Datasets:

retiredcarboxyl
/

wikipedia-collection

Dataset card Viewer Files Files and versions Community

Split (1)

train · 470 rows

title stringlengths 6 89	text stringlengths 64 286k
Biophysical environment	#REDIRECT [[Natural environment]] {{R from merge}} [[Category:Ecology terminology]] [[Category:Environmental conservation]] [[Category:Ecosystems]] [[Category:Habitat]] [[Category:Environments\| ]]
Operation Shikkar	{{Infobox event \| title = Operation Shikkar \| image = \| caption = \| date = 2015–2017 \| time = \| place = Kerala, India \| coordinates = \| also_known_as= \| type = Law enforcement operation \| cause = Combat illegal ivory smuggling and poaching \| organisers = [[Kerala Forest Department]], [[Wildlife Trust of India]] \| participants = \| outcome = Arrest of 72 individuals; seizure of 464 kg of ivory \| reported_deaths = \| reported_injuries= \| reported_missing = \| arrests = 72 \| charges = \| verdict = \| convictions = \| litigation = \| url = \| notes = }} '''Operation Shikkar''' was an extensive enforcement and investigation initiative undertaken by the [[Kerala Forest Department]] between 2015 and 2017, aimed at dismantling a widespread network involved in illegal ivory smuggling and the poaching of elephants in [[India]]. This operation marked one of the most significant efforts against wildlife crime in the country.<ref>{{Cite news \|last=Anand \|first=G. \|date=2018-06-09 \|title=Poachers play deadly ivory game in Kerala forests \|url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/poachers-play-deadly-ivory-game-in-kerala-forests/article24125329.ece \|access-date=2024-03-06 \|work=The Hindu \|language=en-IN \|issn=0971-751X}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web \|title=487 kgs of Ivory Seized in Undercover Operation in Delhi \|url=https://www.wti.org.in/news/487-kgs-of-ivory-seized-in-undercover-operation-in-delhi/ \|access-date=2024-03-06 \|website=Wildlife Trust of India \|language=en-US}}</ref> ==Background== The operation was initiated in response to increasing concerns over elephant poaching and ivory smuggling in the [[Malayattoor]] forest division of [[Ernakulam district]], [[Kerala]]. Intelligence reports suggested a well-organized syndicate that exploited local wildlife resources and operated across various states in India.<ref>{{Cite web \|date=2016-07-07 \|title=Hunters become the hunted: Elephant poachers fall prey to their phone calls \|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/how-cdr-helps-forest-official-nab-poachers/story-4nP8NVFXYK14gYhVPKWFsK.html \|access-date=2024-03-06 \|website=Hindustan Times \|language=en}}</ref> ==Key officers involved== ===Manu Sathyan=== Manu Sathyan, serving as the Divisional Forest Officer (DFO) of the Kerala Forest Department, played a pivotal role in the operation.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web \|date=2024-02-24 \|title=Real-Life Mala Jogi, Alan Joseph And Neel Banerjee In 'Poacher,' Explained \|url=https://dmtalkies.com/real-life-mala-jogi-alan-joseph-neel-banerjee-in-poacher-2024/ \|access-date=2024-03-06 \|language=en-US}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite web \|date=2024-02-26 \|title=Meet Jose Louies, Manu Sathyan And Amit Mallick, The Real-Life Heroes Who Inspired 'Poacher' \|url=https://www.indiatimes.com/entertainment/binge/real-life-story-of-jose-louies-manu-sathyan-that-inspired-poacher-628371.html \|access-date=2024-03-06 \|website=IndiaTimes \|language=en-IN}}</ref> ===Jose Louies=== Jose Louies, an IT engineer and wildlife enthusiast from Kerala, significantly contributed to the operation as a technical analyst and representative of the [[Wildlife Trust of India]] (WTI).<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" /> ===Amit Mallick=== Dr. Amit Mallick, associated with the Indian Forest Service, was instrumental in assembling a task force to swiftly apprehend the culprits involved in the operation.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" /> ==Execution== The operation involved coordination between multiple agencies, including the Kerala Forest Department, local police, and conservation organizations. Undercover operations, surveillance, and analysis of communication networks were key strategies employed to identify and arrest individuals involved in the illegal [[Ivory trade]].<ref>{{Cite web \|title=Ivory worth crores recovered, Delhi businessman arrested \|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/india/story/ivory-worth-crores-recovered-delhi-businessman-arrested-267897-2015-10-13 \|access-date=2024-03-06 \|website=India Today \|language=en}}</ref> ==Outcomes== The operation led to the arrest of 72 individuals, including poachers, government officials, ivory carvers, and dealers. Significant quantities of ivory were seized, highlighting the extensive network and methods used by poachers and smugglers.<ref>{{Cite web \|last=Sasikumar \|first=Meenakshy \|date=2024-02-22 \|title='Poacher': The Real-Life Story of Elephant Poaching That Stunned Kerala in 2015 \|url=https://www.thequint.com/entertainment/prime-series-poacher-real-life-kerala-investigation-into-elephant-poaching \|access-date=2024-03-06 \|website=TheQuint \|language=en}}</ref> ==Impact== "Operation Shikkar" raised public awareness about the threats to elephant populations and the importance of protecting these keystone species. It underscored the need for stricter enforcement of wildlife protection laws and enhanced international cooperation to prevent illegal wildlife trade.<ref>{{Cite web \|title="It's cold-blooded murder": The real-life story behind Poacher, Amazon's blockbuster wildlife crime drama \|url=https://www.discoverwildlife.com/environment/poacher-asian-elephant-ivory-trade \|access-date=2024-03-06 \|website=www.discoverwildlife.com \|language=en}}</ref> ==In popular culture== The significant impact of "'''Operation Shikkar'''" was dramatized in the web series [[Poacher (TV series)\|Poacher]], available on [[Amazon Prime Video]]. The series is inspired by the real-life events of the operation and portrays the collaborative efforts to dismantle an illegal ivory smuggling racket.<ref>{{Cite web \|date=2024-02-20 \|title=New Series 'Poacher' Spotlights India's Problem \|url=https://time.com/6696865/elephants-poacher-alia-bhatt-amazon-streaming/ \|access-date=2024-03-06 \|website=TIME \|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web \|date=2024-02-23 \|title=Poacher Review: Ritchie Mehta's Taut Investigative Thriller On Ivory Trade Is A Worthy Follow Up To Delhi Crime \|url=https://www.timesnownews.com/entertainment-news/reviews/web-series/poacher-review-ritchie-mehta-taut-investigative-thriller-on-ivory-trade-is-a-worthy-follow-up-to-delhi-crime-review-107922107 \|access-date=2024-03-06 \|website=TimesNow \|language=en}}</ref> ==References== <references/> [[Category:Law enforcement operations in India]] [[Category:Wildlife conservation in India]] [[Category:2015 in India]] [[Category:2017 in India]] [[Category:Environmental conservation]] {{India-stub}} {{Environment-stub}}
Crocodile skin	{{About\|crocodile skin within fashion\|(animal)\|crocodile}} {{short description\|Skin of a live crocodile or a leather made from dead crocodile hide}} '''Crocodile skin''' either refers to the [[skin]] of a live crocodile or a leather made from dead crocodile [[Hide (skin)\|hide]]. It has multiple applications across the fashion industry such as use for bags, shoes, and upholstery after being farmed and treated in specialist farms and tanneries.[[File:Preserved_skin_of_Lolong_at_Philippine_National_Museum.jpg\|thumb\|[[Taxidermy\|Taxidermied]] skin of [[Lolong]], coined as the largest crocodile in captivity by [[Guinness World Records]], at Philippine National Museum]] == Crocodile leather == {{Main\|Leather}} Crocodile leather is the processed hide of one of 23 crocodile species in the world.<ref>{{Cite web\|url=https://www.crocoworld.com/crocodile-species/\|title=Crocodile Species\|last=CrocoWorld\|website=Crocodile Facts and Information\|language=en-US\|access-date=2019-05-11}}</ref> Crocodile leather is an [[exotic leather]] which as a group, makes up less than 1% of the world's leather production.<ref name=":82">{{Cite web\|url=https://www.leather-dictionary.com/index.php/Exotic_leather\|title=Exotic leather - www.leather-dictionary.com - The Leather Dictionary\|website=www.leather-dictionary.com}}</ref> It is rare compared to other hides such as sheep or cow and requires high levels of craftsmanship to prepare it for use in the consumer industry.<ref name=":6" /> Crocodile leather is considered a luxury item utilized by high fashion brands such as Hermes, Moet Hennessy Louis Vuitton (LVMH) and Gucci.<ref name="Daneshku">{{Cite web \|last=Daneshkhu \|first=Scheherazade \|date=2013-05-26 \|title=Luxury race to bag the best skins \|url=https://www.ft.com/content/ed5824f8-c133-11e2-9767-00144feab7de \|url-access=subscription \|access-date=2019-05-11 \|website=Financial Times \|language=en-GB}}</ref> As a material, crocodile leather is rare and expensive because of limited numbers of crocodiles, their relatively small size and the scarcity of dependable farms and tanning facilities to process and prepare the product for market.<ref name="Daneshku"/> [[File:Red Crocodile Kelly Bag.jpg\|thumb\|Red Crocodile Kelly Bag\|alt=]] == Applications and Uses == Crocodile skin is primarily used in the production of handbags and other luxury items such as shoes, belts, wallets, upholstery, and furniture. For these products, [[Freshwater crocodile\|Freshwater]], [[Saltwater crocodile\|Saltwater]], [[Nile crocodile\|Nile]] and [[Caiman crocodilus\|Caiman]] are used because of the superior quality of skin which when tanned has an aesthetic finish.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web\|url=http://www.crocodileleather.net/about-crocodile-leather/\|title=About Crocodile Leather {{!}} Crocodile Leather - Luxury Grade Wholesale Crocodile Hides\|date=28 May 2009 \|language=en-US\|access-date=2019-05-11}}</ref> Not all these skins are valued the same. As one of the largest crocodile species, the Australian Saltwater Crocodile has a reputation for having the most desirable and high-quality hide. This makes it more popular than the smaller Caiman skins which, as a more common species, is a cheaper option.<ref name=":10">Hawkins, Huynh, Stephen, Chi ''(December 2004). Improved Preservation and early-stage processing of Australian Crocodile Skins.'' Australia: Australian Government, Rural Industries Research and Development Cooperation. pp.3-35 {{ISBN\|1741510732}}</ref> The value of a skin is dependent on what it will be used for. Freshwater Crocodile, particularly from New Guinea, is known for its flexibility which allows processors to skive it down to a thinness suitable for clothing whereas Nile crocodile, mostly available across Africa,<ref name=":0" /> is durable, making it desirable for heavy-duty items such as footwear and belts.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal\|last=Thorbjarnarson\|first=John\|date=June 1999\|title= Crocodile Tears and Skins: International Trade, Economic Constraints, and Limits to the Sustainable Use of Crocodilians\|journal=Conservation Biology\|volume= 13\|issue=3\|pages=465–470\|via=JSTOR\|doi=10.1046/j.1523-1739.1999.00011.x\|s2cid=83775178 }}</ref> == Farming == {{Main\|Crocodile farm}} Crocodiles are either farmed or wild-caught.<ref name=":1">Hawkins, Huynh, Stephen, Chi ''(December 2004). Improved Preservation and early stage processing of Australian Crocodile Skins.'' Australia: Australian Government, Rural Industries Research and Development Cooperation. pp. 5-34 {{ISBN\|1741510732}}</ref> In Northern and Western Australia crocodile farms carry out ranching which includes [[captive breeding]] and harvesting of eggs from the wild. Eggs are collected and landowners sell the eggs to local farms to breed.<ref name=":4">{{Cite web\|url=https://phys.org/news/2019-03-exotic-leather-fashion-snakes-crocodiles.html\|title=Banning exotic leather in fashion hurts snakes and crocodiles in the long run\|website=phys.org\|language=en-us\|access-date=2019-05-12}}</ref> In 2018 this method also became legal in Queensland.<ref>{{Cite web\|url=https://environment.des.qld.gov.au/wildlife/livingwith/crocodiles/egg-harvest/\|title=Crocodile egg harvesting\|last=Science\|first=jurisdiction=Queensland; sector=government; corporateName=Department of Environment and\|date=2018-09-21\|website=Department of Environment and Science\|language=en-AU\|access-date=2019-08-13}}</ref><ref name=":6" /> On a crocodile farm, crocodiles are grown and prepared for slaughter before their skin is removed, treated, and sent to be tanned in specialist tanneries and used in the manufacture of commercial goods. #'''Ranching''' - this is the collection of wild eggs.<ref name=":10" /> Collection usually occurs in February and March.<ref>{{Cite web\|url=http://www.crocosauruscove.com/saltwater-crocodiles-its-breeding-time/\|title=Saltwater Crocodiles - It's breeding time in the Top End\|date=2013-12-18\|website=Croc Cove\|language=en\|access-date=2019-05-13}}</ref> #'''Hatching''' - the eggs are incubated and protected to ensure the highest yield.<ref name=":4" /> #'''Growth''' - the crocodiles are grown to certain sizes dependent on what the skin will be used for. For example, most bags will require a 40 cm belly skin which will require a crocodile of generally 1.5 years old or 1.2 m long. The requirements vary depending on what is fashionable at the time, for example, if there is a trend for small handbags then a farm will reduce the growth stage and instigate slaughter earlier as smaller skins are required by the fashion industry. It is a case of supply and demand; if crocodile skin suits are "in fashion" then crocodile farmers will need to provide the fashion industry will larger skins suitable for such production.<ref name=":5">Ernst & Young, Northern Territory Crocodile Industry Economic Contribution Analysis (2017). ''Final Report: Economic Value of the Crocodile Farming Industry to the Northern Territory.'' Australia: Ernst & Young. pp.1-43.</ref><ref name=":4" /> #'''Stunning''' - Once the crocodiles have reached the desired size, the crocodile is stunned with a rod and its eyes are covered to calm it.<ref>{{Cite web\|url=https://www.abc.net.au/triplej/programs/hack/top-end-crocodile-industry-leather-meat/9801626\|title=Take a rare look inside the Top End's lucrative crocodile industry\|last=Dias\|first=Avani\|date=2018-05-28\|website=triple j\|language=en\|access-date=2019-05-12}}</ref> They are then sent to abattoirs where skins and meat are removed for sale.<ref name=":6" /> #'''Slaughter''' - Humane slaughter is carried out by the severing of the spinal cord.<ref name=":6" /> #'''Disinfection''' - According to food-safety guidelines the skin is disinfected. #'''Chilling''' - Before skinning the carcass is left in a cold room bleed.<ref name=":1" /> This often takes place overnight.<ref name=":6" /> #'''Skinning''' - Skin is carefully removed. #'''Meat Processing''' - meat is removed and packaged according to food safety requirements. #'''Skin Processing''' - the processing of the removed skin involves short and long term preservation, grading and measurement and storage until dispatch.<ref name=":5" /><ref name=":6">Goulding, Riedel, Bevan, Warfield, Brendan, Elysa, Andrea, Bronwyn (June 2007). ''Export Markets for Skins and Leather for Australia’s camel, crocodile, emu and goat industries. A report for the Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation.'' Australia: Australian Government, Rural Industries Research, and Development Corporation. pp. 15-32. ''{{ISBN\|1 74151 486 X}}''</ref> The main farm income is in crocodile skin for the fashion industry.<ref name=":7" /> It is important the skin is of good quality to achieve the highest revenue possible. Preservation is essential as quality of skin reduces substantially in warm conditions where the farms tend to be situated.<ref name=":6" /> To add value to skins, some farms include fleshing at the stage of short term preservation. Fleshing is usually carried out by tanners and is the trimming, scraping and removal of remaining muscle tissue using sharp equipment and high power water jets.<ref name=":1" /> It is often considered risky for farms to complete the fleshing process as the skin may be damaged, a costly mistake. 1 skin costs $12 in labor, not including operating or capital costs. Therefore, fleshing is usually carried out by tanners.<ref name=":1" /> == Value, quality and measurements == The skin is the most valuable part of a crocodile, followed by the meat and other body parts such as teeth.<ref name=":5" /> Value is decided in two ways: size and grade. Greater width increases the value of the skin and is measured across the third raised [[scute]]. The grade is measured on a scale of damage to the skin and value is deducted by 25% at each level.<ref name=":1" /> Therefore, skin value can drop significantly if the quality is not maintained by careful handling. The value of first-grade skin per cm is $9 (USA), a 40 cm of skin therefore costs $360.<ref name=":1" /> For every imperfection, value decreases which is why crocodile farmers take precautionary measures such as covering corners of enclosures with plastic, to keep their crocodiles in good condition.<ref name=":11">{{Cite web\|url=https://www.theaustralian.com.au/weekend-australian-magazine/saltwater-crocodiles-high-fashion-meets-evolutionary-design/news-story/5dd554716513843885959a63afb150f0\|title=Skin in the fashion game\|date=2015-07-10\|website=www.theaustralian.com.au\|access-date=2019-05-13}}</ref> Crocodiles are put into smaller groups to prevent fights and spread of infections are known to lead to scarring and damage of skin which will affect the value of leather.<ref>{{Cite web\|url=https://www.theaustralian.com.au/weekend-australian-magazine/saltwater-crocodiles-high-fashion-meets-evolutionary-design/news-story/5dd554716513843885959a63afb150f0\|title=Skin in the fashion game\|date=2015-07-10\|website=www.theaustralian.com.au\|access-date=2019-05-12}}</ref><ref name=":1" /> The value of a skin is dependent on how much it is desired by fashion houses such as [[Louis Vuitton]], [[Yves Saint Laurent (brand)\|Yves Saint Laurent]] and [[Hermès\|Hermes]].<ref name=":11" /> Premium skins are usually transported to countries such as France, Italy and the United States of America where the most reputable tanneries treat the skins according to the designer's wishes and make them ready for manufacture into commercial goods such as [[bag]]s, [[shoe]]s and accessories.<ref name=":7" /> In Australia, (both a producer and manufacturer of crocodile hide) businesses like Di Croco offer custom products to customers and also use lesser skins and by-products to minimize waste.<ref name=":5" /><ref>{{Cite web\|url=http://dicroco.com/\|title=Welcome to the di CROCO Boutique\|website=di CROCO\|language=en-US\|access-date=2019-05-12}}</ref> Quality can be improved up to the point of slaughter and from here only maintained or reduced.<ref name=":1" /> Skin must be preserved carefully as after slaughter there is a loss of immune response and it becomes susceptible to microbial contamination such as scale slip, staining and discoloration<ref name=":11" /> and biological damage, e.g. bacterial or fungal infection.<ref name=":1" /> In short term preservation, a 60% brine solution is used for up to five days. In long term preservation, a commercial biocide is required which allows the skin to be kept for up to four months.<ref name=":1" /><ref>{{Cite web\|url=https://alligatorhuntingequipment.com/tan.html\|title=How To Tan an alligator Hide\|website=alligatorhuntingequipment.com\|access-date=2019-05-13}}</ref> The skins are kept in sealed individual bags, though not vacuum packed, to minimize exposure, prevent creasing and simplify handling. Farmers and tanners use specific methods of folding or rolling skins to prevent creases forming across the scales.<ref name=":1" /> [[File: Crocodiles skin 0568-Djerba-sgsprzem.jpg\|thumb\|The rough-textured scutes of crocodile hide present in the back cut.]] There are 2 main cuts of crocodile skin: # Back Cut - Scaly cut with a rough texture and mainly used in trimmings. # Belly Cut - Highly popular cut due to smooth texture and close, small scale structure which makes it pliable and suitable for many items such as handbags and clothing.<ref name=":82"/> The largest width of the belly is measured to gauge the value of the hide.<ref name=":0" /> When designers are purchasing crocodile leather, they must take into consideration the measurements are for the overall size of the hide and not a pattern width. As a result, it can take several skins to produce a single item.<ref name=":12">{{Cite web\|url=http://workshop.rojeleather.com/\|title=Roje Workshop - Designer Exotic Leather Handbags and Furniture\|website=workshop.rojeleather.com\|access-date=2019-05-13}}</ref> == Treatment after Farming and Production == Development programs were set up to support the growth of crocodile populations during harvest in the 1960s and 1970s in the Americas and Rhodesia.<ref name=":7" /> Papua New Guinea put similar management programs in place which made the trading of crocodile skin economically and commercially viable as it prevented over hunting and depletion in numbers. Maintenance of these farms relies on skin-producing countries to export their products elsewhere for tanning and manufacture.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal\|last=Thorbjarnarson\|first=John\|date=1999\|title=Crocodile Tears and Skins: International Trade, Economic Constraints, and Limits to the Sustainable Use of Crocodilians\|journal=Conservation Biology\|volume=13\|issue=3\|pages=465–470\|issn=0888-8892\|jstor=2641860\|doi=10.1046/j.1523-1739.1999.00011.x\|s2cid=83775178 }}</ref> Often, it is impossible to tell if a skin has been preserved adequately until after tanning as there may be no signs of biological damage.<ref name=":1" /> A damaged skin resulting in a dull, discolored or scuffed finish which ultimately devalues the leather.<ref name=":9" /> Australian Saltwater Crocodile is one of the most sought after skins because it is flexible which makes it good for handbag production.<ref name=":6" /> Bonier hides of Caiman crocodiles are more difficult to dye and work with, making them a less popular option. For items such as bags, suits or trousers, large panels of skin are required.<ref name=":82"/> With large areas of leather on display, damaged leather is obvious which is why cautions are taken to ensure high-grade skins come out of the crocodile farms. Small bags require a hide of 30 to 34  cm. Larger bags need skins of 40 to 50 cm.<ref name=":12" /> Manufacturers should use the maximum amount of hide to avoid waste. Scraps are used for straps, gussets and interior details.<ref name=":13" /> It is necessary for the designer to mark the skin with preparatory sewing lines using a rotatory tool to thin the line where the stitches will run. This reduces the risk of the needle hitting calcium deposits which may break the needle.<ref name=":13">{{Cite web\|url=http://www.panamleathers.com/blog/bid/356576/4-Tips-for-Making-Crocodile-Skin-Handbags\|title=4 Tips for Making Crocodile Skin Handbags\|last=Mendal\|first=Mark\|website=www.panamleathers.com\|language=en-us\|access-date=2019-05-12}}</ref><ref name=":7" /> It takes an average of two artisan days to make a crocodile skin handbag. Timing depends on the glazing technique used on the hide as certain glazes affect the pliability of the leather, making it stiffer and prone to cracking.<ref name=":12" /> Longer, more complicated process is required when the leather has been treated like this as the leather cannot be turned inside out in the traditional way.<ref name=":0" /> == Legalities == The crocodile skin trade is legally complicated because it is important that the leather is sourced reliably from farms where crocodiles are treated in humane conditions. Unregulated commercial hunting has resulted in a decline of many crocodile populations so governments have put protection over many reptiles.<ref name=":3" /> [[CITES]] is an international agreement between 164 countries to protect endangered species from extinction. Established in 1973, it stands for "Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of wild fauna and flora".<ref name=":7" /> Legally imported crocodile skin must come from reputable farms with CITES certification to prove legal possession. Any uncertificated skins are confiscated by customs and sale of an inherited (pre-CITES) or illegally imported skin is a criminal offense.<ref name=":6" /> The laws on crocodile trade are different around the world. In America, it is legal to import sustainably sourced crocodile leather as long as it complies with the restrictions imposed by CITES.<ref name=":3" /> Crocodile leather trade for Freshwater [[Siamese crocodile\|Siamese Crocodile]] with Thailand, Vietnam or Cambodia is forbidden even if the skin is accompanied by a CITES certificate.<ref name=":1" /> In certain cases, illegal trade occurs when buyers are unaware of restrictions so companies or businesses purchasing crocodile hide must be sure of the origin of the skin they are purchasing.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":0" /> == Trade == Crocodile leather trade was established in the Caribbean, Mexico and Central America when it became a popular material in the 1800s.<ref name=":7" /> Since then, demand for skins has increased to the extent that hunting and production spread to Africa, Asia and Australia, where the majority of crocodile skins are sustainably sourced today.<ref name=":7" /> In the Northern Territory, crocodile farms generate $107 million per year. This is a crucial form of income for a community lacking viable industry.<ref name=":9">{{Cite web\|url=https://www.abc.net.au/triplej/programs/hack/top-end-crocodile-industry-leather-meat/9801626\|title=Take a rare look inside the Top End's lucrative crocodile industry\|last=Dias\|first=Avani\|date=2018-05-28\|website=triple j\|language=en\|access-date=2019-05-11}}</ref> Crocodile farming is valued as providing 264 jobs (2017) as well as encouraging harmony within communities with Indigenous and local people who carry out egg hunting and crocodile rearing.<ref>{{Cite web\|url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2017-07-27/nt-crocodile-industry-worth-100m-four-times-previous-estimates/8748192\|title=NT croc industry valued at over $100m, four times previous estimates\|last=Vanovac\|first=Neda\|date=2017-07-27\|website=ABC News\|language=en-AU\|access-date=2019-05-11}}</ref> Crocodile farming is not limited to the production of skins for the fashion industry. Tourism and on-farm breeding help maintain the state of farms and educate the public about the role of crocodile farming in certain communities. In the Northern Territory tourists can visit Crocodylus Park<ref>{{Cite web\|url=https://www.crocodyluspark.com.au/\|title=Crocodylus Park\|website=www.crocodyluspark.com.au\|access-date=2019-05-13\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190313232323/http://crocodyluspark.com.au/\|archive-date=2019-03-13\|url-status=dead}}</ref> and [[Crocosaurus Cove]]<ref>{{Cite web\|url=http://www.crocosauruscove.com/cage-of-death/\|title=Cage of Death {{!}}\|website=Croc Cove\|language=en\|access-date=2019-05-13}}</ref> to learn about the crocodiles and the trade.<ref name=":5" /> == Conservation == {{Further\|List of critically endangered reptiles}} Within certain societies, the crocodile trade is extremely important.<ref name=":1" /> In 1945 - 1971 Northern Australians generated significant income at the expense of the crocodile as uncontrolled trade severely impacted on the populations of both saltwater and freshwater crocodiles.<ref>{{Cite web\|url=https://www.qhatlas.com.au/crocodile-hunting\|title=Crocodile hunting\|website=Queensland Historical Atlas\|language=en\|access-date=2019-08-13}}</ref> Full protection over the Australian Saltwater Crocodile was established in 1971 to allow the species to recover.<ref name=":22" /> When crocodile numbers increased, co-habitation with local people became a problem, and fatal and non-fatal attacks on people and fishing boats were reported in 1979/1980. In response, the Northern Territory established an 'incentive-driven conservation strategy'<ref name=":22">Parks and Wildlife Service of the Northern Territory (2012–2014). ''Management Program for the saltwater crocodile in the Northern Territory of Australia 2012-2014.'' Australia: Northern Territory Government, department of natural resources, environment, the arts, and sport. pp. 1-62.</ref> which encouraged people to protect crocodiles through commercial activity such as farming, tourism, and ranching.<ref name=":2" /> The Saltwater Crocodiles are seen as a commercial resource by communities who generate wealth and employment through the crocodile industry.<ref>{{Cite web\|url=http://www.environmentandsociety.org/arcadia/tropical-australias-crocodile-entrepreneurs\|title=Tropical Australia's Crocodile Entrepreneurs {{!}} Environment & Society Portal\|website=www.environmentandsociety.org\|date=7 February 2019 \|language=en\|access-date=2019-08-13}}</ref> This also promotes crocodile conservation which would otherwise be difficult because of their predatory nature.<ref name=":2">Parks and Wildlife Service of the Northern Territory (2012–2014). ''Management Program for the saltwater crocodile in the Northern Territory of Australia 2012-2014.'' Australia: Northern Territory Government, the department of natural resources, environment, the arts, and sport. pp. 18-36.</ref><ref>{{Cite web\|url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/photography/proof/2017/08/crocodile-hunter-conservation-frost-photos/\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170906113308/http://www.nationalgeographic.com/photography/proof/2017/08/crocodile-hunter-conservation-frost-photos/\|url-status=dead\|archive-date=September 6, 2017\|title=Inside the Rugged Lives of Crocodile Hunters\|date=2017-08-31\|website=Photography\|access-date=2019-05-12}}</ref> Brands who use crocodile skins are encouraged to support conservation efforts. Australian brand Croc Stock and Barra use unwanted sections of skin to handcraft luxury items and ensure waste is limited.<ref>{{Cite web\|url=https://crocstockandbarra.com/pages/about-us\|title=About us {{!}} Croc Stock and Barra Leather Products\|website=Croc Stock and Barra\|language=en\|access-date=2019-05-12}}</ref> Other brands such as Roje Exotics American Leathers claim to use leather that is the byproduct of the international exotic cuisine industry which also ensures fewer skins are wasted within the system.<ref>{{Cite web\|url=http://workshop.rojeleather.com/about/\|title=About\|website=workshop.rojeleather.com\|access-date=2019-05-12}}</ref> == Animal Welfare == {{Main\|animal welfare}} The Management Program within the Northern Territory maintains that the crocodiles are farmed in a humane way. It makes assessments on farming limits and population dynamics to ensure the numbers of Saltwater Crocodile are maintained and never reach the lows of 1972 again.<ref name=":2" /> ==See also== {{Portal\|Australia\|Companies}} [[Crocodile industry]] [[Kangaroo industry]] *[[Alligator leather]] == Bibliography == <references /> {{Crocs}}{{Leather\|leather=}}{{Clothing materials and parts\|Clothing materials and parts=}} [[Category:Leathermaking]] [[Category:Leather]] [[Category:Industry in Australia]] [[Category:Skin]] [[Category:Fashion]] [[Category:Nature conservation]] [[Category:Crocodylidae]] [[Category:Leather goods]] [[Category:Leather industry]] [[Category:Bags (fashion)]] [[Category:Crocodiles of Australia]] [[Category:Animal products]]
Human bycatch	{{Short description\|People who are unintentionally recorded by wildlife monitoring equipment}} '''Human bycatch''' (or '''human by-catch''') is a term for people who are unintentionally caught on film, in photos, or acoustically recorded on equipment used to [[wildlife observation\|monitor wildlife]] or habitats for the purpose of [[wildlife conservation\|conservation]], or [[environmental law]] enforcement. It comes from the term ''[[bycatch]]'', which is used in fishing practices to designate non-target species that are caught in a fishing net. Nearly every remote monitoring study contains human by-catch,<ref name=":0">{{cite journal \|last1=Sandbrook \|first1=Chris \|last2=Luque-Lora \|first2=Rogelio \|last3=Adams \|first3=WilliamM \|title=Human Bycatch: Conservation Surveillance and the Social Implications of Camera Traps \|journal=Conservation and Society \|date=2018 \|volume=16 \|issue=4 \|page=493 \|doi=10.4103/cs.cs_17_165 \|doi-access=free }}</ref> yet there are no standardized rules or policies regarding what the researchers can or should do with their data. == Camera traps == [[File:Camera_on_cottonwood_tree_(6659381551).jpg\|alt=Camera on tree\|thumb\|Camera on cottonwood tree]] === Description and uses === [[Camera trap]]s are typically a large network of cameras that are set up in the environment to capture images of wildlife. Most camera traps have some sort of sensor to trigger the shutter; usually by movement or heat ([[infrared]]). They are used widely in [[Conservation biology\|conservation]] work, by field biologists, and, to a lesser extent, by hobbyists, and hunters. Camera traps end up with many false triggers, such as moving vegetation, false heat reading from warm wind, and accidental human capture.<ref>{{cite journal \|last1=Newey \|first1=Scott \|last2=Davidson \|first2=Paul \|last3=Nazir \|first3=Sajid \|last4=Fairhurst \|first4=Gorry \|last5=Verdicchio \|first5=Fabio \|last6=Irvine \|first6=R. Justin \|last7=van der Wal \|first7=René \|title=Limitations of recreational camera traps for wildlife management and conservation research: A practitioner's perspective \|journal=Ambio \|date=27 October 2015 \|volume=44 \|issue=S4 \|pages=624–635 \|doi=10.1007/s13280-015-0713-1 \|pmid=26508349 \|pmc=4623860 }}</ref> These types of monitoring systems will, by design, capture and retain many photos of people. Camera trapping is still very human-intensive work, requiring a lot of effort to go through the thousands of images that are collected.<ref name="autogenerated1">{{cite journal \|last1=Nazir \|first1=Sajid \|last2=Newey \|first2=Scott \|last3=Irvine \|first3=R. Justin \|last4=Verdicchio \|first4=Fabio \|last5=Davidson \|first5=Paul \|last6=Fairhurst \|first6=Gorry \|last7=Wal \|first7=René van der \|last8=Song \|first8=Houbing \|title=WiseEye: Next Generation Expandable and Programmable Camera Trap Platform for Wildlife Research \|journal=PLOS ONE \|date=11 January 2017 \|volume=12 \|issue=1 \|pages=e0169758 \|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0169758 \|pmid=28076444 \|pmc=5226779 \|bibcode=2017PLoSO..1269758N \|doi-access=free }}</ref> Camera traps are useful tools for both land and [[marine conservation]], [[Environmental resource management\|environmental]] and [[Wildlife management\|wildlife]] management, and [[Poaching\|environmental law enforcement]]. By placing high resolution cameras along the shoreline, a network of cameras are able to monitor [[illegal fishing]] practices in [[Marine protected area\|protected]], no-fish areas.<ref>{{cite journal \|last1=Lancaster \|first1=Darienne \|last2=Dearden \|first2=Philip \|last3=Haggarty \|first3=Dana R. \|last4=Volpe \|first4=John P. \|last5=Ban \|first5=Natalie C. \|title=Effectiveness of shore-based remote camera monitoring for quantifying recreational fisher compliance in marine conservation areas \|journal=Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems \|date=August 2017 \|volume=27 \|issue=4 \|pages=804–813 \|doi=10.1002/aqc.2736 }}</ref> Camera traps are not limited to the land; they are even used underwater, and, similar to land-based camera traps, use an automatic trigger when movement is detected in view of the frame.<ref>{{cite journal \|last1=Williams \|first1=Kresimir \|last2=De Robertis \|first2=Alex \|last3=Berkowitz \|first3=Zachary \|last4=Rooper \|first4=Chris \|last5=Towler \|first5=Rick \|title=An underwater stereo-camera trap \|journal=Methods in Oceanography \|date=December 2014 \|volume=11 \|pages=1–12 \|doi=10.1016/j.mio.2015.01.003 \|bibcode=2014MetOc..11....1W }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal \|last1=Bicknell \|first1=Anthony WJ \|last2=Godley \|first2=Brendan J \|last3=Sheehan \|first3=Emma V \|last4=Votier \|first4=Stephen C \|last5=Witt \|first5=Matthew J \|title=Camera technology for monitoring marine biodiversity and human impact \|journal=Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment \|date=October 2016 \|volume=14 \|issue=8 \|pages=424–432 \|doi=10.1002/fee.1322 \|hdl=10871/24097 \|hdl-access=free }}</ref> They are utilized at airports to help prevent incidents of wildlife collisions with aircraft.<ref>{{cite journal \|last1=Scheideman \|first1=Matthew \|last2=Rea \|first2=Roy \|last3=Hesse \|first3=Gayle \|last4=Soong \|first4=Laura \|last5=Green \|first5=Cuyler \|last6=Sample \|first6=Caleb \|last7=Booth \|first7=Annie \|title=Use of wildlife camera traps to aid in wildlife management planning at airports \|journal=Journal of Airport Management \|date=1 October 2017 \|volume=11 \|issue=4 \|url=https://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/hsp/cam/2017/00000011/00000004/art00007 }}</ref> Camera traps are even used in elementary education settings, helping to bring young students closer to the natural world around them. By taking advantage of night vision technology, the students can learn about and see wildlife in their school yard that they never would have been able to see, before.<ref>{{cite journal \|last1=Tanner \|first1=Dawn \|last2=Ernst \|first2=Julie \|title=Who Goes There? Linking Remote Cameras and Schoolyard Science to Empower Action \|journal=Journal of Experiential Education \|date=19 June 2013 \|volume=36 \|issue=2 \|pages=106–122 \|doi=10.1177/1053825913487888 \|s2cid=145345514 }}</ref> Field research biologists generally try to locate their cameras away from areas of high human traffic, because increased presence of humans generally has a negative correlation with presence of wildlife.<ref>{{cite journal \|last1=Kolowski \|first1=Joseph M. \|last2=Forrester \|first2=Tavis D. \|last3=Arlettaz \|first3=Raphaël \|title=Camera trap placement and the potential for bias due to trails and other features \|journal=PLOS ONE \|date=18 October 2017 \|volume=12 \|issue=10 \|pages=e0186679 \|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0186679 \|pmid=29045478 \|pmc=5646845 \|bibcode=2017PLoSO..1286679K \|doi-access=free }}</ref> === Privacy concerns === Most people associate going "into the wild" with a reasonable [[expectation of privacy]]. It is not uncommon for hikers and backpackers to engage in private behavior, as in, something they would not want others to see, such as urinating. Private behaviors such as this have been caught on many camera traps. In fact, because humans are so abundant, and the areas that need conservation focus are usually areas in which humans share with the target species or habitat, nearly every study using camera traps has ended up with human by-catch.<ref name=":0" /> It is not uncommon for researchers to end up with more photos of humans than of their target species.<ref>{{cite journal \|last1=Oberosler \|first1=Valentina \|last2=Groff \|first2=Claudio \|last3=Iemma \|first3=Aaron \|last4=Pedrini \|first4=Paolo \|last5=Rovero \|first5=Francesco \|title=The influence of human disturbance on occupancy and activity patterns of mammals in the Italian Alps from systematic camera trapping \|journal=Mammalian Biology \|date=November 2017 \|volume=87 \|pages=50–61 \|doi=10.1016/j.mambio.2017.05.005 }}</ref> There are instances of a by-catch photo of a coworker urinating, or similar situations, being saved and posted publicly as a joke. By-catch photos of people engaging in activity that may or may not be illegal, but undesired, has been posted publicly to influence the people in the study area to act differently.<ref name=":2">{{cite journal \|last1=Butler \|first1=Desmond A. \|last2=Meek \|first2=Paul \|title=Camera trapping and invasions of privacy: an Australian legal perspective \|journal=Torts Law Journal \|date=April 2013 \|volume=20 \|pages=235–264 \|url=https://eprints.qut.edu.au/62288/ }}</ref> The line between a joke, a well-intentioned push for better behavior, and invasion of privacy, is thin. There are already potential solutions on the market. The technology to automatically flag, blur, or remove photos containing humans exists, and will only improve with time. While there are no broad requirements to do so, individual organizations could make this policy.<ref>{{cite journal \|last1=Yousif \|first1=Hayder \|last2=Yuan \|first2=Jianhe \|last3=Kays \|first3=Roland \|last4=He \|first4=Zhihai \|title=Animal Scanner: Software for classifying humans, animals, and empty frames in camera trap images \|journal=Ecology and Evolution \|date=February 2019 \|volume=9 \|issue=4 \|pages=1578–1589 \|doi=10.1002/ece3.4747 \|pmid=30847057 \|pmc=6392355 }}</ref> == Drones == [[File:Quadcopter_camera_drone_in_flight.jpg\|alt=Quadcopter camera drone in flight\|thumb\|Quadcopter camera drone in flight]] === Description and uses === [[Unmanned aerial vehicle\|Drones]] are unoccupied aircraft vehicles that are remotely controlled by a person. While often associated with military use, the decreasing cost of the technology has allowed for civil use of drones to grow.<ref name=":1">{{cite journal \|last1=Choi-Fitzpatrick \|first1=Austin \|title=Drones for good: Technological innovations, social movements, and the state \|journal=Journal of International Affairs \|date=2014 \|volume=68 \|issue=1 \|pages=19–36 \|jstor=24461704 }}</ref> Drones are being increasingly used in the fields of resource management and conservation because of their light weight and small stature, and their speed. They also have reduced risk of injury and death when compared to traditional field biologist [[aerial survey]]s, and are less invasive than humans in the field.<ref>{{cite journal \|last1=Linchant \|first1=Julie \|last2=Lisein \|first2=Jonathan \|last3=Semeki \|first3=Jean \|last4=Lejeune \|first4=Philippe \|last5=Vermeulen \|first5=Cédric \|title=Are unmanned aircraft systems (UASs) the future of wildlife monitoring? A review of accomplishments and challenges \|journal=Mammal Review \|date=October 2015 \|volume=45 \|issue=4 \|pages=239–252 \|doi=10.1111/mam.12046 }}</ref> Drones are beneficial in a variety of environments, including marine. Because of their speed and ease of setup to take off, they can quickly be launched to record identifying data of boats illegally fishing in protected areas. The altitude at which drones fly allows nearly non-invasive observation of marine wildlife.<ref>{{cite journal \|last1=Johnston \|first1=David W. \|title=Unoccupied Aircraft Systems in Marine Science and Conservation \|journal=Annual Review of Marine Science \|date=3 January 2019 \|volume=11 \|issue=1 \|pages=439–463 \|doi=10.1146/annurev-marine-010318-095323 \|pmid=30020850 \|bibcode=2019ARMS...11..439J \|doi-access=free }}</ref> Because of the ability to follow quick moving wildlife and take very high resolution images, drones are very beneficial in both species [[Animal identification\|identification]] and individual identification of [[whale]]s and [[dolphin]]s. Similar to marine environments, forests are vast areas that can be difficult and slow to patrol on foot, or even by vehicle. Forests are one of the most exploited environments on earth, and due to their large, widespread nature, are difficult to manage. Drones allow observation of vast areas in a relatively short amount of time, and can produce aerial imagery to identify a multitude of activities, including illegal logging, fire activity, trespassing, and wildlife tracking.<ref>{{cite journal \|last1=Fraser \|first1=Benjamin \|last2=Congalton \|first2=Russell \|title=Issues in Unmanned Aerial Systems (UAS) Data Collection of Complex Forest Environments \|journal=Remote Sensing \|date=8 June 2018 \|volume=10 \|issue=6 \|page=908 \|doi=10.3390/rs10060908 \|bibcode=2018RemS...10..908F \|doi-access=free }}</ref> Drones are not only used for forest conservation, but also by timber companies.<ref>{{cite journal \|last1=Paneque-Gálvez \|first1=Jaime \|last2=McCall \|first2=Michael \|last3=Napoletano \|first3=Brian \|last4=Wich \|first4=Serge \|last5=Koh \|first5=Lian \|title=Small Drones for Community-Based Forest Monitoring: An Assessment of Their Feasibility and Potential in Tropical Areas \|journal=Forests \|date=24 June 2014 \|volume=5 \|issue=6 \|pages=1481–1507 \|doi=10.3390/f5061481 \|doi-access=free \|hdl=2440/90708 \|hdl-access=free }}</ref> === Privacy concerns === Drones are increasingly used for law enforcement in Africa, where [[poaching]] is one of the biggest threats to endangered species. While beneficial in finding and pursuing poachers, this type of surveillance conservation can create fear among the people who live in the region. These technologies that can be used to track down wildlife, can just as easily be programmed to track down people.<ref name="autogenerated337">{{cite journal \|last1=Adams \|first1=William M. \|title=Geographies of conservation II: Technology, surveillance and conservation by algorithm \|journal=Progress in Human Geography \|volume=43 \|issue=2 \|pages=337–350 \|doi=10.1177/0309132517740220 \|year=2019 \|doi-access=free }}</ref> Drones have moved the line of sight upwards; where a backyard fence used to afford privacy from passerby, a drone operating in public airspace now may have clear view of one's yard.