the [[Netherlands]] from 1890 to 2017 reported an estimated decline of 84 percent. When analysed by type of habitat, the trend was found to have stabilised in [[grassland]] and [[woodland]] in recent decades but the decline continued in [[heathland]]. The decline was attributed to changes in land use due to more efficient farming methods, which has caused a decline in weeds. The recent up-tick in some populations documented in the study was attributed to (conservationist) changes in land management and thus an increase in suitable habitat.<ref name="vanStrien2019" /><ref name="CBS29March2019">{{cite web |title=Over 80% decline in butterflies since late 1800s |url=https://www.cbs.nl/nl-nl/nieuws/2019/13/ruim-80-procent-minder-vlinders-dan-eind-19e-eeuw |publisher=Statistics Netherlands (Centraal Bureau voor de Statistiek |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190330114126/https://www.cbs.nl/nl-nl/nieuws/2019/13/ruim-80-procent-minder-vlinders-dan-eind-19e-eeuw |archive-date=30 March 2019 |date=29 March 2019|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Telegraaf29March2019">{{cite news |title=Veel minder vlinders |url=https://www.telegraaf.nl/nieuws/3364801/veel-minder-vlinders |work=[[De Telegraaf]] |date=29 March 2019 |access-date=14 April 2019 |archive-date=28 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220428064838/https://www.telegraaf.nl/nieuws/3364801/veel-minder-vlinders |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name="Barkham2019" />
=== Switzerland ===
A report by the [[Swiss Academy of Natural Sciences]] in April 2019 reported that 60 percent of the insects that had been studied in Switzerland were at risk, mostly in farming and aquatic areas; that there had been a 60 percent decline in insect-eating birds since 1990 in rural areas; and that urgent action was needed to address the causes.<ref name="SWI" /><ref name="SANS" />
===United States and Western Europe {{anchor|Sánchez-Bayo}}===
[[File:SympetrumInfuscatum.jpg|thumb|Except for [[taxa]] regarded as beneficial or charismatic, such as the pictured [[dragonfly]], there is relatively little population decline data available for specific insect species.]]
A 2019 review analysed 73 long-term insect surveys that had shown decline, most of them in the United States and Western Europe.<ref name="Sánchez-Bayo2019" /><ref>[https://ars.els-cdn.com/content/image/1-s2.0-S0006320718313636-gr1_lrg.jpg "Fig. 1. Geographic location of the 73 reports studied on the world map"], Sánchez-Bayo and Wyckhuys 2019.</ref> While noting population increases for certain species of insects in particular areas, the authors reported an annual 2.5% loss of biomass. They wrote that the review "revealed dramatic rates of decline that may lead to the extinction of 40% of the world's insect species over the next few decades",<ref name="Sánchez-Bayo2019" /><ref name="LePageNewScientist11Feb2019" /> a conclusion that was challenged.<ref name="Wagner2019" /><ref name="Simmons2019" /> They did note the review's limitations, namely that the studies were largely concentrated on popular insect groups (butterflies and moths, bees, dragonflies and beetles); few had been done on groups as [[Diptera]] (flies), [[Orthoptera]] (which includes [[grasshopper]]s and [[Cricket (insect)|cricket]]s), and [[Hemiptera]] (such as [[aphid]]s); data from the past from which to calculate trends is largely unavailable; and the data that does exist mostly relates to Western Europe and North America, with the tropics and southern hemisphere (major insect habitats) under-represented.<ref name="Sánchez-Bayo2019" /><ref name="DCObserver10Feb2019" />
The methodology and strong language of the review were questioned.<ref name="Wagner2019" /><ref name="Simmons2019" /><ref name="Sanders16Feb2019" /> Other criticism included that the authors attributed the decline to particular threats based on the studies they reviewed, even when those studies had simply suggested threats rather than clearly identifying them.<ref name="Simmons2019" /> Some reviewers said the study might underestimate the rate of insect decline in the [[tropics]].<ref name="LePageNewScientist11Feb2019" /> Some reviewers also had concerns about the review's search terms, geographic biases, calculations of extinction rates, and inaccurate assessment of drivers of population change. Nevertheless, they found that while it was "a useful review of insect population ''declines'' in North America and Europe, it should not be used as evidence of global insect population ''trends'' and threats."<ref name="Simmons2019" />
In a 2020 paper that studied insects and other arthropods across all Long-term Ecological Research (LTER) sites in the U.S., the authors found some declines, some increases, but generally few consistent losses in arthropod abundance or diversity. This study found some variation in location, but generally stable numbers of insects. As noted in the paper, the authors did not do any ''a priori'' selection of arthropod taxa. Instead, they tested the hypothesis that if the arthropod decline was pervasive, it would be detected in monitoring programs not originally designed to look for declines. They suggest that overall numbers of insects vary but overall show no net change.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Crossley |first1=Michael |date=10 August 2020 |title=No net insect abundance and diversity declines across US Long Term Ecological Research sites |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41559-020-1269-4 |journal=[[Nature Ecology and Evolution]] |volume=4 |issue=10 |pages=1368–1376 |doi=10.1038/s41559-020-1269-4 |pmid=32778751 |s2cid=221099483 |access-date=11 August 2020}}</ref> However, the methodology of the article was criticised because it failed to account for changes in sampling location and sampling effort at LTER sites and for the impact of experimental conditions, had inconsistencies in the database constitution and relied on an inadequate statistical analysis.<ref>Welti, E.A.R., Joern, A., Ellison, A.M. et al. [https://www.nature.com/articles/s41559-021-01424-0#citeas Studies of insect temporal trends must account for the complex sampling histories inherent to many long-term monitoring efforts]. ''Nature Ecology and Evolution'' '''5''' 589–591 (2021). {{doi|10.1038/s41559-021-01424-0}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Desquilbet |first1=Marion |last2=Cornillon |first2=Pierre-André |last3=Gaume |first3=Laurence |last4=Bonmatin |first4=Jean-Marc |year=2021 |title=Adequate statistical modelling and data selection are essential when analysing abundance and diversity trends |url=http://publications.ut-capitole.fr/43237/1/articles/s41559-021-01427-x.epdf_sharing_token%3DtDqmFjgCiz4n48ij_fI079RgN0jAjWel9jnR3ZoTv0O4mO5CkzfI-WdkSWvtSxayB2To9R1gzYOnve4_aEe4G8rqfGbOk0XrGRUQlGA03a6cVB3e3UP2cPmJ4vZ19RirZFY_MEwFEIuxiGzghVmUfF1WXdY390OkC8nJZo7-xzU%3D |journal=Nature Ecology & Evolution |volume=5 |issue=5 |pages=592–594 |doi=10.1038/s41559-021-01427-x |pmid=33820967 |s2cid=233037619}}</ref>[[File:Windshield phenomenon, Australia, March 2009 (2).jpg|thumb|left|Bug splats, [[New South Wales]], 2009]]
The [[windshield phenomenon]] – car windscreens covered in dead insects after even a short drive through a rural area in Europe and North America – seems also largely to have disappeared; in the 21st century, drivers find they can go an entire summer without noticing it.<ref name="Vogel2017" /><ref name="KnaptonTelegraph17June2018" /> John Rawlins, head of invertebrate zoology at the [[Carnegie Museum of Natural History]], speculated in 2006 that more aerodynamic car designs could explain the change.<ref name="LinnPost-Gazette4June2006" /> Entomologist Martin Sorg told ''Science'' in 2017: "I drive a Land Rover, with the aerodynamics of a refrigerator, and these days it stays clean."<ref name="Vogel2017" /> Rawlins added that land next to high-speed highways has become more manicured and therefore less attractive to insects.<ref name="LinnPost-Gazette4June2006" />
== Impacts ==
[[File:00_1680_Bumblebee.gif|thumb|Bumblebee collecting pollen]]
Insect population decline affects ecosystems, and other animal populations, including [[humans]]. Insects are at "the structural and functional base of many of the world's ecosystems."<ref name="Sánchez-Bayo2019" /> A [[#Sánchez-Bayo|2019 global review]] warned that, if not mitigated by decisive action, the decline would have a catastrophic impact on the planet's ecosystems.<ref name="Sánchez-Bayo2019" /> Birds and larger mammals that eat insects can be directly affected by the decline. Declining insect populations can reduce the [[ecosystem services]] provided by [[Beneficial insect|beneficial bugs]], such as [[pollination]] of agricultural crops, and biological waste disposal.<ref name="MainNatGeographic14Feb2019" />
According to the [[Zoological Society of London]], in addition to such loss of [[instrumental value]], the decline also represents a loss of the declining species' [[Intrinsic value (ethics)|intrinsic value]].<ref name="ZSL" />
== Countermeasures ==
=== Overall policies and conventions ===
The most influential factors, that can be counteracted, are habitat loss and degradation, pesticide use, and climate change. Policies at all levels of government across the globe are required to address these in a meaningful way.<ref name="10.1111/csp2.80">{{cite journal |last1=Forister |first1=Matthew L. |last2=Pelton |first2=Emma M. |last3=Black |first3=Scott H. |date=2019 |title=Declines in insect abundance and diversity: We know enough to act now |journal=Conservation Science and Practice |language=en |volume=1 |issue=8 |pages=e80 |doi=10.1111/csp2.80 |issn=2578-4854 |s2cid=196681430 |doi-access=free}}</ref>
Much of the world's efforts to retain biodiversity at national level is reported to the United Nations as part of the [[Convention on Biological Diversity]]. Reports typically describe policies to prevent the loss of diversity generally, such as habitat preservation, rather than specifying measures to protect particular taxa. Pollinators are the main exception to this, with several countries reporting efforts to reduce the decline of their pollinating insects.<ref name="FAO2019" />
Following the [[#Krefeld study, Germany|2017 Krefeld]] and other studies, Germany's environment ministry, the [[Federal Ministry of the Environment, Nature Conservation and Nuclear Safety|BMU]], started an ''Action Programme for Insect Protection'' (''Aktionsprogramm Insektenschutz'').<ref name="FAO2019" /> Their goals include promoting insect habitats in the agricultural landscape, and reducing [[environmental impact of pesticides|pesticide use]], [[light pollution]], and pollutants in [[soil degradation|soil]] and water.<ref name="BMU" />
=== Reduction of pesticide-use ===
Beyond halting habitat loss and fragmentation and [[climate change mitigation|limiting climate change]], reducing pesticide use is required for preserving insect populations.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Basset |first1=Yves |last2=Lamarre |first2=Greg P. A. |date=28 June 2019 |title=Toward a world that values insects |journal=Science |language=EN |volume=364 |issue=6447 |pages=1230–1231 |bibcode=2019Sci...364.1230B |doi=10.1126/science.aaw7071 |pmid=31249044 |s2cid=195750374 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Pesticides have been found far from their application source and [[law-making|legislatively mandated]] elimination of cosmetic pesticide use, as well as general reductions of pesticide use, could greatly benefit insects.<ref name="10.1073/pnas.2002547117" /> [[Organic food]]/[[organic farming|farming]]-related measures can be solutions.<ref name="10.1111/csp2.80" />
However, some scientists warned that excessive focus on reducing pesticide use could be counterproductive as pests already cause a 35 percent yield loss in crops, which can rise to 70 percent if pesticides are not used. If the yield loss was compensated for by expanding agricultural land with [[deforestation]] and other habitat destruction, it could exacerbate insect decline.<ref name="Thomas2019" /><!--not clear what this refers to: Citing a 2010 warning from [[Robert May, Baron May of Oxford|Lord May]], the authors of the 2019 worldwide review suggest decisive action is needed "to avert a catastrophic collapse of nature's [[ecosystem]]s."<ref name=Sánchez-Bayo2019/>-->
=== Wildflower strips and buffer zones ===
[[File:Mechtenberg2009.jpg|thumb|A flowering strip with cornflower dominance between cereal fields as a field trial in Germany]]
A [[wildflower strip]] is a strip of land sown with seeds of biodiverse<!-- unmaintained--> [[Pollinator garden|insect- and pollinator-friendly]] flowering plant species, usually at the edge of an [[agricultural field]], intended to sustain local [[biodiversity]], conserve insects, restore farmland birds and counteract the negative consequences of agricultural intensification.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Haaland |first1=Christine |last2=Naisbit |first2=Russell E. |last3=Bersier |first3=Louis-Félix |title=Sown wildflower strips for insect conservation: a review |journal=Insect Conservation and Diversity |date=2011 |volume=4 |issue=1 |pages=60–80 |doi=10.1111/j.1752-4598.2010.00098.x |s2cid=55210072 |language=en |issn=1752-4598|url=http://doc.rero.ch/record/28343/files/ber_sws.pdf }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ganser |first1=Dominik |last2=Mayr |first2=Barbara |last3=Albrecht |first3=Matthias |last4=Knop |first4=Eva |title=Wildflower strips enhance pollination in adjacent strawberry crops at the small scale |journal=Ecology and Evolution |date=December 2018 |volume=8 |issue=23 |pages=11775–11784 |doi=10.1002/ece3.4631 |pmid=30598775 |pmc=6303775 |issn=2045-7758}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Schmidt |first1=Annika |last2=Fartmann |first2=Thomas |last3=Kiehl |first3=Kathrin |last4=Kirmer |first4=Anita |last5=Tischew |first5=Sabine |title=Effects of perennial wildflower strips and landscape structure on birds in intensively farmed agricultural landscapes |journal=Basic and Applied Ecology |date=1 February 2022 |volume=58 |pages=15–25 |doi=10.1016/j.baae.2021.10.005 |s2cid=240256023 |language=en |issn=1439-1791|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Grass |first1=Ingo |last2=Albrecht |first2=Jörg |last3=Farwig |first3=Nina |last4=Jauker |first4=Frank |title=Plant traits and landscape simplification drive intraspecific trait diversity of Bombus terrestris in wildflower plantings |journal=Basic and Applied Ecology |date=1 December 2021 |volume=57 |pages=91–101 |doi=10.1016/j.baae.2021.10.002 |s2cid=240241322 |language=en |issn=1439-1791|doi-access=free }}</ref>
Buffer-zones around [[nature reserve]]s where pesticide-use is drastically reduced has been proposed for inclusion in the countermeasures. Scientists who proposed the measure conducted a Germany-wide field study and found that insect samples in these areas are contaminated with ~16 pesticides on average, proportionate to the agricultural production area in a radius of 2 km.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Brühl |first1=Carsten A. |last2=Bakanov |first2=Nikita |last3=Köthe |first3=Sebastian |last4=Eichler |first4=Lisa |last5=Sorg |first5=Martin |last6=Hörren |first6=Thomas |last7=Mühlethaler |first7=Roland |last8=Meinel |first8=Gotthard |last9=Lehmann |first9=Gerlind U. C. |date=16 December 2021 |title=Direct pesticide exposure of insects in nature conservation areas in Germany |journal=Scientific Reports |language=en |volume=11 |issue=1 |pages=24144 |bibcode=2021NatSR..1124144B |doi=10.1038/s41598-021-03366-w |issn=2045-2322 |pmc=8677746 |pmid=34916546}}</ref>
=== Wildlife gardens ===
{{Further|Wildlife garden}}
The [[Entomological Society of America]] suggests that people maintain plant diversity in their gardens and leave "natural habitat, like leaf litter and dead wood".<ref name=FAQEntSocAm2019/> The [[Xerces Society]] in the U.S. has been doing a Western Monarch Thanksgiving Count which includes observations from volunteers for 22 years.<ref>{{cite web |title=Record Low Number of Overwintering Monarch Butterflies in California—They Need Your Help! |url=https://xerces.org/2019/01/17/record-low-overwintering-monarchs-in-california/ |website=Xerces Society}}</ref>
It has been suggested that "Because many insects need little space to survive, even partial conversion of [[lawn]]s to minimally disturbed natural vegetation—say 10%—could significantly aid insect conservation, while simultaneously lowering the cost of lawn maintenance".<ref name="10.1073/pnas.2002547117">{{cite journal |last1=Kawahara |first1=Akito Y. |last2=Reeves |first2=Lawrence E. |last3=Barber |first3=Jesse R. |last4=Black |first4=Scott H. |title=Opinion: Eight simple actions that individuals can take to save insects from global declines |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |date=12 January 2021 |volume=118 |issue=2 |doi=10.1073/pnas.2002547117 |pmid=33431563 |pmc=7812750 |language=en |issn=0027-8424|doi-access=free }}</ref>
=== Awareness raising ===
In the UK, 27 British [[entomologist]]s and [[ecologist]]s signed an open letter to ''[[The Guardian]]'' in March 2019, calling on the British research establishment to investigate the decline. Signatories included [[Simon Leather]], [[Stuart Edward Reynolds|Stuart Reynolds]] (former president of the [[Royal Entomological Society]]), [[John Krebs]] and [[John Lawton (biologist)|John Lawton]] (both former presidents of the [[Natural Environment Research Council]]), [[Paul Brakefield]], [[George McGavin]], [[Michael Hassell]], [[Dave Goulson]], Richard Harrington (editor of the Royal Entomological Society's magazine, ''Antenna''), [[Kathy Willis]] and [[Jeremy A. Thomas|Jeremy Thomas]].<ref name="Leather2019" /> The letter requested action "to enable intensive investigation of the real threat of ecological disruption caused by insect declines without delay".<ref name="Leather2019" />
[[Science journalism#Criticism|More media coverage]] has been proposed.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Samways |first1=Michael J. |last2=Barton |first2=Philip S. |last3=Birkhofer |first3=Klaus |last4=Chichorro |first4=Filipe |last5=Deacon |first5=Charl |last6=Fartmann |first6=Thomas |last7=Fukushima |first7=Caroline S. |last8=Gaigher |first8=René |last9=Habel |first9=Jan C. |last10=Hallmann |first10=Caspar A. |last11=Hill |first11=Matthew J. |last12=Hochkirch |first12=Axel |last13=Kaila |first13=Lauri |last14=Kwak |first14=Mackenzie L. |last15=Maes |first15=Dirk |date=1 February 2020 |title=Solutions for humanity on how to conserve insects |journal=Biological Conservation |language=en |volume=242 |pages=108427 |doi=10.1016/j.biocon.2020.108427 |issn=0006-3207 |s2cid=213927925 |doi-access=free |last16=Mammola |first16=Stefano |last17=Noriega |first17=Jorge A. |last18=Orfinger |first18=Alexander B. |last19=Pedraza |first19=Fernando |last20=Pryke |first20=James S. |last21=Roque |first21=Fabio O. |last22=Settele |first22=Josef |last23=Simaika |first23=John P. |last24=Stork |first24=Nigel E. |last25=Suhling |first25=Frank |last26=Vorster |first26=Carlien |last27=Cardoso |first27=Pedro|hdl=2066/216853 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>
In a 2019 paper, scientists listed 100 studies and other references suggesting that insects can help meet the [[Sustainable Development Goals]] (SDG) adopted in 2015 by the [[United Nations]]. They argued that the global policy-making community should continue its transition from seeing insects as enemies, to the current view of insects as "providers of ecosystem services", and should advance to a view of insects as "solutions for SDGs" (such as using them as food and [[biological pest control]]).<ref name="Dangles2019" /><ref>{{cite web |title=Sustainable Development Goals |url=https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/?menu=1300 |publisher=Division for Sustainable Development Goals, United Nations}}</ref> The public in many countries is largely unaware of benefits and [[Ecosystem service|services]] that insects provide (such as honey, ecosystem balance, food for other animals, pollination, soil health, etc.), and negative perceptions of insects are widespread.<ref name="10.1073/pnas.2002547117" />
== Society and culture ==
=== In arts ===
In April 2019, in response to the studies about insect decline, [[Carol Ann Duffy]] released several poems, by herself and others, to mark the end of her tenure as Britain's [[poet laureate]] and to coincide with protests that month by the environmentalist movement [[Extinction Rebellion]]. The poets included [[Fiona Benson (poet)|Fiona Benson]], [[Imtiaz Dharker]], [[Matthew Hollis]], [[Michael Longley]], [[Daljit Nagra]], [[Alice Oswald]], and [[Denise Riley]]. Duffy's contribution was "The Human Bee".<ref name="Duffy27April2019" />
=== Decline of professionals studying insects ===
One reason that studies into the decline are limited is that [[entomology]] and [[taxonomy (biology)|taxonomy]] are themselves in decline.<ref name=Yong2019/><ref name=Time/><ref name=Wired/> At the 2019 Entomology Congress, leading entomologist Jürgen Gross said that "We are ourselves an endangered species" while Wolfgang Wägele – an expert in [[systematics|systematic zoology]] – said that "in the universities we have lost nearly all experts".<ref name=DW/> In 2016, Jürgen Deckert of Berlin Natural History Museum commented that while around 30,000 insect species are known to inhabit [[Central Europe]], there are "only a few specialists" dedicated to the region, and even they often do monitoring as a side job.<ref name="SchwägerlYale2016"/> General biology courses in college give less attention to insects, and the number of biologists specialising in entomology is decreasing as specialities such as genetics expand.<ref name=Leather2007/><ref name=AE/><ref name=PS/> In addition, studies investigating the decline tend to be done by collecting insects and killing them in traps, which poses an [[environmental ethics|ethical]] problem for conservationists.<ref name=RSB/><ref name=ICD/>
Further, the above describes the situation in the [[developed countries]]: the [[developing countries]] have typically not had time to build up their entomology in the first place. Consequently, nearly all of the major insect studies to date are from [[Europe]] and the [[United States]], even though it's estimated that fewer than 20% of insect species worldwide are in those countries.<ref name="Wagner2021" />
==See also==
* [[Biodiversity loss]]
* [[Colony collapse disorder]]
* [[Decline in amphibian populations]]
* [[List of endangered insects]]
* [[Defaunation]]
== References ==
{{Reflist
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<ref name=McKieObserver17June2018>{{citation |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2018/jun/17/where-have-insects-gone-climate-change-population-decline |title=Where have all our insects gone? |newspaper=The Observer |first=Robin|last=McKie |date=17 June 2018|postscript=.}}</ref>
<ref name=Nature18Oct2017>{{cite journal |title=Flying insects are disappearing from German skies |journal=Nature |date=18 October 2017 |volume=550 |issue=7677 |page=433 |doi=10.1038/d41586-017-04774-7|pmid=32080395 |bibcode=2017Natur.550Q.433. |s2cid=4466299 |doi-access=free }}</ref>
<ref name=NYTeditorial29Oct2017>{{citation |author=The Editorial Board |title=Insect Armageddon |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2017/10/29/opinion/insect-armageddon-ecosystem-.html |work=The New York Times |date=29 October 2017 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20171030155037/https://www.nytimes.com/2017/10/29/opinion/insect-armageddon-ecosystem-.html |archive-date=30 October 2017 |postscript=. |access-date=9 April 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref>
<ref name=OwensLewis2018>{{citation|last1=Owens |first1=Avalon C. S. |last2=Lewis |first2=Sara M. |title=The impact of artificial light at night on nocturnal insects: A review and synthesis |journal=Ecology and Evolution |date=November 2018 |volume=8 |issue=22 |pages=11337–11358 |doi=10.1002/ece3.4557|pmid=30519447 |pmc=6262936|postscript=.}}</ref>
<ref name=PS>{{citation |url=https://www.popsci.com/insect-textbook-decline |journal=[[Popular Science]] |title=Insects are disappearing from science textbooks—and that should bug you |first=Erin |last=Blakemore |date=12 December 2018|postscript=.}}</ref>
<ref name=Reckhaus2017>{{citation|last=Reckhaus |first=Hans-Dietrich |title=Why Every Fly Counts: A Documentation about the Value and Endangerment of Insects |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TVcoDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA2 |year=2017|publisher=Springer International Publishing|location=Cham|isbn=978-3-319-58765-3 |pages=1–5|postscript=.}}</ref>
<ref name=RSB>{{citation |url=https://thebiologist.rsb.org.uk/biologist/158-biologist/features/1931-inside-the-killing-jar |journal=[[The Biologist]] |title=Inside the killing jar |volume=65 |number=2 |pages=26–29 |first=Adam |last=Hart |author-link=Adam Hart|postscript=.}}</ref>
<ref name="Sánchez-Bayo2019">{{citation |journal=Biological Conservation |date=31 January 2019 |volume=232 |pages=8–27 |title=Worldwide decline of the entomofauna: A review of its drivers |first1=Francisco|last1=Sánchez-Bayo |author-link1=Francisco Sánchez-Bayo |first2=Kris A.G. |last2=Wyckhuys |doi=10.1016/j.biocon.2019.01.020|postscript=.|doi-access=free }}</ref>
<ref name=Sanders16Feb2019>{{citation |url=https://ecologyisnotadirtyword.com/2019/02/16/insectageddon-is-a-great-story-but-what-are-the-facts/ |title=Insectageddon is a great story. But what are the facts? |last=Saunders|first=Manu |date=16 February 2019|website=ecologyisnotadirtyword.com|postscript=.}}</ref>
<ref name=SANS>{{citation |url=https://sciencesnaturelles.ch/uuid/59525e50-0606-539e-aa5a-b08adfa8d5cd?r=20190205110021_1554969605_fbc4f2c5-bff4-5035-94ee-709aaffddb7e |title=Disparition des insectes en Suisse et conséquences éventuelles pour la société et l'économie |first1=Florian |last1=Altermatt |first2=Bruno |last2=Baur |first3=Yves |last3=Gonseth |first4=Eva |last4=Knop |first5=Gilberto |last5=Pasinelli |first6=Daniela |last6=Pauli |first7=Loïc |last7=Pellisier |publisher=[[Swiss Academy of Natural Sciences]] |date=2 April 2019 |access-date=17 April 2019 |archive-date=24 June 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190624224701/https://sciencesnaturelles.ch/uuid/59525e50-0606-539e-aa5a-b08adfa8d5cd?r=20190205110021_1554969605_fbc4f2c5-bff4-5035-94ee-709aaffddb7e |url-status=dead }}</ref>
<ref name="SchwägerlYale2016">{{cite web |url=https://e360.yale.edu/features/insect_numbers_declining_why_it_matters |title=What's Causing the Sharp Decline in Insects, and Why It Matters |author=Schwägerl, Christian |date=7 July 2016 |publisher = [[Yale School of Forestry & Environmental Studies]]}}</ref>
<ref name=Simmons2019>{{cite journal |last1=Simmons |first1=Benno I. |last2=Balmford |first2=Andrew |last3=Bladon |first3=Andrew J.|display-authors=etal|title=Worldwide insect declines: An important message, but interpret with caution |journal=Ecology and Evolution |volume=9 |issue=7 |date=5 April 2019 |pages=3678–3680 |doi=10.1002/ece3.5153 |pmid=31015957 |pmc=6467851 }}</ref>
<ref name=Sorg2013>{{cite journal |last1=Sorg |first1=M. |last2=Schwan |first2=H. |last3=Stenmans |first3=W. |last4=Müller |first4=A. |title=Ermittlung der Biomassen flugaktiver Insekten im Naturschutzgebiet Orbroicher Bruch mit Malaise Fallen in den Jahren 1989 und 2013 |journal=Mitteilungen aus dem Entomologischen Verein Krefeld |volume=1 |date=2013 |url=https://www.boerenlandvogels.nl/sites/default/files/mitt-evk-2013-1.pdf |pages=1–5}}</ref>
<ref name=StagerNYT26May2018>{{citation |last1=Stager |first1=Curt |author-link=Curt Stager |title=The Silence of the Bugs |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/05/26/opinion/sunday/insects-bugs-naturalists-scientists.html |work=The New York Times |archive-url=https://archive.today/20180527061425/https://www.nytimes.com/2018/05/26/opinion/sunday/insects-bugs-naturalists-scientists.html |archive-date=27 May 2018 |date=26 May 2018 |url-status=live |postscript=. |access-date=9 April 2019 }}</ref>
<ref name=SWI>{{citation |publisher=[[Swissinfo]] |url=https://www.swissinfo.ch/eng/biodiversity_swiss-scientists-call-for-action-on-disappearing-insects/44895310 |title=Swiss scientists call for action on disappearing insects |date=13 April 2019}}</ref>
<ref name=Thomas2019>{{cite journal |last1=Thomas |first1=Chris D. |last2=Jones |first2=T. Hefin |last3=Hartley |first3=Sue E. |title='Insectageddon': A call for more robust data and rigorous analyses |journal=Global Change Biology |volume=25 |issue=6 |pages=1891–1892 |department=Invited letter to the editor|date=18 March 2019 |doi=10.1111/gcb.14608|pmid=30821400|bibcode=2019GCBio..25.1891T |doi-access=free }}</ref>
<ref name=Time>{{citation |url=http://time.com/5144257/fewer-scientists-studying-insects-entomology/ |title=Fewer Scientists Are Studying Insects. Here's Why That's So Dangerous |magazine=[[Time (magazine)|Time]] |author=Alexandra Sifferlin |date=14 February 2018}}</ref>
<ref name=vanStrien2019>{{citation |journal=Biological Conservation |volume=234 |pages=116–122 |title=Over a century of data reveal more than 80% decline in butterflies in the Netherlands |first1=Arco J. |last1=van Strien |first2=Chris A. M. |last2=van Swaay |first3=Willy T. F. H. |last3=van Strien-van Liempt |first4=Martin J. M. |last4=Poot |first5=Michiel F. |last5=Wallis De Vries |date=27 March 2019 |doi=10.1016/j.biocon.2019.03.023|s2cid=133314379 |postscript=.}}</ref>
<ref name=Vogel2017>{{citation |url=https://www.science.org/content/article/where-have-all-insects-gone |journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]] |title=Where have all the insects gone? |first1=Gretchen |last1=Vogel |date=10 May 2017|postscript=.|doi=10.1126/science.aal1160}}</ref>
<ref name=Wagner2010>{{cite journal |last1=Wagner |first1=David L. |last2=Van Driesche |first2=Roy G. |title=Threats Posed to Rare or Endangered Insects by Invasions of Nonnative Species |journal=Annual Review of Entomology |date=January 2010 |volume=55 |issue=1 |pages=547–568 |doi=10.1146/annurev-ento-112408-085516|pmid=19743915 }}</ref>
<ref name=Wagner2019>{{citation |last1=Wagner |first1=David L. |author-link=David L. Wagner |title=Global insect decline: Comments on Sánchez-Bayo and Wyckhuys (2019) |journal=Biological Conservation |volume=233 |date=4 March 2019 |pages= 332–333|doi=10.1016/j.biocon.2019.03.005|s2cid=108591790 |postscript=.}}</ref>
<ref name=Wired>{{citation |url=https://www.wired.com/2011/01/extinction-of-taxonomists/ |magazine=[[Wired (magazine)|Wired]] | title=The Mass Extinction of Scientists Who Study Species |first=Craig |last=McLain |date=19 January 2011}}</ref>
<ref name=Yong2019>{{citation |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/science/archive/2019/02/insect-apocalypse-really-upon-us/583018/ |title=Is the Insect Apocalypse Really Upon Us? |last=Yong |first=Ed |author-link=Ed Yong |date=19 February 2019|journal=[[The Atlantic]]|postscript=.}}</ref>
<ref name=ZSL>{{citation |url=https://www.zsl.org/sites/default/files/document/2014-02/spineless-lr-2039.pdf |title=Spineless – Status and trends of the world's invertebrates |publisher=[[Zoological Society of London]] |year=2012 |isbn=978-0-900881-70-1 |last1=Collen |first1=Ben |last2=Böhm |first2=Monika |last3=Kemp |first3=Rachael |last4=Baillie |first4=Jonathan E. M. |postscript=. |access-date=2019-02-16 |archive-date=2019-02-17 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190217143739/https://www.zsl.org/sites/default/files/document/2014-02/spineless-lr-2039.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref>
<ref name=Hance2019>{{citation |url=https://news.mongabay.com/2019/06/the-great-insect-dying-a-global-look-at-a-deepening-crisis/ |title=Butterfly numbers fall by 84% in Netherlands over 130 years – study |newspaper=Mongabay|first=Jeremy |last=Hance |date=3 June 2019|postscript=.}}</ref>
<ref name=vanKlink2020>{{citation |journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]] |title=Meta-analysis reveals declines in terrestrial but increases in freshwater insect abundances|first1=Roel |last1=van Klink |date=24 April 2020|volume=368 |issue=6489 |pages=417–420 |doi=10.1126/science.aax9931|pmid=32327596 |bibcode=2020Sci...368..417V |s2cid=216106896 |doi-access=free }}</ref>
<ref name=WagnerJ2020>{{cite journal |last1=Wagner |first1=David L|title=Insect Declines in the Anthropocene |journal=Annual Review of Entomology |date=January 2010 |volume=55 |issue=1 |pages=547–568 |doi=10.1146/annurev-ento-011019-025151|pmid=31610138|doi-access=free }}</ref>
<ref name= Baranov2020>{{cite journal |last1=Baranov |first1=Viktor |title=Complex and nonlinear climate‐driven changes in freshwater insect communities over 42 years|journal=[[Conservation Biology (journal)|Conservation Biology]] |date=February 2020 |volume=34 |issue=5 |pages=1241–1251 |doi=10.1111/cobi.13477|pmid=32022305 |doi-access=free }}</ref>
}}
{{human impact on the environment}}
{{Insects in culture}}
{{insecticides}}
{{pesticides}}
{{Doomsday}}
{{Extinction}}
[[Category:Entomology]]
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
[[Category:Insect ecology]]
[[Category:Population ecology]] |
Dispersal of invasive species by ballast water | {{refimprove|date=February 2019}}
The '''dispersal of invasive species by ballast water''' refers to the unintentional introduction of [[invasive species]] to new habitats via the [[ballast water]] carried by [[Container ship|commercial shipping vessels]]. Ballast water spreads an estimated 7000 living species to new habitats across the globe. These species can affect the [[ecological balance]] of their new regions by outcompeting native species or otherwise impacting native [[Ecosystem|ecosystems]].<ref name=elcicek>{{Cite journal|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/301821711|title=Effect of Ballast Water on Marine and Coastal Ecology|language=en|access-date=2019-02-07|last1=Elçiçek|first1=H.|last2=Parlak|first2=A.|last3=Cakmakci|first3=M.|year=2013|journal=Journal of Selçuk University Natural and Applied Science|volume=1|pages=454–463}}</ref>
== Ballast water ==
[[File:Ballast water en.svg|thumb|Diagram depicts invasive species being transported to and discharged into non-native habitats.]]
The purpose of ballast water is to provide [[transverse stability]], improve propulsion and maneuverability, and to compensate for weight loss due to fuel and water consumption. Approximately 10 billion tons of ballast water is transported each year, accounting for 90% of our world trade.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Bacterial Diversity in Ships Ballast Water Ballast-Water Exchange, and Implications for Ship-Mediated Dispersal of Microorganisms|doi=10.1021/acs.est.6b03108.s001|doi-access=free}}</ref> Typically, ballast water discharge contains a variety of biological materials including non-native, invasive, and [[exotic species]] that can cause extensive ecological and economic damage to aquatic ecosystems.<ref name=elcicek/>
Throughout this process, large ships withdraw up to 20 million gallons of water at their specific loading ports. Including native species; both plant and animal, before disposing them at their next destination. However, when these invasive species are unloaded, specific conditions like temperature, [[salinity]], lack of resources, and predator-to-prey competition affects how foreign species survive in non-native habitats.{{cn|date=February 2019}} These factors cause stress within the ecosystems, throwing off ecological and environmental balance.
As new species are introduced to non-native ecosystems, [[interspecific competition]] often becomes more intense. If native species are outcompeted by invasive species, it can affect the established predator-prey relationships within that region, possibly having disruptive effects on the wider [[food web]].{{cn|date=February 2018}}
== Invasive species ==
=== Freshwater zebra mussel ===
''[[Dreissena polymorpha]]'', commonly known as the zebra mussel, live in [[Fresh water|freshwater]] and are native to southern lakes in [[Russia]] and [[Ukraine]]. The zebra mussel has become an invasive species that is frequently spread via ballast water. In North America, Great Britain, Ireland, Italy, Spain, and Sweden, the species has invaded native habitats. The mussels take oxygen and food from the water, limiting the resources available for native species and disrupting local ecosystems. Zebra mussels can have a significant impact on [[algae]] in the habitats they invade.{{Citation needed|date=June 2020}} Invasive zebra mussels, often in [[Monotypic habitat|monotypic]] populations, have been shown to damage [[Abiotic component|abiotic]] components found in invaded habitats such as boats, waterways, harbors, water treatment plants, and power plants.{{cn|date=February 2019}}
=== Sea walnut ===
[[File:Sea walnut, Boston Aquarium.jpg|thumb|''[[Mnemiopsis leidyi]],'' commonly known as the Sea Walnut.]]
''[[Mnemiopsis leidyi]]'', commonly known as the sea walnut, is a [[Ctenophora|ctenophore]] species in the class [[Tentaculata]].{{cn|date=February 2019}} This species is native to the eastern coast of North and South America. Currently, ''Mnemiopsis leidyi'' has become invasive through the transfer of ballast water to the [[Black Sea|Black]], [[Sea of Azov|Azov]], [[Aegean Sea|Aegean]] and [[Sea of Marmara|Marmara Seas]], west coast of Sweden, and the Southern and Northern [[Baltic Sea]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.aquariumofpacific.org/onlinelearningcenter/species/comb_jelly|title=Comb Jelly (Sea Walnut)|last=Pacific|first=Aquarium of the|website=www.aquariumofpacific.org|language=en|access-date=2019-02-07}}</ref> This carnivorous species feeds on [[zooplankton]], [[Crustacean|crustaceans]], fish eggs and larvae. Some individuals are known to consume individuals of their own species. Specifically, ''Mnemiopsis sp.'' has become an ecological problem for local [[Fishery|fisheries]] because they have been linked to the diminishing zooplankton population.
=== Green crab ===
''[[Carcinus maenas]],'' commonly known as the green crab, is native to the [[Baltic Sea]] and the northeastern Atlantic Ocean. This species has become invasive to North America, South Africa, South America, Asia, and Australia. This widely spread invasive species is often distributed by ship ballast water.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://ocean.si.edu/ocean-life/5-invasive-species-you-should-know|title=5 Invasive Species You Should Know|last=Tennessen|first=Tina|website=ocean.si.edu|language=en|access-date=2019-02-07}}</ref> ''C. maenas'' is a voracious predator to many species such as worms, [[Mollusca|mollusks]], [[Oyster|oysters]], and [[Clam|clams]]. The competitiveness and efficiency of this species out-competes native crabs and lobsters. Specifically, the green crab disrupts [[eelgrass]] beds, often home to diverse fish populations. For [[aquaculture]] and fishing industries, ''C. maenas'' poses a particular threat due to its appetite for valuable farmed mollusks.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.dfo-mpo.gc.ca/species-especes/profiles-profils/europeangreencrab-crabevert-eng.html|title=Fisheries and Oceans Canada|website=www.dfo-mpo.gc.ca|access-date=2019-02-07}}</ref>
==See also==
*[[Ballast water discharge and the environment]]
*[[Climate change and invasive species]]
== References ==
{{reflist}}
== Further reading ==
* {{cite web | title=Conservation groups criticize new EPA ballast water rule exemption | website=Water Tech Online | url=http://www.watertechonline.com/industry/article/14189223/conservation-groups-criticize-new-epa-ballast-water-rule-exemption | access-date=2020-12-24}} about the [[Great Lakes]]
* {{cite web | title=EPA releases proposal concerning discharges of marine vessels | website=Water Tech Online | url=http://www.watertechonline.com/industry/article/14185191/epa-releases-proposal-concerning-discharges-of-marine-vessels | access-date=2020-12-24}} about the [[Great Lakes]]
[[Category:Invasive species]]
[[Category:Environmental impact of shipping]]
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
[[Category:Pest control]] |
Friends of Lake Turkana | '''Friends of Lake Turkana''' (FoLT) is a nonprofit organization in Kenya that was founded in 2007 by Kenyan environmentalist Ikal Angelei.<ref name="thornton">{{cite news |last1=Thornton |first1=Stuart |title=Case Study. Friends of Lake Turkana work to preserve the lake's ecology by halting construction of an upstream dam. |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.org/news/case-study-friends-lake-turkana/ |accessdate=13 May 2019 |agency=National Geographic |date=16 May 2012}}</ref> The organization has worked to stop the construction of the Ethiopian Gilgel Gibe III Dam on the Omo River, Lake Turkana's primary source of water.<ref name="thornton" /> Due to FoLT and other partner's advocacy work on saving Lake Turkana, the Lake was added to the list of world Heritage sites in Danger by UNESSCO in June 2018.
Angelei continues to advocate for the sovereignty of local people to work for development that is sustainable.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Gworo |first1=Alice |title=Government Urged To Audit Firms Exploring Oil In Turkana |url=http://www.kenyanews.go.ke/government-urged-to-audit-firms-exploring-oil-in-turkana/ |accessdate=13 May 2019 |publisher=Kenya News Agency |date=10 April 2019}}</ref>
==Structure==
Friends of Lake Turkana is located off Lodwar-Kalakol road in Turkana County, Kenya. The organization serves the communities living around the Lake Turkana Basin, The Turkana, Rendile, Borana, Galla, Elmolo, Burji and the Dasanach. Some of FoLT key partners are Ford Foundation, FAO and Kenya Market Trust.
FoLT focuses her operations on four key areas, Extractives Governance, [[environmental justice]], Policy Advocacy and Women and Youth.
==Extractives Governance==
FoLT works towards maximizing community inclusion and benefits in the oil and minerals developments in Turkana by increasing debate on adoption of Free Prior and Informed Consent (FPIC) in extractives and infrastructural development
==Environmental Justice==
FoLT focuses on increasing community understanding of the linkages between environmental impacts and livelihoods to demand appropriate accountability as well as researching and documenting possible climate impacts related to extractives development.
==Policy Advocacy==
FoLT works to ensure increased capacity to represent community interests in the extractives and development agenda within the community and Increase the use of research and evidence based data to inform changes in policy implementation to ensure public resources are used transparently and can be accounted for
==Youth & Women Engagements==
FoLT advocates for the recognition of youth and women and other marginalized groups as key agents of change by ensuring their increased participation in decision making processes and demanding of accountability.
==Gilgel Gibe Dams==
Lake Turkana, in Northern Kenya, is a part of the 70,000-square-kilometer [[Turkana Basin]], and is the most saline lake in east Africa.<ref name="thornton" /> Because the Omo River provides Lake Turkana with 90% of its water, the planned Gilgel Gibe III Dam would lower the lake's water levels by 5–12 meters, changing its environment, chemistry, shoreline and ecology.<ref name="thornton" /> This would also disrupt local economic practices including fishing, pastoralism and agricultural production.<ref name="thornton" />
The dam site is 160 kilometers north of Lake Turkana, in the Lower Omo Valley.<ref name="thornton" /> Dam construction began in 2006.<ref name="thornton" /> FoLT has stated that the Gibe III dam will destroy important components of Lake Turkana's ecology, and the economy it provides for local people.<ref name="thornton" /> FoLT has estimated that 200,000 people or more, belonging to eight ethnic groups, rely upon the lake for their sustenance.<ref name="thornton" />
Friends of Lake Turkana has made efforts to increase awareness about the construction of the Gibe III Dam and its potential impact on Lake Turkana among local Turkana people.<ref name="vidal1">{{cite news |last1=Vidal |first1=John |title=Ethiopia dam will turn Lake Turkana into 'endless battlefield', locals warn |url=https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2015/jan/13/ethiopia-gibe-iii-dam-kenya |accessdate=13 May 2019 |newspaper=The Guardian |date=13 January 2015}}</ref> As a result of FoLT's activities, the World Bank, the European Investment Bank and the African Development Bank chose to cancel their funding of Gibe III.<ref name="gogetter">{{cite news |title=Kenya's bold and audacious go-getters |url=https://www.nation.co.ke/news/Kenya-s-bold-and-audacious-go-getters/1056-5059080-5o6i4kz/index.html |accessdate=13 May 2019 |publisher=The Nation (Kenya) |date=6 April 2019}}</ref>
The organization has advocated for responsible ecological practices for further planned dams in Ethiopia.<ref name="mwanza1">{{cite news |last1=Mwanza |first1=Kevin |title=Ethiopia's dams threaten thousands of Kenyans: environmentalists |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-kenya-water-ethiopia/ethiopias-dams-threaten-thousands-of-kenyans-environmentalists-idUSKBN1JT1QU |accessdate=13 May 2019 |work=Reuters |date=3 July 2018}}</ref>
==Oil==
The director of FoLT, Angelei, has stated that Tullow Oil's exploration projects in Turkana have used large quantities of water, threatening local communities' scarce water resources.<ref name="SQ1">{{cite news |last1=Kamau |first1=Macharia |title=Fight for water by oil firms may fuel conflict in Turkana |url=https://www.standardmedia.co.ke/business/article/2001321151/fight-for-water-by-oil-firms-may-fuel-conflict-in-turkana |accessdate=13 May 2019 |newspaper=The Standard (Kenya)}}</ref>
==See also==
*[[Habitat destruction]]
==References==
{{reflist}}
{{morecat|date=October 2023}}
[[Category:Environmental conservation]] |
Category:Water conservation | {{Commons category|Water conservation}}
{{Portal|Water}}
{{Cat main|Water conservation}}
==See also==
*[[:Category:Sustainable gardening]]
*[[:Category:Horticulture]]
*[[:Category:Hydrology and urban planning]]
[[Category:Water and politics|Conservation]]<!-- Although this is in parent (water) and child (Water and politics) categories, which is not usual practice, it should be noted that it would be more natural to look for water conservation via Water supply than via Water and politics. --Singkong2005 -->
[[Category:Water management]]
[[Category:Water and the environment]]
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
{{CatTrack}} |
In-situ conservation | {{Use Indian English|date = February 2019}}
{{Short description|Conservation process}}
{{Use dmy dates|date = February 2019}}
{{More citations needed|date = November 2017}}
'''In situ conservation''' is the on-site [[Conservation movement|conservation]] or the conservation of [[genetic resources]] in natural populations of plant or animal species, such as [[forest genetic resources]] in natural populations of tree species.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PjfVFGM4p6wC|title=Biodiversity and Its Conservation in India|last=Negi|first=Sharad Singh|date=1993-01-01|publisher=Indus Publishing|isbn=9788185182889|page=40|language=en}}</ref> This process protects the inhabitants and ensures the sustainability of the environment and ecosystem.
Its converse is [[ex situ conservation]], where threatened species are moved to another location.
==Methods==
===Nature reserves===
[[File:Blackiston Falls Upper, Waterton National Park.jpg|thumb|[[Waterton Biosphere Reserve]] in Canada]]
[[Nature reserve]]s (or biosphere reserves) cover very large areas, often more than 5000 km<sup>2</sup>. They are used to protect species for a long time.
===National parks===
A [[national park]] is an area dedicated for the conservation of wildlife along with its environment. A national park is an area which is used to conserve scenery, natural and historical objects. It is usually a small reserve covering an area of about 100 to 500 square kilometers. Within biosphere reserves, one or more national parks may also exist.
===Wildlife sanctuaries===
A wildlife sanctuary is an area which is reserved for the conservation of animals only.
===Biodiversity hotspots===
[[File:Biodiversity Hotspots 2015.svg|thumb|Biodiversity hotspots across the world]]
Several international organizations focus their conservation work on areas designated as [[biodiversity hotspot]]s.
According to [[Conservation International]], to qualify as a biodiversity hotspot a region must meet two strict criteria:
* it must contain at least 1,500 species of vascular plants (∆ 0.5% of the world's total) as endemics,
* it has to have lost at least 70% of its original habitat.
===Gene sanctuary===
A gene sanctuary is an area where plants are conserved. It includes both biosphere reserves as well as national parks.
==Benefits==
One benefit of ''in situ'' conservation is that it maintains recovering populations in the environment where they have developed their distinctive properties. Another benefit is that this strategy helps ensure the ongoing processes of evolution and adaptation within their environments. As a last resort, [[ex-situ conservation|''ex situ'' conservation]] may be used on some or all of the population, when ''in situ'' conservation is too difficult, or impossible. The species gets adjusted to the natural disasters like drought, floods, forest fires and this method is very cheap and convenient.
==Reserves==
Wildlife and livestock conservation is mostly based on nothing.{{clarify inline|date=February 2024}} This involves the protection of wildlife habitats. Also, sufficiently large reserves are maintained to enable the target species to exist in large numbers. The population size must be sufficient to enable the necessary [[genetic diversity]] to survive within the population, so that it has a good chance of continuing to [[Adaptation (biology)|adapt]] and [[evolution|evolve]] over time. This reserve size can be calculated for target species by examining the population density in naturally occurring situations. The reserves must then be protected from intrusion or destruction by man, and against other catastrophes.
==Agriculture==
In [[agriculture]], ''in situ'' conservation techniques are an effective way to improve, maintain, and use traditional or native varieties of agricultural crops. Such methodologies link the positive output of scientific research with farmers' experience and field work.
First, the accessions of a variety stored at a [[germplasm]] bank and those of the same variety multiplied by farmers are jointly tested in the producers field and in the laboratory, under different situations and stresses. Thus, the scientific knowledge about the production characteristics of the native varieties is enhanced. Later, the best tested accessions are crossed, mixed, and multiplied under replicable situations. At last, these improved accessions are supplied to the producers. Thus, farmers are enabled to crop improved selections of their own varieties, instead of being lured to substitute their own varieties with commercial ones or to abandon their crop. This technique of conservation of agricultural biodiversity is more successful in marginal areas, where commercial varieties are not expedient, due to climate and [[soil fertility]] constraints, or where the taste and cooking characteristics of traditional varieties compensate for their lower yields.<ref>G. Avila, L. Guzmán, M. Céspedes 2004. ''Estrategias para la conservación in situ de razas de maíz boliviano''. SINALERC, [[Mar del Plata]]</ref>
==In India==
About 4% of the total geographical area of India is used for ''[[in situ]]'' conservation.
There are 18 [[Biosphere reserves of India|biosphere reserves in India]], including [[Nanda Devi]] in Uttarakhand, [[Nokrek]] in Meghalaya, [[Manas National Park]] in Assam and [[Sundarban]] in West Bengal.
There are 106 [[List of national parks of India|national parks in India]], including [[Kaziranga National Park]] which conserves the [[one-horned rhino]], [[Periyar National Park]] conserving the tiger and elephant, and [[Ranthambore National Park]] conserving the tiger.
There are 551 [[wildlife sanctuaries in India]].
Biodiversity hotspots include the [[Himalayas]], [[the Western Ghats]], the [[Indo-Burma region]]<ref>WILDLIFE INSTITUTE OF INDIA DEHRADUN</ref> and the [[Sundaland]].
India has set up its first gene sanctuary in the [[Garo Hills]] of Meghalaya for wild relatives of citrus. Efforts are also being made to set up gene sanctuaries for banana, sugarcane, rice and mango.
Community reserves were established as a type of protected area in India in the Wildlife Protection Amendment Act 2002, to provide legal support to community or privately owned reserves which cannot be designated as national park or wildlife sanctuary.
Sacred groves are tracts of forest set aside where all the trees and wildlife within are venerated and given total protection.
==See also==
{{Portal|Environment|Ecology|Earth sciences}}
* [[Arid Forest Research Institute]]
* [[Biodiversity]]
* [[Food plot]] – the practice of planting crops specifically to support wildlife
* [[Genetic erosion]]
* [[Habitat corridor]]
* [[Habitat fragmentation]]
* [[Refuge (ecology)]]
* [[Reintroduction]]
* [[Regional Red List]]
* [[Restoration ecology]]
* [[Wildlife corridor]]
==References==
{{reflist}}
==Further reading==
* {{cite book
|author1 = Scheldeman, X.
|author2 = van Zonneveld, M.
|year = 2010
|title = Training Manual on Spatial Analysis of Plant Diversity and Distribution
|publisher = Bioversity International
|url = http://www.bioversityinternational.org/training/training_materials/gis_manual.html
|url-status = dead
|archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20110927164904/http://www.bioversityinternational.org/training/training_materials/gis_manual.html
|archivedate = 2011-09-27
}}
==External links==
* [https://www.cbd.int/convention/articles/default.shtml?a=cbd-08 In-Situ Conservation, The Convention on Biological Diversity]
* [https://www.cbd.int/convention/articles/default.shtml?a=cbd-09 Ex-Situ Conservation, The Convention on Biological Diversity]
* [https://iucn-ctsg.org/ IUCN/SSC Re-introduction Specialist Group]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20140627000000/http://www.iucnredlist.org/ IUCN Red List of Threatened Species]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060829232148/http://www.biodiv.org/default.shtml The Convention on Biological Diversity]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20071225164307/http://www.bioversityinternational.org/Themes/Conservation_and_Use/index.asp#In_situ_conservation In situ conservation]
* [https://portals.iucn.org/library/sites/library/files/documents/Bios-Cons-Gen-040.pdf Guidelines: In vivo conservation of animal genetic resources, Food and Agriculture Organization of the UN]
{{conservation of species}}
{{Zoos}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:In-Situ Conservation}}
[[Category:Conservation biology]]
[[Category:Ecological restoration]]
[[Category:Environmental design]]
[[Category:Environmental conservation]] |
Len Clark (countryside campaigner) | {{Short description|English civil servant (1916–2019)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2019}}
[[File:Len Clark in 2016.jpg|thumb|right|Clark in 2016, one month before his centenary.]]
[[File:Kinder Scout, the northern edge - geograph.org.uk - 80958.jpg|thumb|right|The northern edge of [[Kinder Scout]], a high moorland landscape in the Peak District that became the first English national park in 1951. Clark advised on its purchase, citing an essential link with people in northern cities.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nationaltrust.org.uk/kinder-edale-and-the-dark-peak/projects/art-project-planned-for-2019|title=Kinder's spirit lives on in the Peak District|website=www.nationaltrust.org.uk|access-date=2 November 2019}}</ref><ref name="The Times">{{cite news|url=https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/len-clark-103-countryside-campaigner-who-exuded-calm-and-tact-hstrrth27|title=Countryside campaigner who exuded calm and tact|work=[[The Times]]|date=2 November 2019|access-date=20 December 2019|url-access=registration}}</ref>]]
[[File:Abergwesyn Common - geograph.org.uk - 391588.jpg|thumb|right|Abergwesyn Common became a [[National Trust]] property in 1984. Work goes on to conserve peatlands there.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nationaltrust.org.uk/abergwesyn-common/features/welsh-peatland-sustainable-management-scheme-sms-project|title=Welsh Peatland Sustainable Management Scheme (SMS) Project|website=www.nationaltrust.org.uk|access-date=2 November 2019}}</ref>]]
[[File:South Downs from way post. - geograph.org.uk - 366592.jpg|thumb|right|A view from the South Downs facing Clayton Hill. The South Downs and adjoining areas became a national park in 2009 after 4 decades of Clark's support.<ref name="oss">{{cite web|url=https://www.oss.org.uk/len-clark-1916-2019/|title=Len Clark, 1916-2019|website=www.oss.org.uk|date=24 October 2019 |access-date=2 November 2019}}</ref>]]
'''Leonard Joseph John Clark''' [[CBE]] (19 August 1916 – 11 September 2019) was an English [[Environmental movement#Conservation_movement|countryside campaigner]] and [[civil servant]]. He was the last surviving member of the committee that led to the [[National Parks and Access to the Countryside Act 1949|National Parks and Countryside Act]] in [[England]] and [[Wales]] being passed in 1949.
==Biography==
He was born in 1916 in [[Islington]], [[London]], to Edie (née Symonds) and Joseph Clark. His mother was a seamstress and his father a shop assistant. He went to [[City of London Academy Highbury Grove#History|Highbury Grammar School]] on a scholarship. An article in the ''[[News of the World]]'' encouraged his teenage interest in hiking, which he did initially in the [[Chiltern Hills]] and in [[Surrey]]. He passed the [[London County Council]] exam and began a career in local government for the Council and then the [[National Health Service]] (from which he retired in 1977 as senior administrator of the [[London Ambulance Service]]). He joined the [[Youth Hostel Association]] (YHA) in 1937. During [[World War II]] he was assigned to a non-combat role, having been refused registration as a [[conscientious objector]]; he was posted to [[Hereford]] and the Welsh capital, [[Cardiff]], where he began a youth hostel club. He hiked in Wales and the [[March (territory)#British_Isles|Marches]]. He met a like-minded partner, Isobel Hoggan, through the YHA. On their first date, the couple watched the passage of the National Parks and Countryside Act in [[Parliament of the United Kingdom|Parliament]] in 1949, on which Clarke had worked. They married in 1952 and lived in [[Guildford]] and later near [[Godalming]]. Hoggan was a committed feminist; both became active [[Quakers]] and vegetarians.<ref name="The Guardian">{{cite news|last=Ashbrook|first=Kate|url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2019/oct/11/len-clark-obituary|title=Len Clark obituary|work=[[The Guardian]]|date=11 October 2019|access-date=20 December 2019}}</ref><ref name="The Times"/><ref>{{cite web|url=https://livemore.yha.org.uk/yha-news/new-film-with-caroline-quentin-uncovers-the-moving-history-one-of-the-uks-greatest-environment-achievements-national-parks|title=New film with Caroline Quentin uncovers the moving history one of the UK's greatest environment achievements – National Parks|website=www.yha.org.uk|access-date=2 November 2019}}</ref>
Clark's passion was for the countryside. He joined the YHA executive committee in 1948; he was national treasurer and then chairman till 1963. He worked for the general public to gain access to land e.g. working for the [[National Trust for Places of Historic Interest or Natural Beauty|National Trust]] (on the properties and executive committees for 23 years) as their YHA representative (from 1961), the [[Campaign for National Parks]] and the [[Open Spaces Society]], the latter from 1978 as commons liaison officer and he was vice-president at the time of his death. He toured widely on his scooter to view potential acquisitions for the National Trust. He supported and argued for the Trust's founders' emphasis on protecting the landscape, rather than ownership of buildings thereon. In 1967, his tact and diplomacy avoided a schism at the Trust and he was on the committee which drove through a change to a more inclusive organisation. Through his influence, the moorland plateau of [[Kinder Scout]] in [[Derbyshire]] and the archaeological and environmental resources of the [[Abergwesyn]] Commons in Wales (which would have been planted with forest) were purchased by the Trust. After a 40-year effort, his campaign for the [[South Downs National Park|South Downs]] to become a national park was successful. He was the chair of the YHA and the National Trust's southern regional committee, voluntary director of the [[Samaritans (charity)|Samaritans]] in Guildford (active for three decades after his retirement), a member of the [[Department for Transport]]'s advisory committee and a member of the [[Campaign for State Education]]. From 1983 to 1986, he was secretary of the Common Land Forum whose recommendations were passed to the Government. For his 100th birthday, the National Trust planted trees in his honour at its site at [[Polesden Lacey]], Surrey. He was awarded their founders medal and was appointed a [[Order of the British Empire#Current_classes|CBE]] for his conservation work.<ref name="The Guardian"/><ref name="The Times"/><ref name="oss" />
His wife, Isobel, died in 2016. Clark's memoirs were published in 2018.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://isbnsearch.org/isbn/9781291526332|title=Out of the Wind|access-date=2 November 2019}}</ref> He died in 2019, aged 103; he is survived by his sons – Alistair, Stuart, and Neil – and his grandchildren.<ref name="The Guardian"/><ref name="The Times"/>
{{Portal|England}}
==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Clark, Len}}
[[Category:1916 births]]
[[Category:2019 deaths]]
[[Category:20th-century British civil servants]]
[[Category:21st-century British civil servants]]
[[Category:Commanders of the Order of the British Empire]]
[[Category:English centenarians]]
[[Category:English civil servants]]
[[Category:English conscientious objectors]]
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
[[Category:Men centenarians]] |
EthioTrees | {{Short description|Project for woodland restoration in Ethiopia}}
{{Lead too short|date=October 2021}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2020}}
{{Use Oxford spelling|date= February 2020}}
{{Infobox project
| name = EthioTrees
| logo =
| image = ethiotrees exclosure.jpg
| caption = An [[exclosure]] managed by EthioTrees
| mission_statement = Promotion of [[forest restoration]] and non-timber forest production, by supporting woodland natural regeneration and ecosystem services<ref name="project">[http://ethiotrees.com EthioTrees project website]</ref>
| commercial =
| type =
| products = Carbon offset, Incense, Ground water
| location = [[Hagere Selam (Degua Tembien)|Hagere Selam]], [[Degua Tembien|Dogu’a Tembien]]
| country = [[Ethiopia]]
| owner = Non-Profit Organisation
| founder =
| primeminister =
| key_people = Sil Lanckriet, Seifu Gebreselassie, Hannes Cosyns, Gebrekidan Mesfin, Jan Nyssen, Miro Jacob, Meybale
| established = {{Start date|2016|df=y}}
| disestablished = <!-- {{End date|YYYY|MM|DD|df=y}} -->
| funding =
| budget =
| current_status =
| website = {{URL|ethiotrees.com}}
}}
The '''EthioTrees Ecosystem Restoration Association''', in short '''EthioTrees''', established in 2016, is a project for environmental rehabilitation and [[woodland]] restoration in [[Degua Tembien|Dogu’a Tembien]] (Ethiopia).
==Context==
Since many years, there has been severe [[land degradation]] and [[desertification]] in [[Tigray (region)|Tigray]] and the area became also impoverished; however, a lot of efforts are done to rehabilitate these semi-arid mountain landscapes.<ref name="davines">[https://www.davines.com/blogs/projects/ethiotrees EthioTrees on Davines website]</ref> Since 1994, researchers, students, and field assistants have studied the environment of [[Degua Tembien|Dogu’a Tembien]]. To contribute to the ongoing effort for rehabilitation, they initiated development projects that addressed in the first place land conservation, ecosystem services, and livelihood.<ref name="chapter">{{cite book |last1=Reubens |first1=B. and colleagues | title= Research-based development projects in Dogu'a Tembien. In: Geo-trekking in Ethiopia's Tropical Mountains - The Dogu'a Tembien District |date=2019 |publisher=SpringerNature |isbn=978-3-030-04954-6 |url=https://www.springer.com/gp/book/9783030049546}}</ref> EthioTrees is one of these projects.
==Objectives==
EthioTrees has as objectives:<ref name="chapter"/>
* to enhance community-driven woodland restoration in [[exclosure]]s
* to sequester carbon in exclosures, both as above-ground biomass and soil organic matter
* to develop and valorise [[ecosystem services]], including:
: * [[ground water]] availability
: * [[honey]] production
: * [[incense]] (oil) production
==Associations of landless farmers==
EthioTrees not only improves soil organic carbon, biomass, [[groundwater recharge]], or biodiversity but also cash income for landless farmers. Most farmers estimate that lack of access to water is the main problem for their livelihood. In addition, landless youngsters derive much less income from sales of livestock or agricultural produce, in comparison to farmers with land.<ref name="vivo">[https://www.planvivo.org/project-network/ethiotrees-tembien-highlands/ EthioTrees on Plan Vivo website]</ref> The communities are invited to design and implement the project themselves; for this purpose, EthioTrees uses a participatory mapping approach during all phases of the project.<ref name="chapter"/>
[[File:Ethiotrees project meeting.jpg|thumb|Ethiotrees project meeting]]
==EthioTrees’ exclosures==
The EthioTrees project manages these [[exclosure]]s:<ref name="jona">{{cite book |last1=De Deyn |first1=Jonathan |title= Benefits of reforestation on Carbon storage and water infiltration in the context of climate mitigation in North Ethiopia. Master thesis, Ghent University| date=2019}}</ref>
* [[Addi Lihtsi (exclosure)|Addi Lihtsi]], near the village of [[Addi Lihtsi]] (412 ha)
* [[Addi Meles]], near the village of [[Migichi]] (65 ha)
* [[Addilal (exclosure)|Addilal]], near the village of [[Addilal]] (144.81 ha)
* [[Afedena (exclosure)|Afedena]], near the village of [[Afedena]] (70 ha)
* [[Ch'elaqo (exclosure)|Ch'elaqo]], near the village of [[Ch'elaqo]] (50 ha)
* [[Gemgema]], near the village of [[Ayninbirkekin|Tsigaba]] (92 ha)
* [[Kidmi Gestet]], near the village of [[Gestet]] (46 ha)
* [[Lafa (exclosure)|Lafa]], near the village of Lafa in [[Mizane Birhan]] municipality (45.25 ha)
* [[May Be'ati (exclosure)|May Be'ati]], near the village of [[May Be'ati]] (46 ha)
* [[Mi'am Atali (exclosure)|Mi'am Atali]], near the village of [[Mi'am Atali]] (83 ha)
* [[May Genet (exclosure)|May Genet]], near the village of [[May Genet]] (60 ha)
* [[May Hib'o]], near the village of [[Addi Lihtsi]] (50 ha)
* [[Sesemat (exclosure)|Sesemat]], near the village of [[Tahtay Sesemat]] (46 ha)
* [[Togogwa (exclosure)|Togogwa]], near the village of [[Togogwa]] (196 ha)
* [[Tukhul (exclosure)|Tukhul]], near the village of Tukhul, in [[Addi Azmera]] municipality (36 ha)
* [[Ziban Dake]], near the village of [[Didiben]] (300 ha)
* Gojam Sfra, near the village of [[Migichi]] (275 ha)
* Katina Ruba, near the village of [[Didiben]] (48 ha)
==Ecosystem restoration and valorisation==
EthioTrees manages 18 [[exclosure]]s with a total area of 1174 hectares in 2017<ref>Davines presenta il bilancio di sostenibilità 2018 https://www.greenplanner.it/2019/07/19/davines-bilancio-sostenibilita-2018/</ref> and 1596 ha in 2018.<ref name="jona"/><ref name="tesfay">[http://tesfayblog.blogspot.com/2019/03/la-derniere-lettre-de-tesfay_20.html La Lettre de Tesfay, N° 28, September 2019 (Liége, Belgium) ]</ref> The older the exclosures, the higher is the total carbon content in vegetation and soil.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wolde Mekuria |first1=and colleagues |title= Restoration of Ecosystem Carbon Stocks Following Exclosure Establishment in Communal Grazing Lands in Tigray, Ethiopia |journal= Soil Science Society of America Journal |date=2011 |volume=75 |issue=1 |pages=246–256|doi=10.2136/sssaj2010.0176 |bibcode=2011SSASJ..75..246M }}</ref> EthioTrees has calculated that they manage to [[Carbon sequestration|sequester]] 9.2 tonnes CO<sub>2</sub> per year per hectare.<ref name="chapter"/>
==Carbon offset==
The sequestered carbon is certified using the [[Carbon offset#Accounting for and verifying reductions|Plan Vivo]] voluntary carbon standard,<ref name="vivo"/> after which carbon credits are sold, among others to Davines, an Italian producer of beauty products. This company at the same time wishes to create a virtuous impact on people and the environment.<ref name="davines"/> The revenues are then reinvested in the villages, according to the priorities of the communities; it may be for an additional class in the village school, a water pond, conservation in the exclosures, or a store for incense.<ref name="chapter"/>
==Partners==
Main partners of Ethiotrees are<ref name="project"/>
* [[Degua Tembien|Dogu’a Tembien]] District Administration (Ethiopia)
* Municipal administrations (Ethiopia)
* [[Incense]] producing cooperatives (Ethiopia)
* [[Carbon offset#Accounting for and verifying reductions|Plan Vivo]] (U.K.)
* [[Mekelle University]] (Ethiopia)
* VLIR-UOS (Belgium)
* Davines (Italy)
* [[Ghent University]] (Belgium)
* Province [[East Flanders]] (Belgium)
* [[King Baudouin Foundation]] (Belgium)
* Bos Plus (Belgium)
* Province [[West Flanders]] (Belgium)
* Ñangareko Consultores (Bolivia)
* Association Tesfay (Liége, Belgium)
==References==
{{reflist|32em}}
==External links==
* [https://www.davines.com/blogs/projects/ethiotrees EthioTrees on Davines website]
* [http://ethiotrees.com EthioTrees project website]
* [https://www.planvivo.org/project-network/ethiotrees-tembien-highlands/ EthioTrees on Plan Vivo website]
* [https://www.un.org/esa/forests Link For Forestry Projects]
[[Category:Land management]]
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
[[Category:Greenhouse gas emissions]]
[[Category:Emissions reduction]]
[[Category:Carbon finance]]
[[Category:2016 establishments in Ethiopia]]
[[Category:Tigray Region]]
[[Category:Dogu'a Tembien]]
[[Category:Nature conservation in Ethiopia]]
[[Category:Exclosures of Tigray Region]] |
Lafa (exclosure) | {{Short description|Exclosure for woodland restoration in Ethiopia}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2020}}
{{Use British English Oxford spelling|date= February 2020}}
{{Infobox protected area
| name = Lafa exclosure
| iucn_category =
| photo = Lafa exclosure.jpg
| photo_caption = Lafa exclosure
| location = [[Mizane Birhan]] municipality, in [[Degua Tembien|Dogu’a Tembien]] district, [[Ethiopia]]
| nearest_city = [[Hagere Selam (Degua Tembien)|Hagere Selam]]
| map = Ethiopia | relief = 1
| coordinates = {{coord|13.596|N|39.294|E|display=inline, title}}
| area_ha = 45
| established = 1988
| visitation_num =
| visitation_year =
| website = https://ethiotrees.com
}}
'''Lafa''' is an [[exclosure]] located in the [[Degua Tembien|Dogu'a Tembien]] ''woreda'' of the [[Tigray Region]] in [[Ethiopia]]. The area has been protected since 1988 by the local community.<ref name="jona">{{cite book |last1=De Deyn |first1=Jonathan |title= Benefits of reforestation on Carbon storage and water infiltration in the context of climate mitigation in North Ethiopia. Master thesis, Ghent University| date=2019}}</ref>
==Timeline<ref name="jona"/>==
* 1988: established as exclosure by the community
* 2017: support by the [[EthioTrees]] project
==Environmental characteristics<ref name="jona"/>==
* Area: 45 ha
* Average slope gradient: 41%
* Aspect: the exclosure is oriented towards the south
* Minimum altitude: 2008 metres
* Maximum altitude: 2088 metres
* Lithology: [[Antalo Limestone]]
[[File:Lafa exclosure 3.jpg|thumb|Typical in Lafa and other exclosures: a larger tree as evidence of an earlier forest, and numerous smaller trees of approximately the same height that have grown since 1988]]
==Management==
As a general rule, cattle ranging and wood harvesting are not allowed. The grasses are harvested once yearly and taken to the homesteads of the village to feed livestock. There are two guards to protect the exclosure. Field observations showed that however some illegal grazing occurred in the exclosure in 2018.<ref name="jona"/>
==Benefits for the community==
Setting aside such areas fits with the long-term vision of the communities were ''hiza’iti'' lands are set aside for use by the future generations. It has also direct benefits for the community:<ref>{{cite book |last1=Jacob |first1=M. and colleagues | title= Exclosures as Primary Option for Reforestation in Dogu'a Tembien. In: Geo-trekking in Ethiopia's Tropical Mountains - The Dogu'a Tembien District |date=2019 |publisher=SpringerNature |isbn=978-3-030-04954-6 |url=https://www.springer.com/gp/book/9783030049546}}</ref>
* improved [[ground water]] availability
* [[honey]] production
* climate ameliorator (temperature, moisture)
* the sequestered carbon (in total 75 tonnes per ha, dominantly sequestered in the soil, and additionally in the woody vegetation)<ref name="jona"/> is certified using the [[Carbon offset#Accounting for and verifying reductions|Plan Vivo]] voluntary carbon standard,<ref name="vivo">[https://www.planvivo.org/project-network/ethiotrees-tembien-highlands/ EthioTrees on Plan Vivo website]</ref> after which carbon credits are sold
* the revenues are then reinvested in the villages, according to the priorities of the communities; it may be for an additional class in the village school, a water pond, or conservation in the exclosure.<ref name="chapter">{{cite book |last1=Reubens |first1=B. and colleagues | title= Research-based development projects in Dogu'a Tembien. In: Geo-trekking in Ethiopia's Tropical Mountains - The Dogu'a Tembien District |date=2019 |publisher=SpringerNature |isbn=978-3-030-04954-6 |url=https://www.springer.com/gp/book/9783030049546}}</ref>
==Biodiversity==
With vegetation growth, biodiversity in this exclosure hast strongly improved: there is more varied vegetation and [[Degua Tembien#Wildlife|wildlife]].
[[File:Lafa exclosure 2.jpg|thumb|Young trees as undergrowth in Lafa]]
==References==
{{reflist|32em}}
==External links==
* [https://www.davines.com/blogs/projects/ethiotrees EthioTrees on Davines website]
* [http://ethiotrees.com EthioTrees project website] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200215154255/https://ethiotrees.com/ |date=15 February 2020 }}
* [https://www.planvivo.org/project-network/ethiotrees-tembien-highlands/ EthioTrees on Plan Vivo website]
* [https://www.un.org/esa/forests Link For Forestry Projects]
[[Category:1988 establishments in Ethiopia]]
[[Category:Land management]]
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
[[Category:Environmentalism in Ethiopia]]
[[Category:Exclosures of Tigray Region]]
[[Category:Dogu'a Tembien]] |
Extinction | {{Short description|Termination of a taxon by the death of its last member}}
{{Redirect|Extinct|other uses|Extinct (disambiguation)|and|Extinction (disambiguation)|lists|Lists of extinct species}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2022}}
[[File:Thylacinus cynocephalus (Gould).jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|The [[thylacine]] (''Thylacinus cynocephalus'') is an example of an extinct species.]]
{{Conservation status}}
{{Evolutionary biology}}
'''Extinction''' is the termination of a [[taxon]] by the [[death]] of its [[Endling|last member]]. A taxon may become [[Functional extinction|functionally extinct]] before the death of its last member if it loses the capacity to [[Reproduction|reproduce]] and recover. Because a species' potential [[Range (biology)|range]] may be very large, determining this moment is difficult, and is usually done retrospectively. This difficulty leads to phenomena such as [[Lazarus taxon|Lazarus taxa]], where a species presumed extinct abruptly "reappears" (typically in the [[Fossil|fossil record]]) after a period of apparent absence.
More than 99% of all [[species]] that ever [[Life|lived]] on [[Earth]], amounting to over five billion species,<ref>{{cite book |doi=10.1007/978-94-011-5874-9_7 |chapter=How do rare species avoid extinction? A paleontological view |title=The Biology of Rarity |year=1997 |last1=McKinney |first1=Michael L. |pages=110–129 |isbn=978-94-010-6483-5 |editor1-last=Kunin |editor1-first=W. E. |editor2-last=Gaston |editor2-first=K. J. |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4LHnCAAAQBAJ&pg=PA110 |access-date=26 May 2015 |archive-date=3 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230203051637/https://books.google.com/books?id=4LHnCAAAQBAJ&pg=PA110 |url-status=live }}</ref> are estimated to have [[died]] out.<ref name="Jablonski2004">{{cite journal | title=Extinction: past and present | last=Jablonski | first=D. | journal=Nature | year=2004 | volume=427 | issue=6975 | page=589 | doi=10.1038/427589a| pmid=14961099 | bibcode=2004Natur.427..589J | s2cid=4412106 | doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name="StearnsStearns2000">{{cite book |last1=Stearns |first1=Beverly Peterson |last2=Stearns |first2=S.C. |last3=Stearns |first3=Stephen C. |title=Watching, from the Edge of Extinction |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0BHeC-tXIB4C&q=99%20percent |year=2000 |publisher=[[Yale University Press]] |isbn=978-0-300-08469-6 |page=preface x |access-date=30 May 2017 |archive-date=3 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230203051614/https://books.google.com/books?id=0BHeC-tXIB4C&q=99%20percent |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="NYT-20141108-MJN">{{cite news |last=Novacek |first=Michael J. |title=Prehistory's Brilliant Future |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2014/11/09/opinion/sunday/prehistorys-brilliant-future.html |date=8 November 2014 |work=[[The New York Times]] |access-date=2014-12-25 |archive-date=29 December 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141229225657/http://www.nytimes.com/2014/11/09/opinion/sunday/prehistorys-brilliant-future.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Newman" /> It is estimated that there are currently around 8.7 million species of [[eukaryote]] globally,<ref name="PLoSbiologyspeciescensus">{{Cite journal | doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.1001127| title=How Many Species Are There on Earth and in the Ocean?| year=2011| last1=Mora| first1=Camilo| last2=Tittensor| first2=Derek P.| last3=Adl| first3=Sina| last4=Simpson| first4=Alastair G. B.| last5=Worm| first5=Boris| journal=PLOS Biology| volume=9| issue=8| pages=e1001127| pmid=21886479| pmc=3160336| doi-access=free}}</ref> and possibly many times more if [[microorganism]]s, like [[bacteria]], are included.<ref name="NSF-2016002">{{cite news |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |title=Researchers find that Earth may be home to 1 trillion species |url=https://www.nsf.gov/news/news_summ.jsp?cntn_id=138446 |date=2 May 2016 |work=[[National Science Foundation]] |access-date=6 May 2016 |archive-date=4 May 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160504111108/https://www.nsf.gov/news/news_summ.jsp?cntn_id=138446 |url-status=live }}</ref> Notable extinct animal species include [[Dinosaur|non-avian dinosaurs]], [[Machairodontinae|saber-toothed cats]], [[dodo]]s, [[mammoth]]s, [[ground sloth]]s, [[thylacine]]s, [[trilobite]]s, and [[golden toad]]s.
Through [[evolution]], species arise through the process of [[speciation]]—where new varieties of organisms arise and thrive when they are able to find and exploit an [[ecological niche]]—and species become extinct when they are no longer able to survive in changing conditions or against superior [[Competition (biology)|competition]]. The relationship between animals and their ecological niches has been firmly established.<ref name="SahneyBentonFerry2010LinksDiversityVertebrates">{{cite journal | last1=Sahney | first1=S. | last2=Benton | first2=M.J. | last3=Ferry | first3=P.A. | year=2010 | title=Links between global taxonomic diversity, ecological diversity and the expansion of vertebrates on land | journal=Biology Letters | doi=10.1098/rsbl.2009.1024 | volume=6 | pages=544–547 | issue=4 | pmid=20106856 | pmc=2936204 }}</ref> A typical species becomes extinct within 10 million years of its first appearance,<ref name="Newman">{{cite journal | last1 = Newman | first1 = Mark | year = 1997 | title = ''A model of mass extinction''| journal = Journal of Theoretical Biology | volume = 189 | issue = 3| pages = 235–252 | doi=10.1006/jtbi.1997.0508| pmid = 9441817 | arxiv = adap-org/9702003| bibcode = 1997JThBi.189..235N | s2cid = 9892809 }}</ref> although some species, called [[living fossil]]s, survive with little to no [[morphology (biology)|morphological]] change for hundreds of millions of years.
[[Extinction event|Mass extinctions]] are relatively rare events; however, isolated extinctions of species and clades are quite common, and are a natural part of the evolutionary process.<ref name="Sudakow2022">{{cite journal |last1=Sudakow |first1=Ivan |last2=Myers |first2=Corinne |last3=Petrovskii |first3=Sergei |last4=Sumrall |first4=Colin D. |last5=Witts |first5=James |date=July 2022 |title=Knowledge gaps and missing links in understanding mass extinctions: Can mathematical modeling help? |journal=Physics of Life Reviews |volume=41 |pages=22–57 |doi=10.1016/j.plrev.2022.04.001 |pmid=35523056 |bibcode=2022PhLRv..41...22S |s2cid=248215038 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Only recently have extinctions been recorded and scientists have become alarmed at the [[Holocene extinction#Contemporary extinction|current high rate of extinctions]].<ref name="MSNBC">{{cite news |title=Species disappearing at an alarming rate, report says |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna6502368 |work=NBC News |date=17 November 2004 |access-date=9 February 2022 |archive-date=9 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220209131517/https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna6502368 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{YouTube|z9gHuAwxwAs|The Sixth Extinction}} ([[PBS Digital Studios]], November 17, 2014)</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Ceballos | first1 = Gerardo| last2 =Ehrlich | first2 = Paul R.| last3 = Barnosky| first3= Anthony D.|author-link3=Anthony David Barnosky | last4 = García | first4 = Andrés | last5 = Pringle | first5 = Robert M.| last6 = Palmer| first6 =Todd M. | year = 2015 | title = Accelerated modern human–induced species losses: Entering the sixth mass extinction | journal = [[Science Advances]] | volume = 1 | issue = 5 | page = e1400253 |doi = 10.1126/sciadv.1400253| pmid = 26601195| pmc = 4640606| bibcode = 2015SciA....1E0253C}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|vauthors=Ripple WJ, Wolf C, Newsome TM, Galetti M, Alamgir M, Crist E, Mahmoud MI, Laurance WF|title=World Scientists' Warning to Humanity: A Second Notice|journal=[[BioScience]]|date=13 November 2017|volume=67|issue=12|pages=1026–1028|doi=10.1093/biosci/bix125|quote=Moreover, we have unleashed a mass extinction event, the sixth in roughly 540 million years, wherein many current life forms could be annihilated or at least committed to extinction by the end of this century.|title-link=World Scientists' Warning to Humanity|doi-access=free|hdl=11336/71342|hdl-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Cowie |first1=Robert H. |last2=Bouchet |first2=Philippe |last3=Fontaine |first3=Benoît |title=The Sixth Mass Extinction: fact, fiction or speculation? |journal=Biological Reviews |date=10 January 2022 |volume=97 |issue=2 |pages=640–663 |doi=10.1111/brv.12816 |pmid=35014169 |pmc=9786292 |s2cid=245889833 |url=https://hal.sorbonne-universite.fr/hal-03525883/document |doi-access=free |access-date=9 February 2022 |archive-date=9 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220209132106/https://hal.sorbonne-universite.fr/hal-03525883/document |url-status=live }}</ref> Most species that become extinct are never scientifically documented. Some scientists estimate that up to half of presently existing plant and animal species may become extinct by 2100.<ref name="Wilson">[[E.O. Wilson|Wilson, E.O.]], ''The Future of Life'' (2002) ({{ISBN|0-679-76811-4}}). See also: [[Richard Leakey|Leakey, Richard]], ''The Sixth Extinction : Patterns of Life and the Future of Humankind'', {{ISBN|0-385-46809-1}}</ref> A 2018 report indicated that the [[Phylogenetics|phylogenetic diversity]] of 300 mammalian species erased during the human era since the [[Late Pleistocene]] would require 5 to 7 million years to recover.<ref name="davis2018">{{cite journal |pmid=30322924|pmc=6217385|doi=10.1073/pnas.1804906115|journal=Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A|year=2018|volume=115|issue=44|pages=11262–11267|title=Mammal diversity will take millions of years to recover from the current biodiversity crisis|vauthors=Davis M, Faurby S, Svenning JC|bibcode=2018PNAS..11511262D |doi-access=free}}</ref>
According to the 2019 ''[[Global Assessment Report on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services]]'' by [[IPBES]], the biomass of wild mammals has fallen by 82%, natural ecosystems have lost about half their area and a million species are at risk of extinction—all largely as a result of human actions. Twenty-five percent of plant and animal species are [[Threatened species|threatened]] with extinction.<ref>{{cite news|last=Watts|first=Jonathan|date=May 6, 2019|title=Human society under urgent threat from loss of Earth's natural life|url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2019/may/06/human-society-under-urgent-threat-loss-earth-natural-life-un-report|work=[[The Guardian]]|access-date=May 6, 2019|archive-date=14 June 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190614160705/https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2019/may/06/human-society-under-urgent-threat-loss-earth-natural-life-un-report|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="NYT-20190506">{{cite news |last=Plumer |first=Brad |title=Humans Are Speeding Extinction and Altering the Natural World at an 'Unprecedented' Pace |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2019/05/06/climate/biodiversity-extinction-united-nations.html |date=May 6, 2019 |work=[[The New York Times]] |access-date=May 6, 2019 |archive-date=14 June 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190614201836/https://www.nytimes.com/2019/05/06/climate/biodiversity-extinction-united-nations.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="IPBES-20190506">{{cite news |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |title=Media Release: Nature's Dangerous Decline 'Unprecedented'; Species Extinction Rates 'Accelerating' |url=https://www.ipbes.net/news/Media-Release-Global-Assessment |date=May 6, 2019 |work=[[Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services]] |access-date=May 6, 2019 |archive-date=14 June 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190614220133/https://www.ipbes.net/news/Media-Release-Global-Assessment |url-status=live }}</ref> In a subsequent report, IPBES listed unsustainable fishing, hunting and logging as being some of the primary drivers of the global extinction crisis.<ref>{{cite news|last=Briggs|first=Helen|date=July 8, 2022|title=Unsustainable logging, fishing and hunting 'driving extinction'|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-62094405|work=BBC|location=|access-date=August 2, 2022|archive-date=1 August 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220801105751/https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-62094405|url-status=live}}</ref>
In June 2019, one million species of plants and animals were at risk of extinction. At least 571 plant species have been lost since 1750, but likely many more. The main cause of the extinctions is the destruction of natural habitats by human activities, such as cutting down forests and converting land into fields for farming.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2019/jun/10/frightening-number-of-plant-extinctions-found-in-global-survey|title='Frightening' number of plant extinctions found in global survey|website=The Guardian|date=10 June 2019|access-date=11 June 2019|archive-date=22 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210422133201/https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2019/jun/10/frightening-number-of-plant-extinctions-found-in-global-survey|url-status=live}}</ref>
A [[Dagger (mark)|dagger symbol]] (†) placed next to the name of a species or other taxon normally indicates its status as extinct.
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== Examples ==
Examples of species and subspecies that are extinct include:
* [[Steller's sea cow]]
* [[Dodo]]
* [[Chinese paddlefish]] (last seen in 2003; declared extinct in 2022)
* [[Great auk]] (last confirmed pair was killed in the 1840s)
* [[Thylacine]] (the last thylacine killed in the wild was shot in 1930; the last captive tiger lived in [[Hobart Zoo]] until 1936)
* [[Kauaʻi ʻōʻō|Kauai O'o]] (last known member was heard in 1987; the entire [[Mohoidae]] became extinct with it)
* [[Spectacled cormorant]] (last known members were said to live in the 1850s)
* [[Carolina parakeet]] (last known member named [[Incas (Carolina parakeet)|Incas]] died in captivity in 1918; declared extinct in 1939)
* [[Passenger pigeon]] (last known member named [[Martha (passenger pigeon)|Martha]] died in captivity in 1914)
* [[Tasmanian emu]] (the last claimed sighting of the emu was in 1839)
* [[Japanese Sea Lion]] (the last confirmed record was a juvenile specimen captured in 1974)
* [[Schomburgk's deer]] (became [[extinct in the wild]] in 1932; the last captive deer was killed in 1938)
* [[Quagga]] (hunted to extinction in the late 19th century)
==Definition==
[[File:LepidodendronOhio.jpg|thumb|right|External mold of the extinct ''[[Lepidodendron]]'' from the [[Upper Carboniferous]] of [[Ohio]]<ref>{{cite book |last1=Kenrick |first1=Paul |last2=Davis |first2=Paul |title=Fossil Plants |date=2004 |publisher=Smithsonian Books |isbn=978-0-565-09176-7 }}{{page needed|date=February 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Moran |first1=Robbin Craig |title=A Natural History of Ferns |date=2004 |publisher=Timber Press |isbn=978-0-88192-667-5 }}{{page needed|date=February 2022}}</ref>]]
A species is extinct when the last existing member dies. Extinction therefore becomes a certainty when there are no surviving individuals that can reproduce and create a new generation. A species may become [[functional extinction|functionally extinct]] when only a handful of individuals survive, which cannot reproduce due to poor health, age, sparse distribution over a large range, a lack of individuals of both sexes (in [[sexual reproduction|sexually reproducing]] species), or other reasons.
Pinpointing the extinction (or [[pseudoextinction]]) of a species requires a [[Theory of species|clear definition of that species]]. If it is to be declared extinct, the species in question must be uniquely distinguishable from any ancestor or daughter species, and from any other closely related species. Extinction of a species (or replacement by a daughter species) plays a key role in the [[punctuated equilibrium]] hypothesis of [[Stephen Jay Gould]] and [[Niles Eldredge]].<ref>See: Niles Eldredge, ''Time Frames: Rethinking of Darwinian Evolution and the Theory of Punctuated Equilibria'', 1986, Heinemann {{ISBN|0-434-22610-6}}</ref>
[[File:Various dinosaurs.png|thumb|left|Skeleton of various extinct [[dinosaur]]s; some other dinosaur lineages still flourish in the form of [[birds]]]]
In [[ecology]], ''extinction'' is sometimes used informally to refer to [[local extinction]], in which a species ceases to exist in the chosen area of study, despite still existing elsewhere. Local extinctions may be made good by the reintroduction of individuals of that species taken from other locations; [[wolf reintroduction]] is an example of this. Species that are not globally extinct are termed [[Extant taxon|extant]]. Those species that are extant, yet are threatened with extinction, are referred to as [[threatened]] or [[endangered species]].
[[File:Edwards' Dodo.jpg|thumb|The [[dodo]] of [[Mauritius]], shown here in a 1626 illustration by [[Roelant Savery]], is an often-cited example of [[Holocene extinction|modern extinction]].<ref name="Diamond">{{cite book | last = Diamond | first = Jared | author-link = Jared Diamond | title = Guns, Germs, and Steel | publisher = W.W. Norton|year = 1999| isbn = 978-0-393-31755-8 | pages=[https://archive.org/details/gunsgermssteelfa00diam/page/43 43–44] |chapter=Up to the Starting Line | title-link = Guns, Germs, and Steel }}</ref>]]
Currently, an important aspect of extinction is human attempts to preserve critically endangered species. These are reflected by the creation of the [[conservation status]] [[extinct in the wild|"extinct in the wild" (EW)]]. Species listed under this status by the [[International Union for Conservation of Nature]] (IUCN) are not known to have any living specimens in the wild and are maintained only in [[zoo]]s or other artificial environments. Some of these species are functionally extinct, as they are no longer part of their natural habitat and it is unlikely the species will ever be restored to the wild.<ref name="Maas">Maas, Peter. "[http://www.petermaas.nl/extinct/wilduk.htm Extinct in the Wild" ''The Extinction Website''. URL accessed January 26 2007.] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070216030551/http://www.petermaas.nl/extinct/wilduk.htm |date=February 16, 2007 }}</ref> When possible, modern [[zoology|zoological]] institutions try to maintain a [[viable population]] for species preservation and possible future [[reintroduction]] to the wild, through use of carefully planned [[breeding program]]s.
The extinction of one species' wild population can have knock-on effects, causing further extinctions. These are also called "chains of extinction".<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Quince |first1=Christopher |last2=Higgs |first2=Paul G. |last3=McKane |first3=Alan J. |title=Deleting species from model food webs |journal=Oikos |date=August 2005 |volume=110 |issue=2 |pages=283–296 |doi=10.1111/j.0030-1299.2005.13493.x |arxiv=q-bio/0401037 |bibcode=2005Oikos.110..283Q |s2cid=16750824 }}</ref> This is especially common with extinction of [[keystone species]].
A 2018 study indicated that the [[sixth mass extinction]] started in the [[Late Pleistocene]] could take up to 5 to 7 million years to restore 2.5 billion years of unique mammal diversity to what it was before the human era.<ref name=davis2018/><ref>{{cite news |last1=Mosbergen |first1=Dominique |title=Mammals Will Still Be Recovering From Human Destruction Long After We're Gone |url=https://www.huffpost.com/entry/mammal-diversity-extinction-study_n_5bc59f68e4b055bc94796ecf |work=HuffPost |date=16 October 2018 |access-date=9 February 2022 |archive-date=9 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220209131519/https://www.huffpost.com/entry/mammal-diversity-extinction-study_n_5bc59f68e4b055bc94796ecf |url-status=live }}</ref>
===Pseudoextinction===
{{Main|Pseudoextinction}}
Extinction of a parent species where daughter species or subspecies are still extant is called pseudoextinction or phyletic extinction. Effectively, the old taxon vanishes, transformed ([[anagenesis]]) into a successor,<ref>{{cite book |last1=King |first1=Michael |last2=Mulligan|first2=Pamela |last3=Stansfield |first3=William |title=A Dictionary of Genetics |chapter=Pseudoextinction |date=2014 |publisher=Oxford University Press |edition=8th|isbn=978-0-19-976644-4 |url = https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/acref/9780199766444.001.0001/acref-9780199766444-e-5536?rskey=f8g543&result=5527}}</ref> or split into more than one ([[cladogenesis]]).<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Leighton |first=Lindsey R.|title=Taxon Characteristics That Promote Survivorship Through the Permian-Triassic Interval: Transition from the Paleozoic to the Mesozoic Brachiopod Fauna|journal=Paleobiology |date=2009 |volume=34 |pages=65–79 |doi=10.1666/06082.1|s2cid=86843206}}</ref>
Pseudoextinction is difficult to demonstrate unless one has a strong chain of evidence linking a living species to members of a pre-existing species. For example, it is sometimes claimed that the extinct ''[[Hyracotherium]]'', which was an early horse that shares a common ancestor with the modern [[horse]], is pseudoextinct, rather than extinct, because there are several extant species of ''[[Equus (genus)|Equus]]'', including [[zebra]] and [[donkey]]; however, as fossil species typically leave no genetic material behind, one cannot say whether ''Hyracotherium'' [[Evolution of the horse|evolved into more modern horse species]] or merely evolved from a common ancestor with modern horses. Pseudoextinction is much easier to demonstrate for larger taxonomic groups.
===Lazarus taxa===
{{Main|Lazarus taxa}}
The [[coelacanth]], a fish related to [[lungfish]] and [[tetrapod]]s, was considered to have been extinct since the end of the [[Cretaceous Period]]. In 1938, however, a living specimen was found off the [[Chalumna River]] (now Tyolomnqa) on the east coast of South Africa.<ref name="dinofish">{{cite web| url = http://www.dinofish.com/discoa.htm| title = "Discovery" of the Coelacanth| access-date = 2 March 2013| archive-date = 21 January 2013| archive-url = https://archive.today/20130121205250/http://www.dinofish.com/discoa.htm| url-status = live}}</ref> Museum curator [[Marjorie Courtenay-Latimer]] discovered the fish among the catch of a local trawler operated by Captain Hendrick Goosen, on December 23, 1938.<ref name="dinofish"/> A local chemistry professor, [[James Leonard Brierley Smith|JLB Smith]], confirmed the fish's importance with a famous cable: "MOST IMPORTANT PRESERVE SKELETON AND GILLS = FISH DESCRIBED".<ref name="dinofish" />
Far more recent possible or presumed extinctions of species which may turn out still to exist include the [[thylacine]], or Tasmanian tiger (''Thylacinus cynocephalus''), the last known example of which died in Hobart Zoo in Tasmania in 1936; the [[Honshū wolf|Japanese wolf]] (''Canis lupus hodophilax''), last sighted over 100 years ago; the [[Ivory-billed woodpecker|American ivory-billed woodpecker]] (''Campephilus principalis''), with the last universally accepted sighting in 1944; and the [[slender-billed curlew]] (''Numenius tenuirostris''), not seen since 2007.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Platt |first1=John R. |title=4 Extinct Species That People Still Hope to Rediscover |url=https://blogs.scientificamerican.com/extinction-countdown/4-extinct-species-hope-rediscover/ |work=Scientific American Blog Network |date=21 February 2013 |access-date=9 February 2022 |archive-date=9 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220209131524/https://blogs.scientificamerican.com/extinction-countdown/4-extinct-species-hope-rediscover/ |url-status=live }}{{self-published inline|date=February 2022}}</ref>
==Causes==
[[File:Ectopistes migratoriusMCN2P28CA.jpg|thumb|upright|The [[passenger pigeon]], one of the hundreds of species of extinct birds, was hunted to extinction over the course of a few decades.]]
As long as species have been evolving, species have been going extinct. It is estimated that over 99.9% of all species that ever lived are extinct. The average lifespan of a species is 1–10 million years,<ref>{{Cite book|title = Conservation of Wildlife Populations: Demography, Genetics and Management|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=fVLEV64qYfcC|publisher = John Wiley & Sons|year= 2009|isbn = 978-1-4443-0893-8|language = en|first = L. Scott|last = Mills|page = 13}}</ref> although this varies widely between taxa.
A variety of causes can contribute directly or indirectly to the extinction of a species or group of species. "Just as each species is unique", write Beverly and [[Stephen C. Stearns]], "so is each extinction ... the causes for each are varied—some subtle and complex, others obvious and simple".<ref name="Stearns">{{cite book | last = Stearns | first = Beverly Peterson and Stephen C. | title = Watching, from the Edge of Extinction | publisher = Yale University Press | year = 2000 | isbn = 978-0-300-08469-6 | pages = x | chapter = Preface | url = https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780300084696 }}</ref> Most simply, any species that cannot [[Survival skills|survive]] and [[reproduction|reproduce]] in its environment and cannot move to a new environment where it can do so, dies out and becomes extinct. Extinction of a species may come suddenly when an otherwise healthy species is wiped out completely, as when [[toxic]] [[pollution]] renders its entire [[habitat]] unliveable; or may occur gradually over thousands or millions of years, such as when a species gradually loses out in competition for food to better adapted competitors. Extinction may occur a long time after the events that set it in motion, a phenomenon known as [[extinction debt]].
Assessing the relative importance of genetic factors compared to environmental ones as the causes of extinction has been compared to the debate on [[nature and nurture]].<ref name="Raup">{{cite journal |last=Raup |first=David M. |author2=J. John Sepkoski Jr. |s2cid=43002817 |date=March 1982 |title=Mass extinctions in the marine fossil record |journal=Science |volume=215 |issue=4539|pages = 1501–1503 |doi=10.1126/science.215.4539.1501 |pmid=17788674 |bibcode=1982Sci...215.1501R}}</ref> The question of whether more extinctions in the [[fossil]] record have been caused by [[evolution]] or by competition or by predation or by disease or by catastrophe is a subject of discussion; Mark Newman, the author of ''Modeling Extinction'', argues for a mathematical model that falls in all positions.<ref name="Newman" /> By contrast, [[conservation biology]] uses the [[extinction vortex]] model to classify extinctions by cause. When concerns about [[human extinction]] have been raised, for example in Sir [[Martin Rees]]' 2003 book ''[[Our Final Hour]]'', those concerns lie with the effects of [[climate change]] or [[technology|technological]] disaster.
Human-driven extinction started as humans migrated out of Africa more than 60,000 years ago.<ref>{{cite journal |editor1-last=Johns|editor1-first=David |editor2-last=Crist|editor2-first=Eileen|editor3-last= Sahgal|editor3-first=Bittu|date=2022 |title=Ending the Colonization of the Non-Human World|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/journal/biological-conservation/special-issue/10574WDL8SQ|journal=[[Biological Conservation (journal)|Biological Conservation]]|volume= |issue= |pages= |doi= |access-date=}}</ref> Currently, environmental groups and some governments are concerned with the extinction of species caused by humanity, and they try to prevent further extinctions through a variety of [[conservation movement|conservation]] programs.<ref name="MSNBC" /> Humans can cause extinction of a species through [[overharvesting]], [[pollution]], [[habitat destruction]], introduction of [[invasive species]] (such as new [[predator]]s and food [[competitors]]), overhunting, and other influences. Explosive, unsustainable human [[population growth]] and [[Overconsumption|increasing per capita consumption]] are essential drivers of the extinction crisis.<ref name="Ceballos2017"/><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Stokstad |first1=Erik |title=Landmark analysis documents the alarming global decline of nature |journal=Science |date=6 May 2019 |doi=10.1126/science.aax9287 |s2cid=166478506 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Andermann |first1=Tobias |last2=Faurby |first2=Søren |last3=Turvey |first3=Samuel T. |last4=Antonelli |first4=Alexandre |last5=Silvestro |first5=Daniele |title=The past and future human impact on mammalian diversity |journal=Science Advances |date=1 September 2020 |volume=6 |issue=36 |pages=eabb2313 |doi=10.1126/sciadv.abb2313 |pmid=32917612 |s2cid=221498762 |doi-access=free |pmc=7473673 |bibcode=2020SciA....6.2313A }} [[File:CC-BY icon.svg|50px]] Text and images are available under a [https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171016050101/https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ |date=16 October 2017 }}.</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Lewis |first=Sophie |date=September 9, 2020 |title=Animal populations worldwide have declined by almost 70% in just 50 years, new report says |url=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/biodiversity-endangered-species-animal-population-decline-world-wildlife-fund-report-2020-09-09/ |work=[[CBS News]] |access-date=October 22, 2020 |archive-date=10 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200910152119/https://www.cbsnews.com/news/biodiversity-endangered-species-animal-population-decline-world-wildlife-fund-report-2020-09-09/ |url-status=live }}</ref> According to the [[International Union for Conservation of Nature]] (IUCN), 784 extinctions have been recorded since the year 1500, the arbitrary date selected to define "recent" extinctions, up to the year 2004; with many more likely to have gone unnoticed. Several species have also been listed as extinct since 2004.<ref name="IUCNno">{{cite web | publisher = [[World Conservation Union]] | url = http://www.iucn.org/themes/ssc/red_list_2004/GSAexecsumm_EN.htm | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20060827093621/http://www.iucn.org/themes/ssc/red_list_2004/GSAexecsumm_EN.htm | url-status = dead | archive-date = 27 August 2006 | title = 2004 Red List | work = IUCN Red List of Threatened Species | access-date = September 20, 2006 }}</ref>
=== Genetics and demographic phenomena ===
{{See also|Extinction vortex|Genetic erosion|Mutational meltdown}}
If [[adaptation]] increasing population [[fitness (biology)|fitness]] is slower than [[environmental degradation]] plus the accumulation of slightly deleterious [[mutation]]s, then a population will go extinct.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Bertram|first1=J|last2=Gomez|first2=K|last3=Masel|first3=J|title=Predicting patterns of long-term adaptation and extinction with population genetics|journal=Evolution|date=February 2017|volume=71|issue=2|pages=204–214|doi=10.1111/evo.13116|pmid=27868195|arxiv=1605.08717|s2cid=4705439}}</ref> Smaller populations have fewer beneficial mutations entering the population each generation, slowing adaptation. It is also easier for slightly deleterious mutations to [[fixation (population genetics)|fix]] in small populations; the resulting positive feedback loop between small population size and low fitness can cause [[mutational meltdown]].
Limited geographic range is the most important determinant of [[genus]] extinction at background rates but becomes increasingly irrelevant as [[#Mass extinctions|mass extinction]] arises.<ref>{{cite journal|author1=Payne, J.L.|author2=S. Finnegan | year=2007 | title=The effect of geographic range on extinction risk during background and mass extinction | journal=[[PNAS|Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci.]] | volume=104 | issue=25 | pages=10506–10511 | doi=10.1073/pnas.0701257104 | pmid=17563357| pmc=1890565|bibcode = 2007PNAS..10410506P |doi-access=free }}</ref> Limited geographic range is a cause both of small population size and of greater vulnerability to local environmental catastrophes.
Extinction rates can be affected not just by population size, but by any factor that affects [[evolvability]], including [[balancing selection]], [[cryptic genetic variation]], [[phenotypic plasticity]], and [[robustness (evolution)|robustness]]. A diverse or deep [[gene pool]] gives a population a higher chance in the short term of surviving an adverse change in conditions. Effects that cause or reward a loss in [[genetic diversity]] can increase the chances of extinction of a species. [[Population bottleneck]]s can dramatically reduce genetic diversity by severely limiting the number of reproducing individuals and make [[inbreeding]] more frequent.