<ref name=":1" /> American public perception of drones is generally positive, with privacy being the main concern. A drone operator may not always be visible or accessible, which could raise security concerns.<ref>{{cite journal \|last1=Wang \|first1=Yang \|last2=Xia \|first2=Huichuan \|last3=Yao \|first3=Yaxing \|last4=Huang \|first4=Yun \|title=Flying Eyes and Hidden Controllers: A Qualitative Study of People's Privacy Perceptions of Civilian Drones in The US \|journal=Proceedings on Privacy Enhancing Technologies \|date=1 July 2016 \|volume=2016 \|issue=3 \|pages=172–190 \|doi=10.1515/popets-2016-0022 \|doi-access=free }}</ref> Americans are willing to give up a certain level of privacy for the technology and convenience drones may offer, for things such as package delivery.<ref>{{cite journal \|last1=Yoo \|first1=Wonsang \|last2=Yu \|first2=Eun \|last3=Jung \|first3=Jaemin \|title=Drone delivery: Factors affecting the public's attitude and intention to adopt \|journal=Telematics and Informatics \|date=September 2018 \|volume=35 \|issue=6 \|pages=1687–1700 \|doi=10.1016/j.tele.2018.04.014 \|s2cid=52050862 }}</ref> Potential solutions to the issue of passive human by-catch include image-altering technology to automatically pixelate identifying portions of images, such as a person's face or license plate number.<ref name=pmid30453646>{{cite journal \|last1=Lagkas \|first1=Thomas \|last2=Argyriou \|first2=Vasileios \|last3=Bibi \|first3=Stamatia \|last4=Sarigiannidis \|first4=Panagiotis \|title=UAV IoT Framework Views and Challenges: Towards Protecting Drones as 'Things' \|journal=Sensors \|date=17 November 2018 \|volume=18 \|issue=11 \|page=4015 \|doi=10.3390/s18114015 \|pmid=30453646 \|pmc=6263805 \|bibcode=2018Senso..18.4015L \|doi-access=free }}</ref> These issues are separate from a more overt use of drones for the purpose of surveillance. There is a concept of behavioral privacy; the idea that a person's behavior differs if they know they are being watched, or not. If one lives in an area where drones are being used for surveillance, their behavioral privacy is compromised, as they do not feel that they have the freedom to act naturally.<ref>{{cite journal \|last1=Clarke \|first1=Roger \|title=The regulation of civilian drones' impacts on behavioural privacy \|journal=Computer Law & Security Review \|date=June 2014 \|volume=30 \|issue=3 \|pages=286–305 \|doi=10.1016/j.clsr.2014.03.005 }}</ref> == Acoustic recording == === Description and uses === [[Sound recording and reproduction\|Acoustic recording]] is commonly used in field [[biology]] work to confirm the presence of a species, and in conservation law enforcement, to help prevent or catch poachers. Acoustic recording devices may be passive (recording all the time) or active (recording only when triggered). Researchers may use a device and software that automatically detect a certain trigger event, such as a specific bird call or gunshot. By using [[Acoustic location\|acoustic location technology]], law enforcement can locate the approximate location of the gunshot, and use that to pursue poachers.<ref>{{cite journal \|last1=Hill \|first1=Andrew P. \|last2=Prince \|first2=Peter \|last3=Piña Covarrubias \|first3=Evelyn \|last4=Doncaster \|first4=C. Patrick \|last5=Snaddon \|first5=Jake L. \|last6=Rogers \|first6=Alex \|last7=Isaac \|first7=Nick \|title=AudioMoth: Evaluation of a smart open acoustic device for monitoring biodiversity and the environment \|journal=Methods in Ecology and Evolution \|date=May 2018 \|volume=9 \|issue=5 \|pages=1199–1211 \|doi=10.1111/2041-210X.12955 \|doi-access=free }}</ref> === Privacy concerns === Anyone in the vicinity of these sound recorders may unknowingly have their conversations and activities recorded. Most states in the US have wire-tapping laws that require consent of one or all parties for certain types of conversations to be {{nowrap\|recorded{{hsp}}{{mdash}}}}{{hsp}}ones where there is a reasonable expectation of privacy. Legal opinions differ on which types of communication fall under this protection.<ref>{{cite journal \|last1=Robbins \|first1=Megan L. \|title=Practical Suggestions for Legal and Ethical Concerns With Social Environment Sampling Methods \|journal=Social Psychological and Personality Science \|date=5 May 2017 \|volume=8 \|issue=5 \|pages=573–580 \|doi=10.1177/1948550617699253 \|s2cid=151588195 }}</ref> == US policies and regulations == === Research and conservation policies === There are no official policies regarding human by-catch data among research and conservation organizations. Each organization may have its own policies. The technology is still emerging, but there are potential solutions. There are software programs, whose original intent is to ease the burden of the thousands of images that must be checked and logged during a camera trap study. The programs assist in automating the process of filtering out the false positives; photos that were triggered without the target species. Along with filtering out empty frames, this software can detect human presence, and filter out photos of humans.<ref name="autogenerated1"/> This way, privacy could be ensured if the process was automated, so that no person had access to the photos of the people that were inadvertently taken. Most of the government policies and laws regarding privacy with these technologies are aimed at drones. === Law enforcement policies === Illegal actions and behaviors that occur on government or public lands, do not afford protection by a [[Expectation of privacy\|reasonable expectation of privacy]].<ref name=":2" /> Drones are beneficial to aid law enforcement agencies to prevent, confront, and prosecute illegal activities such as logging, poaching, or fishing in a protected marine area. These illegal behaviors often occur in a vast area that is difficult to patrol by foot, or even traditional vehicle. Drones are fast, efficient, and can capture incriminating information with high definition. The intent of the remote recording devices in this case is to catch people engaging in illegal activities, so there is no argument for protection of privacy.<ref name=vermjenvilaw.17.1.138>{{cite journal \|last1=Wright \|first1=Brittany \|title=Big Brother Watching Mother Nature: Conservation Drones and Their International and Domestic Privacy Implications \|journal=Vermont Journal of Environmental Law \|date=2015 \|volume=17 \|issue=1 \|pages=138–159 \|jstor=vermjenvilaw.17.1.138 }}</ref> === Surveillance policies === If cameras and drones become part of everyday life, the importance of privacy and security are more important than ever. With devices that are constantly sensing and recording, the security measures used to protect the privacy of the people in its proximity also need to be adaptable and advanced.<ref name=pmid30453646/> === Notice posting === While there is no policy to do so, researchers must decide if they want to post notices in an area where they are monitoring using one of the above referred to remote devices. The purpose of posting is to allow people in the area to know that they may be recorded, if they enter the area. Unfortunately, some people may not appreciate the perceived invasion on their privacy, and may tamper with or vandalize the cameras. In addition, posting notices about equipment puts it at risk to be stolen by thieves.<ref name=":2" /> === FAA regulation on drones === [[File:No-drone-zone-area-sign.jpg\|alt=Sign that states, "No Drone Zone"\|thumb\|Signage prohibiting drone use]] In the United States, the [[Federal Aviation Administration\|FAA]] regulations on drones only pertain to the physical safety of [[airspace]] and everything under it. Privacy regulation is not within the realm of the FAA; that is for state and local governments to decide.<ref>{{cite journal \|last1=Zwickle \|first1=Adam \|last2=Farber \|first2=Hillary B. \|last3=Hamm \|first3=Joseph A. \|title=Comparing public concern and support for drone regulation to the current legal framework \|journal=Behavioral Sciences & the Law \|date=January 2019 \|volume=37 \|issue=1 \|pages=109–124 \|doi=10.1002/bsl.2357 \|pmid=30004141 \|doi-access=free }}</ref> Drone regulations vary by country, by state, by region, and, in some cases, further, by city.<ref>{{cite web \| url=https://uavcoach.com/drone-laws/ \|title = Master List of Drone Laws (Organized by State / Country) l UAV Coach}}</ref> In addition, many preserves, and all national parks, such as the Golden Gate National Recreation Area in California, do not allow drone use.<ref>{{cite web\|url=https://www.nps.gov/articles/unmanned-aircraft-in-the-national-parks.htm\|title=Unmanned Aircraft in the National Parks\|last=\|first=\|date=\|website=National Park Service\|archive-url=\|archive-date=\|access-date=April 10, 2019}}</ref> Drone operators can download an app developed by the FAA called B4UFLY, which compiles the local laws and do not fly zones and makes them easily accessible, so an operator may clearly know where it is legal to operate their drone.<ref>{{cite web\|url=https://www.faa.gov/uas/recreational_fliers/where_can_i_fly/b4ufly/\|title=B4UFLY Mobile App\|last=\|first=\|date=\|website=Federal Aviation Administration\|archive-url=\|archive-date=\|access-date=April 11, 2019}}</ref> === Resources for drone operators outside of the U.S. === Drone regulations are similar across different countries. Requirements include keeping the drone within the operator's line of sight at all times, flying only during daylight hours, not flying over crowds or events, not flying near airports or around "important facilities", including government buildings and nuclear plants.<ref name=":3">{{cite web\|url=https://www.casa.gov.au/aircraft/standard-page/can-i-fly-there-drone-safety-app\|title=Can I fly there?\|last=\|first=\|date=2017-05-16\|website=Australian Government Civil Aviation Safety Authority\|archive-url=\|archive-date=\|access-date=April 11, 2019}}</ref><ref name=":4">{{cite web\|url=http://www.tc.gc.ca/en/services/aviation/drone-safety.html\|title=Flying your drone safely and legally (new rules)\|last=\|first=\|date=\|website=Government of Canada\|archive-url=\|archive-date=\|access-date=April 11, 2019}}</ref><ref name=":5">{{cite web\|url=https://www.loc.gov/law/help/regulation-of-drones/japan.php\|title=Regulation of Drones in Japan\|last=\|first=\|date=April 2016\|website=Library of Congress\|archive-url=\|archive-date=\|access-date=April 12, 2019}}</ref><ref name=":6">{{cite web\|url=https://www.caa.co.uk/Consumers/Unmanned-aircraft-and-drones/\|title=Unmanned Aircraft and Drones\|last=\|first=\|date=\|website=UK Civil Aviation Authority\|archive-url=\|archive-date=\|access-date=April 11, 2019}}</ref> The [[Australia]]n government has created a mobile application for drone operators, called, ''Can I fly there''? Similar to the app released by the FAA, it compiles laws and regulations so drone operators may know the rules in their current location.<ref name=":3" /> The [[Canada\|Canadian]] government is updating its drone laws, with tighter regulations going into effect June 1, 2019. These guidelines refer the drone operator to review the laws related to the criminal code, trespassing act, voyeurism and privacy laws, before flying. It is explicitly stated that drone operators must respect the privacy of others.<ref name=":4" /> The [[Japan]]ese government has similar regulations as the above. In addition, drone operators are requested to report incidents with drones, even if they do not affect others, such as crashes.<ref name=":5" /> The [[United Kingdom\|UK]] Civil Aviation Authority created a website called Drone Safe,<ref>{{cite web \| url=https://dronesafe.uk \|title = Introduction}}</ref> which compiles the regional and local laws for drone use in the country. They have also created a mobile application for drone operators, called Drone Assist. People in the UK are afforded a higher level of privacy, as the regulations state that a drone equipped with a camera must stay a specified distance away from people not associated with the operator.<ref name=":6" /> == Legal examples == Most conservation work takes place over vast areas of land or sea, often spanning both public and private lands. People who live on or around these areas can have a reasonable expectation of privacy in their own private areas on these lands, such as their house, but are not afforded protection outside of their private areas. A drone operating in public airspace that is recording photos or videos with the intention of furthering conservation work, or law enforcement, has every right to do so.<ref name=vermjenvilaw.17.1.138/> A politician in Austria, who was expecting the privacy a forest would afford, trespassed onto land which was being monitored by a camera trap. His encounter with his partner was recorded, and drama ensued.<ref name=":2" /> The law sides with intent, in regard to human by-catch. The intent of those who run these recording systems is to further their research, conservation work, or law enforcement. If there is no intent to record people with nefarious motivation, and the cameras were not on private land, the camera trap operator would reasonably expect to be safe from prosecution.<ref name=":2" /> From a legal perspective, the act of humans being caught in camera traps, acoustic recordings, and drones, when used for purposes other than recording people, is not wrong. The intention of the data holder, and what they do with that data is where legal privacy issues come in.<ref name=":2" /> == Other concerns == [[File:04_North_Pole_Wolf.jpg\|alt=Wolf with tracking collar.\|thumb\|Wolf with tracking collar.]] {{Neutrality disputed\|date=September 2023}} The technology that allows us to view animals 24/7 has given to the rise of commercialization of conservation. Organizations can now show "poster child" animals via live streaming video. Some may applaud this as a modern way to educate without the need of keeping wild animals in captivity in zoos and aquariums, yet, the flip side to this idea is that the animals themselves lose their own privacy, and sense of the wild.<ref>{{cite journal \|last1=Verma \|first1=Audrey \|last2=van der Wal \|first2=René \|last3=Fischer \|first3=Anke \|title=Imagining wildlife: New technologies and animal censuses, maps and museums \|journal=Geoforum \|date=October 2016 \|volume=75 \|pages=75–86 \|doi=10.1016/j.geoforum.2016.07.002 \|doi-access=free \|hdl=2164/7969 \|hdl-access=free }}</ref> This constant tracking and observation, especially of individual animals, can be seen as another way humans are trying to control every aspect of their environment.<ref name="autogenerated337"/> Tracking collars on wild wolves are common and try to give researchers an idea of their migration patterns, and insight into their hunting techniques and social structure. But, as soon as a tracked wolf leaves the safe wild space, and enters, say, cattle grazing grounds, their location can be very easily pinpointed for ranchers who want to gun them down. The act of catching, tagging, implanting these tracking devices may alter the behavior of the wildlife, so an accurate representation may not be captured, making all the effort for naught.<ref>{{cite journal \|last1=Lininger \|first1=Henry \|last2=Lininger \|first2=Tom \|title=Unlocking the "Virtual Cage" of Wildlife Surveillance \|journal=Duke Environmental Law & Policy Forum \|date=19 June 2017 \|volume=27 \|issue=2 \|pages=207–263 \|url=https://scholarship.law.duke.edu/delpf/vol27/iss2/1/ }}</ref> == See also == [[Acoustic location]] [[Camera trap]] [[Conservation (disambiguation)\|Conservation]] [[Unmanned aerial vehicle]] [[Legality of recording by civilians]] [[Privacy]] [[Wildlife conservation]] [[Wildlife observation]] == References == {{reflist\|colwidth=30em}} [[Category:Nature conservation]] [[Category:Privacy]] [[Category:Surveillance]]
Isle of the Dead (Tasmania)	{{About\|an island in Australia\|3=Isle of the Dead (disambiguation)}} {{Use dmy dates\|date=July 2019}} {{Use Australian English\|date=July 2019}} {{Infobox Australian place \| name = Isle of the Dead, Port Arthur \| state = Tas \| established = cemetery 1833<ref name="CTH">{{Cite web\|url=https://www.utas.edu.au/library/companion_to_tasmanian_history/I/Isle%20of%20the%20Dead.htm\|title=Isle of the Dead}}</ref> \| abolished = cemetery 1877<ref name="CTH"/> \| lga = Tasman Council \| region = Tasman Peninsula \| gazetted = 3 June 2005 \| image = 2018-02-15 111355 Port Arthur Isle of the Dead anagoria.JPG \| caption = Isle of the Dead, Port Arthur, Tasmania, Australia \| location1 = Hobart \| coordinates = {{Coord\|43\|08\|57\|S\|147\|52\|03\|E\|type:landmark_region:AU\|display=inline,title}} \| type = protected \| area = 0.1 \| dist1 = 98 \| dist2 = 20 \| dir1 = SE \| dir2 = S \| location2 = Eaglehawk Neck \| url = https://portarthur.org.au/ \| nearest_town_or_city = Highcroft \| iucn_category = V \| maxtemp = 14.7 \| mintemp = 8.9 \| rainfall = 796.6 \| stategov = Lyons \| managing_authorities = Port Arthur Historic Site Management Authority \| rainfall_footnotes = <ref name="BOM">[http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/data/index.shtml Bureau of Meteorology]. Retrieved 2020-05-05.</ref> \| maxtemp_footnotes = <ref name="BOM"/> \| mintemp_footnotes = <ref name="BOM"/> \| elevation = <!-- needs a number but it's not 192 --> \| elevation_footnotes = <ref name="BOM"/> \| timezone = Australian Eastern Standard Time \| utc = +10 \| timezone-dst = Australian Eastern Standard Time \| utc-dst = +11 \| city = Port Arthur, Tasmania }} {{Infobox designation list \| embed = \| designation1 = WHS \| designation2 = ANHL \| designation3 = Tasmanian Heritage Register \| designation4 = \| designation5 = \| designation1_type = Cultural \| designation1_criteria = iv, v \| designation1_date = 2010 \| designation1_number = 1306-008 \| designation1_partof = [[Australian Convict Sites]] \| designation2_offname = Port Arthur Historic Site \| designation2_date = 3 June 2005 \| designation2_type = Historic \| designation2_criteria = a,b,c,d,e,g,h\|designation2_number=105718 \| designation3_offname = Port Arthur Penal Settlement \| designation3_criteria = 6 \| designation3_type = Historic cultural heritage \|designation3_date=1995}} '''Isle of the Dead''' is an island, about {{convert\|1\|ha\|acre\|abbr=off}} in area, adjacent to [[Port Arthur, Tasmania]], Australia. It is historically significant since it retains an [[Aboriginal Tasmanians\|Aboriginal]] coastal shell [[midden]], one of the first recorded sea-level [[Benchmark (surveying)\|benchmarks]], and one of the few preserved Australian [[Convicts in Australia\|convict]]-period burial grounds.<ref name=":242">{{Cite web\|title=Island Reveals Mysteries of the Dead\|url=https://www.abc.net.au/science/articles/2004/08/19/1178596.htm\|last=Catchpole\|first=Heather\|date=19 Aug 2004\|website=ABC Science\|language=en-AU\|access-date=2020-04-10}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite book\|last1=Godden Mackay Logan Pty Ltd\|title=Port Arthur Historic Sites Management Plan 2008\|last2=Middleton, G.\|last3=Jackman, G\|last4=Tuffin, R\|last5=Clark, J\|publisher=Port Arthur Historic Site Management Authority\|year=2009\|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/documents/105335}}</ref> The Isle of the Dead occupies part of the [[Port Arthur, Tasmania\|Port Arthur Historic Site]],<ref>Godden et al., 2009, p. 3</ref> is part of [[Australian Convict Sites]] and is listed as a [[World Heritage Site\|World Heritage Property]] because it represents convictism in the era of [[British Empire\|British colonisation]].<ref>{{Cite book\|last=Morgan\|first=K\|url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780191823534.001.0001/acref-9780191823534\|title=Port Arthur Dictionary Plus Social Sciences\|date=2016\|publisher=Oxford University Press\|isbn=978-0-19-182353-4\|language=en-US\|doi=10.1093/acref/9780191823534.001.0001}}</ref><ref name=":132">{{Cite web\|title=Decision: 34 COM 8B.16 Cultural Properties – Australian Convict Sites (Australia)\|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/decisions/3995/\|last=UNESCO\|date=2010\|website=UNESCO World Heritage Centre\|language=en\|access-date=2020-04-09}}</ref> Before European settlement, [[Aboriginal Australians\|Aboriginal]] people gathered food on the island. From 1833 the island was used as a cemetery for convicts and free people of the Port Arthur penal settlement.<ref name=":23">{{Cite journal\|last1=Thorn\|first1=A\|last2=Piper\|first2=A\|date=1996\|title=The isle of the Dead: an integrated approach to the management and natural protection of an archaeological site\|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/272226838\|journal=Studies in Conservation\|language=en\|volume=41\|issue=sup1\|page=2\|doi=10.1179/sic.1996.41.Supplement-1.188\|issn=0039-3630\|via=researchgate}}</ref><ref name=":25" /> The Isle of the Dead was the destination for all who died inside the prison camps. Of the 1,000 estimated graves recorded to exist there, only 180, those of prison staff and military personnel, were marked.<ref name=":242" /><ref name=":5" /><ref name=":2" /><ref>{{Cite web\|title=Isle of the Dead cemetery tour\|url=https://portarthur.org.au/tour/isle-of-the-dead/\|website=Port Arthur Historic Site\|language=en-US\|access-date=2020-05-16}}</ref> The cemetery was closed following the demise of the Port Arthur settlement in 1877 and the island was sold as private land. It was reacquired and managed by the Tasmanian government from the early twentieth century. Over the last century tourism has grown with improved services and infrastructure. Increased conservation initiatives have been undertaken to preserve the island and its relics, resulting in the island being declared a cultural heritage property and protected under Australian state and federal laws. It is also listed under [[UNESCO]]'s [[World Heritage Site\|world heritage sites]]. ==Location== Isle of the Dead is an approximately 10,000 square metres (1 hectare) island within Carnarvon Bay at the northern tip of Point Puer on the Southern [[Tasman Peninsula]] in the Island State of [[Tasmania]], [[Australia]].<ref name=":10">{{Cite book\|last1=Doyle\|first1=H\|url=https://portarthur.org.au/wp-content/uploads/2017/12/PAHSMA-Landscape-Management-Plan.pdf\|title=Port Arthur Historic Site Landscape Management Plan Aug 2002\|last2=Context Pty Ltd\|last3=Urban Initiatives Pty Ltd\|publisher=Port Arthur Historic Site Management Authority\|year=2002\|location=Melbourne, Victoria.\|page=7}}</ref> It is approximately {{convert\|98\|km\|mi\|abbr=off}} southeast of the state capital, [[Hobart]]. Driving from Hobart, via the Tasman Highway /A3, the Arthur Highway /A9 to Port Arthur Historic Site takes around 80 minutes. Isle of the Dead is approximately {{convert\|700\|m\|mi\|abbr=off}} from Point Puer.<ref name=":18" /> It is 1.2 km (3/4 of a mile) from Mason Cove.<ref>{{Cite web\|title=Isle of the Dead\|url=https://www.openstreetmap.org/?mlat=-43.149167&mlon=147.8675&zoom=15#map=15/-43.1492/147.8675\|last=Open Street Map\|date=1 April 2020\|website=Isle of the Dead\|language=en\|access-date=2020-04-09}}</ref> It is only accessible by boat and Port Arthur Historic Site offers guided ferry tours to the island.<ref>Doyle et al 2002, p. 7</ref><ref>Godden et al, 2009. p. 2</ref> ==Aboriginal shell midden== Original inhabitants of this area were the [[Aboriginal Tasmanians#Oyster Bay (Paredarerme)\|Pydairrerme]] people, a band of the Oyster Bay tribe.<ref>Doyle et al., 2002, p. 22</ref><ref>Godden et al, 2009, p. 19</ref> Prior to the 1830s, local Aboriginals used the island to gather shellfish and camp.<ref name=":25">{{Cite book\|last1=Tropman\|first1=L\|url=https://nla.gov.au/nla.obj-1382371370/view\|title=Isle of the Dead, Port Arthur: a study of the island and recommendation for conservation of the headstones and the island. Port Arthur Conservation Project.\|last2=Gibbons\|first2=G. S\|publisher=Lester Tropman and Associates, National Parks and Wildlife Service\|year=1984\|location=Hobart, Tasmania\|page=3\|language=en\|oclc=876315028\|id=nla.obj-1382371370\|access-date=2020-04-07\|via=TROVE National Library of Australia.}}</ref> Isle of the Dead retains a large [[midden]].<ref name="Thorn & Piper, 1996, p. 4">Thorn & Piper, 1996, p. 4</ref> The midden contains shells and the remains of campfires (charcoal and ash), evidence of past aboriginal people visiting the isle to gather shellfish and molluscs such as abalone and mussels. It is located under an overhanging cliff and rock platform, which was used for shelter.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book\|last=Lord\|first=R\|title=The Isle of the Dead, Port Arthur: inscriptions from the cemetery of the Port Arthur penal establishment 1830–1877\|publisher=Richard Lord and Partners\|others=Bowler, J. C. S.\|year=1990\|isbn=0-9597473-0-3\|edition=3rd\|location=Taroona, Tas.\|page=17\|oclc=27624866}}</ref> This midden is defined as an aboriginal relic and is protected under the Aboriginal Heritage Act 1975.<ref name=":26">{{Cite web\|title=Aboriginal Shell Middens\|url=https://www.aboriginalheritage.tas.gov.au/cultural-heritage/aboriginal-shell-middens \|date=2020\|website=Aboriginal Heritage Tasmania\|access-date=2020-04-09}}</ref> ==Naming the Isle== [[File:Admiralty Chart No 1083 Burnett Harbour and Port Arthur, Published 1830.jpg\|thumb\|Captain John Welsh's surveying map of Port Arthur and Isle of the Dead (dated 1828). Admiralty Chart No 1083, published 1830.\|alt=\|left\|307x307px]] [[File:Admiralty Chart No 1475 Tasmania - South Coast. Port Arthur, Published 1893.jpg\|thumb\|Admiralty Chart No.1475. Hydrographic survey of "Dead Island" and Port Arthur, Tasmania, 1893.\|alt=]] With the arrival of [[settler colonialism]], the isle was called Opossum Island in 1827. It was named after Captain John Welsh's [[sloop]] ''Opossum'' while seeking shelter nearby when surveying the harbours on the Tasman Peninsula.<ref>Lord, 1990, p. 1</ref><ref name=":02">{{Cite news\|date=23 September 1911\|title=Tasmanian Nomenclature. The Place Names of the Island, a Record of Origins and Dates.\|page=11\|work=The Hobart Mercury\|issue=XI\|location=Hobart Tasmania\|url=https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/10115196\|access-date=2020-04-09\|via=TROVE National Library of Australia.}}</ref><ref>{{cite Australian Dictionary of Biography \|title=Welsh, John (?–1832)\|url=http://adb.anu.edu.au/biography/welsh-john-2780 \|access-date=2020-05-15}}</ref> Reverend [[John Manton\|John Allen Manton]], an English [[Wesleyan theology\|Wesleyan]] [[missionary]], arrived in February 1833 as first [[chaplain]] for the Port Arthur settlement.<ref name=":3">{{Cite web\|title=The Isle of the Dead or the burial-place at Port Arthur, Van-Diemen's Land\|url=https://nla.gov.au/nla.obj-83567059\|last=Manton\|first=J\|year=1845\|website=TROVE National Library of Australia.\|series=Missionary Series No. 652\|publisher=John Mason\|location=London UK\|page=4\|language=en\|access-date=2020-04-09}}</ref><ref name=":12">{{cite Australian Dictionary of Biography \|last=Pretyman\|first=E. R.\|title=Manton, John Allen (1807–1864) \|url=http://adb.anu.edu.au/biography/manton-john-allen-2430/text3231 \|access-date=2020-04-09}}</ref> He wrote in a religious pamphlet that he selected this isle for a cemetery, as it was close to the colony, "''a secure and undisturbed resting-place''" and renamed "Isle of the Dead" for its purpose as a burial place.<ref name=":17">Manton, 1844, p. 4</ref> The isle was recorded as "Dead Island" in a [[hydrographic survey]] undertaken from the surveying ship [[HMS Dart (1882)\|HMS ''Dart'']] in 1893 and published as [[Admiralty chart]] 1475.<ref>{{Cite map \|url=https://nla.gov.au/nla.obj-231313799\|title=Tasmania - South Coast. Port Arthur \|publisher=The Admiralty \|year=1897\|location=London, United Kingdom\|id=nla.obj-231313799\|via=TROVE National Library of Australia.}}</ref> The Island was also known as "Isle des Morts" and "Dead Men's Isle".{{Sfn\|Burn\|1905}}{{Sfn\|Weidenhofer\|1990\|p=117}} ==Cemetery for penal colony== ===Penal settlement usage=== The isle was used as a cemetery for the penal settlement of Port Arthur from September 1833 to 1877.<ref name=":18">Thorn & Piper, 1996, p. 2</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite web\|title=The Isle of the Dead\|url=https://www.utas.edu.au/library/companion_to_tasmanian_history/I/Isle%20of%20the%20Dead.htm\|last=Ross\|first=L.\|date=2006\|website=The Companion to Tasmanian History\|publisher=Centre for Historical Tasmanian Studies, University of Tasmania\|access-date=2020-04-10}}</ref> This included the Point Puer boys' prison, which operated from January 1834 until 1849.<ref>{{Cite web\|title=Point Puer\|url=https://www.utas.edu.au/library/companion_to_tasmanian_history/P/Point%20Puer.htm\|last=Hargraves\|first=N.\|date=2006\|website=Companion to Tasmanian History\|publisher=Centre for Tasmanian Historical Studies, University of Tasmania\|access-date=2020-04-17}}</ref> There were also a small number of burials from the military posting at [[Eaglehawk Neck]] and from the Coal Mines ([[Coal Mines Historic Site]]), which operated from 1833 to 1848.<ref name=":5">{{Cite thesis\|last=Ross\|first=L\|url=https://eprints.utas.edu.au/16257/\|title=Death and Burial at Port Arthur, 1830–1877\|work=Honours thesis\|publisher=University of Tasmania\|year=1995\|location=Hobart, Tasmania\|pages=31–33\|type=honours}}</ref> The colony experienced population decline following the closure of Point Puer boys' prison in 1849,<ref>Hargraves, 2006</ref> the end of convict transportation to Tasmania in 1853,<ref>{{Cite web\|title=Convicts\|url=https://www.utas.edu.au/library/companion_to_tasmanian_history/C/Convicts.htm\|last=Maxwell-Stewart\|first=H.\|date=2006\|website=The Companion to Tasmanian History\|publisher=Centre for Tasmanian Historical Studies, University of Tasmania\|access-date=2020-04-12}}</ref> and the departure of the military in 1863.<ref name=":03">Doyle et al., 2002, p. 29</ref> The cemetery continued to be used for destitute, aged and infirm men, mainly convicts and ex convicts, residing in Port Arthur's welfare institutions, the hospital, Paupers' (invalid) Depot (established in 1864) and [[Lunatic asylum\|Lunatic Asylum]] (established in 1867) until they were closed in 1877.<ref name=":03" /><ref>Godden et al, 2009, p. 46</ref><ref>Ross. 1995, p. 22</ref> ===Burial designation=== The cemetery was divided into designated sections. Convicts were buried on the lower, southern end of the island. No headstones or markings were placed on convict graves, as they were not allowed.<ref>{{Cite web \|last=Franklin\|first=J\|date=1838\|title=Diaries of Jane, Lady Franklin, Van Diemen's Land 1838 and Victoria, Australia 1843-1844 \|url=https://eprints.utas.edu.au/3396/1/rs_16_2%281%29.pdf\|page=14\|website=University of Tasmania}}{{unreliable source?\|reason=Personal diaries are primary sources;\|date=October 2023}}</ref><ref>Manton, 1845, p.10</ref> Alfred Mawle, a tour guide for Port Arthur from about 1899 to 1939,<ref>{{Cite news\|date=5 September 1940\|title=Mr. Alfred Mawle\|page=5\|work=The Hobart Mercury\|location=Hobart Tasmania\|url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article25823110\|access-date=2020-04-10\|via=TROVE National Library of Australia.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite thesis \|degree=PhD \|last=Young \|first=Frederick David \|date=July 1995 \|url=https://eprints.utas.edu.au/21810/1/whole_YoungFrederickDavid1995_thesis.pdf \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181102194153/https://eprints.utas.edu.au/21810/1/whole_YoungFrederickDavid1995_thesis.pdf \|archive-date=2018-11-02 \|title=Profiting from the past: The relationship between history and the tourist industry in Tasmania 1856–1972 \|publisher=University of Tasmania \|page=190}}</ref> described that convict graves were marked with small metal numbers, which went missing in the 1920s.{{Sfn\|Weidenhofer\|1990\|p=118}} Free people were located on the northern western corner of the island and their graves were generally marked with [[footstone]]s, headstones and tombstones cut by convict stonemasons. Approximately eighty-one headstones and five footstones, dated from 1831 to 1877, were identified and inscriptions recorded in the late 1970s. Of these, four belonged to former convicts who were free at the time of their deaths and nine were erected as memorials to convicts after the closure of the penal colony.<ref>Lord, 1990, pp. ix–x</ref> It is estimated that less than 10% of all the burials on the Isle of Dead were formally marked.<ref name=":14">{{Cite journal\|last1=Links\|first1=F\|last2=Roach\|first2=M\|last3=Jackman\|first3=G\|journal=Aseg Extended Abstracts\|date=2004\|title=Using Geophysics to locate burials and other cultural features, Isle of the Dead, Port Arthur, Tasmania\|url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1071/ASEG2004ab089?needAccess=true\|language=en\|volume=2004\|issue=1\|page=1\|doi=10.1071/ASEG2004ab089\|s2cid=130398806\|issn=2202-0586\|via=University of Tasmania Open Access Depository}}</ref>[[File:Gravestones Isle of Dead Tasmania Port Arthur.JPG\|thumb\|309x309px\|Gravestones on the Isle of the Dead\|alt=]] ===Number of burials=== Approximately 1,000 people have been buried on the Isle of the Dead.<ref name=":32">Links et al., 2004, p. 1</ref><ref name=":13">Ross, 1995, pp. 31–33</ref><ref>Ross, 2006.</ref> The actual number of people buried on the island is unknown because of the destruction of many official records, incomplete burial records and lack of records for free people located at Port Arthur and the outstations.{{Sfn\|Burn\|1905\|p=9}}<ref name=":13" /><ref>{{Cite journal\|last=Goc\|first=N\|date=2002\|title=From Convict Prison to the Gothic Ruins of Tourist Attraction\|url=https://eprints.utas.edu.au/8591/3/Convict_prison.Gothic_ruins..pdf\|journal=Historic Environment\|volume=16\|issue=3\|page=25\|via=eprints.utas.edu.au}}</ref> Estimates of the number buried is based on [[Geophysics\|geophysical]] studies, remaining burial and death records and the limited size of the convict burial section on the isle.<ref name=":32"/><ref>Ross.1995, pp. 36–37</ref> Historical estimates have been variable. The ''[[Hobart Town Courier]]'' published 43 burials on the isle in 1836.<ref>{{Cite news\|date=1836-04-08\|title=Friday Morning, April 8\|page=2\|work=Hobart Town Courier (Tas. : 1827–1839)\|url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article4177049\|access-date=2020-04-10\|via=TROVE National Library Australia}}</ref> ''[[The Tasmanian]]'' reported 1,500 graves in 1872.<ref name=":7">{{Cite news\|date=1872-03-16\|title=Port Arthur Dead Island\|page=6\|work=The Tasmanian Newspaper\|location=Launceston, Tasmania\|url=https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/201349281\|access-date=2020-04-09\|via=TROVE National Library of Australia}}</ref> 1,500 graves were recorded again on an "Isle of the Dead" tourist [[postcard]] in 1909.<ref name=":122">{{Cite web\|title=Isle of the Dead, Port Arthur.\|url=http://collectionsearch.nma.gov.au/object/210917?solrsort=random%20asc&f%5B0%5D=obj_place_name%3AIsle%20of%20the%20Dead%2C%20Port%20Arthur%2C%20Tasman%20Peninsula%2C%20Tasmania%2C%20Australia\|date=1909\|website=National Museum of Australia\|publisher=Joseph Lebovic Gallery Collection no 1\|type=Photographic Postcard Series\|location=Sydney Australia}}</ref> In 1907 an ''[[Australian Town and Country Journal]]'' article about convict burials across the Tasman Peninsula cited 1,700 convict burials on the isle.<ref>{{Cite news\|last=Bowen\|first=F\|date=1907-06-19\|title=The Isle of the Dead, Tasmania. Where the Convicts Sleep.\|page=25\|work=Australian Town and Country Journal\|location=Sydney, NSW\|url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article71593432\|access-date=2020-04-10\|via=TROVE National Library of Australia.}}</ref> ===Burial records=== The Wesleyan mission conducted all the religious duties,{{Sfn\|Burn\|1905\|p=23}} including the burial services on the Isle of the Dead and recorded them in a burial register from 1833 to 1843.<ref name=":05">Ross, 1995, p. 17</ref><ref name=":18"/> The register shows that in the cemetery's first decade, 90% of burials were convicts and 90% were younger than 40 years old of which 39 were children from Point Puer boys' reformatory prison.<ref>Ross, 1995, p. 15</ref> Over 50% of the convicts buried were labourers with the remaining mostly shoemakers, carpenters and sawyers for the timber industry.<ref name=":05" /> Free people buried on the island were 1 government official, 7 soldiers, 7 [[Sailor\|seamen]], an officer's wife and 9 children.<ref>Ross, 1995, p. 16</ref> The Wesleyan burial register indicates that four women were buried on the island.<ref>Ross, 1995, p. 20</ref> In addition to this number, an elderly aboriginal woman may also have been buried on the isle in 1833. In a diary entry by Lady [[Jane Franklin]], she describes the elder dying while journeying on the government [[brig]], ''Tamar'', on its way to Hobart, and her burial undertaken during the boat's layover at Port Arthur.{{Sfn\|Weidenhofer\|1990\|p=117}} [[Catholic Church\|Catholic]] and [[Church of England]] ministers replaced the Wesleyan missionary in 1843. The only remaining burial record from 1843 to the closure of the cemetery are the Church of England's register kept from 1850 to 1864.<ref name=":05" /> ===Causes of death=== From the existing records most burials on the Isle of the Dead were a result of death caused by disease. Convicts arrived to the colony from the unsanitary and overcrowded conditions of the [[Hulk (ship type)\|hulks]] and gaols and experienced nutritional deficiency.<ref>Bateson, 1969, as cited in Ross, 1995, p. 42</ref> In the early years illness such as [[dysentery]], [[enteritis]] and fever were the main causes of death followed by respiratory disease and [[epidemic]]s spreading through the colony. There were also a significant number of deaths from accidents, murder and suicide.<ref>Ross, 1995, pp. 38–58</ref> ===Gravediggers=== [[File:MarkJeffreyConvict.jpg\|alt=\|thumb\|226x226px\|[[Mark Jeffrey]] (1825–1894). Convict gravedigger for Isle of the Dead, who wrote a published autobiography about his life, including his time as a prisoner in Port Arthur.]]There are two known [[gravedigger]]s who lived and worked on the Isle of the Dead during its time as a penal colony. The first was John Barron, an Irish convict who lived and worked on the island for more than 10 years until pardoned in 1874.<ref>Lord, 1990, p. 10</ref><ref name=":22">{{Cite book\|last=Trollope\|first=A\|url=https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=mdp.39015010728460&view=1up&seq=13\|title=Australia and New Zealand.\|publisher=Cambridge University Press\|year=2013\|isbn=978-1-107-33813-5\|location=Cambridge University\|pages=150–151\|doi=10.1017/CBO9781107338135\|via=Babel.Hathitrust.org}}</ref> The second was [[Mark Jeffrey]], an English convict who volunteered for the job as gravedigger and lived on the isle from Mondays to Saturdays and returned to the Port Arthur settlement to attend Sunday church services. He was the gravedigger until the penal colony's closure in April 1877, then transferred to Hobart Town prison.<ref name=":11">{{Cite book\|last1=Jeffrey\|first1=M\|url=http://handle.slv.vic.gov.au/10381/183230\|title=A Burglar's Life, or, The Stirring Adventures of the Great English Burglar Mark Jeffrey: A thrilling history of the dark days of convictism in Australia. Tales of the Early Days.\|last2=Burke\|first2=J\|publisher=J. Walch & Sons.\|year=1900\|location=Hobart, Tasmania\|pages=4, 116, 118\|via=State Library Victoria digital library}}</ref><ref name=":16">{{Cite web\|title=The Digital Panopticon\|url=https://www.digitalpanopticon.org/Jeffrey,_Mark,_1825-1903\|last=Mark Jeffrey b. 1825\|first=Life Archive ID obpdef1-1358-18490611\|date=2020\|website=Digital Panopticon\|publisher=University of Oxford, Sheffield, Sussex, Tasmania}}</ref><ref name="Ross, 1995, p. 66">Ross, 1995, p. 66</ref>{{Sfn\|Weidenhofer\|1990\|p=118}} ===Structures=== The Isle of the Dead had two shelters that were constructed during its period as a penal cemetery: the gravedigger's residence which was a [[Clapboard\|weatherboard]] hut with a wood [[Roof shingle\|shingled roof]] and brick [[chimney]]; and a shelter for funeral parties which was a [[latticework]]-sided shed located near the jetty.<ref>Lord, 1990, pp. 9, 11, 87</ref><ref>Tropman & Gibbons, 1984, p. 6;</ref><ref name=":7" /> ==Sea level benchmark== [[File:Cut Mark in Scarborough, NO10 Royal Avenue.jpg\|An example of a naval ordinance [[Benchmark (surveying)\|surveying benchmark]] carved into rock. Located in [[Scarborough, North Yorkshire\|Scarborough, United Kingdom.]]\|alt=\|thumb\|219x219px]]In 1841 Captain [[James Clark Ross]], on his Southern Antarctic expedition, undertook scientific excursions on the Tasman Peninsula. Accompanied by Lieutenant-Governor [[John Franklin]], he visited Port Arthur. One reason for this visit was to establish a permanent sea level benchmark based on tidal observations initiated by Franklin and continued by Thomas James Lempriere, Deputy Assistant Commissary General of Port Arthur.<ref>{{Cite journal\|last1=Pugh\|first1=D\|last2=Hunter\|first2=J\|last3=Coleman\|first3=R\|last4=Watson\|first4=C\|date=2002\|title=A comparison of historical and recent sea level measurements at Port Arthur, Tasmania\|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/255597658\|journal=International Hydrographic Review\|series=3\|volume=3\|pages=2, 6\|via=Researchgate}}</ref>{{Sfn\|Ross\|1847\|pp=22–24}} Lempriere had taken on the duties of recording meteorological and tidal observations following the drowning of the [[Surveyor of the Navy\|Surveyor]] for the Royal Navy, Lieutenant Thomas Burnett in May 1837.<ref>Pugh et al., 2002, p. 3</ref> He recorded observations with a thermometer, water barometer, rain and tide gauge from 1 July 1837 to 30 June 1841.<ref>Lord, 1990, p. 18</ref> These charts were then sent to the [[Royal Society]] through the [[Colonial Office]].<ref>Pugh et al., 2002, p. 8</ref> Captain Ross describes in his book, ''A Voyage of Discovery and Research in the Southern and Antarctic Regions during the Years 1839–43,'' that the Isle of the Dead was chosen for the placement of the benchmark as it was near to the tide register. The benchmark was then struck following Franklin giving Lempriere the workers he needed to have the mark cut deeply in the rock where Lempriere's "tidal observations indicated as the mean level of the ocean".{{Sfn\|Ross\|1847\|pp=22–24}} The benchmark was carved into a north facing vertical rock on the Isle of the Dead on 1 July 1841.<ref>{{Cite journal\|last1=Hunter\|first1=J\|last2=Coleman\|first2=R\|last3=Pugh\|first3=D\|date=2003\|title=The Sea Level at Port Arthur, Tasmania, from 1841 to the Present\|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/228535042\|journal=Geophysical Research Letters\|volume=30\|issue=7\|page=54\|doi=10.1029/2002GL016813\|bibcode=2003GeoRL..30.1401H\|s2cid=55384210\|via=research gate\|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name=":62">{{Cite journal\|last=Shortt\|first=J C\|date=1889\|title=Notes on the Possible Oscillation of Levels of Land and Sea in Tasmania During Recent Years\|url=https://eprints.utas.edu.au/15749/\|journal=Royal Society of Tasmania Papers.\|location=Hobart, Tasmania\|page=19\|via=University of Tasmania Open Access Depository}}</ref> The standard British ordnance survey [[Benchmark (surveying)\|benchmark]] of a [[broad arrow]] was used with the horizontal line measuring 50 cm across.<ref>{{Cite web\|title=Testing the Waters. A Report on Sea Levels. JSCOT Submission-Section 3.\|url=https://www.aph.gov.au/Parliamentary_Business/Committees/Joint/Completed_Inquiries/jsct/kyoto/sub44c\|last=Daly\|first=J.L.\|date=2000-08-19\|website=www.aph.gov.au\|publisher=Parliament of Australia, Joint Standing Committee on Treaties\|location=Canberra, ACT, Australia\|language=en-AU\|access-date=2020-04-17}}</ref> A small stone tablet was also installed above the benchmark recording the date the benchmark was struck and the measurements used to determine its position.<ref>Shortt, 1889, p. 19</ref> The tablet remained until the early 20th century when it was reported missing.<ref>Lord, 1990, p. 19</ref><ref name=":19">{{Cite news\|date=1909-05-19\|title=Dead Island, the Work of Improvement\|page=3\|work=The Hobart Mercury (Hobart, Tas. : 1860–1954)\|url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article9982485\|access-date=2020-04-15\|via=TROVE National Library of Australia.}}</ref> The Isle of the Dead benchmark, including the related surviving records up until 1848, were placed on the Australian National Heritage List in June 2005 for having "exceptional historical and scientific significance in the international field of climate research".<ref name=":15">{{Cite news\|last=Department of Environment & Heritage\|date=2005-06-03\|title=Environment Protection and Diversity Act 1999, Inclusion of Places in the National Heritage List\|page=7\|work=Commonwealth of Australia Special Gazette\|publisher=Commonwealth of Australia\|issue=s 94\|url=https://www.environment.gov.au/system/files/pages/ba18eab5-1a30-4f5d-af0d-d3f555f56b83/files/105778.pdf\|access-date=2020-04-09}}</ref> The benchmark is believed to be one of the oldest sea level benchmarks installed in the world.<ref name=":15" /><ref name=":8">{{Cite web\|title=Sea-level Rise. Understanding the Past – Improving Projections for the future.\|url=http://www.cmar.csiro.au/sealevel/sl_hist_few_hundred.html\|last=Legressy\|first=B\|date=2017-08-29\|website=www.cmar.csiro.au\|publisher=CSIRO Oceans and Atmosphere.\|access-date=2020-04-13}}</ref> It is one of the first and few remaining early sea level measurements in existence in the Southern Hemisphere.<ref>{{Cite news\|last=Haran\|first=B\|date=2003-02-15\|title=Isle of the Dead gives up clues\|language=en-GB\|work=BBC News Online, World Edition, Science & Nature\|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/2761677.stm\|access-date=2020-05-15}}</ref><ref name=":15" /> It is also estimated to be the first benchmark made to measure "relative land-sea vertical movements at an ocean site".<ref name=":15" /> The Isle of the Dead sea level benchmark together with Lempriere's records and those taken since that time, cover the longest time span of any sea level observations in the Southern Hemisphere.<ref>Hunter et al., 2003, pp. 1–4</ref> ==Early accounts== [[File:Marcus Clarke Sydney Writers Walk plaque.jpg\|thumb\|171x171px\|[[Sydney Writers Walk]] plaque commemorating [[Marcus Clarke]]'s novel ''For the Term of His Natural Life''. Embedded in footpath near [[Overseas Passenger Terminal]], [[Circular Quay]], Sydney, Australia.\|alt=]]Port Arthur and the surrounding areas and waterways were closed to the public during its time as a penal colony.<ref name=":9">{{Cite journal\|last=Jones\|first=J.K\|url=https://www.academia.edu/34948867\|title=Historical Archaeology of Tourism at Port Arthur, Tasmania, 1885–1960.\|journal=Unpublished PhD Dissertation, Department of Archaeology, Simon Fraser University \|publisher=Unpublished PhD.Thesis\|year=2016\|location=Simon Fraser University, British Columbia, Canada\|page=25\|access-date=2020-04-09\|via=academia.edu}}</ref> Visits were expensive and could be made with government approval.<ref name=":21">{{Cite journal\|last=Davidson\|first=J\|date=1995\|title=Port Arthur: A tourist history\|journal=Australian Historical Studies\|volume=26\|issue=105\|page=653\|doi=10.1080/10314619508595988}}</ref><ref>Young, 1985, p. 38</ref> [[David Burn]], a [[Scottish people\|Scottish]] [[settler]] and author, was granted permission to visit by the [[Colonial Secretary of Tasmania\|Colonial Secretary]]. He arrived by government vessel and was taken on a tour conducted by the commandant of the colony, [[Charles O'Hara Booth]] in January 1842.{{Sfn\|Burn\|1905\|pp=13–14}}<ref>Young, 1985, p. 30</ref> His account of his visit titled ''An Excursion to Port Arthur in 1842'' was published in 1853 and describes the isle "picturesquely sorrowful… soothing in its melancholy". Burn recounts the stories of a number of people buried on the isle including the first buried convict, Dennis Collins and his meeting in the hospital with author and convict, [[Henry Savery]] who was later buried on Isle of the Dead.{{Sfn\|Burn\|1905\|pp=33–34}}<ref name="Jones, 2016, p. 65">Jones, 2016, p. 65</ref><ref name="Goc, 2002, p. 24">Goc, 2002, p. 24</ref> [[Marcus Clarke]], journalist and author, visited Port Arthur colony in 1870.<ref>Young 1985, p. 35</ref> Approaching by boat he "beheld barring… passage to the prison the low grey hummocks of the Isle of the Dead".<ref>{{Cite news\|last=Clarke\|first=M\|date=1873-07-12\|title=Port Arthur No.II\|page=1\|work=The Argus\|location=Melbourne Victoria\|url=https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/5867137\|via=TROVE National Library of Australia.}}</ref> His book titled ''[[For the Term of His Natural Life]]'' was published in 1872 and reflects his research on convictism from this trip and includes the Isle of the Dead as one of its locations.<ref>{{cite Australian Dictionary of Biography \|last=Elliott\|first=Brian\|title=Clarke, Marcus Andrew (1846–1881) \|url=http://adb.anu.edu.au/biography/clarke-marcus-andrew-3225 \|access-date=2020-05-15}}</ref><ref name="Jones, 2016, p. 65"/> This book was made into a number of films and Port Arthur was used as a filming location in 1908 and 1926.<ref>{{Cite web\|title=For the Term of his Natural Life in Film.\|url=https://www.utas.edu.au/library/companion_to_tasmanian_history/F/For%20the%20term%20of%20his%20natural%20life%20on%20film.htm\|last=Roe\|first=M\|date=2006\|website=The Companion to Tasmanian History\|publisher=Centre for Tasmanian Historical Studies\|location=Hobart. Tasmania\|access-date=2020-04-09}}</ref> [[Anthony Trollope]], an English author, visited the Isle of the Dead in 1872. His book titled ''Australia and New Zealand'' published in 1873, describes the isle and his meeting with convict gravedigger John Barren.{{Sfn\|Weidenhofer\|1990\|p=118}} [[Mark Jeffrey]], an English convict, was an Isle of the Dead gravedigger. Following release from prison on a [[ticket of leave]] and due to ill health and poverty he was transferred to the Invalid Depot in Launceston, Tasmania. From here, Jeffrey, being illiterate, narrated his life story including his time at Port Arthur colony, which was published in a book in 1893 and 1900, titled ''A Burglar's Life; or the Stirring Adventures of the Great English Burglar, Mark Jeffrey: A thrilling history of the dark days of convictism in Australia''.<ref name=":16" /><ref name=":11" />{{Sfn\|Weidenhofer\|1990\|p=118}}<ref name="Ross, 1995, p. 66"/> [[File:Anthony Trollope Sydney Writers Walk plaque.jpg\|thumb\|164x164px\|[[Sydney Writers Walk]] plaque commemorating [[Anthony Trollope]]'s book ''Australia and New Zealand.'' Embedded in footpath near [[Museum of Contemporary Art Australia]], [[Circular Quay]], Sydney, Australia\|alt=]] ==Conservation and tourism== ===Early tourism=== Tourism began within six months of Port Arthur's closure as a penal settlement in 1877.<ref>Jones, 2016, p. iii</ref> By 1880 Port Arthur had a tourist centre running organised tours.<ref>{{Cite web\|title=History of the Tasman Peninsula\|url=https://www.tasman.tas.gov.au/tourism/local-history/\|last=Tasman Council\|date=2020\|website=Tasman Council\|publisher=Service Tasmania\|location=Nubeena, Tasmania\|language=en-AU\|access-date=2020-04-14}}</ref> It grew gradually from local people to arrivals from Melbourne and Sydney.<ref>Jones, 2016, p. 35</ref><ref>Young, 1985, pp. 17, 45</ref> By the 1890s tourist excursions were being regularly run in summer by [[steamship]] companies departing from Hobart, Melbourne and Sydney as land infrastructure was not fully developed.<ref name=":21" /><ref>Young, 1985, pp. 47, 81</ref> Despite tourism growth to Port Arthur, visits to Isle of the Dead were reduced as it was offshore and required the hiring of a boat.<ref name=":18"/><ref>Jones, 2016, p. 319</ref> Material remains of historical tourism is evident by a [[Watercolor painting\|watercolour]] of Isle of the Dead by [[Ebenezer Wake Cook]], commissioned by the [[Alfred, Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha\|Duke of Edinburgh]] during his visit to Tasmania in January 1868.<ref>{{Cite web\|title=Island of the Dead, Port Arthur\|url=https://stors.tas.gov.au/144584927\|last=Cook\|first=E.W\|date=c. 1868\|website=Libraries Tasmania's Online Collection\|publisher=Archive and Heritage Office\|location=Tasmania\|type=Painting, watercolour\|access-date=2020-04-20}}</ref> It is also seen in photographic postcards, from 1905 by photographers such as [[John Watt Beattie]],<ref name=":21" /><ref>Jones, 2016, pp. 116, 118</ref><ref>{{Cite web\|title=Among the Tombs, Dead Island, Port Arthur\|url=http://collectionsearch.nma.gov.au/object/32098/print\|last=Beattie\|first=J. W\|date=n.d.\|website=Collection Explorer, National Museum of Australia\|series=Joseph Lebovic Gallery Collection No.1\|publisher=National Museum of Australia\|location=Hobart, Tasmania\|language=en\|type=Photographic Postcard\|access-date=2020-04-13}}</ref> and postcards printed from 1905 to 1921 by J. Walch and Son. McVitty and W.J. Little.<ref>Jones, 2016, pp. 118, 126</ref> The first image recorded of Isle of the Dead was by Catherine Augusta Mitchell who pencilled a sketch of her children's burial place around 1845.<ref>Lord, 1990, p. 77</ref> In 1887 Isle of the Dead together with Point Puer were sold as private land to Thomas White as Lot 7378 until acquired by the Tasmanian government in 1915.<ref>Tropman & Gibbons, 1984, p. 6</ref> It is unknown what the isle was used for during this time. Point Puer, part of the same allotment, was used for farming purposes until the 1960s.<ref>Doyle et al., 2008, p. 29</ref> ===Erosion and vandalism=== Damage has occurred to the island from [[erosion]]. In 1879 a large part of the isle collapsed on the eastern side leaving graves exposed at the cliff edge.<ref>Doyle et al., 2002, p. 32</ref><ref>Lord, 1990, p. 2</ref> Government grants to restore gravestones and remove overgrowth in 1892 and the removal of almost all vegetation in 1933 exposed the isle to weather causing severe erosion to the island and cemetery.{{Sfn\|Weidenhofer\|1990\|p=119}}<ref>Doyle et al., 2002, pp. 7, 33</ref><ref>Thorn & Piper, 1996, p. 5</ref><ref>Tropman & Gibbons,1984, pp. 6–7</ref> From 1938 a memorial garden was established using native and exotic plants and headstones were repaired with cement.<ref name=":21" /><ref name=":54"/><ref name=":552"/><ref>Lord, 1990, pp. 2–3</ref> Destruction also occurred from recurring vandalism to the cemetery's monuments.<ref name=":19" /><ref>{{Cite news\|date=1910-01-07\|title=Dead Island.\|page=8\|work=The Hobart Mercury (Hobart, Tas. : 1860 – 1954)\|location=Hobart, Tasmania\|url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article10049864\|access-date=2020-04-14\|via=TROVE National Library of Australia.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news\|date=1913-11-18\|title=Vandalism at Dead Island.\|page=4\|work=The Hobart Mercury (Hobart, Tas. : 1860–1954)\|url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article10307371\|access-date=2020-04-14\|via=TROVE National Library of Australia.}}</ref> Tourists arrived by [[steamship]] on cheap day tickets and removed relics as souvenirs.<ref name="Goc, 2002, p. 24"/><ref>Young, 1985, pp. 7, 238, 293 </ref> This was able to continue, as there was a general lack of funds and protective measures in place, until the 1970s.<ref>Young, 1985, p. 7</ref> ===Conservation and tourism development=== In 1916 the Tasmanian government established the Scenery Preservation Board, which acquired Isle of the Dead and listed it as a Scenic Reserve.<ref name=":21" /><ref name=":54">Doyle et al., 2002, p. 7</ref><ref name=":552">Tropman & Gibbons,1984, p. 8</ref> With a rapid increase in tourism following World War II, this board established the Port Arthur Scenic Reserves Board, which developed a scenic attraction by clearing overgrowth and planting trees.<ref name=":21" /><ref>Goc, 2002, p. 25</ref> The National Parks and Wildlife Service (NPWS) took over the management of the isle in 1971 and introduced conservation methods to minimise further erosion by removing exotic species and planting native trees to act as wind breaks to protect the headstones. They also restored monuments with concrete and mortar.<ref name=":54" /><ref name=":552"/><ref name="Thorn & Piper, 1996, p. 4"/> From the 1970s tourism was promoted through "Isle of Dead Tours" facilitated by a new jetty and boat trip on the ''O'Hara Booth'' departing from Port Arthur's Mason Cove. These tours were not guided and attempts to limit tourist movements were made by pathways and chains around headstones.<ref name=":552"/> The Port Arthur Historic Site Management Authority (PAHSMA) has managed the Isle of the Dead from 1987. PAHSMA receives government funding and generates further revenue through tourism.<ref name=":21" /><ref>Godden et al., p. 87</ref> This revenue has funded conservation and heritage activities such as: maritime research uncovering artefacts of convict boat transport, old jetty and moorings on the Isle of the Dead's coastline;<ref>Godden et al., p. 32</ref> monitoring headstone deterioration and restorations;<ref name=":10"/><ref>Thorn & Piper, 1996, p. 8</ref><ref name=":162">{{Cite web\|title=Conservation Projects and Programs\|url=https://portarthur.org.au/heritage-management/conservation-projects-programs/\|last=PAHSMA\|date=2020\|website=Portarthur.org.au\|language=en-US\|access-date=2020-04-15}}</ref> and, [[Geophysics\|geophysical]] investigations of the layout and physical characteristics of the burial ground.<ref name=":242"/><ref name=":32"/> Conservation schemes have focused on minimising the impact of tourism on the cemetery by construction of barriers and walkways.<ref>Thorn & Piper, 1996, p. 7</ref> Limiting access by offering only guided tours and alternative activities such as boat only trips and night-time tours of Point Arthur.<ref name=":21" /><ref>Thorn & Piper, 1996, p. 6</ref> At the same time, funding projects have increased tourist accessibility through building new jetties at Mason Cove and Isle of the Dead and improving walkways and viewing platforms.<ref name=":162" /> PAHSMA, under its conservation aims, succeeded in having Isle of the Dead, as part of the Port Arthur Historic Site, inscribed on the [[Tasmanian Heritage Register]] in 1995 and [[Australian National Heritage List]] in 2005 for its historic and cultural significance, giving it protection under the Environment and Protection and Biodiversity and Conservation Act 1999.<ref name=":15" /><ref>Doyle et al, 2002, p. 65</ref> PAHSMA also succeeded in having the site listed with UNESCO as a [[World Heritage Site\|World Heritage Property]] on 31 July 2010 making it one of 11 [[Australian Convict Sites]] representing convictism and its development in the punishment of crime.<ref>{{Cite book\|url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780191823534.001.0001/acref-9780191823534\|title=Dictionary Plus Social Sciences\|date=2016\|publisher=Oxford University Press\|isbn=978-0-19-182353-4\|language=en-US\|doi=10.1093/acref/9780191823534.001.0001}}</ref><ref name=":132"/> [[File:Port Arthur, Tasmania - panoramio.jpg\|center\|thumb\|1074x1074px\|Panoramic view of Isle of the Dead, 2011.]] ==Graves== [[File:Henry Savery memorial stone, Isle of the Dead, Tasmania.jpg\|thumb\|[[Henry Savery]] (1791–1842) Memorial Stone, Isle of the Dead\|upright]] * Collins, Dennis. (? – 1833) Convict buried in 1833 aged 58. He was an English disabled pauper and retired sailor, transported for life for throwing a stone at the King. His cause of death was suicide by refusing food.<ref name=":17" />{{Sfn\|Burn\|1905\|p=33}}<ref>Lord. 1990, pp. 5–6</ref> * Eastman, Reverend George. (? – 25 April 1870). He was the Church of England chaplain for the Port Arthur penal colony from January 1855 to April 1870. He was known as the "good parson" and in April 1870, although unwell with a cold, visited an ill convict in an outstation. He died two days later and was interred in a raised sandstone vault on 28 April 1870. The inscription on the vault marks his age as 51 years old and the Port Arthur burial register records his age as 50 years old. Following his death the local diocese ran an appeal for his wife and 10 children.<ref>Lord, 1990. pp. 42–43</ref><ref>{{Cite news\|date=1870-05-02\|title=The Late Rev. George Eastman\|page=3\|work=The Hobart Mercury (Hobart, Tas. : 1860–1954)\|url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article8863889\|access-date=2020-04-18\|via=TROVE National Library of Australia}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web\|title=Rev George Eastman\|url=https://portarthur.org.au/wp-content/uploads/2017/12/People-of-the-Port-Arthur-Convict-ra1.pdf\|last=PAHSMA\|date=2017\|website=portarthur.org.au\|page=7}}</ref> * [[Henry Savery\|Savery, Henry.]] (1791–1842). A convict and Australia's first novelist with ''The Hermit of Van Dieman's Land,'' published under a pseudonym in 1829 and ''Quintus Servinton'' published in 1831. He was buried on Isle of the Dead in 1842.<ref>{{Cite web\|title=Henry Savery, Quintus Servinton\|url=https://www.utas.edu.au/library/exhibitions/quintus/index.html\|last=University of Tasmania\|date=1999\|website=www.utas.edu.au\|publisher=Online Library Exhibition\|access-date=2020-04-28}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web\|title=Henry Savery\|url=https://www.utas.edu.au/library/companion_to_tasmanian_history/S/Savery.htm\|last=Roe\|first=M\|date=2006\|website=The Companion to Tasmanian History\|publisher=Centre for Tasmanian Historical Studies\|location=Hobart, Tasmania\|access-date=2020-04-28}}</ref>{{Sfn\|Burn\|1905\|pp=26-27}}<ref>{{Cite news\|last=Hendy-Fooley\|first=G\|date=1933-09-12\|title=Barron Field\|page=6\|work=Sydney Morning Herald (NSW : 1842–1954)\|url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article17006400\|access-date=2020-05-10}}</ref> A memorial plaque was placed over his grave in 1978 and in 1992 the [[Fellowship of Australian Writers]] replaced the plaque with a memorial stone marking the 150th anniversary of Savery's death. The stone's inscription describes his book, crimes of forgery, imprisonment and death.<ref>{{Cite journal\|last=Xerri\|first=D\|date=2018\|title=Dark and literary: A tour to the Isle of the Dead\|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/329520739\|journal=Journal of Language and Cultural Education\|publisher=University of Malta\|volume=6\|issue=2\|page=126\|via=researchgate\|doi=10.2478/jolace-2018-0020\|doi-access=free}}</ref> == See also == {{Portal\|Australia\|Islands}} * [[Conservation and restoration of cultural heritage]] * [[Protected areas of Tasmania]] {{clear}} ==References== {{reflist}} ==Bibliography== * Bateson, C. (1969) ''The Convict Ships'' 1787- 7869, 2nd ed. Glasgow, Brown Son & Ferguson Ltd, {{ISBN\|978-0-85174-195-6}} cited in Ross, L. (1995). ''Death and Burial at Port Arthur, 1830–1877'' (honours thesis). University of Tasmania, Hobart, Tasmania, p. 42. Retrieved 2020-04-09 [https://eprints.utas.edu.au/16257/3/Ross_whole.pdf.pdf <nowiki>https://eprints.utas.edu.au/16257/3/Ross_whole.pdf.pdf</nowiki>] * Beattie, J.W. (n.d.) ''Among the Tombs, Dead Island, Port Arthur'' [Photographic Postcard].''Joseph Lebovic Gallery Collection No.1.'' Hobart, Tasmania: National Museum of Australia. Retrieved 2020-04-09 [http://collectionsearch.nma.gov.au/object/32098/print <nowiki>http://collectionsearch.nma.gov.au/object/32098/print</nowiki>] * Bowen, F. (1907-06-19). The Isle of the Dead'','' Tasmania. Where the Convicts Sleep. ''Australian Town and Country Journal'', p. 25. TROVE National Library of Australia. Retrieved 2020-04-09 [https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/71593432 <nowiki>https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/71593432</nowiki>] * {{Cite web \|last=Burn\|first=David \|year=1905 \|title=An Excursion to Port Arthur in 1842. (Port Arthur Van Diemen's Land) \|location=Hobart, Tasmania \|publisher=J. W. Beattie \|via=State Library of Victoria Digital Library\|ol=OL14007289M\|access-date=9 April 2020\|url=http://handle.slv.vic.gov.au/10381/82204}} * Catchpole, H. (2004-08-19). Island Reveals Mysteries of the Dead. ''ABC Science''. Retrieved 2020-04-09 [https://www.abc.net.au/science/articles/2004/08/19/1178596.htm <nowiki>https://www.abc.net.au/science/articles/2004/08/19/1178596.htm</nowiki>] * Clarke, M. (1873-07-12). Port Arthur No.II. ''The Argus,'' Melbourne Victoria. p. 1. TROVE National Library of Australia. Retrieved 2020-04-29 [https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/5867137 <nowiki>https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/5867137</nowiki>] * Cook, E W. (c. 1868) ''Island of the Dead, Port Arthur'' [Painting]. Libraries Tasmania's Online Collection, Tasmania, Archive and Heritage Office retrieved 2020-04-20 [https://stors.tas.gov.au/144584927 <nowiki>https://stors.tas.gov.au/144584927</nowiki>] * Daly, J. (2000-08-19). Testing the Waters. A Report on Sea Levels. JSCOT Submission – Section 3. Canberra, ACT, Australia: ''Joint Standing Committee on Treaties''. Parliament of Australia. Retrieved 2020-04-09 [https://www.aph.gov.au/Parliamentary_Business/Committees/Joint/Completed_Inquiries/jsct/kyoto/sub44c <nowiki>https://www.aph.gov.au/Parliamentary_Business/Committees/Joint/Completed_Inquiries/jsct/kyoto/sub44c</nowiki>] * Davidson, J. (1995). Port Arthur: A tourist history. ''Australian Historical Studies'' (26)105, p. 653. {{doi\|10.1080/10314619508595988}}. Retrieved 2020-04-28. * Dead Island. (1910-01-7). ''The Hobart Mercury,'' p. 8. TROVE National Library of Australia. Retrieved 2020-04-09. [https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/10049864 <nowiki>https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/10049864</nowiki>] * Dead Island, the Work of Improvement (1909-05-19). ''The Hobart Mercury'', p. 3. TROVE National Library of Australia. Retrieved 2020-04-09. [https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/9982485 <nowiki>https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/9982485</nowiki>] * Department of Environment & Heritage (DEH). (2005). Environment Protection and Diversity Act 1999, Inclusion of Places in the National Heritage List. ''Commonwealth of Australia Special Gazette (June 3, No S94, p. 7)''. Retrieved 2020-04-09 [https://www.environment.gov.au/system/files/pages/ba18eab5-1a30-4f5d-af0d-d3f555f56b83/files/105778.pdf <nowiki>https://www.environment.gov.au/system/files/pages/ba18eab5-1a30-4f5d-af0d-d3f555f56b83/files/105778.pdf</nowiki>] * Doyle, H. Context Pty Ltd. Urban Initiatives Pty Ltd. (2002). ''Port Arthur Historic Site Landscape Management Plan –'' prepared for Port Arthur Historic Site Management Authority. Melbourne, Victoria: Context Pty Ltd, p. 7. Retrieved 2020-04-09 [https://portarthur.org.au/wp-content/uploads/2017/12/PAHSMA-Landscape-Management-Plan.pdf <nowiki>https://portarthur.org.au/wp-content/uploads/2017/12/PAHSMA-Landscape-Management-Plan.pdf</nowiki>] * Friday Morning April 8, (1836-04-08). ''The Hobart Town Courier, Hobart Tasmania,'' p. 2. TROVE National Library Australia. Retrieved 2020-04-09 [https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/4177049 <nowiki>https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/4177049</nowiki>] * Goc, N. (2002). From Convict Prison to the Gothic Ruins of Tourist Attraction. ''Historic Environment,'' 16(3): 22–26. Retrieved 2020-05-01 [https://eprints.utas.edu.au/8591/3/Convict_prison.Gothic_ruins..pdf <nowiki>https://eprints.utas.edu.au/8591/3/Convict_prison.Gothic_ruins..pdf</nowiki>] * Godden Mackay Logan Pty Ltd, Middleton, G. Jackman, G. Tuffin, R. Clark, J. (2009). ''Port Arthur Historic Sites Management Plan 2008''. n.p. Port Arthur Historic Site Management Authority. pp. 18–19. Retrieved 2020-04-09 [https://whc.unesco.org/en/documents/105335 <nowiki>https://whc.unesco.org/en/documents/105335</nowiki>] * Great Britain Hydrographic Department & Purey-Cust, H. E & Davies, Bryer & Co. (1897). ''Tasmania – South Coast. Port Arthur'' [Map]. London: Admiralty. TROVE National Library Australia. Retrieved 2020-04-09 [http://nla.gov.au/nla.obj-231313799 Tasmania – South Coast. Port Arthur [cartographic material]] * Haran, B. (2003-02-15). Isle of the Dead Gives up Clues. ''BBC News Online, World Edition, Science & Nature''. Retrieved 2020-04-09 [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/2761677.stm <nowiki>http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/2761677.stm</nowiki>] * Hargraves, N. (2006). Point Puer. Companion to Tasmanian History. (1st ed.) ''Centre for Tasmanian Historical Studies.'' Hobart. Tasmania: University of Tasmania. (Vol. 1). Retrieved 2020-04-09 [https://www.utas.edu.au/library/companion_to_tasmanian_history/P/Point%20Puer.htm <nowiki>https://www.utas.edu.au/library/companion_to_tasmanian_history/P/Point%20Puer.htm</nowiki>] * Hendy-Fooley, G. (1933-09-12). Barron Field. ''The Sydney Morning Herald'', Sydney NSW TROVE National Library of Australia. Retrieved 2020-04-09 [https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/17006400?searchTerm=Henry+Savery <nowiki>https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/17006400?searchTerm=Henry+Savery</nowiki>] * Hunter, J. Coleman, R. Pugh, D. (2003). The Sea Level at Port Arthur, Tasmania, from 1841 to the Present. ''Geophysical Research Letters'', ''30''(7). pp. 54, 1–4, {{doi\|10.1029/2002GL016813}}. Retrieved 2020-04-09 [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/228535042_The_Sea_Level_at_Port_Arthur_Tasmania_from_1841_to_the_Present <nowiki>https://www.researchgate.net/publication/228535042_The_Sea_Level_at_Port_Arthur_Tasmania_from_1841_to_the_Present</nowiki>] * Isle of the Dead, Port Arthur (1909). [Photographic Postcard Series]. Joseph Lebovic Gallery Collection No.1. Sydney, NSW: National Museum of Australia. Retrieved 2020-04-09 [http://collectionsearch.nma.gov.au/ce/isle%20of%20the%20dead?object=210917 [http://collectionsearch.nma.gov.au/ce/isle%20of%20the%20dead?object=210917 <nowiki>http://collectionsearch.nma.gov.au/ce/isle%20of%20the%20dead?object=210917</nowiki><nowiki>]</nowiki>] * Jeffrey, M. Burke, J. (1900). ''A Burglar's Life, or, The Stirring Adventures of the Great English Burglar Mark Jeffrey: A thrilling history of the dark days of convictism in Australia.'' Tales of the Early Days. Hobart, Tasmania: J. Walch & Sons. State Library Victoria digital library. Retrieved 2020-04-26 [http://handle.slv.vic.gov.au/10381/183230 <nowiki>http://handle.slv.vic.gov.au/10381/183230</nowiki>] * Jones, J. K. (2016). ''Historical Archaeology of Touri8sm at Port Arthur, Tasmania, 1885–1960''. Unpublished PhD. Thesis, Simon Fraser University, British Columbia, Canada. Retrieved 2020-04-09 [https://www.academia.edu/34948867/Historical_Archaeology_of_Tourism_at_Port_Arthur_Tasmania_1885-1960 <nowiki>https://www.academia.edu/34948867/Historical_Archaeology_of_Tourism_at_Port_Arthur_Tasmania_1885-1960</nowiki>.] * Legresy, B. (2017-08-29) Sea Level Rise: Understanding the Past – Improving Projections for the future. ''CSIRO Oceans and Atmosphere''. Retrieved 2020-04-09 [http://www.cmar.csiro.au/sealevel/sl_hist_few_hundred.html <nowiki>http://www.cmar.csiro.au/sealevel/sl_hist_few_hundred.html</nowiki>] * Links, F. Roach, M. Jackman, G. (2004). Using Geophysics to Locate Burials and other Cultural Features, Isle of the Dead, Port Arthur, Tasmania. ''Australian Society of Exploration Geophysicists Extended Abstracts, (1),''1–5, {{doi\|10.1071/ASEG2004ab089}}. {{ISSN\|2202-0586}} Retrieved 2020-04-09 [https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1071/ASEG2004ab089?needAccess=true <nowiki>https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1071/ASEG2004ab089?needAccess=true</nowiki>] * Lord, R. (1990). ''Inscription in Stone, the Isle of the Dead, Port Arthur: Inscriptions from the Cemetery of the Port Arthur Penal Establishment 1830–1877''. (3rd ed.) Taroona, Tas: Richard Lord and Partners. {{ISBN\|0-9597473-3-8}}. {{OCLC\|27624866}}. * Manton, J. (1845). ''The Isle of the Dead or the Burial-place at Port Arthur, Van-Diemen's Land''. Missionary Series No. 652. [Pamphlet]. London, UK: John Mason. TROVE National Library of Australia. Retrieved 2020-04-09 [https://nla.gov.au/nla.obj-83567059/view?partId=nla.obj-83567403 <nowiki>https://nla.gov.au/nla.obj-83567059/view?partId=nla.obj-83567403</nowiki>] * Maxwell-Stewart, H. (2006). Convicts. The Companion to Tasmanian History. (1st ed.) ''Centre for Tasmanian Historical Studies''. Hobart, Tasmania: University of Tasmania. (Vol1. Retrieved 2020-04-09 [https://www.utas.edu.au/library/companion_to_tasmanian_history/C/Convicts.htm2 <nowiki>https://www.utas.edu.au/library/companion_to_tasmanian_history/C/Convicts.htm2</nowiki>] * Morgan, K. (2016). ''Port Arthur''. Dictionary Plus Social Sciences. Oxford University Press. Retrieved 2020-04-22 [https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780191823534.001.0001/acref-9780191823534 <nowiki>https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780191823534.001.0001/acref-9780191823534</nowiki>] * Mr. Alfred Mawle. (1940-09-05). ''The Hobart'' ''Mercury''. Hobart, Tasmania, p. 5. TROVE National Library of Australia. Retrieved 2020-04-10. [https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/25823110/1855595 <nowiki>https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/25823110/1855595</nowiki>] * Port Arthur Dead Island. (1872-03-16). ''The Tasmanian Newspaper''. Launceston, Tasmania, p 6. TROVE National Library of Australia. Retrieved 2020-04-09 [https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/201349281 <nowiki>https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/201349281</nowiki>] * PAHSMA (2020) Isle of the Dead Cemetery Tour. Retrieved 2020-04-28 [https://portarthur.org.au/tour/isle-of-the-dead/ Isle of the Dead cemetery tour] * PAHSMA (2017) Port Arthur People: Reverend George Eastman. Retrieved 2020-04-28 [https://portarthur.org.au/wp-content/uploads/2017/12/People-of-the-Port-Arthur-Convict-ra1.pdf <nowiki>https://portarthur.org.au/wp-content/uploads/2017/12/People-of-the-Port-Arthur-Convict-ra1.pdf</nowiki>] * PAHSMA (2020) Conservation Projects and Programs. Isle of the Dead Monuments and Walkways. Retrieved 2020-04-28 [https://portarthur.org.au/heritage-management/conservation-projects-programs/ [https://portarthur.org.au/heritage-management/conservation-projects-programs/ <nowiki>https://portarthur.org.au/heritage-management/conservation-projects-programs/</nowiki><nowiki>]</nowiki>] * Pugh, D. Hunter, J. Coleman, R. Watson, C. (2002). A Comparison of Historical and Recent Sea Level Measurements at Port Arthur, Tasmania. ''International Hydrographic Review. 3(3),'' 13. Retrieved 2020-04-11 [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/255597658_A_comparison_of_historical_and_recent_sea_level_measurements_at_Port_Arthur_Tasmania <nowiki>https://www.researchgate.net/publication/255597658_A_comparison_of_historical_and_recent_sea_level_measurements_at_Port_Arthur_Tasmania</nowiki>] * Roe, M. (2006). For the Term of his Natural Life in Film. ''The Companion to Tasmanian History''. Centre for Tasmanian Historical Studies. Hobart. Tas. Retrieved 2020-04-09 [https://www.utas.edu.au/library/companion_to_tasmanian_history/F/For%20the%20term%20of%20his%20natural%20life%20on%20film.htm <nowiki>https://www.utas.edu.au/library/companion_to_tasmanian_history/F/For%20the%20term%20of%20his%20natural%20life%20on%20film.htm</nowiki>] * Roe, M. (2006). Henry Savery. ''The Companion to Tasmanian History''. Centre for Tasmanian Historical Studies. Hobart. Tas. Retrieved 2020-04-09 [https://www.utas.edu.au/library/companion_to_tasmanian_history/S/Savery.htm <nowiki>https://www.utas.edu.au/library/companion_to_tasmanian_history/S/Savery.htm</nowiki>] * {{Cite book \|last=Ross\|first=J. C. \|year=1847 \|title=A Voyage of Discovery and Research in the Southern and Antarctic Regions, During the Years 1839–43\|location=London \|volume=2 \|pages=22–32 \|url=https://trove.nla.gov.au/work/936174\|publisher=John Murray}} <!-- <nowiki> https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=mdp.39015010728460&view=1up&seq=1</nowiki> --> * Ross, L. (2006). Isle of the Dead. Companion to Tasmanian History. (1st ed.) ''Centre for Historical Tasmanian Studies.'' Hobart, Tasmania: University of Tasmania. (Vol.1). Retrieved 2020-04-09 [https://www.utas.edu.au/library/companion_to_tasmanian_history/I/Isle%20of%20the%20Dead.htm <nowiki>https://www.utas.edu.au/library/companion_to_tasmanian_history/I/Isle%20of%20the%20Dead.htm</nowiki>] * Ross, L. (1995). ''Death and Burial at Port Arthur, 1830–1877'' (Honours thesis). University of Tasmania, Hobart, Tasmania. University of Tasmania Open Access Depository. Retrieved 2020-04-09 [https://eprints.utas.edu.au/16257/ <nowiki>https://eprints.utas.edu.au/16257/</nowiki>] * Shortt, J. C. (1889). Notes on the Possible Oscillation of Levels of Land and Sea in Tasmania During Recent Years. ''Royal Society of Tasmania Papers,'' Hobart, Tasmania. 18–20. University of Tasmania Open Access Depository. Retrieved 2020-04-09 [https://eprints.utas.edu.au/15749/ <nowiki>https://eprints.utas.edu.au/15749/</nowiki>] * Tasman Council. (n.d.) History of the Tasman Peninsula. Nubeena, Tasmania. Service Tasmania. Retrieved 2020-04-09 [https://www.tasman.tas.gov.au/tourism/local-history/ <nowiki>https://www.tasman.tas.gov.au/tourism/local-history/</nowiki>] * Tasmanian Nomenclature (1911-09-23). The Place Names of the Island, a Record of Origins and Dates. ''The'' ''Hobart Mercury''. (XI) p. 11. TROVE National Library of Australia. Retrieved 2020-04-09 [http://nla.gov.au/nla.new-article10115196 <nowiki>http://nla.gov.au/nla.new-article10115196</nowiki>] * The Digital Panopticon (2020) Mark Jeffery b. 1825, Life Archive ID obpdef1-1358-18490611 ''Digital Humanities Institute''. Universities of Liverpool, Oxford, Sheffield, Sussex and Tasmania. Digital Humanities Institute. Version 1.2.1, retrieved 2020-4-26 [https://www.digitalpanopticon.org/life?id=obpdef1-1358-18490611 <nowiki>https://www.digitalpanopticon.org/life?id=obpdef1-1358-18490611</nowiki>] * The Late Rev. George Eastman. (1870-05-02). ''The Hobart Mercury,'' p. 3. TROVE National Library of Australia. Retrieved 2020-04-09. [https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/8863889 <nowiki>https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/8863889</nowiki>] * Thorn, A. Piper, A. (1996). The Isle of the Dead: an Integrated Approach to the Management and Natural Protection of an Archaeological Site. ''Studies in Conservation. 41(sup1),'' 188–192. {{doi\|10.1179/sic.1996.41}}. p. 188. Retrieved 2020-04-22 [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/272226838_The_isle_of_the_Dead_an_integrated_approach_to_the_management_and_natural_protection_of_an_archaeological_site <nowiki>https://www.researchgate.net/publication/272226838_The_isle_of_the_Dead_an_integrated_approach_to_the_management_and_natural_protection_of_an_archaeological_site</nowiki>] * Trollope, A. (2013). Australia and New Zealand (Cambridge Library Collection – History of Oceania). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. doi: [https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=mdp.39015010728460&view=1up&seq=13 <nowiki>https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=mdp.39015010728460&view=1up&seq=13</nowiki>] * Tropman, L. Gibbons, G. S. (1984). ''Isle of the Dead, Port Arthur: a study of the island and recommendation for conservation of the headstones and the island.'' ''Port Arthur Conservation Project.''Hobart, Tasmania, National Parks and Wildlife Service. {{OCLC\|876315028}}. TROVE National Library of Australia. Retrieved 2020-04-07 [https://nla.gov.au/nla.obj-1382371370/view <nowiki>https://nla.gov.au/nla.obj-1382371370/view</nowiki>] * UNESCO. (2010). Decision: 34 COM 8B.16. Cultural Properties – Australian Convict Sites (Australia). ''UNESCO World Heritage Centre''. Retrieved 2020-04-09. [https://whc.unesco.org/en/decisions/3995/ <nowiki>https://whc.unesco.org/en/decisions/3995/</nowiki>] * University of Tasmania (1999) Henry Savery, Quintus Servinton. Online Library Exhibition. Retrieved 2020-4-29.[https://www.utas.edu.au/library/exhibitions/quintus/index.html <nowiki>https://www.utas.edu.au/library/exhibitions/quintus/index.html</nowiki>] * Vandalism at Dead Island (1913-11-18). ''The Hobart Mercury.'' Hobart, Tasmania. TROVE National Library of Australia. Retrieved 2020-04-09 [https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/10307371 <nowiki>https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/10307371</nowiki>] * {{Cite book \|last=Weidenhofer \|first=Maggie \|year=1990 \|title=Port Arthur: A Place of Misery \|edition=2nd \|location=Port Arthur, Tasmania \|publisher=B&M Reid and Port Arthur Historic Site Management Authority\| isbn=978-0-646-00003-9 \|url=https://trove.nla.gov.au/work/5748485}} * Xerri, D. (2018). Dark and Literary: a Tour to the Isle of the Dead. Journal of Language and Cultural Education (6)2, 126–143. University of Malta, Malta. {{doi\|10.2478/jolace-2018-0020}} Retrieved 2020-05-05 [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/329520739_Dark_and_literary_A_tour_to_the_Isle_of_the_Dead <nowiki>https://www.researchgate.net/publication/329520739_Dark_and_literary_A_tour_to_the_Isle_of_the_Dead</nowiki>] ==Further reading== ===Convictism=== * Clarke, M. (1874) [https://en.wikisource.org/w/index.php?title=For_the_Term_of_His_Natural_Life&oldid=7400523 ''For the Term of His Natural Life''] * Howard, R. (2011). ''A Forger's Tale: The Extraordinary Story of Henry Savery, Australia's First Novelist'', Melbourne, Australia: Arcade Publications. {{ISBN\|978-0-9871714-8-1}} * Savery, H. (1830). [https://www.utas.edu.au/library/exhibitions/quintus/documents/quintus_bookman.pdf ''Quintus Servinton''] * Savery, H. (1829).[https://nla.gov.au/nla.obj-115925908/view?partId=nla.obj-115958970#page/n23/mode/1up ''The Hermit in Van Diemen's Land''] ===Sea level benchmark=== * Ellis, W. F. (1967). ''[http://www.adb.online.anu.edu.au/biogs/A020092b.htm Lempriere, Thomas James (1796–1852), public official, author and artist]'' * Parker, A. (2015). [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/276082797_The_Isle_of_The_Dead_Benchmark_the_Sydney_Fort_Denison_Tide_Gauge_and_the_Ipcc_Ar5_Chapter_13_Sea_Levels_Revisited The Isle of the Dead Benchmark, the Sydney Fort Denison Tide Gauge and the IPCC AR5] ==External links== {{commons\|Port Arthur, Tasmania\|Port Arthur, Tasmania}} {{wikivoyage\|Port Arthur (Tasmania)\|Port Arthur, Tasmania}} === Cemetery === * {{Find a Grave cemetery}} * [https://eheritage.libraries.tas.gov.au/ Isle of the Dead gravestone inscriptions] * [https://portarthur.org.au/tour/isle-of-the-dead/ Port Arthur Historic Site, Isle of the Dead Tour] === Early images === * [http://www.utas.edu.au/library/exhibitions/quintus/index.html Henry Savery, Australia's first novelist. University of Tasmania, Library Exhibition] * [https://stors.tas.gov.au/AUTAS0016125425538 Postcards of Isle of the Dead from 1870–1920] * [https://stors.tas.gov.au/144584927 Watercolour of Isle of the Dead] (c. 1868) painted by [[Ebenezer Wake Cook]] {{Islands of Tasmania}} {{World Heritage Sites In Australia}} {{Convicts in Australia}}{{Authority control}} [[Category:1833 establishments in Australia]] [[Category:Australian Aboriginal cultural history]] [[Category:Australian Convict Sites]] [[Category:Australian penal colonies]] [[Category:Burial monuments and structures in Australia]] [[Category:Cemeteries in Tasmania]] [[Category:Nature conservation]] [[Category:Convictism in Tasmania]] [[Category:Historic sites in Tasmania]] [[Category:Islands of Tasmania]] [[Category:Sea level]] [[Category:Tasman Peninsula]] [[Category:Tasmanian Heritage Register]] [[Category:Tasmanian literature]] [[Category:World Heritage Sites in Australia]]
Reichsnaturschutzgesetz	#redirect [[Animal welfare in Nazi Germany#Reichsnaturschutzgesetz]] {{R to anchor}} [[Category:Nature conservation]] [[Category:Government of Nazi Germany]] [[Category:1935 in law]] [[Category:1935 in Germany]]
Resource management	{{Short description\|Efficient and effective deployment of an organization's resources when they are needed}} {{other uses}} {{business administration}} In [[organizational studies]], '''resource management''' is the efficient and effective development of an organization's resources when they are needed. Such resources may include the financial resources, inventory, human skills, production resources, or [[information technology]] (IT) and natural resources. In the realm of [[project management]], processes, techniques and philosophies as to the best approach for allocating resources have been developed. These include discussions on functional vs. cross-functional [[resource allocation]] as well as processes espoused by organizations like the [[Project Management Institute]] (PMI) through their [[Project Management Body of Knowledge]] (PMBOK) methodology of project management. Resource management is a key element to activity resource estimating and project human resource management. Both are essential components of a comprehensive project management plan to execute and monitor a project successfully.<ref>{{cite book\|title=A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge, Third Edition\|year=2004\|publisher=Project Management Institute (PMI)\|location=Newtown Square, Pennsylvania\|isbn=1-930699-45-X\|url-access=registration\|url=https://archive.org/details/guidetoprojectma00proj}}</ref><ref>{{cite book\|title=A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge, Fourth Edition\|year=2008\|publisher=Project Management Institute (PMI)\|location=Newtown Square, Pennsylvania\|isbn=978-1-933890-51-7\|url=https://archive.org/details/pmbokguide4thedition/mode/2up}}</ref><ref>{{cite book\|title=A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge, Sixth Edition\|year=2017\|publisher=Project Management Institute (PMI)\|location=Newtown Square, Pennsylvania\|isbn=978-1-62825-184-5\|url=https://archive.org/details/pmbok6thedenglish/mode/2up}}</ref> As is the case with the larger discipline of [[project management]], there are [[list of resource management software\|resource management software]] tools available that automate and assist the process of resource allocation to projects and portfolio resource transparency including [[supply and demand]] of resources. == Corporate resource management process == Large organizations usually have a defined corporate resource management process which mainly guarantees that resources are never over-allocated across multiple projects.<ref>[http://www.pmhut.com/modern-project-management Modern Project Management]</ref><ref>[http://pdware.com/ Enterprise Resource Management]</ref> Peter Drucker wrote of the need to focus resources, abandoning less promising initiatives for every new project taken on, as fragmentation inhibits results.<ref>{{cite web\|title=Growing in Turbulent Times'\|url=http://www.projectauditors.com/Papers/Growing_a_Company/Growing_in_Turbulent_Times.html \|author=Frank Parth}} </ref> == Techniques == One resource management technique is [[resource leveling]]. It aims at smoothing the stock of resources on hand, reducing both excess inventories and shortages. The required data are: the [[Demand (economics)\|demand]]s for various resources, forecast by time period into the future as far as is reasonable, as well as the resources' configurations required in those demands, and the [[Supply (economics)\|supply]] of the resources, again forecast by time period into the future as far as is reasonable. The goal is to achieve 100% [[Rental utilization\|utilization]] but that is very unlikely, when weighted by important metrics and subject to constraints, for example: meeting a minimum service level, but otherwise minimizing [[cost]]. A Project Resource Allocation Matrix (PRAM) is maintained to visualize the resource allocations against various projects. The principle is to invest in resources as stored capabilities, then unleash the capabilities as demanded. A dimension of resource development is included in resource management by which investment in resources can be retained by a smaller additional investment to develop a new capability that is demanded, at a lower investment than disposing of the current resource and replacing it with another that has the demanded capability. In [[Habitat conservation\|conservation]], resource management is a set of practices pertaining to maintaining natural systems integrity. Examples of this form of management are [[Air#Air pollution\|air resource]] management, [[soil conservation]], [[forestry]], [[wildlife]] management and [[water resource]] management. The broad term for this type of resource management is [[natural resource management]] (NRM). == See also == * [[Environmental management]] * [[Factor 10]] * [[Holistic management]] * [[Industrial symbiosis]] * [[List of resource management software]] * [[Resource allocation]] == References == {{reflist}} {{Management}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Resource Management}} [[Category:Nature conservation]] [[Category:Land management]] [[Category:Schedule (project management)]] [[Category:Management by type]]