=== Genetic pollution ===
{{Main|Genetic pollution}}
Extinction sometimes results for species evolved to specific ecologies<ref>{{cite journal |last=Mooney |first=H.A. |author2=Cleland, E.E. |year=2001 |title=The evolutionary impact of invasive species |journal=[[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|PNAS]] |volume=98 |issue=10 |pages=5446–5451 |doi=10.1073/pnas.091093398 |pmid=11344292 |pmc=33232 |bibcode = 2001PNAS...98.5446M |doi-access=free }}</ref> that are subjected to [[genetic pollution]]—i.e., uncontrolled [[Hybrid (biology)|hybridization]], [[introgression]] and genetic swamping that lead to homogenization or [[Fitness (biology)|out-competition]] from the introduced ([[Heterosis|or hybrid]]) species.<ref>{{cite web |url = http://www.nativeseednetwork.org/article_view?id=13 |title = Glossary: definitions from the following publication: Aubry, C., R. Shoal and V. Erickson. 2005. Grass cultivars: their origins, development, and use on national forests and grasslands in the Pacific Northwest. USDA Forest Service. 44 pages, plus appendices.; Native Seed Network (NSN), Institute for Applied Ecology, 563 SW Jefferson Ave, Corvallis, OR 97333, USA |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060222092651/http://www.nativeseednetwork.org/article_view?id=13 |archive-date=22 February 2006 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Endemic populations can face such extinctions when new populations are imported or [[selective breeding|selectively bred]] by people, or when habitat modification brings previously isolated species into contact. Extinction is likeliest for [[rare species]] coming into contact with more abundant ones;<ref name="RareEucalypts"/> [[interbreeding]] can swamp the rarer gene pool and create hybrids, depleting the purebred gene pool (for example, the endangered [[wild water buffalo]] is most threatened with extinction by genetic pollution from [[Water buffalo|the abundant domestic water buffalo]]). Such extinctions are not always apparent from [[morphology (biology)|morphological]] (non-genetic) observations. Some degree of [[gene flow]] is a normal evolutionary process; nevertheless, hybridization (with or without introgression) threatens rare species' existence.<ref>{{cite journal |title= Extinction by Hybridization and Introgression |first1 = J.M. |last1 = Rhymer |first2= D. |last2= Simberloff |journal = Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics |date=November 1996 |volume= 27 |pages= 83–109 |doi= 10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.27.1.83 |publisher= Annual Reviews |quote= Introduced species, in turn, are seen as competing with or preying on native species or destroying their habitat. Introduces species (or [[subspecies]]), however, can generate another kind of extinction, a genetic extinction by hybridization and introgression with native flora and fauna|jstor=2097230}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Genetic pollution from farm forestry using eucalypt species and hybrids : a report for the RIRDC/L&WA/FWPRDC Joint Venture Agroforestry Program |first1 = Brad M. |last1= Potts |others= Robert C. Barbour, Andrew B. Hingston |date=September 2001 |isbn= 978-0-642-58336-9 |publisher= Australian Government, Rural Industrial Research and Development Corporation }}</ref>
The gene pool of a [[species]] or a [[population]] is the variety of genetic information in its living members. A large gene pool (extensive [[genetic diversity]]) is associated with robust populations that can survive bouts of intense [[Selection (biology)|selection]]. Meanwhile, low genetic diversity (see [[inbreeding]] and [[population bottlenecks]]) reduces the range of adaptions possible.<ref>
{{cite web|url=http://adl.brs.gov.au/data/warehouse/brsShop/data/12858_10_1_3.pdf |title=Genetic diversity|page=104 |year=2003 |access-date=2010-05-30 |quote=In other words, greater genetic diversity can offer greater resilience. In order to maintain the capacity of our forests to [[adaption|adapt]] to future changes, therefore, genetic diversity must be preserved |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110313092336/http://adl.brs.gov.au/data/warehouse/brsShop/data/12858_10_1_3.pdf |archive-date=2011-03-13}}</ref> Replacing native with alien genes narrows genetic diversity within the original population,<ref name="RareEucalypts">
{{cite web |url=http://adl.brs.gov.au/data/warehouse/brsShop/data/12858_10_1_3.pdf |title=Australia's state of the forests report |page=107 |year=2003 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110313092336/http://adl.brs.gov.au/data/warehouse/brsShop/data/12858_10_1_3.pdf |archive-date=2011-03-13}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lindenmayer |first1=D. B. |last2=Hobbs |first2=R. J. |last3=Salt |first3=D. |title=Plantation forests and biodiversity conservation |journal=Australian Forestry |date=January 2003 |volume=66 |issue=1 |pages=62–66 |doi=10.1080/00049158.2003.10674891 |bibcode=2003AuFor..66...62L |s2cid=53968395 |url=https://researchrepository.murdoch.edu.au/id/eprint/4637/1/plantation_forests.pdf |access-date=9 February 2022 |archive-date=17 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220217143102/https://researchrepository.murdoch.edu.au/id/eprint/4637/1/plantation_forests.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> thereby increasing the chance of extinction.
[[File:DirkvdM santa fe scorched.jpg|thumb|Scorched land resulting from [[slash-and-burn]] agriculture]]
=== Habitat degradation ===
{{Main|Habitat destruction}}
Habitat degradation is currently the main anthropogenic cause of species extinctions. The main cause of habitat degradation worldwide is agriculture, with [[urban sprawl]], logging, mining, and some fishing practices close behind. The degradation of a species' [[habitat (ecology)|habitat]] may alter the [[fitness landscape]] to such an extent that the species is no longer able to survive and becomes extinct. This may occur by direct effects, such as the environment becoming [[toxicity|toxic]], or indirectly, by limiting a species' ability to compete effectively for diminished resources or against new competitor species.
Habitat degradation through toxicity can kill off a species very rapidly, by killing all living members through [[contamination]] or [[Sterilization (microbiology)|sterilizing]] them. It can also occur over longer periods at lower toxicity levels by affecting life span, reproductive capacity, or competitiveness.
Habitat degradation can also take the form of a physical destruction of niche habitats. The widespread destruction of [[tropical rainforest]]s and replacement with open pastureland is widely cited as an example of this;<ref name="Wilson" /> elimination of the dense forest eliminated the infrastructure needed by many species to survive. For example, a [[fern]] that depends on dense shade for protection from direct sunlight can no longer survive without forest to shelter it. Another example is the destruction of ocean floors by [[bottom trawling]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Clover |first=Charles |year=2004 |title=The End of the Line: How overfishing is changing the world and what we eat |publisher=Ebury Press |location=London |isbn=978-0-09-189780-2 }}</ref>
Diminished resources or introduction of new competitor species also often accompany habitat degradation. [[Global warming]] has allowed some species to expand their range, bringing competition to other species that previously occupied that area. Sometimes these new competitors are predators and directly affect prey species, while at other times they may merely outcompete vulnerable species for limited resources. Vital resources including [[water]] and food can also be limited during habitat degradation, leading to extinction.
[[File:Bufo periglenes2.jpg|thumb|The [[golden toad]] was last seen on May 15, 1989. [[Decline in amphibian populations]] is ongoing worldwide.]]
=== Predation, competition, and disease ===
{{See also|Island restoration}}
In the natural course of events, species become extinct for a number of reasons, including but not limited to: extinction of a necessary host, prey or pollinator, [[interspecific competition]], inability to deal with evolving diseases and changing environmental conditions (particularly sudden changes) which can act to introduce novel predators, or to remove prey. Recently in geological time, humans have become an additional cause of extinction of some species, either as a new mega-predator or by [[introduced species|transporting]] [[animal]]s and [[plant]]s from one part of the world to another. Such introductions have been occurring for thousands of years, sometimes intentionally (e.g. [[livestock]] released by sailors on islands as a future source of food) and sometimes accidentally (e.g. [[rat]]s escaping from boats). In most cases, the introductions are unsuccessful, but when an [[Invasive species|invasive alien species]] does become established, the consequences can be catastrophic. Invasive alien species can affect [[Endemic (ecology)|native]] species directly by eating them, competing with them, and introducing [[pathogen]]s or [[parasite]]s that sicken or kill them; or indirectly by destroying or degrading their habitat. Human populations may themselves act as invasive predators. According to the "overkill hypothesis", the swift extinction of the [[megafauna]] in areas such as Australia (40,000 years before present), [[North America|North]] and [[South America]] (12,000 years before present), [[Madagascar]], [[Hawaii]] (AD 300–1000), and New Zealand (AD 1300–1500), resulted from the sudden introduction of human beings to environments full of animals that had never seen them before and were therefore completely unadapted to their predation techniques.<ref name="Lee">Lee, Anita. "[http://geography.berkeley.edu/ProgramCourses/CoursePagesFA2002/geog148/Term%20Papers/Anita%20Lee/THEPLE~1.html The Pleistocene Overkill Hypothesis] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061014100508/http://geography.berkeley.edu/ProgramCourses/CoursePagesFA2002/geog148/Term%20Papers/Anita%20Lee/THEPLE~1.html |date=October 14, 2006 }}." ''University of California at Berkeley Geography Program.'' Retrieved January 11, 2007.</ref>
=== Coextinction ===
{{Main|Coextinction}}
[[File:Giant Haasts eagle attacking New Zealand moa.jpg|thumb|The large [[Haast's eagle]] and [[moa]] from New Zealand]]
Coextinction refers to the loss of a species due to the extinction of another; for example, the extinction of [[parasitism|parasitic]] insects following the loss of their hosts. Coextinction can also occur when a species loses its [[pollinator]], or to [[predator]]s in a [[food chain]] who lose their prey. "Species coextinction is a manifestation of one of the interconnectednesses of organisms in complex ecosystems ... While coextinction may not be the most important cause of species extinctions, it is certainly an insidious one."<ref name="Koh">{{cite journal |last1=Koh |first1=Lian Pin |last2=Dunn |first2=Robert R. |last3=Sodhi |first3=Navjot S. |last4=Colwell |first4=Robert K. |last5=Proctor |first5=Heather C. |last6=Smith |first6=Vincent S. |title=Species Coextinctions and the Biodiversity Crisis |journal=Science |date=10 September 2004 |volume=305 |issue=5690 |pages=1632–1634 |doi=10.1126/science.1101101 |pmid=15361627 |bibcode=2004Sci...305.1632K |s2cid=30713492 }}</ref> Coextinction is especially common when a [[keystone species]] goes extinct. Models suggest that coextinction is the most common form of [[biodiversity loss]]. There may be a cascade of coextinction across the [[trophic level]]s. Such effects are most severe in [[mutualism (biology)|mutualistic]] and parasitic relationships. An example of coextinction is the [[Haast's eagle]] and the [[moa]]: the Haast's eagle was a predator that became extinct because its food source became extinct. The moa were several species of flightless birds that were a food source for the Haast's eagle.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Dunn |first1=Robert R. |last2=Harris |first2=Nyeema C. |last3=Colwell |first3=Robert K. |last4=Koh |first4=Lian Pin |last5=Sodhi |first5=Navjot S. |title=The sixth mass coextinction: are most endangered species parasites and mutualists? |journal=Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences |date=7 September 2009 |volume=276 |issue=1670 |pages=3037–3045 |doi=10.1098/rspb.2009.0413 |pmid=19474041 |pmc=2817118 }}</ref>
=== Climate change ===
{{Main|Extinction risk from climate change}}
{{See also|Effect of climate change on plant biodiversity|Effects of climate change on marine mammals}}
Extinction as a result of [[climate change]] has been confirmed by fossil studies.<ref name="SahneyBentonFalconLang 2010RainforestCollapse">{{cite journal|url=http://geology.geoscienceworld.org/cgi/content/abstract/38/12/1079|last1=Sahney|first1=S.|last2=Benton|first2=M.J.|last3=Falcon-Lang|first3=H.J.|year=2010|title=Rainforest collapse triggered Pennsylvanian tetrapod diversification in Euramerica|journal=Geology|doi=10.1130/G31182.1|volume=38|pages=1079–1082|format=PDF|issue=12|bibcode=2010Geo....38.1079S|access-date=28 August 2011|archive-date=11 October 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111011144357/http://geology.geoscienceworld.org/cgi/content/abstract/38/12/1079|url-status=live}}</ref> Particularly, the extinction of amphibians during the [[Carboniferous Rainforest Collapse]], 305 million years ago.<ref name="SahneyBentonFalconLang 2010RainforestCollapse" /> A 2003 review across 14 biodiversity research centers predicted that, because of climate change, 15–37% of land species would be "committed to extinction" by 2050.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Thomas |first1=Chris D. |last2=Cameron |first2=Alison |last3=Green |first3=Rhys E. |last4=Bakkenes |first4=Michel |last5=Beaumont |first5=Linda J. |last6=Collingham |first6=Yvonne C. |last7=Erasmus |first7=Barend F. N. |last8=de Siqueira |first8=Marinez Ferreira |last9=Grainger |first9=Alan |last10=Hannah |first10=Lee |last11=Hughes |first11=Lesley |last12=Huntley |first12=Brian |last13=van Jaarsveld |first13=Albert S. |last14=Midgley |first14=Guy F. |last15=Miles |first15=Lera |last16=Ortega-Huerta |first16=Miguel A. |last17=Townsend Peterson |first17=A. |last18=Phillips |first18=Oliver L. |last19=Williams |first19=Stephen E. |title=Extinction risk from climate change |journal=Nature |date=January 2004 |volume=427 |issue=6970 |pages=145–148 |doi=10.1038/nature02121 |pmid=14712274 |bibcode=2004Natur.427..145T |s2cid=969382 |url=https://pure.qub.ac.uk/ws/files/733227/Thomas%26Cameron_Extinctions_Cover%26Article_Nature_2004.pdf |access-date=30 November 2019 |archive-date=29 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190429130413/https://pure.qub.ac.uk/ws/files/733227/Thomas%26Cameron_Extinctions_Cover%26Article_Nature_2004.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Bhattacharya">{{cite magazine |url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn4545-global-warming-threatens-millions-of-species.html |title=Global warming threatens millions of species |date=7 January 2004 |magazine=[[New Scientist]] |access-date=2010-05-28 |last=Bhattacharya |first=Shaoni |quote=the effects of climate change should be considered as great a threat to biodiversity as the "Big Three"—[[habitat destruction]], [[Invasive species|invasions by alien species]] and overexploitation by humans. |archive-date=21 April 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100421082210/http://www.newscientist.com/article/dn4545-global-warming-threatens-millions-of-species.html |url-status=live }}</ref> The ecologically rich areas that would potentially suffer the heaviest losses include the [[Cape Floristic Region]] and the [[Caribbean Basin]]. These areas might see a doubling of present carbon dioxide levels and rising temperatures that could eliminate 56,000 plant and 3,700 animal species.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Handwerk|first1=Brian|last2=Hendwerk|first2=Brian|title=Global Warming Could Cause Mass Extinctions by 2050, Study Says|publisher=National Geographic News|date=April 2006|url=https://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2006/04/0412_060412_global_warming.html|access-date=27 October 2017|archive-date=12 June 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170612161507/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2006/04/0412_060412_global_warming.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> Climate change has also been found to be a factor in [[habitat loss]] and [[desertification]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gibbon |first1=J. Whitfield |last2=Scott |first2=David E. |last3=Ryan |first3=Travis J. |last4=Buhlmann |first4=Kurt A. |last5=Tuberville |first5=Tracey D. |last6=Metts |first6=Brian S. |last7=Greene |first7=Judith L. |last8=Mills |first8=Tony |last9=Leiden |first9=Yale |last10=Poppy |first10=Sean |last11=Winne |first11=Christopher T. |title=The Global Decline of Reptiles, Déjà Vu Amphibians |journal=BioScience |date=2000 |volume=50 |issue=8 |pages=653 |doi=10.1641/0006-3568(2000)050[0653:TGDORD]2.0.CO;2 |s2cid=12094030 |url=https://digitalcommons.butler.edu/facsch_papers/536 |access-date=14 July 2019 |archive-date=13 December 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191213114220/https://digitalcommons.butler.edu/facsch_papers/536/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
=== Sexual selection and male investment ===
Studies of fossils following species from the time they evolved to their extinction show that species with high [[sexual dimorphism]], especially characteristics in males that are used to compete for mating, are at a higher risk of extinction and die out faster than less sexually dimorphic species, the least sexually dimorphic species surviving for millions of years while the most sexually dimorphic species die out within mere thousands of years. Earlier studies based on counting the number of currently living species in modern taxa have shown a higher number of species in more sexually dimorphic taxa which have been interpreted as higher survival in taxa with more sexual selection, but such studies of modern species only measure indirect effects of extinction and are subject to error sources such as dying and doomed taxa speciating more due to splitting of habitat ranges into more small isolated groups during the habitat retreat of taxa approaching extinction. Possible causes of the higher extinction risk in species with more sexual selection shown by the comprehensive fossil studies that rule out such error sources include expensive sexually selected ornaments having negative effects on the ability to survive [[natural selection]], as well as [[sexual selection]] removing a diversity of genes that under current ecological conditions are neutral for natural selection but some of which may be important for surviving climate change.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Martins |first1=Maria João Fernandes |last2=Puckett |first2=T. Markham |last3=Lockwood |first3=Rowan |last4=Swaddle |first4=John P. |last5=Hunt |first5=Gene |title=High male sexual investment as a driver of extinction in fossil ostracods |journal=Nature |date=April 2018 |volume=556 |issue=7701 |pages=366–369 |doi=10.1038/s41586-018-0020-7 |pmid=29643505 |bibcode=2018Natur.556..366M |s2cid=4925632 |url=https://aquila.usm.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=17927&context=fac_pubs |access-date=16 September 2022 |archive-date=2 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221002122147/https://aquila.usm.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=17927&context=fac_pubs |url-status=live }}</ref>
== Mass extinctions ==
{{Main|Extinction event}}
{{annotated image/Extinction|float=right}}
There have been at least five mass extinctions in the history of life on earth, and four in the last 350 million years in which many species have disappeared in a relatively short period of geological time. A massive eruptive event that released large quantities of [[tephra]] particles into the atmosphere is considered to be one likely cause of the "[[Permian–Triassic extinction event]]" about 250 million years ago,<ref name="SahneyBenton2008RecoveryFromProfoundExtinction">{{ cite journal|url= |last1=Sahney |first1=S. |last2=Benton |first2=M.J. |year=2008 |title=Recovery from the most profound mass extinction of all time |journal=Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences |doi=10.1098/rspb.2007.1370 |volume=275 |pages=759–765 |pmid=18198148 |issue=1636 |pmc=2596898 }}</ref> which is estimated to have killed 90% of species then existing.<ref>{{cite book|last=Benton|first=M.J.|year=2005|title=When Life Nearly Died: The Greatest Mass Extinction of All Time|publisher=Thames & Hudson|isbn=978-0-500-28573-2}}</ref> There is also evidence to suggest that this event was preceded by another mass extinction, known as [[Olson's Extinction]].<ref name="SahneyBenton2008RecoveryFromProfoundExtinction" /> The [[Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event]] (K–Pg) occurred 66 million years ago, at the end of the [[Cretaceous]] period; it is best known for having wiped out non-avian [[dinosaur]]s, among many other species.
=== Modern extinctions ===
{{Main|Holocene extinction}}
{{Further|Anthropocene|Defaunation|Deforestation}}
[[File:Decline-of-the-worlds-wild-mammals.png|thumb|upright=1.5|The changing distribution of the world's land mammals in tonnes of carbon. The [[Biomass (ecology)|biomass]] of wild land mammals has declined by 85% since the emergence of humans.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://ourworldindata.org/wild-mammal-decline|title=Wild mammals have declined by 85% since the rise of humans, but there is a possible future where they flourish|last=Ritchie|first=Hannah |date=April 20, 2021|website=[[Our World in Data]]|publisher= |access-date=April 19, 2023 |quote=}}</ref>]]
According to a 1998 survey<!-- Needs updating. Survey is now 20+ years old. --> of 400 biologists conducted by [[New York City|New York]]'s [[American Museum of Natural History]], nearly 70% believed that the Earth is currently in the early stages of a human-caused mass extinction,<ref name="AMNH">[[American Museum of Natural History]]. "[http://www.well.com/~davidu/amnh.html National Survey Reveals Biodiversity Crisis – Scientific Experts Believe We are in the Midst of the Fastest Mass Extinction in Earth's History] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120410162439/http://www.well.com/~davidu/amnh.html |date=10 April 2012 }}". Retrieved September 20, 2006.</ref> known as the [[Holocene extinction]]. In that survey, the same proportion of respondents agreed with the prediction that up to 20% of all living populations could become extinct within 30 years (by 2028). A 2014 special edition of ''[[Science (journal)|Science]]'' declared there is widespread consensus on the issue of human-driven mass species extinctions.<ref>{{Cite journal|date = 25 July 2014 | title = Vanishing fauna (Special issue)|journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]]|volume=345|issue=6195| pages = 392–412 |doi=10.1126/science.345.6195.392| pmid = 25061199| bibcode= 2014Sci...345..392V| last = Vignieri | first = S.| doi-access = free}}</ref> A 2020 study published in ''[[PNAS]]'' stated that the contemporary extinction crisis "may be the most serious environmental threat to the persistence of civilization, because it is irreversible."<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ceballos|first1=Gerardo|last2=Ehrlich |first2=Paul R.|last3= Raven|first3=Peter H.|date=June 1, 2020 |title=Vertebrates on the brink as indicators of biological annihilation and the sixth mass extinction |journal=[[PNAS]] |volume=117 |issue=24 |pages=13596–13602 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1922686117|pmid=32482862|pmc=7306750|bibcode=2020PNAS..11713596C|doi-access=free}}</ref>
Biologist [[E. O. Wilson]] estimated<ref name="Wilson" /> in 2002 that if current rates of human destruction of the biosphere continue, one-half of all plant and animal species of life on earth will be extinct in 100 years.<ref name="Wilson2">{{cite interview | last= Wilson | first= E.O. | interviewer= Lisa Hymas | title= "E. O. Wilson wants to know why you're not protesting in the streets" | url= http://grist.org/article/e-o-wilson-wants-to-know-why-youre-not-protesting-in-the-streets/ | date= April 30, 2012 | work= Grist | access-date= January 16, 2014 | archive-date= 4 November 2017 | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20171104234523/http://grist.org/article/e-o-wilson-wants-to-know-why-youre-not-protesting-in-the-streets/ | url-status= live }} E.O. Wilson repeats his estimation in 2012.</ref> More significantly, the current rate of global species extinctions is estimated as 100 to 1,000 times "background" rates (the average extinction rates in the [[evolution]]ary time scale of planet Earth),<ref>J.H.Lawton and R.M.May, ''Extinction rates'', [[Oxford University]] Press, Oxford, UK</ref><ref name="DeVos2014">{{cite journal |last1=De Vos |first1=Jurriaan M. |last2=Joppa |first2=Lucas N. |last3=Gittleman |first3=John L. |last4=Stephens |first4=Patrick R. |last5=Pimm |first5=Stuart L. |title=Estimating the normal background rate of species extinction: Background Rate of Extinction |journal=Conservation Biology |date=April 2015 |volume=29 |issue=2 |pages=452–462 |doi=10.1111/cobi.12380 |pmid=25159086 |s2cid=19121609 |url=https://www.zora.uzh.ch/id/eprint/98443/1/Conservation_Biology_2014_early-view.pdf |access-date=30 November 2019 |archive-date=4 November 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181104111411/https://www.zora.uzh.ch/id/eprint/98443/1/Conservation_Biology_2014_early-view.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> faster than at any other time in human history,<ref>{{cite news |vauthors=Carrington D |date=February 2, 2021 |title=Economics of biodiversity review: what are the recommendations? |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2021/feb/02/economics-of-biodiversity-review-what-are-the-recommendations |work=[[The Guardian]] |location= |access-date=December 21, 2021 |archive-date=24 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220524182314/https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2021/feb/02/economics-of-biodiversity-review-what-are-the-recommendations |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/957629/Dasgupta_Review_-_Headline_Messages.pdf |title=The Economics of Biodiversity: The Dasgupta Review Headline Messages |last=Dasgupta |first=Partha |author-link=Partha Dasgupta |date=2021 |website= |publisher=UK government |page=1 |access-date=December 21, 2021 |quote=Biodiversity is declining faster than at any time in human history. Current extinction rates, for example, are around 100 to 1,000 times higher than the baseline rate, and they are increasing. |archive-date=20 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220520070152/https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/957629/Dasgupta_Review_-_Headline_Messages.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> while future rates are likely 10,000 times higher.<ref name=DeVos2014 /> However, some groups are going extinct much faster. Biologists [[Paul R. Ehrlich]] and [[Stuart Pimm]], among others, contend that [[human population growth]] and [[overconsumption]] are the main drivers of the modern extinction crisis.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Pimm |first1=S. L. |last2=Jenkins |first2=C. N. |last3=Abell |first3=R. |last4=Brooks |first4=T. M. |last5=Gittleman |first5=J. L. |last6=Joppa |first6=L. N. |last7=Raven |first7=P. H. |last8=Roberts |first8=C. M. |last9=Sexton |first9=J. O. |title=The biodiversity of species and their rates of extinction, distribution, and protection |journal=Science |date=30 May 2014 |volume=344 |issue=6187 |pages=1246752 |doi=10.1126/science.1246752 |pmid=24876501 |s2cid=206552746 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cnn.com/2016/12/12/world/sutter-vanishing-help/|title=How to stop the sixth mass extinction|first=John D.|last=Sutter|date=December 12, 2016|work=CNN|access-date=January 3, 2017|archive-date=13 December 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161213131234/http://www.cnn.com/2016/12/12/world/sutter-vanishing-help/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Ceballos2017">{{cite journal| last1=Ceballos|first1=Gerardo|last2=Ehrlich|first2=Paul R |last3=Dirzo|first3=Rodolfo|date=23 May 2017|title=Biological annihilation via the ongoing sixth mass extinction signaled by vertebrate population losses and declines|journal=[[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|PNAS]]|doi=10.1073/pnas.1704949114|pmc=5544311|pmid=28696295|volume=114|issue=30|pages=E6089–E6096|bibcode=2017PNAS..114E6089C |quote=Much less frequently mentioned are, however, the ultimate drivers of those immediate causes of biotic destruction, namely, human overpopulation and continued population growth, and overconsumption, especially by the rich. These drivers, all of which trace to the fiction that perpetual growth can occur on a finite planet, are themselves increasing rapidly.|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last= Graham |first=Chris|date=July 11, 2017 |title=Earth undergoing sixth 'mass extinction' as humans spur 'biological annihilation' of wildlife|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2017/07/11/earth-undergoing-sixth-mass-extinction-humans-spur-biological/ |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220111/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2017/07/11/earth-undergoing-sixth-mass-extinction-humans-spur-biological/ |archive-date=2022-01-11 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live|work= The Telegraph|access-date=July 23, 2017}}{{cbignore}}</ref>
In January 2020, the UN's [[Convention on Biological Diversity]] drafted a plan to mitigate the contemporary extinction crisis by establishing a deadline of 2030 to protect 30% of the Earth's land and oceans and reduce pollution by 50%, with the goal of allowing for the restoration of ecosystems by 2050.<ref>{{cite news|last=Greenfield|first=Patrick|date=January 13, 2020|title=UN draft plan sets 2030 target to avert Earth's sixth mass extinction|url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2020/jan/13/un-draft-plan-sets-2030-target-to-avert-earths-sixth-mass-extinction-aoe|work=The Guardian|access-date=January 14, 2020|archive-date=24 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210224095816/https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2020/jan/13/un-draft-plan-sets-2030-target-to-avert-earths-sixth-mass-extinction-aoe|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last=Yeung|first=Jessie|date=January 14, 2020|title=We have 10 years to save Earth's biodiversity as mass extinction caused by humans takes hold, UN warns|url=https://www.cnn.com/2020/01/14/world/un-biodiversity-draft-plan-intl-hnk-scli-scn/index.html|work=CNN|access-date=January 14, 2020|archive-date=15 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210215051020/https://www.cnn.com/2020/01/14/world/un-biodiversity-draft-plan-intl-hnk-scli-scn/index.html|url-status=live}}</ref> The 2020 [[United Nations]]' ''Global Biodiversity Outlook'' report stated that of the 20 biodiversity goals laid out by the Aichi Biodiversity Targets in 2010, only 6 were "partially achieved" by the deadline of 2020.<ref>{{cite news |last=Cohen |first=Li |date=September 15, 2020 |title=More than 150 countries made a plan to preserve biodiversity a decade ago. A new report says they mostly failed. |url=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/more-than-150-countries-made-a-plan-to-save-the-worlds-species-and-ecosystems-a-decade-ago-a-new-report-says-they-mostly-failed/ |work=[[CBS News]] |access-date=September 23, 2020 |archive-date=15 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220515192230/https://www.cbsnews.com/news/more-than-150-countries-made-a-plan-to-save-the-worlds-species-and-ecosystems-a-decade-ago-a-new-report-says-they-mostly-failed/ |url-status=live }}</ref> The report warned that biodiversity will continue to decline if the status quo is not changed, in particular the "currently unsustainable patterns of production and consumption, population growth and technological developments".<ref>{{cite news |last=Yeung |first=Jessie |date=September 16, 2020 |title=The world set a 2020 deadline to save nature but not a single target was met, UN report says |url=https://edition.cnn.com/2020/09/16/world/un-biodiversity-report-intl-hnk-scli-scn/ |work=[[CNN]] |access-date=September 23, 2020 |archive-date=15 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220515192230/https://edition.cnn.com/2020/09/16/world/un-biodiversity-report-intl-hnk-scli-scn/ |url-status=live }}</ref> In a 2021 report published in the journal ''Frontiers in Conservation Science'', some top scientists asserted that even if the Aichi Biodiversity Targets set for 2020 had been achieved, it would not have resulted in a significant mitigation of biodiversity loss. They added that failure of the global community to reach these targets is hardly surprising given that biodiversity loss is "nowhere close to the top of any country's priorities, trailing far behind other concerns such as employment, healthcare, economic growth, or currency stability."<ref>{{cite news |last=Weston |first=Phoebe |date=January 13, 2021 |title=Top scientists warn of 'ghastly future of mass extinction' and climate disruption |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2021/jan/13/top-scientists-warn-of-ghastly-future-of-mass-extinction-and-climate-disruption-aoe |work=[[The Guardian]] |location= |access-date=January 19, 2021 |archive-date=13 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210113050606/https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2021/jan/13/top-scientists-warn-of-ghastly-future-of-mass-extinction-and-climate-disruption-aoe |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bradshaw |first1=Corey J. A. |last2=Ehrlich |first2=Paul R. |last3=Beattie |first3=Andrew |last4=Ceballos |first4=Gerardo |last5=Crist |first5=Eileen |last6=Diamond |first6=Joan |last7=Dirzo |first7=Rodolfo |last8=Ehrlich |first8=Anne H. |last9=Harte |first9=John |last10=Harte |first10=Mary Ellen |last11=Pyke |first11=Graham |last12=Raven |first12=Peter H. |last13=Ripple |first13=William J. |last14=Saltré |first14=Frédérik |last15=Turnbull |first15=Christine |last16=Wackernagel |first16=Mathis |last17=Blumstein |first17=Daniel T. |date=2021 |title=Underestimating the Challenges of Avoiding a Ghastly Future |journal=Frontiers in Conservation Science |volume=1 |issue= |pages= |doi=10.3389/fcosc.2020.615419 |doi-access=free }}</ref>
== History of scientific understanding ==
[[File:Tyrannosaurus-rex-Profile-steveoc86.png|thumb|''[[Tyrannosaurus]]'', one of the many extinct dinosaur genera. The cause of the [[Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event]] is a subject of much debate amongst researchers.]]
[[File:Anoplotherium_1812_Skeleton_Sketch.jpg|thumb|Georges Cuvier's 1812 unpublished version of the skeletal reconstruction of ''[[Anoplotherium]] commune'' with muscles. Today, the [[Paleogene]] mammal is thought to have gone extinct from the [[Grande Coupure]] extinction event in western Europe.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Hooker|first1=Jerry J.|last2=Collinson|first2=Margaret E.|last3=Sille|first3=Nicholas P.|year=2004|title=Eocene–Oligocene mammalian faunal turnover in the Hampshire Basin, UK: calibration to the global time scale and the major cooling event|journal=Journal of the Geological Society|volume=161|issue=2|pages=161–172|doi=10.1144/0016-764903-091|bibcode=2004JGSoc.161..161H |s2cid=140576090 |url=http://doc.rero.ch/record/13418/files/PAL_E228.pdf }}</ref>]]
[[File:Cuvier elephant jaw.jpg|thumb|[[Georges Cuvier]] compared fossil [[mammoth]] jaws to those of living elephants, concluding that they were distinct from any known living species.<ref name=":52">{{Cite web|url=http://evolution.berkeley.edu/evolibrary/article/history_08|title=Extinctions: Georges Cuvier|website=evolution.berkeley.edu|access-date=2017-05-04|archive-date=29 April 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170429200852/http://evolution.berkeley.edu/evolibrary/article/history_08|url-status=live}}</ref>]]
For much of history, the modern understanding of extinction as the end of a [[species]] was incompatible with the prevailing worldview. Prior to the 19th century, much of Western society adhered to the belief that the world was created by God and as such was complete and perfect.<ref name=":02">{{Cite journal|last=Rowland|first=Stephen|date=2009|title=Thomas Jefferson, extinction, and the evolving view of Earth history in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries|url=http://memoirs.gsapubs.org/content/203/225.abstract|journal=GSA Memoirs|volume=203|pages=225–246|access-date=5 May 2017|archive-date=1 September 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150901223048/http://memoirs.gsapubs.org/content/203/225.abstract|url-status=live}}</ref> This concept reached its heyday in the 1700s with the peak popularity of a theological concept called the [[great chain of being]], in which all life on earth, from the tiniest microorganism to God, is linked in a continuous chain.<ref name=":12">{{Cite book|url=http://www.gutenberg.org/files/33224/33224-h/33224-h.htm|title=The Principles of Geology or, The Modern Changes of the Earth and its Inhabitants Considered as Illustrative of Geology|last=Lyells|first=Charles|publisher=Appleton Co|year=1854|location=New York|access-date=5 May 2017|archive-date=25 October 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161025005756/http://www.gutenberg.org/files/33224/33224-h/33224-h.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> The extinction of a species was impossible under this model, as it would create gaps or missing links in the chain and destroy the natural order.<ref name=":02" /><ref name=":12" /> [[Thomas Jefferson]] was a firm supporter of the great chain of being and an opponent of extinction,<ref name=":02" /><ref name=":32">{{cite web |last1=Bressan |first1=David |title=On the Extinction of Species |url=https://blogs.scientificamerican.com/history-of-geology/on-the-extinction-of-species/ |work=Scientific American Blog Network |date=17 August 2011 |access-date=5 May 2017 |archive-date=22 December 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171222105110/https://blogs.scientificamerican.com/history-of-geology/on-the-extinction-of-species/ |url-status=live }}{{self-published inline|date=February 2022}}</ref> famously denying the extinction of the [[woolly mammoth]] on the grounds that nature never allows a race of animals to become extinct.<ref name=":42">{{cite book |last1=Vidal |first1=Fernando |last2=Dias |first2=Nélia |title=Endangerment, Biodiversity and Culture |date=2015 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-317-53807-3 }}{{page needed|date=February 2022}}</ref>
A series of fossils were discovered in the late 17th century that appeared unlike any living species. As a result, the scientific community embarked on a voyage of creative rationalization, seeking to understand what had happened to these species within a framework that did not account for total extinction. In October 1686, [[Robert Hooke]] presented an impression of a [[nautilus]] to the [[Royal Society]] that was more than two feet in diameter,<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/forgottengeniusb0000inwo|url-access=registration|page=[https://archive.org/details/forgottengeniusb0000inwo/page/403 403]|quote=hooke nautilus.|title=The Forgotten Genius: The Biography of Robert Hooke, 1635–1703|last=Inwood|first=Stephen|date=2005|publisher=MacAdam/Cage Publishing|isbn=978-1-59692-115-3|language=en}}</ref> and morphologically distinct from any known living species. [[Robert Hooke|Hooke]] theorized that this was simply because the species lived in the deep ocean and no one had discovered them yet.<ref name=":12" /> While he contended that it was possible a species could be "lost", he thought this highly unlikely.<ref name=":12" /> Similarly, in 1695, [[Sir Thomas Molyneux]] published an account of enormous antlers found in [[Ireland]] that did not belong to any extant taxa in that area.<ref name=":32" /><ref name=":22">{{cite journal |last1=Molyneux |first1=Thomas |title=II. A discourse concerning the large horns frequently found under ground in Ireland, concluding from them that the great American deer, call'd a moose, was formerly common in that Island: with remarks on some other things natural to that country |journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London |date=April 1697 |volume=19 |issue=227 |pages=489–512 |doi=10.1098/rstl.1695.0083 |bibcode=1695RSPT...19..489M |s2cid=186207711 }}</ref> Molyneux reasoned that they came from the North American [[moose]] and that the animal had once been common on the [[British Isles]].<ref name=":32" /><ref name=":22" /> Rather than suggest that this indicated the possibility of species going extinct, he argued that although organisms could become locally extinct, they could never be entirely lost and would continue to exist in some unknown region of the globe.<ref name=":22" /> The antlers were later confirmed to be from the extinct [[deer]] ''[[Megaloceros]]''.<ref name=":32" /> Hooke and Molyneux's line of thinking was difficult to disprove. When parts of the world had not been thoroughly examined and charted, scientists could not rule out that animals found only in the fossil record were not simply "hiding" in unexplored regions of the Earth.<ref name="Watson2">''Ideas: A History from Fire to Freud'' ([[Peter Watson (business writer)|Peter Watson]] Weidenfeld & Nicolson {{ISBN|0-297-60726-X}}){{page needed|date=February 2022}}</ref>
[[Georges Cuvier]] is credited with establishing the modern conception of extinction in a 1796 lecture to the [[French Institute]],<ref name=":52" /><ref name=":42"/> though he would spend most of his career trying to convince the wider scientific community of his theory.<ref name=":62">{{Cite book|title=Perilous planet earth : catastrophes and catastrophism through the ages |last=Trevor |first=Palmer |date=2003|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-81928-2|oclc=912273245}}{{page needed|date=February 2022}}</ref> Cuvier was a well-regarded geologist, lauded for his ability to reconstruct the anatomy of an unknown species from a few fragments of bone.<ref name=":52" /> His primary evidence for extinction came from mammoth skulls found in the [[Paris Basin|Paris basin]].<ref name=":52" /> Cuvier recognized them as distinct from any known living species of elephant, and argued that it was highly unlikely such an enormous animal would go undiscovered.<ref name=":52" /> In 1812, Cuvier, along with [[Alexandre Brongniart]] and [[Isidore Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire|Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire]], mapped the [[Stratum|strata]] of the Paris basin.<ref name=":12" /> They saw alternating saltwater and freshwater deposits, as well as patterns of the appearance and disappearance of fossils throughout the record.<ref name=":32" /><ref name=":62" /> From these patterns, Cuvier inferred historic cycles of catastrophic flooding, extinction, and repopulation of the earth with new species.<ref name=":32" /><ref name=":62" />
Cuvier's fossil evidence showed that very different life forms existed in the past than those that exist today, a fact that was accepted by most scientists.<ref name=":02" /> The primary debate focused on whether this turnover caused by extinction was gradual or abrupt in nature.<ref name=":62" /> Cuvier understood extinction to be the result of cataclysmic events that wipe out huge numbers of species, as opposed to the gradual decline of a species over time.<ref name=":8">{{Cite book |last=M. J. S. |first=Rudwick |title=Georges Cuvier, fossil bones, and geological catastrophes : new translations & interpretations of the primary texts |last2=Cuvier |first2=Georges |date=1998 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0-226-73106-3 |oclc=45730036}}{{page needed|date=February 2022}}</ref> His catastrophic view of the nature of extinction garnered him many opponents in the newly emerging school of [[uniformitarianism]].<ref name=":8" />
[[Jean-Baptiste Lamarck]], a [[Gradualism|gradualist]] and colleague of Cuvier, saw the fossils of different life forms as evidence of the mutable character of species.<ref name=":62" /> While Lamarck did not deny the possibility of extinction, he believed that it was exceptional and rare and that most of the change in species over time was due to gradual change.<ref name=":62" /> Unlike Cuvier, Lamarck was skeptical that catastrophic events of a scale large enough to cause total extinction were possible. In his geological history of the earth titled Hydrogeologie, Lamarck instead argued that the surface of the earth was shaped by gradual erosion and deposition by water, and that species changed over time in response to the changing environment.<ref name=":62" /><ref>{{Cite book|title=The age of Lamarck : evolutionary theories in France, 1790–1830|last=Corsi|first=Pietro|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-05830-9|oclc=898833548|year=1988}}{{page needed|date=February 2022}}</ref>
[[Charles Lyell]], a noted geologist and founder of [[uniformitarianism]], believed that past processes should be understood using present day processes. Like Lamarck, Lyell acknowledged that extinction could occur, noting the total extinction of the [[dodo]] and the extirpation of [[History of the horse in Britain|indigenous horses]] to the British Isles.<ref name=":12" /> He similarly argued against [[mass extinction]]s, believing that any extinction must be a gradual process.<ref name=":52"/><ref name=":42" /> Lyell also showed that Cuvier's original interpretation of the Parisian strata was incorrect. Instead of the catastrophic floods inferred by Cuvier, Lyell demonstrated that patterns of saltwater and freshwater [[Deposition (geology)|deposits]], like those seen in the Paris basin, could be formed by a slow rise and fall of [[sea level]]s.<ref name=":32" />
The concept of extinction was integral to [[Charles Darwin]]'s ''[[On the Origin of Species]]'', with less fit lineages disappearing over time. For Darwin, extinction was a constant side effect of [[Competition (biology)|competition]].<ref>{{cite magazine |title=The Lost World |url=https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2013/12/16/the-lost-world-2 |magazine=The New Yorker |date=9 December 2013 |access-date=9 February 2022 |archive-date=3 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230203051615/https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2013/12/16/the-lost-world-2 |url-status=live }}</ref> Because of the wide reach of ''On the Origin of Species'', it was widely accepted that extinction occurred gradually and evenly (a concept now referred to as [[Background extinction rate|background extinction]]).<ref name=":42" /> It was not until 1982, when [[David M. Raup|David Raup]] and [[Jack Sepkoski]] published their seminal paper on mass extinctions, that Cuvier was vindicated and catastrophic extinction was accepted as an important mechanism{{Citation needed|reason=A lot of history separates Cuvier from Raup and Sepkoski's 1982 work, including such figures as Bretz from the University of Chicago|date=February 2024}}. The current understanding of extinction is a synthesis of the cataclysmic extinction events proposed by Cuvier, and the background extinction events proposed by Lyell and Darwin.
Belgian scientists have proposed a potential explanation for the mass extinction of dinosaurs on Earth, suggesting that dust played a significant role. Around 66 million years ago, an asteroid struck the Earth off the coast of Mexico, marking the conclusion of the Cretaceous period. While it is widely accepted that dinosaurs near the impact site would not have survived, scientists were inquisitive about the fate of the rest of the dinosaur population. To address this question, researchers at the Royal Observatory of Belgium conducted computer-generated simulations, digitally recreating events that transpired after the asteroid's impact.
The asteroid that impacted Earth 66 million years ago formed the Chicxulub Crater, located beneath the Yucatán Peninsula off the Mexican coast. Scientific studies indicate that the Chicxulub asteroid released sulfur-based gases and a significant amount of silicate dust into Earth's atmosphere. This impact subsequently initiated volcanic eruptions and widespread wildfires worldwide, leading to the release of soot and carbon dioxide into the air. These combined effects resulted in a prolonged period of darkness caused by the airborne particles, creating a "winter" that endured for approximately 15 years.
According to the researchers, this "impact winter" is accountable for the extinction of 75% of Earth's plant and animal species. The hazy atmosphere obscured sunlight, preventing plants from conducting photosynthesis, their process for generating energy and growth. Consequently, a majority of plant life perished, resulting in a scarcity of food for herbivorous dinosaurs. As plant-eating dinosaurs dwindled, it also led to a decrease in the available food supply for carnivorous dinosaurs.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2023-11-02 |title=Dust could be responsible for wiping out 75% of all species on Earth |language=en-GB |work=BBC Newsround |url=https://www.bbc.com/newsround/67273693 |access-date=2023-11-05}}</ref>
== Human attitudes and interests ==
[[File:Sphyrna mokarran fishing.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|right|A [[great hammerhead]] caught by a sport fisherman. Human exploitation now threatens the survival of this species. [[Overfishing]] is the primary driver of shark population declines, which have fallen over 71% since 1970.<ref>{{cite news |last=Einhorn |first=Catrin |date=January 27, 2021 |title=Shark Populations Are Crashing, With a 'Very Small Window' to Avert Disaster |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2021/01/27/climate/sharks-population-study.html |work=[[The New York Times]] |location= |access-date=January 31, 2021 |archive-date=31 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210131005226/https://www.nytimes.com/2021/01/27/climate/sharks-population-study.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Pacoureau |first1=Nathan |last2=Rigby |first2=Cassandra L. |last3=Kyne |first3=Peter M. |last4=Sherley |first4=Richard B. |last5=Winker |first5=Henning |last6=Carlson |first6=John K. |last7=Fordham |first7=Sonja V. |last8=Barreto |first8=Rodrigo |last9=Fernando |first9=Daniel |last10=Francis |first10=Malcolm P. |last11=Jabado |first11=Rima W. |last12=Herman |first12=Katelyn B. |last13=Liu |first13=Kwang-Ming |last14=Marshall |first14=Andrea D. |last15=Pollom |first15=Riley A. |last16=Romanov |first16=Evgeny V. |last17=Simpfendorfer |first17=Colin A. |last18=Yin |first18=Jamie S. |last19=Kindsvater |first19=Holly K. |last20=Dulvy |first20=Nicholas K. |title=Half a century of global decline in oceanic sharks and rays |journal=Nature |date=28 January 2021 |volume=589 |issue=7843 |pages=567–571 |doi=10.1038/s41586-020-03173-9 |pmid=33505035 |bibcode=2021Natur.589..567P |hdl=10871/124531 |s2cid=231723355 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> ]]
Extinction is an important research topic in the field of [[zoology]], and [[biology]] in general, and has also become an area of concern outside the scientific community. A number of organizations, such as the [[WWF (conservation organization)|Worldwide Fund for Nature]], have been created with the goal of preserving species from extinction. [[Government]]s have attempted, through enacting laws, to avoid habitat destruction, agricultural over-harvesting, and [[pollution]]. While many human-caused extinctions have been accidental, humans have also engaged in the deliberate destruction of some species, such as dangerous [[virus]]es, and the total destruction of other problematic species has been suggested. Other species were deliberately driven to extinction, or nearly so, due to [[poaching]] or because they were "undesirable", or to push for other human agendas. One example was the near extinction of the [[American bison]], which was nearly wiped out by mass hunts sanctioned by the United States government, to force the removal of [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native Americans]], many of whom relied on the bison for food.<ref name="Kotzman">{{cite book|author1=C. Cormack Gates|author2=Curtis H. Freese|author3=Peter J.P. Gogan|author4=Mandy Kotzman|title=American bison: status survey and conservation guidelines 2010|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=koUrGx-i2ucC&pg=PR15|access-date=6 November 2011|publisher=IUCN|isbn=978-2-8317-1149-2|page=15|year=2010}}</ref>
Biologist Bruce Walsh states three reasons for scientific interest in the preservation of species: [[genetic resources]], ecosystem stability, and [[ethics]]; and today the scientific community "stress[es] the importance" of maintaining biodiversity.<ref name="Walsh">Walsh, Bruce. [http://nitro.biosci.arizona.edu/courses/EEB105/lectures/extinction/extinction.html Extinction] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/19970802184301/http://nitro.biosci.arizona.edu/courses/EEB105/lectures/extinction/extinction.html |date=1997-08-02 }}. Bioscience at University of Arizona. Retrieved July 26, 2006.</ref><ref name="CREOcare">Committee on Recently Extinct Organisms. "[http://creo.amnh.org/care.html Why Care About Species That Have Gone Extinct?] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060713045653/http://creo.amnh.org/care.html |date=13 July 2006 }}". Retrieved July 30, 2006.</ref>
In modern times, commercial and industrial interests often have to contend with the effects of production on plant and animal life. However, some technologies with minimal, or no, proven harmful effects on ''[[Homo sapiens]]'' can be devastating to wildlife (for example, [[DDT]]).<ref name="INCHEM">International Programme on Chemical Safety (1989). "[http://www.inchem.org/documents/ehc/ehc/ehc83.htm DDT and its Derivatives – Environmental Aspects] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060927215945/http://www.inchem.org/documents/ehc/ehc/ehc83.htm |date=27 September 2006 }}". Environmental Health Criteria 83. Retrieved September 20, 2006.</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.inchem.org/documents/ehc/ehc/ehc009.htm|title=DDT and its derivatives (EHC 9, 1979)|access-date=26 September 2020|archive-date=25 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210225180744/http://www.inchem.org/documents/ehc/ehc/ehc009.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Biogeography|Biogeographer]] [[Jared Diamond]] notes that while [[big business]] may label environmental concerns as "exaggerated", and often cause "devastating damage", some corporations find it in their interest to adopt good conservation practices, and even engage in preservation efforts that surpass those taken by [[national park]]s.<ref name="DiamondCollapse">{{cite book|last=Diamond|first=Jared|author-link=Jared Diamond|title=Collapse|publisher=Penguin|year=2005|isbn=978-0-670-03337-9|pages=15–17|chapter=A Tale of Two Farms|chapter-url-access=registration|chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/collapsehowsocie00diam}}</ref>
Governments sometimes see the loss of native species as a loss to [[ecotourism]],<ref name="Drewry">Drewry, Rachel. "[http://www.insideindonesia.org/edit51/orang.htm Ecotourism: Can it save the orangutans?] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070216200744/http://www.insideindonesia.org/edit51/orang.htm |date=February 16, 2007 }}" ''Inside Indonesia''. Retrieved January 26, 2007.</ref> and can enact laws with severe punishment against the trade in native species in an effort to prevent extinction in the wild. [[Nature preserve]]s are created by governments as a means to provide continuing habitats to species crowded by human expansion. The 1992 [[Convention on Biological Diversity]] has resulted in international [[Biodiversity Action Plan]] programmes, which attempt to provide comprehensive guidelines for government biodiversity conservation. Advocacy groups, such as The Wildlands Project<ref name="WildlandsProject">[http://www.wild-earth.org/cms/page1090.cfm The Wildlands Project] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051122155849/http://www.wild-earth.org/cms/page1090.cfm |date=November 22, 2005 }}. Retrieved January 26, 2007.</ref> and the Alliance for Zero Extinctions,<ref>[http://www.zeroextinction.org/ Alliance for Zero Extinctions] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110423151342/http://www.zeroextinction.org/ |date=April 23, 2011 }}. Retrieved January 26, 2007.</ref> work to educate the public and pressure governments into action.
People who live close to nature can be dependent on the survival of all the species in their environment, leaving them highly exposed to extinction [[risk]]s. However, people prioritize day-to-day survival over species conservation; with [[human overpopulation]] in tropical [[developing country|developing countries]], there has been enormous pressure on forests due to [[subsistence agriculture]], including [[slash-and-burn]] agricultural techniques that can reduce endangered species's habitats.<ref>{{Cite book | first1= Anne | last1= Ehrlich | title = Extinction: The Causes and Consequences of the Disappearance of Species | publisher= Random House, New York | year= 1981 | isbn= 978-0-394-51312-6}}</ref>
[[Antinatalist]] philosopher [[David Benatar]] concludes that any popular concern about non-human species extinction usually arises out of concern about how the loss of a species will impact human wants and needs, that "we shall live in a world impoverished by the loss of one aspect of faunal diversity, that we shall no longer be able to behold or use that species of animal." He notes that typical concerns about possible human extinction, such as the loss of individual members, are not considered in regards to non-human species extinction.<ref>{{cite book|last=Benatar|first=David|date=2008|title=Better Never to Have Been: The Harm of Coming into Existence|url=https://archive.org/details/betternevertohav0000bena/page/197|publisher=Oxford University Press|page=[https://archive.org/details/betternevertohav0000bena/page/197 197]|isbn=978-0-19-954926-9|quote=It is noteworthy that human concern about human extinction takes a different form from human concern (where there is any) about the extinction of non-human species. Most humans who are concerned about the extinction of non-human species are not concerned about the individual animals whose lives are cut short in the passage to extinction, even though that is one of the best reasons to be concerned about extinction (at least in its killing form). The popular concern about animal extinction is usually concern for humans—that we shall live in a world impoverished by the loss of one aspect of faunal diversity, that we shall no longer be able to behold or use that species of animal. In other words, none of the typical concerns about human extinction are applied to non-human species extinction.}}</ref> Anthropologist [[Jason Hickel]] speculates that the reason humanity seems largely indifferent to anthropogenic mass species extinction is that we see ourselves as separate from the natural world and the organisms within it. He says that this is due in part to the logic of [[capitalism]]: "that the world is not really alive, and it is certainly not our kin, but rather just stuff to be extracted and discarded – and that includes most of the human beings living here too."<ref>{{cite book|last=Hickel|first=Jason|author-link=Jason Hickel|title=Less is More: How Degrowth Will Save the World |year=2021|publisher=Windmill Books|page=80|isbn=978-1786091215|quote=It's no wonder that we react so nonchalantly to the ever-mounting statistics about the crisis of mass extinction. We have a habit of taking this information with surprising calm. We don't weep. We don't get worked up. Why? Because we see humans as fundamentally separate from the rest of the living community. Those species are out there, in the environment. They aren't in here; they aren't part of us. It is not surprising that we behave this way. After all, this is the core principle of capitalism: that the world is not really alive, and it is certainly not our kin, but rather just stuff to be extracted and discarded – and that includes most of the human beings living here too. From its very first principles, capitalism has set itself at war against life itself.}}</ref>
=== Planned extinction ===<!-- This section is linked from [[Gene knockout]] -->
{{Main|Eradication of infectious diseases}}
==== Completed ====
* The [[smallpox]] virus is now extinct in the wild,<ref name=WHO_Factsheet>{{cite web |title=Smallpox |work=WHO Factsheet |url=https://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/smallpox/en/ |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20070921235036/http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/smallpox/en/ |archive-date= 2007-09-21 }}</ref> although samples are retained in laboratory settings.
* The [[rinderpest]] virus, which [[Cattle diseases|infected domestic cattle]], is now extinct in the wild.<ref name="Normile2008">{{cite journal |last1=Normile |first1=Dennis |title=Driven to Extinction |journal=Science |date=21 March 2008 |volume=319 |issue=5870 |pages=1606–1609 |doi=10.1126/science.319.5870.1606 |pmid=18356500 |s2cid=46157093 }}</ref>
==== Proposed ====
===== Disease agents =====
The [[poliovirus]] is now confined to small parts of the world due to extermination efforts.<ref name="polio">{{cite web |url=http://www.polioeradication.org/Dataandmonitoring.aspx |title=Polio cases in the world in 2015 |publisher=The Global Polio Eradication Initiative |access-date=17 February 2016 |archive-date=19 February 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160219015412/http://www.polioeradication.org/Dataandmonitoring.aspx |url-status=live }}</ref>
''[[Dracunculus medinensis]]'', or Guinea worm, a parasitic worm which causes the disease [[dracunculiasis]], is now close to eradication thanks to efforts led by the [[Carter Center]].<ref>{{cite magazine |url=http://time.com/3680439/guinea-worm-almost-extinct/ |title=This Species is Close to Extinction and That's a Good Thing |date=23 January 2015 |magazine=Time |access-date=17 February 2016 |archive-date=24 February 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160224032526/http://time.com/3680439/guinea-worm-almost-extinct/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
''[[Treponema pallidum|Treponema pallidum pertenue]]'', a bacterium which causes the disease [[yaws]], is in the process of being eradicated.
===== Disease vectors =====
Biologist [[Olivia Judson]] has advocated the deliberate extinction of certain disease-carrying [[mosquito]] species. In a September 25, 2003 article in ''[[The New York Times]]'', she advocated "specicide" of thirty mosquito species by introducing a genetic element that can insert itself into another crucial gene, to create [[recessive]] "[[Gene knockout|knockout genes]]".<ref name="Judson"/> She says that the ''[[Anopheles]]'' mosquitoes (which spread [[malaria]]) and ''[[Aedes]]'' mosquitoes (which spread [[dengue fever]], [[yellow fever]], [[elephantiasis tropica|elephantiasis]], and other diseases) represent only 30 of around 3,500 mosquito species; eradicating these would save at least one million human lives per year, at a cost of reducing the [[genetic diversity]] of the family [[Culicidae]] by only 1%. She further argues that since species become extinct "all the time" the disappearance of a few more will not destroy the [[ecosystem]]: "We're not left with a wasteland every time a species vanishes. Removing one species sometimes causes shifts in the populations of other species—but different need not mean worse." In addition, anti-malarial and [[Mosquito#Control|mosquito control programs]] offer little realistic hope to the 300 million people in [[developing nation]]s who will be infected with acute illnesses this year. Although trials are ongoing, she writes that if they fail "we should consider the ultimate swatting."<ref name="Judson">{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2003/09/25/opinion/a-bug-s-death.html |title=A Bug's Death |date=September 25, 2003 |author=Olivia Judson |newspaper=The New York Times |access-date=17 February 2016 |archive-date=6 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160306163542/http://www.nytimes.com/2003/09/25/opinion/a-bug-s-death.html |url-status=live }}</ref>
Biologist [[E. O. Wilson]] has advocated the eradication of several species of mosquito, including malaria vector ''[[Anopheles gambiae]]''. Wilson stated, "I'm talking about a very small number of species that have co-evolved with us and are preying on humans, so it would certainly be acceptable to remove them. I believe it's just common sense."<ref>{{cite news |last1=Paulson |first1=Steve |title=Why a famous biologist wants to eradicate killer mosquitoes |url=https://theworld.org/stories/2016-04-04/why-famous-biologist-wants-eradicate-killer-mosquitoes |work=The World from PRX |date=4 April 2016 |access-date=9 February 2022 |archive-date=9 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220209131520/https://theworld.org/stories/2016-04-04/why-famous-biologist-wants-eradicate-killer-mosquitoes |url-status=live }}</ref>
There have been many campaigns – some successful – to locally eradicate [[tsetse fly|tsetse flies]] and their [[trypanosoma|trypanosome]]s in areas, countries, and islands of Africa (including [[Príncipe]]).<ref name="Costa-et-al-1916">{{cite book | title=Sleeping Sickness, A Record of Four Years' War against It in the Island of Principe | first1=B. F. | last1=Bruto da Costa| first2= J. F. | last2=Sant' Anna| first3= A. C. | last3=dos Santos | first4= M. G. | last4=de Araujo Alvares | translator=Lieutenant Colonel J. A. Wyllie | pages=xxii+260 | publisher=Centro Colonial ([[Baillière Tindall]] and Cox) | location=[[Lisbon]] | date=1916 | s2cid=82867664}} (Other {{S2CID|82229617}})</ref><ref name="Nature-book-review-1916">{{cite journal | last=S. | first=J. W. W. | title=The Eradication of Sleeping Sickness from Principe | journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]] | publisher=[[Nature Research]] | volume=98 | issue=2460 | year=1916 | doi=10.1038/098311a0 | pages=311–312 | bibcode=1916Natur..98..311J | s2cid=3964040| doi-access=free }}</ref> There are currently serious efforts to do away with them all across Africa, and this is generally viewed as beneficial and morally necessary,<ref name="Simarro-et-al-2008">{{cite journal | last1=Simarro | first1=Pere P | last2=Jannin | first2=Jean | last3=Cattand | first3=Pierre | title=Eliminating Human African Trypanosomiasis: Where Do We Stand and What Comes Next? | journal=[[PLOS Medicine]] | publisher=[[Public Library of Science]] (PLoS) | volume=5 | issue=2 | date=2008-02-26 | doi=10.1371/journal.pmed.0050055 | page=e55 | pmid=18303943 | pmc=2253612 | s2cid=17608648| doi-access=free }}</ref> although not always.<ref name="Bouyer-et-al-2018">{{cite journal | last1=Bouyer | first1=Jérémy | last2=Carter | first2=Neil H | last3=Batavia | first3=Chelsea | last4=Nelson | first4=Michael Paul | title=The Ethics of Eliminating Harmful Species: The Case of the Tsetse Fly | journal=[[BioScience]] | publisher=[[American Institute of Biological Sciences]] ([[Oxford University Press|OUP]]) | volume=69 | issue=2 | date=2018-12-19 | doi=10.1093/biosci/biy155 | pages=125–135 | pmid=30792543 | pmc=6377282 | s2cid=67788418| doi-access=free }}</ref>
=== Cloning ===
[[File:Pyrenean Ibex.png|thumb|The [[Pyrenean ibex]], the only animal to have been brought back from extinction and the only one to go extinct twice.]]
{{Main|De-extinction}}
Some, such as Harvard geneticist [[George M. Church]], believe that ongoing technological advances will let us "bring back to life" an extinct species by [[Cloning#Cloning extinct and endangered species|cloning]], using [[DNA]] from the remains of that species. Proposed targets for cloning include the [[mammoth]], the [[thylacine]], and the [[Pyrenean ibex]]. For this to succeed, enough individuals would have to be cloned, from the DNA of different individuals (in the case of sexually reproducing organisms) to create a viable population. Though [[bioethics|bioethical]] and [[philosophy|philosophical]] objections have been raised,<ref>{{cite news |url= http://articles.latimes.com/2000/dec/24/news/mn-4250/2 |title= Cloned Goat Would Revive Extinct Line |author= A. Zitner |date= 2000-12-24 |work= [[Los Angeles Times]] |access-date= 2010-05-17 |archive-date= 25 August 2011 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110825212540/http://articles.latimes.com/2000/dec/24/news/mn-4250/2 |url-status= live }}</ref> the cloning of extinct creatures seems theoretically possible.<ref>{{cite news |url= https://www.nytimes.com/2008/11/20/science/20mammoth.html?_r=1 |title= Regenerating a Mammoth for $10 Million |author= Nicholas wade |date= 2008-11-19 |access-date= 2010-05-17 |work= The New York Times |archive-date= 12 March 2017 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20170312075740/http://www.nytimes.com/2008/11/20/science/20mammoth.html?_r=1 |url-status= live }} ''The cell could be converted into an embryo and brought to term by an elephant, a project he estimated would cost some $10 million. "This is something that could work, though it will be tedious and expensive," ''</ref>
In 2003, scientists tried to clone the extinct Pyrenean ibex (''C. p. pyrenaica'').<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Folch |first1=J. |last2=Cocero |first2=M. J. |last3=Chesné |first3=P. |last4=Alabart |first4=J. L. |last5=Domínguez |first5=V. |display-authors=1 |date=2009 |title=First birth of an animal from an extinct subspecies (Capra pyrenaica pyrenaica) by cloning |journal=Theriogenology |volume=71 |issue=6 |pages=1026–1034 |doi=10.1016/j.theriogenology.2008.11.005|pmid=19167744 |doi-access=free }}</ref> This attempt failed: of the 285 embryos reconstructed, 54 were transferred to 12 [[Spanish ibex]]es and ibex–domestic [[goat]] hybrids, but only two survived the initial two months of gestation before they, too, died.<ref>{{cite news |url= https://www.independent.co.uk/news/science/cloned-goat-dies-after-attempt-to-bring-species-back-from-extinction-1522974.html |title= Cloned goat dies after attempt to bring species back from extinction |author= Steve Connor |date= 2009-02-02 |work= [[The Independent]] |access-date= 2010-05-17 |location= London |archive-date= 13 October 2017 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20171013205333/http://www.independent.co.uk/news/science/cloned-goat-dies-after-attempt-to-bring-species-back-from-extinction-1522974.html |url-status= live }}</ref> In 2009, a second attempt was made to clone the Pyrenean ibex: one clone was born alive, but died seven minutes later, due to physical defects in the lungs.<ref>{{cite news|title=Extinct ibex is resurrected by cloning|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/science/science-news/4409958/Extinct-ibex-is-resurrected-by-cloning.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220111/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/science/science-news/4409958/Extinct-ibex-is-resurrected-by-cloning.html |archive-date=2022-01-11 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live|newspaper=Telegraph|date=31 Jan 2009|location=London|first1=Richard|last1=Gray|first2=Roger|last2=Dobson}}{{cbignore}}</ref>
==See also==
{{Portal|Environment|Biology|Ecology}}
{{cmn|colwidth=30em|
* [[Bioevent]]
* [[Empty forest]]
* [[Endling]]
* [[Extinction: The Facts|''Extinction: The Facts'' (2020 documentary)]]
* [[Genocide]]
* [[Habitat fragmentation]]
* [[Lists of extinct animals]]
* [[List of extinct birds]]
* [[Living Planet Index]]
* [[Our Final Hour]]
* [[Refugium (population biology)]]
* [[Sepilok Orang Utan Rehabilitation Centre]]
* ''[[The Sixth Extinction: An Unnatural History]]'' (2014 book)
* [[Voluntary Human Extinction Movement]]
}}
==References==
{{Reflist}}
==Further reading==
* {{cite journal |last1=Dirzo|first1=Rodolfo|author-link1=Rodolfo Dirzo|last2=Ceballos|first2=Gerardo|last3=Ehrlich|first3=Paul R.|author-link3=Paul R. Ehrlich|date=2022 |title=Circling the drain: the extinction crisis and the future of humanity|url= |journal=[[Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B]]|volume=377|issue=1857 |pages= |doi=10.1098/rstb.2021.0378|pmid=35757873 |pmc=9237743}}
* {{cite web |title=Bringing back the woolly mammoth and other extinct creatures may be impossible |website=Science |author=Elizabeth Pennisi |author-link=Elizabeth Pennisi |date=9 Mar 2022 |url=https://www.science.org/content/article/bringing-back-woolly-mammoth-and-other-extinct-creatures-may-be-impossible}}
*{{cite news |last=Pelley |first=Scott |date=1 January 2023 |title=Scientists say planet in midst of sixth mass extinction, Earth's wildlife running out of places to live|url=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/earth-mass-extinction-60-minutes-2023-01-01/|work=[[CBS News]] |location= |access-date=}}
== External links ==
{{Wiktionary|extinction}}
{{Commons category|Extinction}}
{{Wikiquote}}
{{NIE Poster|Extinction of Species}}
* [http://creo.amnh.org Committee on recently extinct organisms]
* [https://www.theguardian.com/environment/series/the-age-of-extinction The age of extinction] series in ''[[The Guardian]]''
{{Extinction|state=expanded}}
{{Doomsday}}
{{Zoos}}
{{Deforestation and desertification}}
{{Death}}
{{Authority control}}
[[Category:Extinction| ]]
[[Category:Biota by conservation status]]
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
[[Category:Evolutionary biology]]
[[Category:IUCN Red List]] |
Endangered species (IUCN status) | {{Short description|Species which have been categorized as very likely to become extinct in the near future}}
{{Conservation status}}
[[File:Linces1.jpg|thumb|200px|The [[Iberian lynx]] (''Lynx pardinus'') is an endangered species.]]
[[File:Jingu Gaien Ginkgo Street Tokyo.jpg|thumb|The Ginkgo tree (''[[Ginkgo biloba]]'') is listed as 'endangered' by the IUCN.]]
'''Endangered species''', as classified by the [[International Union for Conservation of Nature]] (IUCN), are [[species]] which have been categorized as very likely to become [[extinct]] in their known native ranges in the near future. On the IUCN [[IUCN Red List|Red List]], endangered is the second-most severe [[conservation status]] for wild populations in the IUCN's schema after [[critically endangered]]. In 2012, the IUCN Red List featured 3,079 [[animal]] and 2,655 [[plant]] species as endangered worldwide.<ref name="iucn 2012.2">{{cite web |url=http://www.iucnredlist.org/documents/summarystatistics/2012_2_RL_Stats_Table_2.pdf |title=IUCN Red List version 2012.2: Table 2: Changes in numbers of species in the threatened categories (CR, EN, VU) from 1996 to 2012 (IUCN Red List version 2012.2) for the major taxonomic groups on the Red List |access-date=2012-12-31 |publisher=[[IUCN]] |year=2012 }}</ref> The figures for 1998 were 1,102 and 1,197 respectively. {{citation needed|date=October 2020}}
== IUCN Red List ==
{{more footnotes needed|section|date=May 2020}}
[[File:Panthera tigris altaica 13 - Buffalo Zoo.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|The [[Siberian tiger]] is an endangered [[Tiger#Subspecies|tiger subspecies]]. Three tiger subspecies are extinct (see [[List of carnivorans by population]]).<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.sundarbantigerproject.info/viewpage.php?page_id=2 |title=The Tiger |publisher=Sundarbans Tiger Project |access-date=2 June 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120917192637/http://www.sundarbantigerproject.info/viewpage.php?page_id=2 |archive-date=17 September 2012 }}</ref>]]
The [[IUCN Red List]] is a list of species which have been assessed according to a
system of assigning a global conservation status. According to the latest system used by the IUCN, a species can be "Data Deficient" (DD) species – species for which more data and assessment is required before their situation may be determined – as well species comprehensively assessed by the IUCN's species assessment process. A species can be "[[Near-threatened species|Near Threatened]]" (NT) and "[[Least concern|Least Concern]]" (LC), these are species which are considered to have relatively robust and healthy populations, according to the assessment authors. "Endangered" (EN) species lie between "[[Vulnerable species|Vulnerable]]" (VU) and "[[Critically Endangered species|Critically Endangered]]" (CR) species. A species must adhere to certain criteria in order to be placed in any of the afore-mentioned conservation status categories, according to the assessment.
"Threatened" is a category including all those species determined to be Vulnerable, Endangered or Critically Endangered.
Although in general conversation the terms "endangered species" and "threatened species" may mean other things, for the purposes of the current IUCN system, the List uses the terms "endangered" and "threatened" to denote species to which certain criteria apply. Note older or other, such as national, status systems may use other criteria.
Some examples of species classified as endangered by the IUCN are listed below:
<!-- This list should represent a diverse selection of endangered species. Please don't let it grow out of bounds. The approximate criterion used for selection is diversity of geography, habitat, taxonomy and name recognition. -->
{{hlist |[[African penguin]] |[[Amazon river dolphin]] |[[Asian elephant]] |[[Blue whale]] |[[Dawn redwood]] |[[Egyptian vulture]]| [[Giant oceanic manta ray]] |[[Green sea turtle]] |[[Hector's dolphin]] |[[Iberian lynx]] |[[Komodo dragon]] |[[Matschie's tree-kangaroo]] |[[Mountain gorilla]] |[[Pygmy hippopotamus]] |[[Saharan cypress]] |[[Takahē]] |[[Timneh parrot]] |[[Wild horse]] |[[Whooping crane]]|[[Zebra shark]]}}
As more information becomes available, or as the conservation status criteria has changed, numerous species have been re-assessed as not endangered, nonetheless the total number of species considered endangered has increased as more new species are assessed for the first time each year.
== Criteria for endangered status ==
According to the 3.1 version of the IUCN conservation status system from 2001, a species is listed as endangered when it meets any of the following criteria from A to E.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.iucnredlist.org/static/categories_criteria_3_1|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303202630/https://www.iucnredlist.org/static/categories_criteria_3_1|url-status=dead|archive-date=2016-03-03|title=Categories and Criteria (version 3.1)|website=www.iucnredlist.org}}</ref>
'''A) Reduction in population size based on any of the following:'''
1. An observed, estimated, inferred or suspected population size reduction of '''≥ 70% over the last 10 years or three generations''', whichever is the longer, where the '''causes of the reduction are reversible AND understood AND ceased''', based on (and specifying) any of the following:
* a. direct observation
* b. an index of abundance appropriate for the taxon
* c. a decline in area of occupancy, extent of occurrence or quality of habitat
* d. actual or potential levels of exploitation
* e. the effects of [[Introduced species|introduced taxa]], [[hybrid (biology)|hybridisation]], pathogens, [[pollutants]], competitors or [[parasites]].
2. An observed, estimated, inferred or suspected population size reduction of '''≥ 50% occurred over the last 10 years or three generations'''. Whichever is the longer, where the reduction or its '''causes may not have ceased OR may not be understood OR may not be reversible''', based on (and specifying) any of (a) to (e) under A1.
3. A population size reduction of ≥ 50%, projected or suspected to be met within the next 10 years or three generations, whichever is the longer (up to a maximum of 100 years), based on (and specifying) any of (b) to (e) under A1.
4. An observed, estimated, inferred, projected or suspected population size reduction of ≥ 50% over any 10 year or three-generation period, whichever is longer (up to a maximum of 100 years in the future), where the time period must include both the past and the future, and where the reduction or its causes may not have ceased OR may not be understood OR may not be reversible, based on (and specifying) any of (a) to (e) under A1.
'''B) Geographic range''' in the form of either B1 (extent of occurrence) OR B2 (area of occupancy) OR both:
1. Extent of occurrence estimated to be '''less than 5,000 km<sup>2</sup>''', and estimates indicating at least two of a-c:
* a. '''Severely fragmented''' or known to exist at no more than five locations.
* b. '''Continuing decline''', inferred, observed or projected, in any of the following:
** i. extent of occurrence
** ii. area of occupancy
** iii. area, extent or quality of habitat
** iv. number of locations or subpopulations
** v. number of mature individuals
* c. '''Extreme fluctuations''' in any of the following:
** i. extent of occurrence
** ii. area of occupancy
** iii. number of locations or subpopulations
** iv. number of mature individuals
2. Area of occupancy estimated to be '''less than 500 km<sup>2</sup>''', and estimates indicating at least two of a-c:
* a. '''Severely fragmented''' or known to exist at no more than five locations.
* b. '''Continuing decline''', inferred, observed or projected, in any of the following:
** i. extent of occurrence
** ii. area of occupancy
** iii. area, extent or quality of habitat
** iv. number of locations or subpopulations
** v. number of mature individuals
* c. '''Extreme fluctuations''' in any of the following:
** i. extent of occurrence
** ii. area of occupancy
** iii. number of locations or subpopulations
** iv. number of mature individuals
'''C) Population estimated to number fewer than 2,500 mature individuals and''' either:
1. An estimated continuing '''decline of at least 20% within five years or two generations''', whichever is longer, (up to a maximum of 100 years in the future) OR
2. A continuing decline, observed, projected, or inferred, in numbers of mature individuals AND at least one of the following (a-b):
* a. Population structure in the form of one of the following:
** i. no subpopulation estimated to contain more than 250 mature individuals, OR
** ii. at least 95% of older individuals in one subpopulation
* b. Extreme fluctuations in the number of older individuals
'''D) Population size estimated to number fewer than 250 mature individuals.'''
'''E) Quantitative analysis showing the probability of extinction in the wild is at least 20% within 20 years or five generations,''' whichever is the longer (up to a maximum of 100 years).
==See also==
* [[Lists of IUCN Red List endangered species]]
* [[List of endangered amphibians]]
* [[List of endangered arthropods]]
* [[List of endangered birds]]
* [[List of endangered fishes]]
* [[List of endangered insects]]
* [[List of endangered invertebrates]]
* [[List of endangered mammals]]
* [[List of endangered molluscs]]
* [[List of endangered reptiles]]
* [[List of Chromista by conservation status]]
* [[List of fungi by conservation status]]
== References ==
{{Reflist}}
== External links ==
* [http://www.iucnredlist.org/apps/redlist/search/link/4cb7f841-30a3deef List of species with the category Endangered] as identified by the [[IUCN Red List of Threatened Species]]
{{threatened species|state=expanded}}
{{Portal bar|Ecology|Environment|Biology}}
{{Authority control}}
[[Category:Endangered species| ]]
[[Category:Biota by conservation status]]
[[Category:IUCN Red List]]
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
[[Category:Habitat]]
[[Category:IUCN Red List endangered species]] |
Adawro exclosure | {{Short description|Exclosure for woodland restoration in Ethiopia}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2020}}
{{Use British English Oxford spelling|date= February 2020}}
{{Infobox protected area
| name = Adawro exclosure
| iucn_category =
| photo = Eucalypt forest Adawro.jpg
| photo_caption = Adawro exclosure, here with eucalypts
| location = [[Lim'at]] municipality, in [[Degua Tembien|Dogu’a Tembien]] district, [[Ethiopia]]
| nearest_city = [[Hagere Selam (Degua Tembien)|Hagere Selam]]
| map = Ethiopia | relief = 1
| coordinates = {{coord|13.622|N|39.154|E|display=inline, title}}
| area_ha =
| established = 1999
| visitation_num =
| visitation_year =
| website =
}}
'''Adawro''' is an [[exclosure]] located in the [[Degua Tembien|Dogu'a Tembien]] ''woreda'' of the [[Tigray Region]] in [[Ethiopia]]. The area has been protected by the local community since 1994.
==Environmental characteristics==
* Average slope gradient: 70%
* Aspect: the exclosure is oriented towards the northeast
* Minimum altitude: 2635 metres
* Maximum altitude: 2705 metres
* Lithology: Basalt<ref name= "fao56">{{cite journal |last1= Descheemaeker|first1= K. and colleagues| title= Two rapid appraisals of FAO-56 crop coefficients for semiarid natural vegetationof the northern Ethiopian highlands |journal= Journal of Arid Environments|date=2011 |volume=75|issue= 4|pages=353–359 |doi= 10.1016/j.jaridenv.2010.12.002|bibcode= 2011JArEn..75..353D}}</ref>
<ref name= "runoff">{{cite journal |last1= Descheemaeker|first1= K. and colleagues| title= Runoff on slopes with restoring vegetation: A case study from the Tigray highlands, Ethiopia. |journal= Journal of Hydrology |date=2006 |volume=331 |issue=1–2 |pages=219–241 |doi= 10.1016/j.still.2006.07.011|bibcode= 2006JHyd..331..219D|url= https://biblio.ugent.be/publication/378900|hdl= 1854/LU-378900 |hdl-access= free }}</ref>
==Management==
As a general rule, cattle ranging and wood harvesting are not allowed. The grasses are harvested once yearly and taken to the homesteads of the village to feed livestock. Physical soil and water conservation has been implemented to enhance infiltration, and vegetation growth.
==Benefits for the community==
Setting aside such areas fits with the long-term vision of the communities were ''hiza’iti'' lands are set aside for use by the future generations. It has also direct benefits for the community:<ref>{{cite book |last1=Jacob |first1=M. and colleagues | title= Exclosures as Primary Option for Reforestation in Dogu'a Tembien. In: Geo-trekking in Ethiopia's Tropical Mountains - The Dogu'a Tembien District |date=2019 |publisher=SpringerNature |isbn=978-3-030-04954-6 |url=https://www.springer.com/gp/book/9783030049546}}</ref>
* improved infiltration
* improved [[ground water]] availability
* [[honey]] production
* climate ameliorator (temperature, moisture)
* [[carbon sequestration]], dominantly sequestered in the soil, and additionally in the woody vegetation)<ref name="jona">{{cite book |last1=De Deyn |first1=Jonathan |title= Benefits of reforestation on Carbon storage and water infiltration in the context of climate mitigation in North Ethiopia. Master thesis, Ghent University| date=2019}}</ref>
==Water conservation==
[[File:Rangeland Adawro.jpg|thumb|In contrast: the adjacent rangeland]]
In the Adawro exclosure, more than 800 precise measurements were done in 2003 and 2004, using five runoff plots, where the volume of runoff was measured daily. The rock type ([[basalt]]), slope gradient and slope aspect were the same, the only difference was the land management and vegetation density. Whereas in degraded rangeland, 11.4% of the rainfall flows directly away to the river (runoff coefficient), this happens only for 2.5% of the rain in a recent exclosure and 3.2% in a eucalyptus forest.<ref name= "runoff"/>
In 2003, the soils of the then young exclosure could hold 280 litres of water per m³, similar to the adjacent rangeland.<ref name= "fao56"/>
==Improved ecosystem==
With vegetation growth, biodiversity in this exclosure has strongly improved: there is more varied vegetation and [[Degua Tembien#Wildlife|wildlife]].
===Trees===
The main tree species found in the exclosure are:<ref name= "pedogenesis">{{cite journal |last1= Descheemaeker|first1= K. and colleagues| title= Sediment deposition and pedogenesis in exclosures in theTigray highlands, Ethiopia |journal= Geoderma |date=2006 |volume=132|issue= 3–4|pages=291–314 |doi= 10.1016/j.geoderma.2005.04.027|bibcode= 2006Geode.132..291D}}</ref><ref name= "fao56"/>
* Flat top acacia (''Acacia abyssinica'', renamed as ''[[Vachellia abyssinica]]'')
* Golden wattle (''[[Acacia saligna]]'')
* ''[[Rumex#Species|Rumex nervosus]]'', a woody sorrel species
* ''[[List of Aloe species#M|Aloe macrocarpa]]''
===Soils===
Main soil type in the exclosure are [[Phaeozem]]s, formed in sediment that has been trapped by the vegetation of the exclosure, and as a remnant of the original situation before deforestation. Remarkably, also in the well-protected eucalypt plantation there is some undergrowth and soil development.<ref name= "pedogenesis"/>
==References==
{{reflist|32em}}
==External links==
* [https://www.un.org/esa/forests Link For Forestry Projects]
[[Category:Exclosures of Tigray Region]]
[[Category:1999 establishments in Ethiopia]]
[[Category:Land management]]
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
[[Category:Environmentalism in Ethiopia]]
[[Category:Emissions reduction]]
[[Category:Dogu'a Tembien]] |
Khunale exclosure | {{Short description|Exclosure for woodland restoration in Ethiopia}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2020}}
{{Use Oxford spelling|date= February 2020}}
{{Infobox protected area
| name = Khunale exclosure
| iucn_category =
| photo =
| photo_caption =
| location = [[Selam (Dogu'a Tembien)|Selam]] municipality, in [[Degua Tembien|Dogu’a Tembien]] district, [[Ethiopia]]
| nearest_city = [[Hagere Selam (Degua Tembien)|Hagere Selam]]
| map = Ethiopia | relief = 1
| coordinates = {{coord|13.664|N|39.185|E|display=inline, title}}
| area_ha =
| established = 1990
| visitation_num =
| visitation_year =
| website =
}}
'''Khunale''' is an [[exclosure]] located in the [[Degua Tembien|Dogu'a Tembien]] ''woreda'' of the [[Tigray Region]] in [[Ethiopia]]. The area has been protected since 1990 by the local community.<ref name= "runoff">{{cite journal |last1= Descheemaeker|first1= K. and colleagues| title= Runoff on slopes with restoring vegetation: A case study from the Tigray highlands, Ethiopia. |journal= Journal of Hydrology |date=2006 |volume=331 |issue=1–2 |pages=219–241 |doi= 10.1016/j.still.2006.07.011|bibcode= 2006JHyd..331..219D|url= https://biblio.ugent.be/publication/378900|hdl= 1854/LU-378900 |hdl-access= free }}</ref>
==Environmental characteristics<ref name= "runoff"/>==
* Aspect: the exclosure is oriented towards the northwest
* Minimum altitude: 2420 metres
* Maximum altitude: 2480 metres
* Lithology: mixed sandstone and limestone lithology, partly covered by transported vertic clay material<ref name= "fao56">{{cite journal |last1= Descheemaeker|first1= K. and colleagues| title= Two rapid appraisals of FAO-56 crop coefficients for semiarid natural vegetationof the northern Ethiopian highlands |journal= Journal of Arid Environments|date=2011 |volume=75|issue= 4|pages=353–359 |doi= 10.1016/j.jaridenv.2010.12.002|bibcode= 2011JArEn..75..353D}}</ref>
==Management==
As a general rule, cattle ranging and wood harvesting are not allowed. The grasses are harvested once yearly and taken to the homesteads of the village to feed livestock. Physical soil and water conservation has been implemented to enhance infiltration, and vegetation growth.
==Benefits for the community==
Setting aside such areas fits with the long-term vision of the communities were ''hiza’iti'' lands are set aside for use by the future generations. It has also direct benefits for the community:<ref>{{cite book |last1=Jacob |first1=M. and colleagues | title= Exclosures as Primary Option for Reforestation in Dogu'a Tembien. In: Geo-trekking in Ethiopia's Tropical Mountains - The Dogu'a Tembien District |date=2019 |publisher=SpringerNature |isbn=978-3-030-04954-6 |url=https://www.springer.com/gp/book/9783030049546}}</ref>
* improved infiltration
* improved [[ground water]] availability
* [[honey]] production
* climate ameliorator (temperature, moisture)
* [[carbon sequestration]], dominantly sequestered in the soil, and additionally in the woody vegetation)<ref name="jona">{{cite book |last1=De Deyn |first1=Jonathan |title= Benefits of reforestation on Carbon storage and water infiltration in the context of climate mitigation in North Ethiopia. Master thesis, Ghent University| date=2019}}</ref>
==Water conservation==
In the Khunale exclosure, more than 600 precise measurements were done in 2003 and 2004, using seven runoff plots, where the volume of runoff was measured daily. The rock type ([[Amba Aradam Formation|Amba Aradam Sandstone]] and [[Antalo Limestone]]), slope gradient and slope aspect were the same, the only difference was the land management and vegetation density. Whereas in degraded rangeland, 11.8% of the rainfall flows directly away to the river (runoff coefficient), this happens only for 4.7% of the rain in a recent exclosure and 0.3% in an old exclosure.<ref name= "runoff"/>
==Improved ecosystem==
With vegetation growth, biodiversity in this exclosure has strongly improved: there is more varied vegetation and [[Degua Tembien#Wildlife|wildlife]].
In the oldest parts of this exclosure, [[humus]] profiles are best developed. The old exclosures are also characterised by a variety of humus forms, caused by the variation in shrub and tree density and [[species composition]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1= Descheemaeker|first1= K. and colleagues| title= Humus Form Development during Forest Restoration in Exclosures of the Tigray Highlands, Northern Ethiopia. |journal= Restoration Ecology |date=2009 |volume=17|issue=2 |pages=280–289 |doi= 10.1111/j.1526-100X.2007.00346.x|s2cid= 84941592}}</ref>
==References==
{{reflist|32em}}
==External links==
* [https://www.un.org/esa/forests Link For Forestry Projects]
[[Category:1990 establishments in Ethiopia]]
[[Category:Land management]]
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
[[Category:Emissions reduction]]
[[Category:Exclosures of Tigray Region]]
[[Category:Birdwatching| ]]
[[Category:Dogu'a Tembien]] |
Harehuwa exclosure | {{Short description|Exclosure for woodland restoration in Ethiopia}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2020}}
{{Use Oxford spelling|date= February 2020}}
{{Infobox protected area
| name = Harehuwa exclosure
| iucn_category =
| photo =
| photo_caption =
| location = [[Mahbere Sillasie]] municipality, in [[Degua Tembien|Dogu’a Tembien]] district, [[Ethiopia]]
| nearest_city = [[Hagere Selam (Degua Tembien)|Hagere Selam]]
| map = Ethiopia | relief = 1
| coordinates = {{coord|13.679|N|39.158|E|display=inline, title}}
| established = 1999
| visitation_num =
| visitation_year =
| website =
}}
'''Harehuwa''' is an [[exclosure]] located in the [[Degua Tembien|Dogu'a Tembien]] ''woreda'' of the [[Tigray Region]] in [[Ethiopia]]. The area has been protected since 1999 by the local community.
==Environmental characteristics==
Source:<ref name= "pedogenesis">{{cite journal |last1= Descheemaeker|first1= K. and colleagues| title= Sediment deposition and pedogenesis in exclosures in theTigray highlands, Ethiopia |journal= Geoderma |date=2006 |volume=132|issue= 3–4|pages=291–314 |doi= 10.1016/j.geoderma.2005.04.027|bibcode= 2006Geode.132..291D}}</ref>
* Average slope gradient: 55%
* Aspect: the exclosure is oriented towards the west
* Minimum altitude: 2180 metres
* Maximum altitude: 2300 metres
* Lithology: [[Adigrat Sandstone]]
==Management==
As a general rule, cattle ranging and wood harvesting are not allowed. The grasses are harvested once yearly and taken to the homesteads of the village to feed livestock. Physical soil and water conservation has been implemented to enhance infiltration, and vegetation growth.
==Benefits for the community==
Setting aside such areas fits with the long-term vision of the communities, where ''hiza’iti'' lands are set aside for use by the future generations. It also has direct benefits for the community:<ref>{{cite book |last1=Jacob |first1=M. and colleagues | title= Exclosures as Primary Option for Reforestation in Dogu'a Tembien. In: Geo-trekking in Ethiopia's Tropical Mountains - The Dogu'a Tembien District |date=2019 |publisher=SpringerNature |isbn=978-3-030-04954-6 |url=https://www.springer.com/gp/book/9783030049546}}</ref>
* improved infiltration
* improved [[ground water]] availability
* [[honey]] production
* climate ameliorator (temperature, moisture)
* [[carbon sequestration]], dominantly sequestered in the soil, and additionally in the woody vegetation<ref name="jona">{{cite book |last1=De Deyn |first1=Jonathan |title= Benefits of reforestation on Carbon storage and water infiltration in the context of climate mitigation in North Ethiopia. Master thesis, Ghent University| date=2019}}</ref>
==Improved ecosystem==
With vegetation growth, biodiversity in this exclosure has strongly improved: there is more varied vegetation and [[Degua Tembien#Wildlife|wildlife]].
===Trees===
The main tree species found in the exclosure are:<ref name= "pedogenesis"/>
* Sand olive ([[Dodonaea viscosa subsp. angustifolia|''Dodonaea viscosa'' subsp. ''angustifolia'']])
* Gwarri (''[[Euclea racemosa|Euclea schimperi]]'')
* ''[[Lantana]] viburnoides''<ref>Lantana viburnoides (Forssk.) Vahl https://eol.org/pages/5385537</ref>
* Natal rhus (''[[Rhus]] natalensis'')<ref>Rhus natalensis Bernh. ex C. Krauss https://www.zimbabweflora.co.zw/speciesdata/species.php?species_id=136770
</ref>
===Soils===
The main soil type in the exclosure are Phaeozems, essentially a remnant of the time when the area was covered with natural forest.<ref name= "pedogenesis"/>
==References==
{{reflist|32em}}
==External links==
* [https://www.un.org/esa/forests Link For Forestry Projects]
[[Category:1999 establishments in Ethiopia]]
[[Category:Land management]]
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
[[Category:Carbon finance]]
[[Category:Exclosures of Tigray Region]]
[[Category:Dogu'a Tembien]] |
Prairie strips | '''Prairie strips''' are strips of native perennial vegetation that are strategically integrated into row crop fields. This technique is used in [[conservation farming]] to improve [[biodiversity]], and protect [[soil]] and water.<ref>{{cite news |title=How Absentee Landowners Keep Farmers From Protecting Water and Soil |url=https://www.npr.org/2020/07/14/890449857/how-absentee-landlords-keep-farmers-from-protecting-water-and-soil |accessdate=14 July 2020 |work=NPR |date=14 July 2020}}</ref>
Native prairie vegetation improves [[soil stability]], reduces [[soil erosion]] and nutrient [[Surface runoff|runoff]], and concentrates more organic [[carbon]] in soil than corn and soybean [[crops]]. Research has found that strategically setting aside land in [[corn]] and [[soybean]] fields benefits [[biodiversity]], water and soil in a greater extent than other types of perennial vegetation. Ten percent of a corn field set aside for native vegetation can reduce [[sediment]] movement by 95%. [[Phosphorus]] and [[nitrogen]] lost through run off are reduced by 90% and 85% respectively.<ref>{{cite web |title=Prairie Strips |url=https://www.nrem.iastate.edu/research/STRIPS/content/what-are-prairie-strips#:~:text=Prairie%20strips%20are%20a%20conservation,while%20providing%20habitat%20for%20wildlife.&text=STRIPS%20research%20also%20shows%20that,beneficial%20agricultural%20conservation%20practices%20available. |publisher=Iowa State University of Science and Technology |accessdate=14 July 2020}}</ref> Farmers can take odd areas or difficult-to-farm areas out of production as they integrate native plant species into farm fields as contour buffers and edge-of-field filters.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Beacom|first=Nathan|date=2019-10-15|title=Planting Native Prairie Could Be a Secret Weapon for Farmers|url=https://civileats.com/2019/10/15/planting-native-prairie-could-be-a-secret-weapon-for-farmers/|access-date=2021-10-25|work=Civil Eats|language=en}}</ref>
In [[Iowa]], most of the rich and fertile soils have been dedicated to corn and soybean crops. Only around .01 percent of the original [[tallgrass prairie|tallgrass]] prairie remains. Prairie strips are among the few remaining areas for the native vegetation.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Oldfield |first1=Sara F. |title=Seeds of Restoration Success: Wild Lands and Plant Diversity in the U.S. |date=25 September 2019 |publisher=Springer |isbn=9783319969749 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ExCyDwAAQBAJ&q=prairie%20strips}}</ref>
[[Entomologists]] at [[Iowa State University]] observed beneficial [[aphid]]-eating insects in soybean fields and the prairie strips. They found that prairie strips supported twice the number of aphid-eating insects than soybean fields.<ref>{{cite book |title=Farming with Native Beneficial Insects: Ecological Pest Control Solutions |date=25 September 2019 |publisher=Storey Publishing |isbn=9783319969749 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ExCyDwAAQBAJ&q=prairie%20strips}}</ref>
==References==
{{reflist}}
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
[[Category:Agriculture in the United States]] |
Compassionate conservation | {{Short description|Discipline combining conservation and animal welfare}}
[[File:Eastern Grey Squirrel.jpg|thumb|The [[Eastern gray squirrel]] is considered an [[invasive species]] in some countries. Advocates for compassionate conservation argue that killing individual animals like these is unnecessary.]]
'''Compassionate conservation''' is a discipline combining the fields of [[Conservation (ethic)|conservation]] and [[animal welfare]]. Historically, these two fields have been considered separate<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/ufaw/aw/2010/00000019/00000002/art00001|title=Toward a synthesis of conservation and animal welfare science|last=Fraser|first=D.|date=May 2010|website=Ingenta Connect|language=en|access-date=2020-04-20}}</ref> and sometimes contradictory to each other.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Gray|first=Jenny|date=2018-08-31|title=Challenges of Compassionate Conservation|journal=Journal of Applied Animal Welfare Science|volume=21|issue=sup1|pages=34–42|doi=10.1080/10888705.2018.1513840|issn=1088-8705|pmid=30325231|doi-access=free}}</ref> The foundational principles of compassionate conservation are: "Do No Harm; Individuals Matter; Inclusivity; Peaceful Coexistence".<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Wallach|first1=Arian D.|last2=Bekoff|first2=Marc|last3=Batavia|first3=Chelsea|last4=Nelson|first4=Michael Paul|last5=Ramp|first5=Daniel|date=2018|title=Summoning compassion to address the challenges of conservation|journal=Conservation Biology|language=en|volume=32|issue=6|pages=1255–1265|doi=10.1111/cobi.13126|pmid=29700860|s2cid=23206524|issn=1523-1739|doi-access=free}}</ref>
Compassionate conservationists argue that the conservation movement uses the preservation of species, populations and ecosystems as a measure of success, without explicit concern given to the welfare and [[Intrinsic value (animal ethics)|intrinsic value]] of individual animals.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Ramp|first1=Daniel|last2=Bekoff|first2=Marc|date=2015-03-01|title=Compassion as a Practical and Evolved Ethic for Conservation|url=https://academic.oup.com/bioscience/article/65/3/323/236866|journal=BioScience|language=en|volume=65|issue=3|pages=323–327|doi=10.1093/biosci/biu223|issn=0006-3568|doi-access=free|hdl=10453/34122|hdl-access=free}}</ref> They argue instead, that compassion for all [[sentient beings]] should be what guides conservation actions<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Wallach|first1=Arian D.|last2=Batavia|first2=Chelsea|last3=Bekoff|first3=Marc|last4=Alexander|first4=Shelley|last5=Baker|first5=Liv|last6=Ben‐Ami|first6=Dror|last7=Boronyak|first7=Louise|last8=Cardilini|first8=Adam P. A.|last9=Carmel|first9=Yohay|last10=Celermajer|first10=Danielle|last11=Coghlan|first11=Simon|title=Recognizing animal personhood in compassionate conservation|journal=Conservation Biology|year=2020|volume=34|issue=5|pages=1097–1106|language=en|doi=10.1111/cobi.13494|pmid=32144823|pmc=7540678|issn=1523-1739|doi-access=free}}</ref> and claim that the [[killing of animals]] in the name of conservation goals is unnecessary, as these same objectives can be achieved without killing.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://e360.yale.edu/features/do-conservation-strategies-need-to-be-more-compassionate|title=Do Conservation Strategies Need to Be More Compassionate?|last=Keim|first=Brandon|date=2014-06-04|website=Yale E360|language=en-US|access-date=2020-04-20}}</ref>
Compassionate conservation has been a subject of criticism by some conservationists, who consider the discipline to be harmful to the goals of conservation.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":1" />
== History ==
The international wildlife charity [[Born Free Foundation]], which advocates for the well-being of individual wild animals, used the phrase "compassionate conservation" as the name for a Oxford-based symposium it hosted in 2010.<ref name=":0" /> The Centre for Compassionate Conservation was created, in 2013, at the [[University of Technology Sydney|University of Technology, Sydney]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Gray|first=Jenny|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fXwqDwAAQBAJ|title=Zoo Ethics: The Challenges of Compassionate Conservation|publisher=Csiro Publishing|year=2017|isbn=978-1-4863-0699-2|pages=180|language=en}}</ref> ''Ignoring Nature No More: The Case for Compassionate Conservation'', a collection of essays edited by compassionate conservation advocate [[Marc Bekoff]], was published in the same year.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Ignoring Nature No More: Compassionate Conservation at Work|url=http://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/animal-emotions/201304/ignoring-nature-no-more-compassionate-conservation-work|last=Bekoff|first=Marc|date=2013-04-16|website=Psychology Today|language=en-GB|access-date=2020-05-11}}</ref>
In the years since, further conferences have been held on the topic and advocates have published multiple articles in conservation journals.<ref name=":0">{{Cite news|last=Marris|first=Emma|date=2018-09-26|title=When Conservationists Kill Lots (and Lots) of Animals|work=The Atlantic|url=https://www.theatlantic.com/science/archive/2018/09/is-wildlife-conservation-too-cruel/569719/|access-date=2020-04-27|issn=1072-7825}}</ref>
== Criticism ==
Compassionate conservation has been called "seriously flawed" by certain conservationists, who argue that its implementation is impractical and could lead to negative outcomes for wildlife, ecosystems, humans<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last1=Oommen|first1=Meera Anna|last2=Cooney|first2=Rosie|last3=Ramesh|first3=Madhuri|last4=Archer|first4=Michael|last5=Brockington|first5=Daniel|last6=Buscher|first6=Bram|last7=Fletcher|first7=Robert|last8=Natusch|first8=Daniel J. D.|last9=Vanak|first9=Abi T.|last10=Webb|first10=Grahame|last11=Shanker|first11=Kartik|date=2019|title=The fatal flaws of compassionate conservation|journal=Conservation Biology|volume=33|issue=4|pages=784–787|doi=10.1111/cobi.13329|pmid=30977162|s2cid=109939975 |issn=1523-1739}}</ref> and native biodiversity.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last1=Griffin|first1=Andrea S.|last2=Callen|first2=Alex|last3=Klop-Toker|first3=Kaya|last4=Scanlon|first4=Robert J.|last5=Hayward|first5=Matt W.|date=2020|title=Compassionate Conservation Clashes With Conservation Biology: Should Empathy, Compassion, and Deontological Moral Principles Drive Conservation Practice?|journal=Frontiers in Psychology|language=en|volume=11|page=1139|doi=10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01139|pmid=32536896|pmc=7269110|issn=1664-1078|doi-access=free}}</ref> Others argue that the "do no harm" approach goes "too far" and that put into practice, it would not necessarily lead to positive outcomes for the welfare of individual animals.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Johnson|first1=Paul J.|last2=Adams|first2=Vanessa M.|last3=Armstrong|first3=Doug P.|last4=Baker|first4=Sandra E.|last5=Biggs|first5=Duan|last6=Boitani|first6=Luigi|last7=Cotterill|first7=Alayne|last8=Dale|first8=Emma|last9=O’Donnell|first9=Holly|last10=Douglas|first10=David J. T.|last11=Droge|first11=Egil|date=December 2019|title=Consequences Matter: Compassion in Conservation Means Caring for Individuals, Populations and Species|journal=Animals|language=en|volume=9|issue=12|pages=1115|doi=10.3390/ani9121115|pmid=31835670|pmc=6941047|doi-access=free }}</ref> Andrea S. Griffin et al. argue that compassionate conservation's focus on empathy "is subject to significant biases and that inflexible adherence to moral rules can result in a 'do nothing' approach".<ref name=":1" />
== See also ==
* [[Conservation welfare]]
* [[Opposition to hunting]]
* [[Relationship between animal ethics and environmental ethics]]
* [[Wild animal suffering]]
* [[Wildlife management]]
== References ==
<references />
== External links ==
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20200121050938/http://compassionateconservation.net/ Compassionate Conservation] (archived 21 January 2020)
* [https://www.uts.edu.au/research/centre-compassionate-conservation Centre for Compassionate Conservation]
{{Animal welfare}}
{{Conservation of species}}
[[Category:Animal welfare]]
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
[[Category:Environmental ethics]] |
Invasive species | {{short description|Non-native organism causing damage to an established environment}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=February 2020}}
[[File:Beaver dam in Tierra del Fuego.jpg|thumb|[[Beaver eradication in Tierra del Fuego|North American beaver dam in Tierra del Fuego]]]]
[[File:Kudzu on trees in Atlanta, Georgia.jpg|thumb|[[Kudzu]], [[Atlanta]]]]
[[File:Kanadische Goldrute, Solidago canadensis - Invasives Unkraut.jpg|right|thumb|[[Solidago canadensis|Canada goldenrod]] as a roadside weed in Poland]]
[[File:Vinca spreading along a border.jpg|thumb|''[[Vinca]]'' in a garden<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.hear.org/gcw/species/vinca_major/ |title=Global Compendium of Weeds: ''Vinca major'' |publisher=[[Hawaiian Ecosystems at Risk project]] (HEAR) |access-date=February 13, 2020 |archive-date=March 4, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304030630/http://www.hear.org/gcw/species/vinca_major/ |url-status=live }}</ref>]]
An '''invasive species''' is an [[introduced species]] to an environment that becomes [[overpopulated]] and harms its new environment.{{r|davis}} Invasive species adversely affect [[habitat]]s and [[bioregion]]s, causing ecological, environmental, and/or economic damage. The term can also be used for native species that become harmful to their native environment after human alterations to its [[food web]]. Since the 20th century, invasive species have become a serious economic, social, and environmental threat worldwide.
Invasion of long-established ecosystems by organisms is a natural phenomenon, but [[introduced species|human-facilitated introductions]] have greatly increased the rate, scale, and geographic range of invasion. For millennia, humans have served as both accidental and deliberate dispersal agents, beginning with their [[early human migrations|earliest migrations]], accelerating in the [[Age of Discovery]], and accelerating again with [[international trade]]. Invasive plant species include the [[kudzu]] vine, [[Reynoutria japonica|Japanese knotweed]], and [[Centaurea solstitialis|yellow starthistle]]. Invasive animals include [[European rabbit]]s, [[domestic cat]]s, and [[carp]].