Smart Parks	{{Short description\|UK-based charity}} {{Infobox organization \| name = Smart Parks \| logo = Smart_Parks_official_logo.png \| type = Stichting Foundation (Netherlands) Registered Charity (UK) \| founded_date = 2017 \| founder = Laurens de Groot, Jeroen de Looze, Stephen Roest, Tim van Dam \| location = [[Netherlands]], [[UK]] \| origins = \| key_people = Laurens de Groot, Jeroen de Looze, Tim van Dam, Steve Roest \| area_served = \| product = \| focus = [[Conservation movement\|Conservation]] \| method = Advanced Technology \| revenue = \| endowment = \| num_volunteers = \| num_employees = \| num_members = \| subsib = \| owner = \| Non-profit_slogan = \| homepage = [http://www.smartparks.org/ www.smartparks.org] \| dissolved = \| footnotes = }} '''Smart Parks''' is a UK-based charity that specializes in providing aerial surveillance and monitoring services through the use of unnamed aerial vehicles (UAVs), commonly knowns as drones. The organization was founded in 2012 and launched publicly in 2013, and operates as a registered [[Charitable organization\|charity]] in the UK and a [[private foundation]] in the [[Netherlands]]. The organization was formerly named '''ShadowView'''<ref name="ShadowView News">{{Cite news \|date=4 July 2013 \|title=ShadowView receives charitable status \|url=http://www.shadowview.org/news20130704.html}}</ref>'''.''' Smart Park's services are used primarily by park rangers and conservationist for [[Wildlife conservation\|wildlife conservation efforts]], [[disaster relief]] situations, [[poaching]] and wildlife crime, [[habitat destruction]], and biomass management. Smart Parks has been successfully implemented in several nature reserves and national parks across the world, including the Kruger National Park in South Africa, Bardiya National Park in Nepal, and Niassa Special Reserve which is one of Africa's largest protected area.<ref>{{Cite web \|date=2017-05-01 \|title=Foundation \|url=https://www.smartparks.org/foundation/ \|access-date=2023-02-10 \|website=Smart Parks \|language=en}}</ref> The initiative has shown promising results in improving the effectiveness of wildlife conservation efforts and protecting endangered species. ==History== Smart Parks was founded by four conservationist Laurens de Groot, Tim van Dam, Steve Roest, and Jeroen de Looze to address the need to support conservation organizations in their battles to protect the [[natural environment]]. They combined their 30 years of experience in law enforcement and advanced technologies to monitor and protect wildlife in remote areas.<ref>{{Cite web \|date=2017-05-01 \|title=Story \|url=https://www.smartparks.org/story/ \|access-date=2023-02-10 \|website=Smart Parks \|language=en}}</ref> Smart Parks was formed by the merger of two charities [[ShadowView]] and Internet of Life in 2017. In collaboration with [[League Against Cruel Sports]], Smart Parks became the first organization to use UAV's to monitor and document potential wildlife crime in England. This effort involved using drones to fly over areas where illegal hunting may occur, and capturing video evidence that can be used in legal proceedings.<ref name="BBC online">{{Cite news \|date=16 March 2013 \|title=Drones may be used to target illegal hunting \|publisher=BBC online \|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-21812600}}</ref> In 2017 Rwanda's [[Akagera National Park]] launched the Smart Parks technology which allows park rangers to monitor animals, visitors, and equipment in real-time. The Smart Parks system is based on the [[LoRa]] technology a Long Range Wide-Area Network (LoRaWAN) with low-bandwidth, low-power networking technology that can blanket large areas at relatively low costs.<ref name="The Verge">{{Cite news \|date=20 July 2017 \|title=High Tech plan to combat poachers \|publisher=The Verge.com. \|url=https://www.theverge.com/2017/7/20/16002752/smart-park-rwanda-akagera-poaching-lorawan.html}}</ref> In 2018, ShadowView was rebranded as Smart Parks, expanding its focus beyond drone technology to include other advanced technologies such as camera traps and sensors. ==Operations== In November 2013 Smart Parks confirmed deployment of their Eco Ranger, Shadow Ranger and Shadow Rotor UAS in the Greater Kruger area for anti poaching operations.<ref name="ShadowView.org">{{Cite news\|title=ShadowView using UAV for wildlife monitoring, conservation and anti poaching operations in the Greater Kruger National Park\|url=http://www.shadowview.org/news20131120.html#.UsQUufZkJVk}}</ref> [[File:ShadowView Eco Ranger UAS.jpeg\|thumb\|ShadowView Eco Ranger]] Smart Parks continued to operate throughout 2014 in a variety of private reserves in South Africa.<ref name="Metro">{{Cite news\|title=Rhino-saving drones: How UAVs are being used for wildlife conservation\|url=http://metro.co.uk/2014/05/09/rhino-saving-drones-how-uavs-are-being-used-for-wildlife-conservation-4721692/\|publisher=Metro News UK\|date=9 May 2014}}</ref> In January 2017 The Internet of Life and the ShadowView Foundation organizations co-developed a LoRa-equipped sensor that is implanted directly into the [[Rhinoceros\|rhino's]] horn for protection against poaching in [[Akagera National Park]]. The sensor has given park rangers the ability to accurately monitor the whereabouts and activities of the critically endangered black rhinos and keep them safe from wildlife criminals and poachers. This technology is utilized by Smart Parks and is now being deployed throughout [[Mkomazi National Park]] and many other locations.<ref name="Nasdaq Global Newswire">{{Cite news\|title=Semtech LoRa Technology Tracks Location of Endangered Black Rhinos in Africa\|url=https://globenewswire.com/news-release/2017/01/17/906237/0/en/Semtech-LoRa-Technology-Tracks-Location-of-Endangered-Black-Rhinos-in-Africa.html\|publisher=GlobeNewswire.com.com \|date=17 Jan 2017}}</ref><ref name="IT Web">{{Cite news\|title=Rhino horn sensor implants prevent poaching\|url=http://www.itweb.co.za/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=158742l\|publisher=IT Web Emerging Technologies \|date=18 Jan 2017}}</ref><ref name="Black Rhinos in Tanzania">{{Cite news \|date=24 Oct 2017 \|title=Black rhinos in Tanzania now monitored via sensors implanted directly in their horns \|publisher=MongaBay \|url=https://news.mongabay.com/wildtech/2017/10/black-rhinos-in-tanzania-now-monitored-via-sensors-implanted-directly-in-their-horns/}}</ref> In addition, this wireless technology provides sensors that can be implemented along fences that are used to protect endangered or vulnerable species. If a break in the fence is detected or animal presence is sensed near the fence, local officials will be alerted. This provides real-time data on where potential poachers can be breaking fences to enter protected properties or when animals are near the border of the property.<ref>{{Cite journal \|last=Kavana \|first=Pius Yoram \|last2=Sangeda \|first2=Anthony Z. \|title=Natural Resources Conservation and Livestock Interface \|url=https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Pius-Kavana/publication/323833896_Natural_Resources_Conservation_and_Livestock_Interface/links/5ae2a9b6a6fdcc9139a0f9fc/Natural-Resources-Conservation-and-Livestock-Interface.pdf \|journal=Sokoine University of Agriculture}}</ref> Smart Parks has installed its fourth and largest African smart park to date in Malawi's [[Liwonde National Park]] in October 2018. In just two weeks, the 548km2 national park was equipped with gateways and sensors that gather information to help improve park management and protection. The construction of the network in the [[Liwonde National Park]] was implemented alongside a team from [[African Parks]], a conservation NGO that manages the park on behalf of the Malawian government. The group was trained by Smart Parks for the construction of the site.<ref name="New Smart Park in Africa">{{Cite news\|title=See How This New Smart Park in Africa Could Help Rangers Curb Poaching\|url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/jenniferhicks/2018/11/07/see-how-this-new-smart-park-in-africa-could-help-rangers-curb-poaching/#138f2f063180\|work=Forbes.com \|date=7 Nov 2018}}</ref> Smart Parks announced in 2018 an operation in the [[Serengeti National Park]], a [[World Heritage Site]].<ref name="Novel wireless technology">{{Cite news\|title=Serengeti National park\|url=https://ensia.com/features/lpwan/\|publisher=ensia \|date=6 June 2018}}</ref> ==Controversy== There has been some controversy in the media surrounding the use of [[UAV]] or "drones" in the countryside of the [[UK]] with the Countryside Alliance suggesting the use of drones might be dangerous to people and animals<ref name="New Scientist online">{{Cite news\|title=Anti hunting group hires "ethical"surveillance drone\|url=https://www.newscientist.com/blogs/onepercent/2013/03/drone-campaign-group.html\|publisher=Newscientist.com \|date=21 March 2013}}</ref> Smart Parks respond to the controversy of using drones, saying they fly within [[Civil Aviation Authority\|CAA]] flight regulations for missions across the [[UK]].<ref name="SustainableBusiness.com">{{Cite news\|title=Technology to the rescue for wildlife\|url=http://www.sustainablebusiness.com/index.cfm/go/news.display/id/24694\|publisher=sustainablebusiness.com\|date=22 March 2013}}</ref> In December 2013 International NGO 'Free the Slaves' announced it would partner with Smart Parks and use UAV to identify illegal slavery, the reception in India was mixed with some of the public supporting the concept and some voicing concern of the use of drones.<ref name="NationalPost.com">{{Cite news\|title=Free the Slaves\|url=http://news.nationalpost.com/2013/12/13/stunt-headed-nowhere-activists-decry-free-the-slaves-plan-to-use-drones-to-secretly-film-forced-labour-in-india}}</ref> ==Partners== Smart Parks has received funding and support from several organizations including, the World Wildlife Fund and the Leonardo DiCaprio Foundation. Smart Parks has partnered with a wide range of organizations including [[African Parks]] to protect local communities in Africa and collaborate with local government officials. Additional partners include Microsoft, which supports the development of the organization's conservation technology initiatives. Microsoft's AI for Earth program has also provided funding and support for Smart Parks' work on developing a real-time wildlife monitoring system. Additional partners include [[Save the Children]], [[Semtech]], Air Shepherd, and The Dutch Postcode Lottery.<ref>{{Cite web \|date=2017-05-01 \|title=Foundation \|url=https://www.smartparks.org/foundation/ \|access-date=2023-02-10 \|website=Smart Parks \|language=en}}</ref> == References == {{Reflist}} [[Category:Charities based in the Netherlands]] [[Category:Charities based in England]] [[Category:Nature conservation]] [[Category:Environmentalism in the Netherlands]] [[Category:Environmental organisations based in the United Kingdom]]
Category:Nature conservation by continent	{{container}} [[Category:Environment by continent\| ]] [[Category:Nature conservation\| ]]
Category:Nature conservation by country	{{Commons cat\|Conservation by country}} {{Cat more\|Nature conservation}} [[Category:Nature conservation\| ]] [[Category:Environment by country\| Nature conservation]]
Green grabbing	{{short description\|Foreign appropriation of land and resources for environmental purposes}} {{green politics sidebar\|Related}} '''Green grabbing''' or '''green colonialism''' is the foreign [[land grabbing]] and appropriation of resources for environmental purposes,<ref name="Fairhead">{{cite journal\|doi=10.1080/03066150.2012.671770\|title=Green Grabbing: A new appropriation of nature?\|year=2012\|last1=Fairhead\|first1=James\|last2=Leach\|first2=Melissa\|last3=Scoones\|first3=Ian\|journal=Journal of Peasant Studies\|volume=39\|issue=2\|pages=237–261\|s2cid=115133230\|doi-access=free}}</ref> resulting in a pattern of unjust development.<ref name="Iskander">{{cite journal\|doi=10.1146/annurev-polisci-061418-095236\|doi-access=free\|title=Climate Change and Work: Politics and Power\|year=2020\|last1=Iskander\|first1=Natasha N.\|last2=Lowe\|first2=Nichola\|journal=Annual Review of Political Science\|volume=23\|pages=111–131}}</ref> The purposes of green grabbing are varied; it can be done for ecotourism, conservation of biodiversity or [[ecosystem services]], for carbon emission trading, or for biofuel production. It involves governments, NGOs, and corporations, often working in alliances. Green grabs can result in local residents' displacement from land where they live or make their livelihoods. It is considered to be a subtype of [[green imperialism]].<ref>{{cite news \|title=Ron Arnold: Green-grabbing for carbon 'offsets' takes toll on Africans \|url=https://www.washingtonexaminer.com/ron-arnold-green-grabbing-for-carbon-offsets-takes-toll-on-africans \|access-date=30 April 2023 \|work=Washington Examiner \|date=4 April 2013 \|language=en}}</ref> ====== Who is affected by green grabbing? ====== Green grabbing primarily affects smallholders, and leads to various forms of injustice, conflict, and displacement. Confiscation of land by both local and foreign companies, as well as by rural elites and government bodies, in the name of environmental reasons, often worsens existing vulnerabilities and inequalities in these communities.<ref>{{Cite journal \|last=Busscher \|first=Nienke \|last2=Parra \|first2=Constanza \|last3=Vanclay \|first3=Frank \|date=2020-02-23 \|title=Environmental justice implications of land grabbing for industrial agriculture and forestry in Argentina \|url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/09640568.2019.1595546 \|journal=Journal of Environmental Planning and Management \|language=en \|volume=63 \|issue=3 \|pages=500–522 \|doi=10.1080/09640568.2019.1595546 \|issn=0964-0568}}</ref> Areas most vulnerable to green grabs are those in poor economic conditions, developing countries, or on indigenous land.<ref>{{Cite journal \|last=Stock \|first=Ryan \|last2=Birkenholtz \|first2=Trevor \|date=2021-07-29 \|title=The sun and the scythe: energy dispossessions and the agrarian question of labor in solar parks \|url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/03066150.2019.1683002 \|journal=The Journal of Peasant Studies \|language=en \|volume=48 \|issue=5 \|pages=984–1007 \|doi=10.1080/03066150.2019.1683002 \|issn=0306-6150}}</ref> ==Definition and purpose== "Green grabbing" was first coined in 2008 by journalist John Vidal, in a piece that appeared in ''[[The Guardian]]'' called "The great green land grab".<ref name="Fairhead"/> Social anthropologist [[Melissa Leach]] notes that it "builds on well-known histories of [[colonialism\|colonial]] and [[Neocolonialism\|neo-colonial]] resource alienation in the name of the environment".<ref name="Leach"/> Green grabbing is a more specific form of [[land grabbing]], in which the motive of the land grab is for environmental reasons.<ref name="Fairhead"/> Green grabbing can be done for conservation of [[biodiversity]] or [[ecosystem service]]s, [[carbon emission trading]], or for [[ecotourism]].<ref name="Iskander"/><ref>{{cite journal\|doi=10.1080/03066150.2012.664138\|title=Enclosing the global commons: The convention on biological diversity and green grabbing\|year=2012\|last1=Corson\|first1=Catherine\|last2=MacDonald\|first2=Kenneth Iain\|journal=Journal of Peasant Studies\|volume=39\|issue=2\|pages=263–283\|s2cid=153985368}}</ref> Conservation groups might encourage members of the public to donate money to "adopt" an acre of land, which goes towards land acquisition. Companies who engage in carbon emission trading might employ a green grab to plant trees—the resulting [[carbon offset]] can then be sold or traded.<ref name="Leach">{{cite web\|url=https://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/opinion/2012/06/201261885431273708.html\| title=The dark side of the green economy: 'Green grabbing'\| first=Melissa\| last=Leach\| date=20 June 2012\| access-date=27 August 2020\| website=Al Jazeera}}</ref> One program, [[Reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation]] (REDD+), compensates companies and countries for conserving forests, though the definition of forest also includes [[Plantation#Forest plantations\|forest plantations]] consisting of a single tree species ([[monoculture]]).<ref name="Vigil"/> Green grabbing can also be done for the production of [[biofuels]]. Biofuel production efforts, led by the US and European Union, have been a main driver of land grabbing in general. The International Land Coalition states that 59% of land grabs between 2000 and 2010 were because of biofuels.<ref name="Vigil">{{cite book\|title=Routledge Handbook of Environmental Displacement and Migration\| chapter=Green grabbing-induced displacement\| last1=Vigil\| first1=Sara\| year=2018\| editor1-first=Robert\| editor1-last= McLeman\| editor2-first= François\| editor2-last= Gemenne\| publisher=Routledge\| isbn=9781317272250\| pages=370–381}}</ref> ==Occurrence== Indebted governments may be especially vulnerable to green grabs, as they may agree to privatize and sell public assets to avoid bankruptcy.<ref name="Fairhead" /><ref>{{Cite journal\|last=Weeber\|first=Stan\|date=2016-10-31\|title=Nodes of resistance to green grabbing: a political ecology\|url=http://ojs.whioce.com/index.php/esp/article/view/49\|journal=Environment and Social Psychology\|volume=1\|issue=2\|doi=10.18063/ESP.2016.02.006\|issn=2424-8975\|doi-access=free}}</ref> Green grabs involve large tracts of land consisting of thousands or millions of hectares.<ref name="Fairhead"/><ref>{{Cite journal\|last1=Scheidel\|first1=Arnim\|last2=Work\|first2=Courtney\|date=2018\|title=Forest plantations and climate change discourses: New powers of 'green' grabbing in Cambodia\|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0264837717312401\|journal=Land Use Policy\|language=en\|volume=77\|pages=9–18\|doi=10.1016/j.landusepol.2018.04.057\|s2cid=158227726 }}</ref> Green grabs have occurred in Africa, Latin America, and Southeast Asia.<ref name="Fairhead" /><ref name="Rocheleau"/> [[Environmental activists]] and critics have also warned that the [[Green New Deal]]<ref>{{Cite web\|last=Douo\|first=Myriam\|date=2021-06-23\|title=Climate colonialism and the EU's Green Deal\|url=https://www.aljazeera.com/opinions/2021/6/23/the-eus-green-deal-could-propagate-climate-colonialism\|access-date=2021-12-04\|website=[[Al Jazeera English\|Al Jazeera]]\|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web\|last=Táíwò\|first=Olúfẹ́mi O.\|date=2019-02-25\|title=How a Green New Deal could exploit developing countries\|url=http://theconversation.com/how-a-green-new-deal-could-exploit-developing-countries-111726\|access-date=2021-12-04\|website=[[The Conversation (website)\|The Conversation]]\|language=en}}</ref> and [[2021 United Nations Climate Change Conference\|COP26]]<ref>{{Cite web\|last=Nguyen\|first=Le Dong Hai\|date=2021-11-27\|title=California's carbon-offset disaster reveals why COP26 was a big disappointment\|url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/opinion/contributors/valley-voice/2021/11/27/californias-carbon-offset-disaster-and-disappointment-cop-26/8740979002/\|access-date=2021-12-04\|website=[[USA TODAY]]\|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web\|last=Lakhani\|first=Nina\|date=2021-11-03\|title='A continuation of colonialism': indigenous activists say their voices are missing at Cop26\|url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2021/nov/02/cop26-indigenous-activists-climate-crisis\|access-date=2021-12-04\|website=[[The Guardian]]\|language=en}}</ref> could exacerbate green colonialism. The indigenous [[Sámi]] community of northern Scandinavia, as well as Norwegian and Swedish activists, have accused the Norwegian government of green colonialism because of the construction of wind farms on [[Sápmi\|Sámi land]].<ref>{{cite news\|url=https://www.ft.com/content/3e3813c9-e568-49f9-a64c-7d7da03f4d36 \|title=Greta Thunberg accuses Norway of 'green colonialism' over wind farm \|newspaper=[[Financial Times]] \|date=27 February 2023 \|accessdate=2023-07-24 \|last1=Milne \|first1=Richard }}</ref><ref>{{cite web\|url=https://www.aljazeera.com/opinions/2020/8/1/green-colonialism-is-ruining-indigenous-lives-in-norway \|title='Green' colonialism is ruining Indigenous lives in Norway \|publisher=[[Aljazeera English]] \|accessdate=2023-07-24}}</ref> ==Actors== Modern green grabs are often enacted through alliances between national elites, government agencies, and private actors. Examples can include international environmental policy institutions, multi-national corporations, and [[non-governmental organization]]s (NGOs). These varied actors align to achieve common goals; for example, ecotourism initiatives can result in the alignment of tourism companies, conservation groups, and governments. Conservation groups can also align with military or paramilitary groups to accomplish shared aims. Actors can also include entrepreneurs trying to profit from [[eco-capitalism]], such as companies developing forest carbon offset projects, [[biochar]] companies, and pharmaceutical businesses.<ref name="Fairhead" /> == Energy == Green grabbing has been prominent in the energy sector. Often, as countries and governments enter transnational climate agreements such as the Paris Agreement or the Kyoto Protocol, they commit to reaching certain sustainability targets.<ref>{{Citation \|last=Sumudu \|first=Atapattu \|title=From UNFCCC to Paris Agreement \|date=2019-03-08 \|work=Human Rights and the Environment \|pages=205–230 \|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9781315193397-9 \|access-date=2024-03-02 \|place=Abingdon, Oxon; New York, NY: Routledge, 2019. {{!}} Series: Key issues in environment and sustainability \|publisher=Routledge \|isbn=978-1-315-19339-7 \|last2=Andrea \|first2=Schapper}}</ref> To fulfill these quotes on initiatives such as renewable energy implementation, indigenous or public lands are seized without consideration for local communities. Confiscated lands may be used for solar energy, wind farms, and biofuel. Under the pretense of environmental preservation, green grabbing borrows from historical stories of colonial resource appropriation.<ref>{{Cite journal \|last=Fairhead \|first=James \|last2=Leach \|first2=Melissa \|last3=Scoones \|first3=Ian \|date=April 2012 \|title=Green Grabbing: a new appropriation of nature? \|url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/03066150.2012.671770 \|journal=Journal of Peasant Studies \|language=en \|volume=39 \|issue=2 \|pages=237–261 \|doi=10.1080/03066150.2012.671770 \|issn=0306-6150}}</ref> This phenomenon involves a diverse array of participants, including entrepreneurs, activists, and most significantly NGOs. Social anthropologists James Fairhead, Melissa Leach, and Ian Scoones note that conservation initiatives often involve partnerships between international environmental organizations, NGOs, national elites, and multinational corporations. Examples include cases like Rio Tinto's activities in Madagascar, where land acquisition for environmental purposes overlaps with mineral extraction, and collaborations between tourist operators, conservation agencies, and governments to promote ecotourism in countries like Colombia, Tanzania, and South Africa. These collaborations underscore the complex dynamics underlying conservation schemes and the blurring of boundaries between environmental protection and profit-driven exploitation. === <u>Wind</u> === ===== Greece ===== The drive for wind parks, in post-crisis Greece, has given rise to green grabbing. The argument supporting green energy as a remedy for the nation's economic and environmental problems has gained popularity despite Greece's economic difficulties. The negative socio-ecological effects of wind park growth, such as land expropriation, environmental damage, and the escalation of socioeconomic inequality, are frequently ignored in this narrative.<ref name="Siamanta 274–303">{{Cite journal \|last=Siamanta \|first=Zoi Christina \|date=June 2019 \|title=Wind parks in post-crisis Greece: Neoliberalisation vis-à-vis green grabbing \|url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/2514848619835156 \|journal=Environment and Planning E: Nature and Space \|language=en \|volume=2 \|issue=2 \|pages=274–303 \|doi=10.1177/2514848619835156 \|issn=2514-8486}}</ref> The wind energy industry is dominated by multinational businesses, which promotes wealth accumulation and green grabbing at the expense of regional communities and ecosystems. In a case study of Grece’s wind park development, Christina Zoi details that “Neoliberalisation has instigated green grabbing (land, financial and other resources) with adverse implications on local stock-breeders and farmers, domestic and small business electricity consumers, conservation and local biodiversity. These cannot be considered as negligible even under the face of accelerating climate change and its consequences.” <ref name="Siamanta 274–303"/> ==== Mexico ==== The development of the Bíi Hioxo wind park involved not only the physical occupation of the land but also the manipulation of narratives surrounding climate change mitigation and the green economy to legitimize the project.<ref>{{Cite journal \|last=Dunlap \|first=Alexander \|date=2018-03-19 \|title=Counterinsurgency for wind energy: the Bíi Hioxo wind park in Juchitán, Mexico \|url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/03066150.2016.1259221 \|journal=The Journal of Peasant Studies \|language=en \|volume=45 \|issue=3 \|pages=630–652 \|doi=10.1080/03066150.2016.1259221 \|issn=0306-6150}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal \|last=Dunlap \|first=Alexander \|date=July 2017 \|title=‘The Town is Surrounded:’ From Climate Concerns to life under Wind Turbines in La Ventosa, Mexico \|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/194277861701000202 \|journal=Human Geography \|volume=10 \|issue=2 \|pages=16–36 \|doi=10.1177/194277861701000202 \|issn=1942-7786}}</ref> The tactics used to suppress resistance, such as portraying wind energy as a solution to energy and climate crises, reflect a form of greenwashing aimed at pacifying opposition and advancing industrial expansion. Furthermore, the involvement of powerful actors such as Gas Natural Fenosa and local elites highlights how green grabbing operates through alliances between state and corporate interests, leading to the dispossession of local communities and the exploitation of natural resources for profit.<ref name="McCarthy 242–254">{{Cite journal \|last=McCarthy \|first=James \|last2=Thatcher \|first2=Jim \|date=June 2019 \|title=Visualizing new political ecologies: A critical data studies analysis of the World Bank’s renewable energy resource mapping initiative \|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.geoforum.2017.03.025 \|journal=Geoforum \|volume=102 \|pages=242–254 \|doi=10.1016/j.geoforum.2017.03.025 \|issn=0016-7185}}</ref> ==== <u>Solar</u> ==== ===== Morocco ===== Morocco's solar projects, such as the Ouarzazate Solar Power Station, which employs concentrated solar-thermal power (CSP) technology, diverts water resources away from drinking and agriculture in an already semi-arid region. The construction of the Ouarzazate plant, funded through public-private partnerships and loans from international financial institutions, has resulted in annual deficits and added to Morocco's public debt. The $9 billion project's debt, incurred through loans from international financial institutions like the World Bank and the European Investment Bank, is backed by Moroccan government guarantees. On the local scale, those most affected included pastoralists who did not receive proper compensation for using their property and were not consulted about how the project might affect water supplies.<ref name="McCarthy 242–254"/> ===== India ===== The Indian government's solar energy initiatives, like the Jawaharlal Nehru National Solar Mission (JNNSM),<ref>{{Cite journal \|last=Jana \|first=Joydip \|last2=Saha \|first2=Hiranmay \|last3=Das Bhattacharya \|first3=Konika \|date=May 2017 \|title=A review of inverter topologies for single-phase grid-connected photovoltaic systems \|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2016.10.049 \|journal=Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews \|volume=72 \|pages=1256–1270 \|doi=10.1016/j.rser.2016.10.049 \|issn=1364-0321}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal \|last=Mandal \|first=Sourav \|last2=Dhar \|first2=Sukanta \|last3=Das \|first3=Gourab \|last4=Mukhopadhyay \|first4=Sumita \|last5=Barua \|first5=A.K. \|date=February 2016 \|title=Development of optimized n-μc-Si:H/n-a-Si:H bilayer and its application for improving the performance of single junction a-Si solar cells \|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.solener.2015.11.042 \|journal=Solar Energy \|volume=124 \|pages=278–286 \|doi=10.1016/j.solener.2015.11.042 \|issn=0038-092X}}</ref> aim to ramp up solar energy capacity to mitigate climate change and reduce poverty. Yet, the pursuit of solar energy projects often involves the dispossession of agropastoralists from their lands, which are essential for grazing, fodder, and fuelwood collection. These lands, categorized as government-owned "marginal" or "wastelands," are transformed into solar parks through coercive state policies, denying agropastoralists access to vital resources.<ref>{{Cite journal \|last=Yenneti \|first=Komali \|last2=Day \|first2=Rosie \|last3=Golubchikov \|first3=Oleg \|date=November 2016 \|title=Spatial justice and the land politics of renewables: Dispossessing vulnerable communities through solar energy mega-projects \|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.geoforum.2016.09.004 \|journal=Geoforum \|volume=76 \|pages=90–99 \|doi=10.1016/j.geoforum.2016.09.004 \|issn=0016-7185}}</ref> Agropastoralist communities often encounter difficulties in accessing necessary energy resources, including traditional fuel such as firewood and modern options like solar-generated electricity. This dual deprivation contributes to the marginalization experienced by rural populations. === ICDP in Madagascar === The [[Integrated Conservation and Development Project]]s (ICDP) in Madagascar were mostly managed by NGOs supported by the state government. [[Neoliberalism]] led to decentralized conservation efforts from the 1990s until the mid 2000s. At that point, there ceased being monetary compensation from the government in favor of conservation efforts being contracted out to North American organizations. The internal division between high status and high paid jobs of North American workers in comparison to the low wage work of Madagascarans as the enforcers of unpopular fortress conservation through the creation of nature reserves.<ref name=":0">Sodikoff, G. 2009. “The Low-Wage Conservationist: Biodiversity and Perversities of Value in Madagascar” ''American Anthropologist'' 111(4): 443-455.</ref> The Malagasy people within Madagascar see the conservation efforts as attempts at green grabbing and neocolonialism. North American NGOs have responded to the claims as ungrounded, placing the lack of acceptance of the reserves system as a failure in the education and understanding of sustainability of residents.<ref name=":0" /> In 2009, the presidential administration of [[Marc Ravalomanana]] considered a deal with Daewoo Logistics, a South Korean company, to lease 1.3 million hectares of arable land to grow maize and palm oil.<ref name=":0" /> This potential deal was seen as another attempt at colonialism, as the land was to be used by and for foreign nations while a large portion of land, up to 10 percent, was being allotted for conservation reserve. Protest against the negotiations was responded to with military action, leading to the removal of Ravalomanana. The deal was not put into effect and the resistance and protest of Madagascarans led to closure of multiple national parks and reserves, allowing the residents to continue their use of the land. ==Implications== Green grabbing can result in the expulsion of indigenous or peasant communities from the land they live on.<ref name="Rocheleau">{{cite journal\|doi=10.1080/03066150.2014.993622\|title=Networked, rooted and territorial: Green grabbing and resistance in Chiapas\|year=2015\|last1=Rocheleau\|first1=Dianne E.\|journal=The Journal of Peasant Studies\|volume=42\|issue=3–4\|pages=695–723\|s2cid=154521594}}</ref> In other cases, the use, authority, and management of the resources is restructured, potentially alienating local residents.<ref name="Leach"/> Evictions due to palm oil biofuel has resulted in the displacement of millions of people in Indonesia, Papua New Guinea, Malaysia, and India.<ref name="Vigil"/> The practice has been criticized in Brazil, where the government referred to one land acquisition [[NGO]] as [[eco-colonialism\|eco-colonialist]].<ref name="Vidal">{{cite news\|url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2008/feb/13/conservation\| work=The Guardian\| title=The great green land grab\| first=John\| last=Vidal\| date=13 February 2008\| access-date=27 August 2020}}</ref> A [[shaman]] of the [[Yanomami tribe]] published a statement through [[Survival International]] saying, "Now you want to buy pieces of rainforest, or to plant biofuels. These are useless. The forest cannot be bought; it is our life and we have always protected it. Without the forest, there is only sickness."<ref>{{cite news\|url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2007/oct/14/climatechange.brazil\| title=Amazon tribe hits back at green 'colonialism'\| first=Juliette\| last=Jowett\| work=The Guardian\| date=14 October 2007\| access-date=12 October 2020}}</ref> The head of the [[Forest Peoples Programme]] Simon Colchester said, "Conservation has immeasurably worsened the lives of indigenous peoples throughout Africa," noting that it resulted in forced expulsion, loss of livelihoods, and violation of human rights.<ref name="Vidal"/> == See also == * [[Fortress conservation]] ==References== {{reflist}} {{Indigenous rights footer}} [[Category:Ecological economics]] [[Category:Ecotourism]] [[Category:Environmental economics]] [[Category:Indigenous rights]] [[Category:Nature conservation]] [[Category:Neocolonialism]] [[Category:Ethically disputed business practices]] [[Category:Commodification]] [[Category:Environmental controversies]]
Chimpanzee Rehabilitation Project	{{Short description\|Rehabilitation center in the Gambia}} The '''Chimpanzee Rehabilitation Project''' (CRP) is a rehabilitation center associated with the [[Pan African Sanctuary Alliance]] (PASA), located at the [[River Gambia National Park]] (RGNP), established in 1979. It is the home of 100 [[Chimpanzee\|chimpanzees]] living free in four separate groups spread in three islands.<ref name="website">{{cite web \|title=Come visit the Chimpanzee Rehabilitation Project (CRP) at the River Gambia National Park (RGNP) \|url=https://www.crpthegambia.org/overview \|website=THE CHIMPANZEE REHABILITATION PROJECT \|accessdate=30 September 2020 \|language=en}}</ref><ref name="centerinfo">{{cite web \|title=Chimpanzee Rehabilitation Project \|url=https://www.lonelyplanet.com/the-gambia/river-gambia-national-park/attractions/chimpanzee-rehabilitation-project/a/poi-sig/1556910/1341710 \|website=Lonely Planet \|accessdate=30 September 2020}}</ref> The main mission of the rehabilitation center is the caring and reintroduction of chimpanzees. The center allows visits by boat to view the primates, but humans cannot have contact with them. <ref name="centerinfo"></ref> == History == === Background === Gambia’s Chimpanzee Rehabilitation Project started as an animal orphanage established in 1969 by the Director of the Gambia's Wildlife Department [[Eddie Brewer]]<ref name="telegraph">{{cite web \|title=Eddie Brewer \|url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/obituaries/1429162/Eddie-Brewer.html \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080514153502/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/obituaries/1429162/Eddie-Brewer.html \|url-status=live \|archive-date=May 14, 2008 \|website=The Telegraph \|accessdate=6 October 2020 \|date=5 May 2003}}</ref> and his daughter Stella. From 1969 to 1974, they caretook several orphaned chimpanzees rescued from traffickers.<ref name="bradt">{{cite web \|last1=Briggs \|first1=Phillip \|title=Chimpanzee Rehabilitation Project \|url=https://www.bradtguides.com/chimpanzee-rehabilitation-project/ \|website=Bradt Guides \|date=21 November 2017 \|accessdate=6 October 2020}}</ref> In 1974, Stella Brewer released the chimpanzees into Senegal’s [[Niokolo-Koba National Park]]. However, after an incident with a wild community, in 1979 they relocated the survivor chimpanzees to the River Gambia National Park.<ref name="bradt" /> === Foundation === In 1979, the Chimpanzee Rehabilitation Project was founded with a group of nine chimps on an island, including a chimpanzee raised as a human called [[Lucy (chimpanzee)\|Lucy]]. From the beginning, the chimpanzees were temporarily housed in the [[Abuko Nature Reserve]], in [[The Gambia]], where no chimpanzees were released. Later, the primatologists Stella Brewer and Janis Carter moved to the Baboon Islands in the River Gambia National Park, located 280 km from [[Banjul]]. In the beginning, the primatologist [[Janis Carter (primatologist)\|Janis Carter]] was with the group. She taught the chimpanzees how to recognize food sources and predators.<ref name="chicago">{{cite web \|last1=Peter \|first1=Gorner \|title=Going Ape in the Wild \|url=https://www.chicagotribune.com/news/ct-xpm-1986-11-26-8603280982-story.html \|date=26 November 1986\| website=Chicago Tribune \|accessdate=6 October 2020}}</ref> After an incident with a young male chimp, she left the island.<ref name="lonelyhistory">{{cite web \|last1=Reaney \|first1=Joseph \|title=Conservation close up: visiting The Gambia's Chimpanzee Rehabilitation Centre \|url=https://www.lonelyplanet.com/articles/conservation-chimpanzee-gambia-safari \|website=Lonely Planet \|accessdate=30 September 2020}}</ref> In 1982, the rehabilitation center counted 26 chimpanzees distributed across three different islands.<ref name="McGrew">{{cite journal \|last1=McGrew \|first1=W. C. \|title=Chimpanzees Can be Rehabilitated \|journal=Lab. Prim. Newsl \|date=1983 \|issue=22 \|pages=2–3 \|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/265375800 \|accessdate=30 September 2020}}</ref> In January 2006, founder-director Stella Brewer died at the age of 56. She was buried at the Project's Camp. Janis Carter remained as [[Project Manager]].<ref name="bradt" /> === Current project === Now, there is no contact between humans and chimps. The center is focused on four areas: education, research, eco-tourism, and development. The center reports 100 chimpanzees living on three islands.<ref name="lonelyhistory"></ref><ref name="bradt" /> == References == {{Reflist}} [[Category:Chimpanzees]] [[Category:Nature conservation]] [[Category:Organisations based in the Gambia]]
Category:Nature conservation by taxon	{{db-catempty\|help=off}} {{Commonscat}} {{Container}} {{Cat more\|Nature conservation}} {{See also\|Conservation biology}} [[Category:Nature conservation\| Taxon]] [[Category:Ecology by taxon\| Nature Conservation]]
Geoconservation	{{Short description\|Conservation practice}} '''Geoconservation''' is the practice of recognising, protecting and managing sites and landscapes which have value for their [[geology]] or [[geomorphology]].<ref>{{Cite web \|title=Geoconservation and Geodiversity \|url=https://www.edinburghgeolsoc.org/home/geoconservation/ \|access-date=2023-04-19 \|website=Edinburgh Geological Society \|language=en-GB}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal \|last1=Burek \|first1=C. V. \|last2=Prosser \|first2=C. D. \|date=January 2008 \|title=The history of geoconservation: an introduction \|url=https://www.lyellcollection.org/doi/10.1144/SP300.1 \|journal=Geological Society, London, Special Publications \|language=en \|volume=300 \|issue=1 \|pages=1–5 \|doi=10.1144/SP300.1 \|s2cid=42483789 \|issn=0305-8719}}</ref> The conservation of these geological sites is through government agencies and local geological societies in areas such as Europe and Africa.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal \|last1=Neto \|first1=K. \|last2=Henriques \|first2=M. H. \|date=2022-10-01 \|title=Geoconservation in Africa: State of the art and future challenges \|journal=Gondwana Research \|language=en \|volume=110 \|pages=107–113 \|doi=10.1016/j.gr.2022.05.022 \|s2cid=249977369 \|issn=1342-937X\|doi-access=free \|hdl=10316/100833 \|hdl-access=free }}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite journal \|last=Reimold \|first=Wolf Uwe \|date=1999-10-01 \|title=Geoconservation - a southern African and African perspective \|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0899536299001104 \|journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences \|language=en \|volume=29 \|issue=3 \|pages=469–483 \|doi=10.1016/S0899-5362(99)00110-4 \|issn=1464-343X}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite journal \|last1=Tavares \|first1=Alexandre Oliveira \|last2=Henriques \|first2=Maria Helena \|last3=Domingos \|first3=Artur \|last4=Bala \|first4=Abel \|date=May 2015 \|title=Community Involvement in Geoconservation: A Conceptual Approach Based on the Geoheritage of South Angola \|journal=Sustainability \|language=en \|volume=7 \|issue=5 \|pages=4893–4918 \|doi=10.3390/su7054893 \|issn=2071-1050 \|doi-access=free \|hdl=10316/36576 \|hdl-access=free }}</ref><ref name=":3">{{Cite journal \|last=Raharimahefa \|first=T. \|date=2013 \|title=Geoconservation and geodiversity for sustainable development in Madagascar \|journal=Madagascar Conservation & Development \|volume=7 \|issue=3 \|doi=10.4314/MCD.V7I3.5 \|s2cid=129774561 \|language=en\|doi-access=free }}</ref> The designation of these sites is done through an analysis of the site, and the production of proper management infrastructure. The principles of geoconservation are to create a means of protection for the sites, and assess their value to the geological community.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal \|last=Gordon \|first=John E. \|date=2019-12-01 \|title=Geoconservation principles and protected area management \|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2577444120300034 \|journal=International Journal of Geoheritage and Parks \|language=en \|volume=7 \|issue=4 \|pages=199–210 \|doi=10.1016/j.ijgeop.2019.12.005 \|s2cid=212957142 \|issn=2577-4441\|hdl=10023/19450 \|hdl-access=free }}</ref><ref name=":5">{{Cite journal \|last=Brilha \|first=José \|date=2016-06-01 \|title=Inventory and Quantitative Assessment of Geosites and Geodiversity Sites: a Review \|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s12371-014-0139-3 \|journal=Geoheritage \|language=en \|volume=8 \|issue=2 \|pages=119–134 \|doi=10.1007/s12371-014-0139-3 \|hdl=1822/32896 \|s2cid=55232122 \|issn=1867-2485\|hdl-access=free }}</ref><ref name=":6">{{Citation \|last1=Prosser \|first1=Colin D. \|title=Chapter 11 - The Conservation of Geosites: Principles and Practice \|date=2018-01-01 \|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780128095317000113 \|work=Geoheritage \|pages=193–212 \|editor-last=Reynard \|editor-first=Emmanuel \|access-date=2023-04-12 \|publisher=Elsevier \|language=en \|isbn=978-0-12-809531-7 \|last2=Díaz-Martínez \|first2=Enrique \|last3=Larwood \|first3=Jonathan G. \|editor2-last=Brilha \|editor2-first=José}}</ref><ref name=":7">{{Cite journal \|last=Brilha \|first=José \|date=September 2002 \|title=Geoconservation and protected areas \|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/environmental-conservation/article/abs/geoconservation-and-protected-areas/7770C8001FF49C619B8A4EA5B3CE43C7 \|journal=Environmental Conservation \|language=en \|volume=29 \|issue=3 \|pages=273–276 \|doi=10.1017/S0376892902000188 \|hdl=1822/1247 \|s2cid=129425938 \|issn=1469-4387\|hdl-access=free }}</ref><ref name=":8">{{Cite journal \|last=Crofts \|first=Roger \|date=2014-07-01 \|title=Promoting geodiversity: learning lessons from biodiversity \|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0016787814000261 \|journal=Proceedings of the Geologists' Association \|language=en \|volume=125 \|issue=3 \|pages=263–266 \|doi=10.1016/j.pgeola.2014.03.002 \|issn=0016-7878}}</ref> Typically the conservation of [[geodiversity]] at a site or within a landscape takes place alongside that of [[biodiversity]]. ==In European countries== The state of geoconservation legislation in 37 countries in Europe was described by specialists in each country and published in ''Geoheritage in Europe and its conservation'' in 2012 by ProGEO (The European Association for the Conservation of the Geological Heritage, now, in 2023, the [[International Association for the Conservation of Geological Heritage]]).<ref>{{cite book\| title=Geoheritage in Europe and its conservation \|editor=W.A.P.Wimbledon\| editor2=S.Smith-Meyer\|date=2012\|publisher=ProGEO\|isbn=978-82-426-2476-5}}</ref> ==In the UK== In the late 1970s, the former [[Nature Conservancy Council]] initiated the [[Geological Conservation Review]] (GCR), a comprehensive assessment of the key geological and geomorphological sites within England, Scotland and Wales, a task which was largely completed by 1990. Over 3000 sites across Britain were identified and many are now designated as [[site of special scientific interest\|sites of special scientific interest (SSSIs)]], thus providing them with statutory protection. These geological SSSIs are now managed by the respective country nature conservation bodies; [[Natural England]], [[NatureScot]] and [[Natural Resources Wales]]. A similar approach has been taken in Northern Ireland with the Earth Science Conservation Review (ESCR).<ref>{{cite web \|title=Geological conservation \|url=https://jncc.gov.uk/our-work/geological-conservation/ \|website= \|publisher=JNCC \|access-date=15 May 2021}}</ref> Many thousands of geosites beneath SSSIs across Great Britain are given protection at a level below that afforded by SSSI status. Originally referred to as [[regionally important geological site]]s, the term 'Local Geological Sites' (or LoGS) is now in use for them in England and 'Local Geodiversity Sites' in Scotland, whilst in Wales, they are referred to as 'Regionally Important Geodiversity Sites' (or RIGS). Numerous local groups have been established to protect and conserve these sites, all coming under the 'umbrella organisation', GeoConservationUK.<ref>{{cite web \|title=About \|date=11 February 2019 \|url=https://geoconservationuk.org/about/ \|publisher=GeoConservationUK \|access-date=18 May 2021}}</ref> == Principles and Protected Area == The principles of geoconservation are to create an inventory of [[geoheritage]] sites, create an assessment of their value, manage their [[Conservation biology\|conservation]], monitor the geoconserved sites and promote the sites through interpretation.<ref name=":4" /><ref name=":5" /> The geoconserved sites can be added to the inventory by field specialists who observe the site through [[surveying]], [[Cartography\|mapping]] and field work. The site will be documented with the non-specialist landowners, rangers and protected area managers.<ref name=":4" /> The main objective of geoconservation is to protect the area that is to be conserved. This is done by assessing the value of the geological structures and composition of the site. The value of the site is based on the cultural and aesthetic value, the value for [[geotourism]] and [[Conservation biology\|biodiversity conservation]].<ref name=":6" /><ref name=":7" /> The geomorphological sites to be conserved can be static features such as [[glacial landform]]s, or active features such as coastal and river landforms. An assessment of the management of the site can provide an idea of how to protect the site and to how the conservation of the site will be maintained.<ref name=":6" /> The management of the site should include how suitable the area is to be a site of geotourism.<ref name=":7" /> The management plan will give the practicality of the site, and will be used to assess how the site can be taken care of. The geosites are zoned to provide proper management of the protected areas. The core areas are the places in the geoheritage site that are the most important for protection, and require the higher amounts of infrastructure. The buffer areas is the zone around the core areas that will support the core zone and be used for a wider range of activities. To maintain the protection and structure of the geoconservation area, site condition monitoring is performed to ensure this. Site condition monitoring is the assessment of the protocols that were set for the site, and an assessment to see if the conservation objectives are being met.<ref name=":8" /> Regularly scheduled assessment of the site can ensure the proper management and conservation of the site. == In Africa == [[File:Ighil_M'Goun_vu_depuis_Arous.jpg\|thumb\|M'Goun Area in Morocco]] [[File:Lengai_and_Lava,_Ngorongoro_District.jpg\|thumb\|Ngorongoro Lengai Area in Tanzania]]The African continent has many sites that are in the process of becoming geoconserved sites. Africa shows many areas that are of geoheritage value, and these sites show different types of geoheritage value.<ref name=":0" /> Many of the sites that are in the process of having geoconserved stars are along the coast of the continent, and in the southern and northern edges. The Geosciences and Geoparks Programme in the Natural Science Sector, has two geoparks listed for protection in Africa. There is the [[M'Goun Conservation Area\|M'Goun UGGp]] in Morocco and the Ngorongoro Lengai UGGp in Tanzania.<ref name=":0" /> These two geoparks only represent 1% of the available geosites that are listed as areas of needed conservation in Africa based on the [[World Heritage Site]]s under [[UNESCO]].<ref name=":0" /> Many of the available geoheritage sites in Africa do not have the government infrastructure to provide the necessary management and protection of the areas.<ref name=":1" /> An area in South Angola has been proposed as having a community-based protection of geoheritage sites. The Tudavala and Leba geosites are not under any current protection, but have recently been classified as an important cultural landscape by the government of Angola.<ref name=":2" /> The proposed conservation model is to use the local community to conserve the area and help with protecting the geoheritage sites, instead of government based management.<ref name=":2" /> A geosite in Madagascar is being used to test the ability of protection in geoparks through the infrastructure of Madagascar. Isalo Park is the pilot site that shows valuable geoheritage for the country of Madagascar, and with proper management can become a geoconserved site in the future.<ref name=":3" /> == See also == *[[Geopark]] == References == {{reflist}} [[Category:Nature conservation]] [[Category:Subfields of geology]] [[Category:Geomorphology]]
30 by 30	{{Short description\|International ecological preservation initiative}} {{Distinguish\|30 for 30}} [[File:Share_of_land_area_that_is_protected,_OWID.svg\|right\|thumb\|Percentage of land in protected areas by country, 2017]] '''30 by 30''' (or '''30x30''') is a worldwide initiative for governments to designate 30% of Earth's land and [[Marine protected area\|ocean]] area as [[protected area]]s by [[2030]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite web \|first=Ashoka \|last=Mukpo \|date= 26 August 2021 \|title=As COP15 approaches, ’30 by 30’ becomes a conservation battleground\|url=https://news.mongabay.com/2021/08/as-cop15-approaches-30-by-30-becomes-a-conservation-battleground/\|access-date=2021-10-25\|website=Mongabay Environmental News\|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web\|title=30 by 30: why humanity should protect 30 per cent of the ocean by 2030 \|date=2 June 2021 \|url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/2279097-30-by-30-why-humanity-should-protect-30-per-cent-of-the-ocean-by-2030/\|access-date=2021-10-25\|website=New Scientist\|language=en-US}}</ref> The target was proposed by a 2019 article in [[Science (journal)\|''Science Advances'']], "A Global Deal for Nature: Guiding principles, milestones, and targets", highlighting the need for expanded [[nature conservation]] efforts to [[Climate change mitigation\|mitigate climate change]].<ref>{{Cite journal\|last=Dinerstein\|first=E.\|last2=Vynne\|first2=C.\|last3=Sala\|first3=E.\|last4=Joshi\|first4=A. R.\|last5=Fernando\|first5=S.\|last6=Lovejoy\|first6=T. E.\|last7=Mayorga\|first7=J.\|last8=Olson\|first8=D.\|last9=Asner\|first9=G. P.\|last10=Baillie\|first10=J. E. M.\|last11=Burgess\|first11=N. D.\|title=A Global Deal For Nature: Guiding principles, milestones, and targets \|date=19 Apr 2019 \|url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.aaw2869\|journal=Science Advances\|volume=5\|issue=4\|pages=eaaw2869\|doi=10.1126/sciadv.aaw2869\|pmc=6474764\|pmid=31016243}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web\|last=Jones\|first=Benji\|date=2021-04-12\|title=The hottest number in conservation is rooted more in politics than science\|url=https://www.vox.com/22369705/biden-conservation-biodiversity-collapse-30-by-30\|access-date=2021-10-25\|website=Vox\|language=en}}</ref> Launched by the '''High Ambition Coalition for Nature and People''' in 2020, more than 50 nations had agreed to the initiative by January 2021,<ref>{{Cite web \|first= Megan \|last=Rowling \|title=Drive to protect 30% of planet by 2030 grows to 50 nations\|url=https://news.trust.org/item/20210111140220-1qxoj/\|access-date=2021-10-25 \|website= Thomson Reuters Foundation}}</ref> which has increased to more than 100 countries by October 2022.<ref>Subramaniam, Tara (2022-10-04). "Australia commits to zero extinctions with new plan to protect 30% of land". ''CNN''. Retrieved 2022-10-12.</ref> US$5 billion in funding for a project called the "Protecting Our Planet Challenge" was announced for the initiative in September 2021.<ref>{{Cite web\|date=September 28, 2021 \|title=$5B conservation plan offers new approach, but faces hurdles\|url=https://apnews.com/article/climate-change-science-business-philanthropy-oceans-6ca70181c532be88358cbedda72dce1e \| first=Jim \|last= Rendon \|access-date=2021-10-25\|website=AP NEWS\|language=en}}</ref> In December 2022, 30 by 30 was agreed at the [[COP15]] meeting of the [[Convention on Biological Diversity]], and became a target of the [[Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework]].<ref>{{Cite web\|title=High Ambition Coalition for Nature and People\|url=https://www.hacfornatureandpeople.org/home\|access-date=26 June 2022\|website=HAC for Nature and People\|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news \|last=Briggs \|first=Helen \|date=2022-12-19 \|title=COP15: Nations reach 'historic' deal to protect nature \|language=en-GB \|work=BBC News \|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-64019324 \|access-date=2022-12-19}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web \|last= \|first= \|date=2022-12-20 \|title=COP15: Key outcomes agreed at the UN biodiversity conference in Montreal \|url=https://www.carbonbrief.org/cop15-key-outcomes-agreed-at-the-un-biodiversity-conference-in-montreal/ \|access-date=2023-01-05 \|website=Carbon Brief \|language=en}}</ref> This includes the [[G7]]<ref>{{Cite web\|date=22 May 2021 \|title=G7 commits to end support for coal-fired power stations this year\|url=https://www.euronews.com/green/2021/05/21/g7-commits-to-end-support-for-coal-fired-power-stations-this-year\|access-date=2021-10-29\|website=euronews\|language=en}}</ref> and [[European Green Deal\|European Union]]. The initiative has attracted controversy over [[indigenous rights]] issues.<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{cite news\|author=<!--not stated-->\|date=December 21, 2022 \|title=Major U.N. Biodiversity Deal Recognizes Indigenous Rights But Lacks Critical Enforcement Measures\|url=https://www.democracynow.org/2022/12/21/almost_all_countries_in_the_world\|work=[[Democracy Now!]] \|location= \|access-date=December 24, 2022\|quote='In Canada, where I come from, I can speak to this directly, where we are committing to “30×30,” millions and millions of dollars for biodiversity protection, Indigenous protection and conservation areas, yet we are not talking about ending the expansion of the Alberta tar sands. We are not talking about ending the destruction to biodiversity in other areas. We’re creating the optics of sacrifice zones, so we can choose which areas to save, which areas to diminish. And this results in human rights abuses, Indigenous rights abuses and the risking the planetary health for everyone.' - [[Eriel Deranger]], indigenous rights activist }}</ref> ==Global== 30 by 30 is the third of 23 global biodiversity targets for 2030 in the [[Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework]], adopted in December 2022: :''Ensure and enable that by 2030 at least 30 per cent of terrestrial, inland water, and of coastal and marine areas, especially areas of particular importance for biodiversity and ecosystem functions and services, are effectively conserved and managed through ecologically representative, well-connected and equitably governed systems of protected areas and [[other effective area-based conservation measures]], recognizing indigenous and traditional territories, where applicable, and integrated into wider landscapes, seascapes and the ocean, while ensuring that any sustainable use, where appropriate in such areas, is fully consistent with conservation outcomes, recognizing and respecting the rights of indigenous peoples and local communities, including over their traditional territories.''<ref>{{cite web \|url= https://www.cbd.int/doc/c/e6d3/cd1d/daf663719a03902a9b116c34/cop-15-l-25-en.pdf\|title= Kunming-Montreal Global biodiversity framework: Draft decision submitted by the President\|author=<!--Not stated--> \|date= 18 December 2022\|website= Convention on Biological Diversity\|publisher= \|access-date= 25 December 2022\|quote=}}</ref> ==European Union== The [[European Commission]]'s Biodiversity strategy for 2030 was proposed on May 20, 2020, as the [[European Union]]'s contribution to a post-2020 global biodiversity framework. The strategy contains several biodiversity-related commitments and actions to be delivered by 2030, including:<ref name = commission>{{cite web \|url= https://environment.ec.europa.eu/strategy/biodiversity-strategy-2030_en\|title= Biodiversity strategy for 2030\|author=<!--Not stated--> \|date= \|website= European Commission\|publisher= \|access-date= 19 June 2022\|quote=}}</ref> * increasing the European Union's network of terrestrial and marine [[protected areas]], by expanding [[Natura 2000]] areas, and providing strict protection of areas with very high biodiversity and climate value. * restore more degraded ecosystems and manage them sustainably, by proposing binding nature restoration targets. * strengthening governance of European Union biodiversity efforts, including expanded funding, improving implementation and tracking, and integrating biodiversity goals into public and business decision-making. The plan includes turning 30% of EU territory to protected area by 2030 and 10% to strictly protected area. However as of 2023 EU is not on track to meet the targets.<ref>{{cite web \|last1=Bomas \|first1=Wiebke \|title=EU likely to miss conservation targets – catching up needs more rangers \|url=https://www.europeanrangers.org/eu-likely-to-miss-conservation-targets-catching-up-needs-more-rangers/ \|website=European Ranger Federation \|access-date=17 July 2023}}</ref> The biodiversity strategy is a core part of the [[European Green Deal]], and also intended to support green recovery from the [[COVID-19 pandemic]].<ref name = commission/> In July 2023 after many debates the European parliament adopted a version of the Nature restoration law, aiming to restore nature on 20% of the territory of the European Union by 2030.<ref>{{cite news \|last1=Magee \|first1=Caolán \|title=Europe agrees landmark nature and climate deal after tense negotiations \|url=https://edition.cnn.com/2023/07/12/europe/eu-nature-restoration-law-climate-intl/index.html#:~:text=The%20European%20Parliament%20on%20Wednesday,land%20and%20sea%20by%202030. \|access-date=17 July 2023 \|agency=CNN \|date=12 July 2023}}</ref> ==United States== On January 27, 2021, President [[Joe Biden]] issued an [[executive order]] on "Tackling the Climate Crisis at Home and Abroad". Among several initiatives to address the [[climate crisis]], the order directed federal departments to issue a report within 90 days "recommending steps that the United States should take, working with State, local, Tribal, and territorial governments, agricultural and forest landowners, fishermen, and other key stakeholders, to achieve the goal of conserving at least 30 percent of our lands and waters by 2030."<ref name = executive>{{cite web \|url= https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefing-room/presidential-actions/2021/01/27/executive-order-on-tackling-the-climate-crisis-at-home-and-abroad/\|title= Executive Order on Tackling the Climate Crisis at Home and Abroad\|author=<!--Not stated--> \|date= 27 January 2021\|website= The White House\|publisher= \|access-date= 19 June 2022\|quote=}}</ref> On 6 May 2022, the Biden administration issued ''Conserving and Restoring America the Beautiful'', a preliminary report to the [[National Climate Task Force]] outlining the proposed principles, measures, and early focus areas for a national "ten-year, locally-led campaign to conserve and restore the lands and waters upon which we all depend". Participating federal agencies included the [[U.S. Department of Interior]], [[U.S. Department of Agriculture]], [[U.S. Department of Commerce]], and [[Council on Environmental Quality]].<ref name = conserving>{{cite web \|url= https://www.doi.gov/sites/doi.gov/files/report-conserving-and-restoring-america-the-beautiful-2021.pdf\|title= Conserving and Restoring America the Beautiful\|author=<!--Not stated--> \|date= 6 May 2022\|website= US Department of Interior\|publisher= \|access-date= 19 June 2022\|quote=}}</ref> The report identified eight principles to guide the effort:<ref name = conserving/> * Pursue a Collaborative and Inclusive Approach to Conservation * Conserve America’s Lands and Waters for the Benefit of All People * Support Locally Led and Locally Designed Conservation Efforts * Honor Tribal Sovereignty and Support the Priorities of Tribal Nations * Pursue Conservation and Restoration Approaches that Create Jobs and Support Healthy Communities * Honor Private Property Rights and Support the Voluntary Stewardship Efforts of Private Landowners and Fishers * Use Science as a Guide * Build on Existing Tools and Strategies with an Emphasis on Flexibility and Adaptive Approaches The report outlined six early focus initiatives:<ref name = conserving/> * Create more parks and safe outdoor opportunities in nature-deprived communities * Support Tribally led conservation and restoration priorities * Expand collaborative conservation of fish and wildlife habitats and corridors * Increase access for outdoor recreation * Incentivize and reward the voluntary conservation efforts of fishers, ranchers, farmers, and forest owners * Create jobs by investing in restoration and resilience The report proposed tracking progress through an ''American Conservation and Stewardship Atlas'', an accessible online database and mapping tool which would provide current information on lands and waters conserved and restored, and an annual ''America the Beautiful'' public report, which would track fish and wildlife populations, and progress on conservation and restoration efforts across the country.<ref name = conserving/> ===California=== On 7 October 2020, California governor [[Gavin Newsom]] issued an executive order declaring it "the goal of the State to conserve at least 30 percent of California’s land and coastal waters by 2030", and directing state agencies to develop and report strategies for achieving the goal by February 1, 2022. The order also established a California Biodiversity Collaborative composed of representatives of government agencies, Native tribes, experts, and other stakeholders.<ref name = Newsom>{{cite web \|url= https://www.gov.ca.gov/wp-content/uploads/2020/10/10.07.2020-EO-N-82-20-.pdf\|title= Executive Order N-82-20\|author=<!--Not stated--> \|date= 7 October 2020\|website= State of California\|publisher= \|access-date= 24 June 2022\|quote=}}</ref> The official report, ''Pathways to 30x30 California'', was issued by the California Natural Resources Agency on 22 April 2022. The report outlines ten pathways, or strategies, to achieving California's biodiversity and protected area goals by 2030:<ref name = Pathways>{{cite web \|url= https://www.californianature.ca.gov/pages/30x30\|title= 30x30 California\|author=<!--Not stated--> \|date= \|website= 30x30 California\|publisher= California Natural Resources Agency\|access-date= 26 June 2022\|quote=}}</ref> # Accelerate Regionally Led Conservation # Execute Strategic Land Acquisitions # Increase Voluntary Conservation Easements # Enhance Conservation of Existing Public Lands and Coastal Waters # Institutionalize Advance Mitigation # Expand and Accelerate Environmental Restoration and Stewardship # Strengthen Coordination Among Governments # Align Investments to Maximize Conservation Benefits # Advance and Promote Complementary Conservation Measures # Evaluate Conservation Outcomes and Adaptively Manage == Controversies and International Reactions == === Criticism from Members of the Scientific Community === Despite positive media coverage received by this global environmental decision, some scientists have nuanced the supposed benefits of this policy to cope with the biodiversity crisis. Hélène Soubelet, for example, underlined that in the last 60 years in Germany in protected areas, the decline in the number of insects neared 80%, thus nuancing the idea that protected areas enable to protect biodiversity.<ref>{{Cite web \|date=2022-12-07 \|title=Les aires protégées pour protéger la biodiversité, la solution miracle ? \|url=https://www.20minutes.fr/planete/4012886-20221207-cop15-aires-protegees-preserver-biodiversite-reponse-tout \|access-date=2023-08-21 \|website=www.20minutes.fr \|language=fr}}</ref> Kareiva, Lalasz and Marvier further underline that the rhythm at which wild species have been disappearing has increased, even though the number of protected areas raised from less than 10 000 in 1950 to over 100 000 in 2009.<ref>{{Cite journal \|last=Kareiva \|last2=Lalasz \|last3=Marvier \|date=2012 \|title=Conservation in the Anthropocene: Beyond Solitude and Fragility \|url= \|journal=Breakthrough Journal \|volume=2 \|issue= \|pages=29–37 \|doi= \|issn=}}</ref> Some scientists thus seem to dispute the idea that there is a direct link between increase in the number of protected areas and slowdown of the biodiversity crisis. Moreover, S. Counsel underlines that the protecting 30% of areas target is not enough, as nothing guarantees that the areas that will be chosen to be protected will be the most important and relevant ones to actually protect. More affluent nations would have the possibility to select vast natural parks and classify them as protected areas, without any additional benefit for flora and fauna.<ref>{{Cite journal \|last=Counsel \|first=S \|date=March 7, 2022 \|title=Conservationists claim 30x30 is supported by science. It isn’t. \|journal=REDD-Monitor}}</ref> Several NGOs have also underlined that the 30% target is not based on a scientific consensus, but is a random choice: why not 25% or 35% ? <ref name=":1" /> Some researchers and public groups advocate for 50% of terrestrial and marine areas to be biologically conserved (i.e., the 'half earth' project).<ref>{{Cite journal \|last=Noss \|last2=Dobson \|last3=Baldwin \|last4=Beier \|last5=Davis \|last6=Dellasala \|last7=Francis \|last8=Locke \|last9=Nowak \|last10=Lopez \|last11=Reining \|last12=Trombulak \|last13=Tabor \|date=2012 \|title=Bolder Thinking for Conservation \|url= \|journal=Conservation Biology \|volume=26 \|issue=1 \|pages=1–4 \|doi=10.1111/j.1523-1739.2011.01738.x \|issn=\|doi-access=free }}</ref> === Accusations of Green Colonialism === The 30 by 30 initiative has been openly accused of embodying a form of [[Green colonialism\|green colonialism or green grabbing.]] On November 30, 2022, a group of NGOs composed of Amnesty International, Minority Rights Group International, and Rainforest Foundation UK wrote an open letter citing concerns about potential human and indigenous rights violations if the 30 by 30 plan were to be applied.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web \|date=2022-12-02 \|title=« Protéger » 30% des terres d’ici 2030 : un désastre pour les peuples et une mauvaise idée pour la planète \|url=https://www.amnesty.org/fr/documents/ior40/6269/2022/fr/ \|access-date=2023-08-21 \|website=Amnesty International \|language=fr}}</ref> More broadly, the plan has been criticized for appropriating Indigenous lands under the guise of biodiversity conservation. The Union of British Columbia Indian Chiefs notably claimed the plan has “all the hallmarks of green colonialism”, due to its lack of consideration of Indigenous titles and rights.<ref>{{Cite web \|title=FNLC Critical of the Continued Marginalization of Indigenous Peoples at COP15 \|url=https://www.ubcic.bc.ca/fnlc_critical_of_the_continued_marginalization_of_indigenous_peoples_at_cop15 \|access-date=2023-08-21 \|website=UBCIC \|language=en}}</ref> === International Reactions === The COP15 included 196 parties in negotiations, with competing views regarding the adoption of the 30 by 30 target being wide-spread and well documented.<ref>{{Cite web \|title=The Global Biodiversity Framework's "30x30" Target: Catchy slogan or effective conservation goal? \|url=https://www.iisd.org/articles/insight/global-biodiversity-framework-30x30-target \|access-date=2023-08-21 \|website=International Institute for Sustainable Development \|language=en}}</ref> The resulting agreement of the conference, the Convention on Biological Diversity, was signed by every party, with the exception of two: the United States and the Vatican.<ref>{{Cite news \|date=2022-12-19 \|title=Nearly Every Country Signs On to a Sweeping Deal to Protect Nature \|language=en \|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2022/12/19/climate/biodiversity-cop15-montreal-30x30.html \|access-date=2023-08-21}}</ref> Towards the end of the talks, a negotiator from Democratic Republic of the Congo raised objections to the agreement, citing a lack of funding separate from the current Global Environment Facility (GEF). After a delay, COP15 president and Chinese environment minister Huang Runqiu overruled the objection due to a legal technicality, resulting in the passage of the agreement. Delegates from the DRC, Cameroon, and Uganda were reportedly displeased with the outcome.<ref>{{Cite news \|last=Greenfield \|first=Patrick \|last2=Weston \|first2=Phoebe \|date=2022-12-19 \|title=Cop15: historic deal struck to halt biodiversity loss by 2030 \|language=en-GB \|work=The Guardian \|url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2022/dec/19/cop15-historic-deal-signed-to-halt-biodiversity-loss-by-2030-aoe \|access-date=2023-08-21 \|issn=0261-3077}}</ref> After the agreement was passed, the DRC’s government announced that it would not recognize it as valid.<ref>{{Cite news \|last=Greenfield \|first=Patrick \|date=2022-12-19 \|title=Objection by DRC sours ‘paradigm-changing’ Cop15 biodiversity deal \|language=en-GB \|work=The Guardian \|url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2022/dec/19/objection-by-drc-sours-paradigm-changing-cop15-biodiversity-deal \|access-date=2023-08-21 \|issn=0261-3077}}</ref> ==See also== * [[Half-Earth]] * [[Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework]] == References == <references /> == External links == * [https://www.doi.gov/priorities/america-the-beautiful America the Beautiful] – U.S Department of the Interior * [https://environment.ec.europa.eu/strategy/biodiversity-strategy-2030_en Biodiversity strategy for 2030] – European Commission * [https://www.campaignfornature.org/news/category/30x30 30x30 News - Campaign for Nature] {{Conservation of species}} [[Category:Protected areas]] [[Category:Convention on Biological Diversity]] [[Category:Nature conservation]] [[Category:Climate change mitigation]] [[Category:Marine protected areas]] [[Category:2030]] [[Category:Environmental policies approved in 2022]]
Conservation refugee	{{Short description\|Person displaced from native land when a conservation area is created}} '''Conservation refugees''' are people (usually [[Indigenous peoples\|indigenous]]) who are displaced from their native lands when conservation areas, such as parks and other [[protected areas]], are created.<ref>[http://conservationrefugees.org/wacr What is a Conservation Refugee], from Native Solutions to Conservation Refugees</ref> ==Definition== Many conservation refugees (such as the [[Great Lakes Twa]]) were already marginalized before a nature preserve was established on their territory, and are culturally dislocated and often living on the margins of urban areas or new settlements with few social or economic opportunities. Facing powerful state and international conservation interests, they rarely have legal recourse. Many conservation refugees are housed in [[refugee camp]]s.{{citation needed\|date=September 2019}} ==={{anchor\|Role of ENGOs (Environmental Non-Governmental Organizations)}}Role of ENGOs=== [[ENGO]]s (environmental [[non-governmental organization]]s) are funded by a variety of sources. [[Private foundation]]s, such as the [[Ford Foundation\|Ford]] and [[MacArthur Foundation]]s, once provided the bulk of the funds supporting NGO conservation efforts. Funds from bilateral and multilateral sources (such as [[United States Agency for International Development\|USAID]] and the [[World Bank]]) and corporations also support ENGOs. An increase in corporate [[Sponsor (commercial)\|sponsorship]] raises the possibility of a [[conflict of interest]] between ENGOs and the corporations which support them, leading to ethical negligence. Although the websites of the [[World Wide Fund for Nature\|World Wildlife Fund]], [[The Nature Conservancy]] and [[Conservation International]] say that the groups participate with local communities, the universally-applied model of conservation (based on [[Western science]]) often clashes with [[traditional knowledge]] of the environment. The Western [[conservation movement]] may be dismissive of [[indigenous conservation]] models because they are not based on Western science, but indigenous knowledge is the result of generations of interaction with their environment. In his ''[[Orion (magazine)\|Orion]]'' magazine article "Conservation Refugees", Mark Dowie writes: <blockquote>[[John Muir]], a forefather of the American conservation movement, argued that '[[wilderness]]' should be cleared of all inhabitants and set aside to satisfy the urbane human's need for recreation and spiritual renewal. It was a sentiment that became national policy with the passage of the 1964 [[Wilderness Act]], which defined wilderness as a place 'where man himself is a visitor who does not remain.' One should not be surprised to find hardy residues of these sentiments among traditional conservation groups. The preference for 'virgin' wilderness has lingered on in a movement that has tended to value all nature but [[human nature]], and refused to recognize the positive wildness in human beings.<ref name="Orion Magazine">{{cite web\|author=Dowie\|first=Mark\|title=Conservation Refugees\|url=https://orionmagazine.org/article/conservation-refugees/\|website=[[Orion Magazine]]}}</ref></blockquote> Dowie's article assesses the [[globalization]] of conservation. With the removal of indigenous communities from protected land, a [[symbiosis]] between [[indigenous peoples]] and their environment is disrupted; this may have the unintended consequence of decreasing biodiversity, as those who formerly lived off the land are now prohibited from interacting with it. As a result of their expulsion, they are poor additions to the over-populated areas surrounding the park (Igoe 2005). [[Poaching]] may increase, and the soil may become [[soil retrogression and degradation\|degraded]] as refugees take up [[subsistence agriculture]]. By ignoring the human factor, the conservation model followed by large ENGOs can be ineffective and counterproductive. ===Preserving habitats or cultures=== In the spring of 2003, [[India]]'s [[Adivasi]] were pushed out of their [[Arable land\|farmlands]] and relocated to crowded villages to import six [[Asiatic lion]]s. Although NGOs such as the World Wildlife Fund try to conserve land and animal species while training indigenous peoples for alternate work,<ref>{{cite web \|title=WWF-India's work for tiger \|url=https://www.wwfindia.org/about_wwf/priority_species/bengal_tiger/work_for_tiger/ \|website=WWF India \|access-date=28 September 2019}}</ref> indigenous peoples are often removed from their land and placed in communities or villages which leave them vulnerable to [[poverty]] and [[starvation]]. Not compensated for what was lost, they have difficulty adjusting to their new lifestyle. The issue of conservation refugees across India are well reported<ref>{{Cite journal\|last=Kurian\|first=Anju Lis\|title=The Downside of Environment Protection in India Origin of Conservation Refugees\|url=https://www.epw.in/journal/2018/26-27/special-articles/origin-conservation-refugees.html\|journal=Economic and Political Weekly\|date=5 June 2015 \|volume=53\| issue = 26–27\|pages=48–55}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal\|last=Kurian\|first=Anju Lis\|title=ECOTOURISM AND CONSERVATION REFUGEES: THE INDIAN SCENARIO\|url=http://www.envirobiotechjournals.com/article_abstract.php?aid=11164&iid=324&jid=3\|journal=Ecology, Environment and Conservation\|volume=27\|pages=308–314}}</ref> Christine MacDonald's ''Green, Inc.'' quotes a tribal leader that "white men" told them to leave their homes in the forest because the land was not protected; they were forced into another village (which was already occupied by another group) outside the forest, and had "no choice, because they told them that they [would] be beaten and killed". Left without food and land, they were forced to work on farms established by the villagers before them.<ref>{{cite book \|last1=MacDonald \|first1=Christine \|title=Green, Inc: An Environmental Insider Reveals how a Good Cause Has Gone Bad \|date=2008 \|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield \|isbn=978-1-59921-659-1 \|pages=196–197 \|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rlnJST8WltkC \|language=en}}</ref> ==={{anchor\|Eliminating culture and behaviors}}Eliminating culture and behavior=== Indigenous peoples who are forced from their land lose the portions of their culture which are embedded in resources. According to [[Darrell A. Posey]], indigenous knowledge could significantly contribute to conservation: "What looked natural might be cultural, and thus that indigenous people should be seen as models for conservation, rather than as opposed to it and thus denied [[land rights]]".<ref>{{cite book \|editor1-last=Dove \|editor1-first=Michael R. \|editor2-last=Carpenter \|editor2-first=Carol \|title=Environmental anthropology : a historical reader \|date=2008 \|publisher=Blackwell Pub \|location=Malden, MA \|isbn=9781405111379}}</ref>{{rp\|5}} Many residents of what have become conservation sites or national parks have cultural rituals and practices which are adapted to their local environment. Through these practices, they have been able to survive and develop a culture. Mark Dowie's ''Conservation Refugees'' describes [[Africa]]'s [[Great Lakes Twa\|Batwa Pygmies]]. After living in conservation camps under restrictions limiting centuries-old cultural practices, community member Kwokwo Barume observed that "we are heading toward extinction".<ref name="dowie11">{{cite book \|last1=Dowie \|first1=Mark \|title=Conservation Refugees: The Hundred-Year Conflict between Global Conservation and Native Peoples \|date=25 February 2011 \|publisher=MIT Press \|isbn=978-0-262-51600-6 \|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=v54LEAAAQBAJ \|language=en}}</ref>{{rp\|70}} The restrictions include bans on [[Tillage\|cultivation]], [[hunting]] or gathering, and sacred sites and [[burial ground]]s are off-limits; all are essential to the people's daily life. Limitations such as these help lead toward the extinction of hunter-gatherer groups around the world to make way for government-sanctioned [[game reserve]]s and [[ecotourism]]. ===Redefining conservation=== Posey was an [[anthropologist]] and [[Ethnobiology\|ethnobiologist]] whose writings about the [[Kayapo]] people of the [[Amazon rainforest]] influenced environmental policy; traditional societies are now viewed as helpers in conservation, and steps are being taken to aid the reconstruction of these societies (Dove & Carpenter 2008:5). Posey reiterated that indigenous people were the only ones who truly knew the forests, because they inhabited them for centuries. He also determined that biodiversity was important for indigenous peoples' lives through gardens, openings into the forest and rock [[outcrop]]s; what is considered natural today may have been altered by the ancestors of the indigenous peoples, rather than naturally occurring as previously thought. Posey's work is helping to redefine conservation and what it means to societies living in conservation areas. [[South America]]n countries connect indigenous groups willing to practice conservation with technical resources from conservation groups. Instead of being expelled from their land, the Federal Environmental Conservation Act that protects their rights to remain on the land and use its natural resources; the "commonwealth minister negotiates conservation agreements with them".<ref>Alcorn, J.B. and A.G. Royo. 2007:13</ref>{{clarify\|date=September 2019\|reason=What "commonwealth" is this?}} ===Indigenous peoples=== The [[World Council of Indigenous Peoples]] (WCIP) held its first conference in [[British Columbia]] in 1975. It was founded by Chief [[George Manuel]] of the [[Shuswap Nation]], who found after traveling the world that the same suffering and [[mistreatment]] felt by the [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas\|North American Indians]] were also felt by many other [[indigenous peoples]]. Some indigenous peoples began to speak up at conservation meetings which affected them. According to Mark Dowie, the [[Maasai people\|Masai]] sent leader Martin Saring'O to the November 22, 2004 [[Bangkok]] World Conservation Congress meeting (sponsored by the [[International Union for Conservation of Nature]]) to defend their land rights: "Standing before the congress, he [Martin Sarin'O] expressed, 'we are enemies of conservation.' Their [[nomad]]ic people have lost most of their [[grazing]] lands over the last thirty years. At the meeting, Massai reminds the IUCN, and defends that they were the original conservationists". Dowie also writes that Sayyaad Saltani, the elected chair of the Council of Elders of the Qashqai Confederation in [[Iran]], gave a speech to the World Parks Congress in [[Durban]], [[South Africa]], in October 2003. Saltani discussed the relentless pressures on his nomadic pastoral people, how their [[pasture]]s and natural resources were seized by a number of agencies, and the interruption of their migratory path: "Their summer and winter pastures were consistently degraded and fragmented by outsiders, and not even their [[social identity]] was left alone".<ref name="dowie11" />{{rp\|35}} Violence and retaliation have followed park creation due to resentment of land restriction and displacement or blocked access to resources, causing shortages. In [[Nepal]], when the [[Sagarmatha National Park]] was founded, the [[Sherpa people\|Sherpa]] intentionally accelerated forest depletion because their rights and traditional practices had been taken away: "Local elders estimated that more forest was lost in the first four years after the park's creation than in the previous two decades".<ref name="colchester">{{cite book \|last1=Colchester \|first1=Marcus \|title=Salvaging Nature: Indigenous Peoples, Protected Areas and Biodiversity Conservation \|date=1994 \|publisher=DIANE Publishing \|isbn=978-0-7881-7194-9 \|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xUe5XvFM3NsC \|language=en}}</ref>{{rp\|18}} Several instances of violence have occurred in India following park creations. India has nearly five hundred [[protected area]]s, rich in resources and primarily surrounded by agricultural land and poor villages: "Inevitably they invade the reserves and come into conflict with authorities. Resentment at the wildlife authorities attempts to control the situation has exploded in violence against officials and guards".<ref name="colchester" />{{rp\|19}} In the Naganhde National Park in [[South India]], wildlife guards allegedly killed a poacher; the local people retaliating by burning {{convert\|20\|km2}} of forest: "In India, resentment by local people to National Parks legislation and enforcement agencies has caused increasing problems".<ref name="colchester" />{{rp\|18}} ==Africa== African conservation refugees (about 14 million, according to some sources) have long been displaced due to transnational efforts to preserve select [[biome]]s believed to be historically and environmentally crucial. The article "Parks and Peoples: the social impact of protected areas" reported that a protected area is a way of "seeing, understanding, and reproducing the world around us" and a place of social interaction and production.<ref>West, P., Igoe, J., & Brockington, D. (2006, June 5). Parks and People: the social impact of protected areas. Annual Review of Anthropology, pp. 251-77.</ref> Protected areas are established to preserve an area in its natural state in an increasingly-globalized world. Although the residential grounds of millions of native people have existed for hundreds of years, conservation efforts encroach on these areas to preserve the biological diversity of [[flora]] and [[fauna]]. Wildlife, plants and other resources are protected, and native people are expelled beyond the border of the new preserved area (PA) so they do not affect the ecological preservation. Displacement and the lack of rights of displaced peoples is a main concern of environmental conservation; displaced peoples may encounter social problems (such as nationalism) in their new locations. These refugees often become a socially-isolated underclass. Another effect of displacement is the loss of jobs, hunting grounds, personal resources and freedom. The treatment of these peoples may trigger war (among themselves or with opposing groups), disease and malnutrition. Long-term effects of the displacement persist in conservation refugees, their families and subsequent generations, reshaping the cultural and economic dynamics of a society with a ripple effect. Resources are directly linked to conflicts, in Africa as elsewhere; according to Abiodun Alao, author of ''Natural Resources and Conflict in Africa'', natural resources can be linked to conflict in three different ways: a direct (or remote) conflict is caused by the resource, a natural resource can fuel (or sustain conflicts), and resources have been used to resolve conflicts.<ref>Alao, A. (2007). ''Natural Resources and Conflicts in Africa: The Tragedy of Endowment''. Rochester, NY: [[University of Rochester Press]].</ref> Conservation efforts which appropriate an indigenous people's land remove them from a familiar social environment to unknown quarters and customs; traditional values, such as "songs, rituals, ... and stories" may be entirely lost in a little over a generation.<ref name="Orion Magazine" /> Relocation may be economically devastating on an individual and group level. Indigenous peoples are forced to the boundaries of the new parks, stripped of their homes and status, and sometimes made to live in "shabby squatter camps ... without running water or sanitation".<ref name="Orion Magazine" /> To protect the rights of indigenous people and others displaced as conservation refugees, the [[Landlocked developing countries\|Fifth World]] Parks Congress held a session to discuss the problem. The session acknowledged the connection between poverty and displacement, altering land rights and their hazardous effects on culture and future generations. Its Durban Action Plan will insure that local people are compensated financially before an area is acquired for conservation. ==={{anchor\|Eastern Africa}}East Africa=== [[East Africa]] is home to tribes, such as the [[Maasai people\|Maasai]], whose livelihood and culture revolve around cattle. The Maasai are [[Pastorialism\|pastoralists]], whose "livestock follow a seasonal settlement in the dry season and disperse into temporary camps in the wet season". They once occupied most of the [[Serengeti]]-[[Ngorongoro District\|Ngorongoro region]]; recent [[Archaeology\|archaeological]] research concluded that pastoralists occupied the region for at least 2,500 years, and the Maasai occupied the area since the mid-nineteenth century.<ref>McCabe, J. Terrence 2002 Giving Conservation a Human Face? Lessons From Forty Years of Combining Conservation and Development in the Ngorongoro Conservation Area, Tanzania. In ''Conservation and Mobile Indigenous Peoples: Displacement, Forced Settlement, and Sustainable Development''. [[Dawn Chatty]] and Marcus Colchester, eds., pp. 61-76. [[Berghahn Books]]</ref> Although the Serengeti-Ngorongoro region was allocated for a proposed national park in 1940, the pastoralists were allowed to remain. Ten years later, conflict erupted among the pastoralists, farmers and park authorities who divided the park into the [[Serengeti National Park]] and the [[Ngorongoro Conservation Area]] (NCA). The division evicted the Maasai pastoralists from the national park, but allowed them to remain in restricted areas of the NCA. This affected the Maasai lifestyle and the environment. During the wet season, the Maasai had herded their cattle to the Serengeti for grazing; after the parks' division, they could only graze in the NCA. The Maasai's seasonal migrations from the Serengeti and the Ngorongoro helped prevent over-grazing; with the new restrictions, over-grazing could result in the starvation of their cattle and the depletion of environmental resources. Another problem for the Maasai was the rapid population increase of the [[wildebeest]]. Wildebeest calves are unaffected hosts of [[bovine malignant catarrhal fever]], a viral infection which can kill Maasai livestock exposed to areas grazed by the calves. In addition to disease, the large wildebeest population devoured the grasses which had been grazed by Maasai livestock. During the early 1970s, [[Tillage\|cultivation]] was banned in the NCA. The Maasai also depend on [[Cereal\|grain]] cultivation, trading livestock for grain. For twenty years, they experienced a ban on cultivation, restrictions on [[Crater Highlands]] region and the spread of livestock disease. Because of the inability to cultivate, there was an increase in [[malnutrition]] increased in Maasai children. The cultivation ban was lifted during the early 1990s, improving Maasai living standards; malnutrition declined, and [[sustainable living]] returned. Since intense cultivation is required to support the population, however, conservationists are reconsidering a cultivation ban.{{citation needed\|date=September 2019}} In 1988, [[Tanzania]]'s Department of Wildlife evicted thousands of people from the [[Mkomazi National Park\|Mkomazi Game Reserve]]. The result of the evictions and restrictions to land use, according to Mark Dowie, "is a gradual community and cultural meltdown." Neighboring communities have become violent as the result of tension between indigenous people and the parks. Due to [[overgrazing]] and restrictions on land use, many pastoralists "were forced to reduce or completely sell off their herds and learn to cultivate grains and legumes on small plots of arid land. Some turned to poaching for a living, others prostitution ... young men who sold their herds turned to profligate lives, and when their money ran out they became low-wage farm workers and small-time hustlers. Young women facing a shrinking pool of potential husbands sell community essentials such as charcoal, traditional medicines, milk from borrowed goats, or, saddest of all, themselves".<ref>Dowie, Mark (2009) ''Conservation Refugees: The Hundred-Year Conflict between Global Conservation and Native Peoples''. Cambridge: [[MIT Press]].</ref> Because of the decline in resources and their displacement to non-arable lands, many pastoralists have resorted to [[bushmeat]] for subsistence and trade; this threatens the already-declining population of apes, and facilitates the spread of [[HIV]] and [[Ebola virus disease]]. The [[Okiek people\|Ogiek]] tribes of the [[Mau Forest]] are also the targets of land restrictions and evacuation from their native lands. The Ogiek have been described as a peaceful people who primarily cultivate [[honey bee]]s, but will grow [[beans]] and [[potatoes]] if needed. They subsist only on animals who are abundant in the forest; when the tribe notices a decline in population of a particular animal due to hunting, the Ogiek will raise [[sheep]] and [[goats]] for food. Animals are killed for their use only, and the Ogiek are not part of the bushmeat market. They are considered "the best imaginable conservators of land".