== Terminology ==
{{See also |Glossary of invasion biology terms}}
Invasive species are the subset of established non-native alien or naturalized species that are a threat to native species and biodiversity.<ref name="SandlundSchei2001">{{cite book |author1=Odd Terje Sandlund |author2=Peter Johan Schei |author3=Åslaug Viken |title=Invasive Species and Biodiversity Management |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QHgMqnqaW_YC&pg=PA2 |date=30 June 2001 |publisher=Springer Science & Business Media |isbn=978-0-7923-6876-2 |pages=2– |access-date=November 1, 2020 |archive-date=December 18, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211218042441/https://books.google.com/books?id=QHgMqnqaW_YC&pg=PA2 |url-status=live}}</ref> The term "invasive" is poorly defined and often very subjective.<ref name=neutral/> Invasive species may be plants, animals, fungi, and microbes; some include native species that have invaded human habitats such as farms and landscapes.<ref name="Inderjit2006">{{cite book |author=S. Inderjit |title=Invasive Plants: Ecological and Agricultural Aspects |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=c-aMIwmis-wC&pg=PA252 |date=16 January 2006 |publisher=Springer Science & Business Media |isbn=978-3-7643-7380-1 |pages=252– |access-date=November 1, 2020 |archive-date=December 18, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211218042441/https://books.google.com/books?id=c-aMIwmis-wC&pg=PA252 |url-status=live}}</ref> Some broaden the term to include indigenous or "native" species that have colonized natural areas.<ref name=neutral/> The definition of "native" can be controversial. For example, the ancestors of ''[[wild horse|Equus ferus]]'' (modern horses) [[Evolution of the horse|evolved]] in [[North America]] and radiated to [[Eurasia]] before becoming extinct in North America. Upon being introduced to North America in 1493 by Spanish conquistadors, it is debatable whether the feral horses were native or exotic to the continent of their evolutionary ancestors.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ansp.org/museum/leidy/paleo/equus.php |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120305215318/http://www.ansp.org/museum/leidy/paleo/equus.php |archive-date=March 5, 2012 |title=Ancient American Horses |last=Leidy |first=Joseph |publisher=[[Academy of Natural Sciences of Drexel University |Academy of Natural Sciences]], [[Drexel University]] |date=March 5, 2012 |access-date=January 10, 2019}}</ref>
While invasive species can be studied within many subfields of biology, most research on invasive organisms has been in [[ecology]] and [[biogeography]]. Much of the work has been influenced by [[Charles Sutherland Elton|Charles Elton's]] 1958 book ''The Ecology of Invasion by Animals and Plants'' which created a generalized picture of biological invasions.<ref name=IE>{{cite book |last=Lockwood |first=Julie L. |title=Invasion Ecology |year=2007 |publisher=Blackwell Publishing |page=7 |url=http://www.planta.cn/forum/files_planta/invasion_ecology1_208.pdf |author2=Hoopes, Martha F. |author3=Marchetti, Michael P. |access-date=January 21, 2014 |archive-date=September 24, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924074044/http://www.planta.cn/forum/files_planta/invasion_ecology1_208.pdf}}</ref><ref name=Lowry>{{cite journal |pmid=23404636 |year=2012 |last1=Lowry |first1=E |last2=Rollinson |first2=EJ |last3=Laybourn |first3=AJ |last4=Scott |first4=TE |last5=Aiello-Lammens |first5=ME |last6=Gray |first6=SM |last7=Mickley |first7=J |last8=Gurevitch |first8=J |author-link8=Jessica Gurevitch |title=Biological invasions: A field synopsis, systematic review, and database of the literature |volume=3 |issue=1 |pages=182–96 |doi=10.1002/ece3.431 |pmc=3568853 |journal=[[Ecology and Evolution]]}}</ref> Studies remained sparse until the 1990s.<ref name=Lowry/> This research, largely field observational studies, has disproportionately been concerned with [[terrestrial plant]]s.<ref name=Lowry/> The rapid growth of the field has driven a need to standardize the language used to describe invasive species and events. Despite this, little standard terminology exists; the field itself lacks any official designation but is commonly referred to as "invasion ecology" or more generally "invasion biology".<ref name=IE/><ref name=Lowry/> This lack of standard terminology has arisen due to the interdisciplinary nature of the field which borrows terms from disciplines such as [[agriculture]], [[zoology]], and [[pathology]], as well as due to studies being performed in isolation.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Invasive Species |publisher=National Geographic Society |url=https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/invasive-species |access-date=2022-11-28}}</ref><ref name=IE/>
{|class="wikitable" style="float:right;"
|+Colautti and MacIsaac nomenclature<ref name=neutral/>
|-
! Stage
! Characteristic
|-
|0
|Propagules residing in a donor region
|-
|I
|Traveling
|-
|II
|Introduced
|-
|III
|Localized and numerically rare
|-
|IVa
|Widespread but rare
|-
|IVb
|Localized but dominant
|-
|V
|Widespread and dominant
|}
In an attempt to avoid the ambiguous, subjective, and pejorative vocabulary that so often accompanies discussion of invasive species even in scientific papers, Colautti and MacIsaac proposed a new nomenclature system based on [[biogeography]] rather than on [[taxa]].<ref name=neutral>{{cite journal |last1=Colautti |first1=Robert I. |last2=MacIsaac |first2=Hugh J. |title=A neutral terminology to define 'invasive' species: Defining invasive species |journal=Diversity and Distributions |date=24 February 2004 |volume=10 |issue=2 |pages=135–141 |doi=10.1111/j.1366-9516.2004.00061.x |s2cid=18971654 |doi-access=free }}</ref> By discarding taxonomy, [[human health]], and economic factors, this model focused only on ecological factors. The model evaluated individual populations rather than entire species. It classified each population based on its success in that environment. This model applied equally to indigenous and to introduced species, and did not automatically categorize successful introductions as harmful.<ref name=neutral/>
The USDA's National Invasive Species Information Center defines invasive species very narrowly. According to Executive Order 13112, {{" '}}Invasive species' means an alien species whose introduction does or is likely to cause economic or environmental harm or harm to human health."<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.invasivespeciesinfo.gov/executive-order-13112-section-1-definitions |title=Executive Order 13112 - 1. Definitions |publisher=Ars.usda.gov |access-date=May 27, 2021 |archive-date=June 25, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210625075018/https://www.invasivespeciesinfo.gov/executive-order-13112-section-1-definitions |url-status=live }}</ref>
== Causes ==
Typically, an introduced species must survive at low population densities before it becomes invasive in a new location.<ref name="tilm">{{cite journal |last=Tilman |first=D. |year=2004 |title=Niche tradeoffs, neutrality, and community structure: A stochastic theory of resource competition, invasion, and community assembly |journal=[[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences]] |volume=101 |pages=10854–10861 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0403458101 |pmid=15243158 |issue=30 |pmc=503710 |bibcode=2004PNAS..10110854T |doi-access=free }}</ref> At low population densities, it can be difficult for the introduced species to reproduce and maintain itself in a new location, so a species might reach a location multiple times before it becomes established. Repeated patterns of human movement, such as ships sailing to and from ports or cars driving up and down highways, offer repeated opportunities for establishment (a high [[propagule pressure]]).<ref name="verl">{{cite journal |last=Verling |first=E. |year=2005 |title=Supply-side invasion ecology: characterizing propagule pressure in coastal ecosystems |journal=[[Proceedings of the Royal Society B]] |volume=272 |pages=1249–1256 |doi=10.1098/rspb.2005.3090 |pmid=16024389 |issue=1569 |pmc=1564104}}</ref>
=== Ecosystem-based mechanisms ===
In [[ecosystem]]s, the availability of resources determines the impact of additional species on the ecosystem. Stable ecosystems have a resource equilibrium, which can be changed fundamentally by the arrival of invasive species.<ref name="Byers 2002">{{cite journal |last1=Byers |first1=James E. |title=Impact of non-indigenous species on natives enhanced by anthropogenic alteration of selection regimes |journal=Oikos |date=June 2002 |volume=97 |issue=3 |pages=449–458 |doi=10.1034/j.1600-0706.2002.970316.x |bibcode=2002Oikos..97..449B }}</ref> When changes such as a [[forest fire]] occur, normal [[ecological succession]] favors native [[Graminoid|grasses]] and [[forb]]s. An introduced species that can spread faster than natives can outcompete native species for food, squeezing them out. [[Nitrogen]] and [[phosphorus]] are often the limiting factors in these situations.<ref name="Davis 2000 528–534">{{cite journal |last1=Davis |first1=M.A. |last2=Grime |first2=J.P. |last3=Thompson |first3=K. |s2cid=14573817 |year=2000 |title=Fluctuating resources in plant communities: A general theory of invisibility |journal=[[Journal of Ecology]] |volume=88 |issue=3 |pages=528–534 |doi=10.1046/j.1365-2745.2000.00473.x|doi-access=free |bibcode=2000JEcol..88..528D }}</ref> Every species occupies an [[ecological niche]] in its native ecosystem; some species fill large and varied roles, while others are highly specialized. Invading species may occupy unused niches, or create new ones.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Fath |first=Brian D. |title=Encyclopedia of Ecology |url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaecol00jorg |url-access=limited |publisher=Elsevier Science |edition=1st |year=2008 |isbn=978-0444520333 |location=Amsterdam, the Netherlands |page=[https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaecol00jorg/page/n1122 1089]}}</ref> For example, [[edge effect]]s describe what happens when part of an ecosystem is disturbed, as when land is cleared for [[agriculture]]. The boundary between remaining undisturbed habitat and the newly cleared land itself forms a distinct habitat, creating new winners and losers and possibly hosting species that would not thrive outside the boundary habitat.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Alverson |first1=William S. |last2=Waller |first2=Donald M. |last3=Solheim |first3=Stephen L. |date=1988 |title=Forests Too Deer: Edge Effects in Northern Wisconsin |journal=[[Conservation Biology (journal)|Conservation Biology]] |volume=2 |issue=4 |pages=348–358 |doi=10.1111/j.1523-1739.1988.tb00199.x |jstor=2386294|bibcode=1988ConBi...2..348A }}</ref>
In 1958, [[Charles S. Elton]] claimed that ecosystems with higher [[species diversity]] were less subject to invasive species because fewer niches remained unoccupied.<ref name="elton">{{cite book |last=Elton |first=C.S. |others=Foreword by Daniel Simberloff |title=The Ecology of Invasions by Animals and Plants |orig-date=1958 |year=2000 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |location=Chicago |isbn=978-0-226-20638-7 |page=196}}</ref> Other ecologists later pointed to highly diverse, but heavily invaded ecosystems, arguing that ecosystems with high species diversity were more susceptible to invasion.<ref name=Schell>{{cite journal |last1=Stohlgren |first1=Thomas J. |last2=Binkley |first2=Dan |last3=Chong |first3=Geneva W. |last4=Kalkhan |first4=Mohammed A. |last5=Schell |first5=Lisa D. |last6=Bull |first6=Kelly A. |last7=Otsuki |first7=Yuka |last8=Newman |first8=Gregory |last9=Bashkin |first9=Michael |last10=Son |first10=Yowhan |display-authors=6 |title=Exotic Plant Species Invade Hot Spots of Native Plant Diversity |journal=Ecological Monographs |date=February 1999 |volume=69 |issue=1 |pages=25–46 |doi=10.1890/0012-9615(1999)069[0025:EPSIHS]2.0.CO;2 }}</ref> This debate hinged on the [[Scale (spatial)|spatial scale]] of invasion studies. Small-scale studies tended to show a negative relationship between [[Biodiversity|diversity]] and invasion, while large-scale studies tended to show the reverse, perhaps a side-effect of invasives' ability to capitalize on increased resource availability and weaker species interactions that are more common when larger samples are considered.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Byers |first1=James E. |last2=Noonburg |first2=Erik G. |title=Scale Dependent Effects of Biotic Resistance to Biological Invasion |journal=Ecology |date=June 2003 |volume=84 |issue=6 |pages=1428–1433 |doi=10.1890/02-3131 |bibcode=2003Ecol...84.1428B }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Levine |first1=Jonathan M. |title=Species Diversity and Biological Invasions: Relating Local Process to Community Pattern |journal=Science |date=5 May 2000 |volume=288 |issue=5467 |pages=852–854 |doi=10.1126/science.288.5467.852 |pmid=10797006 |bibcode=2000Sci...288..852L }}</ref> However, this pattern does not seem to hold true for invasive vertebrates.{{r|ivey2019}}
[[File:Brown tree snake (Boiga irregularis) (8387580552).jpg|thumb|right|The [[brown tree snake]] has had an impact on the native bird population of the island ecosystem of Guam.]]
[[Island ecosystem]]s may be more prone to invasion because their species face few strong competitors and predators, and because their distance from colonizing species populations makes them more likely to have "open" niches.<ref name="stach">{{cite book |last=Stachowicz |first=J.J. |editor=D.F. Sax |editor2=J.J. Stachowicz |editor3=S.D. Gaines |title=Species Invasions: Insights into Ecology, Evolution, and Biogeography |publisher=Sinauer Associates |location=Sunderland, Massachusetts |isbn=978-0-87893-811-7 |chapter=Species invasions and the relationships between species diversity, community saturation, and ecosystem functioning |year=2005 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/speciesinvasions0000unse }}</ref> For example, native bird populations on [[Guam]] have been decimated by the invasive [[brown tree snake]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Brown Tree Snake |url=https://www.invasivespeciesinfo.gov/profile/brown-tree-snake |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190824120114/https://www.invasivespeciesinfo.gov/profile/brown-tree-snake |archive-date=24 August 2019 |website=USDA National Invasive Species Information Center}}</ref>
In [[Invasive species in New Zealand|New Zealand]] the first invasive species were the dogs and [[Polynesian rat|rats]] brought by Polynesian settlers around 1300. These and other introductions devastated endemic New Zealand species.<ref>{{cite book |last=Howe |first=K. R. |title=The Quest for Origins |year=2003 |page=179 |publisher=Penguin Books |isbn=0-14-301857-4}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=4 June 2008 |title=Rat remains help date New Zealand's colonisation |work=New Scientist |url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/mg19826595-200-rat-remains-help-date-new-zealands-colonisation/?ignored=irrelevant |url-status=live |url-access=subscription |access-date=23 June 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220611120716/https://www.newscientist.com/article/mg19826595-200-rat-remains-help-date-new-zealands-colonisation/?ignored=irrelevant |archive-date=11 June 2022}}</ref> The colonization of [[Madagascar]] brought similar harm to its ecosystems.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Goodman |first1=Steven M. |date=1997 |title=The birds of southeastern Madagascar |journal=Fieldiana |issue=87 |doi=10.5962/bhl.title.3415 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Logging has caused harm directly by destroying habitat, and has allowed non-native species such as [[Opuntia|prickly pear]] and [[Acacia dealbata|silver wattle]] to invade.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Brown |first1=Kerry A. |last2=Gurevitch |first2=Jessica |title=Long-term impacts of logging on forest diversity in Madagascar |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |date=20 April 2004 |volume=101 |issue=16 |pages=6045–6049 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0401456101 |pmid=15067121 |pmc=395920 |bibcode=2004PNAS..101.6045B |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kull |first1=Ca |last2=Tassin |first2=J |last3=Carriere |first3=Sm |title=Approaching invasive species in Madagascar |journal=Madagascar Conservation & Development |date=26 February 2015 |volume=9 |issue=2 |pages=60 |doi=10.4314/mcd.v9i2.2 |doi-access=free }}</ref> The [[Eichhornia crassipes|water hyacinth]] forms dense mats on water surfaces, limiting light penetration and hence harming aquatic organisms, and causing substantial management costs.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Villamagna |first1=A. M. |last2=Murphy |first2=B. R. |title=Ecological and socio-economic impacts of invasive water hyacinth (''Eichhornia crassipes''): a review |journal=Freshwater Biology |date=February 2010 |volume=55 |issue=2 |pages=282–298 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2427.2009.02294.x |bibcode=2010FrBio..55..282V }}</ref><ref name="Rakotoarisoa 365–379">{{cite journal |last1=Rakotoarisoa |first1=T. F. |last2=Richter |first2=T. |last3=Rakotondramanana |first3=H. |last4=Mantilla-Contreras |first4=J. |title=Turning a Problem Into Profit: Using Water Hyacinth (''Eichhornia crassipes'') for Making Handicrafts at Lake Alaotra, Madagascar |journal=Economic Botany |date=December 2016 |volume=70 |issue=4 |pages=365–379 |doi=10.1007/s12231-016-9362-y |s2cid=255557151 |id = {{s2cid|18820290}} }}</ref>
Primary geomorphological effects of invasive plants are bioconstruction and bioprotection. For example, kudzu (''[[Pueraria montana]]''), a vine native to Asia, was widely introduced in the [[Southeastern US|southeastern United States]] in the early 20th century to control [[soil erosion]]. The primary geomorphological effects of invasive animals are [[bioturbation]], [[bioerosion]], and bioconstruction. For example, invasions of the Chinese mitten crab (''[[Eriocheir sinensis]]'') have resulted in higher bioturbation and bioerosion rates.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Fei |first1=Songlin |last2=Phillips |first2=Jonathan |last3=Shouse |first3=Michael |title=Biogeomorphic Impacts of Invasive Species |journal=Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics |date=23 November 2014 |volume=45 |issue=1 |pages=69–87 |doi=10.1146/annurev-ecolsys-120213-091928 |doi-access=free }}</ref>
A native species can become harmful and effectively invasive to its native environment after human alterations to its [[food web]]. This has been the case with the purple sea urchin (''[[Strongylocentrotus purpuratus]]''), which has decimated kelp forests along the northern California coast due to overharvesting of its natural predator, the California sea otter (''[[Sea otter|Enhydra lutris]]'').<ref>{{Cite web |title=Plague of purple sea urchins ravages California's offshore ecosystem, heads to Oregon |website=[[Los Angeles Times]]|date=October 24, 2019|url=https://www.latimes.com/california/story/2019-10-24/purple-sea-urchins-california-oregon-coasts|access-date=July 14, 2021 |archive-date=July 14, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210714030639/https://www.latimes.com/california/story/2019-10-24/purple-sea-urchins-california-oregon-coasts |url-status=live}}</ref>
===Species-based mechanisms===
[[File:Riesenknoeterich.jpg|right|thumb|Japanese knotweed (''[[Reynoutria japonica]]'') is considered one of the [[100 of the World's Worst Invasive Alien Species|world's worst invasive species]].]]
[[File:Ocicat-woodpecker.jpg|upright|thumb|Cats (here, killing a [[woodpecker]]) are [[Cats in Australia|considered invasive species]] in Australia and [[Cat predation on wildlife|negatively impact wildlife]] worldwide.]]
Invasive species appear to have specific traits or specific combinations of traits that allow them to outcompete [[native species]]. In some cases, the competition is about rates of growth and reproduction. In other cases, species interact with each other more directly. One study found that 86% of invasive species could be identified from such traits alone.<ref name="kolar">{{cite journal |last=Kolar |first=C.S. |year=2001 |title=Progress in invasion biology: predicting invaders|journal=[[Trends in Ecology & Evolution]] |volume=16 |issue=4 |pages=199–204 |doi=10.1016/S0169-5347(01)02101-2 |pmid=11245943|s2cid=5796978 }}</ref> Another study found that invasive species often had only a few of the traits, and that noninvasive species had these also.<ref name="kolar"/><ref name="theb">{{cite journal |last=Thebaud |first=C. |year=1996 |title=Assessing why two introduced Conyza differ in their ability to invade Mediterranean old fields |journal=Ecology |volume=77 |issue=3 |pages=791–804 |doi=10.2307/2265502 |jstor=2265502 |bibcode=1996Ecol...77..791T }}</ref><ref name="reichard">{{cite journal |last=Reichard |first=S.H. |s2cid=29816498 |year=1997 |title=Predicting invasions of woody plants introduced into North America |journal=[[Conservation Biology (journal)|Conservation Biology]] |volume=11 |issue=1 |pages=193–203 |doi=10.1046/j.1523-1739.1997.95473.x |pmc=7162396}}</ref> Common invasive species traits include fast growth and rapid [[reproduction]], such as [[vegetative reproduction]] in plants;<ref name="kolar"/><!--high [[Biological dispersal|dispersal]] ability;--><!--[[Phenotypic plasticity|Phenotype plasticity]];--><!--[[ecological competence]];--><!--[[Generalist and specialist species|generalist]];--> association with humans;<ref name="Williams">{{cite book |last=Williams |first=J. D. |year=1998 |chapter=Non-indigenous Species |title=Status and Trends of the Nation's Biological Resources |location=[[Reston, Virginia]] |pages=117–29 |publisher=[[United States Geological Survey]] |isbn=978-0-16-053285-6 |id={{DTIC|ADA368849}} }}</ref> and prior successful invasions.<ref name="ewell">{{cite journal |last=Ewell |first=J.J. |year=1999 |title=Deliberate introductions of species: Research needs – Benefits can be reaped, but risks are high |journal=[[BioScience]] |volume=49 |pages=619–630 |doi=10.2307/1313438 |jstor=1313438 |issue=8 |doi-access=free }}</ref> [[Domestic cat]]s are effective predators; they have become feral and invasive in places such as the [[Florida Keys]].<ref name="Cove Gardner 2018">{{cite journal |last1=Cove |first1=Michael V. |last2=Gardner |first2=Beth |last3=Simons |first3=Theodore R. |last4=Kays |first4=Roland |last5=O'Connell |first5=Allan F. |s2cid=3536174 |date=February 1, 2018 |title=Free-ranging domestic cats (''Felis catus'') on public lands: estimating density, activity, and diet in the Florida Keys |journal=[[Biological Invasions]] |volume=20 |issue=2 |pages=333–344 |doi=10.1007/s10530-017-1534-x|bibcode=2018BiInv..20..333C }}</ref>
An introduced species might become invasive if it can outcompete native species for resources. If these species evolved under great [[Competition (biology)|competition]] or [[predation]], then the new environment may host fewer able competitors, allowing the invader to proliferate. [[Ecosystem]]s used to their fullest capacity by native species can be modeled as [[zero-sum]] systems, in which any gain for the invader is a loss for the native. However, such [[unilateral]] competitive superiority (and extinction of native species with increased populations of the invader) is not the rule.<ref name="Schell"/><ref name="sax">{{cite journal |last1=Sax |first1=Dov F. |last2=Gaines |first2=Steven D. |last3=Brown |first3=James H. |title=Species Invasions Exceed Extinctions on Islands Worldwide: A Comparative Study of Plants and Birds |journal=The American Naturalist |date=December 2002 |volume=160 |issue=6 |pages=766–783 |doi=10.1086/343877 |pmid=18707464 |s2cid=8628360 }}</ref>
[[File:Lantana Invasion of abandoned citrus plantation Sdey Hemed Israel.JPG|right|thumb|upright=1.8|[[Lantana]], abandoned [[citrus grove|citrus]], [[Sdei Hemed]]]]
An invasive species might be able to use resources previously unavailable to native species, such as deep water accessed by a long [[taproot]], or to live on previously uninhabited soil types. For example, [[Aegilops triuncialis|barbed goatgrass]] was introduced to [[California]] on [[serpentine soil]]s, which have low water-retention, low nutrient levels, a high [[magnesium]]/[[calcium]] ratio, and possible [[Heavy metal (chemistry)|heavy metal]] toxicity. Plant populations on these soils tend to show low density, but goatgrass can form dense stands on these soils and crowd out native species.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Huenneke |first1=Laura Foster |last2=Hamburg |first2=Steven P. |last3=Koide |first3=Roger |last4=Mooney |first4=Harold A. |last5=Vitousek |first5=Peter M. |title=Effects of Soil Resources on Plant Invasion and Community Structure in Californian Serpentine Grassland |journal=Ecology |date=1990 |volume=71 |issue=2 |pages=478–491 |doi=10.2307/1940302 |jstor=1940302 |bibcode=1990Ecol...71..478H }}</ref>
Invasive species might alter their environment by releasing chemical compounds, modifying [[abiotic]] factors, or affecting the behaviour of [[herbivore]]s, impacting on other species. Some, like ''[[Bryophyllum daigremontianum|Kalanchoe daigremontana]]'', produce [[allelopathy|allelopathic compounds]] that inhibit competitors.<ref name="HERRERAFERRER-PARIS2018">{{cite journal |title=An Invasive Succulent Plant (Kalanchoe daigremontiana) Influences Soil Carbon and Nitrogen Mineralization in a Neotropical Semiarid Zone |journal=[[Pedosphere]] |volume=28 |issue=4 |year=2018 |pages=632–643 |doi=10.1016/S1002-0160(18)60029-3 |last1=Herrera |first1=Ileana |last2=Ferrer-Paris |first2=José R. |last3=Benzo |first3=Diana |last4=Flores |first4=Saúl |last5=García |first5=Belkis |last6=Nassar |first6=Jafet M. |s2cid=104843296}}</ref> Others like ''[[Stapelia gigantea]]'' [[ecological facilitation|facilitate]] the growth of seedlings of other species in arid environments by providing appropriate [[microclimate]]s and preventing herbivores from eating seedlings.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Herrera |first1=Ileana |last2=Ferrer-Paris |first2=José R. |last3=Hernández-Rosas |first3=José I. |last4=Nassar |first4=Jafet M. |title=Impact of two invasive succulents on native-seedling recruitment in Neotropical arid environments |journal=[[Journal of Arid Environments]] |date=2016 |volume=132 |pages=15–25 |doi=10.1016/j.jaridenv.2016.04.007 |bibcode=2016JArEn.132...15H}}</ref>
Changes in [[fire regime]]ns are another form of facilitation. ''[[Bromus tectorum]]'', originally from Eurasia, is highly fire-adapted. It spreads rapidly after burning, and increases the frequency and intensity of fires by providing large amounts of dry [[detritus]] during the fire season in western North America. Where it is widespread, it has altered the local fire regimen so much that native plants cannot survive the frequent fires, allowing it to become dominant in its introduced range.<ref name="Brooks 2004 677–688">{{cite journal |last1=Brooks |first1=Matthew L. |last2=D'Antonio |first2=Carla M. |last3=Richardson |first3=David M. |last4=Grace |first4=James B. |last5=Keeley |first5=Jon E. |last6=DiTOMASO |first6=Joseph M. |last7=Hobbs |first7=Richard J. |last8=Pellant |first8=Mike |last9=Pyke |first9=David |title=Effects of Invasive Alien Plants on Fire Regimes |journal=BioScience |date=2004 |volume=54 |issue=7 |pages=677 |doi=10.1641/0006-3568(2004)054[0677:EOIAPO]2.0.CO;2 |s2cid=13769125 |doi-access=free }}</ref>
[[Ecological facilitation]] occurs where one species physically modifies a habitat in ways advantageous to other species. For example, [[zebra mussel]]s increase habitat complexity on lake floors, providing crevices in which [[invertebrate]]s live. This increase in complexity, together with the nutrition provided by the waste products of mussel [[filter feeder|filter-feeding]], increases the density and diversity of [[Benthic zone|benthic]] invertebrate communities.<ref name="silv">{{cite journal |last1=Silver Botts |first1=P. |last2=Patterson |first2=B.A. |last3=Schlosser |first3=D. |year=1996 |title=Zebra mussel effects on benthic invertebrates: Physical or biotic? |journal=[[Journal of the North American Benthological Society]] |issue=2 |volume=15 |doi=10.2307/1467947 |jstor=1467947 |pages=179–184 |s2cid=84660670 }}</ref>
Introduced species may spread rapidly and unpredictably.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Keddy |first=Paul A. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ncloDgAAQBAJ&q=Plant+Ecology |title=Plant Ecology |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2017 |isbn=978-1-107-11423-4 |pages=343 |access-date=October 6, 2020 |archive-date=August 16, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210816224645/https://books.google.com/books?id=ncloDgAAQBAJ&q=Plant+Ecology |url-status=live}}</ref> When [[Population bottleneck|bottlenecks]] and [[founder effect]]s cause a great decrease in the population size and may constrict [[genetic variation]],<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Xu |first1=Cheng-Yuan |last2=Tang |first2=Shaoqing |last3=Fatemi |first3=Mohammad |last4=Gross |first4=Caroline L. |last5=Julien |first5=Mic H. |last6=Curtis |first6=Caitlin |last7=van Klinken |first7=Rieks D. |date=September 1, 2015 |title=Population structure and genetic diversity of invasive Phyla canescens: implications for the evolutionary potential |journal=[[Ecosphere (journal)|Ecosphere]] |volume=6 |issue=9 |pages=art162 |doi=10.1890/ES14-00374.1 |doi-access=free}}</ref> the individuals begin to show additive variance as opposed to epistatic variance. This conversion can lead to increased variance in the founding populations, which permits [[rapid evolution]].<ref name="Prentis 2008 288-294">{{cite journal |last=Prentis |first=Peter |title=Adaptive evolution in invasive species |journal=[[Trends in Plant Science]]|volume=13 |issue=6 |pages=288–294 |doi=10.1016/j.tplants.2008.03.004 |pmid=18467157 |year=2008|hdl=10019.1/112332 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> Selection may then act on the capacity to disperse as well as on physiological tolerance to new stressors in the environment, such as changed temperature and different predators and prey.<ref name="Eunmi 2002 386-391">{{cite journal |last=Lee |first=Carol Eunmi |title=Evolutionary genetics of invasive species |journal=[[Trends in Ecology & Evolution]]|volume=17 |issue=8 |pages=386–391 |doi=10.1016/s0169-5347(02)02554-5 |year=2002}}</ref>
Rapid adaptive evolution through intraspecific phenotypic plasticity, [[Exaptation|pre-adaptation]] and post-introduction evolution lead to offspring that have higher fitness. Critically, plasticity permits changes to better suit the individual to its environment. Pre-adaptations and evolution after the introduction reinforce the success of the introduced species.<ref name="Zenni 2013 635-644">{{cite journal |last=Zenni |first=R.D. |title=Adaptive Evolution and Phenotypic Plasticity During Naturalization and Spread of Invasive Species: Implications for Tree Invasion Biology |journal=[[Biological Invasions]] |year=2013 |volume=16 |issue=3 |pages=635–644 |doi=10.1007/s10530-013-0607-8 |s2cid=82590}}</ref>
The [[enemy release hypothesis]] states that evolution leads to ecological balance in every ecosystem. No single species can occupy a majority of an ecosystem due to the presences of competitors, predators, and diseases. Introduced species moved to a novel habitat can become invasive, with rapid population growth, when these controls do not exist in the new ecosystem.{{r|amstutz2018}}
==Vectors==
Non-native species have many [[Vector (epidemiology)|vector]]s, but most are associated with human activity. Natural [[Range (biology)|range]] extensions are common, but humans often carry specimens faster and over greater distances than natural forces.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Cassey |first=P |year=2005 |title=Concerning Invasive Species: Reply to Brown and Sax|journal=[[Austral Ecology]] |volume=30|issue=4 |pages=475–480 |doi=10.1111/j.1442-9993.2005.01505.x|bibcode=2005AusEc..30..475C |hdl=10019.1/119884 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> An early human vector occurred when prehistoric humans introduced the Pacific rat (''Rattus exulans'') to Polynesia.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Matisoo-Smith |first=E. |year=1998 |title=Patterns of prehistoric human mobility in Polynesia indicated by mtDNA from the Pacific rat|journal=[[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America]] |volume=95 |pages=15145–15150 |doi=10.1073/pnas.95.25.15145 |pmid=9844030 |issue=25 |pmc=24590 |bibcode=1998PNAS...9515145M |doi-access=free }}</ref>
[[File:EriocheirSinensis1.jpg|thumb|left|[[Chinese mitten crab]] ]]
Vectors include plants or seeds imported for [[horticulture]]. The [[pet trade]] moves animals across borders, where they can escape and become invasive. Organisms stow away on transport vehicles. Incidental human assisted transfer is the main cause of introductions{{snd}}other than for [[polar regions of Earth|polar regions]].<ref name="Essl-et-al-2020">{{cite journal |last1=Essl |first1=Franz |last2=Lenzner |first2=Bernd |last3=Bacher |first3=Sven |last4=Bailey |first4=Sarah |last5=Capinha |first5=Cesar |last6=Daehler |first6=Curtis |last7=Dullinger |first7=Stefan |last8=Genovesi |first8=Piero |last9=Hui |first9=Cang |last10=Hulme |first10=Philip E. |last11=Jeschke |first11=Jonathan M. |last12=Katsanevakis |first12=Stelios |display-authors=6 |title=Drivers of future alien species impacts: An expert-based assessment |journal=Global Change Biology |date=September 2020 |volume=26 |issue=9 |pages=4880–4893 |doi=10.1111/gcb.15199 |pmid=32663906 |pmc=7496498 |bibcode=2020GCBio..26.4880E }}</ref> Diseases may be vectored by invasive insects: the [[Diaphorina citri|Asian citrus psyllid]] carries the bacterial disease [[Citrus greening disease|citrus greening]].<ref name=r2/> The arrival of invasive [[propagule]]s to a new site is a function of the site's invasibility.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Leung |first=B. |year=2007 |title=The risk of establishment of aquatic invasive species: joining invasibility and propagule pressure |journal=[[Proceedings of the Royal Society B]] |volume=274 |pages=2733–2739|doi=10.1098/rspb.2007.0841 |pmid=17711834 |issue=1625 |pmc=2275890}}</ref>
Many invasive species, once they are dominant in the area, become essential to the ecosystem of that area, and their removal could be harmful.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Zavaleta |first1=Erika S. |last2=Hobbs |first2=Richard J. |last3=Mooney |first3=Harold A. |title=Viewing invasive species removal in a whole-ecosystem context |journal=Trends in Ecology & Evolution |date=August 2001 |volume=16 |issue=8 |pages=454–459 |doi=10.1016/s0169-5347(01)02194-2 }}</ref> Economics plays a major role in exotic species introduction. High demand for the valuable [[Chinese mitten crab]] is one explanation for the possible intentional release of the species in foreign waters.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Seinfeld |first=John H. |title=Marine Pollution and Climate Change |publisher=[[John Wiley & Sons]] |year=2016 |isbn=9781482299441 |editor-last=Arias |editor-first=Andres Hugo |editor-last2=Marcovecchio |editor-first2=Jorge Eduardo}}</ref>
=== Within the aquatic environment ===
Maritime trade has rapidly affected the way marine organisms are transported within the ocean; new means of species transport include hull fouling and ballast water transport. In fact, Molnar et al. 2008 documented the pathways of hundreds of marine invasive species and found that shipping was the dominant mechanism for the transfer of invasive species.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Molnar |first1=Jennifer L. |last2=Gamboa |first2=Rebecca L. |last3=Revenga |first3=Carmen |last4=Spalding |first4=Mark D. |title=Assessing the global threat of invasive species to marine biodiversity |journal=Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment |date=November 2008 |volume=6 |issue=9 |pages=485–492 |doi=10.1890/070064 |bibcode=2008FrEE....6..485M }}</ref>
[[File:CSIRO ScienceImage 1010 Discharging ballast water.jpg |thumb |Cargo ship [[sailing ballast |de-ballasting]] ]]
Many marine organisms can attach themselves to vessel hulls. Such organisms are easily transported from one body of water to another, and are a significant risk factor for a biological invasion event.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Drake |first=John |date=2007 |title=Hull fouling is a risk factor for intercontinental species exchange in aquatic ecosystems |journal=[[Aquatic Invasions]] |volume=2 |issue=2 |pages=121–131 |doi=10.3391/ai.2007.2.2.7 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Controlling for vessel hull fouling is voluntary and there are no regulations currently in place to manage hull fouling. However, the governments of [[California]] and [[New Zealand]] have announced more stringent control for vessel hull fouling within their respective jurisdictions.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.gard.no/web/updates/content/24305557/biofouling-moves-up-the-regulatory-agenda. |title=Biofouling moves up the regulatory agenda – GARD |website=www.gard.no |access-date=September 19, 2018 |archive-date=January 13, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200113231807/http://www.gard.no/web/updates/content/24305557/biofouling-moves-up-the-regulatory-agenda. |url-status=live}}</ref>
Another vector of non-native aquatic species is [[Ballast water discharge and the environment|ballast water]] taken up at sea and released in port by transoceanic vessels.<ref name=cargo>{{cite web |url=http://www.jsonline.com/news/wisconsin/98880204.html |last=Egan |first=Dan |work=[[Journal Sentinel]] |date=October 31, 2005 |title=Noxious cargo |access-date=April 22, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111021122316/http://www.jsonline.com/news/wisconsin/98880204.html |archive-date=October 21, 2011 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |doi=10.1145/2623330.2623364 |chapter=Improving management of aquatic invasions by integrating shipping network, ecological, and environmental data |title=Proceedings of the 20th ACM SIGKDD international conference on Knowledge discovery and data mining |year=2014 |last1=Xu |first1=Jian |last2=Wickramarathne |first2=Thanuka L. |last3=Chawla |first3=Nitesh V. |last4=Grey |first4=Erin K. |last5=Steinhaeuser |first5=Karsten |last6=Keller |first6=Reuben P. |last7=Drake |first7=John M. |last8=Lodge |first8=David M. |pages=1699–1708 |isbn=978-1-4503-2956-9 |s2cid=2371978 }}</ref> Some 10,000 species are transported via ballast water each day.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Streftaris |first1=N |last2=Zenetos |first2=Argyro |last3=Papathanassiou |first3=Enangelos |date=2005 |title=Globalisation in marine ecosystems: The story of non-indigenous marine species across European seas |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/253862066 |journal=[[Oceanography and Marine Biology]] |volume=43 |pages=419–453 |access-date=September 19, 2018 |archive-date=September 20, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180920011308/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/253862066 |url-status=live}}</ref> Many of these are harmful. For example, freshwater [[zebra mussel]]s from Eurasia most likely reached the [[Great Lakes]] via ballast water.{{r|pnwaquaticinv}} These outcompete native organisms for oxygen and food, and can be transported in the small puddle left in a supposedly empty ballast tank.<ref name=cargo/> Regulations attempt to mitigate such risks,<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.glc.org/wp-content/uploads/GLC-BW-Reg-Summary-11.14.16.pdf |title=Status of Ballast Water Discharge Regulations in the Great Lakes Region |last=Great Lake Commission |access-date=September 19, 2018 |archive-date=February 12, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200212212419/http://www.glc.org/wp-content/uploads/GLC-BW-Reg-Summary-11.14.16.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.dco.uscg.mil/Portals/9/DCO%20Documents/5p/5ps/NVIC/2018/NVIC-01_18.pdf |title=Ballast Water Management for Control of Non-Indigenous Species in Waters of the United States |last=USCG |access-date=September 19, 2018 |archive-date=May 11, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200511133624/https://www.dco.uscg.mil/Portals/9/DCO%20Documents/5p/5ps/NVIC/2018/NVIC-01_18.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref> not always successfully.{{r |trainer2012}}
[[Climate change]] is causing an increase in [[ocean temperature]]. This in turn will cause range shifts in organisms,<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Occhipinti-Ambrogi |first=Anna |date=2007 |title=Global change and marine communities: Alien species and climate change |journal=[[Marine Pollution Bulletin]] |volume=55 |issue=7–9 |pages=342–352 |doi=10.1016/j.marpolbul.2006.11.014 |pmid=17239404 |bibcode=2007MarPB..55..342O }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Rahel |first1=Frank J. |last2=Olden |first2=Julian D. |title=Assessing the Effects of Climate Change on Aquatic Invasive Species |journal=Conservation Biology |date=June 2008 |volume=22 |issue=3 |pages=521–533 |doi=10.1111/j.1523-1739.2008.00950.x |pmid=18577081 |s2cid=313824 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2008ConBi..22..521R }}</ref> which could harm the environment as new species interactions occur. For example, organisms in a ballast tank of a ship traveling from the temperate zone through tropical waters may experience temperature fluctuations as much as 20 °C.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hua |first1=J. |last2=Hwang |first2=W.H. |date=2012 |title=Effects of voyage routing on the survival of microbes in ballast water |journal=[[Ocean Engineering]] |volume=42 |pages=165–175 |doi=10.1016/j.oceaneng.2012.01.013}}</ref> Heat challenges during transport may enhance the stress tolerance of species in their non-native range, by selecting for genotypes that will survive a second applied heat stress, such as increased ocean temperature in the founder population.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Lenz |first1=Mark |last2=Ahmed |first2=Yasser |last3=Canning-Clode |first3=João |last4=Díaz |first4=Eliecer |last5=Eichhorn |first5=Sandra |last6=Fabritzek |first6=Armin G. |last7=da Gama |first7=Bernardo A. P. |last8=Garcia |first8=Marie |last9=von Juterzenka |first9=Karen |s2cid=53082967 |date=May 24, 2018 |title=Heat challenges can enhance population tolerance to thermal stress in mussels: a potential mechanism by which ship transport can increase species invasiveness |journal=[[Biological Invasions]] |volume=20 |issue=11 |pages=3107–3122 |doi=10.1007/s10530-018-1762-8|bibcode=2018BiInv..20.3107L }}</ref>
=== Effects of wildfire and firefighting ===
Invasive species often exploit disturbances to an ecosystem ([[wildfire]]s, [[road]]s, [[foot trail]]s) to colonize an area. Large wildfires can [[Sterilization (microbiology)|sterilize]] soils, while adding [[nutrient]]s.<ref name="Davis 2000 528–534"/>
Invasive plants that can regenerate from their roots then have an advantage over natives that rely on seeds for propagation.<ref name="Brooks 2004 677–688"/>
==Adverse effects==
{{Pollution sidebar|Biological}}
Invasive species can affect the invaded habitats and bioregions adversely, causing ecological, environmental, or economic damage.{{r|ehrenfeld2010}}
===Ecological===
The European Union defines "Invasive Alien Species" as those that are outside their natural distribution area, and that threaten [[biological diversity]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://ec.europa.eu/environment/nature/invasivealien/docs/1_EN_resume_impact_assesment_part1_v3.pdf |title=Communication From The Commission To The Council, The European Parliament, The European Economic And Social Committee And The Committee Of The Regions Towards An EU Strategy On Invasive Species |access-date=May 17, 2011 |archive-date=March 5, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305033628/http://ec.europa.eu/environment/nature/invasivealien/docs/1_EN_resume_impact_assesment_part1_v3.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.2298/ZMSPN1834019L |title=Non-native and invasive tree species - their impact on biodiversity loss |year=2018 |last1=Lakicevic |first1=Milena |last2=Mladenovic |first2=Emina |journal=[[Zbornik Matice Srpske Za Prirodne Nauke]] |issue=134 |pages=19–26 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Biotic invasion is one of the five top drivers for global [[biodiversity loss]], and is increasing because of tourism and [[globalization]].<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://www.nap.edu/read/10259/chapter/1 |year=2002 |doi=10.17226/10259 |pmid=25032288 |isbn=978-0-309-08264-8 |author1=National Research Council (US) Committee on the Scientific Basis for Predicting the Invasive Potential of Nonindigenous Plants Plant Pests in the United States |title=Predicting Invasions of Nonindigenous Plants and Plant Pests |access-date=November 17, 2019 |archive-date=November 17, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191117204337/https://www.nap.edu/read/10259/chapter/1 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1038/nature14258 |title=Defining the Anthropocene |year=2015 |last1=Lewis |first1=Simon L. |last2=Maslin |first2=Mark A. |s2cid=205242896 |journal=[[Nature (journal) |Nature]] |volume=519 |issue=7542 |pages=171–180 |pmid=25762280 |bibcode=2015Natur.519..171L}}</ref> This may be particularly true in inadequately regulated [[fresh water]] systems, though [[quarantine]]s and [[ballast water]] rules have improved the situation.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.millenniumassessment.org/documents/document.354.aspx.pdf |title=Ecosystems and Human Well-being: Biodiversity Synthesis |author=Millennium Ecosystem Assessment |year=2005 |publisher=[[World Resources Institute]] |author-link=Millennium Ecosystem Assessment |access-date=September 18, 2007 |archive-date=October 14, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191014033601/http://www.millenniumassessment.org/documents/document.354.aspx.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref>
[[File:Gator and Python.jpg |thumb |right |[[American alligator]] combatting a [[Burmese python in Florida |Burmese python]] in Florida ]]
Invasive species may drive local native species to extinction via [[Competition (biology) |competitive]] exclusion, [[Ecological niche |niche]] displacement, or [[hybrid (biology) |hybrid]]isation with related native species. Therefore, besides their economic ramifications, alien invasions may result in extensive changes in the structure, composition and global distribution of the biota at sites of introduction, leading ultimately to the homogenisation of the world's fauna and flora and the [[loss of biodiversity]].<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1098/rspb.2012.1651 |title=Pattern and process of biotic homogenization in the New Pangaea |year=2012 |last1=Baiser |first1=Benjamin |last2=Olden |first2=Julian D. |last3=Record |first3=Sydne |last4=Lockwood |first4=Julie L. |last5=McKinney |first5=Michael L. |journal=[[Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences]] |volume=279 |issue=1748 |pages=4772–4777 |pmid=23055062 |pmc=3497087}}</ref><ref name="Odendaal 2008">{{cite journal |last1=Odendaal |first1=L. J. |last2=Haupt |first2=T. M. |last3=Griffiths |first3=C. L. |year=2008 |title=The alien invasive land snail ''Theba pisana'' in the West Coast National Park: Is there cause for concern? |journal=[[Koedoe]] |volume=50 |issue=1 |pages=93–98 |doi=10.4102/koedoe.v50i1.153 |doi-access=free }}</ref> It is difficult to unequivocally attribute extinctions to a species invasion, though there is for example strong evidence that the extinction of about 90 amphibian species was caused by the [[chytridiomycosis|chytrid fungus]] spread by international trade.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1038/s41579-020-0335-x |title=Chytrid fungi and global amphibian declines |year=2020 |last1=Fisher |first1=Matthew C. |last2=Garner |first2=Trenton W. J. |s2cid=211266075 |journal=[[Nature Reviews Microbiology]] |volume=18 |issue=6 |pages=332–343 |pmid=32099078 |url=https://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/id/eprint/10092667/1/NRMICRO-19-244_FINAL_ACCEPTED.pdf |hdl=10044/1/78596 |hdl-access=free |access-date=September 28, 2020 |archive-date=November 7, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201107202307/https://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/id/eprint/10092667/1/NRMICRO-19-244_FINAL_ACCEPTED.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref>
Multiple successive introductions of different non-native species can worsen the total effect, as with the introductions of the [[amethyst gem clam]] and the [[Carcinus maenas|European green crab]]. The gem clam was introduced into California's [[Bodega Bay|Bodega Harbor]] from the US East Coast a century ago. On its own, it never displaced native clams (''Nutricola'' spp.). In the mid-1990s, the introduction of the European green crab resulted in an increase of the amethyst gem at the expense of the native clams.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Grosholz |first=E.D. |year=2005 |title=Recent biological invasion may hasten invasional meltdown by accelerating historical introductions |journal=[[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences]] |volume=102 |pages=1088–1091 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0308547102 |pmid=15657121 |issue=4 |pmc=545825 |bibcode=2005PNAS..102.1088G |doi-access=free }}</ref>
Invasive species can change the functions of ecosystems. For example, invasive plants can alter the [[fire regime]] (cheatgrass, ''[[Drooping Brome |Bromus tectorum]]''), [[nutrient cycling]] (smooth cordgrass ''[[Spartina alterniflora]]''), and hydrology (''[[Tamarix]]'') in native ecosystems.<ref name = causesepidemiology /> Invasive species that are closely related to rare native species have the potential to hybridize with the native species. Harmful effects of hybridization have led to a decline and even extinction of native species.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Hawkes |first=C.V. |year=2005 |title=Plant invasion alters nitrogen cycling by modifying the soil nitrifying community |journal=[[Ecology Letters]] |volume=8 |pages=976–985 |doi=10.1111/j.1461-0248.2005.00802.x |issue=9 |pmid=34517683 |bibcode=2005EcolL...8..976H }}</ref><ref name="rhymer">{{cite journal |last=Rhymer |first=J. M. |author2=Simberloff, D. |year=1996 |title=Extinction by hybridization and introgression |journal=[[Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics]] |issue=1 |pages=83–109 |doi=10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.27.1.83 |volume=27}}</ref> For example, [[Hybridization (biology) |hybridization]] with introduced cordgrass, ''Spartina alterniflora'', threatens the existence of California cordgrass (''[[Spartina foliosa]]'') in [[San Francisco Bay]].<ref name="ayres">{{cite journal |last=Ayres |first=D. |s2cid=24732543 |year=2004 |title=Spread of exotic cordgrasses and hybrids (''Spartina'' sp.) in the tidal marshes of San Francisco Bay, California |journal=[[USA Biological Invasions]] |volume=6 |pages=221–231 |doi=10.1023/B:BINV.0000022140.07404.b7 |issue=2 |bibcode=2004BiInv...6..221A |display-authors=etal}}</ref> Invasive species cause competition for native species and because of this 400 of the 958 endangered species under the [[Endangered Species Act of 1973 |Endangered Species Act]] are at risk.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Primtel |first=David |year=2005 |title=Update on the environmental and economic costs associated with alien-invasive species in the United States |journal=[[Ecological Economics (journal) |Ecological Economics]] |volume=52 |issue=3 |pages=273–288 |doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2004.10.002}}</ref>
[[File:Firewoodposter white web.pdf |frameless |right |alt=Poster asking campers to not move firewood around, avoiding the spread of invasive species]]
The unintentional introduction of forest pest species and plant pathogens can change [[forest ecology]] and damage the [[timber industry]]. Overall, [[forest ecosystem]]s in the U.S. are widely invaded by exotic pests, plants, and pathogens.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Liebhold |first1=S. |year=2013 |title=A highly aggregated geographical distribution of forest pest invasions in the USA |doi=10.1111/ddi.12112 |journal=[[Diversity and Distributions]] |volume=19 |issue=9 |pages=1208–1216 |s2cid=85799394 |display-authors=etal |doi-access=free |bibcode=2013DivDi..19.1208L }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Oswalt |first1=C. |year=2015 |title=A subcontinental view of forest plant invasions |journal=[[NeoBiota]] |volume=24 |pages=49–54 |display-authors=etal |doi=10.3897/neobiota.24.8378 |doi-access=free }}</ref>
The Asian long-horned beetle (''[[Anoplophora glabripennis]]'') was first introduced into the U.S. in 1996, and was expected to infect and damage millions of acres of hardwood trees. As of 2005 thirty million dollars had been spent in attempts to eradicate this pest and protect millions of trees in the affected regions.<ref name="pimental"/> The [[woolly adelgid]] has inflicted damage on old-growth spruce, fir and [[Tsuga |hemlock]] forests and damages the [[Christmas tree]] industry.<ref>{{Cite web |title=South/Adelges piceae - Bugwoodwiki |url=https://wiki.bugwood.org/Archive:South/Balsam_Woolly_Aphid |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110722063118/http://wiki.bugwood.org/Archive:South/Balsam_Woolly_Aphid |archive-date=22 July 2011 |access-date=2022-06-26 |website=wiki.bugwood.org}}</ref> [[Chestnut blight]] and [[Dutch elm disease]] are plant pathogens with serious impacts.<ref>Schlarbaum, Scott E., Frederick Hebard, Pauline C. Spaine, and Joseph C. Kamalay. (1998) [https://www.fs.usda.gov/treesearch/pubs/745 "Three American Tragedies: Chestnut Blight, Butternut Canker, and Dutch Elm Disease'] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200113231820/https://www.fs.usda.gov/treesearch/pubs/745 |date=January 13, 2020 }}. In: Britton, Kerry O., Ed. Exotic Pests of Eastern Forests Conference Proceedings; 1997 April 8–10; Nashville, TN. U.S. Forest Service and Tennessee Exotic Pest Plant Council., pp. 45–54.</ref><ref name="USDA-Forest Service-Schlarbaum-1997">{{cite web |author1=Schlarbaum, Scott E. |author2=Hebard, Frederick |author3=Spaine, Pauline C. |author4=Kamalay, Joseph C. |url=http://www.srs.fs.usda.gov/pubs/ja/ja_schlarbaum002.htm |title=Three American Tragedies: Chestnut Blight, Butternut Canker and Dutch Elm Disease |publisher=Southern Research Station, [[United States Forest Service |Forest Service]], [[United States Department of Agriculture]] |year=1997 |work=(originally published via: Proceedings: Exotic Pests of Eastern Forests; (1997 April 8–10); Nashville, TN. Tennessee Exotic Pest Plant Council: 45–54.) |access-date=June 22, 2012 |archive-date=April 24, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120424101943/http://www.srs.fs.usda.gov/pubs/ja/ja_schlarbaum002.htm |url-status=live }} <br />
Alternative link and additional publication citation information: Tree Search, US Forest Service, USDA. [http://www.treesearch.fs.fed.us/pubs/745 http://www.treesearch.fs.fed.us/pubs/745] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121123093613/http://www.treesearch.fs.fed.us/pubs/745 |date=November 23, 2012 }}</ref> Garlic mustard, ''[[Alliaria petiolata]]'', is one of the most problematic invasive plant species in eastern North American forests, where it is highly invasive of the [[understory]], reducing the growth rate of tree seedlings and threatening to modify the forest's tree composition.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Rodger |first1=Vikki |last2=Stinson |first2=Kristin |last3=Finzi |first3=Adrian |year=2008 |title=Ready or Not, Garlic Mustard Is Moving In: ''Alliaria petiolata'' as a Member of Eastern North American Forests |doi=10.1641/b580510 |journal=[[BioScience]] |volume=58 |issue=5 |page=5 |doi-access=free }}</ref>
Native [[species]] can be threatened with [[extinction]]<ref name=":1">{{cite journal |pmc=33232 |title=The evolutionary impact of invasive species |year=2001 |volume=98 |issue=10 |pmid=11344292 |last1=Mooney |first1=HA |last2=Cleland |first2=EE |pages=5446–51 |doi=10.1073/pnas.091093398 |journal=[[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America]] |bibcode=2001PNAS...98.5446M |doi-access=free }}</ref> through the process of [[genetic pollution]]. Genetic pollution is unintentional [[Hybrid (biology) |hybridization]] and [[introgression]], which leads to homogenization or replacement of local [[genotypes]] as a result of either a numerical or [[Fitness (biology) |fitness]] advantage of the introduced species.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nativeseednetwork.org/article_view?id=13 |title=Glossary: definitions from the following publication: Aubry, C., R. Shoal and V. Erickson. 2005. Grass cultivars: their origins, development, and use on national forests and grasslands in the Pacific Northwest. USDA Forest Service. 44 pages, plus appendices.; Native Seed Network (NSN), Institute for Applied Ecology, 563 SW Jefferson Ave, Corvallis, OR 97333, USA |publisher=Nativeseednetwork.org |access-date=May 17, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060222092651/http://www.nativeseednetwork.org/article_view?id=13 |archive-date=February 22, 2006 }}</ref> Genetic pollution occurs either through introduction or through habitat modification, where previously isolated species are brought into contact with the new genotypes. Invading species have been shown to adapt to their new environments in a remarkably short amount of time.<ref name=":1"/> The population size of invading species may remain small for a number of years and then experience an explosion in population, a phenomenon known as "the lag effect".<ref name = causesepidemiology >{{cite journal |last1=Mack |first1=Richard N. |last2=Simberloff |first2=Daniel |author2-link=Daniel Simberloff |last3=Mark Lonsdale |first3=W. |last4=Evans |first4=Harry |last5=Clout |first5=Michael |last6=Bazzaz |first6=Fakhri A. |title=Biotic Invasions: Causes, Epidemiology, Global Consequences, and Control |journal=Ecological Applications |date=June 2000 |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=689–710 |doi=10.1890/1051-0761(2000)010[0689:BICEGC]2.0.CO;2 |s2cid=711038 }}</ref>
Hybrids resulting from invasive species interbreeding with native species can incorporate their genotypes into the gene pool over time through [[introgression]]. Similarly, in some instances a small invading population can threaten much larger native populations. For example, ''[[Spartina alterniflora]]'' was introduced in the San Francisco Bay and hybridized with native ''[[Spartina foliosa]].'' The higher pollen count and male fitness of the invading species resulted in [[introgression]] that threatened the native populations due to lower pollen counts and lower viability of the native species.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Reciprocal hybrid formation of Spartina in San Francisco Bay |journal=[[Molecular Ecology]] |volume=9 |issue=6 |pages=765–770 |doi=10.1046/j.1365-294x.2000.00935.x |pmid=10849292 |year=2000 |last1=Anttila |first1=C. K. |last2=King |first2=R. A. |last3=Ferris |first3=C. |last4=Ayres |first4=D. R. |last5=Strong |first5=D. R. |bibcode=2000MolEc...9..765A |s2cid=32865913}}</ref> Reduction in fitness is not always apparent from [[Morphology (biology) |morphological]] observations alone. Some degree of [[gene flow]] is normal, and preserves constellations of [[gene]]s and genotypes.<ref name="rhymer"/><ref>{{Cite book |url=http://www.rirdc.gov.au/reports/AFT/01-114.pdf |title=Genetic Pollution from Farm Forestry using eucalypt species and hybrids; A report for the RIRDC/L&WA/FWPRDC]; Joint Venture Agroforestry Program; by Brad M. Potts, Robert C. Barbour, Andrew B. Hingston; September 2001; RIRDC Publication No 01/114; RIRDC Project No CPF – 3A; |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-642-58336-9 |publisher=Australian Government, Rural Industrial Research and Development Corporation |access-date=April 22, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040102175403/http://www.rirdc.gov.au/reports/AFT/01-114.pdf |archive-date=January 2, 2004 }}</ref> An example of this is the interbreeding of migrating [[coyote]]s with the [[red wolf]], in areas of eastern [[North Carolina]] where the [[red wolf]] was reintroduced, reducing red wolf numbers.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/j.biocon.2015.01.013 |title=Factors influencing red wolf–coyote hybridization in eastern North Carolina, USA |journal=[[Biological Conservation]] |volume=184 |pages=108–116 |year=2015 |last1=Bohling |first1=Justin H. |last2=Waits |first2=Lisette P.|bibcode=2015BCons.184..108B }}</ref>
=== Environmental ===
In South Africa's Cape Town region, analysis demonstrated that the restoration of priority source water sub-catchments through the removal of thirsty alien plant invasions (such as Australian acacias, pines and eucalyptus, and Australian black wattle) would generate expected annual water gains of 50 billion liters within 5 years compared to the business-as-usual scenario (which is important as Cape Town experiences significant [[water scarcity]]).
This is the equivalent to 1/6th of the city's current supply needs. These annual gains will double within 30 years. The catchment restoration is significantly more cost-effective then other water augmentation solutions (1/10 the unit cost of alternative options).<ref>{{Cite web |title=Cape Town is Facing Day Zero |url=https://www.nature.org/en-us/about-us/where-we-work/africa/stories-in-africa/cape-town-faces--day-zero-/ |access-date=2023-11-06 |website=The Nature Conservancy}}</ref> A water fund has been established, and these exotic species are being eradicated.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.nature.org/content/dam/tnc/nature/en/documents/GCTWF-summary-11.14.18.pdf |title=Greater cape town water fund |access-date=November 16, 2020 |archive-date=February 28, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210228175854/https://www.nature.org/content/dam/tnc/nature/en/documents/GCTWF-summary-11.14.18.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref>
=== Human health ===
Invasive species can affect human health. With the alteration in ecosystem functionality (due to homogenization of biota communities), invasive species have resulted in negative effects on human well-being, which includes reduced resource availability, unrestrained spread of human diseases, recreational and educational activities, and tourism.<ref name=":8">{{cite journal |last1=Mazza |first1=G. |last2=Tricarico |first2=E. |last3=Genovesi |first3=P. |last4=Gherardi |first4=F. |title=Biological invaders are threats to human health: an overview |journal=Ethology Ecology & Evolution |publisher=Informa UK Limited |volume=26 |issue=2–3 |date=2013-12-19 |issn=0394-9370 |doi=10.1080/03949370.2013.863225 |pages=112–129|s2cid=58888740 }}</ref><ref name=":22"/> Alien species have caused diseases including [[HIV|human immunodeficiency virus]] (HIV), [[Monkeypox|monkey pox]], and [[severe acute respiratory syndrome]] (SARS).<ref name=":22"/>
Invasive species and accompanying control efforts can have long term [[public health]] implications. For instance, [[pesticide]]s applied to treat a particular pest species could pollute soil and surface water.<ref name="pimental"/> Encroachment of humans into previously remote ecosystems has exposed exotic diseases such as [[HIV]] to the wider population.<ref name="pimental"/> Introduced birds (e.g. [[pigeons]]), rodents and insects (e.g. [[mosquito]], [[flea]], [[louse]] and [[tsetse fly]] pests) can serve as vectors and reservoirs of human afflictions. Throughout recorded history, epidemics of human diseases, such as [[malaria]], [[yellow fever]], [[typhus]], and [[bubonic plague]], spread via these vectors.<ref name="elton"/> A recent example of an introduced disease is the spread of the [[West Nile virus]], which killed humans, birds, mammals, and reptiles.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lanciotti |first1=R. S. |last2=Roehrig |first2=J. T. |last3=Deubel |first3=V. |last4=Smith |first4=J. |last5=Parker |first5=M. |last6=Steele |first6=K. |last7=Crise |first7=B. |last8=Volpe |first8=K. E. |last9=Crabtree |first9=M. B. |last10=Scherret |first10=J. H. |last11=Hall |first11=R. A. |last12=MacKenzie |first12=J. S. |last13=Cropp |first13=C. B. |last14=Panigrahy |first14=B. |last15=Ostlund |first15=E. |date=17 December 1999 |title=Origin of the West Nile Virus Responsible for an Outbreak of Encephalitis in the Northeastern United States |journal=Science |volume=286 |issue=5448 |pages=2333–2337 |doi=10.1126/science.286.5448.2333 |pmid=10600742 |last16=Schmitt |first16=B. |last17=Malkinson |first17=M. |last18=Banet |first18=C. |last19=Weissman |first19=J. |last20=Komar |first20=N. |last21=Savage |first21=H. M. |last22=Stone |first22=W. |last23=McNamara |first23=T. |last24=Gubler |first24=D. J. |display-authors=6}}</ref> The introduced [[Chinese mitten crab]]s are carriers of [[Paragonimus westermani|Asian lung fluke]].{{r|pnwaquaticinv}} Waterborne disease agents, such as [[cholera]] bacteria (''[[Vibrio cholerae]]''), and causative agents of [[harmful algal bloom]]s are often transported via ballast water.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Hallegraeff |first=G.M. |year=1998 |title=Transport of toxic dinoflagellates via ships' ballast water: Bioeconomic risk assessment and efficacy of possible ballast water management strategies |journal=[[Marine Ecology Progress Series]] |volume=168 |pages=297–309 |bibcode=1998MEPS..168..297H |doi=10.3354/meps168297 |doi-access=free}}</ref>
=== Economic ===
Globally, 1.4 trillion dollars are spent every year in managing and controlling invasive species.{{r |amstutz2018}} Invasive species can become financial burdens for many countries. Due to ecological degradation caused by invasive species, this can alter the functionality and reduce the services that ecosystems provide. Additional costs are expected to control the spread of biological invasion, to mitigate further impacts, and to restore ecosystems. For example, the cost of damage caused by 79 invasive species between 1906 and 1991 in the United States has been estimated at US$120 billion.<ref name=":22">{{Cite journal |last1=Pyšek |first1=P. |last2=Richardson |first2=D.M. |date=2010 |title=Invasive Species, Environmental Change and Management, and Health |journal=Annual Review of Environment and Resources |volume=35 |issue=1 |pages=25–55 |doi=10.1146/annurev-environ-033009-095548 |doi-access=free}}</ref> In China, invasive species have reduced the country's gross domestic product (GDP) by 1.36% per year.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Xu |first1=Haigen |last2=Ding |first2=Hui |last3=Li |first3=Mingyan |last4=Qiang |first4=Sheng |last5=Guo |first5=Jianying |last6=Han |first6=Zhengmin |last7=Huang |first7=Zongguo |last8=Sun |first8=Hongying |last9=He |first9=Shunping |last10=Wu |first10=Hairong |last11=Wan |first11=Fanghao |title=The distribution and economic losses of alien species invasion to China |journal=Biological Invasions |volume=8 |issue=7 |date=2006 |issn=1387-3547 |doi=10.1007/s10530-005-5841-2 |pages=1495–1500|bibcode=2006BiInv...8.1495X |s2cid=25890246 }}</ref> Management of biological invasion can be costly. In Australia, the expense to monitor, control, manage, and research invasive weed species was approximately AU$116.4 million per year, with costs only directed to central and local government.<ref name=":22"/> In some situations, invasive species may have benefits, such as economic returns. For instance, invasive trees can be logged for commercial forestry. However, in most cases, the economic returns are far less than the cost caused by biological invasion.<ref name=":32">{{cite journal |last1=Molnar |first1=Jennifer L |last2=Gamboa |first2=Rebecca L |last3=Revenga |first3=Carmen |last4=Spalding |first4=Mark D |title=Assessing the global threat of invasive species to marine biodiversity |journal=Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment |volume=6 |issue=9 |date=2008 |issn=1540-9295 |doi=10.1890/070064 |pages=485–492|bibcode=2008FrEE....6..485M }}</ref><ref name=":22"/>
==== United States ====
In the [[Great Lakes region]] the [[sea lamprey]] is an invasive species. In its original habitat, it had co-evolved as a [[Parasitism |parasite]] that did not kill its host. However, in the Great Lakes Region, it acts as a predator and can consume up to 40 pounds of fish in its 12–18 month feeding period.<ref name=":0">{{cite web |url=http://www.glfc.org/sea-lamprey.php |title=Great Lakes Fishery Commission – Sea Lamprey |website=www.glfc.org |access-date=October 24, 2017 |archive-date=October 25, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171025023343/http://www.glfc.org/sea-lamprey.php |url-status=live}}</ref> Sea lampreys prey on all types of large fish such as [[lake trout]] and [[salmon]]. The sea lampreys' destructive effects on large fish negatively affect the fishing industry and have helped cause the collapse of the population of some species.<ref name=":0"/>
[[Economic cost]]s from invasive species can be separated into direct costs through production loss in agriculture and forestry, and management costs. Estimated damage and control costs of invasive species in the U.S. amount to more than $138 billion annually.<ref name="pimental">{{cite journal |last1=Pimentel |first1=D. |last2=R. |first2=Zuniga |last3=Morrison |first3=D |year=2005 |title=Update on the environmental and economic costs associated with alien-invasive species in the United States |journal=[[Ecological Economics]] |volume=52 |issue=3 |pages=273–288 |doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2004.10.002 }}</ref> Economic losses can occur through loss of [[recreation]]al and [[tourism]] revenues.<ref name="simb">{{cite journal |last=Simberloff |first=D. |year=2001 |jstor=41717176 |title=Biological invasions – How are they affecting us, and what can we do about them? |journal=[[Western North American Naturalist]] |volume=61 |issue=3 |pages=308–315}}</ref> When economic costs of invasions are calculated as production loss and management costs, they are low because they do not consider environmental damage; if monetary values were assigned to the [[extinction]] of species, loss in biodiversity, and loss of [[ecosystem services]], costs from impacts of invasive species would drastically increase.<ref name="pimental"/> It is often argued that the key to invasive species management is early detection and rapid response.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://www.doi.gov/sites/doi.gov/files/migrated/invasivespecies/upload/2008-2012-National-Invasive-Species-Management-Plan.pdf |title=2008–2012 National Invasive Species Management Plan. |publisher=National Invasive Species Council, Department of the Interior |year=2008 |location=Washington, DC. |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150929011911/https://www.doi.gov/sites/doi.gov/files/migrated/invasivespecies/upload/2008-2012-National-Invasive-Species-Management-Plan.pdf |archive-date=29 September 2015 |url-status=live}}</ref> However, early response only helps when the invasive species is not frequently reintroduced into the managed area, and the cost of response is affordable.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Holden |first1=Matthew H. |last2=Nyrop |first2=Jan P. |last3=Ellner |first3=Stephen P. |date=June 1, 2016 |title=The economic benefit of time-varying surveillance effort for invasive species management |journal=[[Journal of Applied Ecology]] |volume=53 |issue=3 |pages=712–721 |doi=10.1111/1365-2664.12617 |doi-access=free|bibcode=2016JApEc..53..712H }}</ref>
[[File:Parthenium smothering native flora in Biodiversity Rich Forest.jpg |thumb |''[[Parthenium hysterophorus]]'', [[Achanakmar Tiger Reserve]]]]
[[Weed]]s reduce yield in [[agriculture]]. Many weeds are accidental introductions that accompany imports of commercial seeds and plants. Introduced weeds in pastures compete with native forage plants, threaten young [[cattle]] (e.g., leafy spurge, ''[[Euphorbia virgata]]'') or are unpalatable because of [[Thorns, spines, and prickles |thorns and spines]] (e.g., [[yellow starthistle]]). Forage loss from invasive weeds on pastures amounts to nearly [[US$]]1 billion in the U.S.<ref name="pimental"/> A decline in pollinator services and loss of fruit production has been caused by [[Western honeybee |honey bees]] infected by the invasive [[varroa mite]]. Introduced rats (''[[Rattus rattus]]'' and ''[[Rattus norvegicus |R. norvegicus]]'') have become serious pests<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gougherty |first1=Andrew V. |last2=Davies |first2=T. Jonathan |title=Towards a phylogenetic ecology of plant pests and pathogens |journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences |date=8 November 2021 |volume=376 |issue=1837 |pages=20200359 |doi=10.1098/rstb.2020.0359 |pmid=34538142 |pmc=8450633 }}</ref> on farms, destroying stored grains.<ref name="pimental"/> The introduction of leaf miner flies ([[Agromyzidae]]), including the American serpentine leaf miner (''[[Liriomyza trifolii]]''), to California has caused losses in California's [[floriculture]] industry, as the larvae of these invasive species feed on ornamental plants.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://entnemdept.ufl.edu/creatures/veg/leaf/a_serpentine_leafminer.htm |title=American serpentine leafminer – Liriomyza trifolii (Burgess) |website=entnemdept.ufl.edu |access-date=November 20, 2019 |archive-date=November 25, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191125043634/http://entnemdept.ufl.edu/Creatures/veg/leaf/a_serpentine_leafminer.htm |url-status=live}}</ref>
Invasive plant pathogens and insect vectors for plant diseases can suppress agricultural yields and harm nursery stock. [[Citrus]] greening is a [[bacterial disease]] vectored by the invasive [[Asian citrus psyllid]]. As a result, citrus is under quarantine and highly regulated in areas where the psyllid has been found.<ref name="r2">{{Cite web |title=Citrus Greening |url=http://www.clemson.edu/public/regulatory/plant_industry/invasive_exotic_programs/Pest%20Alerts/citrus_greening.html |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130616000111/http://www.clemson.edu/public/regulatory/plant_industry/invasive_exotic_programs/Pest%20Alerts/citrus_greening.html |archive-date=16 June 2013 |website=Clemson Public Service Activities - The Department of Plant Industry}}</ref>
Invasive species can impact outdoor recreation, such as fishing, [[hunting]], [[hiking]], [[wildlife viewing]], and water-based activities. They can damage environmental services including [[water quality]], plant and animal diversity, and [[species abundance]], though the extent of this is under-researched.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Eiswerth |first1=M.E. |year=2005 |title=Input-output modeling, outdoor recreation, and the economic impacts of weeds |journal=[[Weed Science]] |publisher=[[Weed Science Society of America]] (WSSA) |volume=53 |pages=130–137 |doi=10.1614/WS-04-022R |last2=Darden |first2=Tim D. |last3=Johnson |first3=Wayne S. |last4=Agapoff |first4=Jeanmarie |last5=Harris |first5=Thomas R. |s2cid=85608607 }}</ref> Eurasian watermilfoil (''[[Myriophyllum spicatum]]'') in parts of the US, fills lakes with plants, complicating fishing and boating.<ref>{{Cite web |date=1 November 2006 |title=Eurasian Watermilfoil in the Great Lakes Region |url=http://great-lakes.net/envt/flora-fauna/invasive/milfoil.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080725034837/http://great-lakes.net/envt/flora-fauna/invasive/milfoil.html#overview |archive-date=25 July 2008 |website=Great Lakes Information Network}}</ref> The loud call of the introduced [[common coqui]] depresses real estate values in affected neighborhoods of [[Hawaii]].<ref>{{cite book |url=http://www.aphis.usda.gov/wildlife_damage/nwrc/symposia/invasive_symposium/content/Sin157_167_MVIS.pdf |last1=Sin |first1=Hans |last2=Radford |first2=Adam |year=2007 |chapter =Coqui frog research and management efforts in Hawaii |title=Managing Vertebrate Invasive Species: Proceedings of an International Symposium (G. W. Witmer, W. C. Pitt, K. A. Fagerstone, Eds) |publisher=USDA/APHIS/WS, National Wildlife Research Center |location=Fort Collins, Colorado |access-date=June 26, 2013 |archive-date=May 25, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170525103353/http://www.aphis.usda.gov/wildlife_damage/nwrc/symposia/invasive_symposium/content/Sin157_167_MVIS.pdf}}</ref> The larage webs of the orb-weaving spider ''[[Zygiella x-notata]]'', invasive in California, disrupts garden work.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Spider Invaders |url=https://www.kqed.org/quest/9595/spider-invaders |access-date=2020-12-13 |website=KQED |date=October 18, 2010 |archive-date=November 5, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201105170805/https://www.kqed.org/quest/9595/spider-invaders |url-status=live}}</ref>
==== Europe ====
The overall economic cost of invasive alien species in Europe between 1960 and 2020 has been estimated at around US$140 billion (including potential costs that may or may not have actually materialised) or US$78 billion (only including observed costs known to have materialised). These estimates are very conservative. Models based on these data suggest a true ''annual'' cost of around US$140 billion in 2020.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Haubrock |first1=Phillip J. |last2=Turbelin |first2=Anna J. |last3=Cuthbert |first3=Ross N. |last4=Novoa |first4=Ana |last5=Taylor |first5=Nigel G. |last6=Angulo |first6=Elena |last7=Ballesteros-Mejia |first7=Liliana |last8=Bodey |first8=Thomas W. |last9=Capinha |first9=César |last10=Diagne |first10=Christophe |last11=Essl |first11=Franz |last12=Golivets |first12=Marina |last13=Kirichenko |first13=Natalia |last14=Kourantidou |first14=Melina |last15=Leroy |first15=Boris |last16=Renault |first16=David |last17=Verbrugge |first17=Laura |last18=Courchamp |first18=Franck |display-authors=6 |title=Economic costs of invasive alien species across Europe |year=2021 |journal=[[Neobiota]] |volume=67 |pages=153–190 |hdl=10138/333320 |s2cid=237460752 |hdl-access=free |doi=10.3897/neobiota.67.58196 |doi-access=free }}</ref>
{{visible anchor |Italy |'''[[Italy]]'''}} is one of the most invaded countries in [[Europe]], with an estimate of more than 3,000 alien species. The impacts of invasive alien species on the economy has been wide-ranging, from management costs, to loss of crops, to infrastructure damage. The overall economic cost of invasions to Italy between 1990 and 2020 was estimated at US$819.76 million (EUR€704.78 million). However, only 15 recorded species have more reliably estimated costs, hence the actual cost may be much larger than the aforementioned sum.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Haubrock |first1=Phillip J. |last2=Cuthbert |first2=Ross N. |last3=Tricarico |first3=Elena |last4=Diagne |first4=Christophe |last5=Courchamp |first5=Franck |last6=Gozlan |first6=Rodolphe E. |title=The recorded economic costs of alien invasive species in Italy |journal=NeoBiota |date=29 July 2021 |volume=67 |pages=247–266 |doi=10.3897/neobiota.67.57747 |s2cid=238819772 |url=https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-03410329/file/CostsinItaly.pdf |doi-access=free }}</ref>
{{visible anchor |France |'''[[France]]'''}} has an estimated minimum of 2,750 introduced and invasive alien species. Renault et al. (2021) obtained 1,583 cost records for 98 invasive alien species and found that they caused a conservative total cost between US$1.2 billion and 11.5 billion over the period 1993–2018. This study extrapolated costs for species invading France, but for which costs were reported only in other countries but not in France, which yielded an additional cost ranging from US$151 million to $3.03 billion. Damage costs were nearly eight times higher than management expenditure. Insects, and in particular the Asian tiger mosquito ''[[Aedes albopictus]]'' and the yellow fever mosquito ''[[Aedes aegypti |Ae. aegypti]]'', totalled very high economic costs, followed by non-graminoid terrestrial flowering and aquatic plants (''[[Ambrosia artemisiifolia]]'', ''[[Ludwigia (plant) |Ludwigia]]'' sp. and ''[[Lagarosiphon major]]''). Over 90% of alien species currently recorded in France had no costs reported in the literature, resulting in high biases in taxonomic, regional and activity sector coverages. However, no reports does not mean that there are no negative consequences and thus no costs.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Renault |first1=David |last2=Manfrini |first2=Eléna |last3=Leroy |first3=Boris |last4=Diagne |first4=Christophe |last5=Ballesteros-Mejia |first5=Liliana |last6=Angulo |first6=Elena |last7=Courchamp |first7=Franck |title=Biological invasions in France: Alarming costs and even more alarming knowledge gaps |journal=NeoBiota |date=29 July 2021 |volume=67 |pages=191–224 |doi=10.3897/neobiota.67.59134 |s2cid=237462170 |doi-access=free }}</ref>
==Favorable effects==
The entomologist [[Chris D. Thomas]] argues that most introduced species are neutral or beneficial with respect to other species<ref>{{cite book |title=Inheritors of the Earth: How Nature Is Thriving in an Age of Extinction |first=Chris |last=Thomas |author-link=Chris D. Thomas |publisher=[[PublicAffairs]] |year=2017 |isbn=978-1610397278 |pages=}}</ref> but this is a minority opinion. The [[scientific community]] ubiquitously considers their effects on [[biodiversity]] to be negative.<ref name=doubtingthomas>{{cite journal |date=2019 |doi-access=free |department=Book Review |first=John |title=Doubting Thomas and the Love of Invasive Species |last=Halley |journal=[[Conservation Biology (journal)|Conservation Biology]] |volume=33 |issue=6 |pages=1451–1453 |doi=10.1111/cobi.13413|bibcode=2019ConBi..33.1451H }}</ref>
Some invasive species can provide a suitable habitat or food source for other organisms. In areas where a native has become extinct or reached a point that it cannot be restored, non-native species can fill their role. For instance, in the US, the endangered [[Willow flycatcher|southwestern willow flycatcher]] mainly nests in the non-native [[Tamarix|tamarisk]].<ref name=potential/>
The introduced [[Prosopis juliflora|mesquite]] is an aggressive invasive species in India, but is the preferred nesting site of native waterbirds in small cities like [[Udaipur]] in Rajasthan.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mehta |first1=Kanishka |last2=Koli |first2=Vijay K. |last3=Kittur |first3=Swati |last4=Sundar |first4=K. S. Gopi |title=Can you nest where you roost? Waterbirds use different sites but similar cues to locate roosting and breeding sites in a small Indian city |journal=Urban Ecosystems |date=21 February 2024 |volume=27 |doi=10.1007/s11252-023-01454-5 |s2cid=267973120 }}</ref> Similarly, [[Ridgway's rail]] has adapted to the invasive hybrid of ''[[Spartina alterniflora]]'' and ''[[Spartina foliosa]]'', which offers better cover and nesting habitat.<ref>{{Cite report |url=https://spartina.org/project_documents/revegetation_program/CLRA%20Report%202012.pdf |title=Clapper Rail Surveys for the San Francisco Estuary Invasive Spartina Project |last=McBroom |first=Jen |date=December 2012 |publisher=State Coastal Conservancy |location=Oakland, California |access-date=30 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170305070303/http://spartina.org/project_documents/revegetation_program/CLRA%20Report%202012.pdf |archive-date=5 March 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref> In [[Australia]], saltwater crocodiles, which had become endangered, have recovered by feeding on introduced [[feral pig]]s.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Ham |first1=Anthony |title=Pigs to the Rescue: An Invasive Species Helped Save Australia's Crocodiles |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2022/08/15/science/invasive-species-pigs-crocodiles.html |work=The New York Times |date=15 August 2022 }}</ref>
Non-native species can act as catalysts for restoration, increasing the [[heterogeneity]] and biodiversity in an ecosystem. This can create microclimates in sparse and eroded ecosystems, promoting the growth and reestablishment of native species. For example, in Kenya, [[guava]] trees in farmland are attractive to many fruit-eating birds, which drop seeds from rainforest trees as much as {{cvt|2|km}} away beneath the guavas, encouraging forest regeneration.<ref>Thompson, Ken. Where Do Camels Belong? (p. 154). Greystone Books. Kindle Edition.</ref>
Non-native species can provide ecosystem services, functioning as [[biocontrol]] agents to limit the effects of invasive agricultural pests.<ref name=potential>{{cite journal |last1=Schlaepfer |first1=Martin A. |last2=Sax |first2=Dov F. |last3=Olden |first3=Julian D. |title=The Potential Conservation Value of Non-Native Species: Conservation Value of Non-Native Species |journal=Conservation Biology |date=June 2011 |volume=25 |issue=3 |pages=428–437 |doi=10.1111/j.1523-1739.2010.01646.x |pmid=21342267 |s2cid=2947682 }}</ref> [[Depletion of oysters in the Chesapeake Bay|Asian oysters]], for example, filter [[water pollutants]] better than native oysters in [[Chesapeake Bay]].<ref>Pelton, Tom (May 26, 2006) ''[[The Baltimore Sun]]''.</ref> Some species have invaded an area so long ago that they are considered to have [[Naturalisation (biology)|naturalised]] there. For example, the bee ''[[Lasioglossum leucozonium]]'', shown by population genetic analysis to be an invasive species in North America,<ref>{{Cite journal |title=Successful Biological Invasion despite a Severe Genetic Load |journal=[[PLOS ONE]]|date=September 12, 2007 |pmc=1964518 |pmid=17848999 |volume=2 |issue=9 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0000868 |first1=Amro |last1=Zayed |first2=Șerban A. |last2=Constantin |first3=Laurence |last3=Packer |pages=e868 |bibcode=2007PLoSO...2..868Z |doi-access=free}}</ref> has become an important pollinator of caneberry (''[[Rubus]]'' spp.) as well as [[Cucurbitaceae|cucurbit]], [[apple trees]], and [[blueberry]] bushes.<ref>{{Cite thesis |last=Adamson |first=Nancy Lee |title=An Assessment of Non-Apis Bees as Fruit and Vegetable Crop Pollinators in Southwest Virginia |date=3 February 2011 |degree=Doctor of Philosophy in Entomology |publisher=Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University |url=http://www.step-project.net/NPDOCS/Adamson_NL_D_2011.pdf |place=Blacksburg, Virginia |access-date=November 5, 2015 |archive-date=November 20, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151120230411/http://www.step-project.net/NPDOCS/Adamson_NL_D_2011.pdf }}</ref> In the US, the endangered [[Euphydryas editha taylori|Taylor's checkerspot]] butterfly has come to rely on invasive [[ribwort plantain]] as the food plant for its caterpillars.<ref>Thomas, Chris D.. Inheritors of the Earth (p. 148). PublicAffairs. Kindle Edition.</ref>
Some invasions offer potential commercial benefits. For instance, [[silver carp]] and [[common carp]] can be harvested for human food and exported to markets already familiar with the product, or processed into [[pet food]]s, or [[mink]] feed. [[Water hyacinth]] can be turned into fuel by [[methane digesters]],<ref name=wolv>{{cite journal|doi=10.1007/BF02858689|title=Energy from vascular plant wastewater treatment systems|journal=[[Economic Botany]]|volume=35|issue=2|pages=224–232 |year=1981 |last1=Wolverton |first1=B. C.|last2=McDonald|first2=Rebecca C.|s2cid=24217507}}. Cited in Duke, J. (1983) [http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/dukeindex.html ''Handbook of Energy Crops''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130212071515/http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/dukeindex.html |date=February 12, 2013 }}. Purdue University, Center for New Crops & Plants Products</ref> and other invasive plants can be harvested and utilized as a source of [[bioenergy]].<ref>{{cite journal |title=Biomass of invasive plant species as a potential feedstock for bioenergy production |first1=Koenraad |last1=Van Meerbeek |first2=Lise |last2=Appels |first3=Raf |last3=Dewil|first4=Annelies|last4=Calmeyn|first5=Pieter|last5=Lemmens |first6=Bart |last6=Muys |first7=Martin |last7=Hermy |date=May 1, 2015 |journal=[[Biofuels, Bioproducts and Biorefining]] |volume=9 |issue=3 |pages=273–282 |doi=10.1002/bbb.1539 |s2cid=83918875 }}</ref>
{{anchor|Control|Eradication|Study|Prevention}}
== Control, eradication, and study ==
Humans are versatile enough to remediate adverse effects of species invasions.<ref>{{cite book |isbn=978-0-8166-9329-0 |title=Making Other Worlds Possible: Performing Diverse Economies |last1=Roelvink |first1=Gerda |last2=Martin |first2=Kevin St |last3=Gibson-Graham |first3=J. K. |year=2015 |publisher=University of Minnesota Press }}</ref><ref name="root"/><ref name="Garrido">{{cite web |title=''Homo sapiens'' (Primates: Hominidae): an invasive species or even worse? A challenge for strengthening ecology and conservation biology |last1=Garrido-Pérez |first1=Edgardo I. |last2=Tella Ruiz |first2=David |date=2016 |website=ResearchGate |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/319234497 |access-date=August 19, 2020 |archive-date=June 11, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220611120711/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/319234497_Homo_sapiens_Primates_Hominidae_an_invasive_species_or_even_worse_A_challenge_for_strengthening_ecology_and_conservation_biology_Translated_from_Spanish |url-status=live }}</ref> The public is motivated by invasive species that impact their local area.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://depts.washington.edu/oldenlab/wordpress/wp-content/uploads/2013/02/Invasive-Species-Survey_Hakam_August2016.pdf#page=8 |title=Invasive Species: Public Awareness and Education |last=Hakam |first=Lara |date=February 2013 |website=University of Washington |access-date=September 30, 2020 |archive-date=November 5, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211105154129/http://depts.washington.edu/oldenlab/wordpress/wp-content/uploads/2013/02/Invasive-Species-Survey_Hakam_August2016.pdf#page=8 |url-status=live }}</ref>
The control of alien species populations is important in the conservation of biodiversity in natural ecosystem. One of the most promising methods for controlling alien species is genetic.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Makhrov |first1=A. A. |last2=Karabanov |first2=D. P. |last3=Koduhova |first3=Yu. V. |title=Genetic methods for the control of alien species |journal=Russian Journal of Biological Invasions |date=July 2014 |volume=5 |issue=3 |pages=194–202 |doi=10.1134/S2075111714030096 |bibcode=2014RuJBI...5..194M |s2cid=256073288 }}</ref>
{{anchor|Cargo inspection|Quarantine}}
=== Cargo inspection and quarantine ===
The original motivation was to protect against [[agricultural pest]]s while still allowing the export of agricultural products. In 1994 the first set of global standards were agreed to, including the [[Agreement on the Application of Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures]] (SPS Agreement). These are overseen by the [[World Trade Organization]]. The [[International Maritime Organization]] oversees the International Convention for the Control and Management of Ships' Ballast Water and Sediments (the [[Ballast Water Management Convention]]). Although primarily targeted at other, more general environmental concerns, the [[Convention on Biological Diversity]] does specify some steps that its members should take to control invasive species. The CBD is the most significant international agreement on the environmental consequences of invasive species; most such measures are voluntary and unspecific.<ref name="Lodge-et-al-2016">{{cite journal |last1=Lodge |first1=David M. |last2=Simonin |first2=Paul W. |last3=Burgiel |first3=Stanley W. |last4=Keller |first4=Reuben P. |last5=Bossenbroek |first5=Jonathan M. |last6=Jerde |first6=Christopher L. |last7=Kramer |first7=Andrew M. |last8=Rutherford |first8=Edward S. |last9=Barnes |first9=Matthew A. |last10=Wittmann |first10=Marion E. |last11=Chadderton |first11=W. Lindsay |last12=Apriesnig |first12=Jenny L. |display-authors=6 |title=Risk Analysis and Bioeconomics of Invasive Species to Inform Policy and Management |journal=Annual Review of Environment and Resources |date=1 November 2016 |volume=41 |issue=1 |pages=453–488 |doi=10.1146/annurev-environ-110615-085532 |doi-access=free }}</ref>
=== Slowing spread ===
[[Firefighter]]s are becoming responsible for decontamination of their own equipment, public water equipment, and private water equipment, due to the risk of aquatic invasive species transfer.<ref name="Sea-Grant-NY">{{cite web |url=http://www.slocounty.ca.gov/Departments/Public-Works/Forms-Documents/Water-Resources/Invasive-Mussels/NY-Fire-Control-Equipment.pdf |title=Zebra Mussels and Fire Control Equipment |last=O'Neill, Jr. |first=Charles R. |date=2002 |publisher=[[National Sea Grant College Program|Sea Grant]] |place=[[SUNY College at Brockport]] |access-date=May 23, 2021 |archive-date=November 5, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211105212840/https://www.slocounty.ca.gov/Departments/Public-Works/Forms-Documents/Water-Resources/Invasive-Mussels/NY-Fire-Control-Equipment.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> In the United States this is especially a concern for [[wildfire suppression|wildland firefighters]] because [[quagga mussel|quagga]] and [[zebra mussel|zebra]] mussel invasion and wildfires co-occur in the American West.<ref name="wildland-firefight-NPR">{{cite web |title=Wildland Firefighters Try To Combat Spread Of Invasive Species |website=[[NPR]] |first=Nicky |last=Ouellet |date=2017-08-23 |url=http://www.npr.org/2017/08/23/545617315/wildland-firefighters-try-to-combat-spread-of-invasive-species |access-date=2021-05-23 |archive-date=June 13, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210613005731/https://www.npr.org/2017/08/23/545617315/wildland-firefighters-try-to-combat-spread-of-invasive-species |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Montana-firefight-MtPR">{{cite web |last=Ouellet |first=Nicky |title=How Montana Is Fighting Invasive Hitchhikers On Firefighting Aircraft |website=[[Montana Public Radio]] |date=2017-07-27 |url=http://www.mtpr.org/post/how-montana-fighting-invasive-hitchhikers-firefighting-aircraft |access-date=2021-05-23 |archive-date=May 23, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210523185157/https://www.mtpr.org/post/how-montana-fighting-invasive-hitchhikers-firefighting-aircraft |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="NWCG">{{cite web |url=http://www.nwcg.gov/sites/default/files/publications/pms444.pdf |title=Guide to Preventing Aquatic Invasive Species Transport by Wildland Fire Operations |date=January 2017 |author=[[National Wildfire Coordinating Group]] |access-date=May 23, 2021 |archive-date=April 19, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210419034257/https://www.nwcg.gov/sites/default/files/publications/pms444.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Mt-DNRC">{{cite web |url=http://dnrc.mt.gov/divisions/forestry/docs/fire-and-aviation/2018-nrcg-how-to-guide_aquatic-invasive-species_final.pdf |date=June 11, 2018 |title=Decontaminating Firefighting Equipment to Reduce the Spread of Aquatic Invasive Species |author=[[National Wildfire Coordinating Group]] |access-date=May 23, 2021 |archive-date=April 28, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210428072947/http://dnrc.mt.gov/divisions/forestry/docs/fire-and-aviation/2018-nrcg-how-to-guide_aquatic-invasive-species_final.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>
=== Reestablishing species ===
[[File:Takahe and chick.jpg|thumb|[[Takahē]] have bred after translocation to [[island restoration|restored islands]], like these on [[Kapiti Island]], off New Zealand.]]