<ref name="dowie11" />{{rp\|184}} The first attempt to displace the Ogiek people occurred during the 20th century, when British settlers attempted to clear the forest for tea plantations. With the [[Forest Act of 1957]] and the [[Wildlife Conservation Act of 1977]], successive governments have displaced the Ogiek for forest conservation; they were often moved to non-arable land which was useless to their customary lifestyle of bee production and hunting. This displacement made many Ogiek homeless, poor and ill; their life expectancy declined from sixty to forty-six years. Although the [[High Court of Tanzania]] halted the evictions in June 2005, its ruling was appealed five months later. The appeal argued that the Ogiek were unfit to inhabit the Mau Forest, ignoring the forest's illegal, massive logging operations. Ecologists and hydrologists now agree with the Ogiek that [[Kenya]]'s forests (which are beginning to decline) are the main suppliers of water for the nation and, if not preserved, will result is mass starvation. ==={{anchor\|Western Africa}}West Africa=== In [[Guinea]], [[deforestation]] has become the environmental norm. Since records began to be kept, only 1.8 percent of the country's [[Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests\|tropical moist forest]] remains. To preserve the remaining forested land, conservationists have protected three swaths of land with restrictions on hunting, farming, and residency. As a result, 663,000 people have been displaced from the protected areas. This trend is reflected in neighboring countries; [[Liberia]] claims over 120,000 conservation refugees, and [[Senegal]] has 65,000 people displaced from its nine protected areas. [[Ghana]], to the east, has 35,000 refugees from the six percent of its remaining forests in nine protected areas (PAs).<ref>Weber, William. African Rain Forest Ecology and Conservation: an Interdisciplinary Perspective. New Haven: Yale UP, 2001. Print.</ref> In Guinea's [[Ziama Massif#Ziami Strict Nature Reserve\|Ziami Strict Nature Reserve]] (part of [[UNESCO]]'s [[Man and the Biosphere Programme]]),<ref>{{cite web \|title=Massif du Ziama \|url=http://www.unesco.org/new/en/natural-sciences/environment/ecological-sciences/biosphere-reserves/africa/guinea/massif-du-ziama/ \|website=UNESCO \|access-date=30 September 2019}}</ref> sections of land in the southeastern panhandle have been cordoned off to preserve the growing forest and [[savanna]] which was the traditional home of the [[Loma people\|Toma people]] (Fairhead).<ref>Fairhead, James, and Melissa Leach. "Contested Forests: Modern Conservation and Historical Land in Guinea's Ziama Reserve." African Affairs 93.373 (1994): 481-512. Web.</ref> Nineteenth-century anthropologist [[Benjamin Anderson]] and contemporary [[anthropology]] professors James Fairhead and Melissa Leach have observed that, based on Toma oral history, careful Toma cultivation of high-forest areas enabled the Ziami forest to flourish along with the remaining savanna. ===Southern Africa=== The [[San people]] (also known as the Bushmen), hunter-gatherers in [[Botswana]]'s [[Kalahari Desert]], have faced hardship and—in some cases—displacement. The San have no land claim, and the government views them as a nomadic people.<ref>Bolaane, M. 2004. The impact of Game Reserve Policy on the River BaSarwa/Bushmen of Bot¬swana. Social Policy and Administration 38:399-417.</ref> Before independence, Botswana was part of the [[British Empire]]. Although the colonial government did not view the San as property owners, it provided them with a {{convert\|52000\|km2\|adj=on}} [[game reserve]]. As the San population grew, animal populations began to dwindle; this population decline and the desires to promote tourism and integrate the San into modern society led the government to consider moving them from the game reserve.<ref>Ikeya, K. 2001. Some changes among the San under the influence of relocation plan in Bot¬swana. In: Senri Ethnological Studies No. 59. Parks, Property and Power: Managing Hunt¬ing Practice and Identity within State Policy Regimes, Vol. 59 (eds. D.G. Anderson and K. Ikeya), pp. 183-198. National Museum of Ethnology, Osaka.</ref> The government of Botswana also tried limited, year-round game licenses for the San to promote conservation.<ref>Hitchcock, R. K. (2001) "Hunting is our Heritage: The Struggle for Hunting and Gathering Rights among the San of Southern Africa". In ''Senri Ethnological Studies No. 59 Parks, Property and Power: Managing Hunting Practice and Identity within State Policy Regimes'', vol. 59 (eds. D. G. Anderson and K. Ikeya), pp. 139-156. [[National Museum of Ethnology (Japan)\|National Museum of Ethnology]], [[Osaka]].</ref> The special game licenses did not replenish the dwindling animal populations; many officials believed that they were being abused, and the government began to restrict their distribution and again consider relocation. During the 1960s, San groups were relocated twice with the creation of the [[Moremi Game Reserve]]. Although the relocation was not forced, the San felt that they were not fully informed of its implications (Bolaane 2004). Relocation had profound effects on their lifestyle, reducing their access to the land. Forced to become wage-earners (often at one of the game reserves), they experienced social discrimination. When groups of San agreed to relocation from the [[Central Kalahari Game Reserve]] (CKGR) during the 1990s, adaptation to a new lifestyle (which included land ownership) was difficult and a number of people returned to the game reserve. The San founded an NGO, the [[First People of the Kalahari]] (FPK), in 1992 to advocate for land rights, social acceptance and self-determination. ===Role of BINGOs=== BINGOs (big international [[non-governmental organization]]s) may be controversial due to their partnership "with multinational corporations—particularly in the businesses of gas and oil, pharmaceuticals, and mining—that are directly involved in pillaging and destroying forest areas owned by indigenous peoples" (Chapin 2004). According to anthropologist Jim Igoe, "Ironically, there is growing evidence that national parks themselves are contributing to the very problems that advocates of community conservation are trying to solve... The loss of natural resources to indigenous resource management systems that these evictions entailed frequently forced local people to mine natural resources in the area to which they were restricted".<ref>Igoe, Jim (2002) "National Parks and Human Ecosystems: The Challenge to Community Conservation. A Case Study From Simanjiro, Tanzania" in ''Conservation and Mobile Indigenous Peoples: Displacement, Forced Settlement, and Sustainable Development''. [[Dawn Chatty]] and Marcus Colchester, eds., pp. 77-96. New York: [[Berghahn Books]]</ref> Mac Chapin writes in the introduction to his article that funding for conservation efforts has retreated from the need to work with indigenous people and local communities, "with a new focus on large-scale conservation strategies and the importance of science, rather than social realities, in determining their agendas" (Chapin 2004). ==See also== [[Indigenous Protected Area]] [[Indigenous and community conserved area]] ''[[Ik people#The Mountain People\|The Mountain People]]'', a book by [[Colin Turnbull]] [[30 by 30]] ==Notes== {{reflist}} ==References== Agarwal, Arun and Kent Redford. "Conservation and Displacement: An Overview." Conservation & Society 7.1 (2009): 1–10. Alcorn, J.B. and A.G. Royo. 2007. Conservation's engagement with human rights: Traction, slippage, or avoidance? Policy Matters 15: 115–139. Cernea, Michael M. and Kai Schmidt-Soltau. 2003 Biodiversity Conservation versus Population Resettlement: Risks to Nature and Risks to People. Chapin, Mac. 2004 A Challenge to Conservationists. World Watch Magazine. November/December:17-31. Colchester, Marcus. Salvaging Nature: Indigenous Peoples, Protected Areas and Biodiversity. Diane Publishing Co. 2003. "conservation." Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary. 2010. Merriam-Webster Online. 20 Feb. 2010. <http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/conservation>. Convention concerning Indigenous and Tribal People in Independent Countries. Geneva Convention: C169. Dove, Michael R. & Carpenter, Carol (2008). Environmental Anthropology: A Historical Reader. Blackwell Publishing Dowie, Mark. Conservation Refugees: The Hundred-Year Conflict between Global Conservation and Native Peoples. Cambridge: The MIT Press. Dowie, Mark. "Conservation Refugees: When protecting nature means kicking people out." Orion Magazine. Nov./Dec. (2005). Geisler, Charles. "A New Kind of Trouble: Evictions in Eden." International Social Science Journal 55.1 (2003): 69–78. Geisler, Charles. "Endangered Humans." Foreign Policy 130 (2002): 80–81. "Human Rights." United Nations Official Site. < http://www.un.org/en/>. Web. 20 Feb. 2010. Igoe, Jim. 2004 Conservation and Globalization: A Study of National Parks and Indigenous Communities form East Africa to South Dakota. United States. Thomson Wadsworth. International Court of Justice Official Site. < https://web.archive.org/web/20110410110310/http://www.icj-cij.org/homepage/index.php?p1=0>. Web. 20 Feb. 2010. "International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights." Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights Official Site. <http://www.ohchr.org/EN/Pages/WelcomePage.aspx>. Web. 20 Feb. 2010. "International Law." United Nations Official Site. < http://www.un.org/en/>Web. 20 Feb. 2010. International Union for Conservation of Nature Official Site. Web. 20 Feb. 2010. MacDonald, Christine (2008). Green, Inc. Guilford, CT. The Lyons Press/The Globe Pequot Press Native Solutions to Conservation Refugees Official Site. <http://www.conservationrefugees.org/> Penna-Firme, Rodrigo Darrell Addison Posey: a short biography, No Date Available. <http://www.indiana.edu/~wanthro/theory_pages/Posey.htm> March 29, 2010. "refugee." Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary. 2010. Merriam-Webster Online. 20 Feb. 2010. <http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/refugee> Survival: The Movement for Tribal People Official Site. < http://www.survivalinternational.org/> Westing, Arthur. "Environmental Refugees: A Growing Category of Displaced Persons." Environmental Conservation 19 (1992): 201–207. Cambridge University Press. 20 Feb. 2010. "The World Bank's Involuntary Resettlement Policy." The Center for International Environmental Law Official Site. Web. 20 Feb. 2010. Terminski, Bogumil, ''Environmentally-Induced Displacement. Theoretical Frameworks and Current Challenges'', CEDEM Working Paper, Universite de Liege, 2012. (1997). World Wide Fraud: Pandering to the Demands of Industry. Do or Die Issue 7. pg 76-78 <http://www.eco-action.org/dod/no7/76-78.html> ==External links== [http://www.orionmagazine.org/index.php/articles/article/161/ "Conservation Refugees"] {{Webarchive\|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141019225609/http://www.orionmagazine.org/index.php/articles/article/161/ \|date=2014-10-19 }}, by [[Mark Dowie]], [[Orion (magazine)\|''Orion'']], November/December 2005. [https://web.archive.org/web/20080807124826/http://conservationrefugees.org/pdfdoc/Worldwatch.pdf "A Challenge to Conservationists"], by [[Mac Chapin]], [[Worldwatch Institute]] [https://web.archive.org/web/20080820041709/http://conservationrefugees.org/pdfdoc/EvictionforConservation.pdf Eviction for Conservation: A Global Overview], [[Dan Brockington]] and [[Jim Igoe]] *[https://web.archive.org/web/20080820041914/http://conservationrefugees.org/pdfdoc/povertyrisks.pdf Poverty Risks and National Parks: Policy Issues in Conservation and Resettlement], by [[Michael Cernea]] and [[Kia Schmidt-Soltau]] {{conservation of species}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Conservation Refugee}} [[Category:Refugees by type]] [[Category:Forced migration]] [[Category:Indigenous rights]] [[Category:Nature conservation]] [[Category:Environmental controversies]]
Fortress conservation	{{Short description\|Conservation model}} [[File:Celebrating 1 Million Feet of Conservation Fence in WV (8769469144).jpg\|thumb\|An [[electric fence]] surrounding a conservation area in [[West Virginia]]]] '''Fortress conservation''' is a conservation model based on the belief that biodiversity protection is best achieved by creating protected areas where ecosystems can function in isolation from human disturbance.<ref>{{cite web\|url=https://sesmad.dartmouth.edu/theories/85\|title=Critique of fortress conservation\|publisher=SESMAD\|access-date=26 May 2022\|archive-date=24 May 2022\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220524001702/https://sesmad.dartmouth.edu/theories/85\|url-status=live}}</ref> Its implementation has been criticized for [[human rights]] abuses against indigenous inhabitants when creating and maintaining protected areas.<ref name=fp0718/> ==Background== ===Ecotourism=== [[File:Sabi sabi game drive.jpg\|thumb\|Ecotourism money is argued to drive the eviction of indigenous people.]] {{Main\|Ecotourism}} It is argued that money generated from [[ecotourism]] is the motivating factor to drive indigenous inhabitants off the land.<ref name=theguardian0518/><ref>{{cite web\|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lsLyqBUZvDY\|title=Who is ordering continuous attacks against Batwa people in DRC?\|publisher=[[Deutsche Welle]]\|access-date=26 May 2022\|date=9 April 2022\|archive-date=26 May 2022\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220526211100/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lsLyqBUZvDY\|url-status=live}}</ref> The organization [[African Parks]], whose President is [[Prince Harry]], has as its motto "a business approach to conservation" and had at its outset that tourism is its key in making their parks financially sustainable.<ref name="Arrangements">{{cite book\|title=Institutional Arrangements for Conservation, Development and Tourism in Eastern and Southern Africa: A Dynamic Perspective\|date=16 November 2014\|publisher=Springer\|page=7\|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Tn5qBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA7\|accessdate=22 January 2018\|first1=René\|last1=van der Duim\|first2=Machiel\|last2=Lamers\|first3=Jakomijn\|last3=van Wijk\|isbn=9789401795296}}</ref> ===Militarization=== Conservation charities, the biggest of which is the [[World Wildlife Fund]], have increasingly militarized the campaign against poaching. Such poaching is often by organized criminal gangs that prey on the endangered species and, in 2018, 50 park rangers were killed globally. [[African Parks]] has been at the forefront of militarization with training from South African, French and Israeli military personnel.<ref name=FP0722/> Veterans from the wars in Afghanistan and Iraq have been recruited to teach forest rangers counterinsurgency techniques and ex–special forces operatives promote their services at wildlife conferences. This has often involved recruiting paramilitary groups who are then supplied with military grade weaponry.<ref name=Buzzfeednews/> ==Efficacy== [[File:Shennongjia virgin forest.jpg\|thumb\|Transferring [[land rights]] to indigenous inhabitants is argued to efficiently conserve forests.]] Some conservation groups argue for the fortress conservation model with the [[Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework]], an outcome of the [[2022 United Nations Biodiversity Conference]], arguing for the [[30 by 30]] initiative to designate 30% of Earth's land and [[Marine protected area\|ocean]] area as [[protected area]]s by [[2030]].<ref name=FP0722/> While the fortress conservation model views human as being inherently destructive to the environment, some have argued that the most efficient conservation methods involve transferring rights over land from public domain to its indigenous inhabitants, who have had a stake for millennia in preserving the forests that they depend on.<ref name=Guardian1>{{cite news\|url=https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2016/jul/22/india-follow-china-saving-forest-people-land-rights\|title=India should follow China to find a way out of the woods on saving forest people\|newspaper=The Guardian\|access-date=2 November 2016\|date=22 July 2016\|archive-date=14 October 2016\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161014193247/https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2016/jul/22/india-follow-china-saving-forest-people-land-rights\|url-status=live}}</ref> This includes the protection of such rights entitled in existing laws, such as the [[The Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition of Forest Rights) Act, 2006\|Forest Rights Act]] in India, where concessions to land continue to go mostly to powerful companies.<ref name=Guardian1/> The transferring of such rights in [[China]], perhaps the largest [[land reform]] in modern times, has been argued to have increased forest cover.<ref name=fp0718/><ref name=rightsandresources>{{cite web\|url=http://rightsandresources.org/en/publication/view/chinas-forest-tenure-reforms-impacts-and-implications-for-choice-conservation-and-climate-change/\|title=China's forest tenure reforms\|publisher=rightsandresources.org\|access-date=7 August 2016\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160923153921/http://rightsandresources.org/en/publication/view/chinas-forest-tenure-reforms-impacts-and-implications-for-choice-conservation-and-climate-change/\|archive-date=23 September 2016\|url-status=dead}}</ref> Granting title of the land has shown to have two or three times less clearing than even state run parks, notably in the Brazilian Amazon. Even while the largest cause of deforestation in the world's second largest rainforest in the [[Congolian rainforests\|Congo]] is smallholder agriculture and charcoal production, areas with community concessions have significantly less deforestation as communities are incentivized to manage the land sustainably, even reducing poverty.<ref>{{cite news\|url=https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20210107-congo-basin-a-bold-plan-to-save-africas-largest-rainforest\|title=The bold plan to save Africa's largest forest\|newspaper=BBC\|access-date=16 September 2021\|date=7 January 2021\|archive-date=16 September 2021\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210916230828/https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20210107-congo-basin-a-bold-plan-to-save-africas-largest-rainforest\|url-status=live}}</ref> Additionally, evicting inhabitants from protected areas often under the fortress conservation model often leads to more exploitation of the land as the native inhabitants then turn to work for extractive companies to survive.<ref name=fp0718>{{cite magazine\|url=https://foreignpolicy.com/2018/07/16/how-conservation-became-colonialism-environment-indigenous-people-ecuador-mining/\|title=How Conservation Became Colonialism\|magazine=Foreign Policy\|access-date=30 July 2018\|date=16 July 2018\|archive-date=30 July 2018\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180730235119/https://foreignpolicy.com/2018/07/16/how-conservation-became-colonialism-environment-indigenous-people-ecuador-mining/\|url-status=live}}</ref> ==Prevalence== [[File:WWF Big Ballon 2013.jpg\|thumb\|left\|The [[World Wildlife Fund]] has been accused of funding [[park ranger]] conflicts that push indigenous people off their land in national parks.]] Up to 250,000 people worldwide have been forcibly evicted from their homes to make way for conservation projects since 1990, according to the UN special rapporteur on the rights of indigenous peoples.<ref name=Guardian1120>{{cite news\|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/nov/26/you-have-stolen-our-forest-rights-of-baka-people-in-the-congo-ignored\|title='Large-scale human rights violations' taint Congo national park project\|work=[[The Guardian]]\|date=26 November 2020\|access-date=27 May 2022\|archive-date=27 May 2022\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220527205700/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/nov/26/you-have-stolen-our-forest-rights-of-baka-people-in-the-congo-ignored\|url-status=live}}</ref> Another estimate put the total number of people displaced between 10.8 million and 173 million.<ref name=FP0722>{{cite web\|url=https://foreignpolicy.com/2022/07/01/western-nonprofits-african-rights-land/\|title=Conservation Protected Areas are a disaster for Indigenous People\|publisher=Foreign Policy Magazine\|access-date=1 August 2023\|date=1 July 2022\|archive-date=2 August 2023\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230802014029/https://foreignpolicy.com/2022/07/01/western-nonprofits-african-rights-land/\|url-status=live}}</ref> ===Botswana=== {{See also\|Ancestral land conflict in Botswana}} In [[Botswana]], many of the indigenous San people have been [[Forced displacement\|forcibly relocated]] from their land to reservations. To make them relocate, they were denied access to water on their land and faced arrest if they hunted, which was their primary source of food.<ref name=bbc1>{{cite news \|url= https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-24821867 \|title=Botswana bushmen: Modern life is destroying us \|work=BBC News \|access-date=24 July 2016 \|date=7 January 2014 \|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20160325015238/http://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-24821867 \|archive-date=25 March 2016 \|url-status=live}}</ref> The government claims the relocation is to preserve the wildlife and ecosystem, even though the San people have lived sustainably on the land for millennia.<ref name=bbc1/> Additionally, their lands lie in the middle of the world's richest [[diamond]] field. On the reservations they struggle to find employment, and [[alcoholism]] is rampant.<ref name=bbc1/> ===Cameroon=== [[Baka people (Cameroon and Gabon)\|Baka people]] in Cameroon's [[Lobéké National Park]] have alleged abuse by park rangers funded by the [[World Wildlife Fund]] (WWF).<ref name=Buzzfeednews/> ===Democratic Republic of the Congo=== In national parks in the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]], such as [[Kahuzi-Biéga National Park]], heavily armed park rangers come into deadly conflict with the pygmy inhabitants who often cut the trees down to sell charcoal.<ref name=Guardian0719>{{cite news\|url=https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2019/jul/22/gorillas-charcoal-fight-survival-congo-rainforest\|title=Gorillas, charcoal and the fight for survival in Congo's rainforest\|work=[[The Guardian]]\|date=22 July 2019\|access-date=1 September 2019\|archive-date=1 September 2019\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190901224827/https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2019/jul/22/gorillas-charcoal-fight-survival-congo-rainforest\|url-status=live}}</ref> The conservation efforts of national parks in the country are often financed by international organizations such as the WWF and often involve removing native inhabitants off the land.<ref>{{cite news\|url= https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TBDKiJrLits \|archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211212/TBDKiJrLits\| archive-date=2021-12-12 \|url-status=live\|title=Congo: The tribe under threat\|newspaper=Unreported World \|access-date=1 September 2019\|date=2 June 2019}}{{cbignore}}</ref> ===Nepal=== The creation of [[Chitwan National Park]] in the 1970s led to tens of thousands of indigenous [[Tharu people]] to be evicted. The World Wildlife Fund has been accused of providing high-tech enforcement equipment, cash, and weapons to rangers involved torturing Tharu living near national parks such as [[Bardiya National Park]]. Nepalese law was changed to give forest rangers the power to investigate wildlife-related crimes, make arrests without a warrant, and retain immunity in cases where an officer had “no alternative” but to shoot the offender while the park's chief warden has the power to hand out 15-year prison terms by themselves.<ref name=Buzzfeednews>{{Cite web\|last1=Warren\|first1=Tom\|last2=Baker\|first2=Katie\|date=4 March 2019\|title=WWF Funds Guards Who Have Tortured And Killed People\|website=[[BuzzFeed News]]\|url=https://www.buzzfeednews.com/article/tomwarren/wwf-world-wide-fund-nature-parks-torture-death\|access-date=8 June 2022\|archive-date=4 March 2019\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190304183207/https://www.buzzfeednews.com/article/tomwarren/wwf-world-wide-fund-nature-parks-torture-death\|url-status=live}}</ref> ===Republic of the Congo=== Forest rangers, known as ecoguards, dressed in paramilitary uniforms and heavily armed with funding from the WWF, are accused of torture, rape and murder of [[Baka pygmy\|Baka pygmies]] in the proposed Messok Dja protected area as part of an effort to remove the Baka pygmies from the area.<ref name=Guardian1120/> ===Tanzania=== More than 150,000 [[Maasai people]] face eviction in [[Tanzania]] with moves to turn their lands into nature reserves for luxury safari tourism and for [[trophy hunting]] in the [[Ngorongoro Conservation Area]], which is a [[UNESCO]] [[World Heritage Site]], and in [[Loliondo]] near the [[Serengeti National Park]].<ref>{{cite news \|url=https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2022/apr/22/tanzania-maasai-appeal-to-west-stop-evictions-due-to-conservation-plans \|title=Tanzania's Maasai appeal to west to stop eviction for conservation plans \|work=The Guardian \|access-date=6 June 2022 \|date=22 April 2022 \|archive-date=7 June 2022 \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220607012039/https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2022/apr/22/tanzania-maasai-appeal-to-west-stop-evictions-due-to-conservation-plans \|url-status=live }}</ref> Previous attempts to forcefully evict the Maasai have alleged to have included burning their homes.<ref name=theguardian0518>{{cite news\|url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2018/may/10/maasai-herders-driven-off-land-to-make-way-for-luxury-safaris-report-says\|title=Maasai herders driven off land to make way for luxury safaris, report says\|work=The Guardian\|access-date=6 June 2022\|date=10 May 2018\|archive-date=7 June 2022\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220607012040/https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2018/may/10/maasai-herders-driven-off-land-to-make-way-for-luxury-safaris-report-says\|url-status=live}}</ref> ===United States of America=== The preservation of [[Yosemite National Park]] under the advocacy of [[John Muir]] meant the expulsion of the [[Miwok]] and [[Paiute]] [[Native Americans in the United States\|Native American]]s.<ref>{{cite web\|url=https://www.outsideonline.com/outdoor-adventure/environment/yosemite-national-park-native-american-village-miwuk/\|title=Yosemite Finally Reckons with Its Discriminatory Past\|publisher=[[Outside (magazine)\|Outside]]\|access-date=2 June 2022\|date=23 August 2018\|archive-date=7 July 2022\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220707113817/https://www.outsideonline.com/outdoor-adventure/environment/yosemite-national-park-native-american-village-miwuk/\|url-status=live}}</ref> ==See also== [[Ecotourism]] [[Green grabbing]] *{{section link\|World Wide Fund for Nature\|Human rights abuses by paramilitaries}} ==References== {{reflist}} {{Conservation of species}} {{Indigenous rights footer}} [[Category:Ecotourism]] [[Category:Indigenous rights]] [[Category:Nature conservation]] [[Category:Neocolonialism]] [[Category:World Wide Fund for Nature]] [[Category:Environmental controversies]] [[Category:Protected areas]]
Bee hotel	[[File:Hotel zur wilden Biene.jpg\|thumb\|A bee hotel in Germany]]{{Short description\|Artificial bee shelter}} '''Bee hotels''' are a type of [[insect hotel]] for solitary pollinator [[Bee\|bees]], or wasps, providing them rest and shelter.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web \|title=What is a Bee Hotel? {{!}} NC State Extension Publications \|url=https://content.ces.ncsu.edu/how-to-manage-a-successful-bee-hotel/what-is-a-bee-hotel \|access-date=2024-02-18 \|website=content.ces.ncsu.edu \|language=en-US}}</ref> Typically, these bees would nest in hollow plant stems, holes in dead wood, or other natural cavities; a bee hotel attempts to mimic this structure by using a bunch of hollow reeds or holes drilled in wood, among other methods.<ref name=":2" /> Bee hotels can possibly support native bee and wasp populations by adding nesting resources to a habitat.<ref name=":2" /> However, some activists have criticized bee hotels for being ineffective at rehabilitating native bee populations and possibly harming them by providing homes to invasive species and creating grounds where bees can transmit diseases to one another.<ref>{{Cite web \|last=Garrido \|first=Claudia \|date=2020-09-25 \|title=Bee hotels - the good, the bad, and the ugly \|url=https://bee-safe.eu/articles/bee-thoughts/bee-hotels-the-good-the-bad-and-the-ugly/ \|access-date=2024-02-18 \|website=BeeSafe \|language=en-US}}</ref> == Beehive and bee hotel difference == A [[beehive]] is where bee colonies or communities live and raise; a bee hotel's purpose is to solely attract bees that do not make their homes in colonies, but instead build individual nesting sites of their own, referred to as "solitary bees."<ref>{{Cite web \|title=Bee Hotels \|url=https://heritagemuseumsandgardens.org/hmg/bee-hotels/ \|access-date=2023-11-15 \|website=Heritage Museums & Gardens \|language=en-US}}</ref> == Construction and care == [[File:Hotel for bees in Łódź, Park Poniatowskiego 2016 04.jpg\|thumb\|A bee hotel in Poland]] Bee hotels are constructed in a manner to mimic the real life structures that solitary bees nest in. They incorporate reeds, bamboo or other materials to create a bundle of horizontal tubes, open at one end, closed at the other.<ref name=":1">[https://pollinators.msu.edu/publications/building-and-managing-bee-hotels-for-wild-bees/ Building and managing bee hotels for wild bees], Julia Brokaw and Rufus Isaacs. Department of Entomology, [[Michigan State University]], Extension Bulletin E-3337, June 2017</ref> These horizontal tubes range 12-20 cm in length, and 2-12 mm in diameter.<ref name=":1" /> These nested tubes require maintenance and cleanliness as bees in hotel are more susceptible to disease, such as the spread of [[Ascosphaera apis\|chalkbrood]]. However, bee hotels could also provide homes to invasive species and species of wasps that predate on bees, making predation from [[Parasitoid wasp\|parasitic wasps]] and [[Kleptoparasitism\|kleptoparasites]] more likely than in naturally built nests.<ref>{{Cite web \|title=Managing your bee hotel \|url=https://pollinators.psu.edu/assets/uploads/documents/Managing-Your-Bee-Hotel.pdf \|access-date=10 May 2023 \|website=Penn State College of Agricultural Sciences Center for Pollinator Research}}</ref><ref name=":13">{{Citation \|last=Kelley \|first=Judith G. \|title=The Good, the Bad, and the Ugly \|date=2012-03-25 \|work=Monitoring Democracy \|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.23943/princeton/9780691152776.003.0009 \|access-date=2023-11-28 \|publisher=Princeton University Press}}</ref> Dead, walled-up cells from previous years should be removed. Bee cells taken over by the parasitic [[Cacoxenus indagator]] fly should also be removed to prevent spreading.<ref name=":03">{{Cite web \|title=Make a Bee Hotel - The Pollinator Garden \|url=https://www.foxleas.com/make-a-bee-hotel.asp#:~:text=You%20can%20leave%20areas%20of,wasps%20share%20a%20similar%20lifestyle. \|access-date=2023-11-15 \|website=www.foxleas.com}}</ref> Be careful when selecting the wood to construct your bee hotel, as certain woods may not provide sufficient weather protection, especially in wet weather.<ref name=":03" /> Certain woods are also more prone to splintering inside the tunnel.<ref name=":03" /> == Studies and use == [[File:Hotel with wild bees in Paris.jpg\|thumb\|A bee hotel in Paris]]Approximately 30% of the 5,000 native bee species in [[North America]] build nests in tunnels or cavities situated above ground.<ref>“Tunnel Nests for Native Bees - Xerces Society.” ''Tunnel Nests for Native Bees'', xerces.org/sites/default/files/2018-05/13-054_02_XercesSoc_Tunnel-Nests-for-Native-Bees_web.pdf. Accessed 28 Nov. 2023.</ref> The 2021 scientific publication ''Worldwide occurrence records suggest a global decline in bee species richness'' indicates a downwards trend in the global bee population.<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1=Zattara \|first1=Eduardo E. \|last2=Aizen \|first2=Marcelo A. \|date=2021-01-22 \|title=Worldwide occurrence records suggest a global decline in bee species richness \|journal=One Earth \|language=English \|volume=4 \|issue=1 \|pages=114–123 \|doi=10.1016/j.oneear.2020.12.005 \|issn=2590-3330 \|s2cid=234124777 \|doi-access=free \|hdl-access=free \|hdl=11336/183742}}</ref> In order to try and reverse the perceived reduction in bee numbers, some people construct bee hotels.<ref>{{Cite web \|last=Morawski \|first=Bridget Reed \|date=2022-07-26 \|title=3 Things to Know About Urban Beekeeping \|url=https://www.architecturaldigest.com/story/urban-beekeeping \|access-date=2022-08-02 \|website=Architectural Digest \|language=en-US}}</ref> In 2015, [[Fairmont Hotels and Resorts]] added 16 more bee hotels at its locations, adding to the five it created in 2014.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web \|last=Hutchins \|first=Aaron \|date=2015-05-25 \|title=Are bee hotels the answer to saving a species? \|url=https://www.macleans.ca/society/science/are-bee-hotels-the-answer-in-saving-a-species/ \|access-date=2022-08-02 \|website=Macleans.ca \|language=en-US}}</ref> In 2021 former Formula one driver and 4 time world champion [[Sebastian Vettel]] worked with children in Austria to make a bee hotel at the [[Red Bull Ring\|Red Bull ring]].<ref>{{Cite web \|title=How Vettel created a buzz by constructing ‘hotel for bees’ close to the Red Bull Ring {{!}} Formula 1® \|url=https://www.formula1.com/en/latest/article.how-vettel-created-a-buzz-by-constructing-hotel-for-bees-close-to-the-red.3veH0FG5kRX8bTh13BTtSe.html \|access-date=2023-10-16 \|website=www.formula1.com \|language=en}}</ref> A second bee hotel was created by Sebastian Vettel in 2023 at turn 2 of [[Suzuka International Racing Course]].<ref>{{Cite web \|title=How Vettel made Turn 2 at Suzuka a hive of activity \|url=https://www.formula1.com/en/latest/article.how-sebastian-vettel-made-turn-2-at-suzuka-a-hive-of-activity-with-his.1P0SNRVKbk0FynwirqXWLa.html \|access-date=2023-10-16 \|website=www.formula1.com \|language=en}}</ref> A study of 200 bee hotels undertaken by [[Melittology\|melittologist]] Laurence Packer and Scott MacIvor from [[York University]] indicated that 50% of bee hotels in their study were dominated by [[Wasp\|wasps]]. Bees, unlike wasps, favour hotels that receive direct (especially morning) sunlight, and that are closer to the ground. Bee hotels located on multi-storey building rooftops and in shaded areas are more likely to attract wasps. The study critiqued poorly designed and maintained bee hotels, noting that plastic tubes can be a catalyst for mould, narrower tubes can discourage female bees, and proximity of spiders can reduce bee populations. Peter Hallett, a melittologist from the [[University of Toronto]] noted that the wasps observed in the study were not [[Yellowjacket\|yellowjackets]], but solitary wasps that are generally perceived more positively in North America.<ref name=":02">{{Cite journal \|last=Hammadi \|first=Sawas Younus \|last2=Ali \|first2=Ameeda \|date=2022 \|title=Role of some microbes and fungal species to treat different infections caused by other microorganisms \|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.47587/msa.2022.2102 \|journal=Microbial Science Archives \|volume=02 \|issue=01 \|pages=05–08 \|doi=10.47587/msa.2022.2102 \|issn=2583-1666 \|doi-access=free}}</ref> Melittologist Cory Sheffield of the [[Royal Saskatchewan Museum]] observed more positive trends in bee hotels used by bees in orchards in [[Nova Scotia]] and noted that some of the problems from the Toronto study were unique to cities. Both Cory Sheffield and Laurence Packer encouraged creation of bee hotels, despite the issues identified in the Toronto study.<ref name=":02" /> A Canadian study of 200 bee hotels in Toronto indicated that 50% of hotels were dominated by wasps, 25% by invasive, and 25% by natives. == References == {{reflist}} {{Authority Control}} [[Category:Insect conservation]] [[Category:Nature conservation]] [[Category:Nature conservation in Canada]] [[Category:Beekeeping]]
Template:Biodiversity of South Africa	{{Navbox with collapsible groups \| name = Biodiversity of South Africa \| state = {{{state\|}}} \| titlestyle = \| title = [[Biodiversity of South Africa]] \| image = \| listclass = hlist \| selected = {{{selected\|{{{1\|}}}}}} \| bodyclass = hlist \| above= * [[Afrotropical realm]] * [[Marine biodiversity of South Africa]] * [[Temperate Southern Africa]] * [[Western Indo-Pacific]] * [[Wildlife of South Africa]] \| abbr1 = chklst \| group1 = National taxon checklists \| list1 = {{Navbox\|subgroup \| group1 = Plants \| list1 = * [[List of conifers of South Africa\|Conifers]] * [[List of cycads of South Africa\|Cycads]] * [[List of hornworts of South Africa\|Hornworts]] * [[List of liverworts of South Africa\|Liverworts]] * [[List of lycophytes of South Africa\|Lycophytes]] * [[List of mosses of South Africa\|Mosses]] * [[List of pteridophytes of South Africa\|Pteridophytes]] {{Navbox\|subgroup \|group1 = [[Lists of flowering plants of South Africa\|Flowering<br />plants]] \|list1 = [[List of Acorales of South Africa\|Acorales]] [[List of Alismatales of South Africa\|Alismatales]] [[List of Apiales of South Africa\|Apiales]] [[List of Apiaceae of South Africa\|Apiaceae]] [[List of Aquifoliales of South Africa\|Aquifoliales]] [[List of Arecales of South Africa\|Arecales]] [[List of Asparagales of South Africa\|Asparagales]] [[List of Asphodelaceae of South Africa\|Asphodelaceae]] [[List of Hyacinthaceae of South Africa\|Hyacinthaceae]] [[List of Iridaceae of South Africa\|Iridaceae]] [[List of Orchidaceae of South Africa\|Orchidaceae]] [[List of Asterales of South Africa\|Asterales]] [[List of Asteraceae of South Africa\|Asteraceae]] [[List of Boraginales of South Africa\|Boraginales]] [[List of Brassicales of South Africa\|Brassicales]] [[List of Bruniales of South Africa\|Bruniales]] [[List of Buxales of South Africa\|Buxales]] [[List of Canellales of South Africa\|Canellales]] [[List of Caryophyllales of South Africa\|Caryophyllales]] [[List of Aizoaceae of South Africa\|Aizoaceae]] [[List of Celastrales of South Africa\|Celastrales]] [[List of Ceratophyllales of South Africa\|Ceratophyllales]] [[List of Commelinales of South Africa\|Commelinales]] [[List of Cornales of South Africa\|Cornales]] [[List of Crossosomatales of South Africa\|Crossosomatales]] [[List of Cucurbitales of South Africa\|Cucurbitales]] [[List of Dioscoreales of South Africa\|Dioscoreales]] [[List of Dipsacales of South Africa\|Dipsacales]] [[List of Ericales of South Africa\|Ericales]] [[List of Escalloniales of South Africa\|Escalloniales]] [[List of Fabales of South Africa\|Fabales]] [[List of Fagales of South Africa\|Fagales]] [[List of Gentianales of South Africa\|Gentianales]] [[List of Apocynaceae of South Africa\|Apocynaceae]] [[List of Rubiaceae of South Africa\|Rubiaceae]] [[List of Geraniales of South Africa\|Geraniales]] [[List of Gunnerales of South Africa\|Gunnerales]] [[List of Huerteales of South Africa\|Huerteales]] [[List of Icacinales of South Africa\|Icacinales]] [[List of Lamiales of South Africa\|Lamiales]] [[List of Acanthaceae of South Africa\|Acanthaceae]] [[List of Lamiaceae of South Africa\|Lamiaceae]] [[List of Scrophulariaceae of South Africa\|Scrophulariaceae]] [[List of Laurales of South Africa\|Laurales]] [[List of Liliales of South Africa\|Liliales]] [[List of Magnoliales of South Africa\|Magnoliales]] [[List of Malpighiales of South Africa\|Malpighiales]] [[List of Euphorbiaceae of South Africa\|Euphorbiaceae]] [[List of Malvales of South Africa\|Malvales]] [[List of Myrtales of South Africa\|Myrtales]] [[List of Nymphaeales of South Africa\|Nymphaeales]] [[List of Oxalidales of South Africa\|Oxalidales]] [[List of Pandanales of South Africa\|Pandanales]] [[List of Piperales of South Africa\|Piperales]] [[List of Poales of South Africa\|Poales]] *[[List of Poaceae of South Africa\|Poaceae]] [[List of Proteales of South Africa\|Proteales]] [[List of Ranunculales of South Africa\|Ranunculales]] [[List of Rosales of South Africa\|Rosales]] [[List of Santalales of South Africa\|Santalales]] [[List of Sapindales of South Africa\|Sapindales]] [[List of Saxifragales of South Africa\|Saxifragales]] [[List of Solanales of South Africa\|Solanales]] [[List of Vahliales of South Africa\|Vahliales]] [[List of Vitales of South Africa\|Vitales]] [[List of Zingiberales of South Africa\|Zingiberales]] [[List of Zygophyllales of South Africa\|Zygophyllales]] }} \| group2 = Animals \| list2 = * Ascidians<!--[[List of ascidians of South Africa\|Ascidians]] --><!-- --> * Bryozoans<!--[[List of bryozoans of South Africa\|Bryozoans]] --><!-- Bryozoa --> * Comb jellies<!--[[List of comb jellies of South Africa\|Comb jellies]] --><!-- Ctenophora --> * [[List of echinoderms of South Africa\|Echinoderms]]<!-- Echinodermata: Asteroidea, Crinoidea, Echinoidea, Holothuroidea, Ophiuroidea --> * Nematodes<!--[[List of nematodes of South Africa\|Nematodes]] --><!-- Nematoda --> * [[List of polychaete worms of South Africa\|Polychaetes]]<!-- Annelida --> * [[List of marine cnidarians of South Africa\|Marine cnidarians]]<!-- Cnidaria --> * Marine flatworms<!--[[List of marine flatworms of South Africa\|Marine flatworms]] --><!-- also Platyhelminthes: Cestoda, Monogenea, Trematoda, Turbellaria? --> * [[List of sponges of South Africa\|Sponges]]<!-- Poriphera --> * [[List of tardigrades of South Africa\|Tardigrades]]<!-- Tardigrada --> <!-- Checklists not yet published by SANBI but on the development list * [[List of Cycliophora of South Africa\|]] * [[List of Echiura of South Africa\|]] * [[List of Entoprocta of South Africa\|]] * [[List of Chaetognatha of South Africa\|]] * [[List of Brachiopoda of South Africa\|]] * [[List of Gastrotricha of South Africa\|]] * [[List of Gnathostomulida of South Africa\|]] * [[List of Hemichordata of South Africa\|]] * [[List of Kinorhyncha of South Africa\|]] * [[List of Loricifera of South Africa\|]] * [[List of Micrognathozoa of South Africa\|]] * [[List of Myxozoa of South Africa\|]] * [[List of Nematomorpha of South Africa\|]] * [[List of Nemeryea of South Africa\|]] * [[List of Onychophora of South Africa\|]] * [[List of Orthonectida of South Africa\|]] * [[List of Phoronida of South Africa\|]] * [[List of Placozoa of South Africa\|]] * [[List of Priapulida of South Africa\|]] * [[List of Rhombozoa of South Africa\|]] * [[List of Rotifera of South Africa\|]] * [[List of Sipuncula of South Africa\|]] * [[List of Xenacoelomorpha of South Africa\|]] --> {{Navbox\|subgroup \| group1 = Arthropods \| list1 = * [[List of marine crustaceans of South Africa\|Marine crustaceans]] ** [[List of sea spiders of South Africa \|Sea spiders]]<!-- Pycnogonida --> * Centipedes<!-- [[List of centipedes of South Africa\|Centipedes]]--><!-- Chiropoda --> * Millipedes<!-- [[List of millipedes of South Africa\|Millipedes]]--><!-- Diplopoda --> * Entognatha<!-- [[List of Entognatha of South Africa\|Entognatha]]--><!-- Collembola, Diplura --> {{Navbox\|subgroup \| group1 = Arachnids \| list1 = * Harvestmen<!--[[List of harvestmen of South Africa\|Harvestmen]]--><!-- Opiliones --> * Microwhip scorpions<!--[[List of microwhip scorpions of South Africa\|Microwhip scorpions]]--><!-- Palpigradi --> * Pseudoscorpions<!--[[List of pseudoscorpions of South Africa\|Pseudoscorpions]]--><!-- Pseudoscorpiones --> * Scorpions<!--[[List of scorpions of South Africa\|Scorpions]]--><!-- Scorpiones --> * Shorttailed whipscorpions<!--[[List of shorttailed whipscorpions of South Africa\|Shorttailed whipscorpions]]--><!-- Schizomida --> * Solifugae<!--[[List of solifuges of South Africa\|Solifuges]]--><!-- Solifugae --> * Araneae<!--[[List of spiders of South Africa\|Spiders]]--><!-- Araneae --> * Ixodida<!--[[List of ticks of South Africa\|Ticks]]--><!-- Ixodida --> * Whip spiders and tailless whip scorpions<!--[[List of whip spiders and tailless whip scorpions of South Africa\|Whip spiders and tailless whip scorpions]]--><!-- Amblypygi --> \| group2 = Insects \| list2 = * Alderflies, dobsonflies and fishflies <!--[[List of alderflies, dobsonflies and fishflies of South Africa\|Alderflies, dobsonflies and fishflies]]--><!-- Megaloptera --> * Beetles <!--[[List of beetles of South Africa\|Beetles]]--><!-- Coleoptera --> * Booklice, barklice and barkflies <!--[[List of booklice, barklice and barkflies of South Africa\|Booklice, barklice and barkflies]]--><!-- Psocoptera --> * Butterflies and moths <!--[[List of butterflies and moths of South Africa\|Butterflies and moths]]--><!-- Lepidoptera --> * Caddisflies <!--[[List of caddisflies of South Africa\|Caddisflies]]--><!-- Trichoptera --> * Cockroaches and termites <!--[[List of cockroaches and termites of South Africa\|Cockroaches and termites]]--><!-- Blattodea --> * Dragonflies and damselflies <!--[[List of dragonflies and damselflies of South Africa\|Dragonflies and damselflies]]--><!-- Odonata --> * Earwigs <!