[[Island restoration]] deals with the eradication of invasive species. A 2019 study suggests that if eradications of invasive animals were conducted on just 169 islands, the survival prospects of 9.4% of the Earth's most highly threatened terrestrial insular vertebrates would be improved.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Holmes |first1=Nick |date=March 27, 2019 |title=Globally important islands where eradicating invasive mammals will benefit highly threatened vertebrates |journal=[[PLOS ONE]] |volume=14 |issue=3 |pages=e0212128 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0212128 |pmid=30917126 |pmc=6436766 |bibcode=2019PLoSO..1412128H |doi-access=free }}</ref>
Invasive vertebrate eradication on islands aligns with United Nations [[Sustainable Development Goal 15]] and associated targets.<ref name="de WitZilliacus2020">{{cite journal |last1=de Wit |first1=Luz A. |last2=Zilliacus |first2=Kelly M. |last3=Quadri |first3=Paulo |last4=Will |first4=David |last5=Grima |first5=Nelson |last6=Spatz |first6=Dena |last7=Holmes |first7=Nick |last8=Tershy |first8=Bernie |last9=Howald |first9=Gregg R. |last10=Croll |first10=Donald A. |display-authors=6 |title=Invasive vertebrate eradications on islands as a tool for implementing global Sustainable Development Goals |journal=Environmental Conservation |date=September 2020 |volume=47 |issue=3 |pages=139–148 |doi=10.1017/S0376892920000211 |bibcode=2020EnvCo..47..139D |s2cid=221990256 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Pursuing Sustainable Development for Island Communities by Removing Invasive Species |url=https://www.islandconservation.org/sustainable-development-communities-removing-invasive-species/ |publisher=Island Conservation |access-date=13 August 2020 |date=13 August 2020 |archive-date=September 26, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200926042621/https://www.islandconservation.org/sustainable-development-communities-removing-invasive-species/ |url-status=live}}</ref>
[[Rodent]]s were carried to [[South Georgia Island |South Georgia]], an island in the southern Atlantic Ocean with no permanent inhabitants, in the 18th century by sealing and whaling ships. They soon wrought havoc on the island's bird population, eating eggs and attacking chicks. In 2018, the South Georgia Island was declared free of invasive rodents after a multi-year extermination effort. Bird populations have rebounded, including the [[South Georgia pipit]] and [[South Georgia pintail]], both endemic to the island.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.science.org/content/article/rat-begone-record-eradication-effort-rids-sub-antarctic-island-invasive-rodents |title=Rat begone: Record eradication effort rids sub-Antarctic island of invasive rodents |last=Warren |first=Matt |date=May 8, 2018 |work=Science |access-date=May 9, 2018 |archive-date=May 9, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180509035618/http://www.sciencemag.org/news/2018/05/rat-begone-record-eradication-effort-rids-sub-antarctic-island-invasive-rodents |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.atlasobscura.com/articles/how-to-exterminate-rats-on-an-island |title=The Intrepid Rat-Sniffing Terriers of South Georgia Island |date=May 17, 2018 |author=Hester, Jessica Leight |work=[[Atlas Obscura]] |access-date=June 6, 2018 |archive-date=May 22, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180522041931/https://www.atlasobscura.com/articles/how-to-exterminate-rats-on-an-island |url-status=live}}</ref>
=== Taxon substitution ===
[[File:Aldabra Giant Tortoise, Ile aux Aigrettes Nature Reserve, Mauritius.JPG|thumb|The [[Aldabra giant tortoise]] has helped to restore ecological equilibrium on two islets off Mauritius, including the [[Île aux Aigrettes]] (pictured). ]]
Non-native species can be introduced to fill an ecological engineering role that previously was performed by a native species now extinct. The procedure is known as taxon substitution.<ref name=potential/><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2011/02/110211095555.htm |title=Invasive plants can create positive ecological change |work=Science Daily |date=February 14, 2011 |quote="Invasive species could fill niches in degraded ecosystems and help restore native biodiversity...." |access-date=June 22, 2017 |archive-date=May 25, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170525102601/https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2011/02/110211095555.htm |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Searcy |first1=Christopher A. |last2=Rollins |first2=Hilary B. |last3=Shaffer |first3=H. Bradley |title=Ecological equivalency as a tool for endangered species management |year=2016 |journal=[[Ecological Applications]] |volume=26 |issue=1 |pages=94–103 |pmid=27039512 |doi=10.1890/14-1674 |doi-access=free|bibcode=2016EcoAp..26...94S }}</ref> On many islands, tortoise extinction has resulted in dysfunctional ecosystems with respect to seed dispersal and herbivory. On the offshore islets of [[Mauritius]], tortoises now extinct had served as the keystone herbivores. Introduction of the non-native [[Aldabra giant tortoise]]s on two islets in 2000 and 2007 has begun to restore ecological equilibrium. The introduced tortoises are dispersing seeds of several native plants and are selectively grazing invasive plant species. Grazing and browsing are expected to replace ongoing intensive manual weeding, and the introduced tortoises are already breeding.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hansen |first1=Dennis M. |last2=Donlan |first2=C. Josh |last3=Griffiths |first3=Christine J. |last4=Campbell |first4=Karl J. |title=Ecological history and latent conservation potential: Large and giant tortoises as a model for taxon substitutions |year=2010 |journal=[[Ecography]] |volume=33 |issue=2 |pages=272–284 |doi=10.1111/j.1600-0587.2010.06305.x |doi-access=free|bibcode=2010Ecogr..33..272H }}</ref>
=== By using them as food ===
{{further|List of edible invasive species}}
The practice of eating invasive species to reduce their populations has been explored. In 2005 Chef [[Bun Lai]] of [[Miya's]] Sushi in [[New Haven, Connecticut]] created the first menu dedicated to invasive species. At that time, half the items on the menu were conceptual because those invasive species were not yet commercially available.<ref name=r1>{{cite news |title=The Invasivore's Dilemma |url=https://www.outsideonline.com/1922351/invasivores-dilemma |access-date=May 28, 2019 |magazine=Outside |last=Jacobsen |first=Rowan |date=March 24, 2014 |archive-date=May 28, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190528211949/https://www.outsideonline.com/1922351/invasivores-dilemma |url-status=live}}</ref> By 2013, Miya's offered invasive aquatic species such as Chesapeake [[blue catfish]], Florida [[lionfish]], Kentucky [[silver carp]], Georgia [[cannonball jellyfish]], and invasive plants such as [[Japanese knotweed]] and [[autumn olive]].<ref>{{cite journal |title=Invasive Species Menu of a World-Class Chef |journal=[[Scientific American]] |volume=309 |issue=3 |pages=40–43 |date=September 1, 2013 |last=Lai |first=Bun |doi=10.1038/scientificamerican0913-40 |pmid=24003552 |bibcode=2013SciAm.309c..40L}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/travel/indulge-invasive-species-restaurants-across-country-180957899/ |title=Bite Back Against Invasive Species at Your Next Meal |author=Billock, Jennifer |work=Smithsonian Magazine |date=February 9, 2016 |access-date=May 28, 2019 |archive-date=March 22, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190322193509/https://www.smithsonianmag.com/travel/indulge-invasive-species-restaurants-across-country-180957899/ |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/can-we-really-eat-invasive-species-into-submission/?redirect=1 |title=Can We Really Eat Invasive Species into Submission? |work=Scientific American |author=Snyder, Michael |date=May 19, 2017 |access-date=May 28, 2019 |archive-date=August 1, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200801204428/https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/can-we-really-eat-invasive-species-into-submission/?redirect=1 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Kolbert |first=Elizabeth |date=2 December 2012 |title=Alien Entrées |work=New Yorker |url=https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2012/12/10/alien-entrees |url-status=live |access-date=13 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191018202041/https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2012/12/10/alien-entrees |archive-date=18 October 2019}}</ref> [[Joe Roman]], a [[Harvard]] and [[University of Vermont]] conservation biologist and recipient of the [[Rachel Carson]] Environmental award, runs a website named "Eat The Invaders".<ref>{{Cite web |title=Bio |url=http://www.joeroman.com/new/bio/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190528213031/http://www.joeroman.com/bio/ |archive-date=28 May 2019 |access-date=2022-06-26 |website=Joe Roman |date=March 12, 2015}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Eat The Invaders — Fighting Invasive Species, One Bite At A Time! |url=http://eattheinvaders.org/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190519015542/http://eattheinvaders.org/ |archive-date=19 May 2019 |access-date=2022-06-26 |website=eattheinvaders.org}}</ref><ref name=r1/> Skeptics point out that once a foreign species has entrenched itself in a new place—such as the [[Indo-Pacific]] [[lionfish]] that has now virtually taken over the waters of the Western [[Atlantic Ocean |Atlantic]], [[Caribbean]] and [[Gulf of Mexico]]—eradication is almost impossible. Critics argue that encouraging consumption might have the unintended effect of spreading harmful species even more widely.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/world-on-a-plate/2015/feb/06/cooking-cant-solve-the-invasive-threat |title=Cooking can't solve the threat of invasive species |author=Bryce, Emma |date=February 6, 2015 |access-date=October 16, 2017 |work=The Guardian |archive-date=October 17, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171017201839/https://www.theguardian.com/environment/world-on-a-plate/2015/feb/06/cooking-cant-solve-the-invasive-threat |url-status=live}}</ref>
Proponents of eating invasive organisms argue that humans have the ability to eat away any species that it has an appetite for, pointing to the many animals which humans have been able to hunt to extinction—such as the [[Caribbean monk seal]], and the [[passenger pigeon]]. They further point to the success that [[Jamaica]] has had in significantly decreasing the population of [[lionfish]] by encouraging the consumption of the fish.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://news.yahoo.com/invasive-lionfish-kings-caribbean-may-met-match-011600208.html |title=Invasive Lionfish, the Kings of the Caribbean, May Have Met Their Match |date=January 24, 2014 |work=Yahoo News |last=Conniff |first=Richard |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140127033047/https://news.yahoo.com/invasive-lionfish-kings-caribbean-may-met-match-011600208.html |archive-date=January 27, 2014}}</ref>
In the 21st century, organizations including Reef Environmental Educational Foundation and the Institute for Applied Ecology have published cookbooks and recipes using invasive species as ingredients.<ref>{{cite book |author=Parks |first1=Mary |url=https://www.goodreads.com/book/show/44139470-the-green-crab-cookbook |title=The Green Crab Cookbook |last2=Thanh |first2=Thai |publisher=Green Crab R&d |year=2019 |isbn=9780578427942 |access-date=May 28, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201004001822/https://www.goodreads.com/book/show/44139470-the-green-crab-cookbook |archive-date=October 4, 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.reef.org/products/lionfish-cookbook-2nd-edition |title=Lionfish Cookbook 2nd Edition | Reef Environmental Education Foundation |website=www.reef.org |access-date=May 28, 2019 |archive-date=May 28, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190528212729/https://www.reef.org/products/lionfish-cookbook-2nd-edition |url-status=live}}</ref> Invasive plant species have been explored as a sustainable source of beneficial phytochemicals and edible protein.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Iyer |first1=Ajay |last2=Bestwick |first2=Charles S. |last3=Duncan |first3=Sylvia H. |last4=Russell |first4=Wendy R. |date=2021-02-15 |title=Invasive Plants Are a Valuable Alternate Protein Source and Can Contribute to Meeting Climate Change Targets |journal=Frontiers in Sustainable Food Systems |volume=5 |doi=10.3389/fsufs.2021.575056 |issn=2571-581X |doi-access=free |hdl=2164/15875 |hdl-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Iyer |first1=Ajay |last2=Guerrier |first2=Lisa |last3=Leveque |first3=Salomé |last4=Bestwick |first4=Charles S. |last5=Duncan |first5=Sylvia H. |last6=Russell |first6=Wendy R. |date=2022 |title=High throughput method development and optimised production of leaf protein concentrates with potential to support the agri-industry |url=https://link.springer.com/10.1007/s11694-021-01136-w |journal=Journal of Food Measurement and Characterization |volume=16 |issue=1 |pages=49–65 |doi=10.1007/s11694-021-01136-w |s2cid=244407388 |issn=2193-4126 |hdl=2164/19275 |hdl-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Nuñez |first=Martin A. |last2=Kuebbing |first2=Sara |last3=Dimarco |first3=Romina D. |last4=Simberloff |first4=Daniel |date=December 2012 |title=Invasive Species: to eat or not to eat, that is the question |url=https://conbio.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1755-263X.2012.00250.x |journal=Conservation Letters |language=en |volume=5 |issue=5 |pages=334–341 |doi=10.1111/j.1755-263X.2012.00250.x |issn=1755-263X}}</ref>
===Pesticides===
[[Pesticide]]s are commonly used to control and eradicate invasives.<ref name="Goss-et-al-2020">{{cite journal |last1=Goss |first1=Erica M. |last2=Kendig |first2=Amy E. |last3=Adhikari |first3=Ashish |last4=Lane |first4=Brett |last5=Kortessis |first5=Nicholas |last6=Holt |first6=Robert D. |last7=Clay |first7=Keith |last8=Harmon |first8=Philip F. |last9=Flory |first9=S. Luke |title=Disease in Invasive Plant Populations |journal=Annual Review of Phytopathology |date=25 August 2020 |volume=58 |issue=1 |pages=97–117 |doi=10.1146/annurev-phyto-010820-012757 |pmid=32516034 |s2cid=219563975 }}</ref> Herbicides used against invasive plants include [[fungal herbicide]]s.<ref name="Goss-et-al-2020"/> Although the [[effective population size]] of an introduced population is [[population bottleneck|bottlenecked]], some [[genetic variation]] has been known to provide invasive plants with [[plant disease resistance|resistance against these fungal bioherbicides]].<ref name="Goss-et-al-2020"/> Meyer ''et al.'' 2010 finds invasive populations of ''[[Bromus tectorum]]'' with resistance to ''[[Ustilago]] [[Ustilago bullata|bullata]]'' used as a biocontrol, and Bruckart ''et al.'' 2017 find the same in ''[[Microstegium vimineum]]'' subject to ''[[Bipolaris]] [[Bipolaris microstegii|microstegii]]'' and ''[[Bipolaris drechsleri|B. drechsleri]]''.<ref name="Goss-et-al-2020"/> This is not solely a character of invasive plant genetics, but is normal for wild plants such as the weed ''[[Linum marginale]]'' and its fungal pathogen ''[[Melampsora lini]]''.<ref name="Goss-et-al-2020"/> Crops have another disadvantage over any uncontrolled plant – wild native or invasive – namely their greater uptake of nutrients,<ref name="Goss-et-al-2020"/> as they are [[crop breeding|deliberately bred]] to increase nutrient intake to enable increased product output.<ref name="Goss-et-al-2020"/>
=== Gene drive ===
A gene drive could be used to eliminate invasive species and has, for example, been proposed as a way to eliminate [[invasive species in New Zealand]].<ref name="NZ gene drive James Kalmakoff">{{cite web |last=Kalmakoff |first=James |url=http://www.merlinnz.com/blog/crispr-pest-free-nz/ |title=CRISPR for pest-free NZ |date=11 October 2016 |access-date=19 October 2016 }}</ref> Gene drives for biodiversity conservation purposes are being explored as part of The Genetic Biocontrol of Invasive Rodents (GBIRd) program because they offer the potential for reduced risk to non-target species and reduced costs when compared to traditional invasive species removal techniques.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.geneticbiocontrol.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/GBIRD-FactSheet-April-2018.pdf |title=GBIRd Fact Sheet |date=1 April 2018 |access-date=14 November 2018 }}</ref> A wider outreach network for gene drive research exists to raise awareness of the value of gene drive research for the public good.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://genedrivenetwork.org/resources/6-mission-principles-statement-july2018/file |title=Mission & Principles Statement |date=1 July 2018 |access-date=14 November 2018 }}</ref> Some scientists are concerned that the technique could wipe out species in native habitats.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://theconversation.com/gene-drives-could-wipe-out-whole-populations-of-pests-in-one-fell-swoop-81681 |title='Gene drives' could wipe out whole populations of pests in one fell swoop |work=The Conversation|date=August 8, 2017 }}</ref> The gene could mutate, causing unforeseen problems,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://blogs.plos.org/dnascience/2017/11/30/an-argument-against-gene-drives-to-extinguish-new-zealand-mammals-life-finds-a-way/ |title=An Argument Against Gene Drives to Extinguish New Zealand Mammals: Life Finds a Way |work=Plos blogs |date=30 November 2017 }}</ref> or hybridize with native species.<ref name="NZ gene drive risks">{{cite web |last=Campbell |first=Colin |url=https://www.odt.co.nz/opinion/risks-may-accompany-gene-drive-technology#comment-1086 |title=Risks may accompany gene drive technology |publisher=Otago Daily Times |date=17 October 2016 |access-date=19 October 2016}}</ref>
===''Homo sapiens''===
Some sources name ''[[Homo sapiens]]'' as an invasive species,<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1038/scientificamerican0815-32 |jstor=26046104 |title=The Most Invasive Species of All |last=Marean |first=Curtis W. |journal=[[Scientific American]] |year=2015 |volume=313 |issue=2 |pages=32–39 |pmid=26349141 |bibcode=2015SciAm.313b..32M}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia |last=Rafferty |first=John P. |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopedia Britannica]] |title=Invasive species |url=https://www.britannica.com/science/invasive-species |access-date=August 18, 2020 |year=2015 |quote="...[M]odern humans are among the most successful invasive species." |archive-date=August 2, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200802215045/https://www.britannica.com/science/invasive-species |url-status=live }}</ref> but broad appreciation of human learning capacity and their behavioral potential and [[phenotypic plasticity|plasticity]] may argue against any such fixed categorization.<ref name="root">{{cite journal |doi=10.1002/ece3.5049 |title=Ecology of a widespread large omnivore, Homo sapiens, and its impacts on ecosystem processes |year=2019 |last1=Root-Bernstein |first1=Meredith |last2=Ladle |first2=Richard |s2cid=203370925 |journal=[[Ecology and Evolution]] |volume=9 |issue=19 |pages=10874–94 |pmid=31641442 |pmc=6802023 |doi-access=free|bibcode=2019EcoEv...910874R }}</ref>
== Predicting invasive plants ==
Accurately predicting the impacts of non-native plants can be an especially effective management option because most introductions of non-native plant species are intentional.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ööpik |first1=Merle |last2=Kukk |first2=Toomas |last3=Kull |first3=Kalevi |last4=Kull |first4=Tiiu |title=The importance of human mediation in species establishment: analysis of the alien flora of Estonia |journal=Boreal Environment Research |date=2008 |volume=13 |issue=Supplement A |pages=53–67 |hdl=10138/235238 |hdl-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lehan |first1=Nora E. |last2=Murphy |first2=Julia R. |last3=Thorburn |first3=Lukas P. |last4=Bradley |first4=Bethany A. |title=Accidental introductions are an important source of invasive plants in the continental United States |journal=American Journal of Botany |date=July 2013 |volume=100 |issue=7 |pages=1287–1293 |doi=10.3732/ajb.1300061 |pmid=23825135 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Virtue |first1=J.G. |last2=Bennett |first2=Sarita |last3=Randall |first3=R.P. |chapter=Plant introductions in Australia: how can we resolve 'weedy' conflicts of interest?: Plant introductions in Australia: how can we resolve 'weedy' conflicts of interest? |pages=42–48 |s2cid=82300163 |editor1-last=Sindel |editor1-first=Brian Mark |editor2-last=Johnson |editor2-first=Stephen Barry |title=Weed Management: Balancing People, Planet, Profit : 14th Australian Weeds Conference : Papers & Proceedings |date=2004 |publisher=Weed Society of New South Wales |isbn=978-0-9752488-0-5 }}</ref>
Weed risk assessments attempt to predict the chances that a specific plant will have negative effects in a new environment, often using a standardized questionnaire. The resulting total score is associated with a management action such as "prevent introduction".<ref name=":2">{{cite journal |last1=Pheloung |first1=P.C. |last2=Williams |first2=P.A. |last3=Halloy |first3=S.R. |title=A weed risk assessment model for use as a biosecurity tool evaluating plant introductions |journal=Journal of Environmental Management |date=December 1999 |volume=57 |issue=4 |pages=239–251 |doi=10.1006/jema.1999.0297 }}</ref><ref name=":3">{{cite journal |last1=Koop |first1=Anthony L. |last2=Fowler |first2=Larry |last3=Newton |first3=Leslie P. |last4=Caton |first4=Barney P. |title=Development and validation of a weed screening tool for the United States |journal=Biological Invasions |date=February 2012 |volume=14 |issue=2 |pages=273–294 |doi=10.1007/s10530-011-0061-4 |bibcode=2012BiInv..14..273K |s2cid=254280051 }}</ref>
Assessments commonly use information about the physiology,<ref name=":2"/> life history,<ref name=":3"/> native ranges,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Pfadenhauer |first1=William G. |last2=Nelson |first2=Michael F. |last3=Laginhas |first3=Brit B. |last4=Bradley |first4=Bethany A. |title=Remember your roots: Biogeographic properties of plants' native habitats can inform invasive plant risk assessments |journal=Diversity and Distributions |date=January 2023 |volume=29 |issue=1 |pages=4–18 |doi=10.1111/ddi.13639 |s2cid=253220107 |url=https://scholarworks.umass.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1002&context=oeb_grad_pubs |doi-access=free |bibcode=2023DivDi..29....4P }}</ref> and phylogenetic relationships of the species evaluated. The effectiveness of the approach is debated.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gordon |first1=Doria R. |last2=Flory |first2=S. Luke |last3=Lieurance |first3=Deah |last4=Hulme |first4=Philip E. |last5=Buddenhagen |first5=Chris |last6=Caton |first6=Barney |last7=Champion |first7=Paul D. |last8=Culley |first8=Theresa M. |last9=Daehler |first9=Curt |last10=Essl |first10=Franz |last11=Hill |first11=Jeffrey E. |last12=Keller |first12=Reuben P. |last13=Kohl |first13=Lisa |last14=Koop |first14=Anthony L. |last15=Kumschick |first15=Sabrina |last16=Lodge |first16=David M. |last17=Mack |first17=Richard N. |last18=Meyerson |first18=Laura A. |last19=Pallipparambil |first19=Godshen R. |last20=Panetta |first20=F. Dane |last21=Porter |first21=Read |last22=Pyšek |first22=Petr |last23=Quinn |first23=Lauren D. |last24=Richardson |first24=David M. |last25=Simberloff |first25=Daniel |last26=Vilà |first26=Montserrat |display-authors=6 |title=Weed Risk Assessments Are an Effective Component of Invasion Risk Management |journal=Invasive Plant Science and Management |date=March 2016 |volume=9 |issue=1 |pages=81–83 |doi=10.1614/IPSM-D-15-00053.1 |s2cid=86276601 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hulme |first1=Philip E. |title=Weed risk assessment: a way forward or a waste of time?: Weed risk assessment: a way forward or waste of time? |journal=Journal of Applied Ecology |date=February 2012 |volume=49 |issue=1 |pages=10–19 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2664.2011.02069.x |doi-access=free }}</ref>
==See also==
* [[Archaeophyte]]
* [[Climate change and invasive species]]
* [[Colonisation (biology)]]
* [[Ecologically based invasive plant management]]
* [[Escaped plant]]
* [[Hemerochory]]
* [[Invasion genetics]]
* [[Lists of invasive species]]
* [[Naturalisation (biology)]]
* [[Neophyte (botany)]]
* [[Seed dispersal]]
== References ==
=== Attribution ===
This article incorporates CC-BY-3.0 text from the reference<ref name="Odendaal 2008"/>
=== Citations ===
{{Reflist|refs=
<ref name=amstutz2018>{{Cite book|last=Amstutz|first=Lisa J|title=Invasive Species|publisher=Abdo Publishing|year=2018|isbn=9781532110245|location=Minneapolis, MN|pages=8–10}}</ref>
<ref name=davis>{{cite journal |last1=Davis |first1=Mark A. |last2=Thompson |first2=Ken |year=2000 |title=Eight Ways to be a Colonizer; Two Ways to be an Invader: A Proposed Nomenclature Scheme for Invasion Ecology |journal=Bulletin of the Ecological Society of America |volume=81 |number=3 |pages=226–230 |publisher=[[Ecological Society of America]]}}</ref>
<ref name=ehrenfeld2010>{{cite journal |last1=Ehrenfeld |first1=Joan G. |title=Ecosystem Consequences of Biological Invasions |journal=Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics |date=1 December 2010 |volume=41 |issue=1 |pages=59–80 |doi=10.1146/annurev-ecolsys-102209-144650 }}</ref>
<ref name=ivey2019>{{cite journal |last1=Ivey |first1=Matthew R. |last2=Colvin |first2=Michael |last3=Strickland |first3=Bronson K. |last4=Lashley |first4=Marcus A. |date=June 14, 2019 |title=Reduced vertebrate diversity independent of spatial scale following feral swine invasions |journal=[[Ecology and Evolution]] |volume=9 |issue=13 |pages=7761–7767 |doi=10.1002/ece3.5360 |pmid=31346438 |pmc=6635915|bibcode=2019EcoEv...9.7761I }}</ref>
<ref name=pnwaquaticinv>Aquatic invasive species. A Guide to Least-Wanted Aquatic Organisms of the Pacific Northwest. 2001. University of Washington</ref>
<ref name=trainer2012>{{Cite journal|last1=Trainer|first1=Vera L.|last2=Bates|first2=Stephen S.|last3=Lundholm|first3=Nina|last4=Thessen|first4=Anne E.|last5=Cochlan|first5=William P.|last6=Adams|first6=Nicolaus G.|last7=Trick|first7=Charles G.|date=2012|title=Pseudo-nitzschia physiological ecology, phylogeny, toxicity, monitoring and impacts on ecosystem health|journal=Harmful Algae|volume=14|pages=271–300|doi=10.1016/j.hal.2011.10.025|hdl=1912/5118|hdl-access=free}}</ref>
}}
== Further reading ==
* [https://sitn.hms.harvard.edu/flash/2014/removing-threat-from-invasive-species-with-genetic-engineering/ Removing Threat from Invasive Species with Genetic Engineering]
* {{cite journal |last1=Mitchell |first1=Heidi J. |last2=Bartsch |first2=Detlef |title=Regulation of GM Organisms for Invasive Species Control |journal=Frontiers in Bioengineering and Biotechnology |date=21 January 2020 |volume=7 |pages=454 |doi=10.3389/fbioe.2019.00454 |pmid=32039172 |pmc=6985037 |doi-access=free }}
* [https://psmag.com/environment/should-we-fight-invasive-species-with-genetic-engineering Should We Fight Invasive Species With Genetic Engineering]
*{{cite web |url=https://theconversation.com/the-true-damage-of-invasive-alien-species-was-just-revealed-in-a-landmark-report-heres-how-we-must-act-211893|title=The true damage of invasive alien species was just revealed in a landmark report. Here's how we must act|last=Sheppard|first=Andy|display-authors=etal.|date= September 4, 2023|website=[[The Conversation (website)|The Conversation]] |publisher= |access-date= |quote=}}
== External links ==
* [https://www.naisn.org/ North American Invasive Species Network], a consortium that uses a coordinated network to advance science-based understanding and enhance management of non-native, invasive species.
* [https://www.nonnativespecies.org/ Great Britain Non-native Species Secretariat (NNNS) website]
* [https://www.cabi.org/ISC/ CABI Invasive Species Compendium], an encyclopaedic resource of scientific information
* [https://www.invasivespeciesinfo.gov/ Invasive Species], National Invasive Species Information Center, [[United States National Agricultural Library]]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20110406095350/http://issg.org/database/welcome/ Invasive Species Specialist Group] – Global Invasive Species Database
* [http://www.hear.org/pier/ Pacific Island Ecosystems at Risk] project
* [http://www.invadingspecies.com/ invadingspecies.com] of the [[Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources]] and [[Ontario Federation of Anglers and Hunters]]
*[https://www.fisheriesireland.ie/what-we-do/research/research-theme-invasive-species Aquatic invasive species in Ireland], Inland Fisheries Ireland
*[http://ias.biodiversity.be/ Invasive alien species in Belgium] Belgian Forum on Invasive Species (BFIS)
{{Invasive species by country}}
{{Globalization |state=autocollapse }}
{{Modelling ecosystems |state=collapsed }}
{{Pollution}}
{{Authority control}}
{{Good article}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Invasive Species}}
[[Category:Invasive species|Invasive species]]
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
[[Category:Environmental terminology]]
[[Category:Habitat]]
[[Category:Pest control]]
[[Category:Forest pathology]] |
Extinction risk from climate change | {{Short description|Risk of plant or animal species becoming extinct due to climate change}}
{{About|data on extinction of plant or animal species due to climate change|speculation about human extinction due to climate change|Climate change and civilizational collapse}}
[[File:Strona_2022_ssps_connectance.jpg|thumb|The impact of three different [[climate change scenario]]s on local [[biodiversity]] and risk of extinction of vertebrate species.<ref name="Strona2022" />]]
There are several plausible pathways that could lead to an increased '''extinction risk from climate change'''. Every [[plant]] and [[animal]] [[species]] has evolved to exist within a certain [[ecological niche]].<ref name=Pocheville2015>{{cite book | last1= Pocheville | first1= Arnaud | year= 2015 | chapter= The Ecological Niche: History and Recent Controversies | chapter-url= https://www.academia.edu/6188833 | editor1-last= Heams | editor1-first= Thomas | editor2-last= Huneman| editor2-first= Philippe | editor3-last= Lecointre | editor3-first= Guillaume |display-editors = 3 | editor4-last= Silberstein | editor4-first= Marc | title= Handbook of Evolutionary Thinking in the Sciences | location= Dordrecht | publisher= Springer | publication-date= 2015 | pages= 547–586 | isbn= 978-94-017-9014-7}}</ref> But [[climate change]] leads to changes of temperature and average weather patterns.<ref>{{Cite web|date=28 March 2019|title=Climate Change|url=https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/climate-change/|access-date=1 November 2021|website=National Geographic}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Witze |first1=Alexandra |title=Why extreme rains are gaining strength as the climate warms |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-018-07447-1 |access-date=30 July 2021 |work=Nature}}</ref> These changes can push climatic conditions outside of the species' niche, and ultimately render it extinct.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Van der Putten|first1=Wim H.|last2=Macel|first2=Mirka|last3=Visser|first3=Marcel E.|date=2010-07-12|title=Predicting species distribution and abundance responses to climate change: why it is essential to include biotic interactions across trophic levels|url= |journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences|volume=365|issue=1549|pages=2025–2034|doi=10.1098/rstb.2010.0037|pmc=2880132|pmid=20513711}}</ref> Normally, species faced with changing conditions can either adapt in place through [[microevolution]] or move to another habitat with suitable conditions. However, the speed of recent climate change is very fast. Due to this rapid change, for example [[Ectotherm|cold-blooded animals]] (a category which includes [[amphibians]], [[reptile]]s and all [[invertebrate]]s) may struggle to find a suitable habitat within 50 km of their current location at the end of this century (for a ''[[Climate change scenario|mid-range scenario]]'' of future global warming).<ref name="Buckley2012" />
Climate change also increases both the frequency and intensity of [[extreme weather event]]s,<ref name="IPCC6AR_ExtremeEvents">{{cite book |title=Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis. Working Group I contribution to the WGI Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change|chapter= Summary for Policymakers |url=https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg1/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGI_SPM_final.pdf |publisher=Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211104175351/https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg1/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGI_SPM_final.pdf |archive-date=4 November 2021 |page=SPM-23; Fig. SPM.6 |date=9 August 2021 |url-status=live }}</ref> which can directly wipe out regional populations of species.<ref name="Maxwell2018" /> Those species occupying [[coast]]al and [[low-lying island]] habitats can also become extinct by [[sea level rise]]. This has already happened with [[Bramble Cay melomys]] in [[Australia]].<ref name=":0" /> Finally, climate change has been linked with the increased prevalence and global spread of certain diseases affecting wildlife. This includes [[Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis]], a [[fungus]] that is one of the main drivers of the worldwide [[decline in amphibian populations]].<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Pounds|first1=Alan|title=Widespread Amphibian Extinctions from Epidemic Disease Driven by Global Warming|journal=Nature|date=12 January 2006|volume=439|issue=7073|pages=161–167|doi=10.1038/nature04246|pmid=16407945|bibcode=2006Natur.439..161A|s2cid=4430672}}</ref>
So far, climate change has not yet been a major contributor to the ongoing [[holocene extinction]]. In fact, nearly all of the irreversible [[biodiversity loss]] to date has been caused by other [[Human impact on the environment|anthropogenic pressures]] such as [[habitat destruction]].<ref name="IPBES" /><ref name=":9" /><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Caro |first1=Tim |last2=Rowe |first2=Zeke |display-authors=etal. |date=2022 |title=An inconvenient misconception: Climate change is not the principal driver of biodiversity loss |url= |journal=[[Conservation Letters]] |volume=15 |issue=3 |pages=e12868 |doi=10.1111/conl.12868 |s2cid=246172852 |access-date=}}</ref> Yet, its effects are certain to become more prevalent in the future. As of 2021, 19% of species on the [[IUCN Red List of Threatened Species]] are already being impacted by climate change.<ref>{{cite web|date=October 2021|title=Species and Climate Change|url=https://www.iucn.org/resources/issues-brief/species-and-climate-change#:~:text=Species%20are%20already%20being%20impacted,the%20likelihood%20of%20their%20extinction|website=IUCN Issues Brief|publisher=IUCN}}</ref> Out of 4000 species analyzed by the [[IPCC Sixth Assessment Report]], half were found to have shifted their distribution to higher latitudes or elevations in response to climate change. According to [[IUCN]], once a species has lost over half of its geographic range, it is classified as "endangered", which is considered equivalent to a >20% likelihood of extinction over the next 10–100 years. If it loses 80% or more of its range, it is considered "critically endangered", and has a ''very high'' (over 50%) likelihood of going extinct over the next 10–100 years.<ref name="AR6_WGII_Chapter2" />
The [[IPCC Sixth Assessment Report]] projected that in the future, 9%-14% of the species assessed would be at a very high risk of extinction under {{convert|1.5|C-change|F-change}} of global warming over the preindustrial levels, and more warming means more widespread risk, with {{convert|3|C-change|F-change}} placing 12%-29% at very high risk, and {{convert|5|C-change|F-change}} 15%-48%. In particular, at {{convert|3.2|C-change|F-change}}, 15% of [[invertebrates]] (including 12% of [[pollinator]]s), 11% of [[amphibians]] and 10% of [[flowering plant]]s would be at a ''very high'' risk of extinction, while ~49% of [[insect]]s, 44% of plants, and 26% of [[vertebrate]]s would be at a ''high'' risk of extinction. In contrast, even the more modest [[Paris Agreement]] goal of limiting warming to {{convert|2|C-change|F-change}} reduces the fraction of invertebrates, amphibians and flowering plants at a ''very high'' risk of extinction to below 3%. However, while the more ambitious {{convert|1.5|C-change|F-change}} goal dramatically cuts the proportion of insects, plants, and vertebrates at ''high'' risk of extinction to 6%, 4% and 8%, the less ambitious target triples (to 18%) and doubles (8% and 16%) the proportion of respective species at risk.<ref name="AR6_WGII_Chapter2" />
==Causes==
[[File:Extreme weather under global warming.svg |thumb|upright=1.35| Projections of extreme weather under different levels of global warming.]]
[[Climate change]] has already adversely affected marine and [[terrestrial ecoregions]], including [[tundra]]s, [[mangrove]]s, [[coral reef]]s, and [[cave]]s.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/2019/08/Edited-SPM_Approved_Microsite_FINAL.pdf|title=IPCC Special Report on Climate Change, Desertification, Land Degradation, Sustainable Land Management, Food Security, and Greenhouse gas fluxes in Terrestrial Ecosystems:Summary for Policymakers}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ipcc.ch/srocc/chapter/summary-for-policymakers/|title=Summary for Policymakers — Special Report on the Ocean and Cryosphere in a Changing Climate|access-date=2019-12-23}}</ref> Consequently, increasing global temperatures have already been pushing some species out of their habitats for decades.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Root |first1=Terry L. |last2=Price |first2=Jeff T. |last3=Hall |first3=Kimberly R. |last4=Schneider |first4=Stephen H. |last5=Rosenzweig |first5=Cynthia |last6=Pounds |first6=J. Alan |title=Fingerprints of global warming on wild animals and plants |journal=Nature |date=January 2003 |volume=421 |issue=6918 |pages=57–60 |doi=10.1038/nature01333 |pmid=12511952 |bibcode=2003Natur.421...57R |s2cid=205209602 }}</ref>
When the [[IPCC Fourth Assessment Report]] was published in 2007, expert assessments concluded that over the last three decades, human-induced warming had likely had a discernible influence on many physical and biological systems,<ref>{{cite journal |url=https://www.zora.uzh.ch/id/eprint/33180/ |doi=10.5167/uzh-33180 |year=2007 |title=Assessment of observed changes and responses in natural and managed systems |last1=Rosenzweig |first1=C. |last2=Casassa |first2=G. |last3=Karoly |first3=D. J. |last4=Imeson |first4=A. |last5=Liu |first5=C. |last6=Menzel |first6=A. |last7=Rawlins |first7=S. |last8=Root |first8=T. L. |last9=Seguin |first9=B. |last10=Tryjanowski |first10=P. |pages=79–131 |publisher=Cambridge University Press }}</ref> and that regional temperature trends had already affected species and ecosystems around the world.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Root |first1=T. L. |last2=MacMynowski |first2=D. P |last3=Mastrandrea |first3=M. D. |last4=Schneider |first4=S. H. |title=Human-modified temperatures induce species changes: Joint attribution |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |date=17 May 2005 |volume=102 |issue=21 |pages=7465–7469 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0502286102 |pmid=15899975 |pmc=1129055 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Assessing Key Vulnerabilities and the Risk from Climate Change |year=2007 |url=https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar4/wg2/assessing-key-vulnerabilities-and-the-risk-from-climate-change/ |work=AR4 Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability }}</ref> By the time of the [[Sixth Assessment Report]], it was found that for all species for which long-term records are available, half have shifted their ranges poleward (and/or upward for mountain species), while two-thirds have had their spring events occur earlier.<ref name="AR6_WGII_Chapter2" />
Many of the species at risk are [[Arctic]] and [[Antarctic]] fauna such as [[polar bear]]s<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Amstrup |first1=Steven C. |last2=Stirling |first2=Ian |last3=Smith |first3=Tom S. |last4=Perham |first4=Craig |last5=Thiemann |first5=Gregory W. |title=Recent observations of intraspecific predation and cannibalism among polar bears in the southern Beaufort Sea |journal=Polar Biology |date=27 April 2006 |volume=29 |issue=11 |pages=997–1002 |doi=10.1007/s00300-006-0142-5 |s2cid=34780227 }}</ref> In the Arctic, the waters of [[Hudson Bay]] are ice-free for three weeks longer than they were thirty years ago, affecting polar bears, which prefer to hunt on sea ice.<ref>[http://www.lrb.co.uk/v27/n01/byer01_.html On Thinning Ice] ''Michael Byers'' London Review of Books January 2005</ref> Species that rely on cold weather conditions such as [[gyrfalcon]]s, and [[snowy owl]]s that prey on lemmings that use the cold winter to their advantage may be negatively affected.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://ec.europa.eu/environment/nature/conservation/wildbirds/action_plans/docs/falco_rusticolis.pdf |title=International Species Action Plan for the Gyrfalcon Falco rusticolis |publisher=BirdLife International |year=1999 |author=Pertti Koskimies (compiler) |access-date=2007-12-28 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://aknhp.uaa.alaska.edu/zoology/species_ADFG/ADFG_PDFs/Birds/Snowy%20Owl_ADFG_final_2006.pdf |title=Snowy Owl |publisher=University of Alaska |year=2006 |access-date=2007-12-28 }}</ref> Climate change is also leading to a mismatch between the [[snow camouflage]] of arctic animals such as [[snowshoe hare]]s with the increasingly snow-free landscape.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mills |first1=L. Scott |last2=Zimova |first2=Marketa |last3=Oyler |first3=Jared |last4=Running |first4=Steven |last5=Abatzoglou |first5=John T. |last6=Lukacs |first6=Paul M. |title=Camouflage mismatch in seasonal coat color due to decreased snow duration |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |date=15 April 2013 |volume=110 |issue=18 |pages=7360–7365 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1222724110 |pmid=23589881 |pmc=3645584 |bibcode=2013PNAS..110.7360M |doi-access=free }}</ref>
Then, many species of freshwater and saltwater plants and animals are dependent on [[glacier]]-fed waters to ensure a cold water habitat that they have adapted to. Some species of freshwater fish need cold water to survive and to reproduce, and this is especially true with [[salmon]] and [[cutthroat trout]]. Reduced glacier runoff can lead to insufficient stream flow to allow these species to thrive. Ocean [[krill]], a cornerstone species, prefer cold water and are the primary food source for aquatic mammals such as the [[blue whale]].<ref>{{cite news|last=Lovell|first=Jeremy|date=2002-09-09|title=Warming Could End Antarctic Species|work=CBS News|url=http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2002/09/09/tech/main521258.shtml|access-date=2008-01-02}}</ref> Marine invertebrates achieve peak growth at the temperatures they have adapted to, and [[Poikilotherm|cold-blooded]] animals found at high [[latitude]]s and [[altitude]]s generally grow faster to compensate for the short growing season.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Arendt |first1=Jeffrey D. |title=Adaptive Intrinsic Growth Rates: An Integration Across Taxa |journal=The Quarterly Review of Biology |date=June 1997 |volume=72 |issue=2 |pages=149–177 |doi=10.1086/419764 |jstor=3036336 |citeseerx=10.1.1.210.7376 |s2cid=1460221 }}</ref> Warmer-than-ideal conditions result in higher [[metabolism]] and consequent reductions in body size despite increased foraging, which in turn elevates the risk of [[predation]]. Indeed, even a slight increase in temperature during development impairs growth efficiency and survival rate in [[rainbow trout]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Biro |first1=P. A. |last2=Post |first2=J. R. |last3=Booth |first3=D. J. |title=Mechanisms for climate-induced mortality of fish populations in whole-lake experiments |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |date=29 May 2007 |volume=104 |issue=23 |pages=9715–9719 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0701638104 |pmid=17535908 |pmc=1887605 |bibcode = 2007PNAS..104.9715B |doi-access=free }}</ref>
[[File:Eagle River 8593.JPG|thumb|left|upright=1.25|[[Eagle River (Cook Inlet)|Eagle River]] in central Alaska, home to various indigenous freshwater species.]]
Species of fish living in cold or cool water can see a reduction in population of up to 50% in the majority of U.S. freshwater streams, according to most climate change models.<ref name=":42">{{cite journal |last1=Bryant |first1=M. D. |title=Global climate change and potential effects on Pacific salmonids in freshwater ecosystems of southeast Alaska |journal=Climatic Change |date=14 January 2009 |volume=95 |issue=1–2 |pages=169–193 |doi=10.1007/s10584-008-9530-x |bibcode=2009ClCh...95..169B |s2cid=14764515 }}</ref> The increase in metabolic demands due to higher water temperatures, in combination with decreasing amounts of food will be the main contributors to their decline.<ref name=":42" /> Additionally, many fish species (such as salmon) use seasonal water levels of streams as a means of reproducing, typically breeding when water flow is high and migrating to the ocean after spawning.<ref name=":42" /> Because snowfall is expected to be reduced due to climate change, water runoff is expected to decrease which leads to lower flowing streams, affecting the spawning of millions of salmon.<ref name=":42" /> To add to this, rising seas will begin to flood coastal river systems, converting them from fresh water habitats to saline environments where indigenous species will likely perish. In southeast Alaska, the sea rises by 3.96 cm/year, redepositing sediment in various river channels and bringing salt water inland.<ref name=":42" /> This rise in sea level not only contaminates streams and rivers with saline water, but also the reservoirs they are connected to, where species such as [[sockeye salmon]] live. Although this species of Salmon can survive in both salt and fresh water, the loss of a body of fresh water stops them from reproducing in the spring, as the spawning process requires fresh water.<ref name=":42" />
Furthermore, climate change may disrupt ecological partnerships among interacting species, via changes on behaviour and [[phenology]], or via [[Ecological niche|climate niche]] mismatch.<ref name="Sales et al (2020)">{{cite journal|last1=Sales|first1=L. P.|last2=Culot|first2= L.|last3=Pires|first3=M.|date=July 2020|title=Climate niche mismatch and the collapse of primate seed dispersal services in the Amazon|journal= Biological Conservation|volume=247|issue=9|pages=108628|doi=10.1016/j.biocon.2020.108628|s2cid=219764670 }}</ref> The disruption of species-species associations is a potential consequence of climate-driven movements of each individual species towards opposite directions.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Malhi |first1=Yadvinder |last2=Franklin |first2=Janet |last3=Seddon |first3=Nathalie |last4=Solan |first4=Martin |last5=Turner |first5=Monica G. |last6=Field |first6=Christopher B. |last7=Knowlton |first7=Nancy |date=2020-01-27 |title=Climate change and ecosystems: threats, opportunities and solutions |journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences |volume=375 |issue=1794 |pages=20190104 |doi=10.1098/rstb.2019.0104 |pmid=31983329 |pmc=7017779 |issn=0962-8436}}</ref><ref name="Sales et al (2021)">{{cite journal|last1=Sales|first1=L. P.|last2=Rodrigues|first2=L.|last3=Masiero|first3=R.|date=November 2020|title=Climate change drives spatial mismatch and threatens the biotic interactions of the Brazil nut|journal= Global Ecology and Biogeography|volume=30|issue=1|pages=117–127|doi=10.1111/geb.13200|s2cid=228875365 }}</ref> Climate change may, thus, lead to another extinction, more silent and mostly overlooked: the extinction of species' interactions. As a consequence of the spatial decoupling of species-species associations, [[ecosystem service]]s derived from biotic interactions are also at risk from climate niche mismatch.<ref name="Sales et al (2020)" /> Whole ecosystem disruptions will occur earlier under more intense climate change: under the high-emissions [[Representative Concentration Pathway|RCP8.5]] scenario, ecosystems in the tropical oceans would be the first to experience abrupt disruption before 2030, with tropical forests and polar environments following by 2050. In total, 15% of ecological assemblages would have over 20% of their species abruptly disrupted if as warming eventually reaches {{convert|4|C-change|F-change}}; in contrast, this would happen to fewer than 2% if the warming were to stay below {{convert|2|C-change|F-change}}.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Trisos |first1=Christopher H. |last2=Merow |first2=Cory |last3=Pigot |first3=Alex L. |title=The projected timing of abrupt ecological disruption from climate change |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-020-2189-9 |journal=Nature |date=8 April 2020 |volume=580 |issue=7804 |pages=496–501 |doi=10.1038/s41586-020-2189-9 |pmid=32322063 |bibcode=2020Natur.580..496T |s2cid=256822113 }}</ref>
=== Extinctions attributed to climate change ===
Besides [[Bramble Cay melomys]] (see below), few recorded species extinctions are thought to have been caused by climate change, as opposed to the other drivers of the [[Holocene extinction]]. For example, only 20 of 864 species extinctions are considered by the IUCN to potentially be the result of climate change, either wholly or in part, and the evidence linking them to climate change is typically considered as weak or insubstantial.<ref name=":9">{{Cite journal|last1=Cahill|first1=Abigail E.|last2=Aiello-Lammens|first2=Matthew E.|last3=Fisher-Reid|first3=M. Caitlin|last4=Hua|first4=Xia|last5=Karanewsky|first5=Caitlin J.|last6=Yeong Ryu|first6=Hae|last7=Sbeglia|first7=Gena C.|last8=Spagnolo|first8=Fabrizio|last9=Waldron|first9=John B.|last10=Warsi|first10=Omar|last11=Wiens|first11=John J.|date=2013-01-07|title=How does climate change cause extinction?|url= |journal=Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences|volume=280|issue=1750|pages=20121890|doi=10.1098/rspb.2012.1890|pmc=3574421|pmid=23075836}}</ref> These species’ extinctions are listed in the table below.
{| class="wikitable sortable mw-collapsible"
|+Causes of global extinction for 20 species whose declines were possibly linked to climate change (data from IUCN)<ref name=":9" />
!Higher taxon
!Species
!Possible link to climate change
!Hypothesized causes of extinction
|-
|Snail
|''Graecoanatolica macedonica''
|Drought
|Loss of aquatic habitat due to drought
|-
|Snail
|''Pachnodus velutinus''
|Drought
|Habitat degradation, drought related to climate change, hybridization
|-
|Snail
|''Pseudamnicola desertorum''
|Possibly related to drought
|Loss of aquatic habitat
|-
|Snail
|''Rhachistia aldabrae''
|Drought
|Drought related to recent climate change
|-
|Fish*<ref group=Note>''Acanthobrama telavivensis'' and ''Anaxyrus (Bufo) baxteri'' are extinct in the wild rather than globally extinct.</ref>
|''Acanthobrama telavivensis''
|Drought
|Loss of aquatic habitat
|-
|Fish
|''Tristramella magdelainae''
|Drought
|Loss of aquatic habitat due to drought, pollution and water extraction
|-
|Frog*
|''Anaxyrus (Bufo) baxteri''
|Chytrid
|Chytrid fungus
|-
|Frog
|''Atelopus ignescens''
|Chytrid
|Synergistic effects of chytrid and climate change
|-
|Frog
|''Atelopus longirostris''
|Chytrid
|Chytrid, climate change, pollution, and habitat loss
|-
|Frog
|''Craugastor chrysozetetes''
|Chytrid
|Habitat modification and chytrid
|-
|Frog
|''Craugastor escoces''
|Chytrid
|Chytrid, possibly associated with climate change
|-
|Frog
|''Incilius (Bufo) holdridgei''
|Chytrid
|Chytrid, possibly associated with climate change
|-
|Frog
|''Incilius (Bufo) periglenes''
|Chytrid
|Global warming, chytrid, and pollution
|-
|Bird
|''Fregilupus varius''
|Drought
|Introduced disease, over-harvesting, forest fires, drought, deforestation
|-
|Bird
|''Gallirallus wakensis''
|Storms
|Overharvesting and occasional inundation of island due to storms
|-
|Bird
|''Moho braccatus''
|Storms
|Habitat destruction, introduced predators and diseases, and hurricanes
|-
|Bird
|''Myadestes myadestinus''
|Storms
|Habitat destruction, introduced predators and diseases, and hurricanes
|-
|Bird
|''Porzana palmeri''
|Storms
|Habitat destruction and predation by introduced species, storms
|-
|Bird
|''Psephotus pulcherrimus''
|Drought
|Drought and overgrazing reduced food supply, other factors include introduced species, disease, habitat destruction, and overharvesting
|-
|Rodent
|''Geocapromys thoracatus''
|Storm
|Introduced predators, storm
|}
{{reflist|group=Note}}
However, there is abundant evidence for local extinctions from contractions at the warm edges of species' ranges.<ref name=":9" /> Hundreds of animal species have been documented to shift their range (usually polewards and upwards) as a signal of biotic change due to climate warming.<ref name=":9" /> Warm-edge populations tend to be the most logical place to search for causes of climate-related extinctions since these species may already be at the limits of their climatic tolerances.<ref name=":9" /> This pattern of warm-edge contraction provides indications that many local extinctions have already occurred as a result of climate change.<ref name=":9" /> Further, an Australian review of 519 [[observational study|observational studies]] over 74 years found more than 100 cases where extreme weather events reduced animal species abundance by over 25%, including 31 cases of complete local [[extirpation]]. 60% of the studies followed the ecosystem for over a year, and populations did not recover to pre-disturbance levels in 38% of the cases.<ref name="Maxwell2018">{{cite journal |last1=Maxwell |first1=Sean L. |last2=Butt |first2=Nathalie |last3=Maron |first3=Martine |last4=McAlpine |first4=Clive A. |last5=Chapman |first5=Sarah |last6=Ullmann |first6=Ailish |last7=Segan |first7=Dan B. |last8=Watson |first8=James E. M. |title=Conservation implications of ecological responses to extreme weather and climate events |journal=Diversity and Distributions |date=2019 |volume=25 |issue=4 |pages=613–625 |doi=10.1111/ddi.12878 |language=en |issn=1472-4642|doi-access=free }}</ref>
== Extinction risk estimates ==
=== Early estimates ===
[[File:Warren_2018_biodiversity_areas.png|thumb|Relative to now, key areas for wildlife will retain less of their biodiversity under {{convert|2|C-change|F-change}} of global warming, and even less under {{convert|4.5|C-change|F-change}}.<ref name="Warren2018a" />]]
The first major attempt to estimate the impact of climate change on generalized species' extinction risks was published in the journal ''[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]'' in 2004. It suggested that between 15% and 37% of 1103 endemic or near-endemic known plant and animal species around the world would be "committed to extinction" by 2050, as their habitat will no longer be able to support their survival range by then.<ref name=Thomas2004>{{cite journal | vauthors = Thomas CD, Cameron A, Green RE, Bakkenes M, Beaumont LJ, Collingham YC, Erasmus BF, De Siqueira MF, Grainger A, Hannah L, Hughes L, Huntley B, Van Jaarsveld AS, Midgley GF, Miles L, Ortega-Huerta MA, Peterson AT, Phillips OL, Williams SE | title = Extinction risk from climate change | journal = Nature | volume = 427 | issue = 6970 | pages = 145–8 | date = January 2004 | pmid = 14712274 | doi = 10.1038/nature02121 | bibcode = 2004Natur.427..145T | s2cid = 969382 | url = https://pure.qub.ac.uk/portal/en/publications/extinction-risk-from-climate-change(8acc0641-8055-4542-a872-6a80d9ce6418).html }}</ref> However, there was limited knowledge at the time about the species' average ability to disperse or otherwise adapt in response to climate change, and about the minimum average area needed for their persistence, which limited the reliability of their estimate in the eyes of the scientific community.<ref name=Araujo2004>{{cite journal | vauthors = Araújo MB, Whittaker RJ, Ladle RJ, Erhard M |doi=10.1111/j.1466-822X.2005.00182.x |title=Reducing uncertainty in projections of extinction risk from climate change |journal=Global Ecology and Biogeography |volume=14 |issue=6 |pages=529–538 |year=2005 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Pearson RG, Thuiller W, Araújo MB, Martinez-Meyer E, Brotons L, McClean C, Miles L, Segurado P, Dawson TP, Lees DC |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2699.2006.01460.x |title=Model-based uncertainty in species range prediction |journal=Journal of Biogeography |volume=33 |issue=10 |pages=1704–1711 |year=2006 |s2cid=611169 }}</ref><ref name="pmid15233130">{{cite journal | vauthors = Buckley LB, Roughgarden J | title = Biodiversity conservation: effects of changes in climate and land use | journal = Nature | volume = 430 | issue = 6995 | pages = 2 p following 33; discussion following 33 | date = July 2004 | pmid = 15233130 | doi = 10.1038/nature02717 | s2cid = 4308184 }}</ref><ref name="pmid15237466">{{cite journal | vauthors = Harte J, Ostling A, Green JL, Kinzig A | title = Biodiversity conservation: climate change and extinction risk | journal = Nature | volume = 430 | issue = 6995 | pages = 3 p following 33; discussion following 33 | date = July 2004 | pmid = 15237466 | doi = 10.1038/nature02718 | s2cid = 4431239 | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Botkin DB, Saxe H, Araujo MB, Betts R, Bradshaw RH, Cedhagen T, Chesson P, Dawson TP, Etterson JR, Faith DP, Ferrier S |doi=10.1641/B570306 |title=Forecasting the Effects of Global Warming on Biodiversity |journal=BioScience |volume=57 |issue=3 |pages=227–236 |year=2007 |doi-access=free }}</ref> In response, another 2004 paper found that different, yet still plausible assumptions about those factors could result in as few as 5.6% or as many as 78.6% of those 1103 species being committed to extinction,<ref name=Thuiller2004>{{cite journal | vauthors = Thuiller W, Araújo MB, Pearson RG, Whittaker RJ, Brotons L, Lavorel S|author-link6=Sandra Lavorel | title = Biodiversity conservation: uncertainty in predictions of extinction risk | journal = Nature | volume = 430 | issue = 6995 | pages = 1 p following 33; discussion following 33 | date = July 2004 | pmid = 15237465 | doi = 10.1038/nature02716 |s2cid=4387678 }}</ref> although this was disputed by the original authors.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Thomas CD, Williams SE, Cameron A, Green RE, Bakkenes M, Beaumont LJ, Collingham YC, Erasmus BF, Ferriera de Siqueira M, Grainger A, Hannah L |doi=10.1038/nature02719 |title=Uncertainty in predictions of extinction risk/Effects of changes in climate and land use/Climate change and extinction risk (reply) |journal=Nature |volume=430 |issue=6995 |pages=34 |year=2004 |s2cid=4430798 |url=https://pure.qub.ac.uk/portal/en/publications/biodiversity-conservation-uncertainty-in-predictions-of-extinction-riskeffects-of-changes-in-climate-and-land-useclimate-change-and-extinction-risk-reply(7cde3ada-1fc0-4283-8d8a-a124d24bc86e).html |doi-access=free }}</ref>
Between 2005 and 2011, 74 studies analyzing the impact of climate change on various species' extinction risk were published. A 2011 review of those studies found that on average, they projected the loss of 11.2% of species by 2100. However, the average of predictions based on the extrapolation of observed responses was 14.7%, while the model-based estimates were at 6.7%. Further, when using [[IUCN]] criteria, 7.6% of species would become ''threatened'' based on model predictions, yet 31.7% based on extrapolated observations.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Maclean |first1=Ilya M. D. |last2=Wilson |first2=Robert J. |date=July 11, 2011 |title=Recent ecological responses to climate change support predictions of high extinction risk |journal=PNAS |volume=108 |issue=30 |pages=12337–12342 |language=en |doi=10.1073/pnas.1017352108 |pmid=21746924 |pmc=3145734 |bibcode=2011PNAS..10812337M |doi-access=free }}</ref> The following year, this mismatch between models and observations was primarily attributed to the models failing to properly account for different rates of species relocation and for the emerging competition among species, thus causing them to underestimate extinction risk.<ref>{{cite web | first = Wynne | last = Parry | name-list-style = vanc |url= http://www.csmonitor.com/Science/2012/0106/Climate-change-models-flawed-extinction-rate-likely-higher-than-predicted |title= Climate change models flawed, extinction rate likely higher than predicted|date= 6 January 2012 |publisher=[[csmonitor.com]]}}</ref>
A 2018 study from the [[University of East Anglia]] team analyzed the impacts of {{convert|2|C-change|F-change}} and {{convert|4.5|C-change|F-change}} of warming on 80,000 plant and animal species in 35 of the world's [[biodiversity]] hotspots. It found that these areas could lose up to 25% and 50% of their species, respectively: they may or may not be able to survive outside of them. [[Madagascar]] alone would lose 60% of its species under {{convert|4.5|C-change|F-change}}, while [[Fynbos]] in [[Western Cape]] region of [[South Africa]] would lose a third of its species.<ref name="Warren2018a">{{Cite journal |last1=Warren |first1=R. |last2=Price |first2=J. |last3=VanDerWal |first3=J. |last4=Cornelius |first4=S. |last5=Sohl |first5=H. |date=March 14, 2018 |title=The implications of the United Nations Paris Agreement on climate change for globally significant biodiversity areas |url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10584-018-2158-6 |journal=Climatic Change|volume=147 |issue=3–4 |pages=395–409 |language=en |doi=10.1007/s10584-018-2158-6 |bibcode=2018ClCh..147..395W |s2cid=158490978 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |date=March 13, 2018|title=Climate change risk for half of plant and animal species in biodiversity hotspots|url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2018/03/180313225505.htm|work=[[ScienceDaily]] |access-date=January 23, 2023}}</ref>
=== All species ===
In 2019, the [[Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services]] (IPBES) released the summary of its [[Global Assessment Report on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services]]. The report estimated that there are 8 million animal and plant species, including 5.5 million insect species. It found that one million species, including 40 percent of [[amphibian]]s, almost a third of [[reef]]-building [[corals]], more than a third of [[marine mammal]]s, and 10 percent of all [[insects]] are threatened with [[extinction]] due to five main stressors. The [[land use]] change and sea use change was considered the most important stressor, followed by direct exploitation of organisms (i.e. [[overfishing]]). Climate change ranked third, followed by [[pollution]] and [[invasive species]]. The report concluded that global warming of {{convert|2|C-change|F-change}} over the preindustrial levels would threaten an estimated 5% of all the Earth's species with extinction even in the absence of the other four factors, while if the warming reached {{convert|4.3|C-change|F-change}}, 16% of the Earth's species would be threatened with extinction. Finally, even the lower warming levels of {{convert|1.5-2|C-change|F-change}} would "profoundly" reduce geographical ranges of the majority of the world's species, thus making them more vulnerable then they would have been otherwise.<ref name="IPBES">{{cite web |date=5 May 2019 |title=Media Release: Nature's Dangerous Decline 'Unprecedented'; Species Extinction Rates 'Accelerating' |url=https://www.ipbes.net/media-release-nature%e2%80%99s-dangerous-decline-%e2%80%98unprecedented%e2%80%99-species-extinction-rates-%e2%80%98accelerating%e2%80%99 |access-date=21 June 2023 |website=IPBES}}</ref>
In 2020, a paper studied 538 plant and animal species from around the world and how they responded to rising temperatures. From that sample, they estimated that 16% of all species could go extinct by 2070 under the "moderate" [[climate change scenario]] [[Representative Concentration Pathway#RCP 4.5|RCP4.5]], but it could be one-third under RCP8.5, the scenario of continually increasing emissions.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Román-Palacios C, Wiens JJ | doi=10.1073/pnas.1913007117 |doi-access=free |title=Recent responses to climate change reveal the drivers of species extinction and survival |journal=PNAS |volume=117 |issue=8 |pages=4211–4217 |year=2020 | pmid=32041877 | pmc=7049143 | bibcode=2020PNAS..117.4211R }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Rice|first=Doyle|date=February 14, 2020|title=One-third of all plant and animal species could be extinct in 50 years, study warns|url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/nation/2020/02/14/climate-change-study-plant-animal-extinction/4760646002/|work=[[USA Today]] |access-date=February 15, 2020}}</ref> This finding was later cited in the [[IPCC Sixth Assessment Report]].<ref name="AR6_WGII_FAQ2.1">Parmesan, C., M.D. Morecroft, Y. Trisurat, R. Adrian, G.Z. Anshari, A. Arneth, Q. Gao, P. Gonzalez, R. Harris, J. Price, N. Stevens, and G.H. Talukdarr, 2022: [https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg2/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGII_Chapter02.pdf Chapter 2: Terrestrial and Freshwater Ecosystems and Their Services]. In [https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg2/ Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability] [H.-O. Pörtner, D.C. Roberts, M. Tignor, E.S. Poloczanska, K. Mintenbeck, A. Alegría, M. Craig, S. Langsdorf, S. Löschke,V. Möller, A. Okem, B. Rama (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, pp. 221-222 |doi=10.1017/9781009325844.004</ref>
An August 2021 paper found that [[Extinction event#The "Big Five" mass extinctions|The "Big Five" mass extinctions]] were associated with a warming of around {{convert|5.2|C-change|F-change}} and estimated that this level of warming over the preindustrial occurring today would also result in a mass extinction event of the same magnitude (~75% of marine animals wiped out).<ref name="Song2021">{{Cite journal |last1=Song |first1=Haijun |last2=Kemp |first2=David B. |last3=Tian |first3=Li |last4=Chu |first4=Daoliang |last5=Song |first5=Huyue |last6=Dai |first6=Xu |date=August 4, 2021 |title=Thresholds of temperature change for mass extinctions |journal=Nature Communications |volume=12 |issue=1 |page=4694 |language=en |doi=10.1038/s41467-021-25019-2 |pmid=34349121 |pmc=8338942 |bibcode=2021NatCo..12.4694S }}</ref> The following year, this was disputed by the [[Tohoku University]] Earth science scholar Kunio Kaiho. Based on his reanalysis of [[sedimentary rock]] [[geological record|record]], he estimated that the loss of over 60% of marine species and over 35% of marine [[genera]] was correlated to a >{{convert|7|C-change|F-change}} global cooling and a {{convert|7-9|C-change|F-change}} global warming, while for the terrestrial [[tetrapod]]s, the same losses would be seen under ~{{convert|7|C-change|F-change}} of global cooling or warming.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Kaiho |first1=Kunio |date=July 22, 2022 |title=Relationship between extinction magnitude and climate change during major marine and terrestrial animal crises |url=https://bg.copernicus.org/articles/19/3369/2022/ |journal=Biogeosciences |volume=19 |issue=14 |pages=3369–3380 |language=en |doi=10.5194/bg-19-3369-2022 |bibcode=2022BGeo...19.3369K |doi-access=free }}</ref>
[[File:Kaiho_2022_extinction_comparisons.png|thumb|left|The comparison between great historical mass extinctions, current extent of extinctions, and the possible extent of future extinctions driven by a plausible scenario of climate change, with and without nuclear war.<ref name="Kaiho2022" />]]
Kaiho's follow-up paper estimated that under what he considered the most likely scenario of climate change, with {{convert|3|C-change|F-change}} of warming by 2100 and {{convert|3.8|C-change|F-change}} by 2500 (based on the average of [[Representative Concentration Pathway]]s 4.5 and 6.0), would result in 8% marine species extinctions, 16–20% terrestrial animal species extinctions, and a combined average of 12–14% animal species extinctions. This was defined by the paper as a ''minor'' mass extinction, comparable to the end-[[Guadalupian]] and [[Jurassic]]–[[Cretaceous]] boundary events. It also cautioned that warming needed to be kept below {{convert|2.5|C-change|F-change}} to prevent an extinction of >10% of animal species. Finally, it estimated that a ''minor'' [[nuclear war]] (defined as a nuclear exchange between [[India]] and [[Pakistan]] or an event of equivalent magnitude) would cause extinctions of 10–20% of species on its own, while a ''major'' nuclear war (defined as a nuclear exchange between [[United States]] and [[Russia]]) would cause the extinctions of 40-50% species.<ref name="Kaiho2022">{{Cite journal |last1=Kaiho |first1=Kunio |date=23 November 2022 |title=Extinction magnitude of animals in the near future |journal=Scientific Reports |volume=12 |issue=1 |page=19593 |language=en |doi=10.1038/s41598-022-23369-5 |pmid=36418340 |pmc=9684554 |bibcode=2022NatSR..1219593K }}</ref>
In July 2022, a survey of 3331 biodiversity experts estimated that since the year 1500, around 30% (between 16% and 50%) of all species have been threatened with extinction – including the species which had already gone extinct. With regards to climate change, the experts estimated that {{convert|2|C-change|F-change}} threatens or drives to extinction about 25% of the species, although their estimates ranged from 15% to 40%. When asked about {{convert|5|C-change|F-change}} warming, they believed it would threaten or drive into extinction 50% of the species, with the range between 32 and 70%.<ref name="Isbell2022">{{Cite journal |last1=Isbell |first1=Forest|last2=Balvanera |first2=Patricia |last3=Mori |first3=Akira S |last4=He |first4=Jin-Sheng |last5=Bullock |first5=James M |last6=Regmi |first6=Ganga Ram |last7=Seabloom|first7=Eric W |last8=Ferrier |first8=Simon |last9=Sala |first9=Osvaldo E |last10=Guerrero-Ramírez |first10=Nathaly R |last11=Tavella |first11=Julia|last12=Larkin |first12=Daniel J |last13=Schmid |first13=Bernhard |last14=Outhwaite |first14=Charlotte L |last15=Pramual |first15=Pairot |last16=Borer |first16=Elizabeth T |last17=Loreau|first17=Michel|last18=Crossby Omotoriogun|first18=Taiwo|last19=Obura |first19=David O |last20=Anderson |first20=Maggie |last21=Portales-Reyes |first21=Cristina|last22=Kirkman |first22=Kevin |last23=Vergara |first23=Pablo M |last24=Clark |first24=Adam Thomas |last25=Komatsu |first25=Kimberly J|last26=Petchey|first26=Owen L |last27=Weiskopf |first27=Sarah R |last28=Williams |first28=Laura J |last29=Collins |first29=Scott L |last30=Eisenhauer |first30=Nico |last31=Trisos |first31=Christopher H |last32=Renard |first32=Delphine |last33=Wright |first33=Alexandra J |last34=Tripathi |first34=Poonam |last35=Cowles |first35=Jane|last36=Byrnes |first36=Jarrett EK |last37=Reich|first37=Peter B |last38=Purvis |first38=Andy |last39=Sharip |first39=Zati |last40=O’Connor |first40=Mary I |last41=Kazanski |first41=Clare E|last42=Haddad |first42=Nick M |last43=Soto |first43=Eulogio H |last44=Dee |first44=Laura E |last45=Díaz |first45=Sandra|last46=Zirbel|first46=Chad R |last47=Avolio |first47=Meghan L |last48=Wang |first48=Shaopeng |last49=Ma |first49=Zhiyuan |last50=Liang |first50=Jingjing Liang |last51=Farah |first51=Hanan C |last52=Johnson |first52=Justin Andrew |last53=Miller |first53=Brian W |last54=Hautier |first54=Yann |last55=Smith |first55=Melinda D|last56=Knops|first56=Johannes MH |last57=Myers|first57=Bonnie JE |last58=Harmáčková |first58=Zuzana V |last59=Cortés |first59=Jorge |last60=Harfoot |first60=Michael BJ |last61=Gonzalez |first61=Andrew |last62=Newbold |first62=Tim |last63=Oehri |first63=Jacqueline |last64=Mazón |first64=Marina |last65=Dobbs |first65=Cynnamon |last66=Palmer |first66=Meredith S |date=18 July 2022 |title=Expert perspectives on global biodiversity loss and its drivers and impacts on people |url=https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/fee.2536 |journal=Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=94–103 |language=en |doi=10.1002/fee.2536 |s2cid=250659953 }}</ref>
February 2022 [[IPCC Sixth Assessment Report]] included ''median'' and ''maximum'' estimates of the percentage of species at high risk of extinction for every level of warming, with the maximum estimates increasing much more than the medians. For instance, for {{convert|1.5|C-change|F-change}}, the median was 9% and the maximum 14%, for {{convert|2|C-change|F-change}} the median was 10% and the maximum 18%, for {{convert|3|C-change|F-change}} the median was 12% and the maximum 29%, for {{convert|4|C-change|F-change}} the median was 13% and the maximum 39%, and for {{convert|5|C-change|F-change}} the median was 15% but the maximum 48%) at 5 °C.<ref name="AR6_WGII_Chapter2">Parmesan, C., M.D. Morecroft, Y. Trisurat, R. Adrian, G.Z. Anshari, A. Arneth, Q. Gao, P. Gonzalez, R. Harris, J. Price, N. Stevens, and G.H. Talukdarr, 2022: [https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg2/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGII_Chapter02.pdf Chapter 2: Terrestrial and Freshwater Ecosystems and Their Services]. In [https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg2/ Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability] [H.-O. Pörtner, D.C. Roberts, M. Tignor, E.S. Poloczanska, K. Mintenbeck, A. Alegría, M. Craig, S. Langsdorf, S. Löschke,V. Möller, A. Okem, B. Rama (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, pp. 257-260 |doi=10.1017/9781009325844.004</ref>
=== Vertebrates ===
[[File:Strona_2022_coextinctions_trophic.jpg|thumb|The added impact of [[vertebrate]] species coextinctions under three [[Shared Socioeconomic Pathways]].<ref name="Strona2022" />]]
A 2013 paper looked at 12 900 islands in the [[Pacific Ocean]] and [[Southeast Asia]] which host over 3000 vertebrates, and how they would be affected by [[sea level rise]] of 1, 3 and 6 meters (with the last two levels not anticipated until after this century). Depending on the extent of sea level rise, 15–62% of islands studied would be completely underwater, and 19–24% will lose 50–99% of their area. This was correlated with the total habitat loss for 37 species under 1 meter of sea level rise, and for 118 species under 3 meters.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Wetzel |first1=Florian T. |last2=Beissmann |first2=Helmut |last3=Penn |first3=Dustin J. |last4=Jetz |first4=Walter |date=February 26, 2013 |title=Vulnerability of terrestrial island vertebrates to projected sea-level rise |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/gcb.12185 |journal=Global Change Biology |volume=19 |issue=7 |pages=2058–2070 |language=en |doi=10.1111/gcb.12185 |pmid=23504764 |bibcode=2013GCBio..19.2058W |s2cid=9528440 }}</ref> A subsequent paper found that under [[Representative Concentration Pathway|RCP8.5]], the scenario of continually increasing greenhouse gas emissions, numerous vulnerable and endangered vertebrate species living on the [[low-lying islands]] in the Pacific Ocean would be threatened by high waves at the end of the century, with the risk substantially reduced under the more moderate RCP4.5 scenario.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Kumar |first1=Lalit |last2=Shafapour Tehrany |first2=Mahyat |date=13 July 2017 |title=Climate change impacts on the threatened terrestrial vertebrates of the Pacific Islands |journal=Scientific Reports |volume=7 |issue=1 |page=19593 |language=en |doi=10.1038/s41598-022-23369-5 |pmid=36418340 |pmc=9684554 |bibcode=2022NatSR..1219593K |s2cid=253764147 }}</ref>
A 2018 [[Science Magazine]] paper estimated that that at {{convert|1.5|C-change|F-change}}, {{convert|2|C-change|F-change}} and {{convert|3.2|C-change|F-change}}, over half of climatically determined geographic range would be lost by 4%, 8% and 26% of vertebrate species.<ref name="Warren2018b">{{Cite journal |last1=Warren |first1=R. |last2=Price |first2=J. |last3=Graham |first3=E. |last4=Forstenhaeusler |first4=N. |last5=VanDerWal |first5=J. |date=18 May 2018 |title=The projected effect on insects, vertebrates, and plants of limiting global warming to 1.5°C rather than 2°C |url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.aar3646 |journal=Science |volume=360 |issue=6390 |pages=791–795 |language=en |doi=10.1126/science.aar3646 |pmid=29773751 |s2cid=21722550 }}</ref> This estimate was later directly cited in the [[IPCC Sixth Assessment Report]]. According to the [[IUCN Red List]] criteria, such a range loss is sufficient to classify as species as "endangered", and it is considered equivalent to >20% likelihood of extinction over the 10–100 years.<ref name="AR6_WGII_Chapter2" />
In 2022, a ''Science Advances'' paper estimated that ''local'' extinctions of 6% of [[vertebrates]] alone would occur by 2050 under the "intermediate" [[Shared Socioeconomic Pathways|SSP2-4.5]] scenario, and 10.8% under the pathway of continually increasing emissions SSP5-8.5. By 2100, those would increase to ~13% and ~27%, respectively. These estimates included local extinctions from all causes, not just climate change: however, it was estimated to account for the majority (~62%) of extinctions, followed by secondary extinctions or coextinctions (~20%), with [[land use]] change and invasive species combined accounting for less than 20%.<ref name="Strona2022">{{Cite journal |last1=Strona |first1=Giovanni |last2=Bradshaw |first2=Corey J.A. |date=16 December 2022 |title=Coextinctions dominate future vertebrate losses from climate and land use change |journal=Science Advances |volume=8 |issue=50 |pages=eabn4345 |language=en |doi=10.1126/sciadv.abn4345 |pmid=36525487 |pmc=9757742 |bibcode=2022SciA....8N4345S }}</ref>
In 2023, a study estimated the proportion of vertebrates which would exposed to extreme heat beyond what they were known to have experienced historically in at least half their distribution by the end of the century. Under the highest-emission pathway SSP5–8.5 (a warming of {{convert|4.4|C-change|F-change}} by 2100, according to the paper), this would include ~41% of all land vertebrates (31.1% mammals, 25.8% birds, 55.5% amphibians and 51% reptiles). On the other hand, SSP1–2.6 ({{convert|1.8|C-change|F-change}} by 2100) would only see 6.1% of vertebrate species exposed to unprecedented heat in at least of their area, while SSP2–4.5 ({{convert|2.7|C-change|F-change}} by 2100) and SSP3–7.0 ({{convert|3.6|C-change|F-change}} by 2100) would see 15.1% and 28.8%, respectively.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Murali |first1=Gopal |last2=Iwamura |first2=Takuya Iwamura |last3=Meiri |first3=Shai |last4=Roll |first4=Uri |date=January 18, 2023 |title=Future temperature extremes threaten land vertebrates |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-022-05606-z |journal=Nature |volume=615 |issue=7952 |pages=461–467 |language=en |doi=10.1038/s41586-022-05606-z |pmid=36653454 |bibcode=2023Natur.615..461M |s2cid=255974196 }}</ref>
Another 2023 paper suggested that under SSP5-8.5, around 55.29% of terrestrial vertebrate species would experience ''some'' local habitat loss by 2100 due to unprecedented [[aridity]] alone, while 16.56% would lose ''over half'' of their original habitat to aridity. Around 7.18% of those species will find ''all'' of their original habitat too dry to survive in by 2100, presumably going extinct unless migration or some form of adaptation to a dryer environment can occur. Under SSP2-4.5, 41.22% of the terrestrial vertebrates will lose some habitat to aridity, 8.62% will lose over half, and 4.69% will lose all of it, and under SSP1-2.6, these figures go down to 25.16%, 4.62% and 3.04%, respectively.<ref name="Liu2023">{{Cite journal |last1=Liu |first1=Xiaoping |last2=Guo |first2=Renyun |last3=Xu |first3=Xiaocong |last4=Shi |first4=Qian |last5=Li |first5=Xia |last6=Yu |first6=Haipeng |last7=Ren |first7=Yu |last8=Huang |first8=Jianping |date=April 3, 2023 |title=Future Increase in Aridity Drives Abrupt Biodiversity Loss Among Terrestrial Vertebrate Species |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2022EF003162 |journal=Earth's Future |volume=11 |issue=4 |page=e2022EF003162 |language=en |doi=10.1029/2022EF003162 |bibcode=2023EaFut..1103162L |s2cid=257934225 }}</ref>
==== Amphibians ====
{{See also|Decline in amphibian populations}}
[[File:Feijo_2022_anurans_temperature_risk.jpg|thumb|Present and future exposure of frog species around the world to unprecedented heat, under a more intense climate change scenario SSP3-7.0. Green, yellow and red circles show whether one, two or all three key thresholds (annual mean temperature, coldest month temperature or temperature variability) are exceeded by 2100.<ref name="Feijó2022" />]]
A 2013 study estimated that 670–933 amphibian species (11–15%) are both highly vulnerable to climate change while already being on the [[IUCN]] [[Red List]] of threatened species. A further 698–1,807 (11–29%) amphibian species are not currently threatened, but could become threatened in the future due to their high vulnerability to climate change.<ref name="Foden2013"/>
The [[IPCC Sixth Assessment Report]] concluded that while at {{convert|2|C-change|F-change}}, fewer than 3% of most amphibian species would be at a ''very high'' risk of extinction, [[salamander]]s are more than twice as vulnerable, with nearly 7% of species highly threatened. At {{convert|3.2|C-change|F-change}}, 11% of [[amphibians]] and 24% of salamanders would be at a very high risk of extinction.<ref name="AR6_WGII_Chapter2" />
A 2023 paper concluded that under the high-warming SSP5–8.5 scenario, 64.15% of amphibians would lose at least some habitat by 2100 purely due to an increase in aridity, with 33.26% losing over half of it, and 16.21% finding their entire current habitat too dry for them to survive in. These figures go down to 47.46%, 18.60% and 10.31% under the "intermediate" SSP2-4.5 scenario and to 31.69%, 11.18% and 7.36% under the high-mitigation SSP1-2.6.<ref name="Liu2023" />
A 2022 study estimated that while right now, 14.8% of the global range of all [[anuran]]s (frogs) is in an extinction risk area, this will increase to 30.7% by 2100 under [[Shared Socioeconomic Pathways|Shared Socioeconomic Pathway]] SSP1-2.6 (low emission pathway), 49.9% under SSP2-4.5, 59.4% under SSP3-7.0 and 64.4% under the highest-emitting SSP5-8.5. Extreme-sized anuran species are disproportionately affected: while currently only 0.3% of these species have >70% of their range in a risk area, this number will increase to 3.9% under SSP1-2.6, 14.2% under SSP2-4.5, 21.5% under SSP3-7 and 26% under SSP5-8.5<ref name="Feijó2022">{{Cite journal |last1=Feijo |first1=Anderson |last2=Karlsson |first2=Catharina M. |last3=Tian |first3=Russell |last4=Yang |first4=Qisen |last5=Hughes |first5=Alice C. |date=August 12, 2022 |title=Extreme-sized anurans are more prone to climate-driven extinctions |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2666900522000132 |journal=Climate Change Ecology |volume=4 |page=100062 |language=en |doi=10.1016/j.ecochg.2022.100062 |s2cid=251551213 }}</ref>
A 2018 paper estimated that both [[Southern miombo woodlands|Miombo Woodlands of South Africa]] and southwestern [[Australia]] would lose around 90% of their amphibians if the warming were to reach {{convert|4.5|C-change|F-change}}.<ref name="Warren2018a"/>
==== Birds ====
{{Main|Climate change and birds}}
[[File:Bateman_2020_us_birds_risk.jpg|thumb|Increase in extinction risk for US bird species under two different levels of warming.]]
In 2012, it was estimated that on average, every degree of warming results in between 100 and 500 land bird extinctions. For a warming of {{convert|3.5|C-change|F-change}} by 2100, the same research estimated between 600 and 900 land bird extinctions, with 89% occurring in the tropical environments.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Şekercioğlu |first1=Çağan H. |last2=Primack |first2=Richard B. |last3=Wormworth |first3=Janice |title=The effects of climate change on tropical birds |journal=Biological Conservation |date=April 2012 |volume=148 |issue=1 |pages=1–18 |doi=10.1016/j.biocon.2011.10.019 }}</ref> A 2013 study estimated that 608–851 bird species (6–9%) are highly vulnerable to climate change while being on the [[IUCN]] [[Red List]] of threatened species, and 1,715–4,039 (17–41%) bird species are not currently threatened but could become threatened due to climate change in the future.<ref name="Foden2013"/>
A 2023 paper concluded that under the high-warming SSP5–8.5 scenario, 51.79% of birds would lose at least some habitat by 2100 as the conditions become more arid, but only 5.25% would lose over half of their habitat due to an increase in dryness alone, while 1.29% could be expected to lose their entire habitat. These figures go down to 38.65%, 2.02% and 0.95% under the "intermediate" SSP2-4.5 scenario and to 22.83%, 0.70% and 0.49% under the high-mitigation SSP1-2.6.<ref name="Liu2023" />
In 2015, it was projected that native forest birds in [[Hawaii]] would be threatened with extinction due to the spread of [[avian malaria]] under the high-warming [[Representative Concentration Pathway|RCP8.5]] scenario or a similar scenario from earlier modelling, but would persist under the "intermediate" RCP4.5.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Liao |first1=Wei |last2=Timm |first2=Oliver Elison |last3=Zhang |first3=Chunxi |last4=Atkinson |first4=Carter T. |last5=LaPointe |first5=Dennis A. |last6=Samuel |first6=Michael D. |date=June 25, 2015 |title=Will a warmer and wetter future cause extinction of native Hawaiian forest birds? |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/gcb.13005 |journal=Global Change Biology |volume=21 |issue=12 |pages=4342–4352 |language=en |doi=10.1111/gcb.13005 |pmid=26111019 |bibcode=2015GCBio..21.4342L |s2cid=21055807 }}</ref> For the 604 bird species in mainland [[North America]], 2020 research concluded that under {{convert|1.5|C-change|F-change}} warming, 207 would be ''moderately'' vulnerable to extinction and 47 would be ''highly'' vulnerable. At {{convert|2|C-change|F-change}}, this changes to 198 moderately vulnerable and 91 highly vulnerable. At {{convert|3|C-change|F-change}}, there are more highly vulnerable species (205) than moderately vulnerable species (140). Relative to {{convert|3|C-change|F-change}}, stabilizing the warming at {{convert|1.5|C-change|F-change}} represents a reduction in extinction risk for 76% of those species, and 38% stop being vulnerable.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bateman |first1=Brooke L. |last2=Taylor |first2=Lotem |last3=Wilsey |first3=Chad |last4=Wu |first4=Joanna |last5=LeBaron |first5=Geoffrey S. |last6=Langham |first6=Gary |title=North American birds require mitigation and adaptation to reduce vulnerability to climate change |journal=Conservation Science and Practice |date=2 July 2020 |volume=2 |issue=8 |pages=e242 |doi=10.1111/csp2.242 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bateman |first1=Brooke L. |last2=Taylor |first2=Lotem |last3=Wilsey |first3=Chad |last4=Wu |first4=Joanna |last5=LeBaron |first5=Geoffrey S. |last6=Langham |first6=Gary |title=Risk to North American birds from climate change-related threats |journal=Conservation Science and Practice |date=2 July 2020 |volume=2 |issue=8 |pages=e243 |doi=10.1111/csp2.243 |s2cid=225387919 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Survival By Degrees: About the Study|url=https://www.audubon.org/survival-degrees-about-study|access-date=25 June 2023|website=Audubon|language=en}}</ref>
[[File:Southern_Yellow-billed_Hornbill,_Tockus_leucomelas_at_Mapungubwe_National_Park,_Limpopo,_South_Africa_(18115941578).jpg|thumb|A Southern Yellow-billed Hornbill female.]]
The [[Southern miombo woodlands|Miombo Woodlands of South Africa]] are predicted to lose about 86% of their birds if the warming reaches {{convert|4.5|C-change|F-change}}.<ref name="Warren2018a"/> In 2019, it was also estimated that multiple bird species endemic to [[southern Africa]]'s [[Kalahari Desert]] ([[Southern Pied Babbler]]s, [[Southern Yellow-billed Hornbill]]s and [[Southern Fiscal]]s) would either be all-but-lost from it or reduced to its eastern fringes by the end of the century, depending on the emission scenario. While the temperatures are not projected to become so high as to kill the birds outright, they would still be high enough to prevent them from sustaining sufficient body mass and energy for breeding.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Conradie |first1=Shannon R. |last2=Woodborne |first2=Stephan M. |last3=Cunningham |first3=Susan J. |last4=McKechnie |first4=Andrew E. |date=June 24, 2019 |title=Chronic, sublethal effects of high temperatures will cause severe declines in southern African arid-zone birds during the 21st century |journal=PNAS |volume=116 |issue=28 |pages=14065–14070 |language=en |doi=10.1073/pnas.1821312116 |pmid=31235571 |pmc=6628835 |bibcode=2019PNAS..11614065C |doi-access=free }}</ref> By 2022, breeding success of the Southern Yellow-billed Hornbills was already observed to collapse in the hottest, southern parts of the desert. It was predicted that those particular subpopulations would disappear by 2027.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Pattinson |first1=Nicholas B.|last2=van de Ven |first2=Tanja M. F. N. |last3=Finnie |first3=Mike J. |last4=Nupen |first4=Lisa J. |last5=McKechnie |first5=Andrew E. |last6=Cunningham |first6=Susan J. |date=May 19, 2022 |title=Collapse of Breeding Success in Desert-Dwelling Hornbills Evident Within a Single Decade |journal=Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution |volume=10 |language=en |doi=10.3389/fevo.2022.842264 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Kitanovska|first=Simona|date=May 19, 2022|title=Colorful Bird Famously Featured in 'The Lion King' Nearly Going Extinct|url=https://www.newsweek.com/colorful-bird-famously-featured-lion-king-nearly-going-extinct-1708288|work=[[Newsweek]] |access-date=January 23, 2023}}</ref> Similarly, it was found that two [[Ethiopia]]n bird species, [[White-tailed Swallow]] and [[Ethiopian Bush-crow]], would lose 68-84% and >90% of their range by 2070. As their existing geographical range is already very limited, this means that it would likely end up too small to support a viable population even under the scenario of limited climate change, rendering these species [[extinct in the wild]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Bladon |first1=Andrew J. |last2=Donald |first2=Paul F. |last3=Collar |first3=Nigel J. |last4=Denge |first4=Jarso |last5=Dadacha |first5=Galgalo |last6=Wondafrash |first6=Mengistu |last7=Green |first7=Rhys E. |date=May 19, 2021 |title=Climatic change and extinction risk of two globally threatened Ethiopian endemic bird species |journal=PLOS ONE |volume=16 |issue=5 |pages=e0249633 |language=en |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0249633 |pmid=34010302 |pmc=8133463 |bibcode=2021PLoSO..1649633B |doi-access=free }}</ref>
[[File:Colony of aptenodytes patagonicus.jpg|thumb|left|[[King penguin]]s are threatened by [[climate change in Antarctica]].]]
Climate change is particularly threatening to [[penguin]]s. As early as in 2008, it was estimated that every time [[Southern Ocean]] temperatures increase by {{convert|0.26|C-change|F-change}}, this reduces [[king penguin]] populations by 9%.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Le Bohec |first1=C. |last2=Durant |first2=J. M. |last3=Gauthier-Clerc |first3=M. |last4=Stenseth |first4=N. C. |last5=Park |first5=Y.-H. |last6=Pradel |first6=R. |last7=Gremillet |first7=D. |last8=Gendner |first8=J.-P. |last9=Le Maho |first9=Y. |title=King penguin population threatened by Southern Ocean warming |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |date=11 February 2008 |volume=105 |issue=7 |pages=2493–2497 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0712031105 |pmid=18268328 |pmc=2268164 |bibcode = 2008PNAS..105.2493L |doi-access=free }}</ref> Subsequent research found that under the worst-case warming trajectory, king penguins will permanently lose at least two out of their current eight breeding sites, and 70% of the species will have to relocate to avoid disappearance, requiring the movement of 1.1 million pairs.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Cristofari |first1=Robin|last2=Liu |first2=Xiaoming |last3=Bonadonna |first3=Francesco |last4=Cherel |first4=Yves |last5=Pistorius |first5=Pierre |last6=Maho |first6=Yvon Le |last7=Raybaud |first7=Virginie |last8=Stenseth |first8=Nils Christian |last9=Le Bohec |first9=Céline |last10=Trucchi |first10=Emiliano |date=26 February 2018 |title=Climate-driven range shifts of the king penguin in a fragmented ecosystem |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41558-018-0084-2 |journal=Nature Climate Change |volume=8 |issue=3 |pages=245–251 |language=en |doi=10.1038/s41558-018-0084-2 |bibcode=2018NatCC...8..245C |s2cid=53793443 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-26 |title=Antarctica's king penguins 'could disappear' by the end of the century |url=http://www.theguardian.com/environment/2018/feb/26/antarcticas-king-penguins-could-disappear-by-the-end-of-the-century |access-date=2022-05-18 |website=the Guardian |language=en}}</ref> A 27-year study of the largest colony of [[Magellanic penguin]]s in the world, published in 2014, found that extreme weather caused by climate change kills 7% of penguin chicks in an average year, accounting for up to 50% of all chick deaths in some years.<ref>{{cite news|date=January 30, 2014|title=Penguins suffering from climate change, scientists say|newspaper=The Guardian|url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2014/jan/30/penguins-suffering-climate-change-scientists|access-date=30 January 2014}}</ref><ref name="Fountain">{{cite web|last=Fountain|first=Henry|date=January 29, 2014|title=For Already Vulnerable Penguins, Study Finds Climate Change Is Another Danger|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2014/01/30/science/earth/climate-change-taking-toll-on-penguins-study-finds.html|access-date=30 January 2014|work=The New York Times}}</ref> Since 1987, the number of breeding pairs in the colony has reduced by 24%.<ref name="Fountain" /> [[Chinstrap penguin]]s are also known to be in decline, mainly due to corresponding declines of [[Antarctic krill]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Strycker |first1=Noah|last2=Wethington |first2=Michael |last3=Borowicz |first3=Alex |last4=Forrest |first4=Steve |last5=Witharana |first5=Chandi |last6=Hart |first6=Tom |last7=Lynch |first7=Heather J. |date=10 November 2020 |title=A global population assessment of the Chinstrap penguin (Pygoscelis antarctica) |journal=Scientific Reports |volume=10 |issue=1 |page=19474 |language=en |doi=10.1038/s41598-020-76479-3 |pmid=33173126 |pmc=7655846 |bibcode=2020NatSR..1019474S |s2cid=226304009 }}</ref> And it was estimated that while [[Adélie penguin]]s will retain some of its habitat past 2099, one-third of colonies along the West Antarctic Peninsula (WAP) will be in decline by 2060. Those colonies are believed to represent about 20% of the entire species.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Cimino MA, Lynch HJ, Saba VS, Oliver MJ | title = Projected asymmetric response of Adélie penguins to Antarctic climate change | journal = Scientific Reports | volume = 6 | pages = 28785 | date = June 2016 | pmid = 27352849 | pmc = 4926113 | doi = 10.1038/srep28785 | bibcode = 2016NatSR...628785C }}</ref>
==== Fish ====
{{See also|Effects of climate change on oceans}}
[[File:2023_poikilotherm_climate_map.jpg|thumb|The projected changes in freshwater fish distribution in Minnesotan lakes under high future warming.<ref name="Wagner2023" />]]
It has been projected in 2015 that many fish species will migrate towards the North and South poles as a result of climate change. Under the highest emission scenario [[Representative Concentration Pathway|RCP8.5]], 2 new species would enter (invade) per 0.5° of [[latitude]] in the [[Arctic Ocean]] and 1.5 in the [[Southern Ocean]]. It woul also result in an average of 6.5 local extinctions per 0.5° of latitude outside of the poles.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Jones |first1=Miranda C. |last2=Cheung |first2=William W. L. |title=Multi-model ensemble projections of climate change effects on global marine biodiversity |journal=ICES Journal of Marine Science |date=1 March 2015 |volume=72 |issue=3 |pages=741–752 |doi=10.1093/icesjms/fsu172 }}</ref>
A 2022 paper found that 45% of all marine species at risk of extinction are affected by climate change, but it's currently less damaging to their survival than [[overfishing]], transportation, [[urban development]] and [[water pollution]]. However, if the emissions were to rise unchecked, then by the end of the century climate change would become as important as all of them combined. Continued high emissions until 2300 would then risk a mass extinction equivalent to [[Permian-Triassic extinction event]], or "The Great Dying". On the other hand, staying at low emissions would reduce future climate-driven extinctions in the oceans by over 70%.<ref>{{cite web |title=Unchecked global emissions on track to initiate mass extinction of marine life |url=https://phys.org/news/2022-04-unchecked-global-emissions-track-mass.html |access-date=4 March 2023 |website=Phys.org}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Penn |first1=Justin L. |last2=Deutsch |first2=Curtis |title=Avoiding ocean mass extinction from climate warming |journal=Science |date=29 April 2022 |volume=376 |issue=6592 |pages=524–526 |doi=10.1126/science.abe9039 |pmid=35482875 |bibcode=2022Sci...376..524P |s2cid=248430574 |url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.abe9039 |language=en |issn=0036-8075|url-access=subscription}}</ref>
A 2021 study which analyzed around 11,500 [[freshwater]] fish species concluded that 1-4% of those species would be likely to lose over half of their current geographic range at {{convert|1.5|C-change|F-change}} and 1-9% at {{convert|2|C-change|F-change}}. A warming of {{convert|3.2|C-change|F-change}} would threaten 8-36% of freshwater fish species with such range loss and {{convert|4.5|C-change|F-change}} would threaten 24-63%. The different percentages represent different assumptions about how well freshwater fishes could disperse to new areas and thus offset past range losses, with the highest percentages assuming no dispersal is possible.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Barbarossa |first1=Valerio |last2=Bosmans |first2=Joyce |last3=Wanders |first3=Niko |last4=King |first4=Henry |last5=Bierkens |first5=Marc F. P. |last6=Huijbregts |first6=Mark A. J. |last7=Schipper |first7=Aafke M. |date=March 15, 2021 |title=Threats of global warming to the world's freshwater fishes |journal=Nature Communications |volume=12 |issue=1 |page=1701 |language=en |doi=10.1038/s41467-021-21655-w |pmid=33723261 |pmc=7960982 |bibcode=2021NatCo..12.1701B |doi-access=free }}</ref> According to the [[IUCN Red List]] criteria, such a range loss is sufficient to classify as species as "endangered", and it is considered equivalent to >20% likelihood of extinction over the 10–100 years.<ref name="AR6_WGII_Chapter2" />
In 2023, a study looked at freshwater fish in 900 lakes of the American state of [[Minnesota]]. It found that if their water temperature increases by {{convert|4|C-change|F-change}} in July (said to occur under approximately the same amount of global warming), then ''cold-water'' fish species like [[cisco (fish)|cisco]] would disappear from 167 lakes, which represents 61% of their habitat in Minnesota. ''Cool-water'' [[yellow perch]] would see its numbers decline by about 7% across all of Minnesota's lakes, while warm-water [[bluegill]] would increase by around 10%.<ref name="Wagner2023">{{cite journal |last1=Wagner |first1=Tyler |last2=Schliep |first2=Erin M. |last3=North |first3=Joshua S. |last4=Kundel |first4=Holly |last5=Custer |first5=Christopher A. |last6=Ruzich |first6=Jenna K. |last7=Hansen |first7=Gretchen J. A. |title=Predicting climate change impacts on poikilotherms using physiologically guided species abundance models |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |date=April 3, 2023 |volume=120 |issue=15 |page=e2214199120 |doi=10.1073/pnas.2214199120 |pmid=37011195 |pmc=10104529 |bibcode=2023PNAS..12014199W |doi-access=free }}</ref>
==== Mammals ====
{{See also|Decline in wild mammal populations}}
[[File:Bramble-cay-melomys.jpg|thumb|The [[Bramble Cay melomys]], thought to be the first mammal species to go extinct due to the impacts of [[Climate change in Australia|climate change]].<ref name=":0" />]]
A 2023 paper concluded that under the high-warming SSP5–8.5 scenario, 50.29% of mammals would lose at least some habitat by 2100 as the conditions become more arid. Out of those, 9.50% would lose over half of their habitat due to an increase in dryness alone, while 3.21% could be expected to lose their entire habitat ad the result. These figures go down to 38.27%, 4.96% and 2.22% under the "intermediate" SSP2-4.5 scenario, and to 22.65%, 2.03% and 1.15% under the high-mitigation SSP1-2.6.<ref name="Liu2023"/>
In 2020, a study in ''[[Nature Climate Change]]'' estimated the effects of [[Arctic sea ice decline]] on [[polar bear]] populations (which rely on the sea ice to hunt [[Pinniped|seal]]s) under two climate change scenarios. Under high [[greenhouse gas]] emissions, at most a few high-Arctic populations will remain by 2100: under more moderate scenario, the species will survive this century, but several major subpopulations will still be wiped out.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Molnár |first1=Péter K. |last2=Bitz |first2=Cecilia M. |last3=Holland |first3=Marika M. |last4=Kay |first4=Jennifer E. |last5=Penk |first5=Stephanie R. |last6=Amstrup |first6=Steven C. |date=20 July 2020 |title=Fasting season length sets temporal limits for global polar bear persistence |journal=Nature Climate Change |volume=10 |issue=1 |pages=732–738 |language=en |doi=10.1038/s41598-022-23369-5 |pmid=36418340 |pmc=9684554 |bibcode=2022NatSR..1219593K }}</ref><ref name="Briggs-bears">{{Cite web|last=Briggs|first=H|date=20 July 2020|title=Climate change: Polar bears could be lost by 2100|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-53474445|access-date=6 November 2021|website=BBC}}</ref>
In 2019, it was estimated that the current [[great ape]] range in [[Africa]] will decline massively under both the severe [[Representative Concentration Pathway|RCP8.5]] scenario and the more moderate RCP4.5. The apes could potentially disperse to new habitats, but those would lie almost completely outside of their current [[protected area]]s, meaning that conservation planning needs to be "urgently" updated to account for this.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Carvalho |first1=Joana S. |last2=Graham |first2=Bruce |last3=Bocksberger |first3=Gaёlle |last4=Maisels |first4=Fiona |last5=Williamson |first5=Elizabeth A. |last6=Wich |first6=Serge |last7=Sop|first7=Tenekwetche |last8=Amarasekaran |first8=Bala |last9=Barca |first9=Benjamin |last10=Barrie |first10=Abdulai |last11=Bergl |first11=Richard A. |last12=Boesch |first12=Christophe |last13=Boesch |first13=Hedwige |last14=Brncic |first14=Terry M. |last15=Buys |first15=Bartelijntje |last16=Chancellor |first16=Rebecca |last17=Danquah|first17=Emmanuel|last18=Doumbé|first18=Osiris A.|last19=Le-Duc |first19=Stephane Y. |last20=Galat-Luong |first20=Anh |last21=Ganas |first21=Jessica |last22=Gatti |first22=Sylvain |last23=Ghiurghi |first23=Andrea |author24-link=Annemarie Goedmakers |last24=Goedmakers |first24=Annemarie |last25=Granier |first25=Nicolas|last26=Hakizimana|first26=Dismas|last27=Haurez |first27=Barbara |last28=Head |first28=Josephine |last29=Herbinger |first29=Ilka |last30=Hillers |first30=Annika |last31=Jones |first31=Sorrel |last32=Junker |first32=Jessica |last33=Maputla |first33=Nakedi |last34=Manasseh |first34=Eno-Nku |last35=McCarthy |first35=Maureen S.|last36=Molokwu-Odozi |first36=Mary |last37=Morgan|first37=Bethan J. |last38=Nakashima |first38=Yoshihiro |last39=N’Goran |first39=Paul K. |last40=Nixon |first40=Stuart |last41=Nkembi |first41=Louis |last42=Normand |first42=Emmanuelle |last43=Nzooh |first43=Laurent D.Z. |last44=Olson |first44=Sarah H. |last45=Payne |first45=Leon|last46=Petre|first46=Charles-Albert |last47=Piel |first47=Alex K. |last48=Pintea |first48=Lilian |last49=Plumptre |first49=Andrew J. |last50=Rundus |first50=Aaron |last51=Serckx |first51=Adeline |last52=Stewart |first52=Fiona A. |last53=Sunderland-Groves |first53=Jacqueline |last54=Tagg |first54=Nikki |last55=Todd |first55=Angelique|last56=Vosper|first56=Ashley |last57=Wenceslau|first57=José F.C. |last58=Wessling |first58=Erin G. |last59=Willie |first59=Jacob |last60=Kühl |first60=Hjalmar S. |date=6 June 2021 |title=Predicting range shifts of African apes under global change scenarios |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/ddi.13358 |journal=Diversity and Distributions |volume=27 |issue=9 |pages=1663–1679 |language=en |doi=10.1111/ddi.13358 |s2cid=220253266 }}</ref>
[[File:Polar Bear AdF.jpg|thumb|left|A polar bear.]]
A 2017 analysis found that the [[mountain goat]] populations of coastal [[Alaska]] would go extinct sometime between 2015 and 2085 in half of the considered scenarios of climate change.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=White |first1=Kevin S. |last2=Gregovich |first2=David P. |last3=Levi |first3=Taal |date=October 3, 2017 |title=Projecting the future of an alpine ungulate under climate change scenarios |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/gcb.13919 |journal=Global Change Biology |volume=24 |issue=3 |pages=1136–1149 |language=en |doi=10.1111/gcb.13919 |pmid=28973826 |s2cid=3374336 }}</ref> Another analysis found that the [[Southern miombo woodlands|Miombo Woodlands of South Africa]] are predicted to lose about 80% of their mammal species if the warming reached {{convert|4.5|C-change|F-change}}.<ref name="Warren2018a"/>
In 2008, the [[Lemur-like Ringtail Possum|white lemuroid possum]] was reported to be the first known [[mammal]] species to be driven extinct by [[climate change]]. However, these reports were based on a misunderstanding. One population of these possums in the mountain forests of [[North Queensland]] is severely threatened by climate change as the animals cannot survive extended temperatures over {{convert|30|C}}. However, another population 100 kilometres south remains in good health.<ref>{{cite web | first = Rachel | last = Nowak | name-list-style = vanc | url = https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn16875 | title = Rumours of possum's death were greatly exaggerated | date = 31 March 2009 | work = [[New Scientist]] }}</ref> On the other hand, the [[Bramble Cay melomys]], which lived on a [[Great Barrier Reef]] island, was reported as the first mammal to go extinct due to human-induced [[sea level rise]],<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=http://www.australiangeographic.com.au/news/2016/06/extinct-bramble-cay-melomys|title=Extinct: Bramble Cay melomys|last=Smith|first=Lauren| name-list-style = vanc |date=2016-06-15|website=Australian Geographic|access-date=2016-06-17}}</ref> with the Australian government officially confirming its extinction in 2019. Another Australian species, the [[greater stick-nest rat]] (''Leporillus conditor'') may be next. Similarly, the [[2019–20 Australian bushfire season]] caused a near-complete extirpation of [[Kangaroo Island dunnart]]s, as only one individual may have survived out of the population of 500.<ref name=atlantic>{{cite web|website=The Atlantic|author=Ed Yong |title=The Bleak Future of Australian Wildlife|access-date=Feb 8, 2020|date=Jan 14, 2020 |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/science/archive/2020/01/australias-fires-have-been-devastating-for-wildlife/604837/}}</ref> Those bushfires have also caused the loss of 8,000 [[koala]]s in [[New South Wales]] alone, further endangering the species.<ref>{{cite web |website=Vox |title=Are Australia's koalas going extinct? We asked an ecologist.|url=https://www.vox.com/videos/2020/1/14/21064675/australia-fire-koalas-extinct|date=Jan 14, 2020|access-date=Feb 8, 2020|author1=Danush Parvaneh|author2=Christophe Haubursin|author3=Melissa Hirsch}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |website=National Geographic|title=No, koalas aren't 'functionally extinct'—yet|url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/2019/11/koalas-near-extinction-myth-australia-fires/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191126054458/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/2019/11/koalas-near-extinction-myth-australia-fires/|url-status=dead|archive-date=November 26, 2019|author=Natasha Daly|date=Nov 25, 2019|access-date=Feb 8, 2020}}</ref>
==== Reptiles ====
[[File:Bestion_2015_lizards_Europe.png|thumb|The vulnerability of different European lizard populations to extinctions caused by climate change. Populations in group A are already at risk, B and C will be threatened under {{convert|2|C-change|F-change}}. Groups D and E will become threatened under {{convert|3|C-change|F-change}} and {{convert|4|C-change|F-change}}, and Group F is unikely to be threatened.<ref name="Bestion2015" />]]
A 2023 paper concluded that under the high-warming SSP5–8.5 scenario, 56.36% of reptiles would lose at least some habitat by 2100 as the conditions become more arid. Out of those, 23.97% would lose over half of their habitat due to an increase in dryness alone, while 10.94% could be expected to lose their entire habitat as the result. These figures go down to 41.69%, 12.35% and 7.15% under the "intermediate" SSP2-4.5 scenario, and to 24.59%, 6.56% and 4.43% under the high-mitigation SSP1-2.6.<ref name="Liu2023" />
In a 2010 study led by [[Barry Sinervo]], researchers surveyed 200 sites in [[Mexico]] which showed 24 local extinctions (also known as extirpations), of [[Sceloporus]] [[lizard]]s since 1975. Using a model developed from these observed extinctions the researchers surveyed other extinctions around the world and found that the model predicted those observed extirpations, thus attributing the extirpations around the world to climate warming. These models predict that extinctions of the lizard species around the world will reach 20% by 2080, but up to 40% extinctions in tropical ecosystems where the lizards are closer to their ecophysiological limits than lizards in the temperate zone.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Sinervo |first1=Barry |last2=Méndez-de-la-Cruz |first2=Fausto |last3=Miles |first3=Donald B. |last4=Heulin |first4=Benoit |last5=Bastiaans |first5=Elizabeth |last6=Villagrán-Santa Cruz |first6=Maricela |last7=Lara-Resendiz |first7=Rafael |last8=Martínez-Méndez |first8=Norberto |last9=Calderón-Espinosa |first9=Martha Lucía |last10=Meza-Lázaro |first10=Rubi Nelsi |last11=Gadsden |first11=Héctor|last12=Avila |first12=Luciano Javier |last13=Morando |first13=Mariana |last14=De la Riva |first14=Ignacio J. |last15=Sepulveda |first15=Pedro Victoriano |last16=Duarte Rocha |first16=Carlos Frederico |last17=Ibargüengoytía |first17=Nora |last18=Puntriano |first18=César Aguilar |last19=Massot |first19=Manuel |last20=Lepetz |first20=Virginie |last21=Oksanen |first21=Tuula A. |last22=Chapple |first22=David G. |last23=Bauer |first23=Aaron M. |last24=Branch |first24=William R. |last25=Clobert |first25=Jean |last26=Sites |first26=Jack W. |date=14 May 2010 |title=Erosion of lizard diversity by climate change and altered thermal niches |url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.1184695 |journal=Science |volume=328 |issue=5980 |pages=894–899 |language=en |doi=10.1126/science.1184695|pmid=20466932 |bibcode=2010Sci...328..894S |s2cid=9578762 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Huey |first1=Raymond B. |last2=Deutsch |first2=Curtis A. |last3=Tewksbury |first3=Joshua J. |last4=Vitt |first4=Laurie J. |last5=Hertz |first5=Paul E. |last6=Álvarez Pérez |first6=Héctor J. |last7=Garland |first7=Theodore |date=June 7, 2009 |title=Why tropical forest lizards are vulnerable to climate warming |journal=Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences |volume=276 |issue=1664 |pages=1939–1948 |language=en |doi=10.1098/rspb.2008.1957 |pmid=19324762 |pmc=2677251 }}</ref>
[[File:Green Sea Turtle grazing seagrass.jpg|thumb|left|Green sea turtle grazing grass.]]
A 2015 study looked at the persistence of [[common lizard]] populations in [[Europe]] under future climate change. It found that under {{convert|2|C-change|F-change}}, 11% of the lizard population would be threatened with local extinction around 2050 and 14% by 2100. At {{convert|3|C-change|F-change}} by 2100, 21% of the population are threatened, and at {{convert|4|C-change|F-change}}, 30% of the populations are.<ref name="Bestion2015">{{Cite journal |last1=Bestion |first1=Elvire |last2=Teyssier|first2=Aimeric|last3=Richard|first3=Murielle|last4=Clobert |first4=Jean |last5=Cote |first5=Julien |date=October 26, 2015 |title=Live Fast, Die Young: Experimental Evidence of Population Extinction Risk due to Climate Change |journal=PLOS Biology |volume=13 |issue=10 |pages=e1002281 |language=en |doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.1002281 |pmid=26501958 |pmc=4621050 |doi-access=free }}</ref>
Following the [[2019–20 Australian bushfire season]], [[Saltuarius kateae|Kate's leaf tailed gecko]] lost over 80% of its available habitat.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Ward|first1=Michelle|last2=Tulloch|first2=Ayesha I. T.|last3=Radford|first3=James Q.|last4=Williams|first4=Brooke A.|last5=Reside|first5=April E.|last6=Macdonald|first6=Stewart L.|last7=Mayfield|first7=Helen J.|last8=Maron|first8=Martine|last9=Possingham|first9=Hugh P.|last10=Vine|first10=Samantha J.|last11=O’Connor|first11=James L.|date=October 2020|title=Impact of 2019–2020 mega-fires on Australian fauna habitat|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41559-020-1251-1|journal=Nature Ecology & Evolution|language=en|volume=4|issue=10|pages=1321–1326|doi=10.1038/s41559-020-1251-1|pmid=32690905|s2cid=220657021|issn=2397-334X}}</ref>
Sex ratios for [[sea turtle]]s in the [[Caribbean]] are being affected because of climate change. Environmental data were collected from the annual rainfall and tide temperatures over the course of 200 years and showed an increase in air temperature (mean of 31.0 degree Celsius). These data were used to relate the decline of the sex ratios of sea turtles in the North East Caribbean and climate change. The species of sea turtles include ''[[Leatherback sea turtle|Dermochelys coriacea]], [[Green sea turtle|Chelonia myads]]'', and ''[[Hawksbill sea turtle|Eretmochelys imbricata]].'' Extinction is a risk for these species as the sex ratio is being afflicted causing a higher female to male ratio. Projections estimate the declining rate of male ''Chelonia myads'' as 2.4% hatchlings being male by 2030 and 0.4% by 2090.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Laloë JO, Esteban N, Berkel J, [[Graeme Hays|Hays GC]] |doi=10.1016/j.jembe.2015.09.015 |title=Sand temperatures for nesting sea turtles in the Caribbean: Implications for hatchling sex ratios in the face of climate change |journal=Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology |volume=474 |pages=92–99 |year=2016 |url=https://cronfa.swan.ac.uk/Record/cronfa23842 }}</ref>
=== Invertebrates ===
The [[IPCC Sixth Assessment Report]] estimates that while at {{convert|2|C-change|F-change}}, fewer than 3% of invertebrates would be at a ''very high'' risk of extinction, 15% would be at a very high risk at {{convert|3.2|C-change|F-change}}. This includes 12% of [[pollinator]] species.<ref name="AR6_WGII_Chapter2" />
==== Spiders ====
A 2018 study examined the impact of climate change on [[Troglohyphantes]] cave spiders in [[the Alps]] and found that even the low-emission scenario [[Representative Concentration Pathway|RCP2.6]] would reduce their habitat by ~45% by 2050, while the high emission scenario would reduce it by ~55% by 2050 and ~70% by 2070. The authors suggested that this may be sufficient to drive the most restricted species to extinction.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mammola |first1=Stefano |last2=Goodacre |first2=Sara L. |last3=Isaia |first3=Marco |title=Climate change may drive cave spiders to extinction |journal=Ecography |date=January 2018 |volume=41 |issue=1 |pages=233–243 |doi=10.1111/ecog.02902 |hdl=2318/1623725 |s2cid=55362100 |url=https://nottingham-repository.worktribe.com/854395/1/indexcodes.txt }}</ref>
==== Corals ====
{{See also|Environmental issues with coral reefs}}
[[File:Pulau Piaynemo, Raja Ampat.jpg|thumb|left|Coral reefs off [[Raja Ampat Islands]] in [[New Guinea]].]]
Almost no other ecosystem is as vulnerable to climate change as [[coral reef]]s. Updated 2022 estimates show that even at {{convert|1.5|C-change|F-change}}, only 0.2% of the world's coral reefs would still be able to withstand [[marine heatwave]]s, as opposed to 84% being able to do so now, with the figure dropping to 0% by {{convert|2|C-change|F-change}} and beyond.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Dixon |first1=Adele M. |last2=Forster |first2=Piers M. |last3=Heron |first3=Scott F. |last4=Stoner |first4=Anne M. K. |last5=Beger |first5=Maria |date=1 February 2022 |title=Future loss of local-scale thermal refugia in coral reef ecosystems |journal=PLOS Climate |volume=1 |issue=2 |pages=e0000004 |language=en |doi=10.1371/journal.pclm.0000004 |s2cid=246512448 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|date=1 February 2022|title=Last refuges for coral reefs to disappear above 1.5C of global warming, study finds|url=https://www.carbonbrief.org/last-refuges-for-coral-reefs-to-disappear-above-1-5c-of-global-warming-study-finds/|website=[[Carbon Brief]]|first1=Daisy |last1=Dunne}}</ref> However, it was found in 2021 that each square meter of coral reef area contains about 30 individual corals, and their total number is estimated at half a trillion - equivalent to all the trees in the Amazon, or all the birds in the world. As such, most individual coral reef species are predicted to avoid extinction even as coral reefs would cease to function as the ecosystems we know.<ref name="Dietzel2021">{{Cite journal |last1=Dietzel |first1=Andreas |last2=Bode |first2=Michael |last3=Connolly |first3=Sean R. |last4=Hughes |first4=Terry P. |date=1 March 2021 |title=The population sizes and global extinction risk of reef-building coral species at biogeographic scales |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41559-021-01393-4 |journal=Nature Ecology & Evolution |volume=5 |issue=5 |pages=663–669 |language=en |doi=10.1038/s41559-021-01393-4 |pmid=33649542 |s2cid=256726373 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|date=1 March 2021|title=Half a trillion corals: World-first coral count prompts rethink of extinction risks|url=https://phys.org/news/2021-03-trillion-corals-world-first-coral-prompts.html|website=[[Phys.org]]}}</ref> A 2013 study found that 47–73 coral species (6–9%) are vulnerable to climate change while already threatened with extinction according to the [[IUCN Red List]], and 74–174 (9–22%) coral species were not vulnerable to extinction at the time of publication, but could be threatened under continued climate change, making them a future conservation priority.<ref name="Foden2013">{{Cite journal |last1=Foden |first1= Wendy B.|last2=Butchart|first2=Stuart H. M.|last3=Stuart|first3=Simon N.|last4=Vié |first4=Jean-Christophe |last5=Akçakaya |first5=H. Resit |last6=Angulo |first6=Ariadne |last7=DeVantier|first7=Lyndon M. |last8=Gutsche |first8=Alexander |last9=Turak|first9=Emre |last10=Cao |first10=Long |last11=Donner |first11=Simon D.|last12=Katariya |first12=Vineet |last13=Bernard |first13=Rodolphe |last14=Holland |first14=Robert A. |last15=Hughes |first15=Adrian F. |last16=O’Hanlon |first16=Susannah E. |last17=Garnett|first17=Stephen T.|last18=Şekercioğlu|first18=Çagan H.|last19=Mace |first19=Georgina M. |date=June 12, 2013 |title=Identifying the World's Most Climate Change Vulnerable Species: A Systematic Trait-Based Assessment of all Birds, Amphibians and Corals |journal=PLOS ONE |volume= 8|issue= 6|pages= e65427|language=en |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0065427 |pmid= 23950785|pmc= 3680427|bibcode= 2013PLoSO...865427F|doi-access= free}}</ref> The authors of the recent coral number estimates suggest that those older projections were too high, although this has been disputed.<ref name="Dietzel2021"/><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Muir |first1=Paul R. |last2=Obura |first2=David O. |last3=Hoeksema |first3=Bert W. |last4=Sheppard |first4=Charles |last5=Pichon |first5=Michel |last6=Richards |first6=Zoe T. |date=14 February 2022 |title=Conclusions of low extinction risk for most species of reef-building corals are premature |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41559-022-01659-5 |journal=Nature Ecology & Evolution |volume=6 |issue=4 |pages=357–358 |language=en |doi=10.1038/s41559-022-01659-5 |pmid=35165390 |s2cid=246827109 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Dietzel |first1=Andreas |last2=Bode |first2=Michael |last3=Connolly |first3=Sean R. |last4=Hughes |first4=Terry P. |date=14 February 2022 |title=Reply to: Conclusions of low extinction risk for most species of reef-building corals are premature |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41559-022-01660-y |journal=Nature Ecology & Evolution |volume=6 |issue=4 |pages=359–360 |language=en |doi=10.1038/s41559-022-01660-y |pmid=35165391 |s2cid=246826874 }}</ref>
==== Insects ====
{{See also|Decline in insect populations}}
[[File:00 1680 Bumblebee.gif|thumb|Bumblebee collecting pollen.]]
Insects account for the vast majority of [[Invertebrate|invertebrate species]]. One of the earliest studies to link insect extinctions to recent [[climate change]] was published in 2002, when observations of two populations of [[Bay checkerspot butterfly]] found that they were threatened by changes in [[precipitation (meteorology)|precipitation]].<ref name="McLaughlin">{{cite journal | vauthors = McLaughlin JF, Hellmann JJ, Boggs CL, Ehrlich PR | title = Climate change hastens population extinctions | journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America | volume = 99 | issue = 9 | pages = 6070–4 | date = April 2002 | pmid = 11972020 | pmc = 122903 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.052131199 | bibcode = 2002PNAS...99.6070M | doi-access = free }}</ref>
A 2020 [[Long-term experiment|long-term study]] of more than 60 bee species published in the journal ''Science'' found that climate change causes drastic declines in the [[population]] and diversity of [[bumblebee]]s across the two continents studied, independent of [[land use]] change and at rates "consistent with a mass extinction." When 1901-1974 "baseline" period was compared with the 2000 to 2014 recent period, then [[North America]]'s bumblebee populations were found to have fallen by 46%, while [[Europe]]'s population fell by 14%. The strongest effects were seen in the southern [[region]]s, where rapid increases in frequency of extreme warm years had exceeded the species’ historical [[temperature]] ranges.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Soroye |first1=Peter |last2=Newbold |first2=Tim |last3=Kerr |first3=Jeremy | title=Climate change contributes to widespread declines among bumble bees across continents | journal=Science | volume=367 |issue=6478 |pages=685–688 |date=7 Feb 2020 |doi=10.1126/science.aax8591 |pmid=32029628 |bibcode=2020Sci...367..685S | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Bumblebees are disappearing at rates 'consistent with mass extinction'|website=[[USA Today]] |url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/nation/2020/02/06/bumblebees-decline-due-climate-change/4679240002/|access-date=3 November 2020}}</ref>
A 2018 [[Science Magazine]] paper estimated that at {{convert|1.5|C-change|F-change}}, {{convert|2|C-change|F-change}} and {{convert|3.2|C-change|F-change}}, over half of climatically determined geographic range would be lost by 6%, 18% and ~49% of insect species, with this loss corresponding to >20% likelihood of extinction over the next 10–100 years according to the [[IUCN]] criteria.<ref name="Warren2018b"/><ref name="AR6_WGII_Chapter2" />
In 2022, it was found that the warming which occurred over the past 40 years in [[Germany]]'s [[Bavaria]] region pushed out cold-adapted [[grasshopper]]s, [[butterfly]] and [[dragonfly]] species, while allowing warm-adapted species from those taxa to become more widespread. Altogether, 27% of dragonfly and 41% of butterfly and grasshopper species occupied less area, while 52% of dragonflies became more widespread, along with 27% of grasshoppers (41%, 20 species) and 20% of butterflies, with the rest showing no trend in area change. The study only measured geographic spread and not total abundance. While the paper looked at both climate and [[land use change]], it suggested the latter was only a significant negative factor for specialist butterfly species.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Engelhardt |first1=Eva Katharina |last2=Biber |first2=Matthias F. |last3=Dolek |first3=Matthias |last4=Fartmann |first4=Thomas |last5=Hochkirch |first5=Axel |last6=Leidinger |first6=Jan |last7=Löffler |first7=Franz |last8=Pinkert |first8=Stefan |last9=Poniatowski |first9=Dominik |last10=Voith |first10=Johannes |last11=Winterholler |first11=Michael |last12=Zeuss |first12=Dirk |last13=Bowler |first13=Diana E. |last14=Hof |first14=Christian |date=10 May 2022 |title=Consistent signals of a warming climate in occupancy changes of three insect taxa over 40 years in central Europe |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/gcb.16200 |journal=Global Change Biology |volume=28 |issue=13 |pages=3998–4012 |language=en |doi=10.1111/gcb.16200 |pmid=35535680 |s2cid=248668146 }}</ref> Around the same time, it was predicted that in [[Bangladesh]], between 2% and 34% of the native butterfly species could lose their entire habitat under scenarios SSP1-2.6 and SSP5-8.5, respectively.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Chowdbury |first1=Shawan | title=Threatened species could be more vulnerable to climate change in tropical countries |journal=Science of the Total Environment |volume=858 |date=11 November 2022 |issue=Pt 2 |page=159989 |doi=10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.159989 |pmid=36347284 | doi-access = free }}</ref>
=== Plants ===
{{See also|Effects of climate change on plant biodiversity}}
Data from 2018 found that at {{convert|1.5|C-change|F-change}}, {{convert|2|C-change|F-change}} and {{convert|3.2|C-change|F-change}} of global warming, over half of climatically determined geographic range would be lost by 8%, 16%, and 44% of plant species. This corresponds to more than 20% likelihood of extinction over the next 10–100 years under the IUCN criteria.<ref name="Warren2018b"/><ref name="AR6_WGII_Chapter2" />
The 2022 [[IPCC Sixth Assessment Report]] estimates that while at {{convert|2|C-change|F-change}} of global warming, fewer than 3% of [[flowering plant]]s would be at a ''very high'' risk of extinction, this increases to 10% at {{convert|3.2|C-change|F-change}}.<ref name="AR6_WGII_Chapter2" />
A 2020 meta-analysis found that while 39% of [[vascular plant]] species were likely threatened with extinction, only 4.1% of this figure could be attributed to climate change, with [[land use]] change activities predominating. However, the researchers suggested that this may be more representative of the slower pace of research on effects of climate change on plants. For [[fungi]], it estimated that 9.4% are threatened due to climate change, while 62% are threatened by other forms of habitat loss.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Lughadha |first1=Eimear Nic|last2=Bachman |first2=Steven P. |last3=Leão |first3=Tarciso C. C. |last4=Forest |first4=Félix |last5=Halley |first5=John M. |last6=Moat |first6=Justin |last7=Acedo|first7=Carmen |last8=Bacon |first8=Karen L. |last9=Brewer |first9=Ryan F. A. |last10=Gâteblé |first10=Gildas |last11=Gonçalves |first11=Susana C.|last12=Govaerts |first12=Rafaël |last13=Hollingsworth |first13=Peter M. |last14=Krisai-Greilhuber |first14=Irmgard |last15=de Lirio |first15=Elton J. |last16=Moore |first16=Paloma G. P. |last17=Negrão|first17=Raquel|last18=Onana|first18=Jean Michel|last19=Rajaovelona |first19=Landy R. |last20=Razanajatovo |first20=Henintsoa |last21=Reich |first21=Peter B. |last22=Richards |first22=Sophie L. |last23=Rivers |first23=Malin C. |last24=Cooper |first24=Amanda |last25=Iganci |first25=João|last26=Lewis|first26=Gwilym P. |last27=Smidt |first27=Eric C. |last28=Antonelli |first28=Alexandre |last29=Mueller |first29=Gregory M. |last30=Walker |first30=Barnaby E. |date=29 September 2020 |title=Extinction risk and threats to plants and fungi |url=https://nph.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/ppp3.10146 |journal=Plants People Planet |volume=2 |issue=5 |pages=389–408 |language=en |doi=10.1002/ppp3.10146 |s2cid=225274409 }}</ref>
[[File:Viola_calcarata20052002fleur2.JPG|thumb|left|''Viola Calcarata'' or ''mountain violet'', which is projected to go extinct in the [[Swiss Alps]] around 2050.]]
Alpine and mountain plant species are known to be some of the most vulnerable to climate change. In 2010, a study looking at 2,632 species located in and around European [[mountain range]]s found that depending on the climate scenario, 36–55% of alpine species, 31–51% of subalpine species and 19–46% of montane species would lose more than 80% of their suitable habitat by 2070–2100.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Engler |first1=Robin|last2=Randin |first2=Cristophe F. |last3=Thuiler |first3=Wilfried |last4=Dullinger |first4=Stefan |last5=Zimmermann |first5=Niklaus E. |last6=Araujo |first6=Miguel B. |last7=Pearman |first7=Peter B. |last8=Le Lay |first8=Gwenaelle |last9=Piedallu |first9=Christian |last10=Albert |first10=Cecile H. |last11=Choler |first11=Philippe|last12=Coldea |first12=Gheorghe |last13=De Lamo |first13=Xavier |last14=Dirnböck |first14=Thomas |last15=Gegout |first15=Jean-Claude |last16=Gomez-Garcia |first16=Daniel |last17=Grythes|first17=John-Arvid|last18=Heegaard|first18=Einar|last19=Hoistad |first19=Fride |last20=Nogues-Bravo |first20=David |last21=Normand |first21=Signe|last22=Puscas |first22=Mihai |last23=Sebastia |first23=Maria-Theresa |last24=Stanisci |first24=Angela |last25=Theurillat |first25=Jean-Paul|last26=Trivedi|first26=Mandar R. |last27=Vittoz |first27=Pascal |last28=Guisan |first28=Antoine |date=24 December 2010 |title=21st century climate change threatens mountain flora unequally across Europe |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2486.2010.02393.x |journal=Global Change Biology |volume=17 |issue=7 |pages=2330–2341 |language=en |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2486.2010.02393.x |s2cid=53579186 }}</ref> In 2012, it was estimated that for the 150 plant species in the [[European Alps]], their range would, on average, decline by 44%-50% by the end of the century - moreover, lags in their shifts would mean that around 40% of their remaining range would soon become unsuitable as well, often leading to an [[extinction debt]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Dullinger |first1=Stefan|last2=Gattringer |first2=Andreas |last3=Thuiler |first3=Wilfried |last4=Moser |first4=Dietmar |last5=Zimmermann |first5=Niklaus E. |last6=Guisan |first6=Antoine |last7=Willner |first7=Wolfgang |last8=Plutzar |first8=Cristoph |last9=Leitner |first9=Michael |last10=Mang |first10=Thomas |last11=Caccianiga |first11=Marco |last12=Dirnböck |first12=Thomas |last13=Ertl |first13=Siegrun |last14=Fischer |first14=Anton |last15=Lenoir |first15=Jonathan |last16=Svenning |first16=Jens-Christian |last17=Psomas |first17=Achilleas |last18=Schmatz|first18=Dirk R.|last19=Silc |first19=Urban |last20=Vittoz |first20=Pascal |last21=Hülber |first21=Karl |date=6 May 2012 |title=Extinction debt of high-mountain plants under twenty-first-century climate change |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/nclimate1514 |journal=Nature Climate Change |volume=2 |issue=8 |pages=619–622 |language=en |doi=10.1038/nclimate1514 |bibcode=2012NatCC...2..619D }}</ref> In 2022, it was found that those earlier studies simulated abrupt, "stepwise" climate shifts, while more realistic gradual warming would see a rebound in alpine plant diversity after mid-century under the "intermediate" and most intense global warming scenarios [[Representative Concentration Pathway|RCP4.5]] and RCP8.5. However, for RCP8.5, that rebound would be deceptive, followed by the same collapse in biodiversity at the end of the century as simulated in the earlier papers.<ref name="Block2022">{{Cite journal |last1=Block |first1=Sebastián |last2=Maechler |first2=Marc-Jacques |last3=Levine |first3=Jacob I. |last4=Alexander |first4=Jake M. |last5=Pellissier |first5=Loïc |last6=Levine |first6=Jonathan M. |date=26 August 2022 |title=Ecological lags govern the pace and outcome of plant community responses to 21st-century climate change |journal=Ecology Letters |volume=25 |issue=10 |pages=2156–2166 |language=en |doi=10.1111/ele.14087 |pmid=36028464 |pmc=9804264 }}</ref> This is because on average, every degree of warming reduces total species population growth by 7%,<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Nomoto |first1=Hanna A. |last2=Alexander |first2=Jake M. |date=29 March 2021 |title=Drivers of local extinction risk in alpine plants under warming climate |journal=Ecology Letters |volume=24 |issue=6 |pages=1157–1166 |language=en |doi=10.1111/ele.13727 |pmid=33780124 |pmc=7612402 }}</ref> and the rebound was driven by colonization of niches left behind by most vulnerable species like [[Androsace|Androsace chamaejasme]] and [[Viola calcarata]] going extinct by mid-century or earlier.<ref name="Block2022"/>
It's been estimated that by 2050, climate change alone could reduce [[species richness]] of trees in the [[Amazon Rainforest]] by 31–37%, while [[deforestation]] alone could be responsible for 19–36%, and the combined effect might reach 58%. The paper's worst-case scenario for both stressors had only 53% of the original rainforest area surviving as a continuous ecosystem by 2050, with the rest reduced to a severely fragmented block.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Molnár |first1=Péter K. |last2=Bitz |first2=Cecilia M. |last3=Holland |first3=Marika M. |last4=Kay |first4=Jennifer E. |last5=Penk |first5=Stephanie R. |last6=Amstrup |first6=Steven C. |date=24 June 2019 |title=Amazonian tree species threatened by deforestation and climate change |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41558-019-0500-2 |journal=Nature Climate Change |volume=9 |issue=7 |pages=547–553 |language=en |doi=10.1038/s41558-019-0500-2 |bibcode=2019NatCC...9..547G |s2cid=196648161 }}</ref> Another study estimated that the rainforest would lose 69% of its plant species under the warming of {{convert|4.5|C-change|F-change}}.<ref name="Warren2018a"/>
Another estimate suggests that two prominent species of [[seagrass]]es in the [[Mediterranean Sea]] would be substantially affected under the worst-case greenhouse gas emission scenario, with [[Posidonia oceanica]] losing 75% of its habitat by 2050 and potentially becoming functionally extinct by 2100, while [[Cymodocea nodosa]] would lose ~46% of its habitat and then stabilize due to expansion into previously unsuitable areas.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Chefaoui |first1=Rosa M. |last2=Duarte |first2=Carlos M. |last3=Serrão |first3=Ester A. |date=July 14, 2018 |title=Dramatic loss of seagrass habitat under projected climate change in the Mediterranean Sea |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/gcb.14401 |journal=Global Change Biology |volume=24 |issue=10 |pages=4919–4928 |language=en |doi=10.1111/gcb.14401 |pmid=30006980 |bibcode=2018GCBio..24.4919C |s2cid=51625384 }}</ref>
== Impacts of species degradation on livelihoods ==
The livelihoods of nature dependent communities depend on abundance and availability of certain species.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Roe|first1=Amanda D.|last2=Rice|first2=Adrianne V.|last3=Coltman|first3=David W.|last4=Cooke|first4=Janice E. K.|last5=Sperling|first5=Felix A. H.|date=2011|title=Comparative phylogeography, genetic differentiation and contrasting reproductive modes in three fungal symbionts of a multipartite bark beetle symbiosis|journal=Molecular Ecology|volume=20|issue=3|pages=584–600|doi=10.1111/j.1365-294X.2010.04953.x|pmid=21166729|s2cid=24882291}}</ref> Climate change conditions such as increase in atmospheric temperature and carbon dioxide concentration directly affect availability of biomass energy, food, fiber and other ecosystem services.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Lambin|first1=Eric F.|last2=Meyfroidt|first2=Patrick|date=1 March 2011|title=Global land use change, economic globalization, and the looming land scarcity|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|volume=108|issue=9|pages=3465–3472|bibcode=2011PNAS..108.3465L|doi=10.1073/pnas.1100480108|pmc=3048112|pmid=21321211|doi-access=free}}</ref> Degradation of species supplying such products directly affect the livelihoods of people relying on them more so in Africa.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Sintayehu|first1=Dejene W.|date=17 October 2018|title=Impact of climate change on biodiversity and associated key ecosystem services in Africa: a systematic review|journal=Ecosystem Health and Sustainability|volume=4|issue=9|pages=225–239|doi=10.1080/20964129.2018.1530054|s2cid=134256544}}</ref> The situation is likely to be exacerbated by changes in rainfall variability which is likely to give dominance to [[invasive species]] especially those that are spread across large latitudinal gradients.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Goodale|first1=Kaitlin M.|last2=Wilsey|first2=Brian J.|date=19 February 2018|title=Priority effects are affected by precipitation variability and are stronger in exotic than native grassland species|journal=Plant Ecology|volume=219|issue=4|pages=429–439|doi=10.1007/s11258-018-0806-6|s2cid=3445732}}</ref> The effects that climate change has on both plant and animal species within certain ecosystems has the ability to directly affect the human inhabitants who rely on natural resources. Frequently, the extinction of plant and animal species create a cyclic relationship of species endangerment in ecosystems which are directly affected by climate change.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Briggs|first1=Helen|date=11 June 2019|title=Plant extinction 'bad news for all species'|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-48584515}}</ref>
=== Species adaptation ===
[[File:Kiat-2019-passerine-plumage.png|thumb|Museum specimens of [[Collared flycatcher]] (top) and [[Eurasian blackbird]] (bottom) juveniles compared with modern-day birds. Nesting feathers are replaced with adult plumage earlier, and females now complete the shift earlier than males, while in the past it was the opposite.]]
Many species are already responding to climate change by moving into different areas. For instance, [[Antarctic hair grass]] is colonizing areas of Antarctica where previously their survival range was limited.<ref>[http://www.heatisonline.org/contentserver/objecthandlers/index.cfm?id=5014&method=full Grass flourishes in warmer Antarctic] originally from [[The Times]], December 2004</ref> Similarly, 5-20% of the [[United States]] land area is likely to end up with a different [[biome]] at the end of the century, as [[vegetation]] undergoes range shifts.<ref name="Grimm2013">{{cite journal |last1=Grimm |first1=Nancy B |last2=Chapin |first2=F Stuart |last3=Bierwagen |first3=Britta |last4=Gonzalez |first4=Patrick |last5=Groffman |first5=Peter M |last6=Luo |first6=Yiqi |last7=Melton |first7=Forrest |last8=Nadelhoffer |first8=Knute |last9=Pairis |first9=Amber |last10=Raymond |first10=Peter A |last11=Schimel |first11=Josh |last12=Williamson |first12=Craig E |s2cid=16556109 |title=The impacts of climate change on ecosystem structure and function |journal=Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment |date=November 2013 |volume=11 |issue=9 |pages=474–482 |doi=10.1890/120282 }}</ref> However, such shifts can only go so far to protect species: globally, only 5% of [[ectotherm]] species' present locations are within 50 km of a location which would remain fully suitable and not impose [[evolutionary fitness]] costs on them by 2100, even under "mid-range" warming scenarios. Completely random dispersal may have an 87% chance of sending the species to a less suitable location. Species in the tropics have the least extensive dispersal options, while species in the temperate mountains face the greatest risks of moving to a wrong location.<ref name="Buckley2012">{{Cite journal|last1=Buckley|first1=Lauren B.|last2=Tewksbury|first2=Joshua J.|last3=Deutsch|first3=Curtis A.|date=2013-08-22|title=Can terrestrial ectotherms escape the heat of climate change by moving?|journal=Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences|volume=280|issue=1765|pages=20131149 |doi=10.1098/rspb.2013.1149|issn=0962-8452|pmc=3712453|pmid=23825212}}</ref> Similarly, an [[artificial selection]] experiment demonstrated that evolution of tolerance to warming can occur in fish, but the rate of evolution appears limited to {{convert|0.04|C-change|F-change}} per generation, which is too slow to protect the vulnerable species from impacts of climate change.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Morgan |first1=Rachael |last2=Finnøen |first2=Mette H. |last3=Jensen |first3=Henrik |last4=Pélabon |first4=Christophe |last5=Jutfelt |first5=Fredrik |date=2020-12-29 |title=Low potential for evolutionary rescue from climate change in a tropical fish |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |language=en |volume=117 |issue=52 |pages=33365–33372 |doi=10.1073/pnas.2011419117 |issn=0027-8424 |pmc=7776906 |pmid=33318195|bibcode=2020PNAS..11733365M |doi-access=free }}</ref>
Rising temperatures are beginning to have a noticeable impact on birds,<ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/4313726.stm |title=Animals 'hit by global warming' |author=Time Hirsch |work=[[BBC]] News |date=2005-10-05 |access-date=2007-12-29}}</ref> and [[Butterfly|butterflies]] nearly 160 species from 10 different zones<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Forister |first1=Matthew L. |last2=McCall |first2=Andrew C. |last3=Sanders |first3=Nathan J. |last4=Fordyce |first4=James A. |last5=Thorne |first5=James H. |last6=O’Brien |first6=Joshua |last7=Waetjen |first7=David P. |last8=Shapiro |first8=Arthur M. |date=2010-02-02 |title=Compounded effects of climate change and habitat alteration shift patterns of butterfly diversity |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |language=en |volume=107 |issue=5 |pages=2088–2092 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0909686107 |issn=0027-8424 |pmc=2836664 |pmid=20133854 |bibcode=2010PNAS..107.2088F |doi-access=free }}</ref> have shifted their ranges northward by 200 km in Europe and North America. The migration range of larger animals may be constrained by human development.<ref>need citation</ref> In Britain, spring butterflies are appearing an average of 6 days earlier than two decades ago.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Walther |first1=Gian-Reto |last2=Post |first2=Eric |last3=Convey |first3=Peter |last4=Menzel |first4=Annette |last5=Parmesan |first5=Camille |last6=Beebee |first6=Trevor J. C. |last7=Fromentin |first7=Jean-Marc |last8=Hoegh-Guldberg |first8=Ove |last9=Bairlein |first9=Franz |title=Ecological responses to recent climate change |journal=Nature |date=March 2002 |volume=416 |issue=6879 |pages=389–395 |doi=10.1038/416389a |pmid=11919621 |bibcode=2002Natur.416..389W |s2cid=1176350 }}</ref>
{{excerpt|Climate change and birds#Physical changes|paragraphs=1,2|files=no}}
[[File:Young red deer.jpg|thumb|left|A young red deer in the wild in Scotland.]]
Climate change has affected the gene pool of the [[Scottish red deer|red deer]] population on [[Rùm]], one of the [[Inner Hebrides]] islands, [[Scotland]]. Warmer temperatures resulted in deer giving birth on average three days earlier for each decade of the study. The gene which selects for earlier birth has increased in the population because those with the gene have more calves over their lifetime.<ref>{{Cite news |date=5 November 2019 |title=Climate change alters red deer gene pool |language=en-GB |work=BBC News online |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-scotland-highlands-islands-50306365 |access-date=10 November 2019}}</ref>
== Prevention ==
In addition to reducing future warming to the lowest possible levels, preserving the current and likely near-future habitat of endangered species in [[protected area]]s in efforts like [[30x30]] is a crucial aspect of helping species survive. A more radical approach is the [[assisted migration]] of species endangered by climate change to new habitats, whether passively (through measures like the creation of [[wildlife corridor]]s to allow them to move to a new area unimpeded), or their active transport to new areas. This is approach is more controversial, since some of the rescued species may end up [[invasive species|invasive]] in their new locations. I.e. while it would be relatively easy to move [[polar bear]]s, which are currently threatened by [[Arctic sea ice decline]], to [[Antarctica]], the damage to Antarctica's [[ecosystem]] is considered too great to allow this. Finally, species which are [[extinct in the wild]] may be kept alive in artificial surroundings until a suitable natural habitat may be restored. In cases where [[captive breeding]] fails, [[embryo cryopreservation]] has been proposed as an option of last resort.<ref name="AR6_WGII_Chapter2" />
=== Apiculture initiatives to prevent human-wildlife conflict in Zimbabwe ===
Women in rural communities in Hurungwe rural district Zimbabwe have resorted to placing [[beehive]]s at the border of fields and villages (bio fencing) to protect themselves and their crops from elephants.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Zimbabwe |first=UNDP |date=2022-03-03 |title=Women and Wildlife in the Zambezi Valley |url=https://medium.com/undpzimbabwe/women-and-wildlife-in-the-zambezi-valley-d6f9e042d7bc |access-date=2023-03-25 |website=UNDP Zimbabwe |language=en}}</ref>
=== Assisted migration ===
[[Assisted migration]] is the act of moving plants or animals to a different [[habitat]]. It has been proposed as a way to rescue species which may not be able to disperse easily, have long generation times or have small populations.<ref name="sector">{{cite journal|last=Aubin|first=I.|author2=C.M. Garbe|author3=S. Colombo|author4=C.R. Drever|author5=D.W. McKenney|author6=C. Messier|author7=J. Pedlar|author8=M.A. Saner|author9=L. Vernier|author10=A.M. Wellstead|author11=R. Winder|year=2011|title=Why we disagree about assisted migration: Ethical implications of a key debate regarding the future of Canada's forests|journal=Forestry Chronicle|volume=87|issue=6|pages=755–765|doi=10.5558/tfc2011-092|author12=E. Witten|author13=E. Ste-Marie}}</ref> This strategy has already been implemented to [[Assisted migration of forests in North America|save multiple tree species in North America]]. For instance, the [[Torreya Guardians]] have coordinated an assisted migration program to save the ''[[Torreya taxifolia]]'' from extinction.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Orion Magazine - Taking Wildness in Hand: Rescuing Species |url=https://orionmagazine.org/article/rescuing-species/ |access-date=2023-03-05 |website=Orion Magazine |language=en}}</ref>
== See also ==
{{Portal|Environment|Ecology|Earth sciences|Climate change}}
* [[Atelopus varius]]
* [[Biodiversity loss]]
* [[Chytridiomycosis]]
* [[Ecosystem services]]
* [[Gastric-brooding frog]]
* [[Golden toad]]
* [[Global catastrophic risk]]
* [[Guajira stubfoot toad]]
* [[Keystone species]]
* [[Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum]]
== References ==
{{Reflist}}
== External links ==
* {{cite web |title= The Effects of Climate Change|publisher= NASA| date= 21 August 2020| url= http://climate.nasa.gov/effects/ }}
{{Climate change}}
{{Sustainability}}
{{Extinction}}
{{Doomsday}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Extinction Risk From Climate Change}}
[[Category:Extinction events| ]]
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
[[Category:Extinction|Climate change, Risk from]]
[[Category:Effects of climate change]] |
Conservation welfare | '''Conservation welfare''' is a proposed discipline which would focus on establishing the commonalities between [[Conservation biology|conservation]] and [[animal welfare]] and the formation of a foundation upon which the two disciplines can collaborate to further their respective objectives.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Beausoleil |first1=Ngaio J. |author-link=Ngaio Beausoleil |last2=Mellor |first2=David J. |last3=Baker |first3=Liv |last4=Baker |first4=Sandra E. |last5=Bellio |first5=Mariagrazia |last6=Clarke |first6=Alison S. |last7=Dale |first7=Arnja |last8=Garlick |first8=Steve |last9=Jones |first9=Bidda |last10=Harvey |first10=Andrea |last11=Pitcher |first11=Benjamin J. |date=2018 |title="Feelings and Fitness" Not "Feelings or Fitness"–The Raison d'être of Conservation Welfare, Which Aligns Conservation and Animal Welfare Objectives |journal=Frontiers in Veterinary Science |language=English |volume=5 |page=296 |doi=10.3389/fvets.2018.00296 |issn=2297-1769 |pmc=6277474 |pmid=30538995 |doi-access=free}}</ref> It would be based on the principles of [[Peter Singer]]'s [[utilitarianism]] and similarly to [[compassionate conservation]], its focus would diverge from [[environmental ethics]] in that it concentrates on the welfare of individual animals, rather than species, ecosystems or populations.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Learmonth|first=Mark James|date=November 2020|title=Human–Animal Interactions in Zoos: What Can Compassionate Conservation, Conservation Welfare and Duty of Care Tell Us about the Ethics of Interacting, and Avoiding Unintended Consequences?|journal=Animals|language=en|volume=10|issue=11|pages=2037|doi=10.3390/ani10112037|pmid=33158270|pmc=7694286|doi-access=free}}</ref> It has been argued that conservation welfare would be distinct from compassionate conservation because the two disciplines have differing conceptions of the harms experienced by wild animals and that while conservation welfare would seek to engage with conservation scientists and integrate animal welfare into existing conservation practices, compassionate conservation may lack the capacity to "guide decision-making in complex or novel situations."<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Beausoleil|first=Ngaio J.|date=2020-02-06|title=I Am a Compassionate Conservation Welfare Scientist: Considering the Theoretical and Practical Differences Between Compassionate Conservation and Conservation Welfare|journal=Animals|volume=10|issue=2|page=257|doi=10.3390/ani10020257|issn=2076-2615|pmc=7070475|pmid=32041150|doi-access=free}}</ref>
== See also ==
* [[Relationship between animal ethics and environmental ethics]]
== References ==
<references />
{{Animal welfare}}
{{Conservation of species}}
[[Category:Animal welfare]]
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
[[Category:Environmental ethics]]
{{animal-rights-stub}}
{{environment-stub}} |
Assisted migration of forests in North America | {{Short description|Human-facilitated forest migration process}}
{{good article}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=October 2023}}
[[File:Biomes of North America (Rehfeldt et al. 2012) - CURRENT 01.jpg|thumb|Biomes of North America - CURRENT (Rehfeldt et al. 2012)<ref name="rehfeldt-2012">{{cite journal |last1=Rehfeldt |first1=Gerald E |last3=Saenz-Romero |first3=Cuauhtemoc |last2=Crookston |first2=Nicholas L |last4=Campbell |first4=Elizabeth M |title=North American vegetation model for land-use planning in a changing climate: a solution to large classification problems |journal=Ecological Applications |date=2012 |volume=22 |issue=1 |pages=119–141 |doi=10.1890/11-0495.1 |pmid=22471079 |bibcode=2012EcoAp..22..119R |url=https://www.fs.usda.gov/rm/pubs_other/rmrs_2012_rehfeldt_g001.pdf}}</ref>]][[File:Biomes of North America (Rehfeldt et al. 2012) - PROJECTED 2060.jpg|thumb|Biomes of North America - PROJECTED 2060 (Rehfeldt et al. 2012)<ref name="rehfeldt-2012" />]]
Assisted migration is the movement of populations or species by humans from one territory to another in response to [[climate change]]. This is the definition offered in a nontechnical document published by the [[United States Forest Service]] in 2023, suggesting that this form of [[climate adaptation]] "could be a proactive, pragmatic tool for building climate resilience in our landscapes."<ref name="usfs-2023">{{cite web |last1=Halleaux |first1=Savannah |title=Traveling trees: Assisted migration for climate resilience |url=https://www.fs.usda.gov/features/traveling-trees |website=U.S. Forest Service |date=April 6, 2023 |access-date=12 April 2023}}</ref>
Programs for [[assisted migration]] of [[forest]]s in [[North America]] have been created by public and indigenous governmental bodies, private forest owners, and land trusts. They have been researching, testing, evaluating, and sometimes implementing forest assisted migration projects as a form of [[climate change adaptation|adaptation to climate change]].<ref name="nrc">{{cite web |title=Assisted Migration |url=https://www.nrcan.gc.ca/climate-change/impacts-adaptations/climate-change-impacts-forests/adaptation/assisted-migration/13121 |website=Natural Resources Canada |date=27 June 2013 |publisher=Government of Canada |access-date=20 July 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Beardmore |first1=Tannis|last2=Winder|first2=Richard|title=Review of science-based assessments of species vulnerability: Contributions to decision-making for assisted migration |journal=The Forestry Chronicle |date=January 2011 |volume=87 |issue=6 |pages=745–754|doi=10.5558/tfc2011-091 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Assisted migration in the [[forestry]] context differs from [[assisted migration]] as originally proposed in the context of [[conservation biology]], where it is regarded as a management tool for helping [[endangered species]] cope with the need for climate adaptation.<ref>{{cite journal |display-authors=etal|last1=Hällfors |first1=Maria H |title=Coming to Terms with the Concept of Moving Species Threatened by Climate Change – A Systematic Review of the Terminology and Definitions |journal=PLOS ONE |date=July 2014 |volume=9 |issue=7 |pages=e102979 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0102979|pmid=25055023 |pmc=4108403 |bibcode=2014PLoSO...9j2979H |doi-access=free }}</ref> The focus in forestry is mitigating [[climate change]]'s negative effects on the health and productivity of working forests.
Forestry assisted migration is already underway in North America because of the rapidly changing climate and the forestry industry's reseeding practices. It is now standard practice for governmental and industrial harvests of trees to be followed by the planting of seeds or seedlings in the harvested areas. Hence, an opportunity automatically arises post-harvest to select seeds (and sometimes different species of trees) from areas with climates that are expected to arrive in the harvested sites decades into the future. The government of [[British Columbia]] in [[Canada]] was the first [[federated state]] on the continent to make the decision to change their seed transfer guidelines accordingly in 2009.<ref>{{cite web | display-authors=etal | last1=O'Neill |first1=Gregory A |title=Assisted Migration to Address Climate Change in British Columbia: Recommendations for Interim Seed Transfer Standards (2008) |url=https://www.for.gov.bc.ca/hfd/pubs/Docs/Tr/Tr048.pdf |website=Ministry of Forests and Range |publisher=Government of British Columbia |access-date=22 July 2021}}</ref><ref name="seed">{{cite web |title=Climate-Based Seed Transfer |url=https://www2.gov.bc.ca/gov/content/industry/forestry/managing-our-forest-resources/tree-seed/seed-planning-use/climate-based-seed-transfer |website=Ministry of Forests and Range |publisher=Government of British Columbia |access-date=20 July 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Leech |first1=Susan March |last2=Almuedo|first2=Pedro Lara|last3=O'Neill|first3=Greg|title=Assisted Migration: Adapting Forest Management to a Changing Climate |journal=BC Journal of Ecosystems and Management |date=2011 |volume=12 |issue=3 |pages=18–34 |url=https://jem-online.org/index.php/jem/article/view/91}}</ref>
Longer distance forms of assisted migration were not, however, considered prior to [[climate modelling]] and within-forest evidence of the increasing pace of climate change. Serious discussion and debate ensued in the forestry profession beginning around 2008.<ref name="aitken2008">{{cite journal|last1=Aitken |first1=Sally N |last2=Yeamam |first2=Sam|last3=Holliday |first3=Jason A |last4=Wang |first4=Tongli|last5=Curtis-McLane |first5=Sierra|title=Adaptation, migration or extirpation: Climate change outcomes for tree populations |journal=Evolutionary Applications |date=25 January 2008 |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=95–111 |doi=10.1111/j.1752-4571.2007.00013.x |pmid=25567494 |pmc=3352395 |bibcode=2008EvApp...1...95A }}</ref> The debate focuses around the ethical implications of artificially migrating ecosystems, the risks and benefits of such endeavors, and the values at the heart of assisted forest migration projects.<ref name=":1">{{cite journal | display-authors=etal |last1=Aubin|first1=Isabelle|date=January 2011|title=Why we disagree about assisted migration: Ethical implications of a key debate regarding the future of Canada's forests|journal=The Forestry Chronicle|volume=87|issue=6|pages=755–765|doi=10.5558/tfc2011-092|doi-access=free}}</ref>
There are also recorded instances of inadvertent assisted migration of North American trees. Beginning in the early 20th century, two trees famously [[endemic]] to [[California]], the [[giant sequoia]] and [[coast redwood]], have been planted for [[urban forestry]] purposes northward in cities along the Pacific coast of [[Oregon]], [[Washington (state)|Washington]], and [[British Columbia]]. Today these specimens are not only thriving; they are prominent along urban skylines and often outrank the native trees in sizes achieved. As well, several kinds of [[Magnolia]] native to the [[southeastern United States]] have dispersed into the forest understory, thanks to ornamental plantings producing seeds beyond their native ranges.
== Climate change as impetus ==
{{See also|Climate change in Canada|Climate change in the United States|Climate change in Mexico}}
Climate change is increasing the average temperatures of North American forests.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last1=Prasad|first1=Anantha|last2=Pedlar|first2=John|last3=Peters|first3=Matt|last4=McKenney|first4=Dan|last5=Iverson|first5=Louis|last6=Matthews|first6=Steve|last7=Adams|first7=Bryce|date=September 2020|title=Combining US and Canadian forest inventories to assess habitat suitability and migration potential of 25 tree species under climate change|journal=Diversity and Distributions|language=en|volume=26|issue=9|pages=1142–1159|doi=10.1111/ddi.13078|issn=1366-9516|doi-access=|bibcode=2020DivDi..26.1142P |s2cid=225749363 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Frelich |first1=Lee E|last2=Montgomery|first2=Rebecca A|last3=Reich|first3=Peter B|title=Seven Ways a Warming Climate Can Kill the Southern Boreal Forest |journal=Forests |date=April 2021 |volume=12 |issue=5 |page=560|doi=10.3390/f12050560 |doi-access=free }}</ref> By the 2020s the forestry profession in North America no longer debated whether human assistance in helping native trees might be necessary. A 2023 scientific article began, "Global change is reshaping climatic conditions at a tempo that exceeds natural migration rates for most tree species." The implications are that "this mismatch may cause catastrophic losses of key forest ecosystem services such as carbon sequestration, habitat provisioning, and forest products."<ref>{{cite journal | display-authors=etal | last1=Royo |first1=Alejandro A. |title=Desired REgeneration through Assisted Migration (DREAM): Implementing a research framework for climate-adaptive silviculture |journal=Forest Ecology and Management |date=15 October 2023 |volume=546 |doi=10.1016/j.foreco.2023.121298 |ref=2023-royo|doi-access=free }}</ref>
Range shifts upslope to higher topographic altitudes require less distance than shifts tracking climate over relatively flat terrain poleward.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Jump|first=A.S.|author2=J. Peñuelas|title=Running to stand still: Adaptation and the response of plants to rapid climate change|journal=Ecology Letters|year=2005|volume=8|issue=9|pages=1010–1020|doi=10.1111/j.1461-0248.2005.00796.x|pmid=34517682|bibcode=2005EcolL...8.1010J }}</ref><ref name="aitken2008" /><ref name="whitebark2012">{{cite journal|last1=McLane |first1=Sierra C|last2=Aitken|first2=Sally N|title=Whitebark pine (Pinus albicaulis) assisted migration potential: testing establishment north of the species range|journal=Ecological Applications|year=2012|volume=22|issue=1|pages=142–153|doi=10.1890/11-0329.1|pmid=22471080|bibcode=2012EcoAp..22..142M }}</ref> Species within the southern limits of their range are already showing decline or extirpation, including some of North America's most iconic trees ([[Joshua Tree]] and [[giant sequoia]]).<ref>{{cite news |last1=St George |first1=Zach |title=As Climate Warms, a Rearrangement of World's Plant Life Looms |url=https://e360.yale.edu/features/as-climate-warms-a-rearrangement-of-worlds-plant-life-looms |access-date=25 July 2021 |journal=Yale Environment 360 |date=17 June 2021}}</ref> Drier conditions in the [[American Southwest]] are leading to shrubby [[grassland]] replacing [[pinyon-juniper woodland]], following drought-induced die-off of trees.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Allen |first1=Craig D|last2=Breshears|first2=David D|last3=McDowell|first3=Nate G |title=On underestimation of global vulnerability to tree mortality and forest die-off from hotter drought in the Anthropocene |journal=Ecosphere |date=August 2015 |volume=6 |issue=8 |pages=art129 |doi=10.1890/ES15-00203.1 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Foresters in [[Minnesota]] are predicting that prairie ecosystems will expand, replacing forests as their region becomes warmer and drier.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Frelich |first1=Lee E|last2=Reich|first2=Peter B |title=Review: Will environmental changes reinforce the impact of global warming on the prairie– forest border of central North America? |journal=Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment |date=September 2009 |volume=8 |issue=7 |pages=371–378 |doi=10.1890/080191 |url=https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1890/080191|hdl=11299/175075 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> Regional climate change in the [[Sierra Nevada|Sierra mountains of California]] made it possible for native bark beetles to kill drought-stressed conifer trees, which in turn led to expansive and catastrophic fires.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Seidman |first1=Lila |title=Hundreds of giant sequoias may have burned to death in KNP Complex, Windy fires |journal=Los Angeles Times |date=7 October 2021 |url=https://www.latimes.com/california/story/2021-10-07/knp-complex-windy-fires-may-have-killed-hundreds-of-sequoias}}</ref> Although the giant sequoia is more resistant to bark beetles than are the pines and firs intermixed in and surrounding its groves, the regional fires consuming the standing dead conifers in 2020 and 2021 proved fatal to giant sequoias whose living canopies were also engulfed.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Canon |first1=Gabrielle |title=Giant sequoias and fire have coexisted for centuries. Climate crisis is upping the stakes |journal=The Guardian |date=3 October 2021 |url=https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2021/oct/03/giant-sequoias-and-fire-have-coexisted-for-centuries-climate-crisis-is-upping-the-stakes}}</ref><ref name="motherjones.com">{{cite journal |last1=Markham |first1=Lauren |title=Can We Move Our Forests in Time to Save Them? |journal=Mother Jones |date=November 2021 |url=https://www.motherjones.com/environment/2021/10/trees-forests-assisted-migration-fire-climate-joshua-redwoods-sequoia/}}</ref>
The northern populations of temperate tree species ranges in coastal Washington and Oregon began to evidence abrupt decline and mortality over such large regions that news articles written for the public,<ref>{{cite news |last1=Valdes |first1=Manuel |title=As climate change progresses, trees in cities struggle |url=https://phys.org/news/2022-11-climate-trees-cities-struggle.html |agency=Phys.org |date=16 November 2022}}</ref><ref name=fir>{{cite news |last1=Gilles |first1=Nathan |title=Massive die-off hits fir trees across Pacific Northwest |url=https://columbiainsight.org/massive-die-off-hits-fir-trees-across-pacific-northwest/ |agency=Columbia Insight |date=23 November 2022}}</ref> as well as academic papers, reported on this phenomenon in 2021 and 2022. [[Acer macrophyllum|Bigleaf maple]],<ref>{{cite news |last1=University of Washington |title=Bigleaf maple decline tied to hotter, drier summers in Washington state |url=https://phys.org/news/2021-09-bigleaf-maple-decline-tied-hotter.html |agency=Phys.org |date=30 September 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |display-authors=etal |last1=Betzen |first1=Jacob J |title=Bigleaf maple, ''Acer macrophyllum'' Pursh, decline in western Washington, USA |journal=Forest Ecology and Management |date=2021 |volume=501 |page=119681 |doi=10.1016/j.foreco.2021.119681 |s2cid=240578025 |doi-access=free }}</ref> [[Thuja plicata|Western redcedar]],<ref>{{cite news |last1=Gilles |first1=Nathan |title=Pac NW's 'trees of life' are dying. Now we know why |url=https://columbiainsight.org/pac-nws-trees-of-life-are-dying-now-we-know-why/ |agency=Columbia Insight |date=18 August 2022}}</ref> [[Douglas fir]],<ref name=fir/> and several species of true firs (genus ''[[Abies]]'')<ref name=fir/> were featured in reports of sudden decline. While proximate causes included evidence of native insects and fungal pathogens, the reports attributed ultimate cause to the unprecedented summer droughts and heat waves in the region. In 2023, the tree species dominating the lower western slopes of California's Sierra Nevada mountains were reported to be so lagging in tracking warming climate upslope that one-fifth of the total area was labelled as "zombie forests" — that is, forests that can no longer establish new seedlings and thus will not revive after a canopy-destroying fire.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Nowakowski |first1=Teresa |title=California's 'Zombie Forests' Are Cheating Death—but Maybe Not for Long |url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/californias-zombie-forests-are-cheating-death-but-maybe-not-for-long-180981773/ |agency=Smithsonian |date=10 March 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |display-authors=etal |last1=Hill |first1=Avery P |title=Low-elevation conifers in California's Sierra Nevada are out of equilibrium with climate |journal=PNAS Nexus |date=February 2023 |volume=2 |issue=2 |pages=pgad004 |doi=10.1093/pnasnexus/pgad004 |pmid=36874277 |pmc=9976749 |url=https://doi.org/10.1093/pnasnexus/pgad004}}</ref>
A synthesis paper published in 2022 by a team of governmental and university forestry scientists in the United States warned that "climate change may represent the greatest challenge ever faced by forest managers, conservation biologists, and ecologists." Catastrophic tree mortality was among the challenges listed by the team as not only projected but already underway.<ref name=palik-2022>{{cite journal |last1=Palik |first1=Brian J |last2=Clark |first2=Peter W |last3=D'Amato |first3=Anthony W |last4=Swanston |first4=Chris |last5=Nagel |first5=Linda |title=Operationalizing forest-assisted migration in the context of climate change adaptation: Examples from the eastern USA |journal=Ecosphere |date=October 2022 |volume=13 |issue=10 |doi=10.1002/ecs2.4260 |s2cid=252883172 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2022Ecosp..13E4260P }}</ref>
== Definitions ==
{{Main|Assisted migration}}
A 2011 discussion paper in the ''British Columbia Journal of Ecosystems and Management'' offered this definition of assisted migration: "the purposeful movement of species to facilitate or mimic natural population or range expansion to help ensure forest plantations remain resilient in future climates."<ref name=2011-BC>{{cite journal |last1=Leech |first1=Susan March |last2=Almuedo |first2=Pedro Lara|last3=O'Neill |first3=Greg|title=Assisted Migration: Adapting forest management to a changing climate |journal=BC Journal of Ecosystems and Management |date=2011 |volume=12 |issue=3 |pages=18–34 |url=https://www2.gov.bc.ca/assets/gov/farming-natural-resources-and-industry/forestry/tree-species-selection/leech_lara_almuedo_and_oneill_2011_assisted_migration_jem.pdf |access-date=19 November 2022}}</ref> A 2016 review article defines forestry assisted migration as "the physical realignment of natural populations to the climate for which they are adapted, by reforestation in sites where their suitable climate is predicted to occur in the future, as an active management option with the aim of maintaining healthy tree ecosystems in the future."<ref name=":3">{{cite journal | display-authors=etal |last1=Sáenz-Romero |first1=Cuauhtémoc |title=Review: Assisted migration of forest populations for adapting trees to climate change |journal=Revista Chapingo Serie Ciencias Forestales y del Ambiente |date=August 2016 |volume=22 |issue=3 |doi=10.5154/r.rchscfa.2014.10.052 |s2cid=89200060 |url=https://revistas.chapingo.mx/forestales/?section=articles&subsec=issues&numero=229&articulo=2249|doi-access=free }}</ref> The article says that human assistance in helping trees migrate is necessary because "geographic shifts of tree populations will have to be 10 to 100 times faster than they have been in the past or are at present."<ref name=":3" />
===Three types===
[[File:Williams-dumroese-2013.jpg|thumb|Three types of forestry assisted migration<ref name="WilliamsandDumroese2013" />]]
There are three types of forestry assisted migration, which [[Natural Resources Canada]] describes in this way:<ref name="nrc" />
# '''Assisted population migration:''' the human-assisted movement of populations within a species' established range.
# '''Assisted range expansion:''' the human-assisted movement of species to areas just outside their established range, facilitating or mimicking natural range expansion.
# '''Assisted long-distance migration:''' the human-assisted movement of species to areas far outside their established range (beyond areas accessible through natural dispersal).
The [[United States Forest Service]] uses the same three types, but sometimes refers to the third type as '''assisted species migration'''.<ref name="WilliamsandDumroese2013">{{cite journal |last1=Williams |first1=Mary I|last2=Dumroese|first2=R Kasten|title=Preparing for Climate Change: Forestry and Assisted Migration |journal=Journal of Forestry |date=4 July 2013 |volume=111 |issue=4 |pages=287–297 |doi=10.5849/jof.13-016 |doi-access= }}</ref> In 2018 the U.S. Forest Service published a longer policy document, which listed and defined the three types this way:<ref name="handler">{{cite web|last1=Handler |first1=Stephen|last2=Pike |first2=Carrie|last3=St Clair |first3=Brad|last4=Abbotts |first4=Hannah|last5=Janowiak |first5=Maria|title=Assisted Migration: Synthesis prepared for the USDA Forest Service Climate Change Resource Center |url=https://www.fs.usda.gov/ccrc/topics/assisted-migration |website=Climate Change Resource Center |publisher=U.S. Forest Service |access-date=21 July 2021}}</ref>
# '''Assisted population migration''' (also assisted genetic migration or assisted gene flow<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Aitken |first1=Sally N|last2=Bemmels|first2=Jordan B|title=Review and Syntheses: Time to get moving: Assisted gene flow of forest trees |journal=Evolutionary Applications |date=July 2015 |volume=9 |issue=1 |pages=271–290|doi=10.1111/eva.12293 |pmid=27087852|pmc=4780373 }}</ref>) – moving seed sources or populations to new locations within the historical species range.
# '''Assisted range expansion''' – moving seed sources or populations from their current range to suitable areas just beyond the historical species range, facilitating or mimicking natural dispersal.
# '''Assisted species migration''' (also species rescue, managed relocation, or assisted long-distance migration) – moving seed sources or populations to a location far outside the historical species range, beyond locations accessible by natural dispersal.
Terminology to distinguish forestry applications of assisted migration from the more controversial practices being debated within conservation biology were suggested in a lengthy 2012 report on climate adaptation within the U.S. Forest Service. The authors proposed "forestry assisted migration" for their agency's endeavors and "rescue assisted migration" for the species-specific extinction concerns of conservation biologists.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Vose |first1=James M|last2=Peterson|first2=David L|last3=Patel-Weynand|first3=Toral|title=Effects of Climatic Variability and Change on Forest Ecosystems: A Comprehensive Science Synthesis for the U.S. Forest Sector (Technical Report, December 2012) |url=https://www.fs.fed.us/pnw/pubs/pnw_gtr870/pnw_gtr870.pdf? |website=U.S. Forest Service |access-date=21 August 2021}}</ref> That same year nine forestry scientists (all but one of whom is Canadian) coauthored a paper that likewise recommended "forest assisted migration" as preferred terminology for helping their profession stay clear of the controversy that they referred to as "species rescue assisted migration".<ref name="pedlar2012">{{cite journal | display-authors=etal |last1=Pedlar |first1=John H |title=Placing Forestry in the Assisted Migration Debate |journal=BioScience |date=September 2012 |volume=62 |issue=9 |pages=835–842 |doi=10.1525/bio.2012.62.9.10 |doi-access=free }}</ref> As of 2021, the original classification names of the three types is in public as well as professional use, with foresters focusing on the two most moderate forms.<ref name="motherjones.com"/>
== Early scholarship and debate ==
Beginning in 2004 and accelerating in 2007, researchers in [[conservation biology]] published papers on the pros and cons of supplementing traditional management practices for preventing plant and animal extinctions with [[species translocation]] tactics to accommodate the range shifts already becoming evident as a result of climate change.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Forum: Assisted Migration of an Endangered Tree |journal=Wild Earth |date=Winter 2004 |volume=14 |url=http://www.torreyaguardians.org/forum.pdf |access-date=20 July 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=McLachlan |first1=Jason S|last2=Hellmann|first2=Jessica J|last3=Schwartz|first3=Mark W|title=A Framework for Debate of Assisted Migration in an Era of Climate Change |journal=Conservation Biology |date=26 March 2007 |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=297–302|doi=10.1111/j.1523-1739.2007.00676.x|pmid=17391179|doi-access=free |bibcode=2007ConBi..21..297M }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mueller |first1=Jillian M|last2=Hellmann|first2=Jessica J|title=An Assessment of Invasion Risk from Assisted Migration |journal=Conservation Biology |date=28 June 2008 |volume=22 |issue=3 |pages=562–567|doi=10.1111/j.1523-1739.2008.00952.x |pmid=18577085|bibcode=2008ConBi..22..562M |s2cid=43612242 |url=https://conbio.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1523-1739.2008.00952.x}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | display-authors=etal |last1=Guldberg |first1=O Hoegh |title=Policy Forum: Assisted Colonization and Rapid Climate Change |journal=Science |date=18 July 2008 |volume=32 |issue=5887 |pages=345–346 |doi=10.1126/science.1157897 |pmid=18635780 |s2cid=206512777 |url=https://www.science.org/doi/full/10.1126/science.1157897}}</ref> Conservation biologists also published arguments for and against the three main terms used to name the same management tool: [[assisted migration]], [[assisted colonization]], and [[managed relocation]].<ref name="seddon2010">{{cite journal |last1=Seddon |first1=Philip J |title=From Reintroduction to Assisted Colonization: Moving along the Conservation Translocation Spectrum |journal=Restoration Ecology |date=31 August 2010 |volume=18 |issue=6 |pages=796–802 |doi=10.1111/j.1526-100X.2010.00724.x |bibcode=2010ResEc..18..796S |s2cid=84866686 |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1526-100X.2010.00724.x}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Barlow |first1=Connie |title=Assisted Migration or Assisted Colonization: What's In a Name? Chronological History of the Debate on Terminology |url=http://www.torreyaguardians.org/assistedmigrationdebate.html |website=[[Torreya Guardians]] |access-date=20 July 2021}}</ref>
[[File:Engelmann spruce killed by native beetles.jpg|thumb|Native bark beetles are now able to kill even the highest elevation trees ([[Pissodes strobi|Engelmann spruce]]) in the national forests of Colorado. Photo June 2014, [[Wolf Creek Pass]].]]
The focus among forestry professionals and researchers was different. Paleoecologists had already concluded that there were significant lags in northward movement of even the dominant canopy trees in North America during the thousands of years since the final glacial retreat.<ref name=":2">{{cite journal|last1=Davis|first1=Margaret B|date=October 1989|title=Lags in vegetation response to greenhouse warming|url=https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/BF00138846.pdf|journal=Climatic Change|volume=15|issue=1–2|pages=75–82|doi=10.1007/bf00138846|bibcode=1989ClCh...15...75D|s2cid=154368627}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Davis |first1=Margaret B|last2=Shaw|first2=Ruth B|title=Special Reviews: Range shifts and adaptive responses to Quaternary climate change |journal=Science |date=27 April 2001 |volume=292 |issue=5517 |pages=673–679|doi=10.1126/science.292.5517.673 |pmid=11326089|url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.292.5517.673}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | display-authors=etal |last1=Petit |first1=Remy J |title=Review: Ecology and genetics of tree invasions: from recent introductions to Quaternary migrations |journal=Forest Ecology and Management |date=August 2004 |volume=197 |issue=1–3 |pages=113–137 |doi=10.1016/j.foreco.2004.05.009 |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0378112704003202}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Seliger|first1=Benjamin J|last2=McGill|first2=Brian J|last3=Svenning|first3=Jens-Christian|last4=Gill|first4=Jacqueline L|date=November 2020|title=Widespread underfilling of the potential ranges of North American trees|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/jbi.14001|journal=Journal of Biogeography|volume=48|issue=2|pages=359–371|doi=10.1111/jbi.14001|s2cid=228929332}}</ref> In the 1990s, forestry researchers had begun applying climate change projections to their own tree species distribution models, and some results on the probable distances of future range shifts prompted attention.<ref name="aitken2008" /> As well, translocation terminology was not controversial among forestry researchers because "migration" was the standard term used in [[paleoecology]] for natural movements of tree species recorded in the geological record. Discussion in forestry journals therefore pertained more to questions of how and when and for which species climate-adaptive plantings and range expansions should begin.
Debate as to the need for and ethics of assisted migration was present among forestry researchers. But compared to the debate among conservation biologists,<ref>{{cite journal |display-authors=etal|last1=Brodie |first1=Jedediah F |title=Policy Forum: Global policy for assisted colonization of species |journal=Science |date=30 April 2021 |volume=372 |issue=6541 |pages=456–458 |doi=10.1126/science.abg0532 |pmid=33926936|s2cid=233448828 }}</ref> it was muted and short-lived.<ref name="pedlar2012" /><ref name="WilliamsandDumroese2013"/> One of the strongest statements urging caution that appeared in a forestry journal was published in 2011. Isabelle Aubin and colleagues stated that "assisted migration is being proposed to reduce the impacts of human-induced climate change, an unprecedented situation in human history that brings with it entirely new environmental, societal and ethical challenges."<ref name=":1" />
But also in 2011, researchers within the Canadian Forest Service expressly distinguished forestry assisted migration from the concept debated in conservation biology.<ref name=2011-BC /><ref name="winder2011">{{cite journal |last1=Winder |first1=Richard S|last2=Nelson|first2=Elizabeth A|last3=Beardmore|first3=Tannis |title=Ecological implications for assisted migration in Canadian forests |journal=The Forestry Chronicle |date=January 2011 |volume=87 |issue=6 |pages=731–744 |doi=10.5558/tfc2011-090|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | display-authors=etal |last1=Ste-Marie |first1=Catherine |title=Assisted migration: Introduction to a multifaceted concept |journal=The Forestry Chronicle |date=January 2011 |volume=87 |issue=6 |pages=724–730 |doi=10.5558/tfc2011-089 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Preventing species extinctions was not a forestry focus. Rather, forestry forms of assisted migration would be undertaken for the purposes of maintaining the forests' [[ecosystem services]] as well as the extractive resource values of timber and pulp production.<ref name="pedlar2012" /> The Canadian Forest Service also produced research showing forest health and productivity could benefit from relocating forest [[understory]] plant species along with the dominant canopy tree species and that this would help with the successful establishment of a forest at a new location.<ref name="winder2011" />
==Strategies ==
[[File:Nagel 2017.jpg|thumb|"Transition" results from assisted migration of more southerly tree species<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Nagel|first1=Linda M.|last2=Palik|first2=Brian J.|last3=Battaglia|first3=Michael A.|last4=D'Amato|first4=Anthony W.|last5=Guldin|first5=James M.|last6=Swanston|first6=Christopher W.|last7=Janowiak|first7=Maria K.|last8=Powers|first8=Matthew P.|last9=Joyce|first9=Linda A.|last10=Millar|first10=Constance I.|last11=Peterson|first11=David L.|date=2017-05-01|title=Adaptive Silviculture for Climate Change: A National Experiment in Manager-Scientist Partnerships to Apply an Adaptation Framework|journal=Journal of Forestry|volume=115|issue=3|pages=167–178|doi=10.5849/jof.16-039|issn=0022-1201|doi-access=free}}</ref>]]
[[File:Chicago-trees 2.jpg|thumb|A list of 15 tree species native to more southerly regions of the US, but which were already (or would soon become during climate change) adapted for living in the Chicago area<ref>Brandt, Leslie. "[https://www.fs.fed.us/nrs/pubs/gtr/gtr_nrs168.pdf Chicago Wilderness Urban Forest Vulnerability Assessment and Synthesis]" (2017). Climate Change Response Framework. U.S. Forest Service. Retrieved 26 July 2021. (Table on page 32.)</ref>]]
In focusing on common canopy trees, forestry forms of assisted migration generated less intense debate than did the largely animal focus of conservation biologists.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Minteer |first1=Ben A|last2=Collins|first2=James P|title=Communication: Move it or lose it? The ecological ethics of relocating species under climate change |journal=Ecological Applications |date=October 2010 |volume=20 |issue=7 |pages=1801–1804|doi=10.1890/10-0318.1|pmid=21049870}}</ref> Animals have the ability to move at will and thus pose risks of quickly shifting beyond or entirely out of the locales into which they are translocated. Animal mobility also complicates monitoring results, and may require the added costs of radio collars and skilled trackers. Costs of translocating mammals, in particular, may escalate owing to standards of minimizing psychological and physical suffering during capture, transport, and release.<ref name="wilkening2015">{{cite journal | display-authors=etal |last1=Wilkening |first1=Jennifer L |title=Alpine biodiversity and assisted migration: The case of the American pika (Ochotona princeps) |journal=Biodiversity |date=1 December 2015 |volume=16 |issue=4 |pages=224–236 |doi=10.1080/14888386.2015.1112304 |bibcode=2015Biodi..16..224W |s2cid=131656767 |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/14888386.2015.1112304}}</ref>
In contrast, assisted migration of forests can be done at little cost, especially when it is paired with an existing reforestation program. Risks are also reduced in forestry because the only motility that trees have occurs when their seeds are released.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Breining |first1=Greg |title=Time for Trees to Pack Their Trunks? |journal=Ensia (University of Minnesota) |date=September 2014 |url=https://ensia.com/features/time-for-trees-to-pack-their-trunks/ |access-date=28 March 2022}}</ref> Tall woody plants tend to have long generation times, so several decades may pass before translocated seeds or seedlings can produce a next generation of seeds. Even then, seed dispersal distances may be limited, except for tufted seeds carried by wind and small fruits, such as berries, swallowed whole by birds and wide-ranging mammals.<ref>{{cite journal | display-authors=etal |last1=Gray |first1=Laura K |title=Assisted migration to address climate change: Recommendations for aspen reforestation in western Canada |journal=Ecological Applications |date=2011 |volume=21 |issue=5 |pages=1591–2103 |doi=10.1890/10-1054.1 |pmid=21830704 |bibcode=2011EcoAp..21.1591G |url=https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1890/10-1054.1}}</ref>
Communication strategies have also defused the controversy. Forest researchers and managers have talked and written about climate adaptation projects without using terminology coined by conservation biologists, whose focus is generally the wellbeing of single species of animals and plants that might be harmed or lost as climate change continues.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Swanston |first1=Chris|last2=Janowiak|first2=Maria|title=Forest Adaptation Resources: Climate Change Tools and Approaches for Land Managers (2012) |url=https://www.nrs.fs.fed.us/pubs/gtr/gtr_nrs87.pdf |website=Northern Research Station |publisher=U.S. Forest Service |access-date=5 August 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|display-authors=etal|last1=Schmitt|first1=Kristen M |title=Beyond Planning Tools: Experiential Learning in Climate Adaptation Planning and Practices |journal=Climate |date=May 2021 |volume=9 |issue=5 |page=76|doi=10.3390/cli9050076 |bibcode=2021Clim....9...76S |doi-access=free}}</ref>
By 2014 forestry managers in Canada had also honed their public communications in a number of ways, such as avoiding to be associated with the scientific debate on assisted migration and instead presenting their assisted migration as forest management best practices.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Klenk |first1=Nicole L|last2=Larson|first2=Brendon MH|title=The assisted migration of western larch in British Columbia: A signal of institutional change in forestry in Canada? |journal=Global Environmental Change |date=March 2015 |volume=31 |pages=20–27 |doi=10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2014.12.002 |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0959378014002003}}</ref><ref name="buranyi2016">{{cite web |last1=Buranyi |first1=Stephen |title=How British Columbia Is Moving its Trees |url=https://www.vice.com/en/article/yp3daj/how-british-columbia-is-moving-its-trees-assisted-migration-larch |website=Motherboard Tech by Vice, 2016 |date=January 20, 2016 |publisher=Vice |access-date=21 July 2021}}</ref>
Communication in both word and images has also been honed in the United States, thanks in part to the Northern Institute of Applied Climate Science (NIACS), a collaborative group launched in 2010 by the U.S. Forest Service.<ref name="niacs">{{cite web |title=Northern Institute of Applied Climate Science |url=https://www.nrs.fs.fed.us/niacs/about/ |website=U.S. Department of Agriculture |publisher=U.S. Forest Service |access-date=26 July 2021}}</ref> The NIACS proposed various ways though which foresters can adapt to climate change by changing their forest management techniques.<ref>{{cite journal | display-authors=etal |last1=Janowiak |first1=Maria |title=A Practical Approach for Translating Climate Change Adaptation Principles into Forest Management Actions |journal=Journal of Forestry |date=September 2014 |volume=112 |issue=5 |pages=424–433 |doi=10.5849/jof.13-094 |url=https://www.fs.fed.us/nrs/pubs/jrnl/2014/nrs_2014_janowiak_001.pdf|doi-access=free }}</ref>
A 2022 review paper that charted key words and lead authors in forestry publications concluded that "much of the research on assisted migration has been carried out in North America, where Canada and the USA have established strong collaborative networks." At the individual level, a Mexican forestry scientist was found to be "the most productive author in the field of assisted migration."<ref>{{cite journal |display-authors=etal|last1=Benomar |first1=Lahcen |title=Bibliometric Analysis of the Structure and Evolution of Research on Assisted Migration |journal=Current Forestry Reports |date=March 2022 |volume=8 |issue=2 |pages=199–213 |doi=10.1007/s40725-022-00165-y |s2cid=247766894 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2022CForR...8..199B }}</ref>
== Indigenous people's perspectives and actions ==
The term "assisted colonization", used in the guidelines of the [[International Union for Conservation of Nature]] (IUCN) to describe moving a species outside its native range to prevent it from going extinct, has been criticized as potentially offensive to [[Indigenous peoples]] because the word "colonization" is linked to their experience of [[genocide]].<ref>{{cite journal | display-authors=etal |last1=Bonebrake|first1=Timothy C|date=1 June 2017|title=Managing consequences of climate-driven species redistribution requires integration of ecology, conservation and social science|journal=Biological Reviews|volume=93|issue=1|pages=284–305|doi=10.1111/brv.12344|pmid=28568902|s2cid=24171783|doi-access=free|hdl=10536/DRO/DU:30107748|hdl-access=free}}</ref> According to Connie Barlow, the term 'managed relocation' may also be offensive in the United States, owing to the harm caused by the [[Indian Relocation Act of 1956]].<ref>{{cite web|last1=Barlow|first1=Connie|title=Part 4. Decolonizing Scientific Language|url=http://www.torreyaguardians.org/assistedmigrationdebate.html#4|access-date=20 July 2021|website=[[Torreya Guardians]]}}</ref> Some scholars have pointed out that this terminology could prevent these nations from consenting to and participating in forestry assisted migration projects.<ref name="schwartz2012">{{cite journal|last1=Schwartz|first1=Mark W|display-authors=etal|date=12 August 2012|title=Managed Relocation: Integrating the Scientific, Regulatory, and Ethical Challenges|journal=BioScience|volume=62|issue=8|pages=732–743|doi=10.1525/bio.2012.62.8.6|s2cid=1623634|doi-access=free}}</ref>
Indigenous botanist [[Robin Wall Kimmerer]] has used the term "helping forests walk" in lieu of any of the terms currently used by foresters, [[conservation biologists]], and other researchers and scholars.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Cooke|first1=Rachel|date=19 June 2021|title=Interview: Robin Wall Kimmerer|journal=The Guardian|url=https://www.theguardian.com/science/2021/jun/19/robin-wall-kimmerer-gathering-moss-climate-crisis-interview|access-date=21 July 2021}}</ref><ref name="sierra-2023">{{cite journal |last1=Thompson |first1=Joanna |title=Assisted Migration Helps Animals Adapt to Climate Change |journal=Sierra Magazine |date=12 October 2023 |url=https://www.sierraclub.org/sierra/assisted-migration-helps-animals-adapt-climate-change}}</ref> Kimmerer is founder and director of the Center for Native Peoples and the Environment, hosted by [[SUNY College of Environmental Science and Forestry]], which lists "Helping Forests Walk" as a five-year collaborative project launched in 2011<ref>{{cite web|title=Collaborative Projects with Indigenous and Tribal Partners|url=https://www.esf.edu/nativepeoples/projects/index.php|access-date=9 March 2023|website=Center for Native Peoples and the Environment|publisher=State University of New York, Syracuse}}</ref> and completed in 2016.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Center for Native Peoples and the Environment |title=2016 Annual Report |url=https://www.esf.edu/nativepeoples/documents/CNPE2016Report.pdf |website=SUNY College of Environmental Science and Forestry |publisher=State University of New York, Syracuse |access-date=4 October 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Kimball |first1=Jill |title='Braiding Sweetgrass' author: 'We haven't loved the land enough' |url=https://www.brown.edu/news/2022-11-04/kimmerer |access-date=5 November 2022 |agency=News from Brown University |date=5 November 2022}}</ref> This project is also listed on the "tribal nations" page of the U.S. government "Climate Resilience Toolkit" website.<ref>{{cite web |title=Tribal Nations Capacity Building |url=https://toolkit.climate.gov/topics/tribal-nations/capacity-building |website=U.S. Climate Resilience Toolkit |publisher=U.S. Government |access-date=13 September 2021}}</ref>
The Northern Institute of Applied Climate Science facilitated collaboration on a tribal climate adaptation menu for the [[Great Lakes region]]. The document that resulted was published in 2019 as ''Dibaginjigaadeg Anishinaabe Ezhitwaad: A Tribal Climate Adaptation Menu''. The only standard term used was "assisted migration" (and this was used only once). The term "[[invasive species]]" was replaced either by a new term, "non-local beings", or by an [[Ojibwe]] phrase, "Bakaan ingoji ga-ondaadag", which is defined as "that which comes from somewhere else and now resides here."<ref name="TAMT">{{cite web|last1=Tribal Adaptation Menu Team|title=Dibaginjigaadeg Anishinaabe Ezhitwaad: A Tribal Climate Adaptation Menu, 2019|url=https://forestadaptation.org/focus/tribal-perspectives|access-date=21 July 2021|website=Climate Change Response Framework|publisher=Northern Institute of Applied Climate Science}}</ref> The document summarized the importance of word choice in this way:
{{Blockquote
|text=As the original and current stewards of the Great Lakes region, Ojibwe and [[Menominee]] tribal members who worked on this project felt it important to bring a language of parity between human and non-human beings. English and scientific terminology used in currently accepted land management practices tends to assume human dominance over non-human beings. This approach deviates from an equitable co-existence with our environment, which is typically a foundational understanding in many indigenous cultures. The terms used throughout this document are an attempt to recognize agency and sovereignty of our non-human relations.<ref name="TAMT" />}}
[[File:Fruit of pawpaw, with seeds revealed.jpg|thumb|Native Americans may have helped pawpaw (''[[Asimina triloba]]'') disperse by carrying its fruit northward as glaciers retreated in eastern North America.]]
As of 2021, the [[Little Traverse Bay Bands of Odawa Indians]] in northern [[Michigan]] have planted tree species common to more southerly ranges, including [[shagbark hickory]], [[silver maple]], [[black walnut]], [[swamp white oak]], [[sassafras]], and [[Asimina|pawpaw]]. Noah Jansen, conservationist staff, explains, "I don't know which of these species are going to thrive in 50 or 100 years. So we cast the net broad and try to have something there that creates habitat for wildlife, sources of cultural significance for tribal members and areas to hunt and gather."<ref>{{cite news|last1=House|first1=Kelly|date=3 May 2021|title=As northern Michigan warms, scientists bring tree seedlings from the south|journal=Michigan Bridge|url=https://www.bridgemi.com/michigan-environment-watch/northern-michigan-warms-scientists-bring-tree-seedlings-south|url-status=live|access-date=21 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210504180229/https://www.bridgemi.com/michigan-environment-watch/northern-michigan-warms-scientists-bring-tree-seedlings-south|archive-date=4 May 2021}}</ref>
Starting in 1492, the arrival of colonizers pushed [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas]] out of their native lands and severely constricted where they can continue to live.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Zinn|first=Howard|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/61265580|title=A people's history of the United States : 1492-present|date=2005|publisher=HarperPerennial|isbn=0-06-083865-5|location=New York|oclc=61265580}}</ref> Because California is already experiencing adverse climate change effects on native vegetation, the need for adaptive responses is severe. Traditional use of fire in managing local ecosystems for safety and for ensuring abundance of culturally significant plant and animal foods has drawn media attention to the climate-adaptive actions by the [[Karuk Tribe]] along the [[Klamath River]] of northern California.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mucioki |first1=Megan |title=Keeping a Detailed Record of the Changing Climate Could Save this Tribe's Foodways |journal=Civil Eats |date=8 October 2021 |url=https://civileats.com/2021/10/08/keeping-a-detailed-record-of-the-changing-climate-could-save-this-tribes-foodways/}}</ref> But assisted migration is not a readily palatable option for Indigenous peoples, nor for their mutual relations with the ecosystems in which their cultures are enmeshed.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Harrington |first1=Samantha |title=By paying attention, tribes in the Northwoods are leading the way on climate change |journal=Yale Climate Connections |date=8 June 2020 |url=https://yaleclimateconnections.org/2020/06/by-paying-attention-tribes-in-the-northwoods-are-leading-the-way-on-climate-change/}}</ref>
== Implementation ==
=== Changes in seed transfer guidelines ===
[[File:Bark beetle tunnels douglas-fir.jpg|thumb|Tunnels created by the larvae of native bark beetles are evident beneath the bark of this dead Douglas-fir trunk in Colorado.]]
Forestry research has long been conducted by governmental agencies responsible for management of federal and provincial forests in Canada ([[Crown lands]]) and federal and state forests in the United States. Because timber and pulp resources are harvested from [[multiple use]] regions of public forests in North America, re-seeding or planting seedlings onto harvested sites has been a routine management practice for many decades. Research for improving [[silviculture]] practices has included tree provenance trials, by which a variety of seed sources (or provenances) are planted together at several distinct geographic test sites ("common gardens") across the current and, increasingly, potential range of a species.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Risk |first1=Clara |last2=McKenney|first2=Daniel|last3=Pedlar|first3=John|last4=Lu|first4=Pengxin|title=A compilation of North American tree provenance trials and relevant historical climate data for seven species |journal=Scientific Data |date=26 January 2021 |volume=8 |issue=29 |page=29 |doi=10.1038/s41597-021-00820-2 |pmid=33500421 |pmc=7838313 |bibcode=2021NatSD...8...29R }}</ref> Because provenance trial data are available for many widespread, commercially valuable tree species, forestry professionals already have long-term experiments underway for testing tree species and population viability and performance in locations outside of native geographic ranges. Provenance trial locations poleward of native ranges or at higher (and thus cooler) elevations help forest managers determine whether, where, and when assisted migration as a [[climate adaptation]] measure should be implemented.<ref name="handler" /><ref name="seed" />
In 2009, British Columbia altered its standards for selecting seeds for replanting forests after a timber harvest.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=McKenney |first1=Dan|last2=Pedlar|first2=John|last3=O'Neill|first3=Greg|title=Climate change and forest seed zones: Past trends, future prospects and challenges to ponder |journal=The Forestry Chronicle |date=March 2009 |volume=85 |issue=2 |pages=258–266 |doi=10.5558/tfc85258-2 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Previously, foresters were required to use seeds from within 300 meters downhill and 200 meters uphill, but the new policy allowed foresters to obtain seeds from up to 500 meters downhill for most species, taking advantage of the fact that populations in warmer habitats downhill may be better adapted to the future climate of the restoration site.<ref name="Marris">{{Cite journal | last1 = Marris | first1 = E. | title = Forestry: Planting the forest of the future | doi = 10.1038/459906a | journal = Nature | volume = 459 | issue = 7249 | pages = 906–908 | year = 2009 | pmid = 19536238| doi-access = | s2cid = 26915838 }}</ref> As of 2022, research, including study of provenance trials already in place, is ongoing in British Columbia<ref>{{cite web |title=What will climate change do to Alberta Forests? |url=https://friresearch.ca/project/tree-adaptation-risk-management-project |website=FRI Research |access-date=21 July 2021}}</ref> and the Canadian provinces of [[Alberta]]<ref>{{cite web |title=Tree Improvement and Adaptation Programs |url=https://friresearch.ca/sites/default/files/TIA_2015_07_22_CCEMC_FinalRpt.pdf |publisher=Province of Alberta |access-date=21 July 2021}}</ref> and [[Ontario]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Managed forests and climate change |url=https://www.ontario.ca/page/managed-forests-and-climate-change |publisher=Province of Ontario |access-date=21 July 2021}}</ref> These changes were implemented partly because Canadian policymakers feared that, if they did not set the guidelines, the private sector would be tempted to pursue an unregulated assisted migration strategy on its own.<ref name="Klenk" /> In 2022, the climate-adapted seed transfer guidelines for British Columbia transitioned from being optional for provincial reforestation projects to mandatory.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Hett |first1=Hanna |title=Forests can't adapt to climate change fast enough. So humans are trying to help |url=https://www.nationalobserver.com/2022/08/30/news/forests-cant-adapt-climate-change-fast-enough-so-humans-are-trying-help |publisher=Canada's National Observer |date=30 August 2022}}</ref>
Within the United States Forest Service, regional geneticists have recommended a "no regrets" approach to considering assisted migration and seed transfer as a climate adaptation strategy.<ref>{{cite journal | display-authors=etal |last1=Dumroese |first1=R Kasten|title=Considerations for restoring temperate forests of tomorrow: Forest restoration, assisted migration, and bioengineering |journal=New Forests |date=August 2015 |volume=46 |issue=5–6 |pages=947–964 |doi=10.1007/s11056-015-9504-6 |s2cid=15069899 |url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11056-015-9504-6}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Adaptation |url=https://www.fs.usda.gov/managing-land/sc/adaptation |website=U.S. Department of Agriculture |date=31 July 2017 |publisher=U.S. Forest Service |access-date=21 July 2021}}</ref> Population transfers to match seed sources to projected future conditions are recommended only for species where experience or research has demonstrated appropriate climate transfer limits.<ref name="handler" /> Forest Service researchers have also used computer modeling to offer projections of native tree species range shifts under a variety of climate change projections. A total of 76 species of trees native to the western US have range-shift projection maps available online.<ref>{{cite web |title=Plant Species and Climate Profile Predictions |url=https://charcoal2.cnre.vt.edu/climate/species/index.php |publisher=Virginia Tech |access-date=21 July 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Climate Change Resource Center |title=Plant Species and Climate Profile Predictions |url=https://www.fs.usda.gov/ccrc/tool/plant-species-and-climate-profile-predictions |publisher=USDA |access-date=10 May 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | display-authors=etal |last1=Crookston |first1=Nicholas |title=Addressing climate change in the forest vegetation simulator to assess impacts on landscape forest dynamics |journal=Forest Ecology and Management |date=August 2010 |volume=260 |issue=7 |pages=1198–1211 |doi=10.1016/j.foreco.2010.07.013 |s2cid=9030856 |url=https://www.fs.fed.us/rm/pubs_other/rmrs_2010_crookston_n001.pdf}}</ref> A total of 134 species of trees native to the eastern US have range shift projection maps available online.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Climate Change Resource Center |title=Climate Change Tree Atlas |url=https://www.fs.usda.gov/ccrc/index.php/tool/climate-change-tree-atlas |publisher=USDA |access-date=10 May 2023}}</ref> Forest Service researchers have also been publishing regional range shift projections for North American tree species since the 1990s.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Rehfeldt|first=Gerald E.|date=2006|title=A spline model of climate for the Western United States|url=http://www.fs.usda.gov/treesearch/pubs/21485|journal=Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-165. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station. 21 P.|language=en|volume=165|doi=10.2737/RMRS-GTR-165|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Iverson |first1=Louis R|last2=Prasad|first2=Anantha M|last3=Matthews|first3=Stephen N|last4=Peters|first4=Matthew|title=Estimating potential habitat for 134 eastern US tree species under six climate scenarios |journal=Forest Ecology and Management |date=10 February 2008 |volume=254 |issue=3 |pages=390–406 |doi=10.1016/j.foreco.2007.07.023 |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0378112707005439}}</ref>
[[File:USDA eastern seed-collection zones.jpg|thumb|Eastern Seed Zone Map, by U.S. Department of Agriculture.]]
Several decision support tools are available for assisted migration in North American forests. The ''Seedlot Selection Tool'' currently has the broadest geographic scope of these tools, covering most of North America, and requires the user to set the acceptable climate transfer distances from a suite of climate variables.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Seedlot Selection Tool |url=https://seedlotselectiontool.org/sst/ |access-date=2022-03-15 |website=seedlotselectiontool.org}}</ref> The ''Climate-Based Seed Transfer'' tool provides coverage across British Columbia, and uses data from [[common garden experiment]]s to determine acceptable seed sources, based on anticipated growth and climate-transfer distance.<ref>{{Cite web |title=CBST Seedlot Selection Tool Version 6.0 |url=https://maps.forsite.ca/204/SeedTransfer/ |access-date=2022-03-15 |website=maps.forsite.ca}}</ref> The ''Climate-Adapted Seed Tool'' provides coverage in California, Oregon, Washington, Nevada, and Idaho (with some features currently only available in California) and uses data from common garden experiments and forest inventories to produce estimates of how well different seed sources will perform (growth, survival, carbon sequestration, timber production) at user-specified planting locations.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Climate-Adapted Seed Tool |url=https://reforestationtools.org/climate-adapted-seed-tool/ |access-date=2022-06-17 |website=reforestationtools.org}}</ref>
In the eastern United States, forestry professionals in federal, state, and academic institutions have collaborated in establishing a mutually agreed upon map of 247 "seed-collection zones" spanning the 37 states east of the Rocky Mountains.<ref>{{cite journal |display-authors=etal |last1=Pike |first1=Carolyn |title=New Seed-Collection Zones for the Eastern United States:The Eastern Seed Zone Forum |journal=Journal of Forestry |date=July 2020 |volume=118 |issue=4 |pages=444–451 |doi=10.1093/jofore/fvaa013|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Eastern Seed Zone Forum |url=http://www.easternseedzones.com/ |website=Eastern Seed Zones |publisher=U.S. Forest Service |access-date=2 April 2022}}</ref> (See image at right.) This project also entails standardized norms for labelling seeds by collectors and nurseries in anticipation that future reforestation and restoration plantings may begin to include various forms of forestry assisted migration.
=== Western larch ===
[[File:Larix_occidentalis_Navaho_Ridge.jpg|thumb|left|Western larch in autumn]]
In 2010, the [[Government of British Columbia]] implemented an assisted range expansion project for one particular canopy species: the [[western larch]]. Larch could now be selected for provincial reforestation projects nearly 1,000 kilometers northward of its current range.<ref name="buranyi2016" /> Research had shown that the western larch, the most productive of the three species of larch native to North America,<ref name="rehfeldt2010">{{Cite journal|last1=Rehfeldt|first1=Gerald E.|last2=Jaquish|first2=Barry C.|date=March 2010|title=Ecological impacts and management strategies for western larch in the face of climate-change|url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s11027-010-9217-2|journal=Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change|language=en|volume=15|issue=3|pages=283–306|doi=10.1007/s11027-010-9217-2|bibcode=2010MASGC..15..283R |s2cid=154285038|issn=1381-2386}}</ref> has no trouble growing in northern British Columbia, where climatic conditions are predicted to match the western larch's historical range by 2030.<ref name="Klenk">{{Cite journal|last=Klenk|first=Nicole L.|date=2015-03-01|title=The development of assisted migration policy in Canada: An analysis of the politics of composing future forests|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0264837714002749|journal=Land Use Policy|language=en|volume=44|pages=101–109|doi=10.1016/j.landusepol.2014.12.003|issn=0264-8377}}</ref> This was the first government-approved assisted long-distance migration program for a North American canopy tree. The western larch was selected for assisted species migration because of its significant commercial importance and the fear that climate change and parasites such as the [[mountain pine beetle]] would considerably diminish its supply.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Rehfeldt |first1=Gerald E|last2=Crookston|first2=Nicholas L|last3=Sáenz-Romero|first3=Cuauhtémoc|last4=Campbell|first4=Elizabeth M |title=North American vegetation model for land-use planning in a changing climate: a solution to large classification problems |journal=Ecological Applications |date=1 January 2012 |volume=22 |issue=1 |pages=119–141|doi=10.1890/11-0495.1 |pmid=22471079|bibcode=2012EcoAp..22..119R |url=https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1890/11-0495.1}}</ref>
Foresters in the United States have also initiated "experimental treatments" of larch-dominated national forests in Montana.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Crotteau |first1=Justin S |title=Initiating Climate Adaptation in a Western Larch Forest |journal=Forest Science |date=August 2019 |volume=65 |issue=4 |pages=528–536 |doi=10.1093/forsci/fxz024 |url=https://www.fs.fed.us/rm/pubs_journals/2019/rmrs_2019_crotteau_j001.pdf}}</ref> However, if some "aggressively warming climate scenarios" unfold, foresters will need to let go of any expectations of helping this species maintain a presence south of the Canadian border.<ref name="rehfeldt2010" />
=== Whitebark pine ===
[[File:Pinus_albicaulis_USDA.jpg|thumb|An old [[Pinus albicaulis|whitebark pine]] in Oregon]]
University of British Columbia forestry researchers Sierra McLane and Sally Aitken were among the first scientists to engage in long-distance experimental plantings to test how far northward seeds of a tree native to North America could germinate and continue to grow, in advance of expected warming in North America.<ref name="whitebark2012" /> They selected [[whitebark pine]] for their case study, as it is a [[keystone species]] that is already a [[threatened species]] in western North America. The authors used [[species distribution modelling]] to learn that this species will likely be extirpated from most of its current range as temperatures rise over the next half century. The same models indicate that a large area within northwestern British Columbia is already climatically suitable for the species under current conditions and will remain so throughout the 21st century.
Experimental plantings in eight sites began in 2007. Ten years later results were tallied. Protective snow cover throughout the winter, followed by spring melt ending in April or May, proved to be a far better indicator of seedling survival and growth than latitude. Indeed, the tallest seedlings measured in 2017 were those at the northern-most experimental site—600 kilometers beyond the species' current distribution. The authors explained that "post-glacial migration has been too slow" for this large-seeded pine to track warming, even during the thousands of years that preceded the pace and scale of [[human-caused climate change]].<ref name="canmex2021">{{cite journal |last1=Sáenz-Romero |first1=Cuauhtémoc|last2=O'Neill|first2=Greg|last3=Aitken|first3=Sally N|last4=Lindig-Cisneros|first4=Roberto|title=Review: Assisted Migration Field Tests in Canada and Mexico: Lessons, Limitations, and Challenges |journal=Forests |date=2021 |volume=12 |issue=1 |doi=10.3390/f12010009|doi-access=free}}</ref> These experimental plantings for learning the poleward limits of tolerance, reproduction, and thrival of whitebark pine are first steps toward implementation.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Palmer |first1=Clare|last2=Larson|first2=Brendon M H|title=Should We Move the Whitebark Pine? Assisted Migration, Ethics and Global Environmental Change |journal=Environmental Values |date=December 2014 |volume=23 |issue=6 |pages=641–662 |doi=10.3197/096327114X13947900181833 |s2cid=146863103 |url=https://doi.org/10.3197/096327114X13947900181833}}</ref>
In 2012 the Canadian federal government declared Whitebark pine [[endangered species|endangered]] in accordance with the [[Species at Risk Act]]. Accordingly, it became the first federally listed endangered tree in western Canada.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Zimmer |first1=Carl |title=For Trees Under Threat, Flight May Be Best Response |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2014/09/23/science/under-theat-flight-may-be-best-response-for-trees.html |agency=New York Times |date=13 January 2023}}</ref>
In 2022 the [[U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service]] also acted. It listed Whitebark pine in the lowest category of vulnerability: "threatened." Four distinct threats were described, beginning with [[White pine blister rust]] as "the primary stressor." [[Mountain pine beetle]], altered fire regimes, and "the effects of climate change" add to the challenges.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service |title=Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants; Threatened Species Status With Section 4(d) Rule for Whitebark Pine (Pinus albicaulis) |journal=Federal Register |date=15 December 2022 |volume=87 |issue=240 |pages=76882–76917 |url=https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/FR-2022-12-15/pdf/2022-27087.pdf#page=1}}</ref> This listing marks the first occasion in which a tree regarded as ecologically important over a vast range in the United States is acknowledged as vulnerable to extinction.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Center for Biological Diversity |title=Whitebark Pine Protected as Threatened Under Endangered Species Act |url=https://biologicaldiversity.org/w/news/press-releases/whitebark-pine-protected-as-threatened-under-endangered-species-act-2022-12-14/#:~:text=%E2%80%94%20The%20U.S.%20Fish%20and%20Wildlife,%2C%20Montana%2C%20Wyoming%20and%20Nevada. |access-date=13 January 2023}}</ref> Even before the official listing, collaboration among stakeholders was underway.<ref name="yale-2024">{{cite journal |last1=Robbins |first1=Jim |title=The Beleaguered Whitebark Pine Is in Trouble. Can It Be Saved? |journal=Yale Environment 360 |date=11 January 2024 |url=https://e360.yale.edu/features/whitebark-pines-climate-change-rust-beetles}}</ref> Supportive research and actions were undertaken by the conservation organization [[American Forests]] as well as a new organization specific to the tree: the Whitebark Pine Ecosystem Foundation.<ref>{{cite web |title=Partners and Projects |url=https://whitebarkfound.org/ |website=Whitebark Pine Ecosystem Foundation |access-date=29 January 2024}}</ref> Other collaborators include research scientists within the [[U.S. Forest Service]], geneticists at the [[University of California, Davis]], and the [[Confederated Salish and Kootenai Tribes]]. The [[U.S. Bureau of Land Management]] and the [[National Park Service]] were also involved in consultation prior to listing by the agency in charge of endangered species: the [[U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service]].<ref name="yale-2024" />
=== Mexico's oyamel fir ===
[[File:Abies_religiosa_El_Rosario_1.jpg|thumb|left|[[Abies religiosa|Oyamel fir]] foliage with monarch butterflies ''[[Danaus plexippus]]'']]
The [[Monarch Butterfly Biosphere Reserve]] in central Mexico depends upon the integrity of its evergreen forest trees to serve as winter habitat for a long-distance annual migrator: the [[monarch butterfly]]. The [[oyamel fir]] is a major species of evergreen on which the overwintering butterflies spend a significant time during their winter [[diapause]], or suspended development.<ref>Paz, Fátima (June 18, 2014). [http://www.cambiodemichoacan.com.mx/nota-227099 "En espera de aprobación de la Profepa por tala ilegal en la Reserva de la Mariposa Monarca"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140903143808/http://www.cambiodemichoacan.com.mx/nota-227099 |date=2014-09-03 }}. cambiodemichoacan.com.mx</ref> The tree's survival is threatened at its lower elevations on mountain slopes, in part, by [[climate change]]. Climate stress is also indicated by weak [[seedling]] recruitment, meaning that most of the oyamel fir seedlings do not survive past that point. This is true even in the higher forest elevations where trees do not otherwise show strong indicators of stress.<ref name="romero2020">{{cite journal | display-authors=etal |last1=Sáenz-Romero |first1=Cuauhtémoc |title=Review article: Recent evidence of Mexican temperate forest decline and the need for ex situ conservation, assisted migration, and translocation of species ensembles as adaptive management to face projected climatic change impacts in a megadiverse country |journal=Canadian Journal of Forest Research |date=20 April 2020 |volume=50 |issue=9 |doi=10.1139/cjfr-2019-0329 |s2cid=219081722 |url=https://cdnsciencepub.com/doi/10.1139/cjfr-2019-0329}}</ref> Upslope assisted migration experiments are underway, with findings suggesting that "400 meters upward in elevation (i.e., assisted migration) to compensate for future warmer climates does not appear to have any negative impacts on the seedlings, while potentially conferring closer alignment to future climates."<ref>{{cite journal | display-authors=etal |last1=Carbajal-Navarro |first1=Aglean |title=Ecological Restoration of Abies religiosa Forests Using Nurse Plants and Assisted Migration in the Monarch Butterfly Biosphere Reserve, Mexico |journal=Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution |date=6 November 2019 |volume=7 |doi=10.3389/fevo.2019.00421 |doi-access=free }}</ref>
Assisted migration of oyamel fir is complicated by the necessity of planting this shade-tolerant species under [[nurse plants]]—especially because of the extreme solar radiation and the large differences between day and night temperatures at high elevations.<ref name="canmex2021" /><ref>{{cite news |last1=Duran |first1=Thelma Gomez |title=Here's how science is trying to conserve the monarch butterfly's forests |url=https://news.mongabay.com/2022/01/heres-how-science-is-trying-to-conserve-the-monarch-butterflys-forests/ |access-date=25 January 2022 |work=Mongabay |date=17 January 2022}}</ref> Thus, where upslope locales are devoid of forest shade, nurse plants (e.g. ''Baccharis conferta'') must be established first.<ref name="romero2020" />
=== Recent developments (2019-present) ===
[[File:Acer saccharum range map.png|thumb|''Acer saccharum'' range map]]
By 2021 the projects for climate adaptation in forestry had expanded to include planting "novel species" from southward latitudes of the same continent.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Anouschka|first1=R|last2=Dymond|first2=Caren C|last3=Mladenoff|first3=David J|date=November 2017|title=Climate change mitigation through adaptation: The effectiveness of forest diversification by novel tree planting regimes|journal=Ecosphere|volume=8|issue=11|pages=e01981|doi=10.1002/ecs2.1981|doi-access=free|bibcode=2017Ecosp...8E1981H}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Muller|first1=Jacob J|last2=Nagel|first2=Linda N|last3=Palik|first3=Brian J|date=November 2019|title=Forest adaptation strategies aimed at climate change: Assessing the performance of future climate-adapted tree species in a northern Minnesota pine ecosystem|journal=Forest Ecology and Management|volume=451|page=117539|doi=10.1016/j.foreco.2019.117539|s2cid=202041429|doi-access=free}}</ref> An early example was the updated management plan for the Petawawa Research Forest northwest of [[Ottawa]] in the province of [[Ontario]], Canada.<ref>{{cite web|title=Petawawa Research Forest: Management Goals and Treatments|url=https://www.adaptivesilviculture.org/management-goals-and-treatments-PRF|access-date=23 July 2021|website=Adaptive Silviculture for Climate Change}}</ref> In addition to planting seeds from more southerly populations of the existing species in the forest, the management guidelines also authorized experiments in planting tree species whose northernmost ranges were far to the south, notably several species of [[hickory]], [[Virginia pine]], and [[American chestnut]]. A 2023 article reports early success of an ongoing experiment of "assisted range expansion" in another eastern province of Canada. In [[Quebec]] forestry scientists have experimentally planted [[Acer saccharum|sugar maple]], ''Acer saccharum'', northward of its current range. Losses of this species are expected in Canada due to competitive challenges from more southerly tree species moving north.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Mura |first1=Claudio |last2=Raymond |first2=Patricia |last3=Rossi |first3=Sergio |title=How to move without legs or wings: Helping trees migrate to new regions |url=https://theconversation.com/how-to-move-without-legs-or-wings-helping-trees-migrate-to-new-regions-201366 |agency=The Conversation |date=3 May 2023}}</ref>
In 2019 a small [[land trust]] in northern [[Michigan]], the Leelanau Conservancy, began advising land owners to plant "trees whose native ranges end just south of here, yet are projected to do well in our region."<ref>{{cite web|last1=Williams|first1=Jeannie|title=Conservation Easement Landowner Newsletter, 2019|url=https://www.leelanauconservancy.org/2020/01/assisted-tree-range-expansion-how-you-can-help/|access-date=26 July 2021|website=Leelanau Conservancy|date=15 January 2020}}</ref> By 2023 two other land conservancies in Michigan were reported as also planting more southerly tree species including [[Platanus occidentalis|sycamore]], [[Asimina triloba|pawpaw]], [[Nyssa sylvatica|blackgum]], [[Liriodendron tulipifera| tuliptree]], [[Kentucky coffeetree]], [[honey locust]], and [[Morus rubra|red mulberry]].<ref>{{cite news |last1=McWhirter |first1=Sheri |title='If trees had feet': Tree migration brings climate resiliency to Michigan forests |url=https://www.mlive.com/public-interest/2023/04/if-trees-had-feet-tree-migration-brings-climate-resiliency-to-michigan-forests.html |agency=Michigan Live |date=30 April 2023}}</ref>
[[File:Preacher's Grove Trail - Itasca State Park, Minnesota (34527960794).jpg|thumb|A grove of ''Pinus resinosa'' (red pine) at [[Itasca State Park]], Minnesota]]
In [[Minnesota]], [[The Nature Conservancy]] has partnered with the state forestry agency and U.S Forest Service scientists to discern climate adaptation options where dieback of [[Taiga|boreal forest]] trees is already evident in its [[Laurentian Mixed Forest Province|northwoods]].<ref>{{cite news|last1=Dennis|first1=Brady|date=29 April 2020|title=In Fast-Warming Minnesota, Scientists Are Trying to Plant the Forests of the Future|newspaper=The Washington Post|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/graphics/2020/climate-solutions/climate-change-minnesota/|access-date=24 July 2021}}</ref> An article published in 2022 by the [[Minnesota Department of Natural Resources]] reports on the implementation of assisted population migration and assisted range expansion projects, using trees native to the southern regions of the state.<ref name=":4">{{cite journal |last1=Breining |first1=Greg |title=New Forest for a New Climate |journal=Minnesota Conservation Volunteer Magazine |date=March–April 2022 |url=https://www.dnr.state.mn.us/mcvmagazine/issues/2022/mar-apr/forest.html |access-date=24 March 2022}}</ref> The [[Superior National Forest]], at Minnesota's border with Canada, was reported in 2023 as being in the planning stage for possible "human-assisted tree migration" of more southerly tree species.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Cusick |first1=Daniel |title=Forest Service Explores Moving Trees to Save Them from Hotter Weather |url=https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/forest-service-explores-moving-trees-to-save-them-from-hotter-weather/ |agency=E&E News |publisher=Scientific American |date=5 May 2023}}</ref> A final report was issued in 2023, titled "Superior National Forest Assisted Migration Plan." Approval was thereby given for only two of the three kinds of assisted migration: assisted population migration and assisted range expansion. The report refrained from blanket authorization of moving any tree species northward that did not already occur within the Superior National Forest.<ref>{{cite web |last1=U.S. Forest Service |title=Superior National Forest Assisted Migration Plan (2023) |url=https://www.fs.usda.gov/Internet/FSE_DOCUMENTS/fseprd1150836.pdf |publisher=U.S. Department of Agriculture |access-date=15 November 2023}}</ref> Because climate projections for Minnesota entail drier as well as warmer conditions, experimentation is underway for possible introduction of a tree widespread in the American west—but several hundred miles distant from the northwoods of Minnesota. [[Ponderosa pine]] (''Pinus ponderosa'') from the [[Black Hills]] of [[South Dakota]] is being tested as a possible replacement for the dieback ongoing of Minnesota's official [[state tree]]: [[Red pine]] (''Pinus resinosa'').<ref name=palik-2022 /> Brian Palik, a forestry researcher involved in the project, reports favorable early results. Ponderosa pine, he says, "grows better than anything else that we planted."<ref name=":4" /> In 2023 researchers reported that even more southerly tree species "are doing well" in test plantings. These include [[pecan|northern pecan]] and [[Platanus occidentalis|American sycamore]].<ref name="2023-bain">{{cite news |last1=Bain |first1=Lisa |title=At St. Paul's Crosby Farm Park, see the future of Minnesota forests |url=https://www.startribune.com/st-paul-crosby-farm-regional-park-see-the-future-of-minnesota-forests-adapt-climate-change/600298134/?refresh=true |agency=Minneapolis Star Tribune |date=18 August 2023}}</ref>
[[File:Calocedrus-whidbey-island-wa.jpg|thumb|This incense cedar, whose native range is in Oregon and northern California, was one of the more southerly conifer seedlings planted after a logging operation on private land on [[Whidbey Island]] in [[Washington (state)|Washington state]] 2019.]]