--[[List of earwigs of South Africa\|Earwigs]]--><!-- Dermaptera --> * Fleas <!--[[List of fleas of South Africa\|Fleas]]--><!-- Siphonaptera --> * Flies <!--[[List of flies of South Africa\|Flies]]--><!-- Diptera --> * Jumping bristletails <!--[[List of jumping bristletails of South Africa\|Jumping bristletails]]--><!-- Archaeognatha --> * Lice <!--[[List of lice of South Africa\|Lice]]--><!-- Phthiraptera --> * Mantises <!--[[List of mantises of South Africa\|Mantises]]--><!-- Mantodea --> * Mayflies <!--[[List of mayflies of South Africa\|Mayflies]]--><!-- Ephemeroptera --> * Net-winged insects <!--[[List of net-winged insects of South Africa\|Net-winged insects]]--><!-- Neuroptera --> * Notoptera <!--[[List of Notoptera of South Africa\|Notoptera]]--> * Orthoptera <!--[[List of Orthoptera of South Africa\|Orthoptera]]--> * Sawflies, wasps, bees, and ants <!--[[List of sawflies, wasps, bees, and ants of South Africa\|Sawflies, wasps, bees, and ants]]--><!-- Hymenoptera --> * Scorpionflies <!--[[List of scorpionflies of South Africa\|Scorpionflies]]--><!-- Mecoptera --> * Silverfish and firebrats <!--[[List of silverfish and firebrats of South Africa\|Silverfish and firebrats]]--><!-- Zygentoma --> * Stick and leaf insects <!--[[List of Stick and leaf insects of South Africa\|Stick and leaf insects]]--><!-- Phasmida --> * Stoneflies <!--[[List of stoneflies of South Africa\|Stoneflies]]--><!-- Plecoptera --> * Strepsiptera <!--[[List of Strepsiptera of South Africa\|Strepsiptera]]--> * Termites <!--[[List of termites of South Africa\|Termites]]--><!-- Isoptera --> * Thrips <!--[[List of thrips of South Africa\|Thrips]]--><!-- Thysanoptera --> * True bugs <!--[[List of true bugs of South Africa\|True bugs]]--><!-- Hemiptera --> * Webspinners <!--[[List of webspinners of South Africa\|Webspinners]]--><!-- Embioptera --> }} \| group2 = \| list2 = \| group3 = Molluscs \| list3 = <!-- To be split into: Aplacophora, Bivalvia, Cephalopoda, Gastropoda (subdivisions), Polyplacophora, Scaphopoda --> * [[List of non-marine molluscs of South Africa\|Non-marine molluscs]] * [[List of marine molluscs of South Africa\|Marine molluscs]] [[List of marine gastropods of South Africa\|Marine gastropods]] * [[List of marine heterobranch gastropods of South Africa\|Marine heterobranch gastropods]] \| group4 = Vertebrates \| list4 = * [[List of amphibians of South Africa\|Amphibians]] * [[List of birds of South Africa\|Birds]] * [[List of freshwater fishes of South Africa\|Freshwater fishes]] * [[List of marine fishes of South Africa\|Marine fishes]] [[List of marine bony fishes of South Africa\|Marine bony fishes]] * [[List of marine spiny-finned fishes of South Africa\|Marine spiny-finned fishes]] **** [[List of marine Perciform fishes of South Africa\|Marine Perciform fishes]] * [[List of mammals of South Africa\|Mammals]] * [[List of reptiles of South Africa\|Reptiles]] }} \| group3 = Seaweeds \| list3 = * [[List of green seaweeds of South Africa\|Green seaweeds]] * [[List of brown seaweeds of South Africa\|Brown seaweeds]] * [[List of red seaweeds of South Africa\|Red seaweeds]] \| group4 = [[List of fungi of South Africa\|Fungi]] \| list4 = * [[List of fungi of South Africa – A\|A]] * [[List of fungi of South Africa – B\|B]] * [[List of fungi of South Africa – C\|C]] * [[List of fungi of South Africa – D\|D]] * [[List of fungi of South Africa – E\|E]] * F<!--[[List of fungi of South Africa – F\|F]]--> * G<!--[[List of fungi of South Africa – G\|G]]--> * [[List of fungi of South Africa – H\|H]] * I<!--[[List of fungi of South Africa – I\|I]]--> * J<!--[[List of fungi of South Africa – J\|J]]--> * K<!--[[List of fungi of South Africa – K\|K]]--> * [[List of fungi of South Africa – L\|L]] * [[List of fungi of South Africa – M\|M]] * N<!-- [[List of fungi of South Africa – N\|N]]--> * O<!--[[List of fungi of South Africa – O\|O]]--> * [[List of fungi of South Africa – P\|P]] * Q<!--[[List of fungi of South Africa – Q\|Q]]--> * R<!--[[List of fungi of South Africa – R\|R]]--> * [[List of fungi of South Africa – S\|S]] * [[List of fungi of South Africa – T\|T]] * [[List of fungi of South Africa – U\|U]] * V<!--[[List of fungi of South Africa – V\|V]]--> * W<!--[[List of fungi of South Africa – W\|W]]--> * X<!--[[List of fungi of South Africa – X\|X]]--> * Y<!--[[List of fungi of South Africa – Y\|Y]]--> * Z<!--[[List of fungi of South Africa – Z\|Z]]--> \| group5 = Related \| list5 = * [[List of bacteria of South Africa]] * [[List of invasive species in South Africa]] * [[List of invasive plant species in South Africa]] * [[List of Oomycetes of South Africa]] * [[List of slime moulds of South Africa]] * [[List of Southern African indigenous trees and woody lianes]] * [[List of botanists by author abbreviation (A)\|List of botanists by author abbreviation]] }} \| abbr2 = chkreg \| group2 = Regional taxon checklists and other minor lists \| list2 = <!--Regional, protected area and other minor checklists--> * [[List of marine invertebrates of the Cape Peninsula and False Bay]] * [[List of marine vertebrates of the Cape Peninsula and False Bay]] * [[List of green seaweeds of the Cape Peninsula and False Bay]] * [[List of brown seaweeds of the Cape Peninsula and False Bay]] * [[List of red seaweeds of the Cape Peninsula and False Bay]] * Related: ** [[Timber trees of Gauteng]] \| abbr3 = biohot \| group3 = [[Biodiversity hotspot]]s and [[Centre of diversity\|Centres of diversity]] \| list3 = * [[Cape Floristic Region]] * [[Maputaland-Pondoland-Albany Hotspot]] * [[Succulent Karoo]] * [[Succulent Karoo]] * [[Cape Floristic Region]] * [[Griqualand West Centre]] * [[Albany Centre]] * [[Drakensberg Alpine Centre]] * [[Soutpansberg Centre]] * [[Wolkberg Centre]] * [[Sekhukhuneland Centre]] * [[Barberton Centre]] * [[Maputaland-Pondoland Region]] \| abbr4 = ecoreg \| group4 = [[Ecoregion]]s \| list4 = * [[List of ecoregions in South Africa]] {{Navbox\|subgroup \| group1 = [[Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests\|Tropical and subtropical<br />moist broadleaf forests]] \| list1 = * [[Knysna–Amatole montane forests]] * [[KwaZulu–Cape coastal forest mosaic]] * [[Maputaland coastal forest mosaic]] \| group2 = [[Tropical and subtropical grasslands, savannas, and shrublands\|Tropical and subtropical grasslands,<br />savannas, and shrublands]] \| list2 = * [[Kalahari Acacia-Baikiaea woodlands]] * [[Bushveld\|Southern Africa bushveld]] * [[Zambezian and mopane woodlands]] \| group3 = [[Montane grasslands and shrublands\|Montane grasslands<br />and shrublands]] \| list3 = * [[Drakensberg alti-montane grasslands and woodlands]] * [[Drakensberg montane grasslands, woodlands and forests]] * [[Highveld grasslands]] * [[Maputaland–Pondoland bushland and thickets]] \| group4 = [[Mediterranean forests, woodlands, and scrub\|Mediterranean forests,<br />woodlands, and scrub]] \| list4 = * [[Albany thickets]] * [[Lowland fynbos and renosterveld]] * [[Montane fynbos and renosterveld]] \| group5 = [[Deserts and xeric shrublands]] \| list5 = * [[Kalahari xeric savanna]] * [[Nama Karoo]] * [[Succulent Karoo]] \| group6 = [[Tundra]] \| list6 = * [[Southern Indian Ocean Islands tundra]] \| group7 = [[Mangrove\|Mangroves]] \| list7 = * [[Southern Africa mangroves]] \| group8 = [[Marine ecoregions of the South African exclusive economic zone\|Marine ecoregions]] \| list8 = * [[Agulhas ecoregion]] * [[Benguela ecoregion]] * [[Delagoa ecoregion]] * [[Natal ecoregion]] * [[Southeast Atlantic ecoregion]] * [[Southwest Indian ecoregion]] }} \| abbr5 = bioveg \| group5 = [[Biome]]s and [[Vegetation classification]] \| list5 = * [[List of vegetation types of South Africa]] {{Navbox\|subgroup \|group9 = [[Savanna]] \|list9 = * [[Andesite Mountain Bushveld]] * [[Aoub Duneveld]] * [[Barberton Serpentine Sourveld]] * [[Bhisho Thornveld]] * [[Cathedral Mopane Bushveld]] * [[Central Sandy Bushveld]] * [[Delagoa Lowveld]] * [[Dwaalboom Thornveld]] * [[Dwarsberg-Swartruggens Mountain Bushveld]] * [[Eastern Valley Bushveld]] * [[Gabbro Grassy Bushveld]] * [[Gauteng Shale Mountain Bushveld]] * [[Ghaap Plateau Vaalbosveld]] * [[Gold Reef Mountain Bushveld]] * [[Gordonia Duneveld]] * [[Gordonia Kameeldoring Bushveld]] * [[Gordonia Plains Shrubland]] * [[Granite Lowveld]] * [[Gravelotte Rocky Bushveld]] * [[Kaalrug Mountain Bushveld]] * [[Kathu Bushveld]] * [[Kimberley Thornveld]] * [[Koranna-Langeberg Mountain Bushveld]] * [[Kuruman Mountain Bushveld]] * [[Kuruman Thornveld]] * [[Kuruman Vaalbosveld]] * [[KwaZulu-Natal Hinterland Thornveld]] * [[KwaZulu-Natal Sandstone Sourveld]] * [[Lebombo Summit Sourveld]] * [[Legogote Sour Bushveld]] * [[Limpopo Ridge Bushveld]] * [[Limpopo Sweet Bushveld]] * [[Loskop Mountain Bushveld]] * [[Loskop Thornveld]] * [[Lowveld Rugged Mopaneveld]] * [[Madikwe Dolomite Bushveld]] * [[Mafikeng Bushveld]] * [[Makatini Clay Thicket]] * [[Makhado Sweet Bushveld]] * [[Makuleke Sandy Bushveld]] * [[Malelane Mountain Bushveld]] * [[Mamabolo Mountain Bushveld]] * [[Marikana Thornveld]] * [[Molopo Bushveld]] * [[Moot Plains Bushveld]] * [[Mopane Basalt Shrubland]] * [[Mopane Gabbro Shrubland]] * [[Musina Mopane Bushveld]] * [[Ngongoni Veld]] * [[Norite Koppies Bushveld]] * [[Northern Lebombo Bushveld]] * [[Northern Zululand Sourveld]] * [[Nossob Bushveld]] * [[Nwambyia-Pumbe Sandy Bushveld]] * [[Ohrigstad Mountain Bushveld]] * [[Olifantshoek Plains Thornveld]] * [[Phalaborwa-Timbavati Mopaneveld]] * [[Pilanesberg Mountain Bushveld]] * [[Polokwane Plateau Bushveld]] * [[Postmasburg Thornveld]] * [[Poung Dolomite Mountain Bushveld]] * [[Pretoriuskop Sour Bushveld]] * [[Roodeberg Bushveld]] * [[Schmidtsdrif Thornveld]] * [[Schweizer-Reneke Bushveld]] * [[Sekhukhune Mountain Bushveld]] * [[Sekhukhune Plains Bushveld]] * [[South Eastern Coastal Thornveld]] * [[Southern Lebombo Bushveld]] * [[Soutpansberg Mountain Bushveld]] * [[Springbokvlakte Thornveld]] * [[Stella Bushveld]] * [[Swaziland Sour Bushveld]] * [[Tembe Sandy Bushveld]] * [[Thukela Thornveld]] * [[Thukela Valley Bushveld]] * [[Tsende Mopaneveld]] * [[Tshokwane-Hlane Basalt Lowveld]] * [[Tzaneen Sour Bushveld]] * [[Vaalbos Rocky Shrubland]] * [[VhaVenda Miombo]] * [[Waterberg Mountain Bushveld]] * [[Western Maputaland Clay Bushveld]] * [[Western Maputaland Sandy Bushveld]] * [[Western Sandy Bushveld]] * [[Zeerust Thornveld]] * [[Zululand Coastal Thornveld]] * [[Zululand Lowveld]] \|group10 = [[Grassland]] \|list10 = * [[Aliwal North Dry Grassland]] * [[Amathole Mistbelt Grassland]] * [[Amathole Montane Grassland]] * [[Amersfoort Highveld Clay Grassland]] * [[Barberton Montane Grassland]] * [[Basotho Montane Shrubland]] * [[Bedford Dry Grassland]] * [[Besemkaree Koppies Shrubland]] * [[Bloemfontein Dry Grassland]] * [[Bloemfontein Karroid Shrubland]] * [[Carletonville Dolomite Grassland]] * [[Central Free State Grassland]] * [[Drakensberg Afroalpine Heathland]] * [[Drakensberg Foothill Moist Grassland]] * [[Drakensberg-Amathole Afromontane Fynbos]] * [[East Griqualand Grassland]] * [[Eastern Free State Clay Grassland]] * [[Eastern Free State Sandy Grassland]] * [[Eastern Highveld Grassland]] * [[Egoli Granite Grassland]] * [[Frankfort Highveld Grassland]] * [[Income Sandy Grassland]] * [[Ithala Quartzite Sourveld]] * [[KaNgwane Montane Grassland]] * [[Karoo Escarpment Grassland]] * [[Klerksdorp Thornveld]] * [[KwaZulu-Natal Highland Thornveld]] * [[Leolo Summit Sourveld]] * [[Lesotho Highland Basalt Grassland]] * [[Low Escarpment Moist Grassland]] * [[Lydenburg Montane Grassland]] * [[Lydenburg Thornveld]] * [[Mabela Sandy Grassland]] * [[Midlands Mistbelt Grassland]] * [[Mooi River Highland Grassland]] * [[Mthatha Moist Grassland]] * [[Northern Drakensberg Highland Grassland]] * [[Northern Escarpment Afromontane Fynbos]] * [[Northern Escarpment Dolomite Grassland]] * [[Northern Escarpment Quartzite Sourveld]] * [[Northern Free State Shrubland]] * [[Northern KwaZulu-Natal Moist Grassland]] * [[Northern KwaZulu-Natal Shrubland]] * [[Northern Zululand Mistbelt Grassland]] * [[Paulpietersburg Moist Grassland]] * [[Queenstown Thornveld]] * [[Rand Highveld Grassland]] * [[Sekhukhune Montane Grassland]] * [[Senqu Montane Shrubland]] * [[Southern Drakensberg Highland Grassland]] * [[Southern KwaZulu-Natal Moist Grassland]] * [[Soutpansberg Summit Sourveld]] * [[Soweto Highveld Grassland]] * [[Steenkampsberg Montane Grassland]] * [[Stormberg Plateau Grassland]] * [[Strydpoort Summit Sourveld]] * [[Tarkastad Montane Shrubland]] * [[Tsakane Clay Grassland]] * [[Tsomo Grassland]] * [[uKhahlamba Basalt Grassland]] * [[Vaal Reefs Dolomite Sinkhole Woodland]] * [[Vaal-Vet Sandy Grassland]] * [[Vredefort Dome Granite Grassland]] * [[Wakkerstroom Montane Grassland]] * [[Waterberg-Magaliesberg Summit Sourveld]] * [[Western Free State Clay Grassland]] * [[Western Highveld Sandy Grassland]] * [[Western Lesotho Basalt Shrubland]] * [[Winburg Grassy Shrubland]] * [[Wolkberg Dolomite Grassland]] * [[Woodbush Granite Grassland]] * [[Xhariep Karroid Grassland]] * [[Zastron Moist Grassland]] \|group12 = [[Fynbos]] \|list12 = * [[Agulhas Limestone Fynbos]] * [[Agulhas Sand Fynbos]] * [[Albertinia Sand Fynbos]] * [[Algoa Sandstone Fynbos]] * [[Atlantis Sand Fynbos]] * [[Bokkeveld Sandstone Fynbos]] * [[Boland Granite Fynbos]] * [[Breede Alluvium Fynbos]] * [[Breede Quartzite Fynbos]] * [[Breede Sand Fynbos]] * [[Breede Shale Fynbos]] * [[Canca Limestone Fynbos]] * [[Cape Flats Sand Fynbos]] * [[Cape Winelands Shale Fynbos]] * [[Cederberg Sandstone Fynbos]] * [[Central Coastal Shale Band Vegetation]] * [[Central Inland Shale Band Vegetation]] * [[De Hoop Limestone Fynbos]] * [[Eastern Coastal Shale Band Vegetation]] * [[Eastern Inland Shale Band Vegetation]] * [[Elgin Shale Fynbos]] * [[Elim Ferricrete Fynbos]] * [[Garden Route Granite Fynbos]] * [[Garden Route Shale Fynbos]] * [[Graafwater Sandstone Fynbos]] * [[Greyton Shale Fynbos]] * [[Grootrivier Quartzite Fynbos]] * [[Hangklip Sand Fynbos]] * [[Hawequas Sandstone Fynbos]] * [[Hopefield Sand Fynbos]] * [[Kamiesberg Granite Fynbos]] * [[Kango Conglomerate Fynbos]] * [[Knysna Sand Fynbos]] * [[Kogelberg Sandstone Fynbos]] * [[Kouebokkeveld Alluvium Fynbos]] * [[Kouebokkeveld Shale Fynbos]] * [[Kouga Grassy Sandstone Fynbos]] * [[Kouga Sandstone Fynbos]] * [[Leipoldtville Sand Fynbos]] * [[Loerie Conglomerate Fynbos]] * [[Lourensford Alluvium Fynbos]] * [[Matjiesfontein Quartzite Fynbos]] * [[Matjiesfontein Shale Fynbos]] * [[Montagu Shale Fynbos]] * [[Namaqualand Sand Fynbos]] * [[North Hex Sandstone Fynbos]] * [[North Kammanassie Sandstone Fynbos]] * [[North Langeberg Sandstone Fynbos]] * [[North Outeniqua Sandstone Fynbos]] * [[North Rooiberg Sandstone Fynbos]] * [[North Sonderend Sandstone Fynbos]] * [[North Swartberg Sandstone Fynbos]] * [[Northern Inland Shale Band Vegetation]] * [[Olifants Sandstone Fynbos]] * [[Overberg Sandstone Fynbos]] * [[Peninsula Granite Fynbos]] * [[Peninsula Sandstone Fynbos]] * [[Piketberg Sandstone Fynbos]] * [[Potberg Ferricrete Fynbos]] * [[Potberg Sandstone Fynbos]] * [[Robertson Granite Fynbos]] * [[South Hex Sandstone Fynbos]] * [[South Kammanassie Sandstone Fynbos]] * [[South Langeberg Sandstone Fynbos]] * [[South Outeniqua Sandstone Fynbos]] * [[South Rooiberg Sandstone Fynbos]] * [[South Sonderend Sandstone Fynbos]] * [[South Swartberg Sandstone Fynbos]] * [[Southern Cape Dune Fynbos]] * [[Stinkfonteinberge Quartzite Fynbos]] * [[Suurberg Quartzite Fynbos]] * [[Suurberg Shale Fynbos]] * [[Swartberg Altimontane Sandstone Fynbos]] * [[Swartberg Shale Fynbos]] * [[Swartland Alluvium Fynbos]] * [[Swartruggens Quartzite Fynbos]] * [[Swellendam Silcrete Fynbos]] * [[Tsitsikamma Sandstone Fynbos]] * [[Western Altimontane Sandstone Fynbos]] * [[Western Coastal Shale Band Vegetation]] * [[Winterhoek Sandstone Fynbos]] \|group13 = [[Renosterveld]] \|list13 = * [[Baviaanskloof Shale Renosterveld]] * [[Breede Alluvium Renosterveld]] * [[Breede Shale Renosterveld]] * [[Central Mountain Shale Renosterveld]] * [[Central Ruêns Shale Renosterveld]] * [[Ceres Shale Renosterveld]] * [[Eastern Ruêns Shale Renosterveld]] * [[Hantam Plateau Dolerite Renosterveld]] * [[Humansdorp Shale Renosterveld]] * [[Kango Limestone Renosterveld]] * [[Langkloof Shale Renosterveld]] * [[Matjiesfontein Shale Renosterveld]] * [[Montagu Shale Renosterveld]] * [[Mossel Bay Shale Renosterveld]] * [[Namaqualand Granite Renosterveld]] * [[Nieuwoudtville Shale Renosterveld]] * [[Nieuwoudtville-Roggeveld Dolerite Renosterveld]] * [[Peninsula Shale Renosterveld]] * [[Robertson Granite Renosterveld]] * [[Roggeveld Shale Renosterveld]] * [[Ruêns Silcrete Renosterveld]] * [[Swartberg Shale Renosterveld]] * [[Swartland Alluvium Renosterveld]] * [[Swartland Granite Renosterveld]] * [[Swartland Shale Renosterveld]] * [[Swartland Silcrete Renosterveld]] * [[Uniondale Shale Renosterveld]] * [[Vanrhynsdorp Shale Renosterveld]] * [[Western Ruêns Shale Renosterveld]] \|group14 = [[Succulent Karoo\|Succulent<br />Karoo]] \|list14 = * [[Aggeneys Gravel Vygieveld]] * [[Agter-Sederberg Shrubland]] * [[Anenous Plateau Shrubland]] * [[Bushmanland Inselberg Shrubland]] * [[Central Knersvlakte Vygieveld]] * [[Central Richtersveld Mountain Shrubland]] * [[Citrusdal Vygieveld]] * [[Die Plate Succulent Shrubland]] * [[Doringrivier Quartzite Karoo]] * [[Eastern Little Karoo]] * [[Eenriet Plains Succulent Shrubland]] * [[Goariep Mountain Succulent Shrubland]] * [[Hantam Karoo]] * [[Kamiesberg Mountains Shrubland]] * [[Klawer Sandy Shrubland]] * [[Knersvlakte Dolomite Vygieveld]] * [[Knersvlakte Quartz Vygieveld]] * [[Knersvlakte Shale Vygieveld]] * [[Koedoesberge-Moordenaars Karoo]] * [[Kosiesberg Succulent Shrubland]] * [[Lekkersing Succulent Shrubland]] * [[Little Karoo Quartz Vygieveld]] * [[Namaqualand Arid Grassland]] * [[Namaqualand Blomveld]] * [[Namaqualand Coastal Duneveld]] * [[Namaqualand Heuweltjie Strandveld]] * [[Namaqualand Heuweltjieveld]] * [[Namaqualand Inland Duneveld]] * [[Namaqualand Klipkoppe Shrubland]] * [[Namaqualand Shale Shrubland]] * [[Namaqualand Spinescent Grassland]] * [[Namaqualand Strandveld]] * [[Northern Knersvlakte Vygieveld]] * [[Northern Richtersveld Scorpionstailveld]] * [[Northern Richtersveld Yellow Duneveld]] * [[Oograbies Plains Sandy Grassland]] * [[Piketberg Quartz Succulent Shrubland]] * [[Platbakkies Succulent Shrubland]] * [[Prince Albert Succulent Karoo]] * [[Richtersveld Coastal Duneveld]] * [[Richtersveld Red Duneveld]] * [[Richtersveld Sandy Coastal Scorpionstailveld]] * [[Riethuis-Wallekraal Quartz Vygieveld]] * [[Robertson Karoo]] * [[Roggeveld Karoo]] * [[Rooiberg Quartz Vygieveld]] * [[Rosyntjieberg Succulent Shrubland]] * [[Southern Namaqualand Quartzite Klipkoppe Shrubland]] * [[Southern Richtersveld Inselberg Shrubland]] * [[Southern Richtersveld Scorpionstailveld]] * [[Southern Richtersveld Yellow Duneveld]] * [[Steytlerville Karoo]] * [[Stinkfonteinberge Eastern Apron Shrubland]] * [[Swartruggens Quartzite Karoo]] * [[Tanqua Escarpment Shrubland]] * [[Tanqua Karoo]] * [[Tatasberg Mountain Succulent Shrubland]] * [[Umdaus Mountains Succulent Shrubland]] * [[Upper Annisvlakte Succulent Shrubland]] * [[Vanrhynsdorp Gannabosveld]] * [[Vyftienmyl se Berge Succulent Shrubland]] * [[Western Bushmanland Klipveld]] * [[Western Gwarrieveld]] * [[Western Little Karoo]] * [[Willowmore Gwarrieveld]] \|group15 = [[Albany Thicket and Strandveld\|Albany<br />Thicket<br />and<br />Strandveld]] \|list15 = * [[Albany Arid Thicket]] * [[Albany Bontveld]] * [[Albany Mesic Thicket]] * [[Albany Valley Thicket]] * [[Baviaans Valley Thicket]] * [[Bethelsdorp Bontveld]] * [[Blombos Strandveld]] * [[Buffels Mesic Thicket]] * [[Buffels Valley Thicket]] * [[Cape Flats Dune Strandveld]] * [[Crossroads Grassland Thicket]] * [[Doubledrift Karroid Thicket]] * [[Eastern Gwarrieveld]] * [[Elands Forest Thicket]] * [[Escarpment Arid Thicket]] * [[Escarpment Mesic Thicket]] * [[Escarpment Valley Thicket]] * [[Fish Arid Thicket]] * [[Fish Mesic Thicket]] * [[Fish Valley Thicket]] * [[Gamka Arid Thicket]] * [[Gamka Valley Thicket]] * [[Geluk Grassland Thicket]] * [[Goukamma Dune Thicket]] * [[Gouritz Valley Thicket]] * [[Grahamstown Grassland Thicket]] * [[Grassridge Bontveld]] * [[Groot Brak Dune Strandveld]] * [[Hamburg Dune Thicket]] * [[Hartenbos Dune Thicket]] * [[Kasouga Dune Thicket]] * [[Koedoeskloof Karroid Thicket]] * [[Lambert's Bay Strandveld]] * [[Langebaan Dune Strandveld]] * [[Mons Ruber Fynbos Thicket]] * [[Motherwell Karroid Thicket]] * [[Nanaga Savanna Thicket]] * [[Oudshoorn Karroid Thicket]] * [[Overberg Dune Strandveld]] * [[Saldanha Flats Strandveld]] * [[Saldanha Granite Strandveld]] * [[Saldanha Limestone Strandveld]] * [[Saltaire Karroid Thicket]] * [[Sardinia Forest Thicket]] * [[St Francis Dune Thicket]] * [[Subtropical Dune Thicket]] * [[Sundays Arid Thicket]] * [[Sundays Mesic Thicket]] * [[Sundays Valley Thicket]] * [[Thorndale Forest Thicket]] * [[Umtiza Forest Thicket]] * [[Vanstadens Forest Thicket]] * [[Western Gwarrieveld]] * [[Willowmore Gwarrieveld]] \|group16 = [[Nama Karoo and desert\|Nama<br />Karoo<br />and<br />desert]] \|list16 = * [[Albany Broken Veld]] * [[Blouputs Karroid Thornveld]] * [[Bushmanland Arid Grassland]] * [[Bushmanland Basin Shrubland]] * [[Bushmanland Sandy Grassland]] * [[Eastern Lower Karoo]] * [[Eastern Upper Karoo]] * [[Gamka Karoo]] * [[Kalahari Karroid Shrubland]] * [[Lower Gariep Broken Veld]] * [[Lower Karoo Gwarrieveld]] * [[Northern Upper Karoo]] * [[Upper Karoo Hardeveld]] * [[Western Upper Karoo]] * [[Alexander Bay Coastal Duneveld]] * [[Eastern Gariep Plains Desert]] * [[Eastern Gariep Rocky Desert]] * [[Helskloof Canyon Desert]] * [[Kahams Mountain Desert]] * [[Kwaggarug Mountain Desert]] * [[Namib Lichen Fields]] * [[Noms Mountain Desert]] * [[Northern Nababiepsberge Mountain Desert]] * [[Richtersberg Mountain Desert]] * [[Richtersveld Sheet Wash Desert]] * [[Southern Nababiepsberge Mountain Desert]] * [[Western Gariep Hills Desert]] * [[Western Gariep Lowland Desert]] * [[Western Gariep Plains Desert]] \|group17 = Azonal \|list17 = * [[Albany Alluvial Vegetation]] * [[Albany Dune Strandveld]] * [[Algoa Dune Strandveld]] * [[Arid Estuarine Salt Marshes]] * [[Bushmanland Vloere]] * [[Cape Estuarine Salt Marshes]] * [[Cape Inland Salt Pans]] * [[Cape Lowland Alluvial Vegetation]] * [[Cape Lowland Freshwater Wetlands]] * [[Cape Seashore Vegetation]] * [[Cape Vernal Pools]] * [[Drakensberg Wetlands]] * [[Eastern Temperate Freshwater Wetlands]] * [[Fynbos Riparian Vegetation]] * [[Highveld Alluvial Vegetation]] * [[Highveld Salt Pans]] * [[Lesotho Mires]] * [[Lower Gariep Alluvial Vegetation]] * [[Muscadel Riviere]] * [[Namaqualand Riviere]] * [[Namaqualand Salt Pans]] * [[Namaqualand Seashore Vegetation]] * [[Namib Seashore Vegetation]] * [[Southern Kalahari Mekgacha]] * [[Southern Kalahari Salt Pans]] * [[Southern Karoo Riviere]] * [[Subantarctic Kelp Bed Vegetation]] * [[Subtropical Alluvial Vegetation]] * [[Subtropical Dune Thicket]] * [[Subtropical Estuarine Salt Marshes]] * [[Subtropical Freshwater Wetlands]] * [[Subtropical Salt Pans]] * [[Subtropical Seashore Vegetation]] * [[Tanqua Wash Riviere]] * [[Upper Gariep Alluvial Vegetation]] \|group18 = [[Forest and coastal belt\|Forest<br />and<br />Coastal<br />belt]] \|list18 = * [[KwaZulu-Natal Coastal Belt]] * [[Maputaland Coastal Belt]] * [[Maputaland Wooded Grassland]] * [[Pondoland-Natal Sandstone Coastal Sourveld]] * [[Transkei Coastal Belt]] * [[Ironwood Dry Forest]] * [[Lowveld Riverine Forest]] * [[Mangrove Forest]] * [[Northern Afrotemperate Forest]] * [[Northern Coastal Forest]] * [[Northern Mistbelt Forest]] * [[Sand Forest]] * [[Scarp Forest]] * [[Southern Afrotemperate Forest]] * [[Southern Coastal Forest]] * [[Southern Mistbelt Forest]] * [[Swamp Forest]] \|group19 = [[Subantarctic]]<br />biome \|list19 = * [[Subantarctic Biotic Herbfield and Grassland]] * [[Subantarctic Cinder Cone Vegetation]] * [[Subantarctic Coastal Vegetation]] * [[Subantarctic Drainage Line Vegetation]] * [[Subantarctic Fellfield]] * [[Subantarctic Fernbrake Vegetation]] * [[Subantarctic Mire]] * [[Subantarctic Polar Desert]] \|group20 = not on<br />VEGMAP \|list20 = * [[List of forests of South Africa]] * [[List of forests of the Eastern Cape]] * [[Forests of KwaZulu-Natal]] [[KwaZulu-Natal Dune Forest]] [[KwaZulu-Natal coastal lowland forest]] * [[List of forests of the Western Cape]] }} \| abbr6 = proare \| group6 = [[List of protected areas of South Africa\|Protected areas of South Africa]] \| list6 = * [[Index of protected areas of South Africa]] {{Navbox\|subgroup \| group1 = [[South African National Parks\|South<br />African<br />National<br />Parks]] \| list1 = * [[Addo Elephant National Park]] * [[Agulhas National Park]] * [[Augrabies Falls National Park]] * [[Bontebok National Park]] * [[Camdeboo National Park]] * [[Garden Route National Park]] [[Tsitsikamma National Park]] [[Wilderness National Park]] * [[Golden Gate Highlands National Park]] * [[Karoo National Park]] * [[Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park]] * [[Kruger National Park]] * [[Mapungubwe National Park]] * [[Marakele National Park]] * [[Mokala National Park]] * [[Mountain Zebra National Park]] * [[Namaqua National Park]] * [[Table Mountain National Park]] * [[Tankwa Karoo National Park]] * [[West Coast National Park]] * [[ǀAi-ǀAis/Richtersveld Transfrontier Park]] \| group2 = [[Biosphere reserve\|Biosphere<br />reserves]] \| list2 = * [[Cape Winelands Biosphere Reserve]] * [[Gouritz Cluster Biosphere Reserve]] * [[Kogelberg Nature Reserve]] * [[Kruger to Canyons Biosphere]] * [[Magaliesberg Biosphere Reserve]] * [[Waterberg Biosphere]] \| group3 = [[Marine protected areas of South Africa\|Marine<br />protected<br />areas of<br />South<br />Africa]] \| list3= {{Navbox\|subgroup \| group1 = Coastal \| list1 = * [[Addo Elephant National Park Marine Protected Area]] * [[Amathole Marine Protected Area]] * [[Betty's Bay Marine Protected Area]] * [[Bird Island Marine Protected Area]] * [[De Hoop Marine Protected Area]] * [[Dwesa-Cwebe Marine Protected Area]] * [[Goukamma Marine Protected Area]] * [[Helderberg Marine Protected Area]] * [[Hluleka Marine Protected Area]]I * [[iSimangaliso Marine Protected Area]] * [[Jutten Island Marine Protected Area]] * [[Langebaan Lagoon Marine Protected Area]] * [[Malgas Island Marine Protected Area]] <!--* Maputaland --> * [[Marcus Island Marine Protected Area]] <!--* Mkambati --> * [[Namaqua National Park Marine Protected Area]] * [[Pondoland Marine Protected Area]] * [[Robben Island Marine Protected Area]] * [[Rocherpan Marine Protected Area]] * [[Robberg Marine Protected Area]] * [[Sardinia Bay Marine Protected Area]] * [[Sixteen Mile Beach Marine Protected Area]] * [[Stilbaai Marine Protected Area]] * [[Table Mountain National Park Marine Protected Area]] * [[Trafalgar Marine Protected Area]] * [[Tsitsikamma Marine Protected Area]] * [[uThukela Banks Marine Protected Area]] * [[Walker Bay Whale Sanctuary]] \| group2 = Offshore \| list2 = * [[Agulhas Bank Complex Marine Protected Area]] * [[Agulhas Front Marine Protected Area]] * [[Agulhas Muds Marine Protected Area]] * [[Aliwal Shoal Marine Protected Area]] * [[Amathole Offshore Marine Protected Area]] * [[Benguela Bank Marine Protected Area]] * [[Benguela Muds Marine Protected Area]] * [[Browns Bank Complex Marine Protected Area]] * [[Browns Bank Corals Marine Protected Area]] * [[Cape Canyon Marine Protected Area]] * [[Childs Bank Marine Protected Area]] * [[iSimangaliso Offshore Marine Protected Area]] * [[Namaqua Fossil Forest Marine Protected Area]] * [[Orange Shelf Edge Marine Protected Area]] * [[Prince Edward Islands Marine Protected Area]] * [[Protea Banks Marine Protected Area]] * [[Southeast Atlantic Seamounts Marine Protected Area]] * [[Southwest Indian Seamount Marine Protected Area]] * [[Port Elizabeth Corals Marine Protected Area]] * [[uThukela Banks Marine Protected Area]] }} \| group5 = Management<br />organisations \| list5 = * [[CapeNature]] * [[City of Cape Town]] * [[Department of Environment, Forestry and Fisheries]] * [[Department of Science and Innovation]] * [[Eastern Cape Parks]] * [[Ezemvelo KZN Wildlife]] * [[iSimangaliso Wetland Park Authority]] * [[Nelson Mandela Bay Metropolitan Municipality]] * [[South African National Parks]] }} \| abbr7 = natres \| group7 = Biodiversity research in SA \| list7 = * [[Bolus Herbarium]] * [[Iziko South African Museum]] * [[National Research Foundation (South Africa)\|National Research Foundation]] * [[South African National Collection of Fungi]] {{navbox\|subgroup \| group1 = Research<br />organisations \| list1 = * [[Animal Demography Unit]] * [[BirdLife South Africa]] * [[South African Association for Marine Biological Research]] * [[South African Environmental Observation Network]] * [[South African Institute for Aquatic Biodiversity]] * [[South African National Biodiversity Institute]] \|group2 = Research<br />projects \|list2 = * [[African Coelacanth Ecosystem Programme]] * [[National Biodiversity Assessment]] * [[National Vegetation Map Project]] * [[Reef Atlas Project]] * [[SeaKeys]] \| group3 = Citizen science<br />databases \| list3 = * [[iNaturalist]] * [[iSpot]] * [[Percy FitzPatrick Institute of African Ornithology\|Percy FitzPatrick Institute of African Ornithology Virtual Museum]] \| group4 = [[List of botanical gardens in South Africa\|Botanical<br />gardens]] \| list4 = * [[Durban Botanic Gardens]] * [[Free State National Botanical Garden]] * [[Garden Route Botanical Garden]] * [[Hantam National Botanical Garden]] * [[Harold Porter National Botanical Garden]] * [[Johannesburg Botanical Garden]] * [[Karoo Desert National Botanical Garden]] * [[Kirstenbosch National Botanical Garden]] * [[KwaZulu-Natal National Botanical Garden]] * [[Lowveld National Botanical Garden]] * [[Makana Botanical Gardens]] * [[Manie van der Schijff Botanical Garden]] * [[North-West University Botanical Garden]] * [[Pretoria National Botanical Garden]] * [[Stellenbosch University Botanical Garden]] * [[University of KwaZulu-Natal Botanical Garden]] * [[Walter Sisulu National Botanical Garden]] \| group5 = Taxonomists \| list5 = * [[List of authors of South African botanical taxa]] * [[List of authors of South African animal taxa]] <!--Taxonomists who worked in South Africa and made significant contributions to the taxonomic lists of the region * [[Robert J. Anderson (phycologist)\|Robert Anderson]] * [[J. L. Barnard]] * [[K. H. Barnard]] * [[John J. Bolton]] * [[George M. Branch]] * [[Jennifer Day (biologist)]] * [[Wayne Florence]] * [[Terrence Gosliner]] * [[Charles L. Griffiths]] * [[P. Heemstra]] * [[Brian Kensley]] * [[N. A. H. Millard]] * [[H. Milne-Edwards]] * [[T. Samaai]] * [[J. L. B. Smith]] * [[H. Stegenga]]--> }} \| abbr8 = relate \| group8 = Related \| list8 = <!-- Peripherally related, no need for navbox use at target articles --> * [[Biodiversity]] * [[Biosphere]] * [[Ecotourism]] * [[Encyclopedia of Life]] * [[Environmental impact of recreational diving]] * [[Low impact diving]] * [[International Union for Conservation of Nature]] * [[Marine protected area]] * [[National park]] * [[Nature conservation]] * [[Nature reserve]] * [[Scuba diving tourism]] * [[South African Sustainable Seafood Initiative]] * [[World Register of Marine Species]] * [[World Wide Fund for Nature]] {{navbox\|subgroup <!-- More directly relevant topics where navbox inclusion is appropriate --> \| group1 = Regional biodiversity \| list1 = * [[Biodiversity of Cape Town]] ** [[List of nature reserves in Cape Town]] \| group2 = Legislation \| list2 = * [[Marine Living Resources Act, 18 of 1998]] * [[National Environmental Management Act, 1998]] [[National Environmental Management: Biodiversity Act, 10 of 2004]] [[National Environmental Management: Integrated Coastal Management Act, 24 of 2008]] ** [[National Environmental Management: Protected Areas Act, 57 of 2003]] \| group3 = Publications \| list3 = * [[List of field guides to South African biota]] }} \| below = {{icon\|category}} Categories: [[:Category:Biodiversity of South Africa\|Biodiversity of South Africa]] {{icon\|list}} *'''[[Index of protected areas of South Africa\|Index]]''' }}<noinclude>{{documentation\|content= {{collapsible option}} This is a very large navbox and should autocollapse other than in exceptional cicumstances. The unnamed parameter should be set to expand the collapsible group in which the topic af the article is listed. If it is listed in more than one group, use the most generally applicable. If in doubt, ask at the talk page. The template has an unnamed parameter to display the relevant section for the article. Only one section will open, if the article is linked from more than one subgroup, choose the most relevant. The abbreviations used can be viewed in the template code, and are listed here for easy reference, but may be out of date. The parameter follows a pipe in the template call, eg. <code><nowiki>{{Biodiversity of South Africa\|proare}}</nowiki></code>. {{{!}} class="wikitable" {{!}}- ! Navbov collapsible group title !! Abbreviation {{!}}- {{!}} National taxon checklists {{!}}{{!}} chklst {{!}}- {{!}} Regional taxon checklists {{!}}{{!}} chkreg {{!}}- {{!}} Biodiversity hotspots and Centres of diversity {{!}}{{!}} biohot {{!}}- {{!}} Ecoregions {{!}}{{!}} ecoreg {{!}}- {{!}} Biomes and Vegetation classification {{!}}{{!}} bioveg {{!}}- {{!}} Protected areas of South Africa {{!}}{{!}} proare {{!}}- {{!}} Biodiversity research in SA {{!}}{{!}} natres {{!}}- {{!}} Related {{!}}{{!}} relate {{!}}} [[Category:Nature conservation]] [[Category:South Africa navigational boxes‎]] }}</noinclude>
Central Conservation Area	{{Short description\|Conservation area in Costa Rica}} '''Central Conservation Area''' ({{lang-es\|Área de Conservación Central (ACC)}}), is an administrative area which is managed by [[SINAC]] for the purposes of conservation in the central part of [[Costa Rica]], notably the volcanic areas of the [[Cordillera Central, Costa Rica\|Cordillera Central]]. It contains six [[National Park]]s, several [[wildlife refuges]] and other types of [[nature reserves]].<ref>{{cite web \|title=Área de Conservación Central (ACC) \|url=http://www.sinac.go.cr/ES/ac/accvc/Paginas/default.aspx \|publisher=SINAC}}</ref>{{Infobox protected area \| name = Central Conservation Area \| alt_name = {{lang\|es\|Área de Conservación Central}} \| photo = \| map_image = Área_de_Conservación_Central,_SINAC,_Costa_Rica.svg \| map_caption = Location of the area, labeled ''ACC'' in the center of the country. \| photo_caption = \| location = [[San José Province]], [[Alajuela Province]], [[Cartago Province]], [[Heredia Province]], [[Puntarenas Province]], [[Costa Rica]] \| nearest_city = \| coordinates = {{coord\|10.1000\|N\|84.0833\|W\|source:wikidata\|display=inline,title}} \| area = \| established = \| visitation_num = \| visitation_year = \| governing_body = [[National System of Conservation Areas]] (SINAC) \| website = https://www.sinac.go.cr/EN-US }} ==Protected areas== * [[Alberto Manuel Brenes Biological Reserve]] * [[Atenas Hill Protected Zone]] * [[Bosque Alegre Wildlife Refuge]] * [[Braulio Carrillo National Park]] * [[Caraigres Protected Zone]] * [[Carpintera Hills Protected Zone]] * [[Central Volcanic Mountain Range Forest Reserve]] * [[Dantas Hill Private Wildlife Refuge]] * [[El Chayote Protected Zone]] * [[El Rodeo Protected Zone]] * [[Escazú Hills Protected Zone]] * [[Fernando Castro Cervantes Mixed Wildlife Refuge]] * [[Grande River Protected Zone]] * [[Grecia Forest Reserve]] * [[Guayabo National Monument]] * [[Irazú Volcano National Park]] * [[La Selva Biological Station\|La Selva Wildlife Refuge]] * [[La Tirimbina Wildlife Refuge]] * [[Los Quetzales National Park]] * [[Los Santos Forest Reserve]] (shared with [[Pacific La Amistad Conservation Area]]) * [[Macho River Forest Reserve]] * [[Nara Hill Protected Zone]] * [[Poás Volcano National Park]] * [[Quitirrisí Protected Zone]] * [[Rosario Creek Protected Zone]] * [[Sombrero River–Navarro River Protected Zone]] * [[Tapantí National Park\|Tapantí-Cerro de la Muerte Massif National Park]] * [[Tapiria Wildlife Refuge]] * [[Tiribí River Protected Zone]] * [[Toro River Protected Zone]] * [[Tuís River Basin Protected Zone]] * [[Turrialba Volcano National Park]] * [[Turrubares Hills Protected Zone]] * [[Vueltas Hill Biological Reserve]] == See also == * [[Jaguarundi Wildlife Refuge]], a private refuge in the area. == References == {{reflist}} == External links == * {{Official website}} {{National parks of Costa Rica}} [[Category:Biosphere reserves of Costa Rica]] [[Category:Conservation Areas of Costa Rica]] {{CostaRica-protected-area-stub}} [[Category:Nature conservation]]
Nature Conservation Foundation	{{Short description\|Organisation based in Mysore, India}} {{Use Indian English\|date=June 2015}} {{Use dmy dates\|date=June 2015}} {{Infobox organisation \|name = Nature Conservation Foundation \|image = Nature Conservation Foundation.jpg \|size = 200px \|formation = 1996 \|headquarters = [[Mysore]], [[India]] \|leader_title = Executive Board \|leader_name = Suhel Quader, Vena Kapoor, M Ananda Kumar, Smita Prabhakar, Ajay Bijoor, Janhavi Rajan, Rucha Karkarey, Rohit Naniwadekar \|website = http://www.ncf-india.org/ }} The '''Nature Conservation Foundation''' is a non-governmental [[wildlife conservation]] and research organisation based in [[Mysore]], [[India]]. They promote the use of science for wildlife conservation in India.<ref>[http://www.dmoz.org/Regional/Asia/India/Karnataka/Localities/Mysore/Science_and_Environment/ Nature Conservation Foundation] on the [[Open Directory Project]]</ref><ref name=GH1 /> ==History== The Nature Conservation Foundation was founded in 1996. Their mission is to carry out "science-based and socially responsible conservation". ==Activities and Projects== The organisation works in a variety of habitats. The high altitude program focuses on [[human wildlife conflict]]s and conservation of endangered species such as the [[snow leopard]] and the [[Tibetan gazelle]]. A livestock insurance program has been launched to prevent retaliatory killings of snow leopards by communities whose livestock were being preyed on.<ref>{{cite journal \| last =MISHRA \| first =CHARUDUTT \|author2=ALLEN,P. \|author3=McCARTHY, T. \|author4=MADHUSUDAN, M.D. \|author5=BAYARJARGAL, A. \|author6=PRINS, H.H.T. \| year =2003 \| title =The Role of Incentive Programs in Conserving the Snow Leopard \| journal =Conservation Biology \| volume =17 \| issue =6 \| pages =1512–1520 }}</ref><ref name=GH1>{{cite journal \|last1=Ghosh-Harihar \|first1=Mousumi \|title=Protected areas and biodiversity conservation in India \|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0006320719302927 \|access-date=17 April 2023\|doi=10.1111/j.1523-1739.2003.00092.x\| s2cid =55097518 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web \|url=http://www.ncf-india.org/projectoverview.php?class=theme&type=conflict&project=People%2C+livestock+%26+snow+leopards \|title="protecting livestock and snow leopards" from the NCF website \|accessdate=2008-05-31 \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110525101547/http://www.ncf-india.org/projectoverview.php?class=theme&type=conflict&project=People,+livestock+&+snow+leopards \|archive-date=25 May 2011 \|url-status=dead }}</ref> The organisation has partnered with the [[Snow Leopard Trust\|International Snow Leopard Trust]] and the Government of India to launch a ''Project Snow Leopard'', similar to [[Project Tiger]] for the protection of the wildlife in the [[Himalaya]]n landscapes.<ref>{{cite web\|url=http://snowleopardnetwork.org/new/docs_news/PSL%20Press%20Release%20SLN%20July%2006.htm \|title=Launch of Project Snow leopard: A report from Snowleopard Network \|accessdate=2008-05-31 \|url-status=dead \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071006124251/http://snowleopardnetwork.org/new/docs_news/PSL%20Press%20Release%20SLN%20July%2006.htm \|archive-date=6 October 2007 }}</ref><ref name=goi>[http://pib.nic.in/release/release.asp?relid=46855 Press Release by the GoI on the launch of Project Snow Leopard]</ref> The Project Snow Leopard seeks to address the problem of species declines in the high-altitude Himalayan landscape through evidence-based conservation plans as well as local support. Species such as snow leopard, [[Asiatic ibex]], [[argali]], [[urial]], [[chiru]], [[takin]], [[serow]] and [[musk deer]] will particularly benefit from this project.<ref name=goi /> In 2003, three wildlife biologists from the foundation reported the [[long-tailed goral\|Chinese goral]] (''Nemorhaedus caudatus'') from [[Arunachal Pradesh]], the first record for [[India]]<ref>Charudutt Mishra, Aparajita Datta and M.D. Madhusudan (2005) Record of the Chinese Goral Naemorhedus caudatus in Arunachal Pradesh. JBNHS Vol. 102(2)</ref> In 2005, scientists from the foundation described the [[Arunachal macaque]] from western [[Arunachal Pradesh]], [[India]], a species new to science.<ref name=munzala>{{cite journal \| author = Sinha, A.,Datta, A., Madhusudan, M. D. and Mishra, C. \| year = 2005 \| title = ''Macaca munzala'': a new species from western Arunachal Pradesh, northeastern India \| journal = International Journal of Primatology \| volume = 26 \| issue = 977 \| pages = 977–989 \| doi = 10.1007/s10764-005-5333-3\| citeseerx = 10.1.1.576.1210 \| s2cid = 20459400 }}<br/> {{cite news \|first= Alex\|last= Kirby\|title=Scientists find new Indian monkey \|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/4101001.stm \|publisher=BBC \|date= 2004-12-16\|accessdate=2008-06-01 }}</ref> The organisation runs a rainforest restoration program in the [[Anamalai\|Anamalai hills]] in the [[Western Ghats]] where fragments of degraded patches of rainforests outside [[national parks]] or [[wildlife sanctuary\|wildlife sanctuaries]] are restored in partnership with the private tea and coffee plantations.<ref>{{cite news \|first=Janaki \|last=Lenin \|title=Rainforest revival \|url=http://www.hinduonnet.com/thehindu/mag/2005/07/17/stories/2005071700090200.htm \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110312083040/http://www.hinduonnet.com/thehindu/mag/2005/07/17/stories/2005071700090200.htm \|url-status=usurped \|archive-date=12 March 2011 \|publisher=The Hindu (newspaper) \|accessdate=2008-08-01 }}</ref> ==Awards== Charudutt Mishra and [[M. D. Madhusudhan]], two of the founders received the [[Whitley Awards (UK)\|Whitley award]], also called "Green Oscar"<ref>{{Cite web \|url=http://www.whitleyaward.org/display.php?id=74 \|title=Profile from Whitley website \|access-date=31 May 2008 \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081211170556/http://www.whitleyaward.org/display.php?id=74 \|archive-date=11 December 2008 \|url-status=dead }}</ref> for 2005 and 2009 respectively. Charudutt Mishra was awarded for the conservation efforts in the high altitude landscapes, while Madhusudan was conferred the honor in recognition of his work to reduce human-wildlife conflict in the Western Ghats.<ref>Whitley Award for Mysore-based wildlife biologist. The Hindu. 14 May 2009. [https://web.archive.org/web/20090517024413/http://www.hindu.com/2009/05/14/stories/2009051454061100.htm LINK]</ref><ref>Indian Wildlife Biologist wins 'Green Oscar' on Doordarshan News. [http://www.ddinews.gov.in/Homepage/Homepage+-+Other+Stories/niha.htm LINK]{{Dead link\|date=October 2019 \|bot=InternetArchiveBot \|fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> In 2006, the organisation won the ''Distinguished service award'' from the [[Society for Conservation Biology]].<ref>{{Cite web\|url=https://conbio.org/professional-development/service-awards/past-recipients\|title=Society for Conservation Biology {{!}} Past Recipients\|website=conbio.org\|language=en\|access-date=2018-03-07}}</ref> for ''outstanding contributions to nature conservation''. Sushil Dorje, a field coordinator with the organisation was awarded the [[Van Tienhoven Foundation]] award for his work on [[human-wildlife conflict]] in [[Spiti]] and [[Ladakh]].<ref>[http://www.vantienhovenfoundation.com/awarded.php?menu_id=6&submenu_id=58&win_id=%206 Details of the Award from the website of the Van Tienhoven Foundation for International Nature Protection]</ref> In 2013, [[Aparajita Datta]] was awarded the [[Whitley Awards (UK)\|Whitley award]] to continue her decade long work on conservation of [[hornbill]]s.<ref>{{cite web\|title=Hornbills as flagships for the Himalayan forests of Arunachal Pradesh\|date=2 May 2013 \|url=http://whitleyaward.org/winners/hornbills-as-flagships-for-the-protection-of-himalayan-forests/\|publisher=Whitley Fund for Nature\|accessdate=3 May 2013}}</ref> Aparajita Dutta, a Senior Scientist at NCF was announced as the recipient of ''2009 Woman of Discovery Humanity Award'' by the New York-based Wings World Quest for a lifetime dedicated to wildlife biology and her work in [[Namdapha Tiger Reserve]].<ref>[http://www.wingsworldquest.org/?q=node/73 List and profile of winners from Wings World Quest Website]</ref><ref>[http://www.deccanherald.com/CONTENT/Nov192008/scroll20081119101624.asp?section=scrollingnews Award for Indian wildlife scientist, ''Deccan Herald 19 Nov. 2008'']</ref> She was also awarded by the [[National Geographic Society]] as an ''Emerging explorer'' for 2010, which recognized ''"..14 trailblazers from around the world"''.<ref name="natgeo">{{cite web\|title=Aparajita Datta, Wildlife Biologist\|url=http://www.nationalgeographic.com/field/explorers/aparajita-datta/\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100524105534/http://www.nationalgeographic.com/field/explorers/aparajita-datta/\|url-status=dead\|archive-date=24 May 2010\|work=National Geographic Emerging Explorer\|publisher=National Geographic Society\|accessdate=11 June 2010}}</ref> In 2015, Dr. Ananda Kumar was awarded the [[Whitley Awards (UK)\|Whitley award]] for his work on elephant-human conflict management on the Valparai plateau. In 2017, he was awarded a continuation of funding.<ref>{{cite web\|title=Human-elephant coexistence in Southern India\|date=30 April 2015 \|url=https://whitleyaward.org/winners/human-elephant-coexistence-in-southern-india/\|publisher=Whitley Fund for Nature\|accessdate=8 October 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web \|title=Nature Conservation Foundation \|url=https://www.ncf-india.org/about-ncf#:~:text=The%20Nature%20Conservation%20Foundation%20(NCF,innovative%20research%20and%20imaginative%20solutions. \|access-date= 16 April 2023}}</ref><ref name=GH1 /> ==References== {{reflist}} ==External links== {{Commons category\|Media contributed by NCF}} [http://www.ncf-india.org/ Website of NCF] * [http://blog.ncf-india.org/ eco-logic, the NCF Blog] * [http://elephanthills.org/restoration/ Restoration project showcase] {{Authority control}} [[Category:Non-profit organisations based in India]] [[Category:Environmental organisations based in India]] [[Category:Organizations established in 1996]] [[Category:Scientific organisations based in India]] [[Category:Nature conservation organisations based in India]] [[Category:Environment of Karnataka]] [[Category:Nature conservation in Asia]] [[Category:Lahaul and Spiti district]] [[Category:Nature conservation]] [[Category:Himalayan studies]] [[Category:Environmental studies institutions in India]]