In early spring 2020 a multi-group effort<ref>{{cite web |title=Adaptive Restoration at Stossel Creek |url=https://www.nnrg.org/stossel-creek-adapted-reforestation-project/ |website=Northwest Natural Resource Group |date=January 30, 2020 |access-date=17 August 2021}}</ref> began restoring 154 acres of a 2012 clearcut of [[Douglas-fir]] forest at a low elevation site east of [[Seattle]], Washington. The Stossel Creek project<ref>{{cite web |title=Stossel Creek Case Study: Adaptive Restoration for Pacific Northwest Forests |url=https://www.nnrg.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/03/Stossel-Creek-Case-Study_03.24.20-1.pdf |website=Northwest Natural Resource Group |access-date=17 August 2021}}</ref> is primarily a watershed restoration effort using native tree species, but it is also experimenting with long-distance assisted population migration of the dominant canopy tree, Douglas-fir. Seedlings of Douglas-fir were sourced from nurseries several hundred miles to the south, in Oregon and even northern California. Because nursery stock had run short of native [[western red-cedar]], project leaders chose to substitute a closely related conifer sourced from Oregon and northern California: [[incense cedar]]. This species is more drought-tolerant than western red-cedar, but all wild populations occur southward of Washington state. Including incense cedar in the planting list thus brings an element of assisted species migration into this [[forest restoration]] project.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Gilles |first1=Nathan |title=The Forest Service is experimenting with relocating tree species to save them from climate change |url=https://columbiainsight.org/the-forest-service-is-experimenting-with-relocating-tree-species/ |publisher=Columbia Insight |date=15 September 2022}}</ref> First-year survival was strong for southerly sourced seedlings of both Douglas-fir and incense cedar.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Braybrook |first1=Rowan |title=Moving Trees: Definitions and Ethics of Assisted Migration |url=https://www.nnrg.org/moving-trees-definitions-and-ethics-of-assisted-migration/ |website=Northwest Natural Resource Group |date=3 August 2021 |access-date=18 August 2021}}</ref>
While extreme summer drought and heat in the mountain states and provinces of western North America have induced massive outbreaks of native bark beetles and fire-caused losses of forest canopies, tree deaths in the eastern half of North America derive from a different mix of causes.<ref name="usfs-2023"/> Notably, deaths of trees have accelerated due to massive outbreaks of non-native insects. All four widespread canopy species of ash (genus ''[[Fraxinus]]'') in the eastern states and provinces have been decimated in recent decades by an Asian beetle, the [[emerald ash borer]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Herms |first1=Daniel A |last2=McCullough |first2=Deborah G|title=Emerald Ash Borer Invasion of North America: History, Biology, Ecology, Impacts, and Management |journal=Annual Review of Entomology |date=January 2014 |volume=59 |pages=13–30 |doi=10.1146/annurev-ento-011613-162051 |pmid=24112110 |url=https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/10.1146/annurev-ento-011613-162051|doi-access= |url-access=subscription }}</ref> As of 2023, assisted migration tree experiments were underway in the Great Lakes region, expressly seeking one or more replacements for the wetland-adapted [[Fraxinus nigra|black ash]].<ref name="palik-2022"/> In 2022 and 2023, state agencies and tribes in northern Minnesota and Wisconsin began replacing black ash trees recently killed by the emerald ash borer with more than a dozen species of wet-adapted trees, some of which reach their northern range limits a hundred or more miles to the south. This attempt to ensure that a forest canopy will once again prevail in regional wetlands thus also entails an assisted range expansion form of [[climate adaptation]] for species including [[Populus deltoides|eastern cottonwood]], [[Celtis occidentalis|American hackberry]], and [[Betula nigra|river birch]].<ref>{{cite news |last1=Myers |first1=John |title=As emerald ash borers decimate trees, new forest planted to replace them |url=https://www.duluthnewstribune.com/sports/northland-outdoors/as-emerald-ash-borers-decimate-trees-new-forest-planted-to-replace-them |publisher=Duluth News Tribune |date=24 June 2023}}</ref>
The boldest assisted migration effort of a forest canopy tree had been initiated by citizens in the Seattle area in 2016. By 2023, their actions had become so substantial that a lengthy journalistic essay was published in a national venue. It was titled, "Can We Save the Redwoods by Helping Them Move?"<ref>{{cite news |last1=Velasquez-Manoff |first1=Moises |title=Can We Save the Redwoods by Helping Them Move? |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2023/10/25/magazine/redwoods-assisted-migration.html?unlocked_article_code=1.5Uw.fy90.-KLBh1kMh_K9&smid=em-share |agency=New York Times Magazine |date=25 October 2023}}</ref><ref name="kuow-2023">{{cite news |last1=Opong |first1=Diana |last2=Anderson |first2=Hans |title=One man's mission to save the California redwoods by bringing them to the Pacific Northwest |url=https://www.kuow.org/stories/one-man-s-mission-to-save-the-california-redwoods-by-bringing-them-to-the-pacific-northwest |agency=KUOW |date=9 November 2023}}</ref> Two months later, a lengthy news article presented the views of a half-dozen professional forestry practitioners in Oregon and Washington state.<ref name="Gilles-dec-2023">{{cite news |last1=Gilles |first1=Nathan |title=What is 'assisted migration' and what are the risks? |url=https://columbiainsight.org/what-is-assisted-migration-and-what-are-the-risks/ |agency=Columbia Insight |date=28 December 2023}}</ref> Their statements made clear that citizens using "assisted species migration" in their choices of tree plantings (such as the redwoods) were more extreme than the professionals focusing on "assisted population migration" were willing to implement themselves.
==Inadvertent migration==
[[File:Redwood-seabeck-wa.jpg|thumb|Coast redwood planted in 1948 in Seabeck, Washington, along the eastern seacoast of the Olympic Peninsula]]
Mature [[horticultural]] plantings of trees northward of their native ranges are a form of assisted migration experiment already underway.<ref>{{cite journal | display-authors=etal |last1=Van der Veken |first1=Sebastiaan |title=Garden plants get a head start on climate change |journal=Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment |date=May 2008 |volume=6 |issue=4 |pages=212–216 |doi=10.1890/070063 |bibcode=2008FrEE....6..212V |url=https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1890/070063}}</ref> Because the original plantings likely did not include the goal of helping the trees migrate northward in a warming climate, this form of assisted migration can be called inadvertent, or unintended. Jesse Bellemare and colleagues may have coined the term in a paper published in 2015: "It appears that a subset of native plants, particularly those with ornamental value, might already have had opportunities to shift their ranges northward via inadvertent human assistance."<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bellemare |first1=Jesse|last2=Connolly|first2=Bryan|last3=Sax|first3=Dov|title=Climate Change, Managed Relocation, and the Risk of Intra-Continental Plant Invasions: A Theoretical and Empirical Exploration Relative to the Flora of New England |journal=Rhodora |date=June 2017 |volume=119 |issue=978 |pages=73–109 |doi=10.3119/16-10 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Bellemare suggests, "Native plant horticulture is giving us some fascinating insights into what is likely to happen with climate change."<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Marinelli |first1=Janet |title=As World Warms, How Do We Decide When a Plant is Native? |journal=Yale Environment 360 |date=19 April 2016 |url=https://e360.yale.edu/features/how_do_we_decide_when_a_plant_is_native_climate_change}}</ref>
=== Horticultural plantings of Coast Redwood and Giant Sequoia ===
[[File:Laurelhurst-giant-sequoia.jpg|thumb|This is the largest giant sequoia (''Sequoiadendron giganteum'') among more than a dozen that were planted early in the 20th century in Laurelhurst Park of Portland, Oregon.]]
The tallest tree in the world is the [[coast redwood]]; the most massive tree is the closely related [[giant sequoia]]. Both have non-overlapping native ranges limited to California, although the coast redwood extends a few miles northward along the southern-most coast of Oregon. Both species have been planted as landscaping trees in urban areas hundreds of miles northward, in latitude, of their native ranges,<ref>{{Cite web|last=Lindley|first=J.Buchholz|date=1939|title=Sequoiadendron giganteum (giant sequoia) description|url=https://www.conifers.org/cu/Sequoiadendron.php|url-status=live|access-date=2022-01-15|website=www.conifers.org|publisher=The Gymnosperm Database|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110514130332/http://www.conifers.org/cu/Sequoiadendron.php |archive-date=2011-05-14 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/41531630|title=The redwood forest : history, ecology, and conservation of the coast redwoods|date=2000|publisher=Island Press|others=Reed F. Noss, Save the Redwoods League|isbn=1-55963-725-0|location=Washington, D.C.|oclc=41531630}}</ref> including Washington state<ref>{{Cite web|title=Blue Giant Sequoia|url=https://urbanforestnursery.com/inventory/tree-profiles/blue-giant-sequoia/|url-status=live|access-date=2022-01-15|publisher=Urban Forest Nursery Inc.|language=en-US|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210422201000/https://urbanforestnursery.com/inventory/tree-profiles/blue-giant-sequoia/ |archive-date=2021-04-22 }}</ref> and British Columbia.<ref name="winder2022">{{cite journal |display-authors=etal| last1=Winder |first1=Richard S |title=Potential for Assisted Migration of Coast Redwood (''Sequoia sempervirens'') to Vancouver Island |journal=Canadian Forest Service Publications |date=October 2022 |issue=BC-X-459 | isbn=9780660458618 |url=https://cfs.nrcan.gc.ca/publications?id=40819 |access-date=30 October 2022}}</ref> In 2022 a Canadian Forestry Service publication used such northward horticultural plantings, along with a review of research detailing redwood's [[paleobiogeography]] and current range conditions, as grounds for proposing that Canada's [[Vancouver Island]] already offered "narrow strips of optimal habitat" for extending the range of coast redwood.<ref name="winder2022" />
Video-documentation and analysis of a sampling of horticultural plantings of both species of California trees reveals strong growth from Portland to Seattle—substantially north of their native ranges. While horticulturally planted coast redwood and giant sequoia regularly produce cones in this northward region, only coast redwood is documented as having fully naturalized. This is evidenced by seedlings and saplings growing nearby the original plantings.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Barlow |first1=Connie |title=Climate, Trees, and Legacy: Videos toward assisted migration |url=http://thegreatstory.org/climate-trees-legacy.html#redwood |website=The Great Story |access-date=23 July 2021}}</ref>
=== Northward planting of Coast Redwood in tree farms ===
In 2023 a site near [[Seattle]] hosted the annual meeting of the Washington Farm Forest Association. The group visited "a thriving stand of 33-year-old redwoods" that had been deliberately planted at the family-owned tree farm in 1990. PropagationNation, a citizen-group promoting the planting of both coast redwood and giant sequoia into the Pacific Northwest,<ref name="hammock-2021">{{cite news |last1=Hammock |first1=Dan |title=1,700 giant sequoia, redwood seedlings distributed at Elma event |url=https://www.thedailyworld.com/life/1700-giant-sequoia-redwood-seedlings-distributed-at-elma-event/ |agency=The Daily World |publisher=Sound Publishing (Everett, Washington) |date=31 March 2021}}</ref> posted a report on the history of the redwood grove and the group's experience at the site.<ref name="pn-2023">{{cite web |last1=PropagationNation staff |title=Coast Redwoods Thriving at Washington Tree Farm |url=https://propagationnation.us/coast-redwoods-thriving-at-washington-tree-farm/?mc_cid=fd7ca1495b&mc_eid=28435568bb |website=PropagationNation |date=September 27, 2023 |access-date=28 September 2023}}</ref> The grove was reported to be growing faster than that of a native tree species that had been planted in an adjacent section of the property. In 2008, the 18-year-old redwoods were the same height as the stand of 38-year-old [[Douglas fir]] growing nearby. Current measurements report height growth of about 4 feet per year. The now 33-year-old redwoods are 135 feet tall.<ref name="pn-2023" />
When asked about the farm's current goals in managing the grove of redwoods, the owner replied, “My only goal is to grow the tallest trees in the world.”<ref name="pn-2023" />
The actions of the citizen group Propagation Nation became controversial in late 2023. In October, a lengthy ''New York Times Magazine'' article reported favorably on the group's distribution of redwood seedlings to tree farms, public parks, and private individuals in a broad region surrounding the city of Seattle.<ref name=nyt-2023>{{cite news |last1=Velasquez-Manoff |first1=Moises |title=Can We Save the Redwoods by Helping Them Move? |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2023/10/25/magazine/redwoods-assisted-migration.html?unlocked_article_code=1.5Uw.fy90.-KLBh1kMh_K9&smid=em-share |agency=New York Times Magazine |date=25 October 2023}}</ref> In December, the ''Associated Press'' exclusively reported criticism from professionals in the region and nationally: While beginning to favor experiments in "assisted population migration" of the main native timber tree, Douglas-fir, professionals were united against large-scale plantings of California redwoods into the Pacific Northwest.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Gilles |first1=Nathan |title=As tree species face decline, 'assisted migration' gains popularity in Pacific Northwest |url=https://apnews.com/article/pacific-northwest-trees-dying-climate-change-migration-0c060e68e111ca06f51fc9e8e61e66b8 |work=Associated Press News |date=28 December 2023}}</ref> The next month, January 2024, carried a regional news article that, once again, showed strong support as well as bold statements by the group's founder.<ref name="Zhou-2024">{{cite news |last1=Zhou |first1=Amanda |title=Do redwood trees have a place in the future of WA's forests? They're already here |url=https://www.seattletimes.com/seattle-news/environment/do-redwood-trees-have-a-place-in-the-future-of-was-forests-theyre-already-here/ |agency=Seattle Times |date=21 January 2024}}</ref>
=== Northward plantings assist climate adaptation decisions ===
Private landowners, whether planting trees outside of native ranges for horticultural or commercial timber interests, are not by law required to seek governmental approval for doing so. Hence, the practice of visiting mature private or botanical garden plantings in order to assess the viability of intentional assisted migration of a tree species is not yet documented as standard practice. Thus far, the best-known example of documenting northward plantings pertains to a citizen group, [[Torreya Guardians]],<ref name="nature-2017">{{cite journal |last1=Editorial |title=Grows well in sun and warmth — and shade and cold |journal=Nature |date=4 December 2017 |volume=552 |issue=5–6 |pages=5–6 |doi=10.1038/d41586-017-07841-1 |doi-access=free |pmid=29219970 |bibcode=2017Natur.552R...5. }}</ref><ref name="canada-2014">{{cite web |last1=Ste-Marie |first1=Catherine |title=Adapting Sustainable Forest Management to Climate Change: A review of assisted tree migration and its potential role in adapting sustainable forest management to climate change |url=https://www.ccfm.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/08/CCFM-Assisted-Tree-Migration-November-2014-English-FINAL.pdf |website=Canadian Council of Forest Ministers}}</ref> justifying their actions in planting seeds of an officially listed [[endangered species]] of tree, [[Torreya taxifolia|Florida torreya]], hundreds of miles northward.<ref name="petition-decision-FR">{{cite journal |title=Evaluation of a Petition To Downlist Florida Torreya |journal=Federal Register |date=29 September 2021 |volume=86 |issue=186 |pages=53939 |url=https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/FR-2021-09-29/pdf/2021-20963.pdf}}</ref>
Diminishing fog along California's northern coast is already substantial,<ref>{{cite news |last1=Romero |first1=Ezra David |title=Coastal Fog — Or The Lack Of It — Could Be A Wildfire Risk |url=https://www.capradio.org/articles/2020/09/01/coastal-fog-or-the-lack-of-it-could-be-a-wildfire-risk/ |access-date=30 July 2021 |publisher=CapRadio |date=1 September 2020}}</ref> and its consequences would make '''coast redwood''' increasingly "drought stressed under a summer climate of reduced fog frequency and greater evaporative demand."<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Johnstone |first1=James A|last2=Dawson|first2=Todd E|title=Climatic context and ecological implications of summer fog decline in the coast redwood region |journal=Proc Natl Acad Sci |date=9 March 2010 |volume=107 |issue=10 |pages=4533–4538|doi=10.1073/pnas.0915062107 |pmid=20160112|pmc=2822705 |bibcode=2010PNAS..107.4533J|doi-access=free}}</ref> Researchers have begun studying how diminishment of fog, owing to climate change, would make habitat unsuitable for Coast redwood in southern portions of their range.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Fernandez |first1=Miguel |last2=Hamilton |first2=Healy H |last3=Kueppers |first3=Lara M|title=Back to the future: Using historical climate variation to project near-term shifts in habitat suitable for coast redwood |journal=Global Change Biology |date=7 July 2015 |volume=21 |issue=11 |pages=4141–4152 |doi=10.1111/gcb.13027 |pmid=26149607 |bibcode=2015GCBio..21.4141F |osti=1511424 |s2cid=33170732 |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/gcb.13027}}</ref> Even in northern sections of current range, climate change could constrict habitability such that low slopes along rivers would become the final refugia.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Francis |first1=Emily J |last2=Asner |first2=Gregory P |last3=Mach |first3=Katharine J |last4=Field |first4=Christopher B |title=Landscape scale variation in the hydrologic niche of California coast redwood |journal=Ecography |date=23 June 2020 |volume=43 |issue=9 |pages=1305–1315 |doi=10.1111/ecog.05080 |s2cid=225716384 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2020Ecogr..43.1305F }}</ref> Authors of the guest editorial in a 2021 issue of ''Journal of Ecology'' featured coast redwood in a concluding statement: "We expect that dominant tree species threatened within their range (e.g. coast redwood) would have to be translocated at a landscape level to protect overall habitat, ecosystem productivity and associated species."<ref name="dalrymple2021">{{cite journal |last1=Dalrymple |first1=Sarah|last2=Winder|first2=Richard|last3=Campbell|first3=Elizabeth M|title=Guest editorial: Exploring the potential for plant translocations to adapt to a warming world |journal=Journal of Ecology |date=June 2021 |volume=109 |issue=6 |pages=2264–2270 |doi=10.1111/1365-2745.13715 |doi-access=free }}</ref>
The sudden deaths of some previously healthy '''giant sequoias''', which are native to the western slope of the [[Sierra Nevada]] mountain range, are correlated with California's record drought of 2012–2016. The deaths caught scientists and national park managers by surprise during the next few years, as drought-weakened trees succumbed to bark beetle infestations in their thin-barked upper branches.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Greenfield |first1=Patrick |title='This is not how sequoias die: It's supposed to stand for another 500 years' |journal=The Guardian |date=18 January 2020 |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2020/jan/18/this-is-not-how-sequoias-die-its-supposed-to-stand-for-another-500-years-aoe}}</ref> Because the drought killed an enormous number of the common pine species and firs that surround the discrete groves of giant sequoias, a wildfire of catastrophic intensity, the [[Castle Fire]], swept through the region in 2020. The innate fire resistance of even the tallest and sturdiest sequoias<ref>{{Cite web|last=Quammen|first=David|date=2012-12-01|title=Forest Giant|url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/magazine/article/giant-sequoias|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://archive.today/20211003081603/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/magazine/article/giant-sequoias|archive-date=3 October 2021|access-date=2022-01-14|website=nationalgeographic.com|language=en}}</ref> could not protect the groves. A tenth of the entire native population of giant sequoia is estimated to have been killed.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Herrera |first1=Jack |title='Mind-blowing': tenth of world's giant sequoias may have been destroyed by a single fire |journal=The Guardian |date=3 June 2021 |url=https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2021/jun/02/sequoias-destroyed-california-castle-fire |access-date=23 July 2021}}</ref> An interagency Giant Sequoia Lands Coalition formed in 2021, reporting that "giant sequoias are known for their resistance to insects and disease and their fire-adapted life cycle, however the 2012–2016 drought appears to have been a tipping point for giant sequoias and other Sierra Nevada mixed-conifer forests."<ref>{{cite web |title=Giant Sequoia Lands Coalition |url=https://www.nps.gov/seki/learn/gslc.htm |website=Sequoia and Kings Canyon |publisher=U.S. National Park Service |access-date=4 August 2021}}</ref>
== Forest understory plants ==
[[File:Torreya-seeds.jpg|thumb|Seeds of Florida torreya ripen to a purple color at this horticultural planting in eastern North Carolina.]]
Natural and healthy forests include a diversity of native [[understory]] plants. Because understory plants require a healthy canopy of [[overstory]] trees, assisted migration of understory plants is only occasionally mentioned in the [[forestry]] publications on the topic of [[climate adaptation]].<ref name="winder2011" />
Two genera, ''[[Taxus]]'' and ''[[Torreya]]'', within the ancient [[yew]] family called [[Taxaceae]] have been proposed as important understory components for their value in providing [[ecosystem services]] for forest restoration and climate adaptation projects in China. The authors conclude, "Taxaceae species can contribute to generate structurally complex stands of increased value for biodiversity and increased stability, hereby also contributing to [[climate change mitigation]] as well as other important ecosystem services. Further, using rare Taxaceae species in [[reforestation]] will also help conserve these rare species in a changing future."<ref>{{cite journal | display-authors=etal |last1=Arp Jensen |first1=Ditte |title=The potential for using rare, native species in reforestation: A case study of yews (Taxaceae) in China |journal=Forest Ecology and Management |date=15 February 2021 |volume=482 |page=118816 |doi=10.1016/j.foreco.2020.118816 |s2cid=230577774 |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0378112720315851}}</ref> Both genera have distinct species native to the western and eastern regions of North America. Only [[Florida torreya]] is [[critically endangered]], however, and a citizen group called [[Torreya Guardians]] has been planting this species hundreds of kilometers north of its native range.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Editorial: Grows well in sun and warmth — and shade and cold |journal=Nature |date=4 December 2017 |volume=552 |issue=7683 |pages=5–6 |doi=10.1038/d41586-017-07841-1 |doi-access=free |pmid=29219970 |bibcode=2017Natur.552R...5. }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal| display-authors=etal |last1=Butt |first1=Nathalie |title=Essay: Importance of species translocations under rapid climate change |journal=Conservation Biology |date=13 October 2020 |volume=35 |issue=3 |pages=775–783 |doi=10.1111/cobi.13643 |pmid=33047846 |s2cid=222320826 |url=https://conbio.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/cobi.13643}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Schipani |first1=Sam |title=Scrappy Group of Citizen Scientists Rallies Around One of World's Rarest Trees |journal=Earth Island Journal |date=4 October 2018 |url=https://www.earthisland.org/journal/index.php/articles/entry/scrappy-group-citizen-scientists-worlds-rarest-trees}}</ref>
=== Inadvertent assisted migration of ornamental understory plants ===
[[File:Southern magnolia - fleshy seeds in its fruiting body.jpg|thumb|The evergreen southern magnolia is native to the southeastern US and bears the typical magnolia structure of fruit with fleshy seeds.]]
Native species of [[Magnolia]] in eastern North America have been widely planted for their ornamental beauty in horticultural contexts far north of their native ranges. Although nearly half of all Magnolia species are threatened globally, human-assisted movement and cultivation of some species have led to their survival and expansion far beyond native range. The ongoing naturalization of beyond-range Magnolia taxa has been associated with climate change.<ref name="rounsaville2020">{{cite journal |last1=Rounsaville |first1=Todd J |title=Spatiotemporal recruitment patterns of two introduced Magnolia L. species in a disturbed oak forest |journal=Écoscience |date=April 2020 |volume=27 |issue=3 |pages=165–176 |doi=10.1080/11956860.2020.1753311 |bibcode=2020Ecosc..27..165R |s2cid=219078456 |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/11956860.2020.1753311?journalCode=teco20}}</ref> Botanists have documented examples where such plantings have fully naturalized—that is, where nearby seedlings and saplings suggest that not only were viable seeds produced, but the habitat and climate were favorable for seedlings to establish and grow. These are examples of inadvertent assisted migration. Botanist Todd Rounsaville suggests, "There is an important need to study and report the ecological processes of tree naturalization in novel environments to guide policy making and forest management relating to climate change, species range-shifts, and assisted migration."<ref name="rounsaville2020" />
One example is the [[southern magnolia]], ''Magnolia grandiflora''. This small, evergreen tree is widely planted as an ornamental as far north as New England and Michigan. The tree tolerates those regions, which are far north of its native range along the coast of southeastern US. But no instances of full naturalization have been documented at such high latitudes. In 2011 botanists documented naturalization near Chapel Hill, North Carolina, which is more than a hundred kilometers beyond and inland of its northernmost native range in North Carolina.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gruhn |first1=Jennifer A|last2=White|first2=Peter S|title=Magnolia grandiflora L. Range Expansion: A Case Study in a North Carolina Piedmont Forest |journal=Southeastern Naturalist |date=June 2011 |volume=10 |issue=2 |pages=275–288 |doi=10.1656/058.010.0208 |s2cid=84283082|url=http://labs.bio.unc.edu/white/Reprints/17%20905%20Gruhn%2014.pdf}}</ref>
[[File:Magnolia tripetala in flower in northeast Alabama.jpg|thumb|''Magnolia tripetala'' in flower in northeast Alabama]]
[[Bigleaf magnolia]], ''Magnolia macrophylla'', another widely planted ornamental, has been documented as fully naturalized in the state of Connecticut. This is 130 kilometers northeast of its historically native range. Because climate models project severe contraction in the southerly portion of its native range, William Moorhead recommends that "additional sites for this conspicuous species should be sought in the area of similar climate conditions between Long Island and central Connecticut, such as along the northern coast of Long Island Sound and in the lower Hudson Valley."<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Moorhead |first1=William H |title=Big Leaf Magnolia: A New Addition to the Flora of New England |journal=Rhodora |date=16 March 2018 |volume=119 |issue=980 |pages=349–354 |doi=10.3119/17-02 |s2cid=90467493 |url=https://bioone.org/journals/rhodora/volume-119/issue-980/17-02/Big-Leaf-Magnolia--A-New-Addition-to-the-Flora/10.3119/17-02.short}}</ref>
[[Umbrella magnolia]], ''Magnolia tripetala'', has been documented as naturalized in more than a dozen locations well north of its historic native range. Dispersal problems apparently limited its post-glacial range expansion to regions south of the farthest extent of continental ice. While horticultural plantings northward into Massachusetts as early as the 18th century demonstrated species tolerance for the then-climate, only recently have these old horticultural plantings begun to extend offspring into adjacent suitable habitat—becoming quite populous in even full-canopy forests, according to botanists Jesse Bellemare and Claudia Deeg. They write, "The pattern of relatively synchronous escape and establishment of this southern tree species in the last 20 to 30 years seems most consistent with a link to recent climatic warming in the northeastern US."<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bellemare |first1=Jesse|last2=Deeg|first2=Claudia |title=Horticultural Escape and Naturalization of Magnolia tripetala in Western Massachusetts: Biogeographic Context and Possible Relationship to Recent Climate Change |journal=Rhodora |date=2015 |volume=117 |issue=971 |pages=371–383 |doi=10.3119/15-04 |s2cid=86153619|url=https://bioone.org/journals/rhodora/volume-117/issue-971/15-04/Horticultural-Escape-and-Naturalization-of-Magnolia-tripetala-in-Western-Massachusetts/10.3119/15-04.short}}</ref>
==Evidence and causes of lagging tree migration==
[[File:Lonicera maackii along Huron River of Michigan 01.jpg|thumb|''[[Lonicera maackii]]'', native in Asia, can shade out native canopy seedlings in the eastern USA, as in this regrowth forest in southern [[Michigan]].|upright 1.50]]
Forest [[habitat fragmentation]] caused by agriculture and residential development have long been recognized as impediments to the ability of plants to geographically track [[climate change]].<ref>{{cite journal |display-authors=etal |last1=Honnay |first1=Olivier |title=Possible effects of habitat fragmentation and climate change on the range of forest plant species |journal=Ecology Letters |date=10 July 2002 |volume=5 |issue=4 |pages=525–530 |doi=10.1046/j.1461-0248.2002.00346.x |bibcode=2002EcolL...5..525H |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1046/j.1461-0248.2002.00346.x}}</ref> Several additional human stressors are now also recognized as lessening the ability of trees to adapt to climate change by "migrating poleward."<ref name="miller2019">{{cite journal |last1=Miller |first1=Kathryn M |last2=McGill |first2=Brian J |title=Compounding human stressors cause major regeneration debt in over half of eastern US forests |journal=Journal of Applied Ecology |date=4 March 2019 |volume=56 |issue=6 |pages=1355–1366 |doi=10.1111/1365-2664.13375 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2019JApEc..56.1355M }}</ref> One such stress is where native [[deer]] densities are abnormally high, owing to the absence of predators and landscape or management conditions that preclude human hunting at adequate scale. Under those conditions, tree species whose leaves and twigs are palatable to deer are unable to launch next generations, even when still well represented in the forest canopy.<ref>{{cite journal |display-authors=etal |last1=Champagne |first1=Emilie |title=A Review of Ungulate Impacts on the Success of Climate-Adapted Forest Management Strategies |journal=Current Forestry Reports |date=2021 |volume=7 |issue=4 |pages=305–320 |doi=10.1007/s40725-021-00148-5 |bibcode=2021CForR...7..305C |s2cid=240290783 |url=https://www.fs.usda.gov/nrs/pubs/jrnl/2021/nrs_2021_champagne_002.pdf}}</ref> Another stress derives from non-native [[invasive species|invasive plants]] that can rapidly occupy a canopy opening, thereby shading out native tree seedlings that might otherwise have been able to establish.<ref name="miller2019" />
== References ==
{{reflist}}
{{Climate change in Canada}}
[[Category:Forestry in North America]]
[[Category:Plant ecology]]
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
[[Category:Climate change adaptation]]
[[Category:Climate change policy]]
[[Category:Climate change in Canada]]
[[Category:Climate change in the United States]] |
Embark | {{Short description|Sri Lankan animal welfare organization}}
{{Infobox organization
| logo = Embark_logo.png
| formation = {{start date and age|2007|df=y}}
| founder = [[Otara Gunewardene]]
| type = [[Non-profit organisation]]
| purpose = [[Animal welfare]], Animal Rescue, [[Wildlife Conservation]], [[Volunteerism]]
| location_country = [[Sri Lanka]]
| website = [http://www.embarkpassion.org/ embarkpassion.org]
}}
{{About|Sri Lankan animal welfare organization|canine genomics company|Embark Veterinary}}
'''Embark''' is a Sri Lankan animal rescue and welfare organization.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Embark cares for over 10,000 street dogs in 2018|url=http://bizenglish.adaderana.lk/embark-cares-for-over-10000-street-dogs-in-2018/|access-date=2021-03-14|website=bizenglish.adaderana.lk}}</ref> Since 2007, Embark has been conducting rescues, adoptions, sterilizations, vaccinations, education programmes and advocacy campaigns for the welfare of homeless dogs, cats and other animals. Embark was founded by the award-winning entrepreneur, conservationist and advocate [[Otara Gunewardene]].<ref>{{Cite news|date=2016-11-12|title=Odel: Behind Sri Lanka's best-known store|language=en-IN|work=The Hindu|url=https://www.thehindu.com/features/magazine/Odel-Behind-Sri-Lanka%E2%80%99s-best-known-store/article16442851.ece|access-date=2021-03-14|issn=0971-751X}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Humans and animals can live in harmony says Otara|url=http://www.dailymirror.lk/opinion/humans-and-animals-can-live-in-harmony-says-otara/172-102783|access-date=2021-03-14|website=www.dailymirror.lk|language=English}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Baxter|first=Rhema Mukti|title=It's raining cats and dogs in Sri Lanka and some people are risking their lives to rescue animals|url=http://scroll.in/article/808584/its-raining-cats-and-dogs-in-sri-lanka-and-some-people-are-risking-their-lives-to-rescue-animals|access-date=2021-03-14|website=Scroll.in|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title='Yes' or 'No' to zoos and safari parks?|url=http://www.dailymirror.lk/opinion/-Yes-or-No-to-zoos-and-safari-parks-/172-107632|access-date=2021-03-14|website=www.dailymirror.lk|language=English}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=BUSINESS TODAY -Every Brand needs a story|url=http://www.businesstoday.lk/article.php?article=11965|access-date=2021-03-14|website=www.businesstoday.lk}}</ref>
== History ==
{{further|Otara Gunewardene}}
In 2007, Gunewardene launched the fashion brand, Embark, income from which has been utilized to conduct vaccinations, sterilizations, adoptions, and medical care for injured street dogs.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Otara's support to community dogs|url=http://www.sundaytimes.lk/070304/FinancialTimes/ft337.html|access-date=2021-03-14|website=www.sundaytimes.lk}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|last=Reddy|first=Sujata|title=How Sri Lankan designer Otara Gunewardene extends her passion to upkeep of dogs|work=The Economic Times|url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/magazines/panache/how-sri-lankan-designer-otara-gunewardene-extends-her-passion-to-upkeep-of-dogs/articleshow/33808680.cms|access-date=2021-03-14}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=Embarking mad|url=http://www.thesundayleader.lk/2010/10/03/embarking-mad/|access-date=2021-03-14|archive-date=2018-08-16|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180816135834/http://www.thesundayleader.lk/2010/10/03/embarking-mad/|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=LBO|date=2015-07-20|title=Otara's "Embark" spreads more love and compassion in Q1- 2015/16|url=https://www.lankabusinessonline.com/otaras-embark-spreads-more-love-and-compassion-in-q1-201516/|access-date=2021-03-14|website=Lanka Business Online|language=en-US}}</ref>
In 2015, Embark opened its first standalone store in [[Galle]], followed by an additional three stores in [[Kandy City Centre]], [[Bandaranaike International Airport]] and at Dickman's Road in Colombo.<ref>{{Cite web|last=LBO|date=2016-06-23|title=Embark opens 4 new stores and transforms 14,000+ doggy lives in 2015-16|url=https://www.lankabusinessonline.com/embark-opens-4-new-stores-and-transforms-14000-doggy-lives-in-2015-16/|access-date=2021-03-14|website=Lanka Business Online|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Otara returns to her roots to open store at dickmans road|url=http://bizenglish.adaderana.lk/otara-returns-to-her-roots-to-open-embark-store-at-dickmans-road/|access-date=2021-03-14|website=bizenglish.adaderana.lk}}</ref>
In 2017 Embark opened its tenth store in [[K-Zone Ja-Ela]]<ref>{{Cite web|title=Embark opens standalone store inK-Zone, Ja-Ela|url=http://www.dailymirror.lk/business-news/Embark-opens-standalone-store-inK-Zone-Ja-Ela-/273-137648|access-date=2021-03-14|website=www.dailymirror.lk|language=English}}</ref> and 11th store in [[Kurunegala]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=Embark brings 'passion' to Kurunegala|url=http://www.dailymirror.lk/business-news/Embark-brings-passion-to-Kurunegala/273-140025|access-date=2021-03-14|website=www.dailymirror.lk|language=English}}</ref>
In 2019, Embark opened its 12th store in Kandy.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2019-03-29|title=Kandy comes under Embark spell as 12th store opens in hill capital|url=https://www.lankabusinessnews.com/kandy-comes-under-embark-spell-as-12th-store-opens-in-hill-capital/|access-date=2021-03-14|website=Lanka Business News|language=en-US}}</ref>
== Projects ==
Embark conducts "Adoption Days" every weekend to help find homes for homeless puppies and rescued dogs. The dogs are taken care for by registered fosters until adoption day.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Feeding street dogs|url=http://www.dailymirror.lk/caption_story/Feeding-street-dogs/110-199974}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=A feast of fashion|url=http://www.sundaytimes.lk/110213/Plus/plus_12.html|access-date=2021-06-01|website=www.sundaytimes.lk}}</ref>
Embark rescues dogs on a daily basis and treats them at the Best Care Animal Hospital until recovered. Disabled dogs are given shelter in the hospital for a lifetime. Embark also tends to emergency calls about other animals in need of rescue<ref>{{Cite web|title=She Can: Featuring Otara Del Gunewardene - The Weekend Online {{!}} Daily Mirror|url=http://www.dailymirror.lk/the_weekend_online/She-Can-Featuring-Otara-Del-Gunewardene/426-206626|access-date=2021-06-01|website=www.dailymirror.lk|language=English}}</ref>
Embark's volunteer leadership program, has over 1000 volunteers whose contributions are awarded with an Annual Award Ceremony; the first ceremony was held in 2018 where Maleesha Gunawardana was awarded as The Most Passionate Volunteer and Shenal Burkey in 2019.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Embark celebrates second annual Volunteer Awards|url=http://www.dailynews.lk/2020/01/09/finance/207881/embark-celebrates-second-annual-volunteer-awards|access-date=2021-03-14|website=Daily News|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Embark Volunteer Awards 2018|url=http://www.dailymirror.lk/press-releases/Embark-Volunteer-Awards-/335-160144|access-date=2021-03-14|website=www.dailymirror.lk|language=English}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Embark Volunteer Awards 2018|url=http://www.dailynews.lk/2018/12/24/tc/172228/embark-volunteer-awards-2018|access-date=2021-03-14|website=Daily News|language=en}}</ref>
Embark conducts school education programs on animal welfare and wildlife conservation to instill compassion in younger generations.
Embark conducts catch-neuter-vaccinate-release programmes to control the homeless dog population and has a pet ambulance that rescues injured street dogs for free.<ref>{{Cite web|title=ශ්රී ලංකාවේ සුනඛ ගහනය ලක්ෂ 30 දක්වා ඉහළට|url=https://www.gossiplankanews.com/2019/12/30-dog-population-sri-lanka.html|access-date=2021-03-14|website=Gossip Lanka News}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=OTARA'S EMBARK – TSL – The Times of Sri Lanka (Published in Canada) – All Rights Reserved (Editor: Upali Obeyesekere)|url=http://www.timeslanka.com/tag/otaras-embark/|access-date=2021-03-14|website=TSL - The Times of Sri Lanka (Published in Canada) - All Rights Reserved (Editor: Upali Obeyesekere)}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|last=Reddy|first=Sujata|title=How Sri Lankan designer Otara Gunewardene extends her passion to upkeep of dogs|work=The Economic Times|url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/magazines/panache/how-sri-lankan-designer-otara-gunewardene-extends-her-passion-to-upkeep-of-dogs/articleshow/33808680.cms?from=mdr|access-date=2021-03-14}}</ref>
== References ==
<references />
[[Category:Advocacy groups]]
[[Category:Animal welfare organizations]]
[[Category:Wildlife conservation]]
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
[[Category:Environmental organisations based in Sri Lanka]]
[[Category:Animal rights organizations]]
[[Category:Animal rescue groups]] |
Santa Lucia Preserve | {{Short description|Unincorporated community in California, United States}}
{{use mdy dates|date=June 2019}}
{{Infobox property development
| name = The Santa Lucia Preserve
| logo = <!-- Image if available -->
| logo_caption = <!-- Logo caption. Do not use if no logo. -->
| logo_size = <!-- Size of the logo. E.g. 50px -->
| image = {{Photomontage
| photo1a = Panorama of Peñon Peak.jpg
| photo4a = Santa Lucia Preserve Hacienda (cropped).jpg
| spacing = 2
| position = center
| color_border = white
| color = white
| size = 260
| foot_montage = '''Top:''' Peñon Peak is The Preserve's second tallest peak at {{convert|2,247|ft}} above sea level. '''Bottom:''' The Hacienda is the cultural center of the community.
}}
| image_caption =
| image_size =
| start_date = 1990
| completion_date =
| opening_date = {{start date and age|1999}}
| cost =
| developer = Pacific Union Co.
| architect = Hart Howerton
| operator = Santa Lucia Preserve Co. & Santa Lucia Conservancy
| owner = Santa Lucia Preserve Co. & Santa Lucia Conservancy
| website = {{URL|santaluciapreserve.com}}, {{URL|slconservancy.com}}
| buildings = Hacienda, 1920
| public_spaces = <!-- e.g. parks, squares etc. -->
| divisions = <!-- Regions, districts etc -->
| streets = Robinson Canyon Rd.
| transport = <!-- Transportation facilities, e.g. railway stations, tramlines -->
| utilities = <!-- Power, sewage, fire stations etc. -->
| pushpin_map = United States Monterey Peninsula#USA California
| pushpin_label = Santa Lucia Preserve
| pushpin_map_alt =
| pushpin_map_caption =
| pushpin_label_position =
| pushpin_relief = 1
| coordinates = {{coord|36|31|36|N|121|52|05|W|display=inline, title}}
| coor_pinpoint =
| coordinates_footnotes =
| subdivision_type = County
| subdivision_name =
| subdivision_type1 = <!-- e.g. State, province -->
| subdivision_name1 =
| subdivision_type2 =
| subdivision_name2 =
| subdivision_type3 =
| subdivision_name3 =
| location = [[Carmel, California]]
| address = 1 Rancho San Carlos Rd
| area_total_ha = 8000
| area_land_ha =
| area_water_ha =
| area_total_acre = 20000
| area_land_acre =
| area_water_acre =
| population_footnotes =
| population_as_of =
| population_total =
}}
'''The Santa Lucia Preserve''' ({{IPAc-en|'|s|ae|n|.|t|@|_|l|u|'|s|i:|@}}) or '''The Preserve''' (formerly '''Rancho San Carlos''') is a private, {{convert|20000|acres}} gated development permitting 297 homesites. It is located in the foothills of the [[Santa Lucia Range]] between [[Palo Corona Regional Park]] and [[Carmel Valley, California]]. The Preserve consists of a {{convert|12000|acre}} [[nature reserve]], {{convert|8,000|acre}} of open land, and {{convert|2,000|acre}} for development.<ref name=bartlett>{{cite news |last1=Bartlett |first1=James Y. |title=The Best of the Best 2003: Golf Communities – Santa Lucia Preserve |url=https://robbreport.com/travel/destinations/best-best-2003-golf-communities-santa-lucia-preserve-241087/ |access-date=5 February 2021 |publisher=Robb Report |date=June 1, 2003 |archive-date=May 3, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220503002637/https://robbreport.com/travel/destinations/best-best-2003-golf-communities-santa-lucia-preserve-241087/ |url-status=live }}</ref> It contains most of the watershed of [[Las Garzas Creek (Carmel River tributary)|Las Garzas Creek]], a tributary of the [[Carmel River (California)|Carmel River]].
Developers Peter Stocker and Tom Gray formed the Rancho San Carlos Partnership which purchased the property from Arthur Oppenheimer in 1990 for $70 million. After resolving disputes and lawsuits with environmentalists and activists, The Preserve Company and the Conservancy submitted a modified design that met their approval.
The Partnership established The Preserve as a [[conservation community]], protecting 90% ({{convert|18000|acres}}) of the {{convert|20,000|acre}} property in perpetuity through the Santa Lucia Conservancy, a [[Land trust|conservation land trust]].<ref>{{cite news |last1=Gfeller |first1=Anne |title=Rancho San Carlos: Developing a Vision |url=https://www.montereycountyweekly.com/news/cover/planned-development-on-the--acre-rancho-san-carlos-could/article_12ce274e-8b66-58e2-bad4-498b70db6c6b.html |access-date=4 February 2021 |publisher=Monterey County Weekly |date=December 10, 1992 |archive-date=May 3, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220503002643/https://www.montereycountyweekly.com/news/cover/planned-development-on-the--acre-rancho-san-carlos-could/article_12ce274e-8b66-58e2-bad4-498b70db6c6b.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Louis |first1=Arthur M. |title=Rebel With A Cause -- To Succeed |url=https://www.sfgate.com/business/article/Rebel-With-A-Cause-To-Succeed-3030624.php |access-date=4 February 2021 |publisher=San Francisco Chronicle |date=June 9, 1995 |archive-date=October 19, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151019020206/http://www.sfgate.com/business/article/Rebel-With-A-Cause-To-Succeed-3030624.php |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Fletcher |first1=June |title=Locals Fight 'Nature Preserve,' Saying It Will Hurt Environment |url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB872208493859442000?mod=searchresults_pos3&page=31 |access-date=7 February 2021 |publisher=The Wall Street Journal |date=August 22, 1997 |archive-date=February 14, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210214114027/https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB872208493859442000?mod=searchresults_pos3&page=31 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Carlton |first1=Jim |title=After Years of Battle, Housing Project On Nature Preserve Can Claim Success |url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB983311577903911883 |access-date=10 February 2021 |publisher=The Wall Street Journal |date=February 28, 2001 |archive-date=July 9, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709183227/https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB983311577903911883 |url-status=live }}</ref>
The remaining 10% ({{convert|2000|acres}}) intended for development is separately owned and operated by The Santa Lucia Preserve Company. The land features 297 homesites,<ref name="survey">{{cite web|title=Planning Survey: Rancho San Carlos, Carmel Valley, California by Arthur C. Oppenheimer, James B. Pruitt, Mike Dormody|url=https://www.carpediemfinebooks.com/pages/books/19892/arthur-c-oppenheimer-james-b-pruitt-mike-dormody/planning-survey-rancho-san-carlos-carmel-valley-california|website=Carpe Diem Fine Books|access-date=3 May 2022|archive-date=March 8, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308192119/https://www.carpediemfinebooks.com/pages/books/19892/arthur-c-oppenheimer-james-b-pruitt-mike-dormody/planning-survey-rancho-san-carlos-carmel-valley-california|url-status=dead}}</ref> employee housing, an existing Spanish-style [[hacienda]] dating to the 1920s, an equestrian center, a small store, a private 365-acre golf course designed by [[Tom Fazio]],<ref>{{cite book |last1=Diedrich |first1=Richard J. |title=The 19th Hole: Architecture of the Golf Clubhouse |date=2008 |publisher=Images Publishing Group |location=Mulgrave, Vic. |isbn=9781864702231 |page=244 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0WONgTVIO_0C&dq=%22Santa+Lucia+Preserve%22+-wikipedia&pg=PA244 |access-date=1 March 2021 |archive-date=May 3, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220503002638/https://www.google.com/books/edition/The_19th_Hole/0WONgTVIO_0C?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=%22Santa+Lucia+Preserve%22+-wikipedia&pg=PA244&printsec=frontcover |url-status=live }}</ref> and other recreational facilities. Each of the 297 homesites, ranging in size from {{convert|10|acre}} to {{convert|50|acre}}, were initially projected to sell from around $1 million and up to several million dollars. The partnership's initial investment was around $200 million. The property is now worth an estimated $500 million. A stone gatehouse on Rancho San Carlos Road controls who can access the preserve. Only homeowners, their families and guests, and staff are permitted on the property.<ref name=private>{{Cite web|url=https://carmelmagazine.com/archive/santa-lucia-preserve|title=My Own Private California – Carmel Magazine|website=carmelmagazine.com}}</ref>
The property has been used as a [[Filming location|shooting location]] for film, television, and commercials.<ref>{{cite web |title=Location: Rancho San Carlos |url=https://filmmonterey.org/?s=rancho+san+carlos |website=MontereyCountyFilmCommission.com |access-date=4 February 2021 |archive-date=February 9, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210209103613/https://filmmonterey.org/?s=rancho+san+carlos |url-status=live }}</ref> The inactive Sid Ormsbee [[Fire lookout|Fire Lookout]], visible throughout Carmel Valley and The Preserve, is located on the property.
== History ==
===Native American and Pioneer era ===
The land was first settled by the [[Rumsen people|Rumsen]] [[Ohlone]] [[Native Americans in the United States|Native Americans]]. A Rumsen village known as Echilat was located within the present-day Santa Lucia Preserve.<ref name=pamphlet/> Four prehistoric resource sites were identified within the Preserve, including [[midden]] sites containing shell (mussel, chiton and barnacle); lithics (chert, andesite and quartz); fire-altered rock; animal bone; and dark soil. Dark patches in the soil indicate where they cooked acorn patties on hot coals.<ref name=private/><ref name=planning2/>
The Spanish arrived in the 1770s and established the [[Presidio of Monterey]] and the [[Carmel Mission]], creating [[Alta California]].<ref>{{cite web |last1=White |first1=Charles P. |title=Costanoan Rumsen Carmel Tribe |url=http://crc.nativeweb.org/history.html |website=CRC.NativeWeb.org |publisher=Costanoan Rumsen Carmel Tribe |access-date=5 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181017093331/http://crc.nativeweb.org/history.html |archive-date=October 17, 2018 |url-status=live}}</ref> The Rumsen people were devastated by diseases they had no resistance to. The survivors were forcibly incorporated into the colony as [[wikt:neophyte|neophytes]] and laborers. When the California Mission System was [[Mexican secularization act of 1833|secularized]] by the Mexican government in August 1833, the former mission lands in the area of the present-day property were divided into two [[Ranchos of California|grants]]. [[Rancho Potrero de San Carlos]] was given to Fructuoso del Real, a Mission Indian. [[Rancho San Francisquito (Munras)|Rancho San Francisquito]] was granted in 1835 to Dona Catalina Manzanellide Muñras.<ref name=pamphlet/><ref>{{cite web |title=History of Rancho San Carlos |url=https://slconservancy.org/inspire/history-of-the-rancho-san-carlos/ |website=Santa Lucia Conservancy.com |publisher=Santa Lucia Conservancy |access-date=4 February 2021 |archive-date=January 28, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210128123809/https://slconservancy.org/inspire/history-of-the-rancho-san-carlos/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
The ranchos were each bought and sold over the years. Businessman Bradley Sargent bought the two ranchos in 1876 and renamed them ''San Francisquito y San Carlos''. During Sargent's ownership, author [[Robert Louis Stevenson]] fell ill while on a camping trip and was nursed back to health in a cabin on the property,<ref>{{cite web |title=Robert Louis Stevenson in California |url=http://robert-louis-stevenson.org/california/ |website=Robert-Louis-Stevenson.org |publisher=RLS Website |access-date=5 February 2021 |archive-date=May 15, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210515071932/http://robert-louis-stevenson.org/california/ |url-status=live }}</ref> the ruins of which remain today.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Pitnick |first1=Richard |title=No Place Like Home |url=https://www.montereycountyweekly.com/archives/new/s/1998/jul/16/no-place-like-home/carmel-valley-historical-society-struggles-to-find-permanent-site-for-archive/article_69de9f5e-bff2-5af6-ae5b-3bba6279c2f8.html |access-date=5 February 2021 |publisher=Monterey County Weekly |date=July 16, 1998 |archive-date=February 13, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210213045325/https://www.montereycountyweekly.com/archives/new/s/1998/jul/16/no-place-like-home/carmel-valley-historical-society-struggles-to-find-permanent-site-for-archive/article_69de9f5e-bff2-5af6-ae5b-3bba6279c2f8.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Sargent's brother managed the land as a cattle ranch.
=== Estate development ===
George Gordon Moore, born in Ontario, Canada in 1875, became a lawyer and later president of the [[Michigan United Railways|Michigan United Traction Company]]. He also owned public utilities in Georgia, Nebraska, Canada and Brazil. He built a horsebreeding farm in St. Clair, Michigan and a game preserve in North Carolina.<ref name=graham/>
Moore was a millionaire by the mid-1920s. While visiting Monterey he bought the land and renamed it ''Rancho San Carlos''.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1971/05/18/archives/george-g-moore.html|title=GEORGE G. MOORE|work=The New York Times |date=May 18, 1971|via=NYTimes.com}}</ref><ref name=graham/> Moore spent more than one million dollars to build a 37-bedroom hacienda featuring a {{convert|75|ft}} long main room overlooking his custom [[Polo|polo grounds]], a guest house, employee quarters, and to excavate an {{convert|18|acre}} lake and stock it with fish. He had nine Russian sows and three [[wild boar|boars]] sent from his game preserve in North Carolina for [[sport hunting]] which have now spread to all but two of California's 58 counties.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Moore |first1=George Gordon |title=The Origin of Wild Boar in Monterey County |url=http://mchsmuseum.com/boar.html |website=MCHSmuseum.com |publisher=Monterey County Historical Society |access-date=2 May 2022 |quote=The following is a [1963] letter from George Gordon Moore to Stuyvesant Fish explaining how wild boar came to be in Monterey County. There are many stories about the origins of the wild boar, but this appears to be the real story! |archive-date=October 18, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161018151856/http://mchsmuseum.com/boar.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Dowd |first1=Katie |title=One eccentric socialite is to blame for California's wild pig problem |url=https://www.sfgate.com/sfhistory/article/One-eccentric-socialite-is-to-blame-for-14916088.php |access-date=5 February 2021 |publisher=San Francisco Chronicle |date=December 26, 2019 |archive-date=March 3, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210303064020/https://www.sfgate.com/sfhistory/article/One-eccentric-socialite-is-to-blame-for-14916088.php |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Scutro |first1=Andrew |title=Hog Heaven |url=https://www.montereycountyweekly.com/news/local_news/how-the-wild-boar-is-destroying-california-and-why-it-cannot-be-killed/article_764b95b7-7cb8-5b43-9883-9b94f86cfc64.html |access-date=7 February 2021 |publisher=Monterey County Weekly |date=November 28, 2002 |archive-date=May 3, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220503002639/https://www.montereycountyweekly.com/news/local_news/how-the-wild-boar-is-destroying-california-and-why-it-cannot-be-killed/article_764b95b7-7cb8-5b43-9883-9b94f86cfc64.html |url-status=live }}</ref>
Moore spent lavishly to entertain his guests at extravagant parties attended by Hollywood starlets. He became a socialite and friend of newspaper magnate [[William Randolph Hearst]]. He built a secret door to the wine cellar so it could be concealed from authorities during [[Prohibition]].<ref name=planning2/><ref name=graham>{{Cite web|url=https://www.grahamcounty.net/hooperbald/ggmoore/ggmoore.htm|title=Hooper Bald|website=www.grahamcounty.net}}</ref> Moore entertained a who's who of Hollywood celebrities and the social elite, including [[W. Averell Harriman]],<ref name=private/> [[Lady Alexandra Curzon]], [[Tommy Hitchcock Jr.]], William Tevis, a colorful character who played polo for over sixty years,<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.winecountrypoloclub.com/richardm.html|title=Wine Country Polo Club - Richard Mansfield|website=www.winecountrypoloclub.com}}</ref> and [[Eric Leader Pedley]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://loonhill.com/george-gordon-moore-barbecue-rancho-san-carlos-august-1927/|title=george gordon moore barbecue, rancho san carlos, aug 1927|date=November 6, 2018 }}</ref><ref name=private/>
Financial losses suffered during the [[Wall Street Crash of 1929|market crash]] and [[Great Depression in the United States|Great Depression]] eventually forced Moore into foreclosure in 1939.<ref name="Hooper Bald" /><ref name=planning2/>
Arthur C. Oppenheimer, a businessman from San Francisco who owned the Rosenberg Fruit Company and longed to become a rancher, bought the land. Under the management of his friend, George King, the property was returned once again to a working ranch, and for the next 45 years was well known for raising quality beef. Although Oppenheimer longed to become a rancher, he and his family did not live there. Instead they used it as a family retreat for half a century.<ref name=planning2/><ref name=private/><ref name="Hooper Bald" /><ref>{{cite news |title=George Gordon Moore Loses San Carlos Ranch |url=https://archive.org/details/ccarm_002314/page/n0/mode/1up |access-date=2 March 2021 |publisher=The Carmel Pine Cone |date=February 2, 1940}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=About the Santa Lucia Preserve: Our History & Preserve Design |url=https://www.santaluciapreserve.com/about |website=www.santaluciapreserve.com |access-date=28 April 2022 |archive-date=April 6, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220406231548/https://www.santaluciapreserve.com/about |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Fruit Industry Leader Dies |url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/25986876/the-san-francisco-examiner/ |access-date=8 March 2021 |publisher=The San Francisco Examiner |date=March 4, 1950 |archive-date=July 9, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709183757/https://www.newspapers.com/clip/25986876/the-san-francisco-examiner/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
== Modern development ==
In 1990 the property was purchased by the Rancho San Carlos Partnership (RSCP) from the Oppenheimer family for $70 million.<ref name="gfeller"/><ref>{{cite news |last1=Beck |first1=Susan |title=Owners plan to preserve Rancho San Carlos' character |url=https://archive.org/details/ccarm_004957/page/n5/mode/2up |access-date=8 March 2021 |publisher=The Carmel Pine Cone |date=October 18, 1990 |pages=6–7}}</ref> The Partnership's two general partners were A Plus Co., Ltd., a Japanese finance company associated with [[Sanwa Bank]], and Las Garzas Associates Limited Partnership, associated with Pacific Union Co, a San Francisco-based real estate development and management corporation.<ref name="gfeller">{{cite web |last1=Gfeller |first1=Anne |title=Planned development on the 20,000-acre Rancho San Carlos could make it worth $1 billion. Incredibly, owners say they can make their money and save the environment at the same time. |url=https://www.montereycountyweekly.com/news/cover/planned-development-on-the-20-000-acre-rancho-san-carlos-could-make-it-worth-1/article_12ce274e-8b66-58e2-bad4-498b70db6c6b.html |website=Monterey County Weekly |date=December 10, 1992 |access-date=28 April 2022 |language=en |archive-date=May 3, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220503002644/https://www.montereycountyweekly.com/news/cover/planned-development-on-the-20-000-acre-rancho-san-carlos-could-make-it-worth-1/article_12ce274e-8b66-58e2-bad4-498b70db6c6b.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Co-founder Peter Stocker was killed in a helicopter crash on the property which left completion of the project to his business partner Tom Gray.<ref>{{cite news |title=Funeral services set for Peter Stocker |url=https://archive.org/details/ccarm_004935/page/n5/mode/2up |access-date=8 March 2021 |publisher=The Carmel Pine Cone |date=May 7, 1990}}</ref>
=== The Santa Lucia Preserve Company ===
After purchasing the property for $70 million, RSCP engaged in a lengthy process of planning development.<ref name="gfeller"/> Their initial submitted plan set aside {{convert|2000|acres}} for 300 home sites, 50 employee housing units, a 150-room lodge, a golf course, equestrian center, sports club, tennis courts, and a village center with a general store, gas station, and post office. The RSCP sought and received approval to rezone approximately {{convert|1,135|acre}} of The Preserve for visitor accommodation and commercial development.<ref name=planning2>{{cite web|url=https://www.co.monterey.ca.us/home/showpublisheddocument/83965/637085452056430000 |title=PC 17-039 - Exhibit H - Potrero Subdivision SEIR - Monterey County |publisher=Montery County Planning Commission}}{{pd-notice}}</ref> This compares to an 11,000-unit development that the Oppenheimer family had considered and rejected in 1965.<ref name=gfeller/><ref name="survey"/><ref name="pamphlet">{{cite web |title=Santa Lucia Conservancy |url=https://slconservancy.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/08/20190116SLC_Booklet_2019.pdf |website=www.slconservancy.org |access-date=28 April 2022 |archive-date=November 29, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201129103957/https://slconservancy.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/08/20190116SLC_Booklet_2019.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>
=== Early criticism ===
When the initial development plan was revealed by RSCP, it encountered considerable suspicion. Some locals protested, petitioned, and sued in an effort to stop the project, with legal support from the Ventana Chapter of [[Sierra Club]].<ref name=sneider>{{cite news |last1=Sneider |first1=Daniel |title=Green Scam or Green Model? |url=https://www.csmonitor.com/1996/0430/30012.html |access-date=10 February 2021 |publisher=The Christian Science Monitor |date=April 30, 1996 |archive-date=April 21, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210421061141/https://www.csmonitor.com/1996/0430/30012.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Walton |first1=John |title=Storied Land: Community and Memory in Monterey |date=2003 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=0-520-22723-9 |pages=262–266 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0bEwDwAAQBAJ&q=sierra+club+%22rancho+san+carlos%22&pg=PA265 |access-date=10 February 2021 |archive-date=July 9, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709195331/https://books.google.com/books?id=0bEwDwAAQBAJ&q=sierra+club+%22rancho+san+carlos%22&pg=PA265 |url-status=live }}</ref> Besides concern that the development was a conservation project in name only—a marketing ploy known as [[green-washing]]—some of their specific concerns were that The Preserve would increase local traffic, strain scarce water resources, worsen air quality, and that developers were planning far more development than they were declaring publicly.<ref name=sneider/>
The Sierra Club lawsuit (''Sierra Club, et al. v. County of Monterey, et al.'') successfully placed Measure M on the November 5, 1996 Monterey County ballot.<ref>{{cite web |title=Vote Totals, Election Outcomes and Text for County Ballot Measures |url=https://elections.cdn.sos.ca.gov/county-city-school-district-election-results/county_report_1996.pdf |website=CA.gov |publisher=Center for California Studies and Institute for Social Research |access-date=11 February 2021 |page=18 |date=1996 |quote=Measure M: Shall Ordinance No. 03857 approving rezoning of portions of the Santa Lucia Preserve subdivision (also known as Rancho San Carlos) be approved? FAIL |archive-date=February 27, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210227104334/https://elections.cdn.sos.ca.gov/county-city-school-district-election-results/county_report_1996.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> It barred RSCP from building the 150-room lodge and a larger shopping area on the property.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Wiley |first1=John |title=Green Development: Integrating Ecology and Real Estate |date=1998 |publisher=Wiley |location=New York |isbn=0471188786 |pages=204–206 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yuhmds7ChHoC | access-date=11 February 2021 |archive-date=July 9, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709191917/https://books.google.com/books?id=yuhmds7ChHoC&q=sierra+club+%22rancho+san+carlos%22&pg=PA205 |url-status=live }}</ref> Measure M was approved, overturning the County Planning Commission's zoning approval of the {{convert|1,135|acre}} of The Preserve intended for visitor accommodation and commercial use and removing three homesites from the plan.<ref name=planning2/>
The [[Big Sur Land Trust]] paid for an analysis of the company's plans. Andy Johnson, president of Conservation Advisors, commented that "They’re quite unusual... [Most] developers are out to max out the property. I think they [RSCP] have in their approach the understanding of the importance of maintaining the quality of the environment they’ve acquired. They are really doing more than their share to come up with a unique solution."<ref name=gfeller/> The developers submitted a modified plan that was eventually supported by conservationists and local officials.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Miller |first1=Paul |title=Rancho San Carlos: Looking back after 20 years, with pride |url=http://www.pineconearchive.com/100326-5.htm |access-date=4 February 2021 |publisher=The Carmel Pine Cone |date=March 26, 2010 |archive-date=April 7, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220407154033/http://www.pineconearchive.com/100326-5.htm |url-status=live }}</ref>
=== Return on investment ===
Thomas Gray, Managing Partner of Las Garzas Association, the development and achievement partner of RSCP and President of Pacific Union Properties, estimated that the final investment would be "on the order of $200 million." RSCP hired a former employee of the Monterey County Planning Department as a consultant to manage their development efforts with the county. They also hired Jeff Froke, a wildland ecologist who was previously associate director of Sanctuaries for the [[Audubon|National Audubon Society]], as their Natural Resource Manager.<ref name=gfeller/>
Each of the about 300 homesites, ranging in size from {{convert|10|acre}} to {{convert|50|acre}}, were projected to sell from around $1 million and up to several million dollars.<ref name=gfeller/> Sales have confirmed that price range. The acreage provides privacy and insulates neighbors from one another. {{as of|2022|April}}, an undeveloped {{convert|16.57|acre}} lot was listed for $950,000.<ref>{{cite web |title=1 Vista Cielo, Carmel, CA 93923 {{!}} MLS #ML81874554 |url=https://www.zillow.com/homedetails/1-Vista-Cielo-Carmel-CA-93923/95741774_zpid/ |website=Zillow |access-date=28 April 2022 |language=en |archive-date=February 26, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220226181030/https://www.zillow.com/homedetails/1-Vista-Cielo-Carmel-CA-93923/95741774_zpid/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Buyers must build a home in keeping with strict site-specific guidelines and other restrictions on size, location, and other factors. They may only alter the landscape within an approximately {{convert|2.5|acre}} "housing envelope" on their parcel.<ref name=gfeller/> A completed {{convert|6424|sqft}} five bedroom, six bathroom home on {{convert|37|acres}} was listed at the same time for $6.9 million. [[Homeowners Association|HOA]] fees are more than $1,000 per month.<ref>{{cite web |title=46 Rancho San Carlos Rd, Carmel, CA 93923 {{!}} MLS #ML81876886 |url=https://www.zillow.com/homedetails/46-Rancho-San-Carlos-Rd-Carmel-CA-93923/70606093_zpid/ |website=Zillow |access-date=28 April 2022 |language=en |archive-date=April 28, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220428201556/https://www.zillow.com/homedetails/46-Rancho-San-Carlos-Rd-Carmel-CA-93923/70606093_zpid/ |url-status=live }}</ref> A report in the local ''Monterey County Weekly'' estimated that the entire property's value was in excess of $500 million.<ref name=gfeller/> The main room of the 37-room Spanish Colonial Hacienda built by Moore was converted to a private inn for preserve members, families, and guests. The original polo stable was restored and a modern swimming pool with a two-story slide was built alongside it. The hay barn was converted to a social hall with a dance floor and antique bar.<ref name=graham/>
=== Management ===
After nearly a decade of archeological, hydrological, ecological, and topological research, as well as extensive litigation, the RSCP established two organizations to care for the property: The Santa Lucia Preserve Company to manage real estate, club amenities, and infrastructure (dubbed “Homelands” and “Rancholands”), and the non-profit Santa Lucia Conservancy trust to manage the {{convert|18,000|acre}} of wild natural habitat (dubbed “Preserve Lands”). The property has over {{convert|100|mile}} of fence and is 1.4 times the size of [[Manhattan|Manhattan Island's]] land area (33.58 sq. mi. vs. 22.83 sq. mi.).<ref name="gfeller"/>
The logos and overall brands for both organizations were designed by American graphic designer [[Michael Patrick Cronan]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Cronan Client List |url=http://www.cronan.com/client-list |website=Cronan.com |publisher=Cronan Design Firm |access-date=6 February 2021 |archive-date=July 9, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709182957/http://www.cronan.com/client-list |url-status=live }}</ref> The strict style guide for homes and the design of a golf clubhouse and numerous recreational facilities were created by architectural firm Hart Howerton.<ref name=harthowerton>{{cite web |title=Santa Lucia Preserve Case Study |url=https://www.harthowerton.com/case-study/santa-lucia-preserve/ |website=HartHowerton.com |publisher=Hart Howerton |access-date=7 February 2021 |archive-date=March 30, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220330035343/https://www.harthowerton.com/case-study/santa-lucia-preserve/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Sarté |first1=S. Bry |title=Sustainable Infrastructure: The Guide to Green Engineering and Design |date=2010 |publisher=Wiley |location=Hoboken, N.J. |isbn=9780470912942 |pages=50–52 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZOkxUHDgEmAC&dq=%22Santa+Lucia+Preserve%22+-wikipedia&pg=PA50 |access-date=1 March 2021 |archive-date=May 3, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220503002638/https://www.google.com/books/edition/Sustainable_Infrastructure/ZOkxUHDgEmAC?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=%22Santa+Lucia+Preserve%22+-wikipedia&pg=PA50&printsec=frontcover |url-status=live }}</ref> In 2018, an illustrated volume on the history of Rancho San Carlos was published in collaboration with historian Mark Hugh Miller.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Fischer |first1=Dr. Christy |title=Conservation Community |url=https://slconservancy.org/2019/12/05/conservation-community/ |website=SLConservancy.org |publisher=Santa Lucia Conservancy |access-date=26 February 2021 |date=December 5, 2019 |archive-date=October 29, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201029143246/https://slconservancy.org/2019/12/05/conservation-community/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=History of Rancho San Carlos [1834-1990] Mark Hugh Miller |url=https://www.montereylibrary.org/cgi-bin/koha/opac-detail.pl?biblionumber=425402 |website=montereylibrary.org |publisher=Monterey Public Library |access-date=9 August 2021 |archive-date=August 9, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210809172729/https://www.montereylibrary.org/cgi-bin/koha/opac-detail.pl?biblionumber=425402 |url-status=live }}</ref>
=== Santa Lucia Conservancy ===
[[File:Santa Lucia Preserve Regional Context.jpg|thumb|The Santa Lucia Preserve's property boundaries and immediate neighbors. The [[Monterey Peninsula]] is visible at top left.]]
Conservation at The Preserve is managed by the Santa Lucia Conservancy, a [[501(c)(3) non-profit]] land trust,<ref>{{cite web |title=Santa Lucia Conservancy |url=https://www.calandtrusts.org/members/santa-lucia-conservancy/ |website=calandtrusts.org |publisher=California Council of Land Trusts |access-date=5 February 2021 |archive-date=March 1, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210301070916/https://www.calandtrusts.org/members/santa-lucia-conservancy/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Santa Lucia Conservancy |url=http://ccows.csumb.edu/wiki/index.php/Santa_Lucia_Conservancy |website=CCOWS.CSUMB.edu |publisher=California State University of Monterey Bay |access-date=5 February 2021 |archive-date=April 1, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190401130454/http://ccows.csumb.edu/wiki/index.php/Santa_Lucia_Conservancy |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Santa Lucia Conservancy |url=https://www.findalandtrust.org/land_trusts/129185 |website=FindALandTrust.org |publisher=Land Trust Alliance |access-date=26 February 2021 |archive-date=July 9, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709183424/https://www.findalandtrust.org/land_trusts/129185 |url-status=live }}</ref> established with oversight and legal input from the [[Trust for Public Land]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Rosen |first1=Martin J. |title="Trust for Public Land Founding Member and President, 1972-1997: the Ethics and Practice of Land Conservation," an oral history conducted in 1998 and 1999 by Carl Wilmsen |date=2000 |publisher=Regional Oral History Office, The Bancroft Library, University of California, Berkeley |pages=361–366 |url=https://oac.cdlib.org/view?docId=kt1199n4bs&brand=oac4&doc.view=entire_text |access-date=17 February 2021 |archive-date=July 9, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709182956/https://oac.cdlib.org/view?docId=kt1199n4bs&brand=oac4&doc.view=entire_text |url-status=live }}</ref> The Santa Lucia Conservancy has a two-part mission: to protect, enhance, and restore the lands of The Santa Lucia Preserve while promoting ecologically sustainable development. As such, it falls under the [[International Union for Conservation of Nature|IUCN's]] [[IUCN protected area categories|Category V protected area]] designation.<ref>{{cite web |title=Protected Area Database: Santa Lucia Preserve |url=https://www.protectedplanet.net/11116150 |website=ProtectedPlanet.net |publisher=IUCN's Protected Planet Project |access-date=2 March 2022 |archive-date=March 2, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220302223441/https://www.protectedplanet.net/11116150 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Protected Areas Database of the United States: Santa Lucia Preserve |url=https://maps.usgs.gov/padus/#share=g-ea724d17039cdcf49b150794fc73cf12 |website=Maps.USGS.gov |publisher=U.S. Department of the Interior |access-date=2 March 2022 |archive-date=January 20, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120165216/https://maps.usgs.gov/padus/#share=g-ea724d17039cdcf49b150794fc73cf12 |url-status=live }}</ref> Conducting adaptive land management across nearly {{convert|18,000|acre}} of The Preserve, the Conservancy's programs include [[conservation grazing]],<ref>{{cite news |title=Goats clear the way for tiger salamander in Monterey County |url=https://www.mercurynews.com/2015/10/09/goats-clear-the-way-for-tiger-salamander-in-monterey-county/ |access-date=5 February 2021 |publisher=The Mercury News |date=October 9, 2015 |archive-date=February 9, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210209140657/https://www.mercurynews.com/2015/10/09/goats-clear-the-way-for-tiger-salamander-in-monterey-county/ |url-status=live }}</ref> [[controlled burns]] and maintenance of [[firebreaks]] to build wildfire resilience and adapt to a changing climate, scientific research and monitoring of threatened and endangered species, as well as an environmental education program to both Preserve members and the local community. In partnership with local universities, the Conservancy maintains an ongoing internship program for students looking for field experience in conservation land management and ecology.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Klotz |first1=Maxwell |title=Acclimating to the Santa Lucia Preserve |url=https://west.stanford.edu/news/acclimating-santa-lucia-preserve |website=West.Stanford.edu |date=July 11, 2019 |publisher=Stanford University |access-date=10 February 2021 |archive-date=October 21, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201021054457/https://west.stanford.edu/news/acclimating-santa-lucia-preserve |url-status=live }}</ref>
In 2018, the Conservancy partnered with the [[Trust for Public Land]] and regional conservation organizations to acquire {{convert|140|acre}} of the [[Carmel River (California)|Carmel River]] watershed. A large portion of this land was incorporated into [[Palo Corona Regional Park]], while the Conservancy acquired {{convert|5|acre}} to use for offices and operations.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Mayberry |first1=Carly |title=Land Deal Could Close Rancho Cañada Golf Club |url=https://www.montereyherald.com/2016/04/26/land-deal-could-close-rancho-caada-golf-club-140-acres-to-go-to-park-district/ |access-date=26 February 2021 |publisher=The Monterey Herald |date=April 26, 2016 |archive-date=July 9, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709190703/https://www.montereyherald.com/2016/04/26/land-deal-could-close-rancho-caada-golf-club-140-acres-to-go-to-park-district/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Carmel River land & water poised to be protected for Monterey residents |url=https://www.tpl.org/media-room/carmel-river-land-water-poised-be-protected-monterey-residents |website=TPL.org |publisher=The Trust for Public Land |access-date=11 February 2021 |location=Carmel, California |date=April 26, 2016 |archive-date=July 9, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709185340/https://www.tpl.org/media-room/carmel-river-land-water-poised-be-protected-monterey-residents |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Rancho Cañada |url=https://www.tpl.org/our-work/rancho-cañada |website=TPL.org |publisher=The Trust for Public Land |access-date=17 February 2021 |archive-date=July 9, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709192916/https://www.tpl.org/our-work/rancho-ca%C3%B1ada |url-status=live }}</ref>
=== Environmental impact ===
The Santa Lucia Preserve contributes water to the Carmel Valley Alluvial Aquifer which is the major source of [[Monterey Peninsula]]'s potable water. Four major streams flow through The Preserve and into the Carmel River: Lower Las Garzas, Portero, San Jose, and San Clemente Creek. All provide habitat for threatened species. Land use and other human influences within The Preserve may affect water quality and quantity in the region.<ref name="CVGB">{{cite web |title=Carmel Valley Groundwater Basin |url=http://www.water.ca.gov/pubs/groundwater/bulletin_118/basindescriptions/3-7.pdf |access-date=May 3, 2022 |archive-date=February 15, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170215190721/http://www.water.ca.gov/pubs/groundwater/bulletin_118/basindescriptions/3-7.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> To satisfy monitoring requirements set by the [[California Environmental Quality Act]], the Santa Lucia Conservancy hired [[The Watershed Institute]] at [[California State University Monterey Bay]] to monitor the river and water quality.<ref name="WI">{{cite web |title=Hydrologic Conditions in Baseflow Reaches Pursuant to Conditions |url=http://ccows.csumb.edu/pubs/reports/CCoWS_SLC_2015_Baseflow_151104.pdf |access-date=May 3, 2022 |archive-date=January 19, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220119130557/http://ccows.csumb.edu/pubs/reports/CCoWS_SLC_2015_Baseflow_151104.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>
The Conservancy is required to monitor the wildlife found on lands it protects. This included conducting bird and nest counts, locating threatened species such as the [[California red-legged frog]], detecting invasive plants and weeds, and assessing overall grassland health.<ref name="SLCcons">{{cite web |title=Santa Lucia Website - Conservation Projects |url=http://www.slconservancy.org/projects.html |access-date=May 3, 2022 |archive-date=March 26, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180326070327/http://www.slconservancy.org/projects.html |url-status=live }}</ref>
To control unwanted species and promote native plant growth, the Conservancy practices [[conservation grazing]]. In 2015 the Conservancy hired 1,400 goats that were used to reduce overgrown grasslands that had during prior decades been grazed by native deer and domestic cattle. As a result, the number of threatened [[California tiger salamander]] increased.<ref name="MCH">{{cite web |title=Monterey County Herald |date=October 8, 2015 |url=http://www.montereyherald.com/environment-and-nature/20151008/goats-clear-the-way-for-tiger-salamander-in-carmel |access-date=May 3, 2022 |archive-date=January 27, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160127121623/http://www.montereyherald.com/environment-and-nature/20151008/goats-clear-the-way-for-tiger-salamander-in-carmel |url-status=live }}</ref>
The Conservancy has sought and received federal funding to pay California State University Monterey Bay graduate students as interns who have conducted research on environmental issues. These projects have focused on surface flow of the Carmel River<ref name="PSMs">{{cite web|title=CSUMB Professional Science Master's project list|url=https://csumb.edu/amws/professional-science-masters-psm-track|access-date=May 3, 2022|archive-date=November 3, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171103165319/https://csumb.edu/amws/professional-science-masters-psm-track|url-status=live}}</ref> as well as conservation grazing and avian nest boxes.<ref name="Nunes">{{cite web |title=Land Management of the Santa Lucia Conservancy |url=https://wri.csusb.edu/documents/AllisonNunes_FinalReport_21Jan2014.pdf |access-date=May 3, 2022 |archive-date=April 11, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190411153748/http://wri.csusb.edu/documents/AllisonNunes_FinalReport_21Jan2014.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>
=== Fire impact ===
In 2016, the [[Soberanes Fire]] burned along The Preserve's southwest border. The property was a critical access point and staging area for firefighters.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Coury |first1=Nic |title=A photo timeline of the Soberanes Fire |url=https://www.montereycountyweekly.com/blogs/photo_blog/a-photo-timeline-of-the-soberanes-fire/article_8b184da0-a167-11e6-9fd5-c37abc21feb5.html |access-date=8 March 2021 |publisher=Monterey County Weekly |date=November 3, 2016 |archive-date=July 9, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709184651/https://www.montereycountyweekly.com/blogs/photo_blog/a-photo-timeline-of-the-soberanes-fire/article_8b184da0-a167-11e6-9fd5-c37abc21feb5.html |url-status=live }}</ref> The fire-fighting efforts were the costliest in US history up to that time.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hcn.org/articles/the-10-most-expensive-wildfires-in-the-wests-history|title=The Most Expensive Wildfires in US History|publisher=High Country News|first1=Lyndsey|last1=Gilpin|date=October 5, 2016|access-date=July 18, 2018|archive-date=August 10, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180810143507/https://www.hcn.org/articles/the-10-most-expensive-wildfires-in-the-wests-history|url-status=live}}</ref>
In 2020, the Conservancy was awarded $2 million in state and federal grants to improve local fire resiliency.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Loxton |first1=Michelle |title=Local Preserve Wants To Change The Way We Fight Wildfires In California |url=https://www.kazu.org/post/local-preserve-wants-change-way-we-fight-wildfires-california#stream/0 |access-date=5 February 2021 |publisher=NPR for Monterey County |date=July 14, 2020 |archive-date=January 28, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210128125410/https://www.kazu.org/post/local-preserve-wants-change-way-we-fight-wildfires-california#stream/0 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Los Padres Strategic Community Fuelbreak Collaborative Project |url=https://www.rcdmonterey.org/los-padres-strategic-community-fuelbreak-collaborative-project |website=RCDMonterey.org |publisher=Resource Conservation District of Monterey County |access-date=26 February 2021 |archive-date=March 7, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210307054918/https://rcdmonterey.org/los-padres-strategic-community-fuelbreak-collaborative-project |url-status=live }}</ref> In 2021, The Santa Lucia Preserve achieved [[Fire safe councils#Firewise USA|Firewise Community]] certification, after extensive efforts between the Santa Lucia Conservancy, Santa Lucia Preserve's Community Services District, and homeowners.<ref>{{cite web |title=Firewise USA Sites |url=https://www.nfpa.org/Public-Education/Fire-causes-and-risks/Wildfire/Firewise-USA |website=National Fire Protection Association |access-date=8 December 2021 |archive-date=December 8, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211208183603/https://www.nfpa.org/Public-Education/Fire-causes-and-risks/Wildfire/Firewise-USA |url-status=live }}</ref> Firewise certification (administered by the [[National Fire Protection Association|NFPA]], [[United States Forest Service|USDA Forest Service]], and [[National Association of State Foresters]]) recognizes communities that have systematically instituted fuel management plans, use of fire-resistant building materials, strategic placement of structures, and implementation of careful landscaping with ignition-resistant plants.<ref>{{cite web |title=Firewise USA® Frequently Asked Questions |url=https://www.nfpa.org/Public-Education/Fire-causes-and-risks/Wildfire/Firewise-USA/Become-a-Firewise-USA-site/Frequently-asked-questions |website=National Fire Protection Association |access-date=8 December 2021 |archive-date=December 8, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211208183600/https://www.nfpa.org/Public-Education/Fire-causes-and-risks/Wildfire/Firewise-USA/Become-a-Firewise-USA-site/Frequently-asked-questions |url-status=live }}</ref>
=== Preserve Golf Club ===
Anyone can purchase memberships in The Preserve Golf Club. A separate recreational "Ranch Club" – providing access to an equestrian center, sports center, and trail system – is available only to Preserve residents and golf club members.<ref>{{cite web |title=Santa Lucia Preserve Membership Guide |url=https://issuu.com/thesantaluciapreserve/docs/2021_slp_membership_guide |website=Issuu.com |publisher=Santa Lucia Preserve |access-date=30 December 2022}}</ref><ref name=private/> The golf club features a private {{convert|365|acre}} [[Tom Fazio]]-designed golf course<ref>{{cite web |title=Santa Lucia Preserve |url=http://luxurycountryclubs.com/santa-lucia-preserve/ |website=LuxuryCountryClubs.com |publisher=Luxury Country Clubs |access-date=5 February 2021 |archive-date=December 28, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191228184314/http://luxurycountryclubs.com/santa-lucia-preserve/ |url-status=live }}</ref> which has been ranked among the top 100 U.S. courses.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Preserve Golf Club |url=https://www.golfdigest.com/story/the-preserve-golf-club |website=GolfDigest.com |publisher=Golf Digest |access-date=5 February 2021 |archive-date=January 19, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210119130721/https://www.golfdigest.com/story/the-preserve-golf-club |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Golfweek's Best 2019: Top 200 Residential Golf Courses |url=https://golfweek.usatoday.com/2019/06/11/golfweek-best-2019-top-200-residential-golf-courses/ |website=Golfweek.com |date=June 11, 2019 |publisher=Golfweek |access-date=5 February 2021 |archive-date=January 25, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210125131743/https://golfweek.usatoday.com/2019/06/11/golfweek-best-2019-top-200-residential-golf-courses/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Passov |first1=Joe |title=The 25 Best Golf Communities in North America |url=https://golf.com/news/the-25-best-golf-communities-in-north-america/ |access-date=5 February 2021 |publisher=GOLF Magazine |date=January 29, 2016 |archive-date=April 19, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210419024039/https://golf.com/news/the-25-best-golf-communities-in-north-america/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Gould |first1=David |title=America's Top 100 Golf Communities |url=https://www.travelandleisure.com/trip-ideas/golf-vacations/golf-americas-top-100-golf-communities-2009 |access-date=5 February 2021 |publisher=Travel & Leisure |date=September 10, 2014 |archive-date=January 25, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210125204840/https://www.travelandleisure.com/trip-ideas/golf-vacations/golf-americas-top-100-golf-communities-2009 |url-status=live }}</ref> An annual invitational tournament is held in honor of the late Preserve co-founder, Peter Stocker, who died on the property in the early days of the development.<ref>{{cite web |title=Stocker Cup History |url=https://stockercup.com/history/ |website=StockerCup.com |access-date=8 March 2021 |archive-date=April 16, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210416002348/https://stockercup.com/history/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Stocker Cup 2021 Invitational |url=https://www.amateurgolf.com/amateur-golf-tournaments/9550/Stocker-Cup-2021-Invitational |website=AmateurGolf.com |access-date=18 March 2021 |archive-date=February 24, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210224232601/https://www.amateurgolf.com/amateur-golf-tournaments/9550/Stocker-Cup-2021-Invitational |url-status=live }}</ref>
In 2021, The Preserve Golf Club served as a local qualifying location for the [[US Open (golf)|US Open]] in May,<ref>{{cite news |last1=Williams |first1=Julie |title=Another step toward normalcy: USGA announces 2021 U.S. Open local qualifying sites |url=https://golfweek.usatoday.com/2021/01/27/2021-us-open-local-qualifying-sites-usga/ |access-date=5 February 2021 |publisher=Golfweek |date=January 27, 2021 |archive-date=February 4, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210204175632/https://golfweek.usatoday.com/2021/01/27/2021-us-open-local-qualifying-sites-usga/ |url-status=live }}</ref> and hosted the [[California State Amateur Championship]] in June.<ref>{{cite web |title=110th California Amateur Championship |url=http://www.scga.org/tournaments/california-amateur-championship |website=SCGA.org |publisher=Southern California Golf Association |access-date=14 June 2021 |archive-date=June 14, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210614194649/http://www.scga.org/tournaments/california-amateur-championship |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=CALIFORNIA AMATEUR CHAMPIONSHIP |url=https://www.amateurgolf.com/amateur-golf-tournaments/1338/California-Amateur-Championship |website=AmateurGolf.com |access-date=14 June 2021 |archive-date=June 14, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210614194649/https://www.amateurgolf.com/amateur-golf-tournaments/1338/California-Amateur-Championship |url-status=live }}</ref> In 2022, floating solar and evaporation control panels allowed reduction of the golf course's power load on the local grid by 80%, the first of its kind in Monterey County.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Neely |first1=Christopher |title=A floating 1,178-panel solar project at the Santa Lucia Preserve sets a new industry standard. |url=https://www.montereycountyweekly.com/news/local_news/a-floating-1-178-panel-solar-project-at-the-santa-lucia-preserve-sets-a-new/article_f37f3912-8465-11ec-9758-a32a1ffa05f1.html |access-date=4 March 2022 |publisher=Monterey County Weekly |date=February 3, 2022 |archive-date=March 4, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220304190806/https://www.montereycountyweekly.com/news/local_news/a-floating-1-178-panel-solar-project-at-the-santa-lucia-preserve-sets-a-new/article_f37f3912-8465-11ec-9758-a32a1ffa05f1.html |url-status=live }}</ref>
{{Golf18|center=true|title=The Preserve Golf Club's Score Card<ref>{{cite web |title=The Preserve Golf Club Scorecard |url=https://www.santaluciapreserve.com/files/2021_%20The%20Preserve%20Golf%20Club%20Score%20Card.pdf |website=SantaLuciaPreserve.com |publisher=The Preserve Golf Club |access-date=4 March 2022 |date=May 2021 |archive-date=March 4, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220304002203/https://www.santaluciapreserve.com/files/2021_%20The%20Preserve%20Golf%20Club%20Score%20Card.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>}}
{{par18 | 4 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 4 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 4 | 36 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 5 | 3 | 4 | 3 | 5 | 4 | 36 | 72 }}
{{black18 |M: 74.4 / 141
| 442|186|373|562|357|232|360|527|458|3497|377|457|412|571|198|477|141|558|450|3641|7138}}
{{gold18 |M: 72.3 / 137|412|163|351|528|340|209|331|500|422|3256|335|427|372|535|172|415|131|535|425|3347|6603}}
{{blue18 |rssize=8pt |M:70.3/129 W:75.2/133 |373|157|341|516|320|177|327|475|381|3067|310|397|348|502|161|374|123|508|384|3107|6174}}
{{handicap18|name=Men's | 3 | 15| 17| 1 | 7| 13 | 11 | 9| 5 | 12| 4| 10 | 8 | 16 | 2| 18| 14 | 6 }}
{{white18 |rssize=8pt |M:67.8/124 W:72.4/128 |354|137|321|472|302|154|306|471|377|2894|281|347|304|371|148|352|112|497|356|2768|5662}}
{{green18 |W: 79.2/138
| 288|132|277|468|246|128|300|438|341|2618|277|327|267|365|138|328|102|410|249|2463|5081}}
{{handicap18|name=Women's| 5 | 17| 13| 1 | 3| 15 | 11 | 9| 7 | 10| 4| 12 | 14 | 16| 2| 18| 8 | 6 }}
{{end}}
== Sid Ormsbee Lookout ==
[[File:Historic_photo_of_Sid_Ormsbee_Fire_Lookout_Tower_atop_Peñon_Peak.jpg|thumb|Historic photo of now-decommissioned Sid Ormsbee Lookout]]
Located within The Santa Lucia Preserve, the Sid Ormsbee Lookout is a {{convert|30|ft}} tall former [[fire tower]] resting atop Peñon Peak (also known as Pinyon, Penyon, and Pinion Peak), constructed in 1948 by the California State Division of Forestry, precursor to today's [[Cal Fire]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Barratt |first1=Elizabeth |title=Sid Ormsbee Fire Lookout on Pinyon Peak |journal=Carmel Valley Historian |date=June 2016 |pages=1, 4 |url=https://carmelvalleyhistoricalsociety.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/03/2016-June.pdf |access-date=2 September 2021 |publisher=Carmel Valley Historical Society |archive-date=September 2, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210902181219/https://carmelvalleyhistoricalsociety.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/03/2016-June.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> The tower is visible throughout The Preserve and [[Carmel Valley Village, California|Carmel Valley]]. On a clear day, rangers had views stretching from Blue Rock Ridge in the south, to [[Mount Toro (Monterey County, California)|Mount Toro]] in the north, and Carmel Hill to the west.
[[File:Sid Ormsbee Fire Lookout 2009.jpg|thumb|Sid Ormsbee Fire Lookout in 2009]]
It was named for a Sid Ormsbee, a State Forest Ranger who served in World War II and was killed in Italy.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Schmalz |first1=David |title=The history of Carmel Valley's long-retired fire lookout tower tells a World War II story. |url=https://www.montereycountyweekly.com/people/831/the-history-of-carmel-valley-s-long-retired-fire-lookout-tower-tells-a-world-war/article_9fdeb950-6f78-11e8-b11e-cb085779ed95.html |access-date=2 September 2021 |publisher=Monterey County Weekly |date=June 14, 2018 |archive-date=September 2, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210902181219/https://www.montereycountyweekly.com/people/831/the-history-of-carmel-valley-s-long-retired-fire-lookout-tower-tells-a-world-war/article_9fdeb950-6f78-11e8-b11e-cb085779ed95.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=nhlr/>
The tower, topped by a 16'x16' octagonal cab, was staffed by alternating seasonal rangers (sometimes with their families) until the 1980s when it was decommissioned. Since 2012 it has served as a [[Radio repeater|radio relay]] and cell tower for The Preserve, Cal Fire, Monterey County Regional Fire District, and Monterey County Sheriff's Department.<ref>{{cite web |title=Monterey County Planning Commission, Project #REF100041 |url=https://www2.co.monterey.ca.us/planning/cca/pc/2012/02-29-12/REF100041PC1.pdf |website=monterey.ca.us |access-date=2 September 2021 |pages=14–21 |date=February 29, 2012 |archive-date=September 2, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210902181219/https://www2.co.monterey.ca.us/planning/cca/pc/2012/02-29-12/REF100041PC1.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=nhlr/> It was added to the [[National Historic Lookout Register]] in 2010.<ref name=nhlr>{{cite web |title=Sid Ormsbee Lookout |url=http://nhlr.org/lookouts/us/ca/sid-ormsbee-lookout/ |website=nhlr.org |publisher=National Historic Lookout Register |access-date=2 September 2021 |archive-date=September 2, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210902175300/http://nhlr.org/lookouts/us/ca/sid-ormsbee-lookout/ |url-status=live }}</ref> A plaque commemorating its namesake is positioned at the base. The lookout is not accessible to the public.
== In popular media ==
=== Filming location ===
Since at least the 1960s, the property has served as a [[shooting location]] for film, television, and commercials, including a 2020 film shot entirely within a Preserve home, notable for being the first to be written and produced entirely during the [[COVID-19 pandemic]] while abiding by local safety guidelines and with approval from the [[SAG-AFTRA|Screen Actors Guild]].<ref>{{cite news |last1=Zack |first1=Jessica |title=Co-starring in 'Malcolm & Marie,' the stunning Monterey County home where the movie is set |url=https://datebook.sfchronicle.com/movies-tv/co-starring-in-malcolm-marie-the-stunning-monterey-county-home-where-the-movie-is-set |access-date=5 February 2021 |publisher=San Francisco Chronicle |date=February 3, 2021 |archive-date=February 5, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210205173651/https://datebook.sfchronicle.com/movies-tv/co-starring-in-malcolm-marie-the-stunning-monterey-county-home-where-the-movie-is-set |url-status=live }}</ref>
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Productions Filmed On-site
|-
! Film/Television !! Release year !! Genre
|-
| ''[[Lancer (TV series)|Lancer]]''<ref name=gdspecial>{{cite web |url=http://www.lancerlovers.com/Resources/Hacienda/Hacienda.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130929042758/http://www.lancerlovers.com/Resources/Hacienda/Hacienda.html |archive-date=2013-09-29 |url-status=live |title=The Lancer Hacienda |website=The Lancer Fanfiction Archive |first= |last= |date=July 15, 2008 |access-date=4 February 2021}}</ref> || 1968
| [[Western (genre)|Western]]
|-
| ''[[Chandler (film)|Chandler]]''<ref>{{cite web |title=CHANDLER |url=https://filmmonterey.org/film/CHANDLER/ |website=filmmonterey.org |publisher=Monterey County Film Commission |access-date=4 February 2021 |archive-date=February 13, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210213162112/https://filmmonterey.org/film/CHANDLER/ |url-status=live }}</ref> || 1971
| [[Hardboiled|Crime Noir]]
|-
| ''[[Sleeper (1973 film)|Sleeper]]''<ref>{{cite web |title=SLEEPER |url=https://filmmonterey.org/film/sleeper/ |website=filmmonterey.org |publisher=Monterey County Film Commission |access-date=4 February 2021 |archive-date=February 9, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210209095631/https://filmmonterey.org/film/sleeper/ |url-status=live }}</ref> || 1973
| [[Science fiction comedy|Sci-Fi Comedy]]
|-
| ''[[The Muppet Movie]]''<ref>{{cite web |title=THE MUPPET MOVIE |url=https://filmmonterey.org/film/the-muppet-movie/ |website=filmmonterey.org |publisher=Monterey County Film Commission |access-date=4 February 2021 |archive-date=May 3, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220503002707/https://filmmonterey.org/film/the-muppet-movie/ |url-status=live }}</ref> || 1979
| [[Musical film|Children's Musical]]
|-
| ''[[Poco Loco]]''<ref>{{cite web |title=POCO LOCO |url=https://filmmonterey.org/film/poco-loco/ |website=filmmonterey.org |publisher=Monterey County Film Commission |access-date=4 February 2021 |archive-date=May 3, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220503002639/https://filmmonterey.org/film/poco-loco/ |url-status=live }}</ref> || 1994
| [[Romance film|Romance]]
|-
| ''[[Malcolm & Marie]]''<ref>{{cite news |last1=Maitland |first1=Hayley |title=Zendaya Secretly Filmed A 'Marriage Story'-Esque Movie During Lockdown |url=https://www.vogue.co.uk/arts-and-lifestyle/article/zendaya-lockdown-film |access-date=4 February 2021 |publisher=Vogue |date=July 9, 2020 |archive-date=February 14, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210214225343/https://www.vogue.co.uk/arts-and-lifestyle/article/zendaya-lockdown-film |url-status=live }}</ref> || 2021
| [[Drama (film and television)|Drama]]
|}
=== Character inspiration ===
Modern claims that George Gordon Moore inspired the literary character of [[Jay Gatsby]] are unproven.<ref name="Hooper Bald">{{cite web |last1=Ingram |first1=Mike |title=George Gordon Moore |url=https://grahamcounty.net/hooperbald/ggmoore/ggmoore.htm |website=grahamcounty.net |publisher=Graham County, NC |access-date=5 February 2021 |archive-date=July 1, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150701134628/http://grahamcounty.net/hooperbald/ggmoore/ggmoore.htm |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Phillips |first1=Anne |title=Golf Courses That Play Well and Save Water |url=https://www.huffpost.com/entry/golf-courses-that-play-we_b_8235132 |access-date=18 February 2021 |publisher=Huffington Post |date=October 2, 2015 |archive-date=April 18, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210418190813/https://www.huffpost.com/entry/golf-courses-that-play-we_b_8235132 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Manley |first1=Jeffrey A. |title=Mrs. Stitch in the First World War |journal=Evelyn Waugh Studies |date=2015 |volume=46 |issue=1 |page=37 |url=https://leicester.contentdm.oclc.org/digital/collection/p16445coll12/id/2007 |access-date=26 February 2021 |publisher=University of Leicester |quote=[Moore] is said to have met Scott Fitzgerald in the post-war period, and Bailey joins in with earlier speculation that Fitzgerald used him as the model for Jay Gatsby in his 1925 novel... But Sarah Churchwell, in a recent study of Gatsby, gives no credit to George Gordon Moore as a contributor to Gatsby's character (Careless People: Murder, Mayhem and the Invention of 'The Great Gatsby'. |archive-date=July 9, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709184740/https://leicester.contentdm.oclc.org/digital/collection/p16445coll12/id/2007 |url-status=live }}</ref> Moore assembled a San Carlos Cardinals polo team which featured polo star [[Tommy Hitchcock Jr.]],<ref>{{cite news |title=Brilliant Throng Sees Opening of Polo Season |url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/31057220/fae-polo-season-29/ |access-date=18 February 2021 |publisher=San Francisco Examiner |date=February 10, 1929 |page=66 |archive-date=July 9, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709184536/https://www.newspapers.com/clip/31057220/fae-polo-season-29/ |url-status=live }}</ref> who inspired the character of [[Tom Buchanan]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Churchwell |first1=Sarah Bartlett |title=Careless People: Murder, Mayhem and the Invention of The Great Gatsby |date=2013 |location=London |isbn=978-0748129294 |pages=36–37 |quote=When Scott Fitzgerald mused over the origins of The Great Gatsby twenty years later, beginning his outline in Man's Hope with the 'Glamor of Rumseys and Hitchcocks,' these were the people he was remembering.}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=O'Neill |first1=Natalie |title=Son claims his LI dad was 'Great Gatsby' inspiration – and someone stole his $750G book |url=https://nypost.com/2013/03/08/son-claims-his-li-dad-was-great-gatsby-inspiration-and-someone-stole-his-750g-book/ |access-date=18 February 2021 |publisher=New York Post |date=March 8, 2013 |archive-date=April 16, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210416145906/https://nypost.com/2013/03/08/son-claims-his-li-dad-was-great-gatsby-inspiration-and-someone-stole-his-750g-book/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Aldrich |first1=Nelson W. |title=American Hero: The True Story of Tommy Hitchcock |date=2016 |location=Guildford, Connecticut |isbn=9781493022885 |pages=XXIV–XXVII |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bDT3DAAAQBAJ |access-date=1 March 2021 |quote=In those years Hitchcock himself was going to a good many parties. He and two friends lived in a brownstone on East 52nd Street with a man who might have sat for the portrait of Jay Gatsby. His name was George Gordon Moore, and the parties that he gave were filled with music, lovely girls, handsome men, good food and wine, frequent laughter, and tears. One could never tell whom one might meet at a George Moore party […] At these parties—the same sort of parties that Fitzgerald went to, of course—Tommy Hitchcock stood out. In the first representation that the novelist made of him, as Tom Buchanan, the resemblance to the man is distorted. |archive-date=May 3, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220503002708/https://www.google.com/books/edition/American_Hero/bDT3DAAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1 |url-status=live }}</ref>
==See also==
* [[Conservation community]]
* [[Land trust]]
== References ==
{{reflist}}
==External links==
{{commons category}}
* [http://www.santaluciapreserve.com/ Santa Lucia Preserve website]
* [http://www.slconservancy.org/ Santa Lucia Conservancy website]
* [https://www.santaluciacsd.org/ Santa Lucia Community Services District website]
* [https://slconservancy.org/explore-and-discover/maps/ Maps of The Preserve ]
* [https://stockercup.com/ The Stocker Cup website]
* [https://santa-lucia-preserve-tigeo.hub.arcgis.com/apps/TiGEO::real-estate-app/explore The Santa Lucia Preserve Real Estate Map]{{Dead link|date=July 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}
{{Monterey County, California}}
{{Big Sur}}
{{Protected areas of California}}
{{Carmel Valley, California}}
{{Monterey Peninsula Golf}}
{{Authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Santa Lucia Preserve}}
[[Category:1999 establishments in California]]
[[Category:Carmel-by-the-Sea, California]]
[[Category:Companies based in Monterey County, California]]
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
[[Category:Environmental organizations based in California]]
[[Category:Forest conservation organizations]]
[[Category:Fire lookout towers in California]]
[[Category:Geography of Monterey County, California]]
[[Category:Golf clubs and courses designed by Tom Fazio]]
[[Category:Golf clubs and courses in California]]
[[Category:History of Monterey County, California]]
[[Category:IUCN Category V]]
[[Category:Land trusts in California]]
[[Category:Monterey Bay]]
[[Category:Monterey County, California]]
[[Category:Nature conservation organizations based in the United States]]
[[Category:Nature reserves in California]]
[[Category:Protected areas of California]]
[[Category:Protected areas of Monterey County, California]]
[[Category:Santa Lucia Range]]
[[Category:Sports venues completed in 2001]]
[[Category:Unincorporated communities in Monterey County, California]]
[[Category:Conservation communities]]
[[Category:Big Sur]] |
Escaped plant | {{Use dmy dates|date=December 2021}}
{{Short description|Plant that escapes cultivation}}
[[File:Starr 040423-0244 Lantana camara.jpg|thumb|''[[Lantana camara]]'' can escape from gardens into nearby [[wildland]]s.<ref>[https://www.aabr.org.au/images/stories/resources/ManagementGuides/WeedGuides/wmg_lantana.pdf Lantana (Lantana camara)] by Weed Management Guide</ref>]]
An '''escaped plant''' is a [[Cultigen|cultivated plant]] that has escaped from agriculture, forestry or garden cultivation and has become naturalized in the wild. Usually not native to an area, escaped plants may become [[Invasive species|invasive]].<ref>[https://davesgarden.com/guides/terms/go/1902/#b Definition of escaped plant] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210823060947/https://davesgarden.com/guides/terms/go/1902/#b |date=23 August 2021 }} by Dave's Garden</ref> Therefore, escaped plants are the subject of research in [[invasion biology]].<ref name=mulvaney>Mulvaney M (2001) The effect of introduction pressure on the naturalisation of ornamental woody plants in south-eastern Australia. In 'Weed Risk Assessment'. (Eds RH Groves, FD Panetta, JG Virtue). (CSIRO Publishing: Collingwood)</ref>
Some [[ornamental plant]]s have characteristics which allow them to escape cultivation and become [[weed]]y in alien ecosystems with far-reaching ecological and economic consequences. Escaped [[garden plant]]s may be called '''garden escapes'''<ref>[https://treeterms.co.uk/garden-escape/ garden escape] by treeterms.co.uk. Philip Wilson in association with Orange Pippin & Warren IT Services. Retrieved 30 December 2023. </ref> or '''escaped ornamentals'''.<ref>[https://www.nwcb.wa.gov/images/weeds/invasive_ornamentals.pdf Escaped Ornamentals] by Washington State Noxious Weed Control Board. Retrieved 1 January 2024.</ref> Sometimes, their origins can even be traced back to [[botanical garden]]s.
==Dispersal==
[[File:Slowly the ivy overgrown.JPG|thumb|Untended, overgrown plants can escape by rooting elsewhere ([[English ivy]])]]
[[File:Flor do cerrado na beira do lago - panoramio.jpg|thumb|[[Cairo Morning Glory]] can easily escape gardens by seed, runners and stem fragments.]]
All escaped plants belong to the so-called [[Hemerochory|hemerochoric]] plants. This term is used across the board for plants that have been introduced directly or indirectly by humans. The term also includes the unintentionally [[introduced species|introduced plants]] that were introduced through [[Seed dispersal|seed pollution]] (speirochoric) or through unintentional transport (agochoric).<ref>[http://www.environment.gov.au/biodiversity/threatened/threat-abatement-advices/escaped-garden-plants-introduction Loss and degradation of native plant and animal habitat by invasion of escaped garden plants, including aquatic plants – Introduction] [[Department of Agriculture, Water and the Environment]]</ref>
Plants may escape from cultivation in various ways, including the dumping of [[green waste]] in bushland and road reserves and by birds or other animals eating the fruits or seeds and dispersing them.<ref>[https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2016/03/160322100510.htm Migratory birds disperse seeds long distances] [[Science Daily]], 22 March 2016</ref> Others are accidental hitchhikers that escape on ships, vehicles, and equipment.<ref>[https://naturechange.org/2016/11/23/escaping-ornamentals-a-threat-to-natural-area-biodiversity/ Escaping Ornamentals: A Threat to Natural Area Biodiversity] By Miriam Owsley, Outreach Assistant, Northwest Michigan Invasive Species Network. 23 November 2016.</ref> Plants can also escape through sending [[stolon]]s (runners), as stolons are capable of independent growth in other areas.<ref>[https://cpn.carnivorousplants.org/articles/CPNv36n2p46_48.pdf UTRICULARIA CONTAINMENT: TRYING TOPREVENT THE GREAT ESCAPE] THOMAS M. CAHILL. Department of Integrated Natural Sciences. [[Arizona State University]] at the West Campus. Retrieved 16 December 2023.</ref> Garden escapees can be [[adventitious plant|adventive]], which means they can be established by human influence in a site outside their area of origin.<ref>Wilhelm Lohmeyer, Herbert Sukopp: Agriophytes in the vegetation of Central Europe. First addendum. 2001 (Braunschweiger Geobotanische Arbeit 8), pp. 179–220</ref> Some plants, such as the opium poppy ''[[Papaver somniferum]]'',<ref name=Stace>{{cite book|last=Stace|first=C. A.|author-link = Stace, C. A.|year=2019|title=New Flora of the British Isles|edition=Fourth|publisher=C & M Floristics|location = Middlewood Green, Suffolk, U.K.| isbn=978-1-5272-2630-2}}</ref>{{rp|93}} escaped from cultivation so long ago that they are considered [[archaeophyte]]s, and their original source may be obscure.<ref name=Stace/>{{rp|1123}}
Occasionally, seed contamination also introduces new plants that could reproduce for a short period of time. The proportion of adventitious species in open ruderal corridors at such locations can exceed 30% of the flora of these locations. Further, ornamental alien plants can easily escape their confined areas (such as gardens and [[greenhouse]]s) and naturalize if the climate outside changes to their benefit.<ref>Starfinger U, Kowarik I, Rode M, Schepker H. 2003. From desirable ornamental plant to pest to accepted addition to the flora? The perception of an alien plant species, Prunus serotina, through the centuries. Biol. Invas. 5:323–335</ref> In the US, there are over 5,000 escaped plants, many of which are escaped ornamentals.<ref>[https://www.nwcb.wa.gov/images/weeds/invasive_ornamentals.pdf Escaped Ornamentals Escaped Ornamentals: Is your garden harboring environmental pollutants?] Washington State Noxious Weed Control Board</ref>
==Ecological threats==
[[File:Tradescantia fluminensis habit1 (16189587740).jpg|thumb|''[[Tradescantia fluminensis]]'' escapees infesting woodland area.]]
Many invasive [[Neophyte (botany)|neophytes]] in Australia and New Zealand were originally garden escapees. The [[Parkinsonia aculeata|Jerusalem thorn]] forms impenetrable thorny thickets in the [[Northern Territory]] which can be several kilometers in length and width. Two other plants introduced as ornamental garden plants, ''[[Asparagus asparagoides]]'' and ''[[Chrysanthemoides monilifera]]'', now dominate the herbaceous layer in many eucalyptus forests and supplant perennials, grasses, orchids, and lilies.<ref>[https://www.environment.nsw.gov.au/determinations/escapedgardenplantsPD.htm Loss and degradation of native plant and animal habitat by the invasion of escaped garden plants, including aquatic plants – proposed key threatening process listing] NSW Scientific Committee – preliminary determination by [[NSW Government]]</ref>
Neophytes that compete aggressively, and which displace and repel populations of native species, may permanently change the [[habitat]] for native species and can become an economic problem. For example, species of ''[[Opuntia]]'' (prickly pears) have been introduced from America to Australia, and have become wild, thus rendering territories unsuitable for breeding{{Clarify|reason=breeding of what?|date=September 2021}}; the same goes for [[Ulex europaeus|European gorse]] (''Ulex europaeus'') in New Zealand.<ref>[https://invasives.org.au/our-work/weeds/garden-escapes/ Australia's weedy garden escapees] by The [[Invasive Species Council]]</ref>
''[[Rhododendron]]'' species introduced as ornamental garden plants in the [[British Isles]] crowd out island vegetation.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Dehnen-Schmutz |first1=Katharina |last2=Perrings |first2=Charles |last3=Williamso |first3=Mark |year=2004 |title=Controlling ''Rhododendron ponticum'' in the British Isles: an economic analysis |journal=Journal of Environmental Management |volume=70 |issue=4 |pages=323–332 |doi=10.1016/j.jenvman.2003.12.009|pmid=15016441 }}</ref> The same can be seen in many acidic [[peatland]]s in the Atlantic and subatlantic climates. ''Robinia pseudoacacia'' was imported from America to [[Central Europe]] for its rapid growth, and it now threatens the scarce [[steppe]] and natural forest areas of the drylands. Examples in forests include ''[[Prunus serotina]]'' which was initially introduced to speed up the accumulation of [[humus]].
In North America, [[Tamarisk]] trees, native to southern Europe and temperate parts of Asia, have proven to be problematic plants. In nutrient-poor heaths, but rich in grasses and bushes ([[fynbos]]) in the region Cape in [[South Africa]], species of eucalyptus from Australia are growing strongly. As they are largely accustomed to poor soils, and in the Cape region they lack competitors for nutrients and parasites that could regulate their population, they are able to greatly modify the biotope. In [[Hawaii]], the [[epiphytic]] fern ''[[Phlebodium aureum]]'', native to the tropical Americas, has spread widely and is considered an invasive plant.<ref>Kowarik I (2005) Urban ornamentals escaped from cultivation. In: Gressel J (ed) Crop Ferality and Volunteerism. CRC Press, Boca Raton, pp. 97–121.</ref>
Particularly unstable ecosystems, already unbalanced by attacks or possessing certain characteristics, can be further damaged by escaped plants if the vegetation is already weakened. In the humid forests of Australia, escaped plants first colonize along roads and paths and then enter the interior of the regions they surround.<ref>Rejmanek M, Richardson DM, Higgins, SI, Pitcairn, PJ, Grotkopp E (2005) Ecology of invasive plants: state of the art. In 'Invasive Alien Species. A New Synthesis' (Eds. HA Mooney, RN Mack, JA McNeely, LE Neville, PJ Schei, JK Waage), pp104-161. (Island Press, Washington DC)</ref>
''[[Thunbergia mysorensis]]'', native to India, invaded the rainforests around the coastal city of [[Cairns]] in [[Queensland]] and even invades trees 40 m high. In [[Central Australia]], the Eurasian species ''[[Tamarix aphylla]]'' grows along river banks, repelling native tree species, and wildlife that go together, lowers water levels and increases soil [[salinity]]. As in the United States, tamarisks have proven to be formidable bio-invaders. The fight against this species of trees, which has spread widely since, appears to be almost hopeless.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=van Klinken |first1=Rieks |last2=Campbell |first2=Shane |last3=Heard |first3=Tim |last4=McKenzie |first4=John |last5=March |first5=Nathan |date=2009 |title=The Biology of Australian Weeds: 54. 'Parkinsonia aculeata' L |url=https://search.informit.org/doi/10.3316/ielapa.735077383474483 |journal=Plant Protection Quarterly |language=EN |volume=24 |issue=3 |pages=100–117}}</ref><ref name="Griffin-Smith-etal-1989">{{Cite journal |last1=Griffin, G.F. |last2=Smith, D.M.S. |last3=Morton, S.R. |last4=Allan, G.E. |last5=Masters, K.A. |last6=Preece, N. |year=1989 |title=Status and implications of the invasion of tamarisk (''Tamarix aphylla'') on the Finke River, Northern Territory, Australia |journal=Journal of Environmental Management |volume=29 |issue=4 |pages=297–315}}</ref>
==Related terms ==
Escaped plants can fall within the definition of, and may have a relation to, these [[Glossary of botanical terms|botanical terminologies]] below:
[[File:Tulipa_-_Wildtulpe.jpg|thumb|220px|[[Tulipa praestans|Wild tulips]] survive, multiply and grow wild without human influence.]]
*'''Agriophyte''': Refers to plant species that have invaded natural or near-natural vegetation and can survive there without human intervention. Established in their new natural habitats, they remain part of natural vegetation even after human influence has ceased, and are independent of humans in their continued existence.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=OJhLDwAAQBAJ&dq=Agriophyte&pg=PA95 Handbook of Plant Palaeoecology, Flora and Vegetation, p.95] By R. T. J. Cappers, R. Neef</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=rDo8hLWtWzgC&dq=Agriophyte&pg=PA496 Plant Ecology, p.496] By Ernst-Detlef Schulze, Erwin Beck, Klaus Müller-Hohenstein</ref> Examples in [[Central Europe]] are [[waterweed]], [[Douglas fir]] and [[Japanese knotweed]]
*'''Alien''': A non native species introduced by man.<ref name=Stace/>{{rp|1123}}
*'''Archaeophyte''': An alien species introduced by human activity long ago, such as the [[sweet chestnut]]s introduced by the Romans in Germany and now part of natural vegetation,<ref>Wilhelm Lohmeyer, Herbert Sukopp: Agriophytes in the vegetation of Central Europe. Landwirtschaftsverlag, Münster-Hiltrup 1992, ISBN 3-7843-2073-2</ref> and the opium and field poppies.<ref name=Stace/>{{rp|93-94}}
*'''Epecophyte''': Species of recent appearance, usually numerous and constant in the country, but confined to artificial habitats, such as [[meadows]] and [[ruderal]] vegetation. They are dependent on humans for existence that their habitats require constant renewal.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=cqXrCAAAQBAJ&q=epecop&pg=PA261 Potentials and Limitations of Ecosystem Analysis, Extinction and Naturalization of Plant Species] p.261, edited by Ernst-Detlef Schulze, Helmut Zwölfer</ref>
*'''[[Ephemerophyte]]''': Species that are only introduced inconsistently, that die briefly from culture or that would disappear again without constant replenishment of seeds. In other words, they can establish themselves temporarily, but they are not in a position to meet all the conditions relating to the territory. A cold winter, or an unusual [[drought]], can lead to the death of these plants; most of the time, they are not able to fight against the local flora in extreme conditions.<ref>Ingolf Kühn, Stefan Klotz: Floristic status and alien species. In: Series of publications for vegetation science. 38 (2002), pp. 47–56.</ref>
*'''[[Hemerochory]]''': Plants or their seeds may have been transported voluntarily (introduction) or involuntarily by humans in a territory which they could not have [[Colonisation (biology)|colonized]] by their own natural mechanisms of dissemination, or at least much more slowly. They are able to maintain themselves in this new vital space without voluntary help from man. Many [[Central Europe]]an cultivated and ornamental plants are hemorochoric – insofar as they have escaped and subsist independently of cultivation.<ref>Harshberger, John William: The vegetation of the New Jersey pine-barrens, an ecologic investigation, Philadelphia: Christopher Sower Company, 1869–1929</ref> These are the forms of hemerochory:
**'''Agochoric''': Plants that are spread through accidental transport with, among other things, ships, trains, and cars. On land, agochoric plants used to be common in harbors, at train stations, or along railway lines. Australia, like New Zealand, has taken stringent measures to prevent the spread by seed or human [[transport]]. Agricultural implements imported into Australia must be thoroughly cleaned. Air travelers from other continents are forced to thoroughly clean the soles of their shoes.<ref>Tim Low: Feral Future. The Untold Story of Australia's Exotic Invaders, p. 73</ref>
**'''Ethelochoric''': Deliberate introduction by seedlings, seeds, or plants in a new habitat by humans. Many cultivated plants which currently play an important role in [[human nutrition]] have been deliberately disseminated by humans. [[Wheat]], [[barley]], [[lentil]], [[broad bean]] and [[flax]], for example.
**'''Speirochoric''': Unintentional introduction by seeds. As all seed samples also contain the seeds of the grasses of the field from which they were obtained, the trade-in seeds of useful plants has also allowed the spread of other species. Speirochoric plants are therefore sown on soil prepared by man and compete with useful plants. [[Wild chamomile]], [[poppy]], [[cornflower]], [[corn buttercup]] are example of plants that were unintentionally scattered.
*'''Neophyte''': An alien species introduced by man after 1500 AD. <ref name=Stace/>{{rp|1130}}
==Example species==
Examples of escaped plants and/or garden escapees include:
{{div col|colwidth=14em}}
* ''[[Alchemilla mollis]]''
* ''[[Allium schoenoprasum]]''
* ''[[Allium ursinum]]''
* ''[[Anredera cordifolia]]''
* ''[[Aquilegia vulgaris]]''
* ''[[Araujia sericifera]]''
* ''[[Ardisia crenata]]''
* ''[[Asclepias tuberosa]]''
* ''[[Asparagus aethiopicus]]''
* ''[[Baccharis halimifolia]]''
* ''[[Bartlettina sordida]]''
* ''[[Berberis thunbergii]]''
* ''[[Borago officinalis]]''
* ''[[Bryophyllum delagoense]]''
* ''[[Buddleja davidii]]''
* ''[[Calystegia silvatica]]''
* ''[[Cardiospermum halicacabum]]''
* ''[[Carpobrotus edulis]]''
* ''[[Castanea sativa]]''
* ''[[Cenchrus setaceus]]''
* ''[[Centranthus ruber]]''
* ''[[Cestrum elegans]]''
* ''[[Cestrum parqui]]''
* ''[[Clematis orientalis]]''
* ''[[Clerodendrum bungei]]''
* ''[[Consolida ajacis]]''
* ''[[Convallaria majalis]]''
* ''[[Coreopsis basalis]]''
* [[Crocosmia|''Crocosmia'' spp.]]
* ''[[Cyclamen persicum]]''
* ''[[Cymbalaria muralis]]''
* ''[[Delairea odorata]]''
* ''[[Dichondra repens]]''
* ''[[Digitalis purpurea]]''
* ''[[Dolichandra unguis-cati]]''
* ''[[Doronicum orientale]]''
* ''[[Echinops exaltatus]]''
* ''[[Echium candicans]]''
* ''[[Elodea canadensis]]''
* ''[[Epiphyllum oxypetalum]]''
* ''[[Eriocapitella hupehensis]]''
* ''[[Erythranthe moschata]]''
* ''[[Eschscholzia californica]]''
* ''[[Foeniculum vulgare]]''
* ''[[Galega officinalis]]''
* ''[[Galinsoga parviflora]]''
* ''[[Hedera helix]]''
* ''[[Hedera hibernica]]''
* ''[[Helianthus annuus]]''
* ''[[Helianthus tuberosus]]''
* ''[[Hemerocallis fulva]]''
* ''[[Heracleum mantegazzianum]]''
* ''[[Hesperis matronalis]]''
* ''[[Ilex aquifolium]]''
* ''[[Impatiens glandulifera]]''
* ''[[Impatiens parviflora]]''
* ''[[Ipomoea cairica]]''
* ''[[Ipomoea indica]]''
* ''[[Iris pseudacorus]]''
* ''[[Isatis tinctoria]]''
* ''[[Juglans regia]]''
* ''[[Kalanchoe delagoensis]]''
* ''[[Kniphofia uvaria]]''
* ''[[Laburnum anagyroides]]''
* ''[[Lamiastrum galeobdolon]]''
* ''[[Lantana camara]]''
* ''[[Lavandula stoechas]]''
* ''[[Lespedeza bicolor]]''
* ''[[Ligustrum lucidum]]''
* ''[[Lilium lancifolium]]''
* ''[[Linaria purpurea]]''
* ''[[Lonicera maackii]]''
* ''[[Lysimachia punctata]]''
* ''[[Lythrum salicaria]]''
* ''[[Macfadyena unguis-cati]]''
* ''[[Melastoma sanguineum]]''
* ''[[Monarda punctata]]''
* ''[[Nothoscordum gracile]]''
* ''[[Nymphaea mexicana]]''
* ''[[Olea europaea subsp. cuspidata]]''
* ''[[Opuntia ficus-indica]]''
* ''[[Oxalis debilis]]''
* ''[[Papaver cambricum]]''
* ''[[Pelargonium peltatum]]''
* ''[[Phlox paniculata]]''
* ''[[Physalis alkekengi]]''
* ''[[Prunus serotina]]''
* ''[[Reynoutria japonica]]''
* ''[[Rhododendron ponticum]]''
* ''[[Ribes rubrum]]''
* ''[[Ricinus communis]]''
* ''[[Robinia pseudoacacia]]''
* ''[[Rubus hawaiensis]]''
* ''[[Ruellia simplex]]''
* ''[[Senecio angulatus]]''
* ''[[Senecio elegans]]''
* ''[[Senna pendula]]''
* ''[[Silene armeria]]''
* ''[[Solanum lycopersicum]]''
* ''[[Sparaxis tricolor]]''
* ''[[Stachytarpheta mutabilis]]''
* ''[[Sphagneticola trilobata]]''
* ''[[Talinum paniculatum]]''
* ''[[Thymus praecox]]''
* ''[[Tradescantia fluminensis]]''
* ''[[Tulipa sylvestris]]''
* ''[[Vanilla × tahitensis]]''
* ''[[Vinca major]]''
* ''[[Vinca minor]]''
* ''[[Watsonia meriana]]''
{{div col end}}
==Gallery==
<gallery mode="packed" widths=140px heights=140px>
File:Iceplant.jpg|[[Carpobrotus edulis|Iceplant]] refugees along the California Coast
File:Isatis tinctoria (6124347445).jpg|[[Dyer's woad]]'s escape to disturbed [[Shoulder (road)|roadside]]s
File:Centranthus ruber growing on wall (Ireland).jpg|[[Red valerian]] finding refuge atop old walls
File:Castor_bean_in_distubred_area.jpg|[[Castor bean]] usually finds refuge on wastelands
File:SK-TigerLily.JPG|[[Lilium lancifolium|Tiger lily]] occurs as a garden escapee in [[Eastern United States|Eastern U.S.]].
File:Buddleja davidii next to rails at train station Düsseldorf-Zoo.jpg|''[[Buddleja]]'' self-sown along a railroad
File:Oxalis_latifolia_LeavesFlowers_BotGardBln0906.jpg|''[[Oxalis latifolia]]'' has escaped gardens through [[seed dispersal]].
File:Kalanchoe delagoensis in Dapeng Fortress, Shenzhen.jpg|[[Mother of millions]] finding refuge in [[Dapeng Fortress]], Shenzhen
</gallery>
==See also==
*[[Volunteer plant]]
*[[Adventitious plant]]
*[[Archaeophyte]]
*[[Assisted colonization]]
*[[Hemerochory]]
*[[Neophyte (botany)|Neophyte]]
==Bibliography==
* Angelika Lüttig, Juliane Kasten (2003): ''Hagebutte & Co: Blüten, Früchte und Ausbreitung europäischer Pflanzen.'' Fauna, Nottuln. ISBN 3-93-598090-6.
* Christian Stolz (2013): ''Archäologische Zeigerpflanzen: Fallbeispiele aus dem Taunus und dem nördlichen Schleswig-Holstein. Plants as indicators for archaeological find sites: Case studies from the Taunus Mts. and from the northern part of Schleswig-Holstein (Germany)''. Schriften des Arbeitskreises Landes- und Volkskunde 11.
* Herrando-Moraira, S., Nualart, N., Herrando-Moraira, A. et al. Climatic niche characteristics of native and invasive Lilium lancifolium. Sci Rep 9, 14334 (2019). [https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-019-50762-4 Climatic niche characteristics of native and invasive Lilium lancifolium]
==References==
{{reflist}}
==External links==
*[https://invasives.org.au/wp-content/uploads/2014/02/sub-escaped_garden_KTP_april09B.pdf ESCAPED GARDEN PLANTS AS A KEY THREATENING PROCESS]
*[https://www.cabidigitallibrary.org/doi/10.1079/cabicompendium.109030 Escape from confinement or garden escape (pathway cause)]
[[Category:Invasive species]]
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
[[Category:Environmental terminology]]
[[Category:Habitat]] |
Hemerochory | {{Short description|Propagation of plants by "the culture"}}
[[File:Mohn_im_Gerstenfeld.jpg|thumb|270px|[[poppy|Poppies]] are hemerochoric plants that belong to the [[archaeophyte]]s.{{clarification needed|date=December 2023}}]]
'''Hemerochory''' (Ancient Greek ἥμερος, hemeros: 'tame, ennobled, cultivated, cultivated' and Greek χωρίς choris: separate, isolated), or '''anthropochory''',<ref>[https://torontobotanicalgarden.ca/blog/word-of-the-week/botanical-nerd-word-anthropochory/#:~:text=Anthropochory%3A%20(from%20Greek%3A%20anthropos,to%20North%20America%20by%20humans. Botanical Nerd Word: Anthropochory] [[Toronto Botanical Garden]]. Retrieved 17 December 2023.</ref><ref>[https://www.uts.edu.au/about/faculty-design-architecture-and-building/student-showcase/wandering-ecologies-anthropochory-method-restoration-seed-dispersal-urban-landscape Wandering Ecologies: Anthropochory as a Method of Restoration; Seed Dispersal in the Urban Landscape] by Brittany Johnston. [[University of Technology Sydney]]. Retrieved 17 December 2023.</ref> is the [[escaped plant|distribution]] of cultivated plants or their seeds and [[cuttings (plant)|cuttings]], consciously or unconsciously, by humans into an area that they could not colonize through their natural mechanisms of spread, but are able to maintain themselves without specific human help in their new habitat.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=cqXrCAAAQBAJ&pg=PA261 Potentials and Limitations of Ecosystem Analysis, Extinction and Naturalization of Plant Species] p.261, edited by Ernst-Detlef Schulze, Helmut Zwölfer</ref>
Hemerochory is one of the main [[Plant propagation|propagation]] mechanisms of a plant. '''Hemerochoric''' plants can both increase and decrease the [[biodiversity]] of a habitat.<ref> Harshberger, John William: The vegetation of the New Jersey pine-barrens, an ecologic investigation, Philadelphia: Christopher Sower Company, 1869-1929</ref>
==Categorisation==
Hemerochoric plants are classified according to the manner of introduction into, for example:
[[File:Ipomoea cairica (L.) Sweet (AM AK347534-4).jpg|260px|thumb|[[Ipomoea cairica]] trailing on a roadside with its purple flowers (possible agochoric dispersal).]]
* Ethelochory: the conscious introduction by seed or [[seedling|young plants]].
* Speirochoria: the unintentional introduction by contaminated seed. Examples are the true [[chamomile]] and the [[cornflower]].
* Agochory: the introduction by unintentional [[transport]] with, among other things, ships, trains and cars. These plants are common in port areas, roadsides, stations and railways.<ref>Tim Low: Feral Future. The Untold Story of Australia's Exotic Invaders , p. 73</ref>
===Division===
Chronologically the hemerochoric plants are divided in:
* [[Archaeophyte]]s: plants that were introduced before the onset of world trade around the year 1500, or before the year 1492 ([[discovery of America]]).
* [[Neophyte (botany)|Neophyte]]s: plants that were introduced later.
===Related terms===
''Anthropochory'' is often used synonymously but does not mean exactly the same. Anthropochory is the spread by humans. The spread through [[domestic animal]]s does not belong to the anthropochoric, but to the hemerochoric, because domestic animals belong to the human culture. Strictly speaking, anthropochoric means the spread through humans as a transport medium. These can also be native species that were either adapted from the outset to locations created by human cultural activity or have adapted to them afterwards; As a result, their area of distribution has often, but not always, increased.
The term [[adventitious plant]]s is sometimes used synonymously with hemerochory, but is often restricted to species that were intentionally brought into the area and then naturalized, sometimes also for species that have not (yet) firmly established themselves in their new habitat.
==History==
Hemerochorous spread of plants through human cultural activity very likely already happened in the [[Stone Age]], but demonstrably at the latest in [[Ancient history|antiquity]], namely along old [[trade route]]s. Fruits such as apples and pears gradually made their way along the [[Silk Road]] from the area around the [[Altai Mountain]]s to [[Greece]] and from there to the gardens of the [[Ancient Rome|Romans]], who in turn brought these cultivated plants to Central Europe, and some of these plants were eventually able to survive outside the culture. Many useful plants, such as tomato, potato, pumpkin and [[Phaseolus vulgaris|French bean]] did not reach Central Europe until the 16th century, after the American continent was discovered, and are now grown worldwide.
In the last 400 to 500 years the spread has expanded through trade and military campaigns, through explorers and [[missionaries]]. The latter brought countless plants with them from their travels both out of an interest in [[exotic plant]]s, which were often included in the plant collections of princely courts, and for purely scientific purposes. In the context of botanical studies, the interest was often in the possible [[medicinal plant|healing effects]] of these plants, but also in the expansion of botanical knowledge, or the plants were only used for collecting ([[herbaria]]).
Some ornamental plants also came to Europe because they promised a lucrative business. This applies, for example, to the [[camellias]], one of which is also grown as a tea plant in Japan and China. While this species turned out to be not cultivable in Central Europe, people very quickly discovered the aesthetic appeal of the other camellia species as an ornamental plant. Botanical gardens played a major role in the acclimatization of such plants from distant habitats.<ref>Krystyna M. Urbanska: Populationsbiologie der Pflanzen. G. Fischer, Stuttgart 1992, ISBN 3-437-20481-5.</ref>
==Forms==
===Agochory===
[[File:Cyperus esculentus 03038.jpg|thumb|[[Tiger nut]]s are agochoric.]]
Agochoric plants are those that are spread through accidental transport. Unlike speirochoric plants, they are usually not sown on human-prepared soil. On land, agochoric plants used to be common in harbors, at [[train station]]s or along [[railway line]]s.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=5kzmDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA252 Mutualistic Interactions between Flowering Plants and Animals] edited by Palatty Allesh Sinu, KR Shivanna, 2016</ref>
However, mainly [[aquatic plant]]s are spread through agochory. [[Ballast water]] plays a major role in the agochoric spread of aquatic plants. Around the world, around ten billion tons of seawater and the organisms it contains are shipped in this way. [[Exporting]] countries in particular are affected by the spread of organisms through ballast water. The ships arrive at the ports with empty [[cargo hold]], but fully pumped ballast tanks. In the draining of this ballast water, these ports receive thousands of cubic meters of seawater brimming with alien creatures now in a new environment. The seaweed [[Undaria pinnatifida]], which is native to the Japanese coast, reached the [[Tasmania]]n coast via ballast water and has formed dense [[kelp]] forests along the coast since 1988, displacing the native flora and fauna. [[Caulerpa taxifolia]] is one of those plants that are often spread by ballast water. It is also spread by the fact that ships tear off parts of the algae with their anchors.
Australia was the first country to introduce a ballast water policy back in 1990 and is now the most determined to address this problem. Ships were asked not to take in ballast water in shallow and polluted bays and not to refuel with ballast water during the night, since then many [[marine organism]]s that are otherwise on the [[seabed]] rise to the surface of the water. Ships should also exchange their ballast water 200 kilometers away from the coastal waters, so that on the one hand the offshore species are not introduced into the more sensitive coastal waters and, on the other hand, no inhabitants of the coastal zone are transported to other continents.<ref>Management of an invasive marine species: defining and testing the effectiveness of ballast-water management options using management strategy evaluation by Piers K. Dunstan and Nicholas J. Bax</ref>
===Ethelochory===
[[File:Bank Hall Snowdrops Feb 2009.JPG|thumb|[[Galanthus]] are ethelochoric.]]
Ethelochory is intentional transportation of plants or seeds to different regions for agricultural and gardening purposes.<ref>[https://www.davuniversity.org/images/files/study-material/SIGNIFICANCE%20OF%20SEEDS.pdf Significance of Seeds : Ecological Adaptation and Dispersal Strategies] by Education Department </ref> Numerous crops that are important for human nutrition have been willingly spread by humans. [[Wheat]], [[barley]], [[lentil]], [[beans]], [[flax]] and poppy seeds, for example, are not typical plants for [[Central Europe]], although they are all archaeotypes. People brought them after the beginning of the [[Neolithic]] (about 6,500 years ago) gradually from the [[eastern Mediterranean]] to central Europe and the rest of the world through the upcoming centuries. In central Europe, it is especially [[Cyperus esculentus]] which has been classified since the 1980s among the [[invasive species]], because their [[tubers]] have been spread en masse, by sticking to vehicles or machines.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=rDo8hLWtWzgC&dq=Ethelochory&pg=PA545 Plant Ecology] p.545. By Ernst-Detlef Schulze, Erwin Beck, Klaus Müller-Hohenstein. 2005.</ref>
Many of the old cultivated plants have spread around the world, primarily through emigrants from Europe. Grown for at least 4,000 years, wheat was introduced to America in the 16th century and Australia in the 19th century. Orange, lemons, apricots and peaches were originally native to China. They probably came via the Silk Road as early as the [[3rd century BC]]. In [[Asia Minor]] and from there through the [[Ancient Rome|Romans]] to the Mediterranean. European settlers, in turn, used these species to grow fruit in suitable regions of America.
From the 16th century, ornamental plants were grown more and more. Species native to Europe were first introduced as [[garden plant]]s. These include, for example, the [[gladioli]], the [[Allium schubertii|ornamental onion]], [[Hyacinthoides non-scripta|European bluebell]], the [[snowdrop]] native to southeast Europe and the common [[clematis]]. Ornamental plants from more distant regions were added later. From [[East Asia]] in particular, a number of plants were introduced to Europe as exotic or for economic reasons.
===Speirochory===
[[File:Centaurea cyanus kz12.jpg|thumb|The [[cornflower]] is speirochoric.]]
Some plants were unintentionally introduced in this process; this unwanted hemerochory as a seed companion is called [[seed dispersal|speirochory]]. Since every seed also contains seeds of the herbs of the field from which it comes, their competitors, the "[[weed]]s", were also sold through the trade in the seeds of the useful plant. The real [[chamomile]] is one of the plants that were unintentionally spread as a companion to seeds.<ref>[https://link.springer.com/article/10.1134/S2075111719040064 Distribution of Alien Plants by Speirochory in Agrocenosis of Tomsk Oblast] Russian Journal of Biological Invasions volume, S. I. Mikhailova, T. V. Ebel & A. L. Ebel. 14 January 2020</ref>
Speirochoric plants are sown on human-prepared soil and are competitors of the [[crop]]s. Plants that are considered to be archaeophytes, such as the poppy, native to the Mediterranean area, the real chamomile, the [[cornflower]] and field [[buttercup]], spread through the seeds with the grain in Central Europe. In the meantime, the seeds are cleaned more thoroughly using modern methods and the cultivation is hardly contaminated by [[pesticide]]s or other control techniques.
In spite of this, [[Cuscuta campestris]], which is classified as a problematic weed in [[Australia]], was accidentally imported into the country together with [[basil]] seeds in 1981, 1988 and 1990.
==See also==
*[[Assisted colonization]]
*[[Escaped plant]]
*[[Volunteer plant]]
==References==
{{reflist}}
[[Category:Plant reproduction]]
[[Category:Invasive species]]
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
[[Category:Environmental terminology]]
[[Category:Habitat]]
[[Category:Botany]]
[[Category:Introduced plants]] |
Adventive plant | [[File:Palm trees in Nuthurst village, West Sussex, England 01.jpg|thumb|270px|[[Trachycarpus fortunei|Windmill palm]] (''Trachycarpus fortunei'') established at a park in [[West Sussex]], England]]
'''Adventive plants''' or '''adventitious plants''' are plants that have established themselves in a place that does not correspond to their area of origin due to anthropogenic influence and, therefore, are all wild species that have only been established with the help of humans, in contrast to the native species.
The term "adventive" is used to describe species that are not self-sufficient, but need an episodic [[Assisted colonization|population assistance]] from their homeland. If, however, an adventive species becomes self-sustaining in its new geographic area, it is then [[ Naturalisation (biology)|naturalized]].<ref>[https://ucanr.edu/blogs/blogcore/postdetail.cfm?postnum=38612 Invasive? Naturalized? Adventive?] by Ben Faber from Agriculture and Natural Resources, University of California. November 6, 2019.</ref> The term [[hemerochory]] is sometimes used synonymously with this one, but is often restricted to species that were unintentionally brought into the area and then naturalized, sometimes also for species that have firmly established themselves in their new habitat.
==Categorization==
[[File:Sapindales - Citrus sinensis - 9.jpg|thumb|220px|An established [[Citrus × sinensis|Sweet orange]] tree (''Citrus × sinensis'') in [[Kew Gardens]], England]]
Depending on the question and perspective, adventitious plants are divided into different subcategories:
===Classification according to establishment history===
* [[Archaeophyte]]s were introduced before 1492
* [[Neophyte (botany)|Neophytes]] were introduced or immigrated after 1492.
The year 1492 is a conventionally chosen reference point. With the "discovery" of America and the [[age of discovery]] and [[colonialism]], [[alien species]] from other parts of the world came to new areas on a large scale. Most of the archaeophytes immigrated with the introduction of agriculture (in the [[Neolithic]]). The status of a species as an archaeophyte is usually deduced (from the location and ecology of the species) and is hardly directly detectable.
===Classification according to the degree of establishment===
* Agriophytes: species that have invaded natural or near-natural vegetation and could survive there without human intervention.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=OJhLDwAAQBAJ&dq=Agriophyte&pg=PA95 Handbook of Plant Palaeoecology, Flora and Vegetation, p.95] By R. T. J. Cappers, R. Neef</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=rDo8hLWtWzgC&dq=Agriophyte&pg=PA496 Plant Ecology, p.496] By Ernst-Detlef Schulze, Erwin Beck, Klaus Müller-Hohenstein</ref>
* Epecophytes: Species that are only naturalized in vegetation units shaped by humans, such as meadows, weed flora or [[ruderal]] vegetation, but are firmly naturalized here.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=cqXrCAAAQBAJ&q=epecop&pg=PA261 Potentials and Limitations of Ecosystem Analysis, Extinction and Naturalization of Plant Species] p.261, edited by Ernst-Detlef Schulze, Helmut Zwölfer</ref>
* Ephemerophytes: Species that are only introduced inconsistently, that will die out of culture for a short period of time, or that would disappear again without a constant replenishment of seeds.<ref>Ingolf Kühn, Stefan Klotz: Floristic status and alien species. In: Series of publications for vegetation science. 38 (2002), pp. 47-56.</ref>
===Classification according to immigration route===
Spontaneous immigrants (sometimes referred to as "acolutophytes") immigrated on their own without direct human assistance, for example when new locations were created through culture or soil changes.
Companions (sometimes also "xenophytes") were brought in through human transport. Examples would be seed companions, which were unintentionally sown due to their similarity to cultivated plant seeds, or “wool adventures”, which were dragged into the wool fleece during the transport of sheep's wool.
Feral species or [[escaped plant|cultural refugees]] in the narrower sense are those that were originally cultivated, but later escaped from the culture and were able to spread on their own. Such descendants of original cultural clans are subject to natural evolution as they become wild and can more or less quickly differ both from the culture form itself and from the original wild clan that preceded the culture.
==Habitat==
Adventitious plants are often found at [[freight station]]s, along [[railway line]]s and port areas as well as airports, but also on roads. Seeds of many species were accidentally imported there with the import of goods (so-called agochoria). Occasionally, seed contamination also introduces new plants that could reproduce for a short period of time (so-called speirochory). Agochory and speirochory are sub-forms of [[hemerochory]]. The seeds can also hang in wheel arches so that they can be transported and distributed along highways.
The proportion of adventitious species in open ruderal corridors at such locations can exceed 30% of the flora of these locations. In natural and near-natural vegetation, adventitious plants are much rarer. Their share here is between zero and about 5%.<ref>Wilhelm Lohmeyer, Herbert Sukopp: Agriophytes in the vegetation of Central Europe. First addendum. 2001 (Braunschweiger Geobotanische Arbeit 8), pp. 179–220</ref>
==References==
{{reflist}}
==Further reading==
* FG Schroeder: On the classification of the anthropochores. In: Vegetatio. 16, pp. 225-238 (1969).
[[Category:Invasive species]]
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
[[Category:Environmental terminology]]
[[Category:Habitat]]
[[Category:Introduced plants]] |
Non-renewable resource | {{Short description|Class of natural resources}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2023}}
[[File:Coal mine Wyoming.jpg|thumb|upright=1.35|A [[coal mining|coal mine]] in [[Wyoming]], United States. [[Coal]], produced over millions of years, is a finite and non-renewable resource on a human time scale.]]
A '''non-renewable resource''' (also called a '''finite resource''') is a [[natural resource]] that cannot be readily replaced by natural means at a pace quick enough to keep up with consumption.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Earth systems and environmental sciences.|date=2013|publisher=Elsevier|isbn=978-0-12-409548-9|location=[Place of publication not identified]|oclc=846463785}}</ref> An example is carbon-based fossil fuels. The original organic matter, with the aid of heat and pressure, becomes a fuel such as oil or gas. Earth [[mineral]]s and [[metal]] [[ore]]s, [[fossil fuel]]s ([[coal]], [[petroleum]], [[natural gas]]) and [[groundwater]] in certain [[aquifer]]s are all considered non-renewable resources, though individual [[Chemical element|element]]s are always conserved (except in [[nuclear reactions]], [[nuclear decay]] or [[atmospheric escape]]).
Conversely, resources such as [[timber]] (when [[Sustainable forest management|harvested sustainably]]) and wind (used to power energy conversion systems) are considered [[renewable resource]]s, largely because their localized replenishment can occur within time frames meaningful to humans as well.
== Earth minerals and metal ores ==
{{Main|Mineral|Ore}}
[[File:GoldOreUSGOV.jpg|thumb|Raw gold ore that is eventually smelted down into gold metal]]
{{Further|Mining}}
[[Earth]] minerals and [[metal]] ores are examples of non-renewable resources. The metals themselves are present in vast amounts in Earth's [[crust (geology)|crust]], and their extraction by humans only occurs where they are concentrated by [[Ore genesis|natural geological processes]] (such as heat, pressure, organic activity, weathering and other processes) enough to become economically viable to extract. These processes generally take from tens of thousands to millions of years, through [[plate tectonics]], [[tectonic subsidence]] and [[crustal recycling]].
The localized deposits of metal ores near the surface which can be extracted economically by humans are non-renewable in human time-frames. There are certain [[rare earth mineral]]s and [[rare earth element|elements]] that are more scarce and exhaustible than others. These are in high demand in [[manufacturing]], particularly for the [[electronics industry]].
== Fossil fuels ==
{{Main|Fossil fuel}}
{{Further|Oil depletion}}
Natural resources such as [[coal]], [[petroleum]](crude oil) and [[natural gas]] take thousands of years to form naturally and cannot be replaced as fast as they are being consumed. Eventually it is considered that fossil-based resources will become too costly to harvest and humanity will need to shift its reliance to other sources of energy such as solar or wind power, see [[renewable energy]].
An alternative hypothesis is that carbon based fuel is virtually inexhaustible in human terms, if one includes all sources of carbon-based energy such as methane hydrates on the sea floor, which are vastly greater than all other carbon based fossil fuel resources combined.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://worldoceanreview.com/en/wor-1/energy/methane-hydrates/ |title=Methane hydrates |website=Worldoceanreview.com |access-date=17 January 2017}}</ref> These sources of carbon are also considered non-renewable, although their rate of formation/replenishment on the sea floor is not known. However their extraction at economically viable costs and rates has yet to be determined.
At present, the main energy source used by humans is non-renewable [[fossil fuels]]. Since the dawn of [[internal combustion engine]] technologies in the 19th century, petroleum and other fossil fuels have remained in continual demand. As a result, conventional [[infrastructure]] and [[transport]] systems, which are fitted to combustion engines, remain prominent throughout the globe.
The modern-day fossil fuel economy is widely criticized for its lack of renewability, as well as being a contributor to [[climate change]].<ref>{{cite book|author=America's Climate Choices: Panel on Advancing the Science of Climate Change|author2=National Research Council|title=Advancing the Science of Climate Change |year=2010|publisher=The National Academies Press|location=Washington, D.C.|isbn=978-0-309-14588-6|url=http://www.nap.edu/catalog.php?record_id=12782|doi=10.17226/12782 }}</ref>
== Nuclear fuels ==
[[File:Arandis Mine quer.jpg|thumb|[[Rössing uranium mine]] is the longest-running and one of the largest [[open pit]] uranium mines in the world, in 2005 it produced eight percent of global uranium oxide needs (3,711 tons).<ref name="infomine">[http://www.infomine.com/minesite/minesite.asp?site=rossing Rössing] (from infomine.com, status Friday 30 September 2005)</ref> The most productive mines however are the underground [[McArthur River uranium mine]] in Canada which produces 13% of the world's uranium, and the similarly underground poly-metallic [[Olympic Dam mine]] in Australia, which despite being largely a copper mine, contains the largest known reserve of uranium ore.]]
[[File:Uranium and thorium release from coal combustion.gif|thumb|upright=1.35|Annual release of "technologically enhanced"/concentrated [[Naturally occurring radioactive material]], [[uranium]] and [[thorium]] [[radioisotopes]] naturally found in coal and concentrated in heavy/bottom [[coal ash]] and airborne [[fly ash]].<ref name="USGS" >{{cite web
|author = U.S. Geological Survey | author-link = USGS
|title = Radioactive Elements in Coal and Fly Ash: Abundance, Forms, and Environmental Significance
|date = October 1997
|url = http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/1997/fs163-97/FS-163-97.pdf
|work = U.S. Geological Survey Fact Sheet FS-163-97
}}</ref> As predicted by [[Oak Ridge National Laboratory|ORNL]] to cumulatively amount to 2.9 million tons over the 1937–2040 period, from the combustion of an estimated 637 billion tons of coal worldwide.<ref name="ornl">{{Cite web|url=http://www.ornl.gov/info/ornlreview/rev26-34/text/colmain.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070205103749/http://www.ornl.gov/info/ornlreview/rev26-34/text/colmain.html|url-status=dead|title=Coal Combustion – ORNL Review Vol. 26, No. 3&4, 1993|archive-date=5 February 2007}}</ref> This 2.9 million tons of [[actinide]] fuel, a resource derived from coal ash, would be classified as low grade uranium ore if it occurred naturally.]]
{{Main|Nuclear fuel}}
{{Further|Nuclear power proposed as renewable energy|Peak uranium}}
In 1987, the [[World Commission on Environment and Development]] (WCED) classified fission reactors that produce more [[fissile]] nuclear fuel than they consume (i.e. [[breeder reactor]]s) among conventional renewable energy sources, such as [[Sun|solar]] and [[Hydropower|falling water]].<ref name="Brundtland">{{cite web|title=Chapter 7: Energy: Choices for Environment and Development|url=http://www.un-documents.net/ocf-07.htm|work=Our Common Future: Report of the World Commission on Environment and Development|first=Gro Harlem|last=Brundtland|location=Oslo|date=20 March 1987|access-date=27 March 2013|quote=Today's primary sources of energy are mainly non-renewable: natural gas, oil, coal, peat, and conventional nuclear power. There are also renewable sources, including wood, plants, dung, falling water, geothermal sources, solar, tidal, wind, and wave energy, as well as human and animal muscle-power. Nuclear reactors that produce their own fuel ("breeders") and eventually fusion reactors are also in this category}}</ref> The [[American Petroleum Institute]] likewise does not consider conventional nuclear fission as renewable, but rather that [[breeder reactor]] nuclear power fuel is considered renewable and sustainable, noting that radioactive waste from used [[spent fuel]] rods remains radioactive and so has to be very carefully stored for several hundred years.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.api.org/classroom/curricula/nonrenew-resources.cfm|title=Key Characteristics of Nonrenewable Resources|author=American Petroleum Institute|access-date=2010-02-21}}</ref> With the careful monitoring of radioactive waste products also being required upon the use of other renewable energy sources, such as [[geothermal energy]].<ref>http://www.epa.gov/radiation/tenorm/geothermal.html Geothermal Energy Production Waste.</ref>
The use of [[nuclear technology]] relying on [[Nuclear fission|fission]] requires [[Naturally occurring radioactive material]] as fuel. [[Uranium]], the most common fission fuel, is present in the ground at relatively low concentrations and [[uranium mining|mined]] in 19 countries.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.world-nuclear.org/info/inf23.html|title=World Uranium Mining|publisher=World Nuclear Association|access-date=2011-02-28}}</ref> This mined uranium is used to fuel energy-generating nuclear reactors with [[Fissile|fissionable]] [[uranium-235]] which generates heat that is ultimately used to power [[turbine]]s to generate electricity.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.world-nuclear.org/education/uran.html|title=What is uranium? How does it work?|publisher=World Nuclear Association|access-date=2011-02-28}}</ref>
As of 2013 only a few kilograms (picture available) of uranium have been extracted from the ocean in [[pilot program]]s and it is also believed that the uranium extracted on an industrial scale from the seawater would constantly be replenished from uranium [[leaching (metallurgy)|leached]] from the ocean floor, maintaining the seawater concentration at a stable level.<ref name="gepr.org">{{Cite web|url=http://www.gepr.org/en/contents/20130729-01/|title=The current state of promising research into extraction of uranium from seawater – Utilization of Japan's plentiful seas: Global Energy Policy Research|website=gepr.org}}</ref> In 2014, with the advances made in the efficiency of seawater uranium extraction, a paper in the journal of ''Marine Science & Engineering'' suggests that with, light water reactors as its target, the process would be [[economy of scale|economically competitive if implemented on a large scale]].<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Development of a Kelp-Type Structure Module in a Coastal Ocean Model to Assess the Hydrodynamic Impact of Seawater Uranium Extraction Technology|first1=Gary|last1=Gill|first2=Wen|last2=Long|first3=Tarang|last3=Khangaonkar|first4=Taiping|last4=Wang|date=22 March 2014|journal=Journal of Marine Science and Engineering|volume=2|issue=1|pages=81–92|doi=10.3390/jmse2010081|doi-access=free}}</ref>
Nuclear power provides about 6% of the world's energy and 13–14% of the world's electricity.<ref>[[World Nuclear Association]]. [http://www.world-nuclear-news.org/newsarticle.aspx?id=27665 Another drop in nuclear generation] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140107221735/http://www.world-nuclear-news.org/newsarticle.aspx?id=27665 |date=7 January 2014 }} ''World Nuclear News'', 5 May 2010.</ref> Nuclear energy production is associated with potentially dangerous [[radioactive contamination]] as it relies upon unstable elements. In particular, nuclear power facilities produce about 200,000 metric tons of [[low and intermediate level waste]] (LILW) and 10,000 metric tons of [[high level waste]] (HLW) (including spent fuel designated as waste) each year worldwide.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.iaea.org/Publications/Factsheets/English/manradwa.html |title=Factsheets & FAQs |publisher=International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) |access-date=2012-02-01 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120125062648/http://www.iaea.org/Publications/Factsheets/English/manradwa.html |archive-date=25 January 2012 }}</ref>
Issues entirely separate from the question of the sustainability of nuclear fuel, relate to the use of nuclear fuel and the high-level radioactive waste the nuclear industry generates that if not properly contained, is [[Acute radiation syndrome|highly hazardous]] to people and wildlife. The United Nations ([[United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation|UNSCEAR]]) estimated in 2008 that average annual human radiation exposure includes 0.01 [[millisievert]] (mSv) from the legacy of past atmospheric nuclear testing plus the [[Chernobyl disaster]] and the nuclear fuel cycle, along with 2.0 mSv from natural radioisotopes and 0.4 mSv from [[cosmic ray]]s; all exposures [[Background radiation|vary by location]].<ref name = UNSCEAR>United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation. [http://www.unscear.org/docs/reports/2008/09-86753_Report_2008_GA_Report_corr2.pdf Sources and Effects of Ionizing Radiation, UNSCEAR 2008]</ref> [[Natural uranium]] in some inefficient reactor [[nuclear fuel cycle]]s becomes part of the [[Radioactive waste|nuclear waste]] "[[nuclear fuel cycle|once through]]" stream, and in a similar manner to the scenario were this uranium remained naturally in the ground, this uranium emits various forms of radiation in a [[decay chain]] that has a [[half-life]] of about 4.5 billion years,<ref name="natortg">{{cite web |last=Mcclain |first=D.E. |author2=A.C. Miller |author3=J.F. Kalinich |title=Status of Health Concerns about Military Use of Depleted Uranium and Surrogate Metals in Armor-Penetrating Munitions |publisher=[[NATO]] |date=20 December 2007 |url=http://www.afrri.usuhs.mil/www/outreach/pdf/mcclain_NATO_2005.pdf |access-date=2012-02-01 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120207021921/http://www.afrri.usuhs.mil/www/outreach/pdf/mcclain_NATO_2005.pdf |archive-date=7 February 2012 }}</ref> the storage of this unused uranium and the accompanying fission reaction products have raised public concerns about [[Nuclear and radiation accidents|risks of leaks and containment]], however the knowledge gained from studying the [[natural nuclear fission reactor]] in Oklo [[Gabon]], has informed geologists on the proven processes that kept the waste from this 2 billion year old natural nuclear reactor that operated for hundreds of thousands of years.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.iaea.org/sites/default/files/publications/magazines/bulletin/bull42-3/42302680518.pdf|title=The Safety of Radioactive Waste Management| author=AJ González|date= 2000|publisher=IAEA}}</ref>
== Land surface ==
Land surface can be considered both renewable and non-renewable resource depending on the scope of comparison. [[land economics|Land]] can be reused but new land cannot be created on demand so from economic perspective it's a fixed resource with perfectly [[inelastic supply]].<ref>{{Cite web|last=J.Singh|date=2014-04-17|title=Land: Meaning, Significance, Land as Renewable and Non-Renewal Resource|url=https://www.economicsdiscussion.net/factors-of-production/land-meaning-significance-land-as-renewable-and-non-renewal-resource/785|access-date=2020-06-21|website=Economics Discussion|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Lambin|first=Eric F.|date=2012-12-01|title=Global land availability: Malthus versus Ricardo|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2211912412000235|journal=Global Food Security|language=en|volume=1|issue=2|pages=83–87|doi=10.1016/j.gfs.2012.11.002|issn=2211-9124}}</ref>
== Renewable resources ==
{{Main|Renewable resource}}
{{Further|Renewable energy|Recycling}}
[[File:ThreeGorgesDam-China2009.jpg|thumb|right|The [[Three Gorges Dam]], the largest renewable energy generating station in the world.]]
[[Natural resource]]s, known as renewable resources, are replaced by [[Natural phenomenon|natural processes and forces]] persistent in the [[natural environment]]. There are [[Intermittent energy source|intermittent]] and reoccurring renewables, and [[Recycling|recyclable material]]s, which are utilized during a [[Biogeochemical cycle|cycle]] across a certain amount of time, and can be harnessed for any number of cycles.
The production of goods and services by [[manufacturing]] [[Product (business)|product]]s in [[economic system]]s creates many [[List of waste types|types of waste]] during production and after the [[consumer]] has made use of it. The material is then either [[Incineration|incinerated]], buried in a [[landfill]] or [[recycled]] for reuse. Recycling turns materials of value that would otherwise become waste into valuable resources again.
[[File:ThreeGorgesDam-Landsat7.jpg|thumb|Satellite map showing areas flooded by the Three Gorges reservoir. Compare 7 November 2006 (above) with 17 April 1987 (below). The energy station required the flooding of [[archaeological]] and cultural sites and displaced some 1.3 million people, and is causing significant [[ecological]] changes, including an increased risk of [[landslide]]s.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://unn.people.com.cn/GB/9105724.html |title=重庆云阳长江右岸现360万方滑坡险情-地方-人民网 |work=People's Daily |access-date=2009-08-01}} See also: {{cite web |url= http://news.xinhuanet.com/newscenter/2009-04/09/content_11157017.htm |title=探访三峡库区云阳故陵滑坡险情 |publisher=News.xinhuanet.com |access-date=2009-08-01}}</ref> The dam has been a controversial topic both domestically and abroad.<ref name="controversy">{{cite magazine |author=Lin Yang |title=China's Three Gorges Dam Under Fire |url=http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,1671000,00.html |magazine=Time |date=2007-10-12 |access-date=2009-03-28 |quote=The giant Three Gorges Dam across China's Yangtze River has been mired in controversy ever since it was first proposed }} See also: {{cite news |last=Laris |first=Michael |title=Untamed Waterways Kill Thousands Yearly |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/inatl/longterm/china/stories/death081798.htm |newspaper=The Washington Post|date=1998-08-17 |access-date=2009-03-28 |quote=Officials now use the deadly history of the Yangtze, China's longest river, to justify the country's riskiest and most controversial infrastructure project – the enormous Three Gorges Dam. }} and {{cite news |last=Grant |first=Stan |title=Global Challenges: Ecological and Technological Advances Around the World |url=http://edition.cnn.com/TRANSCRIPTS/0506/18/gc.01.html |publisher=CNN|date=2005-06-18 |access-date=2009-03-28 |quote=China's engineering marvel is unleashing a torrent of criticism. [...] When it comes to global challenges, few are greater or more controversial than the construction of the massive Three Gorges Dam in Central China. }} and {{cite news |last=Gerin |first=Roseanne |title=Rolling on a River |url=http://www.bjreview.com.cn/eye/txt/2008-12/06/content_168792.htm |work=Beijing Review |date=2008-12-11 |access-date=2009-03-28 |quote=..the 180-billion yuan ($26.3 billion) Three Gorges Dam project has been highly contentious. |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090922231347/http://www.bjreview.com.cn/eye/txt/2008-12/06/content_168792.htm |archive-date=22 September 2009 |url-status=dead }}</ref>]]
In the natural environment [[water]], [[forest]]s, [[plant]]s and [[animal]]s are all renewable resources, as long as they are adequately [[Conservation biology|monitored, protected and conserved]]. [[Sustainable agriculture]] is the cultivation of plant and animal materials in a manner that preserves plant and animal [[ecosystem]]s and that can improve [[soil health]] and [[soil fertility]] over the long term. The [[overfishing]] of the oceans is one example of where an industry practice or method can threaten an ecosystem, endanger [[endangered species|species]] and possibly even determine whether or not a [[fishery]] is sustainable for use by humans. An unregulated industry practice or method can lead to a complete [[resource depletion]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Illegal, Unreported and Unregulated Fishing in Small-Scale Marine and Inland Capture Fisharies|url=http://www.fao.org/DOCREP/005/Y3274E/y3274e09.htm|publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization|access-date=2012-02-04}}</ref>
<!-- Deleted image removed: [[File:Ohotnikovo1.jpg|thumb|[[Okhotnykovo Solar Park]] is one of the world's [[List of photovoltaic power stations|largest photovoltaic power stations]].]] -->
The renewable energy from the [[sun]], [[wind]], [[surface wave|wave]], [[biomass]] and [[Geothermal gradient|geothermal]] energies are based on renewable resources. Renewable resources such as the movement of [[water]] ([[hydropower]], [[tidal power]] and [[wave power]]), [[wind power|wind]] and [[radiant energy]] from geothermal heat (used for [[geothermal power]]) and solar energy (used for [[Solar energy|solar power]]) are practically infinite and cannot be depleted, unlike their non-renewable counterparts, which are likely to run out if not used sparingly.
The potential wave [[energy]] on coastlines can provide 1/5 of world demand. Hydroelectric power can supply 1/3 of our total energy global needs. Geothermal energy can provide 1.5 more times the energy we need. There is enough wind to power the planet 30 times over, wind power could power all of humanity's needs alone. Solar currently supplies only 0.1% of our world energy needs, but there is enough out there to power humanity's needs 4,000 times over, the entire global projected energy demand by 2050.<ref>R. Eisenberg and D. Nocera, "Preface: Overview of the Forum on Solar and Renewable Energy," Inorg. Chem. 44, 6799 (2007).</ref><ref>P. V. Kamat, "Meeting the Clean Energy Demand: Nanostructure Architectures for Solar Energy Conversion," J. Phys. Chem. C 111, 2834 (2007).</ref>
Renewable energy and [[Energy conservation|energy efficiency]] are no longer niche [[Economic sector|sector]]s that are promoted only by governments and environmentalists. The increasing levels of investment and that more of the capital is from conventional financial actors, both suggest that [[sustainable energy]] has become mainstream and the future of energy production, as non-renewable resources decline. This is reinforced by [[climate change]] concerns, nuclear dangers and accumulating radioactive waste, [[2000s energy crisis|high oil prices]], [[peak oil]] and increasing government support for renewable energy. These factors are [[renewable energy commercialization|commercializing renewable energy]], enlarging the market and growing demand, the adoption of new products to replace obsolete technology and the conversion of existing infrastructure to a renewable standard.<ref>{{cite web|url= http://energy-base.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/11/SEFI-Global-Trends-in-Sustainable-Energy-Investment-2007.pdf |title=Global Trends in Sustainable Energy Investment 2007: Analysis of Trends and Issues in the Financing of Renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency in OECD and Developing Countries (PDF), p. 3. |publisher=United Nations Environment Programme |access-date=2014-03-04}}</ref>
==Economic models==
In economics, a non-renewable resource is defined as [[Good (economics)|goods]], where greater consumption today implies less consumption tomorrow.<ref>Cremer and Salehi-Isfahani 1991:18</ref> [[David Ricardo]] in his early works analysed the pricing of exhaustible resources, where he argued that the price of a mineral resource should increase over time. He argued that the spot price is always determined by the mine with the highest cost of extraction, and mine owners with lower extraction costs benefit from a differential rent. The first model is defined by [[Hotelling's rule]], which is a 1931 economic model of non-renewable [[resource management]] by [[Harold Hotelling]]. It shows that efficient exploitation of a nonrenewable and nonaugmentable resource would, under otherwise stable conditions, lead to a [[resource depletion|depletion]] of the resource. The rule states that this would lead to a net price or "[[Hotelling rent]]" for it that rose annually at a rate equal to the [[rate of interest]], reflecting the increasing scarcity of the resources.<ref>{{cite journal |first=H. |last=Hotelling |year=1931 |title=The Economics of Exhaustible Resources |journal=[[Journal of Political Economy|J. Political Econ.]] |volume=39 |issue=2 |pages=137–175 |doi=10.1086/254195 |jstor=1822328 |s2cid=44026808 }}</ref> The [[Hartwick's rule]] provides an important result about the [[sustainability]] of welfare in an economy that uses non-renewable source.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hartwick |first1=John M. |title=Intergenerational Equity and the Investing of Rents from Exhaustible Resources |journal=The American Economic Review |date=December 1977 |volume=67 |issue=5 |pages=972–974 |jstor=1828079 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1828079}}</ref>
==See also==
{{Portal|Energy|Renewable energy}}
{{div col|colwidth=22em}}
* [[Clean technology]]
* [[Energy conservation]]
* [[Eurosolar]]
* [[Fossil fuel]]
* [[Fossil water]]
* [[Green design]]
* [[Hartwick's rule]]
* [[Hermann Scheer]]
* [[Hotelling's rule]]
* [[Hubbert's peak]]
* [[Liebig's law of the minimum]]
* [[Natural resource management]]
* [[Overfishing]]
* [[Peak oil]]
* [[Reserves-to-production ratio]]
* [[Sustainability]]
{{div col end}}
==References==
{{Reflist}}
{{Natural resources}}
{{Population}}
{{Authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Non-Renewable Resource}}
[[Category:Natural resources]]
[[Category:Non-renewable resources| ]]
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
[[Category:Space]]
[[it:Energie non rinnovabili]] |
Clarion-Clipperton Zone | {{short description|Fracture zone of the Pacific Ocean seabed}}
[[File:Pacific elevation2.jpg|thumb|350px|Major Pacific trenches (1–10) and fracture zones (11–20). The '''Clipperton Fracture Zone''' (15) is the nearly horizontal line below the '''Clarion Fracture Zone''' (14), and the Middle America Trench is the deep-blue line No. 9.]]
[[File:Location_of_the_Clarion_Clipperton_Zone.png|thumb|310x310px|Location of the Clarion Clipperton Zone]]
The '''Clarion-Clipperton Zone'''<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=https://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/explorations/18ccz/background/mining/mining.html|title=DeepCCZ: Deep-sea Mining Interests in the Clarion-Clipperton Zone|last=|first=|date=|website=NOAA Office of Ocean Exploration and Research|language=EN-US|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190214022631/https://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/explorations/18ccz/background/mining/mining.html |archive-date=14 February 2019 |access-date=2019-11-27}}</ref> ('''CCZ''') or '''Clarion-Clipperton Fracture Zone<ref name=":1">{{cite web |title=Clarion-Clipperton Fracture Zone {{!}} International Seabed Authority |url=https://www.isa.org.jm/clarion-clipperton-fracture-zone |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180321205102/https://www.isa.org.jm/clarion-clipperton-fracture-zone |archive-date=2018-03-21 |website=www.isa.org.jm}} </ref>''' is an environmental management area of the [[Pacific Ocean]], administered by the [[International Seabed Authority]] (ISA).<ref>{{Cite web |title=Marine Regions · Clarion Clipperton Zone (ISA Environmental Management Area) |url=https://marineregions.org/gazetteer.php?p=details&id=64222 |access-date=2023-10-22 |website=marineregions.org}}</ref> It includes the Clarion Fracture Zone and the Clipperton Fracture Zone, geological submarine [[fracture zone|fracture zones]]. Clarion and Clipperton are two of the five major lineations of the northern Pacific floor, and were discovered by the [[Scripps Institution of Oceanography]] in 1954. The CCZ is regularly considered for [[deep-sea mining]] due to the abundant presence of [[manganese nodule]]s.
The CCZ extendes around 4,500 miles (7,240 km) East to West<ref name="EB">{{cite web |title=Clipperton Fracture Zone |url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/121879/Clipperton-Fracture-Zone |accessdate=17 November 2011 |publisher=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]}}</ref> and spans approximately {{Convert|4,500,000|km2|mi2|abbr=}}.<ref>{{Cite web |last= |first= |date= |title=The Clarion-Clipperton Zone |url=http://pew.org/2o4se1P |archive-url= |archive-date= |access-date=2019-11-27 |website=Pew Charitable Trusts}}</ref> The fractures themselves are unusually mountainous topographical features.
In 2016, investigation of the seafloor in the zone was found to contain an abundance and diversity of life – more than half of the species collected were new to science.
== Geography ==
The fractures can be divided into four parts:
*The first, 127°–113° W, is a broad, low welt of some {{convert|900|miles}}, with a central trough {{convert|10 to 30|miles}} wide;
*The second, 113°-107° W, is a volcano enriched ridge, {{convert|60|miles}} wide and {{convert|330|miles}} long;
*The third, 107°-101° W, is a low welt with a central trough {{convert|1,200–2,400|feet}} deep which transects the [[Albatross Plateau]]; and
*The fourth, 101°-96° W, contains the [[Tehuantepec Ridge]] which extends {{convert|400|miles}} northeast to the continental margin.<ref name="jstor">{{cite journal |author=H. W. Menard and Robert L. Fisher |year=1958 |title=Clipperton Fracture in the Northeastern Equatorial Pacific |journal=The Journal of Geology |volume=66 |issue=3 |pages=239–253 |bibcode=1958JG.....66..239M |doi=10.1086/626502 |jstor=30080925 |s2cid=129268203}}</ref>
The [[Nova-Canton Trough]] is often seen as an extension of the fractures.<ref name="Oceanography1972">{{cite book|title=Contributions – Scripps Institution of Oceanography|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2JHzAAAAMAAJ|accessdate=17 November 2011|year=1972|publisher=Scripps Institution of Oceanography|page=69}}</ref>
The zone contains [[Nodule (geology)|nodules]] made up of valuable [[rare-earth element|rare-earth]] and other minerals. Some of these play an essential role for the [[energy transition]] to a [[low carbon economy]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Church |first1=Clare |last2=Crawford |first2=Alec |series=Lecture Notes in Energy |title=The Geopolitics of the Global Energy Transition |date=2020 |volume=73 |publisher=Springer International Publishing |location=Cham |isbn=978-3-030-39066-2 |pages=279–304 |chapter-url=https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-030-39066-2_12 |access-date=28 January 2021 |language=en |chapter=Minerals and the Metals for the Energy Transition: Exploring the Conflict Implications for Mineral-Rich, Fragile States|doi=10.1007/978-3-030-39066-2_12 |s2cid=226561697 }}</ref> These nodules form around bone fragments or shark teeth. Micronodules then further aggregate and accrete into the clumps targeted for harvesting.<ref name=":2">{{Cite news |last1=Imbler |first1=Sabrina |last2=Corum |first2=Jonathan |date=2022-08-29 |title=Deep-Sea Riches: Mining a Remote Ecosystem |language=en-US |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2022/08/29/world/deep-sea-riches-mining-nodules.html |access-date=2023-04-12 |issn=0362-4331}}</ref>
=== Clipperton Fracture Zone ===
{{maplink|frame=yes|frame-align=right|frame-width=310|frame-height=175|frame-long=-130|frame-lat=12.5|zoom=2|raw={{Wikipedia:Map data/Fracture zone}}|text=Approximate surface projection on ocean of Clipperton and Clarion fracture zones (violet). Other nearby fracture zones (orange), mid-oceanic ridges (white) and associated features such as probable extension of fracture zones (lighter violet or orange) are also shown. Click to expand map to obtain interactive fracture zone details.<ref name=FZmaplink>General citations for named fracture zones are at page [[Wikipedia:Map data/Fracture zone]] and specific citations are in interactive detail.</ref>}}
The Clipperton Fracture Zone is the southernmost of the north east Pacific Ocean lineations. It begins east-northeast of the [[Line Islands]] and ends in the [[Middle America Trench]] off the coast of Central America,<ref name="EB" /><ref name="Keating1987">{{cite book |last=Keating |first=Barbara H. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wKCYe5haiCUC&pg=PA156 |title=Seamounts, islands, and atolls |publisher=American Geophysical Union |year=1987 |isbn=978-0-87590-068-1 |page=156 |accessdate=17 November 2011 }}{{Dead link|date=December 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref><ref name="jstor" /> forming a rough line on the same latitude as [[Kiribati]] and [[Clipperton Island]], from which it gets its name.
=== Clarion Fracture Zone ===
The Clarion Fracture Zone is the next Pacific lineation north of Clipperton FZ. It is bordered on the northeast by [[Clarion Island]], the westernmost of the [[Revillagigedo Islands]], from which it gets its name. Both fracture zones were discovered by the U.S. research vessels "Horizon" and "Spencer F. Baird" in 1954.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Marine Regions · Clarion Fracture Zone (Fracture Zone) |url=https://marineregions.org/gazetteer.php?p=details&id=7454 |access-date=2023-10-22 |website=marineregions.org}}</ref>
== Deep sea mining ==
[[File:2015-04-14 18-20-14 Sonne SO239 157ROV11 Logo original(1).jpg|thumb|Polymetallic nodules on the seafloor in the CCZ]]
The CCZ has been divided into 16 mining claims spanning approximately {{convert|1,000,000|km2|mi2|abbr=}}. A further nine areas, each covering {{convert|160,000|km2|mi2|abbr=}}, have been set aside for conservation.<ref name=":0" /> The International Seabed Authority (ISA) estimates that the total amount of nodules in the Clarion Clipperton Zone exceeds 21 billion tons (Bt), containing about 5.95 Bt of [[manganese]], 0.27 Bt of [[nickel]], 0.23 Bt of [[copper]] and 0.05 Bt of [[cobalt]].<ref name="isa2010">{{cite book|title=A Geological Model of Polymetallic Nodule Deposits in the Clarion-Clipperton Fracture Zone and Prospector's Guide for Polymetallic Nodule Deposits in the Clarion Clipperton Fracture Zone. Technical Study: No. 6|last1=International Seabed Authority|date=2010|isbn=978-976-95268-2-2}}</ref> The ISA has issued 19 licences for mining exploration within this area.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Exploration Contracts {{!}} International Seabed Authority|url=https://www.isa.org.jm/exploration-contracts|access-date=2021-11-30|website=www.isa.org.jm}}</ref> Exploratory full-scale extraction operations were set to begin in late 2021.<ref name=":1" /> ISA aimed to publish the deep sea mining code in July 2023. Commercial license applications were to be accepted for review thereafter.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Reid|first=Helen|date=2021-10-29|title=New deep-sea mining rules set to miss 2023 deadline, Latam and Caribbean countries say|language=en|work=Reuters|url=https://www.reuters.com/business/sustainable-business/un-deep-sea-mining-rules-unlikely-be-completed-by-2023-deadline-latam-countries-2021-10-28/|access-date=2021-12-07}}</ref>
The so-called two-year rule states that before regulations are passed, a member nation has the authority to notify ISA that it wants to mine. This starts a two-year clock during which the ISA can come up with rules. If it fails to do so, the mining is implicitly approved. [[Nauru]] gave notice in July 2021, creating a deadline of July 9, 2023. ISA's next meeting, however, begins a day later, on July 10.<ref name=":2" />
== Environmental concerns ==
Areas of the fracture zone that have been licensed for mining are home to a diversity of deep-sea [[Xenophyophorea|xenophyophores]]. A 2017 study found 34 novel species in the area. Xenophyophores are highly sensitive to human disturbances, such that mining may adversely affect them. They play a [[Keystone species|keystone]] role in benthic ecosystems such that their removal could amplify ecological consequences.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2017-03-01|title=Giant protists (xenophyophores, Foraminifera) are exceptionally diverse in parts of the abyssal eastern Pacific licensed for polymetallic nodule exploration|journal=Biological Conservation|language=en|volume=207|pages=106–116|doi=10.1016/j.biocon.2017.01.006|issn=0006-3207|doi-access=free|last1=Gooday|first1=Andrew J.|last2=Holzmann|first2=Maria|last3=Caulle|first3=Clémence|last4=Goineau|first4=Aurélie|last5=Kamenskaya|first5=Olga|last6=Weber|first6=Alexandra A.-T.|last7=Pawlowski|first7=Jan}}</ref> The nodules are considered "critical for food web integrity".<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Stratmann |first1=Tanja |last2=Soetaert |first2=Karline |last3=Kersken |first3=Daniel |last4=van Oevelen |first4=Dick |date=2021-06-10 |title=Polymetallic nodules are essential for food-web integrity of a prospective deep-seabed mining area in Pacific abyssal plains |journal=Scientific Reports |language=en |volume=11 |issue=1 |pages=12238 |doi=10.1038/s41598-021-91703-4 |issn=2045-2322 |pmc=8192577 |pmid=34112864}}</ref> The zone hosts corals, sea cucumbers, worms, dumbo octopuses and many other species.<ref name=":2" />
[[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]] and [[TU Delft]] use their ISA observer status to investigate the potential impact of collecting these minerals and compare it to the [[environmental issues|environmental]] and human impact of [[mining|terrestrial mining]].<ref>{{cite web |last1=Gallagher |first1=Mary Beth |title=Understanding the impact of deep-sea mining |url=https://news.mit.edu/2019/understanding-impact-deep-sea-mining-1206 |website=MIT News {{!}} Massachusetts Institute of Technology |publisher=Massachusetts Institute of Technology |access-date=28 January 2021 |language=en}}</ref><ref>[https://blueharvesting-project.eu/ 9 European partners work together to help the maturation of a hydraulic nodule collector, while minimizing its environmental footprint], blueharvesting-project.eu</ref> In April 2021, scientists from JPI oceans project carried out in depth studies into mining technology and its possible effect on the seabed.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Assessing the Impacts of Nodule Mining on the Deep-Sea Environment |url=https://www.jpi-oceans.eu/news-events/news/assessing-impacts-nodule-mining-deep-sea-environment |access-date=2021-12-07 |website=www.jpi-oceans.eu |language=en}}</ref>
Mining has the potential for large environmental impacts. The impact of the release of [[tailings]] from nodule processing into the water column on pelagic organisms or the detrimental effects they may have on the benthic communities below are unknown.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Schriever|first=G.|date=2009-05-04|title=SS Ocean Mining: Development of Environmental Research related to future Deep Sea Mining - Are Concerns justified and what should be done?|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.4043/19935-ms|journal=All Days|publisher=OTC|doi=10.4043/19935-ms}}</ref>
Along with the xenophyophores, many types of species reside in the Clarion-Clipperton Zone: protists, microbial prokaryotes, and various fauna including megafauna, macrofauna, and meiofauna, each distinguished by size.<ref>NORI D Collector Test EIS - FINAL - Chapter 6. (2022). In The Metals Company.</ref> Due to the lack of historical research in the region—in large part because of the inaccessibility, monetary, and physical cost without modern technology—very little is known about life in the CCZ. The increasing tests in the region have led to the discovery of many new species, suggesting both a high species richness and high species rarity within the CCZ. It seems that [[Manganese nodule|polymetallic nodules]] in the region, the target of much [[Deep sea mining|deep-sea mining]], are crucial for fostering a high level of [[biodiversity]] on the sea floor. Even so, there are many gaps in the current understanding of the ecosystem roles played, life history traits, sensitivities, spatial or temporal variabilities, and resilience of these species.<ref>Amon, D.; Gollner, S.; Morato, T.; Smith, C.; Chen, C.; Christiansen, S., et al. (2022). Assessment of scientific gaps related to the effective environmental management of deep-seabed mining. UC San Diego. Report #: ARTN 105006. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2022.105006 Retrieved from https://escholarship.org/uc/item/0w48f05q</ref>
Much of what is known about the potential environmental impact is a result of a dredging pilot test conducted in 1978. In the years since the tests, the region has been monitored. Many species here are more susceptible to the negative effects of environmental shifts as change at these depths is atypical. Specifically looking at [[Nematode|nematodes]], it has been determined that there is a lower [[species richness]] and lower total [[biomass]] in the area where the dredging occurred as compared to the neighboring spaces. Additionally, the composition of species and the frequencies at which they are found change with human interference. The removal of polymetallic nodules, as proposed through deep-sea mining, would decrease suitable habitat as many species of nematodes reside within the upper five centimeters where nodules exist, too. Even those species that do remain will face changes to their habitat conditions as the new top layer of sediment after the removal of the nodules will be significantly denser. The low [[sedimentation]] levels and minimal currents show that disruption in the CCZ would have long-lasting effects on the environment; the upturned sediment remains unsettled even decades later.<ref>Miljutin, Dmitry & Miljutina, Maria & Martinez Arbizu, Pedro & Galéron, Joëlle. (2011). Deep-sea nematode assemblage has not recovered 26 years after experimental mining of polymetallic nodules (Clarion-Clipperton Fracture Zone, Tropical Eastern Pacific). Deep Sea Research Part I: Oceanographic Research Papers. 58. 10.1016/j.dsr.2011.06.003.</ref> Additionally, nodules form for millions of years; as such their removal would fundamentally alter the ecosystem for millenniums to come. The species directly dependent on them, and all of their subsequent linkages or environmental functions would see vast changes that could not be quickly restored after the damage is complete.<ref>Amon, D.; Gollner, S.; Morato, T.; Smith, C.; Chen, C.; Christiansen, S., et al. (2022). Assessment of scientific gaps related to the effective environmental management of deep-seabed mining. UC San Diego. Report #: ARTN 105006. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2022.105006 Retrieved from https://escholarship.org/uc/item/0w48f05q</ref>
The vast majority of relevant spheres are still lacking adequate research. What is known makes clear that many aspects of deep-sea mining activity would endanger species in the Clarion-Clipperton Zone; they face threats of being crushed by machinery, dispelled in sediment plumes, smothered by unsettled sediment, the loss of resources and habitat, etc. This does not include the threats posed by noise and light pollution—the effects of which are still largely unknown.<ref>Miljutin, Dmitry & Miljutina, Maria & Martinez Arbizu, Pedro & Galéron, Joëlle. (2011). Deep-sea nematode assemblage has not recovered 26 years after experimental mining of polymetallic nodules (Clarion-Clipperton Fracture Zone, Tropical Eastern Pacific). Deep Sea Research Part I: Oceanographic Research Papers. 58. 10.1016/j.dsr.2011.06.003.</ref>
[[NGO]]s and governments have called for a moratorium until more is known about potential environmental impacts.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2021-09-15|title=One step closer to a global moratorium on deep-sea mining|url=https://www.fauna-flora.org/news/one-step-closer-to-a-global-moratorium-on-deep-sea-mining/|access-date=2021-12-07|website=Fauna & Flora International|language=en-US}}</ref>
==References==
{{Reflist}}
== Links ==
* {{cite web |
url = https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/deep-sea-mining-could-begin-soon-regulated-or-not/ | title = Deep-Sea Mining Could Begin Soon, Regulated or Not | last1= Heffernan | first1 = Olive |date = 2023-10-23 | publisher = Scientific American}}
* {{cite web | url = https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pf1GvrUqeIA | title = The race to mine the bottom of the ocean | author = Laura Bult (producer) | date = 2023-10-11 | publisher = [[Vox Media|Vox]] }}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2017}}
[[Category:Fracture zones]]
[[Category:Pacific Ocean]]
[[Category:Mining]]
[[Category:Environmental conservation]] |
Reef burials | {{Short description|Burial process}}
[[File:Neptune memorial reef 04.jpg|alt=Neptune memorial reef|thumb|Neptune memorial reef]]
'''Reef burials''' are a type of "green" or "natural" burial considered by some{{who|date=March 2022}} to be an eco-friendly alternative to traditional [[burial]].<ref name=":4">{{Cite web|date=2012-01-09|title=Green Guru: How Eco-friendly Are Reef Ball Burials?|url=https://www.audubon.org/magazine/january-february-2012/green-guru-how-eco-friendly-are-reef|access-date=2022-02-22|website=Audubon|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2005-09-09|title="Green" Burials Offer Unique, Less Costly Goodbyes|url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/article/death-burial-green-living|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220222125042/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/article/death-burial-green-living|url-status=dead|archive-date=February 22, 2022|access-date=2022-02-22|website=Science|language=en}}</ref> [[Cremation]] ash is mixed with concrete to form objects that are placed on the seafloor to encourage wildlife in areas where sea life has been diminished.
== Background ==
Reef burials are a new burial practice gaining a degree of popularity. Rather than being buried in the earth, a person's remains are cremated and the resulting ash is mixed with pH-balanced concrete to create structures which are placed on the seabed to help restore marine habitats similar to a coral reef.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|date=2022-02-21|title=Reef ball burials: the new trend for becoming 'coral' when you die|url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2022/feb/21/reef-ball-burials-the-new-trend-for-becoming-coral-when-you-die|access-date=2022-02-22|website=the Guardian|language=en}}</ref><ref name=":3">{{Cite web|last=Miami|first=Lisa Orkin Emmanuel, Associated Press in|date=2008-05-12|title=Watery graves offer a haven for divers|url=http://www.theguardian.com/environment/2008/may/12/conservation.usa|access-date=2022-02-22|website=the Guardian|language=en}}</ref> The concrete is mixed using fibreglass rather than metal, so that it does not rust and has the same pH balance as the sea.<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":5">{{Cite web |title=First memorial reef balls inaugurated in Venice lagoon |url=http://www.italianinsider.it/?q=node/8582 |access-date=2022-02-26 |website=www.italianinsider.it}}</ref> In areas where the seafloor or coral reefs have been destroyed the structures help to renew the sea-life by establishing new habitats for [[fish]] and [[Crustacean|crustaceans]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=Other Disposition Options|url=https://www.greenburialcouncil.org/other_disposition_options.html|access-date=2022-02-22|website=GREEN BURIAL COUNCIL|language=en}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite news|date=11 Dec 2015|title=Artificial reef balls containing people's ashes lowered into the sea off WA coast|work=ABC News|url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2015-12-11/reef-balls-containing-ashes-lowered-into-the-sea/}}</ref> The structures are expected to last for 500 years and are variously perforated domes called "[[reef balls]]", pyramids, or similar memorial-style shapes chosen to be appropriate to the location. Reef balls weigh between {{convert|800|and|4000|lb|kg}} and their perforations ensure that storm pressure doesn't move them out of place on the sea floor.<ref name=":6">{{Cite web |last=Grundhauser |first=Eric |date=2018-10-29 |title=Bury Me in an Artificial Reef |url=http://www.atlasobscura.com/articles/reef-burial-eternal-florida-ball |access-date=2022-02-26 |website=Atlas Obscura |language=en}}</ref>
[[File:Juvenile-lobster.jpg|alt=Young lobster|thumb|Young lobster]]
Reef burials are popular amongst divers and others who love the sea. Some people feel that such burials offer the deceased a second life as part of a living reef.<ref name=":6" /> Loved ones are given the [[Global Positioning System|GPS]] coordinates of the resting place so that they dive to visit the site of the remains.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Eco-Afterlife: Green Burial Options|url=https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/eco-afterlife-green-buria/|access-date=2022-02-22|website=Scientific American|language=en}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite news|last=Fink|first=Kathryn|date=July 19, 2021|title=An increasingly popular way to be buried: Become part of an artificial reef|newspaper=The Washington Post|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/lifestyle/magazine/funeral-industry-green-reef-burials/2021/07/16/c6765322-cd24-11eb-8014-2f3926ca24d9_story.html}}</ref> A memorial plaque is installed with the person's name, date of birth and death.<ref name=":3" /> Thousands of reef balls are put into oceans each year. Large reef memorials can accommodate multiple sets of remains, so that families can be included and placed together.<ref name=":6" />
== Locations ==
In the United States there are more than thirty permitted locations for reef memorials, including off the coasts of Florida at [[Mexico Beach, Florida|Mexico Beach]],<ref>{{Cite web |title=MBARA – Mexico Beach Artificial Reef Association |url=https://www.mbara.org/memorial-reef-program.cfm |access-date=2022-02-26 |website=www.mbara.org}}</ref> [[Egg Harbor Township, New Jersey|Egg Harbor]], near [[Atlantic City, New Jersey]] and [[Texas]].<ref name=":1" /> In the UK, where the [[Crown Estate]] owns the UK seabed, a square-kilometre site off the coast of [[Weymouth, Dorset|Weymouth]] and [[Isle of Portland|Portland]] has been designated for this use in the 'Wreck to Reef' area,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Location |url=https://www.solacereef.co.uk/location/ |access-date=2022-02-26 |website=Solace Reef |language=en-GB}}</ref> with a particular focus on creating structures to shelter young [[Lobster|lobsters]] until their shells grow.<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Cite web|title=Solace Reef: A Cemetery on the Sea Floor|url=https://www.funeralguide.co.uk/blog/solace-reef|access-date=2022-02-22|website=Funeral Guide|language=en}}</ref><ref name=":7">{{Cite news|last=Bruxelles|first=Simon de|title=Ashes of the dead will keep lobsters company on monumental new reef|newspaper=[[The Times]]|language=en|url=https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/ashes-of-the-dead-will-keep-lobsters-company-on-monumental-new-reef-lp37zswx8qs|access-date=2022-02-23|issn=0140-0460}}</ref>
Artificial reef balls were first used at Jurien reef in Western Australia in 2015.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2015-12-11 |title=Artificial reef balls containing ashes lowered into the sea off WA coast |language=en-AU |work=ABC News |url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2015-12-11/reef-balls-containing-ashes-lowered-into-the-sea/7022570 |access-date=2022-02-26}}</ref>
In 2019, the first reef burials were placed in the water using a crane in the [[Venetian Lagoon|Venice lagoon]] in Italy.<ref name=":5" />
Despite growing popularity, the process still involves both cremation and concrete, both of which carry an environmental cost.<ref name=":0" /> Cremation, depending on the age of the crematorium, releases around {{convert|540|lb|kg}} of {{CO2}} and the concrete sector is responsible for 8 percent of global {{CO2}} production.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-02-25 |title=Reef Ball Burials: Come Back As Coral In Your Next Life? |url=https://www.greenqueen.com.hk/reef-ball-burials-green-funerals/ |access-date=2022-02-26 |website=Green Queen |language=en-US}}</ref>
== Sea rewilding ==
Depending on the locations different varieties of [[coral]] can grow on the surface of the concrete and [[algae]], [[diatom]]s, eels, fish and invertebrates will come to live on the structure.<ref name=":4" /> Each memorial contributes to a unique ecosystem and provides a permanent and environment for all marine life.
In the most established memorial reefs such as [[Neptune Memorial Reef]], [[Florida]], a marine study survey, estimated that the population numbers of wild sea life went from close to zero to thousands in the space of two years. The survey found [[Spotted eagle ray|spotted eagle rays]], [[Damselfish|damsel fish]] and [[Puffer Fish|puffer fish]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Neptune Memorial Reef – An Under Sea Cemetery |url=https://www.kuriositas.com/2010/09/neptune-memorial-reef-under-sea.html |access-date=2022-02-26}}</ref> Since then the numbers have continued to grow: a survey in 2018 showed the reef supports more than 65 different fish, [[shrimp]] and lobster and 75 other species including [[Sponge|sponges]], and corals.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-04-20 |title=A coral reef cemetery is home to life in the afterlife |url=https://apnews.com/article/travel-fl-state-wire-tx-state-wire-boating-corals-0d871990bdcb4d23816dc342f0b34fbb |access-date=2022-02-26 |website=AP NEWS |language=en}}</ref>
The Solace Reef in [[Weymouth Bay]]. England is seeded with baby lobsters.<ref name=":7" /><ref>{{Cite web |title=Lobsters on the Reef |url=https://www.solacereef.co.uk/lobsters-on-the-reef/ |access-date=2022-02-26 |website=Solace Reef |language=en-GB}}</ref>
== See also ==
* [[Reef Ball Foundation]]
* [[Neptune Memorial Reef]]
* [[Burial at sea]]
* [[Sea rewilding]]
== References ==
{{Reflist}}
[[Category:Burials at sea]]
[[Category:Ceremonies]]
[[Category:Coral reefs]]
[[Category:Ecological restoration]]
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
[[Category:Funerals]]
[[Category:Reefs]] |
Conservation community | #REDIRECT [[Conservation development#Conservation community]]
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[[Category:Environmental conservation|community]]
[[Category:Protected areas]]
[[Category:Land trusts]]
[[Category:Real estate]]
[[Category:Conservation communities| ]]
[[Category:IUCN Category V| ]] |
Category:Conservation communities | {{Cat main|Conservation community}}
[[Category:Environmental conservation|Communities]]
[[Category:Protected areas]]
[[Category:Land trusts]]
[[Category:Real estate]]
[[Category:IUCN Category V]] |
Gordon Strong | {{Short description|American businessman}}
{{about||the newspaper publisher|G. Gordon Strong}}
'''Henry Gordon Strong''' (June 3, 1869 – February 24, 1954) was a [[Chicago]] businessman and founder of Gordon Strong and Company in 1927 which still operates today.
==Life==
He was born in [[Burlington, Iowa]] to [[Henry Strong (ATSF)|Henry Strong]] (1829-1911) and Mary Jane Halstead (1831-1904. He was married first to Roberta Margaret Hubbard (1876-1935) May 15, 1901 and second to Louise Ann Snyder (1875-1949) on October 8, 1914, both weddings taking place in [[Chicago]]. His father was a well known Chicago attorney and president of the [[Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway]]. His father served as a Colonel in the [[U. S. Army]] in the 124th Field Artillery in [[WWI]] and as a Lt. Colonel in the 108th Engineers in the [[Spanish American War]]. He and his second wife are buried in the Strong Mausoleum at Sugarloaf Mountain.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Memorial for Gordon Strong|website=[[Find a Grave]] |url=https://www.findagrave.com/memorial/169767879/henry-gordon-strong/}}</ref>
==Legacy==
Gordon Strong, the name which he used for most of his life, made several real estate acquisitions centered around his Strong Mansion at [[Sugarloaf Mountain (Maryland)|Sugarloaf Mountain]] in Montgomery County, [[Maryland]] a [[monadnock]] mountain with views of the [[Potomac River]] and [[Little Monocacy River|Monocacy]] valleys. The property was deeded to Stronghold, Inc.,<ref>{{Cite web|title=Stronghold, Inc. Website|url=https://sugarloafmd.com/}}</ref> a non-profit land trust created in 1946 which still owns and continues to maintain the property for public access.
In 1925, he engaged [[Frank Lloyd Wright]] to develop plans for what became known as the [[Gordon Strong Automobile Objective]]<ref>{{Cite web|title=Frank Lloyd Wright: Designs for an American Landscape, 1922-1932 Gordon Strong Automobile Objective|url=https://www.loc.gov/exhibits/flw/flw02.html/|website=[[Library of Congress]]}}</ref> This project was never started and the land remains in a more rustic and natural state.
==References==
{{Reflist}}
==External links==
*[https://www.loc.gov/exhibits/flw/flw02.html "Frank Lloyd Wright: Designs for an American Landscape, 1922-1932 Gordon Strong Automobile Objective"]. Library of Congress.
*[https://www.findagrave.com/memorial/169767879/henry-gordon-strong "Henry Gordon Strong Mausoleum"]. FindAGrave.
*[https://sugarloafmd.com/ "Stronghold, Inc."]. Sugarloaf Stronghold, Inc. Website.
*[https://www.newspapers.com/clip/72172566/obituary-for-gordon-strong-aged-84/ "Chicago Tribune Obituary"]. Chicago Tribune, Chicago, Illinois, 25 Feb 1954, Thu • Page 32
{{Authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Strong, Gordon}}
[[Category:1869 births]]
[[Category:1954 deaths]]
[[Category:Spanish–American War]]
[[Category:People of World War I]]
[[Category:Environmental conservation]] |
International Union for Conservation of Nature | {{short description|International organization}}
{{Use Oxford spelling|date=August 2022}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2022}}
{{Infobox organization
| name = International Union for Conservation of Nature
| logo = IUCN logo.svg
| caption =
| founder =
| type = [[International organization]]
| tax_id =
| registration_id =
| founded_date = {{start date and age|1948|10|05|df=y}}<br />[[Fontainebleau]], France
| headquarters = [[Gland, Switzerland|Gland]], Switzerland
| key_people = {{ubl|[[Grethel Aguilar]] (Director General)|[[Razan Al Mubarak]] (President)<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://news.mongabay.com/2021/09/razan-al-mubarak-becomes-first-woman-from-the-arab-world-to-head-iucn/|title = Razan al Mubarak becomes first woman from the Arab world to head IUCN|date = 8 September 2021}}</ref>}}
| area_served = Worldwide
| focus = [[Conservation movement|Nature conservation]], [[biodiversity]]
| revenue = CHF 140.7 million / US$148 million (2019)<ref>[https://www.iucn.org/sites/dev/files/iucn_-_ordinary_audit_report_31.12.2019_with_2_signatures.pdf "IUCN 2019 Accounts"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211211001849/https://www.iucn.org/sites/dev/files/iucn_-_ordinary_audit_report_31.12.2019_with_2_signatures.pdf |date=11 December 2021 }}. ''IUCN''. Retrieved 23 July 2022.</ref>
| endowment =
| num_employees = Over 900 (worldwide)
| num_members = 1,400
| subsid =
| former name = International Union for the Protection of Nature
| homepage = {{URL|https://www.iucn.org/}}
| dissolved =
| footnotes =
}}
The '''International Union for Conservation of Nature''' ('''IUCN''') is an [[international organization]] working in the field of [[nature conservation]] and [[sustainable use]] of [[natural resource]]s.<ref>{{cite web|title=About|publisher=IUCN|quote=The organisation changed its name to the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources in 1956 with the acronym IUCN (or UICN in French and Spanish). This remains our full legal name to this day.|url=https://www.iucn.org/about|date=2014-12-03}}</ref> Founded in 1948, IUCN has become the global authority on the status of the natural world and the measures needed to safeguard it. It is involved in [[data gathering]] and [[Data analysis|analysis]], research, field projects, advocacy, and education. IUCN's mission is to "influence, encourage and assist societies throughout the world to conserve nature and to ensure that any use of natural resources is equitable and ecologically sustainable".
Over the past decades, IUCN has widened its focus beyond conservation ecology and now incorporates issues related to [[sustainable development]] in its projects. IUCN does not itself aim to mobilize the public in support of nature conservation. It tries to influence the actions of governments, business and other stakeholders by providing information and advice and through building partnerships. The organization is best known to the wider public for compiling and publishing the [[IUCN Red List|IUCN Red List of Threatened Species]], which assesses the conservation status of species worldwide.<ref name=About />
IUCN has a membership of over 1,400 governmental and non-governmental organizations from over 170 countries. Some 16,000 scientists and experts participate in the work of IUCN commissions on a voluntary basis. It employs over 900 full-time staff in more than 50 countries. Its headquarters are in [[Gland, Switzerland|Gland]], Switzerland.<ref name=About >{{cite web|url=http://www.iucn.org/about|title=About IUCN|publisher=IUCN|access-date=17 November 2014}}</ref> Every four years, IUCN convenes for the IUCN World Conservation Congress where IUCN Members set the global conservation agenda by voting on recommendations and guide the Secretariat’s work by passing resolutions and the IUCN Programme.
IUCN has [[Observer status#United Nations|observer]] and [[consultative status]] at the [[United Nations]], and plays a role in the implementation of several international conventions on nature conservation and [[biodiversity]]. It was involved in establishing the [[World Wide Fund for Nature]] and the [[World Conservation Monitoring Centre]]. In the past, IUCN has been criticized for placing the interests of nature over those of indigenous peoples. In recent years, its closer relations with the business sector have caused controversy.<ref name="wrm.org.uy">{{cite web|title=Kenya: The Maasai Stand up to IUCN Displacement Attempts from their Forest|url=http://www.wrm.org.uy/oldsite/bulletin/84/Kenya.html|website=World Rainforest Movement|access-date=2 December 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170927003333/http://www.wrm.org.uy/oldsite/bulletin/84/Kenya.html|archive-date=27 September 2017|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Block|first=Ben|title=Environmentalists Spar Over Corporate Ties|type=updated version|url=http://www.worldwatch.org/node/5934|website=[[Worldwatch Institute]]. worldwatch.org|access-date=26 March 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180916164052/http://www.worldwatch.org/node/5934|archive-date=16 September 2018|url-status=dead}}</ref>
IUCN was established in 1948. It was initially called the '''International Union for the Protection of Nature''' (1948–1956) and has also been formerly known as the '''World Conservation Union''' (1990–2008).
==History==
{{NoteTag|The information in the section on history is largely based on ''Holdgate, M. 1999. The green web: a union for world conservation. Earthscan.'' For each paragraph in the section one reference to the pages used is included following the header. Where information in the paragraph is based on other sources a separate reference is included in the text.}}
===Establishment===
<ref name="holdgate">{{cite book |last=Holdgate|first=Martin |title=The green web: a union for world conservation|year=1999|publisher=Earthscan |isbn = 1-85383-595-1 }}</ref>{{rp|16–38}}
IUCN was established on 5 October 1948, in [[Fontainebleau]], France, when representatives of governments and conservation organizations spurred by UNESCO signed a formal act constituting the International Union for the Protection of Nature (IUPN). The initiative to set up the new organisation came from [[UNESCO]] and especially from its first Director General, the British biologist [[Julian Huxley]].
[[File:Julian Huxley 1964.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Julian Huxley]], the first Director General of UNESCO, took the initiative to set up IUCN.]]
At the time of its founding IUCN was the only international organisation focusing on the entire spectrum of nature conservation (an international organisation for the protection of birds, now [[BirdLife International]], had been established in 1922).
===Early years: 1948–1956===
<ref name="holdgate" />{{rp|47–63}}
IUCN (International Union for conservation of Nature) started out with 65 members in [[Brussels]] and was closely associated to UNESCO. They jointly organized the 1949 Conference on Protection of Nature [[Lake Success, New York|Lake Success]], US and drafted the first list of gravely endangered species. In the early years of its existence IUCN depended almost entirely on UNESCO funding and was forced to temporarily scale down activities when this ended unexpectedly in 1954. IUCN was successful in engaging prominent scientists and identifying important issues such as the harmful effects of [[pesticide]]s on wildlife but not many of the ideas it developed were turned into action. This was caused by unwillingness to act on the part of governments, uncertainty about the IUCN mandate and lack of resources. In 1956, IUCN changed its name to International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources.
===Increased profile and recognition: 1956–1965===
<ref name="holdgate" />{{rp|67–82}}
During this period, the IUCN expanded its relations with UN-agencies and established links with the [[Council of Europe]]. IUCN's best known publication, the Red Data Book on the conservation status of species, was first published in 1964.
IUCN began to play a part in the development of international treaties and conventions, starting with the [[African Convention on the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources]]. [[File:Ngorongoro-Crater-Morning-Scene.JPG|thumb|upright=1.4|Africa was the first regional focus of IUCN conservation action.]]
Africa was the focus of many of the early IUCN conservation field projects. IUCN supported the 'Yellowstone model' of protected area management, which severely restricted human presence and activity in order to protect nature.<ref name="wrm.org.uy"/>
The IUCN also suffered from restricted financing in its early years. For this reason, [[Tracy Philipps]], Secretary-General from 1955 to 1958, did not draw a salary during his period in office.<ref name="holdgate" />{{rp|62}}
To establish a stable financial basis for its work, IUCN participated in setting up the World Wildlife Fund (1961) (now the [[World Wide Fund for Nature]] WWF) to work on fundraising to cover part of the operational costs of IUCN. Also in 1961, the IUCN headquarters moved from Belgium to [[Morges]] in Switzerland.
===Consolidating its position in the international environmental movement: 1966–1975===
<ref name="holdgate" />{{rp|110–124}}
During the 1960s, IUCN lobbied the UN General Assembly to create a new status for [[NGOs]]. Resolution 1296, adopted in 1968, granted 'consultative' status to NGOs. IUCN itself was eventually accredited with six UN organizations.<ref name="Understanding NGOs">{{cite web|title=Understanding NGOs|url=https://agendatwentyone.wordpress.com/2010/06/28/understanding-ngos-non-government-organizations/ |website= agendatwentyone.wordpress.com |access-date=5 December 2014|date= 2010-06-28 }}</ref> IUCN was one of the few environmental organisations formally involved in the preparations of the [[United Nations Conference on the Human Environment]] (Stockholm, 1972). The Stockholm Conference eventually led to three new international conventions, with IUCN involved in their drafting and implementation:
* [[World Heritage Site|Convention Concerning the Protection of World Cultural and Natural Heritage]] (1972). IUCN co-drafted the World Heritage Convention with UNESCO and has been involved as the official Advisory Body on nature from the onset.<sup>[8]</sup>
* [[CITES]] – the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (1974). IUCN is a signatory party and the CITES secretariat was originally lodged with IUCN.
* [[Ramsar Convention]] – Convention on Wetlands of International Importance (1975). The secretariat is still administered from IUCN's headquarters.
IUCN entered into an agreement with the United Nations Environment Programme [[UNEP]] to provide regular reviews of world conservation. The income this generated, combined with growing revenue via WWF, put the organisation on relatively sound financial footing for the first time since 1948.
This period saw the beginning of a gradual change in IUCN's approach to conservation in which it tried to become more appealing to the developing world.
===The World Conservation Strategy 1975–1985===
<ref name="holdgate" />{{rp|132–165}}
In 1975 IUCN started work on the ''World Conservation Strategy'' (1980).<ref name="IUCN">{{cite book |last1=International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources |title=World Conservation Strategy: Living Resource Conservation for Sustainable Development |date=1980 |publisher=IUCN–UNEP–WWF |url=https://portals.iucn.org/library/efiles/documents/wcs-004.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150501232718/https://portals.iucn.org/library/efiles/documents/WCS-004.pdf |archive-date=2015-05-01 |url-status=live}}</ref> The drafting process, and the discussions with the UN agencies involved, led to an evolution in thinking within IUCN and growing acceptance of the fact that conservation of nature by banning human presence no longer worked. The Strategy was followed in 1982 by the ''[[World Charter for Nature]]'', which was adopted by the [[United Nations General Assembly]], after preparation by IUCN.
In 1980, IUCN and WWF moved into shared new offices in [[Gland, Switzerland]]. This marked a phase of closer cooperation with WWF, but the close ties between IUCN and WWF were severed in 1985 when WWF decided to take control of its own field projects, which so far had been run by IUCN.
'''Sustainable development and regionalisation: 1985 to present day'''<ref name="holdgate" />{{rp|176–222}}<br />
In 1982, IUCN set up a Conservation for Development Centre within its secretariat. The Centre undertook projects to ensure that nature conservation was integrated in development aid and in the economic policies of developing countries. Over the years, it supported the development of national conservation strategies in 30 countries. Several European countries began to channel considerable amounts of bilateral aid via IUCN's projects. Management of these projects was primarily done by IUCN staff, often working from the new regional and country offices IUCN set up around the world. This marked a shift within the organisation. Previously, the volunteer Commissions had been very influential, now the Secretariat and its staff began to play a more dominant role. In 1989, IUCN moved into a separate building in Gland, close to the offices it had shared with WWF. Initially, the focus of power was still with the Headquarters in Gland but the regional offices and regional members' groups gradually got a bigger say in operations.
In 1991, IUCN (together with UNEP and WWF) published ''Caring for the Earth'', a successor to the World Conservation Strategy.<ref name="Understanding NGOs"/>
Social aspects of conservation were now integrated in IUCN's work; at the General Assembly in 1994 the IUCN mission was redrafted to its current wording to include the equitable and ecologically use of natural resources.
'''Closer to business: 2000 to present day'''<br />
Since the creation of IUCN in 1948, IUCN Members have passed more than 300 resolutions that include or focus on business related activities.
The increased attention on sustainable development as a means to protect nature brought IUCN closer to the corporate sector. The members decided against this, but IUCN did forge a partnership with the [[World Business Council for Sustainable Development]]. IUCN renewed a multi-year MOU ([[Memorandum of understanding]]) with WBCSD in December 2015.
In 1996, after decades of seeking to address specific business issues, IUCN's Members asked for a comprehensive approach to engaging the business sector. Resolution 1.81 of the IUCN World Conservation Congress held that year "urged IUCN Members and the Director General, based on the need to influence private sector policies in support of the Mission of IUCN, to expand dialogue and productive relationships with the private sector and find new ways to interact with members of the business community".
The IUCN Global Business and Biodiversity Program (BBP) was established in 2003 to influence and support private partners in addressing environmental and social issues.<ref>{{cite web|title=Global Business and Biodiversity Programme|url=http://www.iucn.org/about/work/programmes/business/|website=IUCN|access-date=28 November 2014}}</ref> In 2004, the first IUCN Private Sector Engagement Strategy was developed (in response to Council Decision C/58/41). Most prominent in the Business and Biodiversity Program is the five-year collaboration IUCN started with the energy company [[Shell International]] in 2007.<ref>{{cite web|title=IUCN and Shell: Guiding the way|url=http://www.business-biodiversity.eu/default.asp?Menue=155&News=434|website=Business & Biodiversity|access-date=5 December 2014|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923195343/http://www.business-biodiversity.eu/default.asp?Menue=155&News=434|archive-date=23 September 2015}}</ref><ref name="worldwatch.org">{{cite web|title=Environmentalists spar over corporate ties|url=http://www.worldwatch.org/node/5934|website=Worldwatch|access-date=5 December 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141129141832/http://www.worldwatch.org/node/5934|archive-date=29 November 2014|url-status=dead}}</ref>
IUCN has been involved in minimum energy consumption and zero-carbon construction since 2005 by integrating energy-saving materials, developed by [[Jean-Luc Sandoz]] in the footsteps of [[Julius Natterer]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.lesechos.fr/2005/11/le-projet-puritain-de-lunion-pour-la-nature-623616|title = Le projet puritain de l'Union pour la nature|date = 29 November 2005}}</ref>
Today, the Business and Biodiversity Programme continues to set the strategic direction, coordinate IUCN's overall approach and provide institutional quality assurance in all business engagements. The Programme ensures that the Business Engagement Strategy is implemented through IUCN's global thematic and regional programmes as well as helps guide the work of IUCN's six Commissions.
===Championing Nature-based Solutions: 2009 to present day===
[[Nature-based solutions]] (NbS) use ecosystems and the services they provide to address societal challenges such as climate change, food security or natural disasters.<ref name="portals.iucn.org">{{Cite book|url=https://portals.iucn.org/library/node/46191|title=Nature-based solutions to address global societal challenges |website = IUCN Library System|year=2016 | publisher=portals.iucn.org|doi=10.2305/IUCN.CH.2016.13.en |isbn=9782831718125|editor1-last=Cohen-Shacham |editor1-first=E |editor2-first=G |editor2-last=Walters |editor3-first=C |editor3-last=Janzen |editor4-first=S |editor4-last=Maginnis }}</ref>
The emergence of the NbS concept in environmental sciences and nature conservation contexts came as international organisations, such as IUCN and the World Bank, searched for solutions to work with ecosystems rather than relying on conventional engineering interventions (such as a [[seawall]]), to adapt to and mitigate climate change effects, while improving sustainable livelihoods and protecting natural ecosystems and biodiversity.
At the IUCN World Conservation Congress 2016, IUCN Members agreed on a definition of nature-based solutions.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://portals.iucn.org/congress/motion/077|title=077 – Defining Nature-based Solutions {{!}} 2016 Congress portal|website=portals.iucn.org|language=en|access-date=2017-07-04|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190808140530/https://portals.iucn.org/congress/motion/077|archive-date=8 August 2019|url-status=dead}}</ref> Members also called for governments to include nature-based solutions in strategies to [[climate change mitigation|combat climate change]].
===Timeline===
{{more citations needed section|date=February 2022}}
Some key dates in the growth and development of IUCN:
{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}
* 1948: International Union for the Protection of Nature (IUPN) established.<ref>{{cite web | title=International Union for Conservation of Nature | website=Encyclopædia Britannica | date=16 September 2016 | url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/International-Union-for-Conservation-of-Nature | access-date=2 February 2022}}</ref>
* 1956: Name changed to the International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN).
* 1959: UNESCO decides to create an international list of Nature Parks and equivalent reserves, and the United Nations Secretary General asks the IUCN to prepare this list.
* 1961: The [[World Wide Fund for Nature|World Wildlife Fund]] set up as a complementary organisation to focus on fund raising, public relations and increasing public support for nature conservation.
* 1969: IUCN obtains a grant from the [[Ford Foundation]] which enables it to boost its international secretariat.
* 1972: UNESCO adopts the [[World Heritage Site|Convention Concerning the Protection of World Cultural and Natural Heritage]] and the IUCN is invited to provide technical evaluations and monitoring.
* 1974: IUCN is involved in obtaining the agreement of its members to sign a Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora ([[CITES]]), whose secretariat was originally lodged with the IUCN.
* 1975: The Convention on Wetlands of International Importance ([[Ramsar Convention]]) comes into force and its secretariat is administered from the IUCN's headquarters.{{col-break}}
* 1980: IUCN (together with the [[United Nations Environment Programme]] and the [[World Wide Fund for Nature]]) collaborate with UNESCO to publish a World Conservation Strategy.
* 1982: Following IUCN preparation and efforts, the [[United Nations General Assembly]] adopts the [[World Charter for Nature]].
* 1990: Began using the name World Conservation Union as the official name, while continuing using IUCN as its abbreviation.
* 1991: IUCN (together with [[United Nations Environment Programme]] and the [[World Wide Fund for Nature]]) publishes ''Caring for the Earth''.
* 2003: Establishment of the IUCN Business and Biodiversity Program.
* 2008: Stopped using World Conservation Union as its official name and reverted its name back to International Union for Conservation of Nature.
* 2012: IUCN publishes list of [[The world's 100 most threatened species]].
* 2016: Created a new IUCN membership category for indigenous peoples' organisations.{{col-end}}<ref>{{Cite web |title=International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/International-Union-for-Conservation-of-Nature |access-date=2023-04-01 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref>
==Current work==
=== IUCN Programme 2017–2020 ===
According to its website, IUCN works on the following themes: business, [[climate change]], economics, [[ecosystems]], [[environmental law]], [[forest protection|forest conservation]], [[gender]], global policy, [[marine habitats|marine]] and [[polar regions|polar]], [[protected areas]], science and knowledge, [[social policy]], [[species]], water, and [[world heritage sites|world heritage]].<ref>{{cite web|title=What we do|url=http://www.iucn.org/what/|website=IUCN|access-date=4 December 2014|archive-date=23 May 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160523101414/http://www.iucn.org/what/|url-status=dead}}</ref>
IUCN works on the basis of four-year programs, determined by the membership. In the IUCN Programme for 2017–2020 conserving nature and biodiversity is linked to sustainable development and poverty reduction. IUCN states that it aims to have a solid factual base for its work and takes into account the knowledge held by indigenous groups and other traditional users of natural resources.
The IUCN Programme 2017–2020 identifies three priority areas:<ref name="IUCN Programme">{{Cite news|url=https://www.iucn.org/about/programme-work-and-reporting/programme|title=IUCN Programme|date=2015-10-01|work=IUCN|access-date=2017-07-04|language=en}}</ref>
# Valuing and conserving nature.
# Promoting and supporting effective and equitable governance of natural resources.
# Deploying [[Nature Based Solutions]] to address societal challenges including climate change, food security, and economic and social development.<ref name="IUCN Programme" />
IUCN does not itself aim to directly mobilize the general public. Education has been part of IUCN's work program since the early days but the focus is on stakeholder involvement and strategic communication rather than mass-campaigns.<ref>{{cite web|title=CEC – what we do|url=http://www.iucn.org/about/union/commissions/cec/cec_what_we_do/|website=IUCN|access-date=26 December 2014|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141226162000/http://www.iucn.org/about/union/commissions/cec/cec_what_we_do/|archive-date=26 December 2014}}</ref>
===Habitats and species===
[[File:IUCN Animal Threat Category List.png|thumb|IUCN Animal Threat Category List]]
IUCN runs field projects for [[habitat conservation|habitat]] and species conservation around the world. It produces the [[IUCN Red List of Threatened Species]] and the [[IUCN Red List of Ecosystems]]. The IUCN Red List of Ecosystems is applicable at local, national, regional, and global levels.
IUCN's stated goal is to expand the global network of [[national parks]] and other [[protected areas]] and promote good management of such areas.<ref>{{cite news|title='Green List' awards world's top conservation sites|url=http://www.australiangeographic.com.au/news/2014/11/iucn-sets-up-the-green-list|access-date=18 November 2014|website=Australian Geographic|date=14 November 2014}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.iucn.org/theme/protected-areas/wcpa/what-we-do/biodiversity-and-protected-areas/key-biodiversity-areas|title=Key Biodiversity Areas|date=2016-03-08|work=IUCN|access-date=2017-07-04|language=en}}</ref> In particular, it focuses on greater protection of the [[oceans]] and [[marine habitats]].
=== Business partnerships ===
IUCN has a growing program of partnerships with the corporate sector on a regional, national and international level to promote sustainable use of natural resources.<ref name = annualreport>{{Cite web|url= https://portals.iucn.org/library/sites/library/files/documents/2017-001-v.1-En.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171114145436/https://portals.iucn.org/library/sites/library/files/documents/2017-001-v.1-En.pdf |archive-date=2017-11-14 |url-status=live |title=IUCN 2016 Annual Report|date=2017|location= Gland, Switzerland}}</ref>
=== National and international policy ===
On the national level, IUCN helps governments prepare national biodiversity policies. Internationally, IUCN provides advice to environmental conventions such as the [[Convention on Biological Diversity]], [[CITES]], and the [[Framework Convention on Climate Change]]. It advises [[UNESCO]] on natural [[World Heritage Site|world heritage]].<br />
It has a formally accredited permanent observer mission to the [[United Nations]].<ref name="IUCN Programme" /><br />
IUCN has official relations with the multiple other international bodies.<ref>{{cite web|title=UNESCO NGO database|url=http://ngo-db.unesco.org/r/or/en/1100033055|website=UNESCO|access-date=4 December 2014|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141208140552/http://ngo-db.unesco.org/r/or/en/1100033055|archive-date=8 December 2014}}</ref>
==Organizational structure==
As an organization, IUCN has three components: the member organizations, the six scientific commissions and the secretariat.
===Members===
IUCN Members are States, government agencies, international nongovernmental organizations, national nongovernmental organizations and indigenous peoples' organisations. In 2017, IUCN had 1400 members.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.iucn.org/news/secretariat/201706/iucn-welcomes-13-new-members|title= IUCN welcomes 13 new Members|date=2017-06-06|work=IUCN|access-date=2017-07-04|language=en}}</ref> The members can organize themselves in national or regional committees to promote cooperation. In 2016, there were 62 national committees and 7 regional committees.<ref name="annualreport" /> [[File:USSR 1978.jpg|thumb|[[Soviet]] [[Soviet stamps|stamp]] commemorating the 1978 IUCN General Assembly in [[Ashgabat]]]]
===Commissions===
The seven IUCN Commissions involve volunteer experts from a range of disciplines. They 'assess the state of the world's natural resources and provide the Union with sound know-how and policy advice on conservation issues'.<ref name="IUCNCommissions">{{cite web | url = http://www.iucn.org/about/union/commissions/ | title = IUCN – Commissions |date=12 May 2010 |publisher=International Union for Conservation of Nature |access-date=8 September 2010}}</ref>
* Commission on Education and Communication (CEC): communication, learning and knowledge management in IUCN and the wider conservation community.
* Commission on Environmental, Economic and Social Policy (CEESP): economic and social factors for the conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity.
* World Commission on Environmental Law (WCEL): developing new legal concepts and instruments and building the capacity of societies to employ environmental law for conservation and sustainable development.
* Commission on Ecosystem Management (CEM): integrated ecosystem approaches to the management of natural and modified ecosystems.
* Species Survival Commission (SSC): technical aspects of species conservation and action for species that are threatened with [[extinction]]. Specialist groups of the SSC prepare [[endangered species recovery plan]]s known as Species Action Plans, which are used to outline the conservation strategies of species.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.iucn.org/about/work/programmes/species/publications/species_actions_plans/ |title=IUCN – Species Action Plans |access-date=21 March 2016 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160325163018/http://www.iucn.org/about/work/programmes/species/publications/species_actions_plans/ |archive-date=25 March 2016 }}</ref>
* [[World Commission on Protected Areas]] (WCPA): establishment and effective management of a network of terrestrial and marine protected areas.
* Climate Crisis Commission: established 2021.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.iucn.org/our-union/expert-commissions/climate-crisis-commission | title=Expert Commissions }}</ref>
===Secretariat===
The IUCN head office is in [[Gland, Switzerland]]. Eight regional offices headed by a director implement IUCN's program in their respective territories. Since 1980, IUCN has established offices in more than 50 countries.<ref>{{cite web|title=About IUCN|url=http://www.iucn.org/about/union/secretariat/|website=IUCN|access-date=22 December 2014}}</ref>
==Governance and funding==
===Governance===
The '''World Conservation Congress''' (Members' Assembly) is IUCN's highest decision-making body. The Congress convenes every four years. It elects the council, including the President, and approves IUCN's work program for the next four years and budget.
The IUCN Council is the principal governing body of IUCN. The council provides strategic direction for the activities of the Union, discusses specific policy issues and provides guidance on finance and the membership development of the Union. The council is composed of the President, four Vice Presidents (elected by the council from among its members), the Treasurer, the Chairs of IUCN's six Commissions, three Regional Councillors from each of IUCN's eight Statutory Regions and a Councillor from the State in which IUCN has its seat (Switzerland). IUCN's current President is [[Razan Al Mubarak]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.iucn.org/news/secretariat/202109/iucn-members-elect-new-leadership|title=President|date=2021-09-08|website=IUCN|language=en|access-date=2022-02-15}}</ref>
The Council appoints a Director General, who is responsible for the overall management of IUCN and the running of the Secretariat. The current IUCN Director General is [[Bruno Oberle]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.iucn.org/about/senior-management/director-general|title=Director General|date=2015-08-31|website=IUCN|language=en|access-date=2019-08-24}}</ref> He succeeded [[Inger Andersen (environmentalist)|Inger Andersen]].
<gallery class="center">
File:Jean-Paul Harroy.jpg|[[Jean-Paul Harroy]]
File:Portrait of tracy philipps.jpg|[[Tracy Philipps]]
File:Hugh Elliott 1 red.jpg|[[Sir Hugh Elliott, 3rd Baronet|Hugh Elliott]]
File:Achim Steiner Oxford Martin School.jpg|[[Achim Steiner]]
File:Inger Andersen (environmentalist, 2010, cropped).jpg|[[Inger Andersen (environmentalist)|Inger Andersen]]
File:Bruno Oberle-IMG 1279.jpg|[[Bruno Oberle]]
</gallery>
{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}
;IUCN Presidents since 1948<ref name="hesselink">Hesselink, Frits; Čeřovský, Jan: ''[http://cmsdata.iucn.org/downloads/cec_history_annex_28sept08.pdf Learning to Change the Future] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110906161156/http://cmsdata.iucn.org/downloads/cec_history_annex_28sept08.pdf |date=6 September 2011 }}'', IUCN 2008, p. 22. URL retrieved 2011-01-24.</ref>
* 1948–1954 {{flagicon|SUI}} Charles Jean Bernard
* 1954–1958 {{flagicon|FRA}} [[Roger Heim]]
* 1958–1963 {{flagicon|SUI}} [[Jean Georges Baer]]
* 1963–1966 {{flagicon|FRA}} François Bourlière
* 1966–1972 {{flagicon|USA}} [[Harold Jefferson Coolidge, Jr.|Harold J. Coolidge]]
* 1972–1978 {{flagicon|NED}} Donald Kuenen
* 1978–1984 {{flagicon|EGY}} [[Mohamed Kassas]]
* 1984–1990 {{flagicon|IND}} [[M. S. Swaminathan]]
* 1990–1994 {{flagicon|GUY}} [[Shridath Ramphal]]
* 1994–1996 {{flagicon|USA}} Jay D. Hair
* 1996–2004 {{flagicon|ECU}} [[Yolanda Kakabadse]]
* 2004–2008 {{flagicon|RSA}} [[Valli Moosa]]
* 2008–2012 {{flagicon|IND}} [[Ashok Khosla]]
* 2012–2021 {{flagicon|CHN}} [[Zhang Xinsheng]]
* 2021–present {{flagicon|UAE}} [[Razan Al Mubarak]]
{{col-break}}
;IUCN Directors General since 1948<ref name="hesselink" />
* 1948–1955 {{flagicon|BEL}} Jean Paul Harroy
* 1955–1958 {{flagicon|UK}} [[Tracy Philipps]]
* 1959–1960 {{flagicon|NED}} M.C. Bloemers
* 1961–1962 {{flagicon|UK}} Gerald Watterson
* 1963–1966 {{flagicon|UK}} [[Sir Hugh Elliott, 3rd Baronet|Hugh Elliott]]
* 1966–1970 {{flagicon|UK}} Joe Berwick
* 1970–1976 {{flagicon|VEN}} [[Gerardo Budowski]]
* 1977–1980 {{flagicon|CAN}} David Munro
* 1980–1982 {{flagicon|USA}} [[Lee M. Talbot]]
* 1983–1988 {{flagicon|USA}} Kenton Miller
* 1988–1994 {{flagicon|UK}} [[Martin Holdgate]]
* 1994–1999 {{flagicon|NZL}} David McDowell
* 1999–2001 {{flagicon|DE}} Marita Koch-Weser
* 2001–2006 {{flagicon|DE}}{{flagicon|BRA}} [[Achim Steiner]]
* 2007–2014 {{flagicon|FRA}} [[Julia Marton-Lefèvre]]
* 2015–2019 {{flagicon|DEN}} [[Inger Andersen (environmentalist)|Inger Andersen]]
* 2019–present {{Flagicon|CHE}} [[Bruno Oberle]]{{col-end}}
===Funding===
IUCN's total income in 2012 was 114 million [[Swiss franc|CHF]] (€95 million or US$116 million).<br />
IUCN's funding mainly comes from Official Development Assistance budgets of bilateral and multilateral agencies. This represented 61% of its income in 2012. Additional sources of income are the membership fees, as well as grants and project funding from foundations, institutions, and corporations.<ref>{{cite web|title=IUCN Annual Report 2012|url=https://portals.iucn.org/library/sites/library/files/documents/IUCN-2014-017.pdf|publisher=IUCN|access-date=22 December 2014}}</ref>
==Influence and criticism==
===Influence===
IUCN is considered one of the most influential conservation organisations and, together with [[World Wide Fund for Nature]] (WWF) and the [[World Resources Institute]] (WRI), is seen as a driving force behind the rise of the influence of environmental organisations at the UN and around the world.<ref name="Understanding NGOs" /><ref name="What is IUCN">{{cite web|title=What is IUCN?|url=http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-iucn.htm|website=WiseGeek|first = Jessica|last = Ellis|date = 7 October 2020}}</ref>
It has established a worldwide network of governmental and non-governmental organisations, involves experts in the IUCN Commissions, has formal ties to international agreements and intergovernmental organisations and increasingly also partnerships with international business. The World Conservation Congress and the World Parks Congress events organised by IUCN are the largest gatherings of organisations and individuals involved in conservation worldwide.
According to some, IUCN has considerable influence in defining what nature conservation actually is.<ref name="IUCN: A History of Constraint">{{cite book|last1=MacDonald|first1=Kenneth|title=IUCN: A History of Constraint|publisher= UCLouvain |url= http://perso.uclouvain.be/marc.maesschalck/MacDonaldInstitutional_Reflexivity_and_IUCN-17.02.03.pdf|access-date=12 December 2014}}</ref> The [[IUCN Red List of Threatened Species]] and the [[IUCN Red List of Ecosystems]] determine which species and natural areas merit protection. Through the Green List of Protected and Conserved Areas and the system of [[IUCN protected area categories]] IUCN influences how protected areas are managed.
===Criticism===
It has been claimed that the IUCN puts the needs of nature above those of humans, disregarding economic considerations and the interests of [[indigenous peoples]] and other traditional users of the land. Until the 1980s IUCN favored the "Yellowstone Model" of conservation which called for the removal of humans from protected areas. The expulsion of the [[Maasai people]] from [[Serengeti National Park]] and the [[Ngorongoro Conservation Area]] is perhaps the best known example of this approach.<ref name="wrm.org.uy" /><ref name="holdgate" />
[[File:Ngorongoro 2012 05 30 2353 (7500935618).jpg|thumb|IUCN's relationships with local land users like the Maasai have caused controversy in the past.]]
This is linked to another criticism that has been directed at IUCN, namely that throughout its history it has mainly been 'Northern focused', i.e. had a West-European or North-American perspective on global conservation. Some critics point to the fact that many individuals involved in the establishment of IUCN had been leading figures in the British Society for the Preservation of the Wild Fauna of Empire, which wanted to protect species against the impact of 'native' hunting pressure in order to safeguard hunting by Europeans.<ref name="IUCN: A History of Constraint" /> The fact that, at least until the 1990s, most of IUCN staff, the chairs of the Commissions and the IUCN President came from western countries has also led to criticism.<ref name="holdgate" />
More recently, activist environmental groups have argued that IUCN is too closely associated with governmental organisations and with the commercial sector.<ref name="What is IUCN" /> IUCN's cooperation with [[Royal Dutch Shell|Shell]] came in for criticism, also from its own membership.<ref name="worldwatch.org"/> IUCN's close partnership with [[The Coca-Cola Company|Coca-Cola]] in [[Vietnam]] – where they have together been launching Coca-Cola-focused community centers – has also drawn some criticism and allegations of [[greenwashing]].<ref>{{cite news|date=2016-04-04|title=What's an EKOCENTER and what does it do?|language=ur|work=IUCN|url=https://www.iucn.org/ur/node/26042|url-status=dead|access-date=2017-06-20|archive-date=3 December 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171203153835/https://www.iucn.org/ur/node/26042}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url = https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2008/dec/04/coca-cola-coke-water-neutral|title=Greenwash: Are Coke's green claims the real thing? |date=2008-12-04 |newspaper = The Guardian |access-date=2017-06-20 |language=en-GB |issn = 0261-3077 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url = http://www.theecologist.org/blogs_and_comments/commentators/2985093/never_mind_the_greenwash_coca_cola_can_never_be_water_neutral.html |title = Never mind the greenwash – Coca Cola can never be 'water neutral' |work=The Ecologist |access-date=2017-06-20 }}</ref> Its decision to hold the 2012 World Conservation Congress on [[Jeju Island]], [[South Korea]], where the local community and international environmental activists were protesting against the construction of a navy base also led to controversy.<ref>{{cite web |title=Jeju island navy base controversy divides iucn|url=http://biodiversitymedia.ning.com/profiles/blogs/jeju-island-navy-base-controversy-divides-iucn |website=Biodiversity media alliance |access-date=12 December 2014}}</ref>
==Publications==
IUCN has a wide range of publications, reports, guidelines, and databases (including the [[Global Invasive Species Database]]) related to conservation and [[sustainable development]]. It publishes or co-authors more than 100 books and major assessments every year, along with hundreds of reports, documents, and guidelines.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.iucn.org/resources/publications|title=Publications|publisher=IUCN|access-date=2012-01-28}}</ref> In 2015, 76 IUCN articles were published in peer reviewed scientific journals.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://portals.iucn.org/library/sites/library/files/documents/2016-020.pdf|title=IUCN Annual Report 2015|publisher=IUCN|page=21}}</ref>
A report, released at the IUCN World Parks Congress in Sydney on 12 November 2014 showed that the 209,000 conservation reserves around the world now cover 15.4 per cent of the total land area. This is a step towards protecting 17 percent of land and 10 percent of ocean environments on Earth by 2020 since an agreement between the world's nations at the [[Convention on Biological Diversity]], held in [[Japan]] in 2010.<ref>{{cite news|title=Big increase in Earth's protected areas|url=http://www.australiangeographic.com.au/news/2014/11/big-increase-in-earth%E2%80%99s-protected-areas|access-date=17 November 2014|website=Australian Geographic|date=13 November 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141117120015/http://www.australiangeographic.com.au/news/2014/11/big-increase-in-earth%E2%80%99s-protected-areas|archive-date=17 November 2014|url-status=dead}}</ref>
== See also ==
* [[List of environmental organizations]]
* [[List of nature conservation organizations|List of conservation organisations]]
== Notes ==
{{NoteFoot}}
== References ==
{{Reflist}}
== External links ==
{{Commons category|IUCN—International Union for the Conservation of Nature}}
* {{Official website|www.iucn.org}}
* [http://www.protectedplanet.net/ IUCN and UNEP World Database on Protected Areas]
* [https://www.iucnredlist.org/ Red List of Threatened Species]
* [http://iucnrle.org Red List of Ecosystems]
* [https://www.iucn.org/resources/publications IUCN publications]
* [https://discoverarchives.library.utoronto.ca/index.php/international-union-for-conservation-of-nature-iucn-fonds International Union for the Conservation of Nature oral history interview (Pimlott's remarks)] held at the [https://web.archive.org/web/20200426160845/https://utarms.library.utoronto.ca/ University of Toronto Archives and Records Management Services]
{{Conservation organisations}}{{Prince of Asturias Award for Concord}}
{{Authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:International Union For Conservation of Nature}}
[[Category:International Union for Conservation of Nature| ]]
[[Category:International environmental organizations]]
[[Category:Nature conservation organisations based in Europe]]
[[Category:International forestry organizations]]
[[Category:Scientific organizations established in 1948]]
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
[[Category:United Nations General Assembly observers]]
[[Category:Intergovernmental environmental organizations]]
[[Category:1948 establishments in France]]
[[Category:International organisations based in Switzerland]] |
BlossomWatch | {{Short description|Environmental campaign}}
{{Correct title|title=#BlossomWatch|reason=#}}
[[File:Plum_blossom_for_BlossomWatch.jpg|thumb|Plum blossom shared on #BlossomWatch, March 2022]]
'''#BlossomWatch''' is a British environmental campaign designed to raise awareness of the first signs of [[Spring (season)|Spring]] by encouraging people to share images of [[blossom|blossoms]] via [[social media]]. The campaign was begun by the [[National Trust]] in 2020, during the [[COVID-19 pandemic in England]].
== Background ==
<nowiki>#BlossomWatch</nowiki> was initiated by the [[National Trust]] in March 2020, in the first [[COVID-19 lockdown in the United Kingdom|national lockdown]] during the [[COVID-19 pandemic in England]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Doherty |first=Ruth |date=2021-03-19 |title=#BlossomWatch is here to lift the nation's spirits and bring us back to the present |url=https://www.countryliving.com/uk/wildlife/countryside/a31938446/national-trust-blossomwatch/ |access-date=2022-07-15 |website=Country Living |language=en-GB}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-03-27 |title=A buzz about blossom which could boost your mood |url=https://www.kentonline.co.uk/whats-on/news/a-buzz-about-blossom-which-could-boost-your-mood-224662/ |access-date=15 July 2022 |website=Kent Online |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Join #BlossomWatch and celebrate blossom in the UK |url=https://www.countryfile.com/wildlife/trees-plants/join-blossomwatch-and-celebrate-blossom-in-the-uk/ |access-date=2022-07-15 |website=Countryfile.com |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Bawden |first=Tom |date=2020-03-27 |title=National Trust asks public to take a moment to enjoy the blossom |url=https://inews.co.uk/news/blossomwatch2020-national-trust-appeal-springtime-walks-blossom-412549 |access-date=2022-07-15 |website=inews.co.uk |language=en}}</ref> The campaign was inspired by analysis from the Trust's Noticing Nature Report, which discovered that only 6% of children and 7% of adults celebrated natural events such as the arrival of Spring.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-03-27 |title=National Trust aims to lift lockdown spirits with #BlossomWatch |url=http://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2020/mar/27/national-trust-aims-to-lift-lockdown-spirits-with-blossomwatch |access-date=2022-07-15 |website=the Guardian |language=en}}</ref> The campaign also drew on the traditional Japanese custom of [[hanami]], where people communally enjoy the transient nature of [[cherry blossom]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Blossom watch |url=https://www.nationaltrust.org.uk/features/places-to-spot-spring-blossom |access-date=2022-07-15 |website=National Trust |language=en}}</ref>
<nowiki>#BlossomWatch</nowiki> is part of a wider programme of work by the Trust to plant 68 new [[Orchard|orchards]] by 2025,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2019-04-27 |title=National Trust to create 68 orchards by 2025 to boost wildlife |url=http://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2019/apr/27/national-trust-to-create-68-orchards-by-2025-to-boost-wildlife |access-date=2022-07-19 |website=the Guardian |language=en}}</ref> and four million trees with blossom by 2030.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2022-03-24 |title=Orchards vanishing from the landscape, says National Trust |language=en-GB |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-60834796 |access-date=2022-07-19}}</ref> In order to understand the extent to which [[blossom]] has been lost from the British landscape, artificial intelligence was used to interrogate historic maps of orchards.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2022-03-24 |title=Blossom falls: 80% of small orchards in England and Wales lost since 1900 |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2022/mar/24/blossom-falls-80-of-small-orchards-in-england-and-wales-lost-since-1900 |access-date=2022-07-19 |website=the Guardian |language=en}}</ref> An interim report from the Trust showed that orchards had reduced in scale from approximately 95,000 hectares in the period 1892–1914, to 41,000 hectares overall in 2022.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Dommett |first=Tom |url=https://nt.global.ssl.fastly.net/documents/lost-blossom-study-2022.pdf |title=Blossom over Time: Interim Report |publisher=National Trust |year=2022 |access-date=2022-07-19 |archive-date=2022-03-25 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220325040354/https://nt.global.ssl.fastly.net/documents/lost-blossom-study-2022.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref>
== Engagement ==
During the first campaign participants were encouraged to share images on [[social media]] of blossoms seen on lockdown walks. Shared images shown during the campaign fortnight were viewed four million times.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |date=2021-04-24 |title=Blossom watch day: National Trust urges UK to share blooms |url=http://www.theguardian.com/environment/2021/apr/24/blossom-watch-day-national-trust-urges-uk-to-share-blooms |access-date=2022-07-15 |website=the Guardian |language=en}}</ref> The campaign was repeated in 2021,<ref>{{Cite web |last=Jenkins |first=Bethan Rose |date=2021-03-18 |title=National Trust's BlossomWatch campaign to help boost wellbeing is back |url=https://www.goodhousekeeping.com/uk/news/a35873327/national-trust-blossomwatch-campaign/ |access-date=2022-07-15 |website=Good Housekeeping |language=en-GB}}</ref> when people were encouraged to [[Geotagging|geotag]] their blossom locations, in order to crowd-source a map of blossom in the UK.<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Cite web |title=Blossom map |url=https://www.nationaltrust.org.uk/features/blossom-map |access-date=2022-07-15 |website=National Trust |language=en}}</ref>
A third iteration in 2022 saw over 53,000 images shared on social media.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2022-04-23 |title=Tyntesfield in Bristol celebrates blossom watch day |language=en-GB |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-england-bristol-61202104 |access-date=2022-07-15}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-04-23 |title=The National Trust wants you to go outside and enjoy the spring blossoms |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/spring-blossoms-national-trust-outdoors-b2063371.html |access-date=2022-07-15 |website=The Independent |language=en}}</ref> It also saw the installation of a 'blossom circle' in [[Newcastle upon Tyne|Newcastle]] city centre, which opened on 23 April of that year.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Hall |first=Daniel |date=2022-03-24 |title=National Trust to 'bring back the blossom' at Gibside and Exhibition Park |url=https://www.chroniclelive.co.uk/whats-on/blossom-watch-gibside-exhibition-park-23476197 |access-date=2022-07-15 |website=ChronicleLive |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Porter |first=Amelia Hain |date=2022-04-23 |title=Celebrating Blossom Watch Day in Exhibition Park |url=https://urbangreennewcastle.org/news/celebrating-blossom-watch-day-in-exhibition-park/ |access-date=2022-08-03 |website=Urban Green Newcastle |language=en-GB}}</ref> It also included the installation of 'pop-up blossom gardens' in [[Birmingham]], at Edgbaston Street and St Philips Cathedral Square.<ref>{{Cite web |last=McCallister |first=Robson |date=2022-04-02 |title=Blossom trees planted in city centre ahead of Commonwealth Games |url=https://www.birminghammail.co.uk/whats-on/whats-on-news/beautiful-blossom-trees-planted-birmingham-23487413 |access-date=2022-08-03 |website=BirminghamLive |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-03-24 |title=These Beautiful Blossom Gardens Have Popped Up In Birmingham City Centre To Celebrate Spring |url=https://secretbirmingham.com/blossom-gardens-birmingham/ |access-date=2022-08-03 |website=Secret Birmingham |language=en-GB}}</ref> The Trust also announced a scheme to take place in Autumn 2022 to plant blossoming trees along the circular No.11 bus route.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The National Trust pop-up blossom gardens celebrating Birmingham's botanical history |url=https://www.birminghamworld.uk/news/the-national-trust-pop-up-blossom-gardens-celebrating-birminghams-botanical-history-3624382 |access-date=2022-07-15 |website=www.birminghamworld.uk |date=24 March 2022 |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":1" /><ref>{{Cite web |title=Blossom Together in Birmingham {{!}} Birmingham Open Spaces Forum |url=https://bosf.org.uk/blossom-together-in-birmingham/ |access-date=2022-08-03 |website=bosf.org.uk}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=2022-03-24 |title='Ring of blossom' to line Birmingham streets |language=en-GB |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-england-birmingham-60851761 |access-date=2022-08-03}}</ref>
== References ==
<references />
== External links ==
* National Trust website: [https://www.nationaltrust.org.uk/features/blossom-watch BlossomWatch]
[[Category:Hashtags]]
[[Category:National Trust]]
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
[[Category:Cherry blossom festivals]] |
Manta Pacific Research Foundation | {{Short description|Marine conservation non-profit in Hawaii}}
{{Infobox organization
| name = Manta Pacific Research Foundation
| formation = 2002
| logo = Manta Pacific Research Foundation logo.webp
| founder = Keller and Wendy Laros
| type = Nonprofit
| headquarters = Kona, Hawaii
| website = https://www.mantapacific.org/
}}
'''The Manta Pacific Research Foundation''' is a 501(c)(3) nonprofit focused on manta ray conservation.
Based on the [[Hawaii (island)|Big Island]] of Hawaii, the foundation's stated objective is to "study [[Manta ray|manta rays]] in their natural habitat, conduct scientific research, provide education programs for the public about manta rays and the marine environment, and to establish and promote global manta ray conservation".<ref>{{cite web|title=Manta Pacific Research Foundation|url=https://www.mantapacific.org|access-date=29 October 2021|website=mantapacific|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Diver who saved dolphin: 'He swam right up to me'|url=http://www.nbcnews.com/news/us-news/diver-who-saved-dolphin-he-swam-right-me-flna1C8089483|access-date=10 October 2021|website=NBC News|language=en}}</ref> The foundation has been active in protection of the manta rays in Hawaii, public education about manta rays, and scientific research.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=The Manta Man of Kona |url=https://hanahou.com/22.4/the-manta-man-of-kona/ |access-date=2021-11-24 |website=Hana Hou!}}</ref><ref name=":3">{{Cite web|title=Nonprofit Aims to Protect Manta Rays|url=https://WestHawaiiToday.com/|access-date=17 May 2022|website=West Hawaii Today}}{{subscription required}}</ref><ref name=":1" /> The foundation maintains the identification database which contains pictures of the unique spot patterns on the ventral side of the individual mantas so they can be identified and tracked.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2">{{cite thesis |type=Masters |last=Moy |first=Kirsten Victoria |date=May 2020 |title=Of Mantas and Men: Understanding the Intersection of Hawai'i's Reef Manta Ray and Its Growing Tourism Industry |publisher=University of Hawaii at Manoa |url=https://scholarspace.manoa.hawaii.edu/items/ad121eb0-4432-4c17-ab91-fd14049523ed |access-date=17 May 2022}}</ref>
== Protection of manta rays in Hawaiian Waters ==
On 5 June 2009, Hawaii Governor [[Linda Lingle]] signed Act 092(09) making it illegal to kill or capture manta rays in Hawaii. The implementation of this Act protecting manta rays followed a campaign during which the foundation played an active role, including organizing a petition on the foundation's website starting in 2006.<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":2" /><ref>{{Cite web|title=Governor Message #707|url=https://www.capital.hawaii.gov/session2009/bills/GM707_.pdf|access-date=16 November 2021|website=capital.hawaii.gov}}</ref> Co-Founder Keller was awarded as a "Sea Hero" by ScubaDiving.com for his, and the foundation's role in achieving the protections.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|title=Keller Laros Awarded for Saving Manta Rays in Hawaii|url=https://www.scubadiving.com/travel/hawaii/sea-heroes-keller-laros-july-2014|access-date=29 October 2021|website=Scuba Diving|language=en}}</ref>
== Implementation of voluntary practices for manta ray interactions ==
Supported development of voluntary practices and standards for tour operators for manta ray interactions relative to the [[Manta ray night dive|night dives with manta rays]] off the Kona coast of the Big Island of Hawaii which were agreed by manta ray night dive tour operators in 2013.<ref name=":0" />
== Established the Manta Learning Center in [[Keauhou, Hawaii]] ==
The Manta Learning Center was established by the foundation in the [[Sheraton Hotels and Resorts Hawaii|Sheraton Kona Resort and Spa]] so that people interested in learning about manta rays have a resource for additional information.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2018-05-01|title=Manta Pacific Research Foundation: Conserving and Protecting the Ballerinas of the Ocean|url=https://keolamagazine.com/ocean/manta-pacific-research-foundation/|access-date=29 October 2021|website=Ke Ola Magazine|language=en-US}}</ref>
== References ==
<references />
[[Category:Non-profit corporations]]
[[Category:Environmental conservation]] |
Conservation status | {{short description|Indication of the chance of a species' extinction, regardless of authority used}}
{{Conservation status}}
The '''conservation status''' of a [[taxon|group of organisms]] (for instance, a [[species]]) indicates whether the group still exists and how likely the group is to become [[Extinction|extinct]] in [[Extinction debt|the near future]]. Many factors are taken into account when assessing conservation status: not simply the number of individuals remaining, but the overall increase or decrease in the population over time, breeding success rates, and known threats. Various systems of conservation status are in use at international, multi-country, national and local levels, as well as for consumer use such as [[sustainable seafood advisory lists and certification]]. The two international systems are by the [[International Union for Conservation of Nature]] (IUCN) and [[CITES|The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES)]].
==International systems==
===IUCN Red List of Threatened Species===
The [[IUCN Red List|IUCN Red List of Threatened Species]] by the [[International Union for Conservation of Nature]] is the best known worldwide conservation status listing and ranking system. Species are classified by the IUCN Red List into nine groups set through criteria such as rate of decline, population size, area of geographic distribution, and degree of population and [[species distribution|distribution]] fragmentation.<ref>[http://www.iucnredlist.org/technical-documents/categories-and-criteria Categories and Criteria] The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Retrieved 18 September 2015.</ref><ref>IUCN. (2012) [http://jr.iucnredlist.org/documents/redlist_cats_crit_en.pdf ''IUCN Red List Categories and Criteria: Version 3.1''] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160128190606/http://jr.iucnredlist.org/documents/redlist_cats_crit_en.pdf |date=2016-01-28 }} Second edition. Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. {{ISBN|9782831714356}}.</ref>
Also included are species that have gone extinct since 1500 CE.<ref>{{citation |author=IUCN Standards and Petitions Committee |date=2019 |title=Guidelines for Using the IUCN Red List Categories and Criteria |edition=14 |url=http://www.iucnredlist.org/documents/RedListGuidelines.pdf |page=7 }}</ref> When discussing the IUCN Red List, the official term "[[Threatened species|threatened]]" is a grouping of three categories: critically endangered, endangered, and vulnerable.
* [[Extinction|Extinct]] '''(EX)''' – There are no known living individuals
* [[Extinct in the wild]] '''(EW)''' – Known only to survive in captivity, or as a naturalized population outside its historic range
* [[Critically Endangered]] '''(CR)''' – Highest risk of extinction in the wild
* [[Endangered species (IUCN status)|Endangered]] '''(EN)''' – Higher risk of extinction in the wild
* [[Vulnerable species|Vulnerable]] '''(VU)''' – High risk of extinction in the wild
* [[Near Threatened]] '''(NT)''' – Likely to become endangered in the near future
* [[Conservation Dependent]] '''(CD) ''' – Low risk; is conserved to prevent being near threatened, certain events may lead it to being a higher risk level
* [[Least concern]] '''(LC)''' – Very Low risk; does not qualify for a higher risk category and not likely to be threatened in the near future. Widespread and abundant [[taxa]] are included in this category.
* [[Data deficient]] '''(DD)''' – Not enough data to make an assessment of its risk of extinction
* [[Not evaluated]] '''(NE)''' – Has not yet been evaluated against the criteria.
===The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora===
[[ CITES|The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES)]] went into force in 1975. It aims to ensure that international trade in specimens of wild animals and plants does not threaten their survival. Many countries require CITES permits when importing plants and animals listed on CITES.
==Multi-country systems==
In the [[European Union]] (EU), the [[Birds Directive]] and [[Habitats Directive]] are the legal instruments which evaluate the conservation status within the EU of species and habitats.
[[NatureServe conservation status]] focuses on [[Latin America]], the United States, Canada, and the [[Caribbean]]. It has been developed by scientists from [[NatureServe]], [[The Nature Conservancy]], and a network of natural heritage programs and data centers. It is increasingly integrated with the IUCN Red List system. Its categories for species include: ''presumed extinct'' (GX), ''possibly extinct'' (GH), ''critically imperiled'' (G1), ''imperiled'' (G2), ''vulnerable'' (G3), ''apparently secure'' (G4), and ''secure'' (G5).<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.natureserve.org/infonatura/Lnsstatus.htm |title=InfoNatura: About the Data: Conservation Status |website=NatureServe.org |date=2007-04-10 |access-date=2013-07-22 |archive-date=2013-09-21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130921055302/http://www.natureserve.org/infonatura/Lnsstatus.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref> The system also allows ambiguous or uncertain ranks including ''inexact numeric ranks'' (e.g. G2?), and ''range ranks'' (e.g. G2G3) for when the exact rank is uncertain. NatureServe adds a qualifier for ''captive or cultivated only'' (C), which has a similar meaning to the IUCN Red List ''extinct in the wild'' (EW) status.
The [[Red Data Book of the Russian Federation]] is used within the Russian Federation, and also accepted in parts of Africa.
==National systems==
In Australia, the ''[[Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999]]'' (EPBC Act) describes lists of threatened species, ecological communities and threatening processes. The categories resemble those of the 1994 [[IUCN Red List]] Categories & Criteria (version 2.3). Prior to the EPBC Act, a simpler classification system was used by the ''Endangered Species Protection Act 1992''. Some state and territory governments also have their own systems for conservation status. The codes for the Western Australian conservation system are given at [[Declared Rare and Priority Flora List]] (abbreviated to DECF when using in a taxobox).
In Belgium, the Flemish [[Research Institute for Nature and Forest]] publishes an online set of more than 150 nature indicators in Dutch.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.inbo.be/content/homepage_en.asp |title=Research Institute for Nature and Forest |website=Inbo.be |access-date=2013-07-22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081201163847/http://www.inbo.be/content/homepage_en.asp |archive-date=2008-12-01 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
In Canada, the [[Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada]] (COSEWIC) is a group of experts that assesses and designates which wild species are in some danger of disappearing from Canada.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cosepac.gc.ca/eng/sct5/index_e.cfm |title=Cosewic |publisher=Government of Canada, Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada |access-date=2013-07-22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130530070331/http://www.cosepac.gc.ca/eng/sct5/index_e.cfm |archive-date=2013-05-30 |url-status=dead }}.</ref> Under the [[Species at Risk Act]] (SARA), it is up to the federal government, which is politically accountable, to legally protect species assessed by COSEWIC.
In China, the State, provinces and some counties have determined their key protected wildlife species. There is the China red data book.
In [[Finland]], many species are protected under the Nature Conservation Act, and through the [[EU Habitats Directive]] and EU Birds Directive.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ymparisto.fi/default.asp?node=6053&lan=en |title=Protecting species |website=Ymparisto.fi |access-date=2013-07-22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130506030946/http://www.ymparisto.fi/default.asp?node=6053&lan=en |archive-date=2013-05-06 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
In Germany, the [[Federal Agency for Nature Conservation]] publishes "red lists of endangered species".
India has the [[Wild Life Protection Act, 1972, Amended 2003]] and the [[Biological Diversity Act, 2002]].
In Japan, the [[Ministry of the Environment (Japan)|Ministry of Environment]] publishes a Threatened Wildlife of Japan Red Data Book.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.biodic.go.jp/english/rdb/rdb_e.html |title=Threatened Species |website=Biodic.go.jp |access-date=2013-07-22}}</ref>
In the [[Netherlands]], the Dutch [[Ministry of Agriculture, Nature and Food Quality]] publishes a list of threatened species, and conservation is enforced by the Nature Conservation Act 1998. Species are also protected through the Wild Birds and Habitats Directives.
In New Zealand, the [[Department of Conservation (New Zealand)|Department of Conservation]] publishes the [[New Zealand Threat Classification System]] lists. {{As of|2008|January}} threatened species or subspecies are assigned one of seven categories: Nationally Critical, Nationally Endangered, Nationally Vulnerable, Declining, Recovering, Relict, or Naturally Uncommon.<ref name="NZTCS08">{{cite book|last1=Townsend|first1=Andrew J.|last2=de Lange|first2=Peter J.|last3=Duffy|first3=Clinton A.J.|last4=Miskelly|first4=Colin M.|last5=Molloy|first5=Janice|last6=Norton|first6=David A.|title=New Zealand Threat Classification System manual|date=January 2008|publisher=Science & Technical Publishing Department of Conservation|location=Wellington, New Zealand|isbn=9780478143645|url=http://www.doc.govt.nz/Documents/science-and-technical/sap244.pdf|access-date=2 February 2018|language=en}}</ref> While the classification looks only at a national level, many species are unique to New Zealand, and species which are secure overseas are noted as such.
In Russia, the Red Book of Russian Federation came out in 2001, it contains categories defining preservation status for different species. In it there are 8 taxa of amphibians, 21 taxa of reptiles, 128 taxa of birds, and 74 taxa of mammals, in total 231. There are also more than 30 regional red books, for example the red book of the Altaic region which came out in 1994.
In [[South Africa]], the [[South African National Biodiversity Institute]], established under the National Environmental Management: Biodiversity Act, 2004,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.info.gov.za/gazette/acts/2004/a10-04.pdf|title=Welcome to the official South African government online site! - South African Government|website=Info.gov.za|access-date=12 November 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070628042434/http://www.info.gov.za/gazette/acts/2004/a10-04.pdf|archive-date=28 June 2007|url-status=dead}}</ref> is responsible for drawing up lists of affected species, and monitoring compliance with CITES decisions. It is envisaged that previously diverse Red lists would be more easily kept current, both technically and financially.
In [[Thailand]], the Wild Animal Reservation and Protection Act of BE 2535 defines fifteen [[Reserved animals of Thailand|reserved animal]] species and two classes of protected species, of which hunting, breeding, possession, and trade are prohibited or restricted by law. The National Park, Wildlife and Plant Conservation Department of the [[Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment (Thailand)|Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment]] is responsible for the regulation of these activities.
In [[Ukraine]], the Ministry of Environment Protection maintains list of endangered species (divided into seven categories from "0" - extinct to "VI" - rehabilitated) and publishes it in the Red Book of Ukraine.
In the [[United States of America]], the [[Endangered Species Act of 1973]] created the [[United States Fish and Wildlife Service list of endangered species|Endangered Species List]].
==Consumer guides==
{{Main|Sustainable seafood advisory lists and certification}}
Some consumer guides for [[seafood]], such as [[Seafood Watch]], divide fish and other sea creatures into three categories, analogous to conservation status categories:
* Red ("''say no''" or "''avoid''")
* Yellow or orange ("''think twice''", "''good alternatives''" or "''some concerns''")
* Green ("''best seafood choices''")<ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.seafoodwatch.org/cr/cr_seafoodwatch/sfw_recommendations.aspx| title=Seafood Recommendations: Our Seafood Ratings| website=Seafoodwatch.org| access-date=19 June 2014| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140619211119/http://www.seafoodwatch.org/cr/cr_seafoodwatch/sfw_recommendations.aspx| archive-date=19 June 2014| url-status=dead}}</ref>
The categories do not simply reflect the imperilment of individual species, but also consider the environmental impacts of how and where they are fished, such as through [[bycatch]] or [[Bottom trawling|ocean bottom trawlers]]. Often groups of species are assessed rather than individual species (e.g. [[squid]], [[prawn]]s).
The [[Marine Conservation Society]] has five levels of ratings for seafood species, as displayed on their ''FishOnline'' website.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.fishonline.org/ratings | title=Fish ratings | work=FishOnline | publisher=Marine Conservation Society | access-date=March 28, 2013}}</ref>
==See also==
* [[Conservation status of wolves in Europe]]
* [[Conservation biology]]
* [[Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals]]
* [[Lazarus taxon]]
* [[List of endangered species in North America]]
* [[Listing priority number]]
* [[Lists of extinct animals]]
* [[Lists of organisms by population]]
* [[Living Planet Index]]
* [[Red List Index]]
* [[Regional Red List]]
* [[Reintroduction]]
==References==
{{Reflist}}
==External links==
*[http://www.iucnredlist.org/ Search the IUCN Red List]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20140323091914/http://intranet.iucn.org/webfiles/doc/SSC/RedList/redlistcatsenglish.pdf IUCN Red List Categories and Criteria Version 3.1] (archived 23 March 2014)
*{{cite web|url=http://www.worldwildlife.org/initiatives/wildlife-conservation|title=Wildlife Conservation – Initiatives – WWF|website=World Wildlife Fund|access-date=12 November 2017}}
{{Threatened species|state=expanded}}
{{Conservation of species}}
{{Portal bar|Environment|Ecology|Biology}}
[[Category:Evolutionary biology terminology]]
[[Category:Biota by conservation status| ]]
[[Category:Conservation biology]]
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
[[Category:Environmental terminology]]
[[Category:NatureServe]] |
Canebrake | {{Short description|A thicket of any of a variety of Arundinaria grasses}}
{{Other uses}}
[[File:Canebrake in Kentucky.jpg|thumb|''[[Arundinaria gigantea]]'' in a canebrake in [[Kentucky]]]]
A '''canebrake''' or '''canebreak''' is a [[thicket]] of any of a variety of ''[[Arundinaria]]'' grasses: ''[[Arundinaria gigantea|A. gigantea]]'', ''[[Arundinaria tecta|A. tecta]]'' and ''[[Arundinaria appalachiana|A. appalachiana]]''. As a [[bamboo]], these giant [[grasses]] grow in thickets up to {{convert|24|ft}} tall. ''A. gigantea'' is generally found in stream valleys and ravines throughout the [[southeastern United States]]. ''A. tecta'' is a smaller stature species found on the Atlantic and Gulf Coastal Plains. Finally, ''A. appalachiana'' is found in more upland areas at the southern end of the [[Appalachian Mountains]].<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.lmvjv.org/library/Mgt_Board_June_2007/Tab7/MAV_Desired_Forest_Conditions_Final_Report_2007.pdf | title=Restoration, Management, and Monitoring of Forest Resources in the Mississippi Alluvial Valley: Recommendations for Enhancing Wildlife Habitat | date=2007 | access-date=2015-07-15 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160508202144/http://www.lmvjv.org/library/Mgt_Board_June_2007/Tab7/MAV_Desired_Forest_Conditions_Final_Report_2007.pdf | archive-date=2016-05-08 | url-status=dead }}</ref> Cane does not do well on sites that meet [[wetland]] classification; instead canebrakes are characteristic of moist lowland, floodplain areas that are not as saturated as true wetlands.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Barret |first1=Richard |last2=Grabowski |first2=Janet |last3=Williams |first3=M.J. |title=Giant Cane and Other Native Bamboos: Establishment and Use for Conservation of Natural Resources in the Southeast |url=https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/plantmaterials/flpmctn13727.pdf |website=ncrs.usda.gov |publisher=U.S. Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service |access-date=27 November 2022}}</ref>
==History==
Canebrakes were formerly widespread in the [[Southern United States]], potentially covering {{convert|10000000|acres}},<ref name="auto4">{{cite web |last1=Brown |first1=Anthony |title=River cane: Important Cherokee cultural staple |url=https://theonefeather.com/2012/05/22/river-cane-important-cherokee-cultural-staple/ |website=theonefeather.com |date=22 May 2012 |publisher=The Cherokee One Feather}}</ref> The presence of canebrakes signaled to Native Americans and to early European settlers that an area was fertile and ecologically rich.<ref name="auto3">{{cite web |last1=Stepp |first1=Lauren |title=History Feature: WCU Exhibit Explores Heritage of Rivercane |url=https://thelaurelofasheville.com/communities/history-feature-wcu-exhibit-explores-heritage-of-rivercane/ |website=thelaurelofasheville.com |date=27 February 2021 |publisher=The Laurel of Asheville}}</ref> The canebrakes were a striking feature of the landscape to the earliest European explorers, who remarked upon how densely the cane grew and how difficult it was to travel through. For example, William Byrd in 1728 described hacking through a "forest" of cane "more than a furlong [220 yards] in depth" as he blazed a trail along the border of Virginia and Carolina. Likewise, William Bartram described "the most extensive Canebreak that is to be seen on the face of the whole earth," writing that the canes grew 10-12 feet tall and so close together they were completely impassable without hacking a trail through them.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Hill |first1=Sarah H. |title=Weaving new worlds: Southeastern Cherokee women and their basketry |date=1997 |publisher=University of North Carolina Press |isbn=0-8078-2345-7 |pages=38-39}}</ref>
However, as European settlers came, the cane gradually disappeared as it was used as high-quality forage for livestock that was available all year round. Pigs in particular destroyed canebrakes rapidly by rooting up their underground rhizomes, and the settlers intentionally used pigs to clear out canebrakes so they could be converted to agricultural land. <ref>{{cite book |last1=Hill |first1=Sarah H. |title=Weaving new worlds: Southeastern Cherokee women and their basketry |date=1997 |publisher=University of North Carolina Press |isbn=0-8078-2345-7 |page=91}}</ref> The absence of the [[controlled burn]]s used by Native Americans to maintain the canebrakes, conversion to agricultural land, and [[grazing]] by livestock has almost eliminated the canebrakes.<ref name="auto1">{{cite book |last1=Weakley |first1=Alan S. |title=Flora of the Southeastern United States |date=2022 |publisher=University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill Herbarium |location=Chapel Hill NC}}</ref> Destruction of habitat for development and construction is also implicated as a cause of the decline by the [[Choctaw Nation of Oklahoma|Choctaw Nation]].<ref>{{cite web |last1=Batton |first1=Gary |title=Watonlak Hvshi season is a good time to save the river cane |url=https://www.choctawnation.com/news/chiefs-blog/watonlak-hvshi-season-is-a-good-time-to-save-the-river-cane/ |website=choctawnation.com}}</ref>
== Ecology ==
This destruction has impacted a number of species. The survival of the [[Florida panther]] (''Puma concolor couguar'') has been challenged, and [[Bachman's warbler]] (''Vermivora bachmanii'') has probably become [[Extinction|extinct]]. The extinct [[Carolina parakeet]] (''Conuropsis carolinensis)'' also depended on canebrakes, and may have been hastened in their demise by the canebrakes' decline.<ref>{{cite web |title=What Happened to America's Only Endemic Parrot? |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/grrlscientist/2018/02/21/what-happened-to-americas-only-parrot/?sh=447aa7d258cf |website=Forbes}}</ref> Other species considered canebrake specialists include as many as seven [[moth]] species<ref name="auto5">{{cite web |title=General Cane Thickets |url=https://auth1.dpr.ncparks.gov/habitat/view.php?combined_code=1005.0 |website=Habitats of North Carolina}}</ref> and five known [[butterfly]] species dependent on ''Arundinaria'' bamboos as a host plant, and [[Swainson's warbler]] (''Limnothlypis swainsonii'').<ref>{{cite web |last1=Hendershott |first1=A.J. |title=Canebrakes: Missouri's Bamboo Forests |url=https://mdc.mo.gov/magazines/conservationist/2002-10/canebrakes-missouris-bamboo-forests |website=mdc.mo.gov |publisher=Missouri Department of Conservation}}</ref> Swainson's warbler has recently been found to use pine plantations (widespread across the Southeastern United States) of a particular age, as they may provide the structural features and prey base that the species seeks.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Graves |first=Gary R. |date=September 2015 |title=Recent large-scale colonisation of southern pine plantations by Swainson's Warbler Limnothlypis swainsonii |url=http://macroecointern.dk/pdf-reprints/Graves_BCI_2014b.pdf |journal=Bird Conservation International |language=en |volume=25 |issue=3 |pages=280–293 |doi=10.1017/S0959270914000306 |issn=0959-2709}}</ref><ref>Graves 2014 http://macroecointern.dk/pdf-reprints/Graves_BCI_2014b.pdf</ref> Contrary to the characterization of canebrakes as homogenous, they host a great diversity of species, including globally rare species. A survey of canebrakes in the Carolinas found 330 taxa living in the canebrake habitat, a number that would likely increase with more study.<ref name="auto">{{cite journal |last1=Gray |first1=Janet Bracey |last2=Sorrie |first2=Bruce A |last3=Wall |first3=Wade |title=Canebrakes of the Sandhills Region of the Carolinas and Georgia: Fire History, Canebrake Area, and Species Frequency |journal=Castanea |date=2016 |volume=81 |issue=4 |pages=280–291|doi=10.2179/16-112 |s2cid=89603409 }}</ref> Canebrakes provide habitat for the critically endangered [[Sarracenia alabamensis|Alabama canebrake pitcher plant]] (''Sarracenia alabamensis)'', which is only found in 11 sites in just two counties of the state of [[Alabama]].<ref name="auto2">{{cite web |last1=Boyd |first1=Robert S. |title=Alabama Canebrake Pitcher Plant |url=http://encyclopediaofalabama.org/article/h-3639 |website=encylopediaofalabama.org |publisher=Encyclopedia of Alabama}}</ref>
Cane can propagate itself rapidly through asexual reproduction, allowing it to persist quietly in the shade of a forest for years and rapidly take advantage of disturbance such as wildfire. Historically, canebrakes were maintained by Native Americans using [[controlled burn]]s. The fire would burn the aboveground part of the plant but leave the underground rhizomes unharmed.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Cockman |first1=Crystal |title=The loss of the great canebrakes |url=https://ui.charlotte.edu/story/loss-great-canebrakes |website=ui.charlotte.edu |publisher=UNC Charlotte Urban Institute}}</ref>
Canebrakes have been identified as important ecosystems for supporting over 70 wildlife species, possibly ideal candidates for mitigating nitrate pollution in groundwater, and crucial to the material cultures of Southeastern Native American nations, but relatively little study has been devoted to them, partially because virtually all canebrakes that still exist are isolated and fragmentary.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Barret |first1=Richard |last2=Grabowski |first2=Janet |last3=Williams |first3=M.J. |title=Giant Cane and Other Native Bamboos: Establishment and Use for Conservation of Natural Resources in the Southeast |url=https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/plantmaterials/flpmctn13727.pdf |website=ncrs.usda.gov}}</ref> Canebrakes are unlikely to be reestablished significantly under current methods of land management, but there is interest in finding out how to restore them.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Shoemaker |first1=Cory M. |title=Environmental and landscape factors affecting the continued suppression of canebrakes (Arundinaria gigantea, Poaceae) within restorations of bottomland hardwood forests |journal=The Journal of the Torrey Botanical Society |date=2018 |volume=145 |issue=2 |pages=156–152|doi=10.3159/TORREY-D-17-00011.1 |s2cid=90442090 }}</ref>
== Rare plant species ==
Canebrakes have been found to provide habitat for the following rare plants:<ref name="auto"/>
* ''[[Lysimachia asperulifolia]]'', rough-leaved loosestrife
* ''[[Lilium pyrophilum]]'', sandhills lily
* ''[[Eupatorium resinosum]]'', pine barrens thoroughwort
* ''[[Dionaea muscipula]]'', Venus flytrap
* ''[[Sarracenia alabamensis]]'', Alabama canebrake pitcher plant<ref name="auto2"/>
* [[Carex|''Carex austrodeflexa'']], canebrake sedge<ref name="auto1"/>
==Conservation==
Canebrakes are considered a critically endangered ecosystem by many biologists, but they have been studied very little. [[Southern Illinois University]] conducts some ongoing research on restoring canebrakes.<ref>{{cite web |title=Canebrake Restoration |url=https://friendsofthecache.org/canebrake-restoration |website=friendsofthecache.org |access-date=27 November 2022}}</ref> There is also a great interest among the [[Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians]] and other regional tribal nations to restore canebrakes, to preserve the crucial roles the plant plays in Cherokee culture and to stop the art of river cane basket weaving from dying out.<ref name="auto4"/><ref name="auto3"/> The various insect species that are ''Arundinaria'' specialists are at risk due to their sensitivity to habitat fragmentation.<ref name="auto5"/>
A major obstacle to restoring canebrakes is the reproductive habits of ''Arundinaria'' bamboos; ''Arundinaria'' typically [[Asexual reproduction|reproduces asexually]] using rhizomes, forming [[Colony (biology)|clonal colonies]] that spread outward. The plant only flowers every few decades, and usually dies after flowering; additionally, seeds are often not viable. Therefore, propagating the plant must usually be done by dividing existing colonies or growing rhizome cuttings.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Campbell |first1=Julian |title=Growth of Cane (Arundinaria sensu stricto), the Mysterious Native Bamboo of North America |url=https://bluegrasswoodland.com/uploads/Arundinaria__Growth_of_Cane_.pdf |website=bluegrasswoodland.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite thesis |last1=Conley |first1=Rachel Elizabeth |title=Macro-propagation of native cane (Arundinaria spp.) in central Kentucky and restoration out-plantings in western Tennessee and southern Alabama. |date=2015 |url=https://etd.auburn.edu/xmlui/bitstream/handle/10415/4714/Conley%20Thesis%207%2022%2015%20%281%29.pdf?sequence=2&isAllowed=y|degree=MSc |publisher=Auburn University}}</ref> Conducting studies has been challenging; experimental plantings of cane in a study conducted by researchers at Mississippi State University to test the erosion mitigation potential of canebrakes yielded no results because only 1.2% of seedlings survived the following year.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Jolley |first1=Rachel |last2=Neal |first2=Diana |last3=Baldwin |first3=Bryan |last4=Ervin |first4=Gary |title=Restoring Canebrakes to Enhance Water Quality Along the Upper Pearl River |url=https://www.wrri.msstate.edu/pdf/jolley09.pdf}}</ref>
Southern Illinois University researchers have located 140 patches of giant cane and collaborate with many conservation organizations and the U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest Service in the effort to replant 15 acres of cane per year.<ref>{{cite web |title=RESTORATION OF GIANT CANE AND CANEBRAKES: Native Bamboo for Habitat and Ecosystem Services |url=http://naufrp.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/SIU-Restoration-of-Native-US-Bamboo-Ecosystems.pdf |website=naufrp.org |publisher=Southern Illinois University Department of Forestry}}</ref> In South Carolina, the Chattooga Conservancy has formed a collaboration with the Eastern Band of the Cherokee and the USDA Forest Service to restore 29 acres of canebrake.<ref>{{cite web |title=Native River Cane Restoration |url=https://chattoogariver.org/initiatives/native-river-cane-restoration/ |website=chattoogariver.org|date=3 March 2017 }}</ref> Revitalization of Traditional Cherokee Artisan Resources (RTCAR) has also coordinated the restoration of river cane on a 109-acre site in [[North Carolina]]. This restoration area will include educational signage in the Cherokee and English languages.<ref>{{cite web |title=A New Day for Rivercane |url=https://conservingcarolina.org/rivercane-restoration/ |website=conservingcarolina.org |date=23 June 2021 |publisher=Conserving Carolina}}</ref>
In 2023, the [[United Keetoowah Band of Cherokee Indians]] in Oklahoma co-hosted the first Rivercane Gathering in [[Tahlequah, Oklahoma]] with the U.S. Forestry Service, an educational event to unite traditional tribal experts and artisans with various researchers and landholders for the continued preservation of canebrakes.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Morris |first1=Hilary |title=1st Annual Rivercane Gathering coming up April 4-7 in Tahlequah, OK |url=https://secassoutheast.org/2023/02/16/1st-Annual-Rivercane-Gathering-April-4-7-in-Tahlequah-OK.html |website=secassoutheast.org|date=16 February 2023 }}</ref>
==References==
{{reflist}}
{{Authority control}}
[[Category:Grasses]]
[[Category:Habitats]]
[[Category:Riparian zone]]
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
[[Category:Plant communities of the Eastern United States]]
[[Category:Plant communities of Kentucky]]
[[Category:Plant communities of Alabama]]
[[Category:Plant communities of Tennessee]]
[[Category:Plant communities of Georgia (U.S. state)]]
[[Category:Plant communities of Mississippi]]
[[Category:Plant communities of South Carolina]]
[[Category:Plant communities of North Carolina]]
[[Category:Plants by habitat]] |
Other effective area-based conservation measures | {{Short description|Specific areas designated to conserve biodiversity}}
'''Other effective area-based conservation measures''' (OECMs) are sites outside of [[protected areas]] that are governed and managed in ways that deliver the long-term [[In-situ conservation|''in situ'' conservation]] of [[biodiversity]]. As of March 2023, 829 such sites have been reported to the World Database on Other Effective Area-based Conservation Measures, managed by the [[UN Environment Programme World Conservation Monitoring Centre]]. OECMs cover {{convert|3,094,741|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}} of the Earth's surface, accounting for {{convert|2,716,531|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}} on land and {{convert|378,209|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}} in the ocean.<ref>UNEP-WCMC and IUCN (2023) [http://www.protectedplanet.net "Protected Planet: The World Database on Protected Areas and OECMs"]</ref>
==Definition and criteria==
An (OECM) is defined by the [[Convention on Biological Diversity]] as:
<blockquote>[A] geographically defined area other than a Protected Area, which is governed and managed in ways that achieve positive and sustained long-term outcomes for the in situ conservation of biodiversity, with associated ecosystem functions and services and where applicable, cultural, spiritual, socio–economic, and other locally relevant values.<ref>[[Convention on Biological Diversity]] (2018) [https://www.cbd.int/doc/decisions/cop-14/cop-14-dec-08-en.pdf "Protected areas and other effective area-based conservation measures (Decision 14/8)"]</ref></blockquote>
There are four criteria for identifying OECMs:
#The area is not currently recognized as a protected area;
#The area is governed and managed;
#The area achieves sustained and effective contribution to in situ conservation of biodiversity; Criterion
#Associated ecosystem functions and services and cultural, spiritual, socio-economic and other locally relevant values are conserved and respected.
Under the four criteria above, there are 26 sub-criteria.<ref>[[Convention on Biological Diversity]] (2018) [https://www.cbd.int/ doc/decisions/cop-14/cop-14-dec-08-en.pdf "Protected areas and other effective area-based conservation measures (Decision 14/8), Annex III"]</ref>
==History==
The term "other effective area-based conservation measures" was first used in Target 11 of the [[Convention on Biological Diversity]]’s ''Strategic Plan for Biodiversity'',<ref>[[Convention on Biological Diversity]] [https://www.cbd.int/sp/ "Strategic Plan for Biodiversity (2011-2020)"]</ref> agreed to in [[Nagoya]], Japan, in 2010. Target 11 stated:
<blockquote>By 2020, at least 17 per cent of terrestrial and inland water areas and 10 per cent of coastal and marine areas, especially areas of particular importance for biodiversity and [[ecosystem service]]s, are conserved through effectively and equitably managed, ecologically representative and well connected systems of protected areas and '''other effective area-based conservation measures''', and integrated into the wider landscapes and seascapes. (Emphasis added)<ref>[[Convention on Biological Diversity]] (2010) "Decision Adopted by the Conference of the Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity at Its Tenth Meeting at Nagoya" pp. 1-13</ref></blockquote>
In 2014, Harry Jonas, [[Ashish Kothari]] and other authors affiliated with the [[Indigenous and Community Conserved Area|ICCA Consortium]] – ICCA stands for "Indigenous and Community Conserved Area" – argued that “defining ‘other effective area-based conservation measures’ offers a unique opportunity to better recognize areas that deliver the conservation of biodiversity outside of protected areas.”<ref>Jonas H.D., Barbuto, V., Jonas, H.C., Kothari, A., and Nelson, F. (2014) [https://parksjournal.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/10/PARKS-20.2-Jonas-et-al-10.2305IUCN.CH_.2014.PARKS-20-2.HDJ_.en_.pdf “New Steps of Change: Looking Beyond Protected Areas to Consider Other Effective Area-based Conservation Measures”] ''Parks'' 20.2. The authors further proposed “the establishment of an IUCN Task Force to further explore the issues with a view to developing clear guidance on ‘other effective area-based conservation measures’ as a means to effectively and equitably achieve Aichi Biodiversity Target 11”.</ref> In 2015, the [[International Union for Conservation of Nature]] [[World Commission on Protected Areas]] established a Task Force, co-chaired by [[Harry Jonas]] and [[Kathy MacKinnon]] (2016-2020),<ref>The Task Force completed its work in 2020. The work is being advanced by the [https://www.iucn.org/commissions/world-commission-protected-areas/our-work/oecms IUCN World Commission on Protected Areas Specialist Group]</ref> to provide technical advice to the Convention on Biological Diversity. It submitted its advice to the [[Convention on Biological Diversity#CBD Secretariat|Secretariat]] of the Convention on Biological Diversity in January 2018.<ref>Jonas H.D., MacKinnon K., Dudley N., Hockings M., Jessen S., Laffoley D., MacKinnon D., Matallana-Tobon C., Sandwith T., Waithaka J., and Woodley, S. (2018) [https://parksjournal.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/10/PARKS-24-SI-Jonas-et-al-10.2305-IUCN.CH_.2018.PARKS%E2%80%9024%E2%80%90SIHDJ.en_.pdf "Other Effective Area-based Conservation Measures: From Aichi Target 11 to the Post-2020 Biodiversity Framework"] ''Parks'' 24.</ref> That advice, together with a report on marine OECMs,<ref>Rice, J., Garcia, S.M., and Kaiser, M. (2018) [https://www.cbd.int/doc/c/0689/522e/7f94ced371fa41aeee6747e5/mcb-em-2018-01-inf-04-en.pdf "Other effective area-based conservation measures (OEABCMs) used in marine fisheries: a working paper"]</ref> was considered at two workshops hosted by the Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity in February 2018.<ref>[[Convention on Biological Diversity]] (9 February 2018) [https://www.cbd.int/doc/c/036c/566c/d66dc6031779378b150378d5/pa-em-2018-01-02-en.pdf "Report of the Technical Expert Workshop on Other Effective Area-Based Conservation Measures for Achieving AICHI Biodiversity Target 11"]</ref>
[[Convention on Biological Diversity#Parties|Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity]] negotiated a draft decision at the 22nd meeting of the Subsidiary Body on Scientific, Technical and Technological Advice,<ref>Staff (July 2018) [https://www.cbd.int/meetings/SBSTTA-22 "Outcomes of the Convention on Biological Diversity’s Subsidiary Body on Technical and Technological Advice"]</ref> and adopted Decision 14/8 on ‘Protected areas and other effective area-based conservation measures’ at the 14th meeting of the Conference of the Parties, which contains the definition and criteria for identifying OECMs.<ref>[[Convention on Biological Diversity]] (October 2018) [https://www.cbd.int/doc/decisions/cop-14/cop-14-dec-08-en.pdf "Decision 14/8 on Protected areas and other effective area-based conservation measures"]</ref>
‘Other effective area-based conservation measures’ are referenced in Target 3 of the draft[[Convention on Biological Diversity#post-2020 Global Biodiversity Framework|Global Biodiversity Framework]]. The Framework was agreed upon in December 2022 at the 15th Conference of the Parties to the UN Convention on Biological Diversity in [[Montreal]], Canada.<ref>[[International Institute for Sustainable Development]] (14 March 2022) [https://sdg.iisd.org/events/un-biodiversity-conference-cbd-cop-15-part-2/ "UN Biodiversity Conference (CBD COP 15) (Part 2)]". [https://web.archive.org/web/20211019073406/https://www.nytimes.com/2021/10/14/climate/un-biodiversity-conference-climate-change.html?utm_source=pocket-newtab-global-en-GB/ Archived] from the original on 8 April 2022. Retrieved 30 July 2022.</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Barraclough |first1=Alicia D. |last2=Reed |first2=Maureen G. |last3=Måren |first3=Inger Elisabeth |last4=Price |first4=Martin F. |last5=Moreira-Muñoz |first5=Andrés |last6=Coetzer |first6=Kaera |date=2021-10-12 |title=Recognize 727 UNESCO Biosphere Reserves for biodiversity COP15 |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-021-02750-w |journal=Nature |language=en |volume=598 |issue=7880 |pages=257 |doi=10.1038/d41586-021-02750-w|pmid=34642476 |s2cid=238744954 }}</ref> Integration of OECMs into global biodiversity targets has been a topic of discussion in the lead-up to the conference.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Dudley |first1=Nigel |last2=Jonas |first2=Holly |last3=Nelson |first3=Fred |last4=Parrish |first4=Jeffrey |last5=Pyhälä |first5=Aili |last6=Stolton |first6=Sue |last7=Watson |first7=James E. M. |date=2018-07-01 |title=The essential role of other effective area-based conservation measures in achieving big bold conservation targets |journal=Global Ecology and Conservation |language=en |volume=15 |pages=e00424 |doi=10.1016/j.gecco.2018.e00424 |issn=2351-9894|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Alves-Pinto |first1=Helena |last2=Geldmann |first2=Jonas |last3=Jonas |first3=Harry |last4=Maioli |first4=Veronica |last5=Balmford |first5=Andrew |last6=Ewa Latawiec |first6=Agnieszka |last7=Crouzeilles |first7=Renato |last8=Strassburg |first8=Bernardo |date=2021-04-01 |title=Opportunities and challenges of other effective area-based conservation measures (OECMs) for biodiversity conservation |journal=Perspectives in Ecology and Conservation |language=en |volume=19 |issue=2 |pages=115–120 |doi=10.1016/j.pecon.2021.01.004 |issn=2530-0644|doi-access=free }}</ref> Target 3 calls for:
<blockquote>"Ensure and enable that by 2030 at least 30 per cent of terrestrial, inland water, and of coastal and marine areas, especially areas of particular importance for biodiversity and ecosystem functions and services, are effectively conserved and managed through ecologically representative, well-connected and equitably governed systems of protected areas and other effective area-based conservation measures, recognizing indigenous and traditional territories, where applicable, and integrated into wider landscapes, seascapes and the ocean, while ensuring that any sustainable use, where appropriate in such areas, is fully consistent with conservation outcomes, recognizing and respecting the rights of indigenous peoples and local communities, including over their traditional territories."<ref>[[Convention on Biological Diversity]] (2022) [https://www.cbd.int/doc/c/e6d3/cd1d/daf663719a03902a9b116c34/cop-15-l-25-en.pdf "Kunming-Montreal Global biodiversity framework Draft decision submitted by the President"]</ref></blockquote>
==Global extent==
The World Database on Other Effective Area-based Conservation Measures<ref>[https://www.protectedplanet.net/en/thematic-areas/oecms?tab=OECMs "World Database on OECMs"]</ref> is managed by the [[UN Environment Programme World Conservation Monitoring Centre]]. As of March 2023, 829 sites have been reported to the World Database. OECMs cover {{convert|3,094,741|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}} of the Earth's surface, accounting for {{convert|2,716,531|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}} on land and {{convert|378,209|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}} in the ocean.<ref>UNEP-WCMC and IUCN (2022) [http://www.protectedplanet.net "Protected Planet: The World Database on Protected Areas and OECMs"]</ref>
Locally managed marine areas (LMMAs) are one form of OECM; examples of these exist in [[Mozambique]] and [[Madagascar]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Diz |first1=Daniela |last2=Johnson |first2=David |last3=Riddell |first3=Michael |last4=Rees |first4=Sian |last5=Battle |first5=Jessica |last6=Gjerde |first6=Kristina |last7=Hennige |first7=Sebastian |last8=Roberts |first8=J. Murray |date=2018-07-01 |title=Mainstreaming marine biodiversity into the SDGs: The role of other effective area-based conservation measures (SDG 14.5) |journal=Marine Policy |language=en |volume=93 |pages=251–261 |doi=10.1016/j.marpol.2017.08.019 |issn=0308-597X|doi-access=free |hdl=10026.1/12537 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>
==Relationship between OECMs and protected areas==
[[Protected area]]s and OECMs are distinct but complementary within landscapes, seascapes and river basins. Protected areas have a primary [[Conservation biology|conservation]] objective, i.e., they are areas dedicated to the conservation of [[biodiversity]] and managed accordingly. In contrast, OECMs do not need to be dedicated to the [[Nature conservation|conservation of nature]] but must deliver the effective and long-term in situ conservation of biodiversity. OECMs can deliver long-term in situ conservation through ancillary conservation, secondary conservation, and sometimes primary conservation in places that cannot, or will not, be recognized as protected areas.<ref>[[International Union for Conservation of Nature]] [https://portals.iucn.org/library/node/48773 "IUCN Guidelines for Recognising and reporting OECMs"]</ref>
OECMs are intended to take a more inclusive approach to biodiversity conservation that traditional protected areas, by permitting some small-scale area management. This is achieved by accounting for the needs of other rights holders such as [[Small scale fishery|small scale fisheries]] and low-impact [[agroforestry]]. Traditional protected areas have attracted controversy over [[Indigenous rights]] and [[Conservation refugee|displacement]]; OECMs are intended to be more [[Social equity|equitable]] to human needs.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-09-13 |title=OECM concept may bring more inclusive approach to conserving biodiversity |url=https://news.mongabay.com/2021/09/oecm-concept-may-bring-more-inclusive-approach-to-protecting-biodiversity/ |access-date=2022-10-11 |website=Mongabay Environmental News |language=en-US}}</ref><ref name=":0" />
==See also==
*[[Governance of protected areas]]
*[[UNESCO Biosphere Reserve]]
== References ==
{{reflist}}
==External links==
*[https://www.cbd.int/ Convention on Biological Diversity homepage]
*[https://www.iccaconsortium.org/ ICCA Consortium homepage]
*[https://www.iucn.org/ International Union for Conservation of Nature homepage]
{{Conservation of species}}
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
[[Category:Convention on Biological Diversity]]
[[Category:Indigenous peoples and the environment]] |
Conservation agriculture | {{Short description|Farming system to preserve and regenerate land capacity}}
{{more footnotes|date=October 2013}}
{{agriculture}}
'''Conservation agriculture''' ('''CA''') can be defined by a statement given by the [[Food and Agriculture Organization]] of the [[United Nations]] as "Conservation Agriculture (CA) is a farming system that can prevent losses of arable land while regenerating degraded lands.It promotes minimum soil disturbance (i.e. [[no-till farming]]), maintenance of a permanent soil cover, and diversification of plant species. It enhances [[biodiversity]] and natural biological processes above and below the ground surface, which contribute to increased water and nutrient use efficiency and to improved and sustained crop production."<ref name="FAO-CA">{{cite web |title=Conservation Agriculture|url=http://www.fao.org/conservation-agriculture/en/|publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations|access-date=26 October 2020}}</ref>
Agriculture according to the New Standard Encyclopedia is "one of the most important sectors in the economies of most nations" (New Standard 1992). At the same time conservation is the use of resources in a manner that safely maintains a resource that can be used by humans. Conservation has become critical because the global population has increased over the years and more food needs to be produced every year (New Standard 1992). Sometimes referred to as "agricultural environmental management", conservation agriculture may be sanctioned and funded through conservation programs promulgated through agricultural legislation, such as the [[U.S. Farm Bill]].
== Key principles ==
The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) has determined that conservation agriculture (CA) has three key principles that producers (farmers) can proceed through in the process of CA. These three principles outline what conservationists and producers believe can be done to conserve what we use for a longer period of time.<ref name="FAO">{{cite web |title=Conservation agriculture: The 3 principles|url= http://www.fao.org/resources/infographics/infographics-details/en/c/216754/|publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations|access-date=24 October 2020}}</ref>
'''The first key principle''' in CA is practicing minimum soil disturbance which is essential to maintaining minerals within the soil, stopping [[Soil erosion|erosion]], and preventing water loss from occurring within the soil. In the past agriculture has looked at soil tillage as a main process in the introduction of new crops to an area. It was believed that tilling the soil would increase fertility within the soil through [[Mineralization (soil science)|mineralization]] that takes place in the soil. Also tilling of soil can cause severe erosion and crusting which leads to a decrease in [[soil fertility]]. Today tillage is seen as destroying organic matter that can be found within the soil cover. [[No-till farming]] has caught on as a process that can save soil organic levels for a longer period and still allow the soil to be productive for longer periods (FAO 2007). Additionally, the process of tilling can increase time and labor for producing that crop. Minimum soil disturbance also reduce destruction of soil micro and macro-organism habitats that is common in conventional ploughing practices.<ref name="FAO"/>
When no-till practices are followed, the producer sees a reduction in production cost for a certain crop. Tillage of the ground requires more money in order to fuel tractors or to provide feed for the animals pulling the plough. The producer sees a reduction in labor because he or she does not have to be in the fields as long as a conventional farmer.
'''The second key principle''' in CA is much like the first in dealing with protecting the soil. The principle of managing the top soil to create a permanent organic soil cover can allow for growth of organisms within the soil structure. This growth will break down the mulch that is left on the soil surface. The breaking down of this mulch will produce a high organic matter level which will act as a fertilizer for the soil surface. If CA practices were used done for many years and enough organic matter was being built up at the surface, then a layer of mulch would start to form. This layer helps prevent soil erosion from taking place and ruining the soil's profile or layout. The presence of [[mulching]] also reduce the velocity of runoff and the impact of rain drops thus reducing soil erosion and runoff.<ref name="FAO"/>
According to the article "The role of conservation agriculture and sustainable agriculture", the layer of mulch that is built up over time will become like a buffer zone between soil and mulch and this will help reduce wind and water erosion. With this comes the protection of the soil's surface when rain falls on the ground. Land that is not protected by a layer of mulch is left open to the elements (Hobbs et al. 2007). This type of ground cover also helps keep the temperature and moisture levels of the soil at a higher level rather than if it was tilled every year (FAO 2007).
'''The third principle is''' the practicing diverse [[crop rotation]]s or crop interactions. According to an article published in the ''Physiological Transactions of the Royal Society'' called "The role of conservation agriculture and sustainable agriculture", crop rotation can be used best as a disease control against other preferred crops (Hobbs et al. 2007). This process will not allow pests such as insects and weeds to be set into a rotation with specific crops. Rotational crops will act as a natural insecticide and herbicide against specific crops. Not allowing insects or weeds to establish a pattern will help to eliminate problems with yield reduction and infestations within fields (FAO 2007). Crop rotation can also help build up soil infrastructure. Establishing crops in a rotation allows for an extensive buildup of rooting zones which will allow for better [[Infiltration (hydrology)|water infiltration]] (Hobbs et al. 2007).<ref name="FAO"/>
Organic molecules in the soil break down into phosphates, nitrates and other beneficial elements which are thus better absorbed by plants. [[Plough|Plowing]] increases the amount of oxygen in the soil and increases the aerobic processes, hastening the breakdown of organic material. Thus more nutrients are available for the next crop but, at the same time, the soil is depleted more quickly of its nutrient reserves.
== Examples ==
[[File:Elements in an ecoagriculture landscape.jpg|thumb|upright=2.5<!--format for infographic with small text labels-->|Conservation- or eco-agriculture involves multiple elements to protect wildlife.]]
In conservation agriculture there are many examples that can be looked towards as a way of farming and at the same time conserving. These practices are well known by most producers. The process of no-till is one that follows the first principle of CA, causing minimal mechanical soil disturbance. No-till also brings other benefits to the producer. According to the FAO, tillage is one of the most "energy consuming" processes that can be used: It requires a lot of labor, time, and fuel to till. Producers can save 30% to 40% of time and labor by practicing the no-till process. (FAO 3020)
Besides conserving the soil, there are other examples of how CA is used. According to an article in ''Science'' called "Farming and the Fate of Wild Nature" there are two more kinds of CA. The practice of wildlife-friendly farming and land sparing are ideas for producers who are looking to practice better conservation towards biodiversity (Green, et al. 2005).
=== Wildlife-friendly farming ===
Wildlife-friendly farming, also known as land sharing, allows for the conservation of [[biodiversity]] while also allowing for production of agricultural products.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Fischer|first1=Joern|last2=Abson|first2=David J.|last3=Butsic|first3=Van|last4=Chappell|first4=M. Jahi|last5=Ekroos|first5=Johan|last6=Hanspach|first6=Jan|last7=Kuemmerle|first7=Tobias|last8=Smith|first8=Henrik G.|last9=Wehrden|first9=Henrik von|date=2014|title=Land Sparing Versus Land Sharing: Moving Forward|journal=Conservation Letters|language=en|volume=7|issue=3|pages=149–157|doi=10.1111/conl.12084|issn=1755-263X|doi-access=free|hdl=10419/176807|hdl-access=free}}</ref> In this approach, land is set aside to preserve the wildlife while the rest is used to fulfill the farmers need of agricultural commodities. Farmers take this approach by leaving some aspects of the land the same (i.e., scattered trees and patches of initial vegetation) while harvesting a diverse grouping of crops around it.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Berry|first=Brosi|date=2008|title=Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment|url=https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/1788/fa7fff4ee9df79d2f0c351ee1b43722c4dc8.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200208020627/https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/1788/fa7fff4ee9df79d2f0c351ee1b43722c4dc8.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-date=2020-02-08|pages=7|doi=10.1890/070019|s2cid=41317523}}</ref> This, in turn, allows for animals such as bees to pollinate, and the natural predation of unwanted pests.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Grass|first1=Ingo|last2=Loos|first2=Jacqueline|last3=Baensch|first3=Svenja|last4=Batáry|first4=Péter|last5=Librán-Embid|first5=Felipe|last6=Ficiciyan|first6=Anoush|last7=Klaus|first7=Felix|last8=Riechers|first8=Maraja|last9=Rosa|first9=Julia|last10=Tiede|first10=Julia|last11=Udy|first11=Kristy|date=2019|title=Land-sharing/-sparing connectivity landscapes for ecosystem services and biodiversity conservation|journal=People and Nature|language=en|volume=1|issue=2|pages=262–272|doi=10.1002/pan3.21|issn=2575-8314|doi-access=free}}</ref> By practicing such method the harvester can expect to see much lower yields, but also an increase in biodiversity given time.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Joern|first=Fischer|date=June 2013|title=Land Sparing Versus Land Sharing: Moving Forward|journal=Conservation Letters|volume=7|issue=3|pages=149–157|doi=10.1111/conl.12084|s2cid=58906191 |doi-access=free|hdl=10419/176807|hdl-access=free}}</ref> This decrease of yield then gives rise to the idea of [[land sparing]], the maximization of yield in a homogenous landscape.<ref name=":0" />
=== Land sparing ===
Land sparing is another way that producer and conservationist can be on the same page. Land sparing advocates for the land that is being used for agricultural purposes to continue to produce crops at increased yield. With an increase in yield on all land that is in use, other land can be set aside for conservation and production for biodiversity. Agricultural land stays in production but would have to increase its yield potential to keep up with demand. Land that is not being put into agriculture would be used for conserving biodiversity (Green, et al. 2005). In fact, data from the [[Food and Agriculture Organization]] shows that between 1961 and 2012, the amount of [[arable land]] needed to produce the same amount of food declined by 68 percent worldwide.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Ausubel|first1=Jesse H.|author-link1=Jesse H. Ausubel|last2=Wernick|first2=Iddo K.|last3=Waggoner|first3=Paul E.|title=Peak Farmland and the Prospect for Land Sparing|journal=[[Population and Development Review]]|volume=38|issue=s1|date=February 19, 2013|pages=221–242|url=https://phe.rockefeller.edu/docs/Peak%20Farmland%202013.pdf|doi=10.1111/j.1728-4457.2013.00561.x|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last1=Ritchie|first1=Hannah|author-link1=Hannah Ritchie|last2=Roser|first2=Max|author-link2=Max Roser|year=2019|title=Land Use|website=[[Our World in Data]]|publisher=Global Change Data Lab|url=https://ourworldindata.org/land-use|access-date=April 4, 2023}}</ref>
== Benefits ==
In the field of CA there are many benefits that both the producer and conservationist can obtain.
On the side of the conservationist, CA can be seen as beneficial because there is an effort to conserve what people use every day. Since agriculture is one of the most destructive forces against biodiversity, CA can change the way humans produce food and energy. With conservation come environmental benefits of CA. These benefits include less erosion possibilities, better [[water conservation]], improvement in air quality due to lower emissions being produced, and a chance for larger biodiversity in a given area.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2020-02-06|title=Conservation Agriculture|url=https://drawdown.org/solutions/conservation-agriculture|access-date=2020-11-27|website=Project Drawdown|language=en}}</ref>
On the side of the producer and/or farmer, CA can eventually do all that is done in conventional agriculture, and it can conserve better than conventional agriculture. CA according to Theodor Friedrich, who is a specialist in CA, believes "Farmers like it because it gives them a means of conserving, improving, and making more efficient use of their natural resources" (FAO 2006). Producers will find that the benefits of CA will come later rather than sooner. Since CA takes time to build up enough organic matter and have soils become their own fertilizer, the process does not start to work overnight. But if producers make it through the first few years of production, results will start to become more satisfactory.
CA is shown to have even higher yields and higher outputs than conventional agriculture once it has been established over long periods. Also, a producer has the benefit of knowing that the soil in which his crops are grown is a renewable resource. According to New Standard Encyclopedia, soils are a renewable resource, which means that whatever is taken out of the soil can be put back over time (New Standard 1992). As long as good soil upkeep is maintained, the soil will continue to renew itself. This could be very beneficial to a producer who is practicing CA and is looking to keep soils at a productive level for an extended time.
The farmer and/or producer can use this same land in another way when crops have been harvested. The introduction of grazing livestock to a field that once held crops can be beneficial for the producer and also the field itself. Livestock manure can be used as a natural fertilizer for a producer's field which will then be beneficial for the producer the next year when crops are planted once again. The practice of grazing livestock using CA helps the farmer who raises crops on that field and the farmer who raises the livestock that graze off that field. Livestock produce compost or manure which are a great help in generating soil fertility (Pawley W.H. 1963). The practices of CA and grazing livestock on a field for many years can allow for better yields in the following years as long as these practices continue to be followed.
The FAO believes that there are three major benefits from CA:
* Within fields that are controlled by CA the producer will see an increase in organic matter.
* Increase in water conservation due to the layer of organic matter and ground cover to help eliminate transportation and access runoff.
* Improvement of soil structure and rooting zone.
== Future development ==
As in any other business, producers and conservationists are always looking towards the future. In this case CA is a very important process to be looked at for future generation. There are many organizations that have been created to help educate and inform producers and conservationists in the world of CA. These organizations can help to inform, conduct research, and buy land in order to preserve animals and plants (New Standard 1992).
Another way in which CA is looking to the future is through prevention. According to the ''European Journal of Agronomy'' producers are looking for ways to reduce [[Leaching (agriculture)|leaching]] problems within their fields. These producers are using the same principles within CA, in that they are leaving cover over their fields in order to save fields from erosion and leaching of chemicals (Kirchmann & Thorvaldsson 2000). Processes and studies like this are allowing for a better understanding of how to conserve what we are using and finding ways to put back something that may have been lost before.
In the same journal article is presented another way in which producers and conservationists are looking towards the future. Circulation of plant nutrients can be a vital part for conserving the future. An example of this would be the use of [[Manure#Animal manure|animal manure]]. This process has been used for quite some time now, but the future is looking towards ways to handle and conserve nutrients within manure for a longer time. But besides animal waste, food and urban waste are also being looked towards as a way to use growth within CA (Kirchmann & Thorvaldsson 2000). Turning these products from waste to being used to grow crops and improve yields is something that would be beneficial for conservationists and producers.
'''Agri-environment schemes'''
In 1992, 'agri-environment schemes' became compulsory for all [[Member state of the European Union|European Union Member States]]. In the following years the main purpose of these schemes changed slightly.
Initially, they sought to protect threatened habitats, but gradually shifted their focus to the prevention of the loss of wildlife from agricultural landscapes. Most recently, the schemes are placing more emphasis on improving the services that the land can provide to humans (e.g. pollination). Overall, farmers involved in the scheme aim to practice environmentally friendlier farming techniques such as: reducing the use of pesticides, managing or altering their land to increase more wildlife friendly habitats (e.g. increasing areas of trees and bushes), reducing irrigation, [[Soil conservation|conserving soil]], and [[organic farming]].
As the changes in practices that ensure the protection of the environment are costly to farmers, the EU developed agri-environment schemes to financially compensate individual farmers for applying these changes and therefore increased the implementation of conservation agriculture.
The schemes are voluntary for farmers. Once joined, they commit to a minimum of five years during which they have to adopt various sustainable farming techniques.
According to the Euro-stat website, in 2009 the agricultural area enrolled in agri-environment schemes covered 38.5 million hectares (20.9% of agricultural land in the 27 member states of the EU at the time) (Agri-environmental indicator 2015). The [[European Commission]] spent a total of €3.23 billion on agri-environment schemes in 2012, significantly exceeding the cost of managing special sites of conservation (Natura 2000) that year, which came to a total of €39.6 million (Batáry et al. 2015).
There are two main types of agri-environment schemes which have shown different outcomes. Out-of-production schemes tend to be used in [[extensive farming]] practices (where the farming land is widespread and less [[intensive farming]] is practiced), and focus on improving or setting land aside that will not be used for the production of food, for example, the addition of wildflower strips.
In-production schemes (used for a smaller scale, but more intensively farmed land) focus on the sustainable management of arable crops or grassland, for example reduction of pesticides, reduction of grassland mowing, and most commonly, organic farming. In a 2015 review of studies examining the effects of the two schemes, it was found that out-of-production schemes had a higher success rate at enhancing the number of thriving species around the land.
The reason behind this is thought to be the scheme's focus on enhancing specific species by providing them with more unaltered habitats, which results in more food resources for the specific species.
On the other hand, in-production schemes attempt to enhance the quality of the land in general, and are thus less species specific.
Based on the findings, the reviewers suggest that schemes which more specifically target the declining groups of species, may be more effective. The findings and the targets will be implemented between 2015 and 2020, so that by 2025, the effectiveness of these schemes can be re-assessed and will have increased significantly (Batáry et al. 2015).
In this vein, in recent years 'results based pilot programs' have been introduced across the EU under Pillar Two of the Common Agriculture Policy. Results-based agri-environmental programs are defined by the European Commission as "schemes where farmers and land managers are paid for delivering an environmental result or outcome, e.g. number of breeding birds, or number of plant species in grasslands, with the flexibility to choose what management is required to achieve the desired result."<ref>Keenleyside C, Radley G, Tucker G, Underwood E, Hart K,Allen B and Menadue H (2014) Results-based Payments for Biodiversity Guidance Handbook: Designing and implementing results-based agri-environment programs 2014-20. Prepared for the European Commission, DG Environment, Contract No ENV.B.2/ETU/2013/0046, Institute for European Environmental Policy, London</ref> Results-based payment programs are also commonly referred to as Pay for Performance or Payment for Ecosystem Services. These programs differ from traditional conservation programs by focusing on observed, verifiable outcomes as opposed to implementation of best practices. Pure results-based programs refer to programs that provide payments to farmers solely on the delivery of an environmental outcome. Hybrid results-based programs refer to programs that may have a management requirement component in addition to payments for observable environmental outcomes.<ref>Allen B, Hart K, Radley G, Tucker G, Keenleyside C, Oppermann R, Underwood E, Menadue H, Poux X, Beaufoy G, Herzon I, Povellato A, Vanni F, Pražan J, Hudson T, Yellachich N (2014) Biodiversity protection through results-based remuneration of ecological achievement. Report Prepared for the European Commission, DG Environment, Contract No ENV.B.2/ETU/2013/0046, Institute for European Environmental Policy, London.</ref> Results based programs often increase farmer autonomy and participation,<ref>Allen B, et al (2014) Biodiversity protection through results-based remuneration of ecological achievement. Report Prepared for the European Commission</ref> produce clear quantifiable results and effectively link payment to environmental conservation outcomes. Some NGOs have started to pilot similar programs in the US, for example Winrock International partnered with the Sand County Foundation to provide payment to farmers for reducing nutrient loads from their lands across the Midwest.<ref>Fisher, K. A., Winsten, J. R., Spratt, E. U., Anderson, R. U., & Smith, R. U. (2017). Pay for Performance Conservation: A How-To Guide (pp. 1-43, Rep.). Delta Institute.</ref>
== Problems ==
As much as conservation agriculture can benefit the world, there are some problems that come with it. There are many reasons why conservation agriculture cannot always be a win-win situation. Examples of these disadvantages include high initial costs of specialized planting equipment, and a new dynamic farming system that requires new management skills and a learning process by the farmer. Long term experience with conservation farming all over the world has shown that this system does not present more or less but different problems to a farmer, all of them possible to resolve.<ref>{{cite book
| title= Soils, Plant Growth and Crop Production Volume I
| chapter= Conservation Agriculture
| editor=Willy H. Verheye
| date=2010
| publisher=[[EOLSS]] Publishers
| isbn=978-1-84826-367-3
| url=https://www.eolss.net/ebooklib/bookinfo/soils-plant-growth-crop-production.aspx
| page=98
}}</ref>
There are not enough people who can financially turn from conventional farming to conservation. The process of CA takes time; when a producer first becomes a conservationist, the results can be a financial loss to them (in most cases, the investment and policy generally exist). CA is based upon establishing an organic layer and producing its own fertilizer and this may take time. It can be many years before a producer will start to see better yields than he/she has had previously. Another financial undertaking is purchasing of new equipment. When starting to use CA, a producer may have to buy new planters or drills in order to produce effectively. These financial tasks are ones that may impact whether or not a producer decides to switch to CA or not.
Interactions with livestock and competition for crop residues - In developing countries, livestock is often an integral part of the farming system, so it needs to be considered when introducing CA. The application of CA requires a critical level of crop residues remaining on the surface, while traditionally most of these residues are used for feeding livestock. It is a common practice to allow livestock to graze in the harvested crop fields or to slash the crop residue and store it for fodder.<ref>{{cite book
| title= Soils, Plant Growth and Crop Production Volume I
| chapter= Conservation Agriculture
| editor=Willy H. Verheye
| date=2010
| publisher=[[EOLSS]] Publishers
| isbn=978-1-84826-367-3
| url=https://www.eolss.net/ebooklib/bookinfo/soils-plant-growth-crop-production.aspx
| page=99
}}</ref>
With the struggle to adapt comes the struggle to make CA grow across the globe. CA has not spread as quickly as most conservationists would like. The reason for this is because there is not enough pressure for producers in places such as North America to change their way of living to a more conservationist outlook. But in the tropics there is more pressure to change to conservation areas because of the limited resources that are available. Places like Europe have also started to catch onto the ideas and principles of CA, but still nothing much is being done to change due to there being a minimal amount of pressure for people to change their ways of living (FAO 2006).
With CA comes the idea of producing enough food. With cutting back in fertilizer, not tilling the ground, and other processes comes the responsibility to feed the world. According to the [[Population Reference Bureau]], there were around 6.08 billion people on Earth in the year 2000. By 2050 there will be an estimated 9.1 billion people. With this increase comes the responsibility for producers to increase food supply using the same or less land than we use today. Problems arise in the fact that if CA farms do not produce as much as conventional farms, this leaves the world with less food for more people.{{Citation needed|date=April 2021}}
==See also==
*[[Agroecology]]
*[[Biodiversity]]
*[[Sustainable agriculture]]
*[[No-till farming]]
==References==
{{Reflist}}
==Further reading==
*Agri-environmental indicator- commitments, 2015. [26 November 2015]
*Batáry, P. et al., 2015. The role of agri-environment schemes in conservation and environmental management. Conservation Biology, 29(4), pp. 1006–1016.
*Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO). 2006. Agriculture and Consumer Protection Department. Rome, Italy Available from http://www.fao.org/ag/magazine/0110sp.htm (Accessed November 2007).
*Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO). 2007. Agriculture and Consumer Protection Department. Rome, Italy Available from http://www.fao.org/ag/ca/ (Accessed November 2007).
*Gupta, R., Hobbs, P.R., Sayre, Ken. 2007. The role of conservation agriculture in sustainable agriculture. The Royal Society. Pg. 1-13.
*Kirchmann, H., Thorvaldsson, G. 2000. European Journal of Agronomy. Challenging Targets for Future Agriculture. Vol. 12, Issues 3-4. Pg 145-161.
*New Standard Encyclopedia. 1992. Standard Educational Operation. Chicago, Illinois. Pg(s) A-141, C-546.
*Pawley, W.H. 1963. Possibilities of Increasing World Food Production. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Rome, Italy. Pg 98.
*Population Reference Bureau. 2007. Washington, D.C. Available from https://web.archive.org/web/20071213192023/http://www.prb.org/Journalists/FAQ/WorldPopulation.aspx. ( Accessed December 2007).
==External links==
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20100907054742/http://www.oired.vt.edu/sanremcrsp/ Sustainable Agriculture and Natural Resource Management (SANREM CRSP)]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20150503210220/http://wqic.nal.usda.gov/agricultural-environmental-management Agricultural Environmental Management, Water Quality Information Center, U.S. Department of Agriculture]
*[https://www.fao.org/conservation-agriculture/en/ Conservation Agriculture, Agriculture and Consumer Protection Department, Food and Agriculture Organization, United Nations]
*[https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/wps/portal/nrcs/main/national/programs/][https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/wps/portal/nrcs/main/national/technical/nra/ceap/ NRCS Conservation Programs, Natural Resources Conservation Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture]
*[https://www.fsa.usda.gov/programs-and-services/conservation-programs/index FSA Conservation Programs, Farm Service Agency, U.S. Department of Agriculture]
*[https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rstb.2007.2169 Hobbs, P.R., Sayre, Ken & Gupta, R. (2008) The role of conservation agriculture in sustainable agriculture. Philosophical transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological sciences 363(1491): 543-555]
{{conservation of species}}
{{authority control}}
[[Category:Agriculture by type]]
[[Category:Environmental conservation]]
[[Category:Permaculture concepts]]
[[Category:Sustainable agriculture]]
[[Category:Sustainable food system]] |
Leaf Bank | {{Short description|Environment Conservation Organization}}
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| coordinates = {{coord|28.579691|77.259850|display=inline,title}}
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| language = [[English language|English]], [[Hindi]]
| owner = <!-- or |owners = -->
| sec_gen = <!-- or |gen_sec for General Secretary -->
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| main_organ = Board Members
| parent_organization = The Samajh<ref>{{cite web |title=Delhi Leaf Bank |url=https://www.thesamajh.in/project/delhi_leaf_bank.aspx |website=www.thesamajh.in |access-date=19 April 2023}}</ref>
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| volunteers = 150<ref>{{cite news |title=Delhi Leaf Bank : स्वच्छ पर्यावरण के लिए 150 सदस्य चला रहे ये लीफ बैंक |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=b94JmXxaTa4 |access-date=14 April 2023 |work=JANBHAWANA TIMES |language=en}}</ref>
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| website = <!-- {{Official URL}} or {{URL|example.com}} -->
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}}
'''Leaf Bank''' is a bank located in [[Delhi]].<ref>{{cite news |title=leaf bank: Leaf Bank in Delhi promotes clean environment {{!}} News - Times of India Videos |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/videos/news/leaf-bank-in-delhi-promotes-clean-environment/videoshow/99229147.cms |access-date=12 April 2023 |work=The Times of India |language=en}}</ref> People deposit the fallen dry leaves of the [[autumn]] season in the Delhi Leaf Bank, and receive compost from the next year as [[interest]].<ref>{{cite news |title=यह है Delhi का Leaf Bank, जहां इकट्ठे किए जाते हैं पेड़ के सूखे पत्ते {{!}} #shorts #leafbank #delhi |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-bsu77Dbxjs |work=India TV |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=ഇലകൾക്കായൊരു ബാങ്ക് {{!}} leaf bank |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=K2T1dReVRW0 |access-date=12 April 2023 |work=Samayam Malayalam |language=en}}</ref> People are also given [[Certificate of deposit|certificates]] from this bank after depositing the leaves, by showing which people can get [[compost]].<ref>{{cite news |title=सूखे पत्ते के बदले खाद-पतझड़ का त्यौहार ‘द समझ’ का पर्यांवरण को समर्पित अभियान {{!}} Online Newspaper |url=https://epapervirarjun.com/epapermain.aspx?queryed=9&eddate=3%2f17%2f2023&querypage=2&parentid=21539 |access-date=12 April 2023 |work=epapervirarjun.com}}</ref>
== Process ==
The leaves are collected in large quantities. These leaves are kept in polythene bags for a few days. After this, [[nitrogen]] is sprayed on these leaves from time to time. Slowly the leaves [[Decomposition|decompose]] and within a few months the compost is ready.<ref>{{cite news |title=Unique Bank दिल्ली में पत्तों का एक ऐसा बैंक जहां ब्याज के रूप में मिलती है खाद |url=https://www.etvbharat.com/hindi/delhi/state/new-delhi/a-bank-of-leaves-in-delhi-where-compost-is-available-as-interest/dl20230329171036589589308 |work=ETV Bharat News |language=hi}}</ref>
== References ==
{{reflist}}
[[Category:Banks]]
[[Category:Composting]]
[[Category:Environment and health]]
[[Category:Environmental conservation]] |