Evidence-based conservation	{{Short description\|Analysis of nature conservation actions and policy}} {{Evidence-based practices}} '''Evidence-based conservation''' is the application of evidence in conservation biology and environmental management actions and policy making. It is defined as systematically assessing scientific information from published, [[peer-review]]ed publications and texts, practitioners' experiences, independent expert assessment, and local and [[indigenous (ecology)\|indigenous]] knowledge on a specific conservation topic. This includes assessing the current effectiveness of different management interventions, threats and emerging problems and economic factors.<ref> {{cite web \| title = The Basics \|publisher=Conservation Evidence \| url = http://www.conservationevidence.com/faq/index \| access-date = 2015-03-07 }} </ref> Evidence-based conservation was organized based on the observations that decision making in conservation was based on [[:wikt:intuition\|intuition]] and or practitioner experience often disregarding other forms of evidence of successes and failures (e.g. scientific information). This has led to costly and poor outcomes.<ref name=Sutherland>{{cite journal\|last1=Sutherland\|first1=William J\|last2=Pullin\|first2=Andrew S.\|last3=Dolman\|first3=Paul M.\|last4=Knight\|first4=Teri M.\|title=The need for evidence-based conservation\|journal=Trends in Ecology and Evolution\|date=June 2004\|volume=19\|issue=6\|pages=305–308\|doi=10.1016/j.tree.2004.03.018\|pmid=16701275}}</ref> Evidence-based conservation provides access to information that will support decision making through an evidence-based framework of "what works" in conservation.<ref>{{cite journal\|last1=Sutherland\|first1=William J.\|title= Evidence-based Conservation\|journal= Conservation in Practice\|date=July 2003\|volume=4\|issue=3\|pages=39–42\|doi=10.1111/j.1526-4629.2003.tb00068.x}}</ref> The evidence-based approach to conservation is based on evidence-based practice which started in [[Evidence-based medicine\|medicine]] and later spread to [[Evidence Based Nursing\|nursing]], [[Evidence based education\|education]], [[psychology]] and other fields. It is part of the larger movement towards [[evidence-based practices]]. ==Systematic review== A systematic review consists of a non-subjective assessment of available data and evidence related to management.<ref name="Collaboration">{{cite web \|publisher=Collaboration for Environmental Evidence \|date=March 2013 \|title=Guidelines for Systematic Review and Evidence Synthesis in Environmental Management, Version4.2 \|url=http://www.environmentalevidence.org/Documents/Guidelines/Guidelines4.2.pdf \|access-date=March 1, 2015 \|archive-date=July 23, 2020 \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200723072709/http://environmentalevidence.org/Documents/Guidelines/Guidelines4.2.pdf \|url-status=dead }}</ref> Synthesizing results from different studies over different time periods, locations or sample sizes can reduce the bias present in individual studies. Systematic reviews differ from traditional reviews by being easily understood, peer-reviewed and repeatable. Detailed protocols remain available for conducting a thorough, unbiased systematic review.<ref name="Collaboration" /> In a Cochrane systematic review, there is little evidence that environmental conservation, and enhancement activities can have any effect on adults' well-being and health. However, there is a high level of perceived benefits based on the feedback of the participants.<ref>{{cite journal \|author1=Husk K, Lovell R, Cooper C, Stahl-Timmins W, Garside R \|title=Participation in Environmental Enhancement and Conservation Activities for Health and Well-Being in Adults: A Review of Quantitative and Qualitative Evidence \|journal=Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews \|date=21 May 2016 \|volume=2016 \|issue=5 \|pages=CD010351 \|doi=10.1002/14651858.CD010351.pub2 \|pmid=27207731 \|pmc=6464867}}</ref> ==Synopsis== Part of implementing an evidence-based conservation analysis requires generating a synopsis. This refers to the brief description of a single study or a systematic review. Synopses form the building blocks of summaries when collated across specific themes.<ref name="Dicks">{{cite journal \| last1 = Dicks \| first1 = L. V. \| year = 2014 \| title = Organising evidence for environmental management decisions: a '4S' hierarchy \| journal = Trends in Ecology & Evolution \| volume = 29 \| issue = 11\| pages = 607–613 \| doi=10.1016/j.tree.2014.09.004\| pmid = 25280588 \| doi-access = free }}</ref> ==Summary== A summary is broader than a synopsis and refers to the standardized description of results extracted from several studies or systematic reviews on a particular topic. Summaries are regularly updated as more information becomes available and are ideally generated through a rigorous review process.<ref name="Dicks" /> ==History<!--of the theory? of the website? of the program? -->== Evidence-based conservation is inspired by [[evidence-based medicine]]. Evidence-based conservation was first noted in the literature in 2000.<ref>Sutherland, W.J. 2000. The conservation handbook: research, management and policy. Oxford: Blackwell Scientific</ref><ref>Pullin, A. S. and Knight, T. M. 2001. Effectiveness in Conservation Practice: Pointers from Medicine and Public Health. Conservation Biology, 15: 50–54</ref> Over the last decade, the methodology for generating systematic reviews (e.g. protocols, systematic maps) have been improved and standardized. In addition, several collaborative networks have been formed and two journals have been launched. The [[Collaboration for Environmental Evidence]]<ref>{{Cite web\|url=http://www.environmentalevidence.org/\|title=Environmental Evidence\|website=www.environmentalevidence.org\|access-date=2016-10-21}}</ref> has a journal titled [http://www.environmentalevidence.org/journal ''Environmental Evidence''] dedicated to the publication of systematic reviews, review protocols and systematic maps on impacts of human activity and the effectiveness of management interventions. It currently has centres located in [[Australia]], [[Sweden]], [[South Africa]], [[Canada]], [[France]] and [[United Kingdom\|the UK]]. The [http://www.conservationevidence.com/ Conservation Evidence] group has a journal titled ''[https://conservationevidencejournal.com/ Conservation Evidence]'' that was launched in 2004 to document the effectiveness of conservation interventions. Conservation Evidence is a web-based database repository that systematizes and provides access to conservation efforts, programs, and research on the biodiversity and the environment based on high quality, reviewed publications. <!--Conservation Evidence also produces broad summaries of management interventions for different taxa (e.g. birds and amphibians) and habitats (e.g. farmland).--> ==Critique== <!-- Evidence-based conservation methodologies have not yet gained complete acceptance in environmental decision making.--> Since evidence-based conservation is based on the primary data on interventions, it is as good as the available data. Even when data are available, some authors have noted that evidence-based conservation may not be routinely used in decision making for management and conservation policy.<ref>{{cite journal \| last1 = Young \| first1 = K \| display-authors = etal \| year = 2011 \| title = Science and elephant management decisions in South Africa \| url = http://repository.up.ac.za/bitstream/2263/15750/1/Young_Science%282010%29.pdf\| journal = Biological Conservation \| volume = 144 \| issue = 2\| pages = 876–885 \| doi=10.1016/j.biocon.2010.11.023\| hdl = 2263/15750 \| hdl-access = free }}</ref><ref>Pullin, A. S., and T. M. Knight. 2005. Assessing conservation management's evidence base: a survey of management-plan compilers in the United Kingdom and Australia. Conservation Biology 19:1989–1996</ref><ref>Cook, C. N., et al., 2010. Conservation in the dark? The information used to support management decisions. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment 8:181–186.</ref> Often there may be a disconnect between the science that is produced and the management interventions taken. Three reasons have been suggested for this in the literature: # the scope of the scientific questions may not cover adequately the management requirements (this translates to lack of "actionable evidence" for management), # the scientific research produced covers the management needs, yet the recommendations from the evidence may not be feasible for implementation due to practical constraints (time, financial budgets etc.) or # the conservation practitioners do not have access to the evidence. Often peer reviewed journal articles produced by scientists are not freely available (open access) or use complicated jargon that managers may not always comprehend. In a survey in eastern England, it was found that park managers get only 2.4% of their information from primary scientific literature.<ref name="Sutherland" /> These areas need further attention in the future. Evidence-based conservation has also been criticised in the past for ignoring traditional forms of knowledge and experience.<ref>Adams, W. M. & Sandbrook, C. (2013) "Conservation, Evidence and Policy". ''Oryx'', 47(3), 329–335</ref> However, the steps of evidence-based conservation can be designed to take traditional forms of knowledge also into consideration. ==See also== * [[Effective altruism]] * [[Evidence-based legislation]] * [[Evidence based policy]] * [[Evidence-based practices]] ==Bibliography== * Salafsky, Nick, et al. "Improving the practice of conservation: a conceptual framework and research agenda for conservation science." Conservation biology 16.6 (2002): 1469–1479. * Pullin, Andrew S., and Teri M. Knight. "Doing more good than harm–Building an evidence-base for conservation and environmental management." ''Biological Conservation'' 142.5 (2009): 931–934. * Sutherland, William J., et al. "The need for evidence-based conservation." ''Trends in ecology & evolution'' 19.6 (2004): 305–308. * Brooks, Jeremy S., et al. "Testing hypotheses for the success of different conservation strategies." ''Conservation biology'' 20.5 (2006): 1528–1538. * [https://www.nature.com/articles/437614a "Box 1 : Conservation: Dollars and sense", ''Nature, International Weekly Journal of Scienc''e. September 29, 2005. pp. 614–616 <!-- accessdate = 2015-03-14 -->] ==References== {{reflist}} {{Evidence-based practice}}{{Conservation of species}}{{Environmental science}} {{Social accountability}} [[Category:Nature conservation]] [[Category:Environmental economics]] [[Category:Environmental issues]] [[Category:Environmental science]] [[Category:Evidence-based practices]]
Legacy Landscapes Fund	{{Short description\|Global nature conservation fund}} {{orphan\|date=July 2023}} {{Infobox organization \| name = Legacy Landscapes Fund \| formation = {{start date and age\|2020\|12\|08}} \| logo = Legacy_Landscapes_Fund_Logo.jpg \| logo_caption = \| founder = [[Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development]] \| founding_location = [[Frankfurt am Main]] \| type = [[Nonprofit organization\|Nonprofit]] [[Stiftung\|Stiftung des öffentlichen Rechts]] \| vat_id = 045 255 66517 \| purpose = Biodiversity conservation \| headquarters = [[Frankfurt am Main]]<ref name="OpenCorpData 2021">{{cite web \| title=Internationaler Naturerbe Fonds - Legacy Landscapes Fund · c/o Nature Trust Alliance GbR, Friedrich-Ebert-Anlage 36, Frankfurt, DE-HE, 60325, DE \| website=OpenCorpData \| date=2021-03-02 \| url=https://opencorpdata.com/lei/529900SKOVW9DANRVO17 \| access-date=2022-08-04}}</ref><ref name="LEI Search - Legal Entity Identifier Lookup 2021">{{cite web \| title=Internationaler Naturerbe Fonds - Legacy Landscapes Fund \| website=LEI Search - Legal Entity Identifier Lookup \| date=2021-03-02 \| url=https://lei.report/LEI/529900SKOVW9DANRVO17 \| access-date=2022-08-04}}</ref> \| coordinates = {{coord\|50.11197407943207\|8.656594298620831\|display=inline,title}} \| key_people = Stefanie Lang (Executive director) \| budget_year = 2020 \| website = {{URL\|legacylandscapes.org}} }} '''Legacy Landscapes Fund''', ('''LLF'''), ({{lang-de\|'''Internationaler Naturerbe Fonds'''}}) is a [[not for profit]] foundation providing long-term financial support to protected areas in the [[Global North and Global South\|Global South]]. The fund was founded in 2020 as part of efforts to reduce the biodiversity financing gap within a post-2020 framework under the [[Convention on Biological Diversity]] (CBD). The fund was launched on 19 May 2021, and is based in Frankfurt am Main, Germany. == History == Legacy Landscapes Fund was established following a global biodiversity summit in Kunming, China in October 2020 as an independent charitable foundation under German law by the German [[Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development]] (BMZ) and [[KfW\|KfW Development Bank]] (KfW) in December 2020.<ref name="Odisha Diary 2022">{{cite web \|date=2022-05-21 \|title=German Development Minister Schulze commits 100 million euros for the world's most valuable protected areas \|url=https://orissadiary.com/german-development-minister-schulze-commits-100-million-euros-for-the-worlds-most-valuable-protected-areas/ \|access-date=2022-08-04 \|website=Odisha Diary}}</ref><ref name="Integrating Environmental and Climate Action into Development Co-operation Reporting on DAC Members’ High-Level Meeting Commitments: Reporting on DAC Members’ High-Level Meeting Commitments 2021 p. 115">{{cite book \|title=Integrating Environmental and Climate Action into Development Co-operation Reporting on DAC Members' High-Level Meeting Commitments: Reporting on DAC Members' High-Level Meeting Commitments \|publisher=OECD Publishing \|year=2021 \|isbn=978-92-64-94004-8 \|page=115}}</ref> In May 2022, German newspaper [[Rhein-Zeitung]] reported that the German Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development invested an additional EUR 100 million into the LLF.<ref>''Deutschland gibt Geld für Naturschutzgebiete'', in [[Rhein-Zeitung]], 18 May 2022, p. 1</ref> France announced in 2021 that it would support LLF starting in 2022.<ref name="Rowling 2021">{{cite web \|last=Rowling \|first=Megan \|date=2021-05-21 \|title=Who will foot the bill to protect nature? \|url=https://www.postguam.com/entertainment/lifestyle/who-will-foot-the-bill-to-protect-nature/article_45ae1b68-bc5c-11eb-80aa-a3ea3296bdbc.html \|access-date=2022-09-14 \|website=The Guam Daily Post}}</ref> == Grant program == Legacy Landscapes Fund operates a grant program that provides long-term financing for terrestrial biodiversity conservation. It offers grants of US$1 million per year for at least fifteen years,<ref name="One Planet Summit 2021">{{cite web \|date=2021-01-11 \|title=Legacy Landscape Fund \|url=https://www.oneplanetsummit.fr/en/coalitions-82/legacy-landscape-fund-210 \|access-date=2022-09-14 \|website=One Planet Summit}}</ref><ref name="Voskamp Fritz Koecke Biber p.">{{citation \|last1=Voskamp \|first1=Alke \|title=How to resolve conflicting conservation objectives: A decision support tool for the global selection of multi-purpose protected areas \|date=2022-02-20 \|page=4 \|publisher=Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory \|doi=10.1101/2022.02.15.480531 \|last2=Fritz \|first2=Susanne A \|last3=Koecke \|first3=Valerie \|last4=Biber \|first4=Matthias \|last5=Nogueira-Brockmeyer \|first5=Timo \|last6=Bertzky \|first6=Bastian \|last7=Forrest \|first7=Matthew \|last8=Gaylard \|first8=Angela \|last9=Goldstein \|first9=Allie \|last10=Henderson \|first10=Scott \|last11=Hickler \|first11=Thomas \|last12=Hof \|first12=Christian \|last13=Kastner \|first13=Thomas \|last14=Lang \|first14=Stefanie \|last15=Manning \|first15=Peter \|last16=Mascia \|first16=Michael B \|last17=McFadden \|first17=Ian R. \|last18=Niamir \|first18=Aidin \|last19=Noon \|first19=Monica \|last20=O'Donell \|first20=Brian \|last21=Opel \|first21=Mark \|last22=Schwede \|first22=Georg \|last23=West \|first23=Peyton \|last24=Schenck \|first24=Christof \|last25=Boehning-Gaese \|first25=Katrin\|s2cid=247020379 \|hdl=20.500.11850/632658 \|hdl-access=free }}</ref> for up to 30 conversation areas with a combined area exceeding {{cvt\|60000\|km2\|mi2}}<ref>''Gesunde Menschen gibt es nur auf einem gesunden Planeten'', [[Handelsblatt]], No. 095, 19 May 2021, p. 48</ref> in Africa, Asia, and Latin America. The first seven pilot projects were launched in Zimbabwe,<ref name="France 24 2022">{{cite web \|date=2022-01-05 \|title=Zimbabwe game park to receive $15 mn from new wildlife fund \|url=https://www.france24.com/en/live-news/20220105-zimbabwe-game-park-to-receive-15-mn-from-new-wildlife-fund \|access-date=2022-08-04 \|website=France 24}}</ref> Zambia, Republic of Congo,<ref name="Agency 2022">{{cite web \|last=Agency \|first=Ecofin \|date=2022-08-04 \|title=German BMZ commits funds for the preservation of three African parks \|url=https://www.ecofinagency.com/public-management/1905-43607-german-bmz-commits-funds-for-the-preservation-of-three-african-parks \|access-date=2022-08-04 \|website=Ecofin Agency}}</ref> Angola, Indonesia, Cambodia, and Bolivia.<ref name="Gerretsen 2021">{{cite web \|last=Gerretsen \|first=Isabelle \|date=2021-05-20 \|title=Germany launches $1 billion biodiversity fund after world misses targets \|url=https://www.climatechangenews.com/2021/05/20/germany-launches-1-billion-biodiversity-fund-world-misses-targets/ \|access-date=2022-08-02 \|website=Climate Home News}}</ref> In September 2021 it was reported that LLF would receive funds for the [[Iona National Park]] in Angola and the [[Odzala-Kokoua National Park]] in the Republic of Congo.<ref name="Mongabay Environmental News 2021">{{cite web \|date=2021-09-16 \|title=African Parks secures $100M for conservation in Africa \|url=https://news.mongabay.com/2021/09/african-parks-secures-100m-for-conservation-in-africa/ \|access-date=2022-09-14 \|website=Mongabay Environmental News}}</ref> In summer of 2022, it was reported that LLF would support [[Gonarezhou National Park]] in Zimbabwe.<ref name="Mundo 2022">{{cite web \|last=Mundo \|first=Volta ao \|date=2022-01-06 \|title=O fundo milagroso que salvou um dos maiores parques naturais do Mundo \|url=https://www.voltaaomundo.pt/2022/01/06/o-fundo-milagroso-que-salvou-um-dos-maiores-parques-naturais-do-mundo/noticias/873683/ \|access-date=2022-09-14 \|website=Volta ao Mundo}}</ref><ref name="Zimbabwe Field Guide 2022">{{cite web \|date=2022 \|title=Gonarezhou National Park to receive $1million-a-year from new Wildlife Fund \|url=https://zimfieldguide.com/masvingo/gonarezhou-national-park-receive-1million-year-new-wildlife-fund \|access-date=2022-09-14 \|website=Zimbabwe Field Guide}}</ref><ref name="Luckmore 2022">{{cite web \|last=Luckmore \|first=Mabhiza \|date=2022-05-07 \|title=Gonarezhou National Park a place to be when you visit Zimbabwe \|url=https://www.zimetro.co.zw/gonarezhou-national/ \|access-date=2022-09-14 \|website=ZiMetro News}}</ref> == Funding == Legacy Landscapes Fund secures its funding from both public and private donors.<ref>Thomas Stillbauer: ''Höchste Zeit für den Artenschutz'', [[Frankfurter Rundschau]], 22 January 2022, p. 7</ref><ref>Jonas Geschke, Markus Fischer: ''Wiederaufforstung als Patentrezept: Landwende im Antropozän'', politische ökologie, Issue 167/2021, p. 49, ISSN 0933-5722</ref> The German [[Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development]] kick-started the fund with EUR 82.5 million.<ref name="Centre 2022">{{cite web \|author=UNESCO World Heritage Centre \|date=2022-07-01 \|title=Legacy Landscapes Fund to provide long-term funding for globally significant protected areas \|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/news/2288/ \|access-date=2022-08-02 \|website=UNESCO World Heritage Centre}}</ref><ref name="Kandari 2021">{{cite web \|last=Kandari \|first=Akshita \|date=2021-05-22 \|title=KfW starts Legacy Landscapes Fund with EUR 82.5 million funding \|url=https://news.fundsforngos.org/environment/kfw-starts-legacy-landscapes-fund-with-eur-82-5-million-funding/ \|access-date=2022-09-14 \|website=fundsforNGOs News}}</ref> == References == {{reflist}} == External links == * [https://legacylandscapes.org/ Official website] [[Category:Nature conservation]] [[Category:Nature conservation in Germany]]
Sustainable Development Goal 15	{{Short description\|15th of 17 Sustainable Development Goals to protect life on land}} {{Infobox project \| name = Sustainable Development Goal 15 \| logo = Sustainable Development Goal 15LifeOnLand.svg \| mission_statement = "Protect, restore and promote sustainable use of terrestrial ecosystems, sustainably manage forests, combat desertification, and halt and reverse land degradation and halt biodiversity loss" \| commercial = No \| type =[[Nonprofit organization\|Non-Profit]] \| location = Global \| founder = [[United Nations]] \| established = 2015 \| website = {{URL\|https://sdgs.un.org/}} }} '''Sustainable Development Goal 15''' ('''SDG 15''' or '''Global Goal 15''') is about "Life on land". One of the 17 [[Sustainable Development Goals]] established by the [[United Nations]] in 2015, the official wording is: "Protect, restore and promote sustainable use of terrestrial ecosystems, sustainably manage [[forests]], combat [[desertification]], and halt and reverse [[land degradation]] and halt [[biodiversity]] loss".<ref name=":17" /> The Goal has 12 targets to be achieved by [[2030]]. Progress towards targets will be measured by 14 indicators. <!-- FYI: The second paragraph of the lead is transcluded in the article on [[Sustainable Development Goals]], and should contain a list of the targets --> The nine ''outcome targets'' include: Conserve and restore terrestrial and freshwater [[ecosystem]]s; end [[deforestation]] and restore degraded forests; end [[desertification]] and restore degraded land; ensure conservation of mountain ecosystems, protect [[biodiversity]] and [[Habitat\|natural habitats]]; protect access to [[genetic resources]] and fair sharing of the benefits; eliminate [[poaching]] and trafficking of [[Endangered species\|protected species]]; prevent [[Invasive species\|invasive alien species]] on land and in water ecosystems; and integrate ecosystem and biodiversity in governmental planning. The three ''means of implementation targets<ref name=":22">{{cite journal \|last1=Bartram \|first1=Jamie \|last2=Brocklehurst \|first2=Clarissa \|last3=Bradley \|first3=David \|last4=Muller \|first4=Mike \|last5=Evans \|first5=Barbara \|date=December 2018 \|title=Policy review of the means of implementation targets and indicators for the sustainable development goal for water and sanitation \|journal=npj Clean Water \|volume=1 \|issue=1 \|pages=3 \|doi=10.1038/s41545-018-0003-0 \|s2cid=169226066 \|doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg\|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/\|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref>'' include: Increase financial resources to conserve and sustainably use ecosystem and biodiversity; finance and incentivize [[sustainable forest management]]; combat global poaching and trafficking. An annual report is prepared by the [[Secretary-General of the United Nations]] evaluating the progress towards the Sustainable Development Goals.<ref name="UNESC2020">United Nations Economic and Social Council (2020) [https://undocs.org/en/E/2020/57 Progress towards the Sustainable Development Goals Report of the Secretary-General], High-level political forum on sustainable development, convened under the auspices of the Economic and Social Council (E/2020/57), 28 April 2020</ref> It provides data on changes in forest areas, [[desertification]], [[biodiversity loss]] and other parameters that are of relevance for SDG 15. == Targets, indicators and progress == {{Further\|List of SDG targets and indicators}} The UN has defined 12 Targets and 14 Indicators for SDG 15. Five of them are to be achieved by the year 2020, two by the year 2030 and the rest have no target year. Each of the targets also has one or more indicators to measure progress. In total there are fourteen indicators for SDG 15. [[Food and Agriculture Organization\|FAO]] is the custodian agency for three of the indicators for SDG targets 15.1, 15.2 and 15.4.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal\|title=KEEPING AN EYE ON SDG 15: Working with countries to measure indicators for forests and mountains\|url=http://www.fao.org/3/a-i7334e.pdf\|journal=Report\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201129094712/http://www.fao.org/3/a-i7334e.pdf\|archive-date=2020-11-29}}</ref> === Target 15.1: Conserve and restore terrestrial and freshwater ecosystems === The full title of Target 15.1 is: "By 2020, ensure the conservation, restoration and sustainable use of terrestrial and inland freshwater ecosystems and their services, in particular forests, [[wetland]]s, [[mountain]]s and [[drylands]], in line with obligation under international agreements."<ref name=":17">{{cite report\|publisher=[[United Nations]] \|date=2017 \|title=Resolution adopted by the General Assembly on 6 July 2017 \|url=https://undocs.org/A/RES/71/313 \|chapter=[[:File:A RES 71 313 E.pdf\|Work of the Statistical Commission pertaining to the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development]]}}</ref> This target has two indicators:<ref name=":3">{{Cite web\|title=Goal 15: Life on Land - SDG Tracker \|url=https://sdg-tracker.org/biodiversity \|access-date=2020-09-05 \|website=Our World in Data \|language=en}} [[File:CC-BY icon.svg\|50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]</ref> * Indicator 15.1.1: Forest area as a proportion of the total land area * Indicator 15.1.2: Proportion of important sites for terrestrial and freshwater biodiversity that are covered by [[protected area]]s, by ecosystem type Forests cover roughly 4 billion hectares or 30.7 per cent of the world's land area.<ref name=":4">{{Cite web \|title=15.1.1 Forest area{{!}} Sustainable Development Goals{{!}} Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations \|url=http://www.fao.org/sustainable-development-goals/indicators/1511/en/ \|access-date=2020-09-05 \|website=www.fao.org}}</ref> 93 percent are natural forests and 7 percent are planted. The forest area is defined by the land under natural or planted groups of trees of at least 5 meters [[in situ]]. The trees can be either be productive or non-productive and should not include fruit plantations and [[agroforestry]] systems and trees in urban parks and gardens.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web \|title=Goal 15: Life on land \|url=https://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/sustainable-development-goals/goal-15-life-on-land.html \|access-date=2020-09-05 \|website=UNDP \|language=en}}</ref> [[Protected area]]s are defined by three indicators: 1) the proportion of total terrestrial area classified as protected 2) the proportion of important sites of terrestrial biodiversity who are protected 3) and proportion of important sites of freshwater biodiversity that are protected. === Target 15.2: End deforestation and restore degraded forests === The full title of Target 15.2 is: "By 2020, promote the implementation of sustainable management of all types of forests, halt [[deforestation]], restore degraded forests and substantially increase [[afforestation]] and [[reforestation]] globally."<ref name=":17" /> This target has one Indicator: Indicator 15.2.1 is the "Progress towards sustainable forest management".<ref name=":3" /> The United Nations General Assembly has defined Sustainable forest management as a dynamic and evolving concept that aims to maintain and enhance the economic, social and environmental values of all types of forests, for the benefit of present and future generations (Resolution A/RES/62/98).<ref name=":5" /> It aims to find a balance between the increasing demands for forest products and the benefits as well as preserving the health and diversity of the forests. SDG indicator 15.2.1 is composed of five sub-indicators that measure progress towards all dimensions of sustainable forest management. They provide qualification to the management of forest areas and assess areas with a set on national and international standards. === Target 15.3: End desertification and restore degraded land === The full title of Target 15.3 is: "By 2030, combat desertification, restore degraded land and soil, including land affected by desertification, drought and floods, and strive to achieve a land degradation-neutral world."<ref name=":17" /> This target has one indicator: Indicator 15.3.1 is the "Proportion of land that is degraded over the total land area".<ref name=":3" /> [[Desertification]] affects as much as one-sixth of the world's population, 70% of all drylands, and one-quarter of the total land area of the world. It also leads to spreading [[poverty]] and the degradation of billion hectares of [[Agricultural land\|cropland]].<ref>{{Cite web \|title=Desertification, land degradation and drought .:. Sustainable Development Knowledge Platform \|url=https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/topics/desertificationlanddegradationanddrought \|access-date=2020-09-05 \|website=sustainabledevelopment.un.org}}</ref> === Target 15.4: Ensure conservation of mountain ecosystems === [[File:Mountain_Green_Cover_Index,_OWID.svg\|thumb\|Mountain Green Cover Index, OWID<ref name=":3" />]]The full title of Target 15.4 is: "By 2030, ensure the conservation of mountain ecosystems, including their [[biodiversity]], in order to enhance their capacity to provide benefits that are essential for sustainable development."<ref name=":17" /> This target has two indicators:<ref name=":3" /> * Indicator 15.4.1: Coverage by protected areas of important sites for mountain biodiversity<ref name=":3" /> * Indicator 15.4.2: Mountain Green Cover Index The Mountain Green Cover Index measured the percentage of mountain environments covered by green areas and the capacity of those areas to fulfil their ecosystem roles.<ref name=":5" /> As of 2017, 76% of the world's mountain areas were covered by green vegetation, including forests, shrubs, [[grassland]] and [[Agricultural land\|cropland]].<ref>{{Cite web\|title=15.4.2 Mountain Green Cover{{!}} Sustainable Development Goals{{!}} Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations \|url=http://www.fao.org/sustainable-development-goals/indicators/1542/en/ \|access-date=2020-09-05 \|website=www.fao.org}}</ref> The Mountain Green Cover was lowest in [[Western Asia]] and [[North Africa\|Northern Africa]] (60%) and highest in [[Oceania]] (96%). [[File:Red_List_Index,_OWID.svg\|thumb\|Red List Index (2019)<ref name=":3" />]] === Target 15.5: Protect biodiversity and natural habitats === The full title of Target 15.5 is: "Take urgent and significant action to reduce the degradation of natural habitats, halt the loss of [[biodiversity]] and, by 2020, protect and prevent the extinction of [[threatened species]]."<ref name=":17" /> This target has one indicator: Indicator 15.5.1 is the "[[Red List Index]]".<ref name=":3" /> A report in 2018 stated that "biodiversity must be mainstreamed across these sectors and [[spatial planning]] integrated accordingly."<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal\|title=Sustainable Development Goal 15: Progress and Prospects, Outcome: key messages \|url=https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/content/documents/19647Key_messages_SDG_15_EGM_Final.pdf \|journal=Report}}</ref> === Target 15.6: Protect access to genetic resources and fair sharing of the benefits === The full title of Target 15.6 is: "Promote fair and equitable sharing of the benefits arising from the utilization of genetic resources and promote appropriate access to such resources, as internationally agreed."<ref name=":17" /> This target has one indicator: Indicator 15.6.1 is the "Number of countries that have adopted legislative, administrative and policy frameworks to ensure fair and equitable sharing of benefits".<ref name=":3" /> [[File:NagoyaProtocol.svg\|alt=NagoyaProtocol.svg\|thumb\|Nagoya Protocol]] This indicator is used to track countries' participation in protocols related to the promotion and sharing of genetic resources for plants, food and agriculture. === Target 15.7: Eliminate poaching and trafficking of protected species === The full title of Target 15.7 is: "Take urgent action to end [[poaching]] and trafficking of protected species of flora and fauna and address both demand and supply of illegal wildlife products."<ref name=":17" /> This target has one Indicator: Indicator 15.7.1 is the "Proportion of traded wildlife that was poached or illicitly trafficked".<ref name=":3" /> In general, wildlife trade policies that incentivize sustainable use typically have more immediate positive effects on wildlife populations than outright trade bans.<ref>{{cite journal \|last1=Booth \|first1=Hollie \|last2=Arias \|first2=Melissa \|last3=Brittain \|first3=Stephanie \|last4=Challender \|first4=Daniel W. S. \|last5=Khanyari \|first5=Munib \|last6=Kuiper \|first6=Timothy \|last7=Li \|first7=Yuhan \|last8=Olmedo \|first8=Alegria \|last9=Oyanedel \|first9=Rodrigo \|last10=Pienkowski \|first10=Thomas \|last11=Milner-Gulland \|first11=E. J. \|title="Saving Lives, Protecting Livelihoods, and Safeguarding Nature": Risk-Based Wildlife Trade Policy for Sustainable Development Outcomes Post-COVID-19 \|journal=[[Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution]] \|date=25 February 2021 \|volume=9 \|pages=639216 \|doi=10.3389/fevo.2021.639216\|doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY icon.svg\|50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License].</ref> No data is available for this indicator yet.<ref name=":3" /> === Target 15.8: Prevent invasive alien species on land and in water ecosystems === [[File:Rhino_Killings.jpg\|thumb\|Memorial to rhinos killed by poachers near St Lucia Estuary, South Africa]] The full title of Target 15.8 is: "By 2020, introduce measures to prevent the introduction and significantly reduce the impact of invasive alien species on land and water ecosystems and control or eradicate the priority species."<ref name=":17" /> This target has one Indicator: Indicator is 15.8.1 is the "Proportion of countries adopting relevant national legislation and adequately resourcing the prevention or control of [[Invasive species\|invasive alien species]]".<ref name=":3" /> Wildlife poaching and trafficking threaten biodiversity and ecosystems as well as local livelihoods, wellbeing and security. [[Trafficking]] is normally driven by organized crime, and made easy by [[corruption]] and weak [[governance]].<ref name=":6" /> === Target 15.9: Integrate ecosystem and biodiversity in governmental planning === The full title of Target 15.9 is: "By 2020, integrate [[ecosystem]] and biodiversity values into national and local planning, development processes, [[poverty reduction]] strategies and accounts."<ref name=":17" /> Indicator is 15.9.1 is the "Progress towards national targets established in accordance with [[Convention on Biological Diversity\|Aichi Biodiversity Target]] 2 of the Strategic Plan for Biodiversity 2011–2020".<ref name=":3" /> "Aichi Biodiversity Target 2" addresses the underlying causes of [[biodiversity loss]].<ref>{{Cite web \|title=SDG Indicators \|url=https://unstats.un.org/sdgs/metadata/?Text=&Goal=15&Target= \|access-date=2020-09-05 \|website=unstats.un.org}}</ref> === Target 15.a: Increase financial resources to conserve and sustainably use ecosystem and biodiversity === [[File:Total_official_development_assistance_for_biodiversity,_by_recipient,_OWID.svg\|thumb\|Total official development assistance for biodiversity, by recipient, OWID<ref name=":3" />]] The full title of Target 15.a is: "Mobilize and significantly increase financial resources from all sources to conserve and sustainably use biodiversity and ecosystems."<ref name=":17" /> This target has one Indicator: Indicator 15.a.1 is the "Official development assistance and public expenditure on conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity and ecosystems".<ref name=":3" /> === Target 15.b: Finance and incentivize sustainable forest management === The full title of Target 15.b is: "Mobilize significant resources from all sources and at all levels to finance [[sustainable forest management]] and provide adequate incentives to [[developing countries]] to advance such management, including for conservation and reforestation."<ref name=":17" /> This target has one indicator: Indicator 15.b.1 is the "Official development assistance and public expenditure on conservation and sustainable use of [[biodiversity]] and [[ecosystem]]s".<ref name=":3" /> This target aims at mobilizing resources at all levels to finance sustainable forest management. The United Nations Strategic Plan for Forests 2017-2030 (UNSPF) presents a global framework for actions at all levels to sustainably manage forests and halt deforestation and forest degradation.<ref>{{Cite journal \|title=United Nations strategic plan for forests, 2017-2030 \|url=https://www.un.org/esa/forests/wp-content/uploads/2016/12/UNSPF_AdvUnedited.pdf \|journal=Report}}</ref> === Target 15.c: Combat global poaching and trafficking === The full title of Target 15.c is: "Enhance global support for efforts to combat poaching and trafficking of protected species, including by increasing the capacity of local communities to pursue sustainable livelihood opportunities."<ref name=":3" /> This target has one indicator: Indicator 15.c.1 is the "Proportion of traded wildlife that was poached or illicitly trafficked".<ref name=":3" /> The illegal trade and animal trafficking have grown significantly to become one of the world's largest black markets valued at tens of billions of dollars.<ref>{{Cite web\|date=2020-03-12 \|title=Combating Wildlife Trafficking \|url=https://www.usaid.gov/biodiversity/wildlife-trafficking \|access-date=2020-09-06 \|website=www.usaid.gov \|language=en}}</ref> The challenges to combat global poaching and trafficking need to be addressed by enforcing laws and strengthening institutions.<ref>{{Cite book\|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/236169911 \|title=Conflict and resource development in the southern highlands of Papua New Guinea \|date=2007 \|publisher=ANU E Press \|others=Haley, Nicole., May, R. J. (Ronald James), 1939-, State, Society, and Governance in Melanesia Project., Australian National University. Research School of Pacific and Asian Studies., ANU E Press. \|isbn=978-1-921313-46-2 \|location=Canberra, ACT, Australia \|oclc=236169911}}</ref> == Custodian agencies == The custodian agencies are responsible for data gathering and reporting on the indicators. They are:<ref name=":2">{{Cite web\|title=United Nations (2018) Economic and Social Council, Conference of European Statisticians, Geneva," (PDF). United Nations, Geneva" (PDF) \|url=https://www.unece.org/fileadmin/DAM/stats/documents/ece/ces/2018/CES_39.pdf \|access-date=September 25, 2020 \|website=UNECE}}</ref> * Indicator 15.1.1, 15.2.1 and 15.4.2: [[Food and Agriculture Organization]] (FAO) * Indicator 15.1.2: [[United Nations Environment Programme\|United Nations Environmental Programme]]-[[World Conservation Monitoring Centre\|World Conservation Monitoring Center]] (UNEP-WCMC) and [[United Nations Environment Programme\|United Nations Environmental Programme]] * Indicator 15.3.1 and 15.4.1: [[United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification]] (UNCCD) * Indicator 15.5.1 and 15.8.1: [[International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List\|International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN)]] * Indicator 15.6.1: [[Convention on Biological Diversity\|Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD-Secretariat)]] * Indicator 15.7.1 and 15.c.1: [[United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime]], and Convention for International Trade in Endangered Species (CITIES) * Indicator 15.9.1: [[Convention on Biological Diversity\|Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD-Secretariat)]] and [[United Nations Environment Programme\|United Nations Environmental Programme]] (UNEP) * Indicator 15.a.1, 15.6.1 and 15.b.1: [[OECD\|Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD)]], United Nations Environmental Programme (UNEP) and [[World Bank\|World Bank (WB)]] == Monitoring and progress == An annual report is prepared by the [[Secretary-General of the United Nations]] evaluating the progress towards the [[Sustainable Development Goals]].<ref name="UNESC2020" /> According to the expert group meeting in preparation for the [[High-level Political Forum on Sustainable Development\|High-level Political Forum]] of 2018, SDG 15 needs more indicators in areas such as [[forest]] intactness, management effectiveness of protected areas, and meaningful integration of biodiversity into other processes.<ref name=":6" /> == Challenges == {{Main\|Sustainable Development Goals#Challenges}} {{As of\|2023}}, there is approximately a $700 billion gap in financial support to help low-income countries protect biodiversity.<ref>{{cite web \|title=The Sustainable Development Goals Report 2023 {{!}} Department of Economic and Social Affairs \|url=https://sdgs.un.org/documents/sustainable-development-goals-report-2023-53220 \|website=sdgs.un.org \|access-date=16 September 2023}}</ref> === Impacts of COVID-19 pandemic === In 2020, there was brief progress on SDGs 12 to 15 on sustainable production and consumption, climate action and biodiversity conservation, but these gains were quickly offset once restrictions were lifted. This applies to CO₂ emissions, which declined in major economies during lockdowns, but went quickly back to their pre-pandamic levels after restrictions were lifted. It is estimated that deforestation increased by 12% from 2019 to 2020, and plastic consumption and waste may also increase during pandemic.<ref>{{cite book \|last1=Sachs \|first1=Jeffrey \|last2=Kroll \|first2=Christian \|last3=Lafortune \|first3=Guillame \|last4=Fuller \|first4=Grayson \|last5=Woelm \|first5=Finn \|title=Sustainable Development Report 2021 \|date=30 September 2021 \|doi=10.1017/9781009106559\|isbn=9781009106559 \|s2cid=236309770}}</ref> == Links with other SDGs == The UN 17 [[Sustainable Development Goals\|sustainable development goals]] are inherently interconnected, most of the goals can be achieved only when others are also achieved. And achieving any individual goal tends to help the achievement of the other goals. The impact of SDG 15 on gender equality ([[Sustainable Development Goal 5\|SDG 5]]) is also significant. In many parts of the world, women are farmers, especially poor women living in rural areas.<ref name="sdgacademylibrary.mediaspace.kaltura.com">{{cite web \|title=How SDG 15 Links With Other SDGs - SDG Academy Library \|url=https://sdgacademylibrary.mediaspace.kaltura.com/media/How+SDG+15+Links+With+Other+SDGs/1_j0kpb2iw \|website=sdgacademylibrary.mediaspace.kaltura.com}}</ref> They are the main labor force in growing crops, often depend on forests for fuel, fodder and food. Their limited ownership of the land reduces their ability to adapt to losses or decide how to use it. By protecting biodiversity and thus maintaining agricultural productivity, can also empower gender equality. When forest conditions and regeneration improve, women themselves will get a greater political voice.<ref>{{cite web \|title=SDG 15: Protect, restore and promote sustainable use of terrestrial ecosystems, sustainably manage forests, combat desertification, and halt and reverse land degradation and halt biodiversity loss \|url=https://www.unwomen.org/en/news/in-focus/women-and-the-sdgs/sdg-15-life-on-land \|website=UN Women \|language=en}}</ref> For [[Sustainable Development Goal 6\|SDG 6]] and [[Sustainable Development Goal 7\|SDG 7]], the availability and quality of water from the functioning of ecosystems, especially forest ecological system. Protecting biodiversity, and maintaining the integrity of wetlands and forests play a huge role in the acquisition and replenishment of freshwater resources because natural ecosystems act as filters to clean water and protect it from diseases that can harm the animal or human health.<ref name="research.utwente.nl">{{cite journal \|last1=Wood \|first1=Sylvia L. R. \|last2=Jones \|first2=Sarah K. \|last3=Johnson \|first3=Justin A. \|last4=Brauman \|first4=Kate A. \|last5=Chaplin-Kramer \|first5=Rebecca \|last6=Fremier \|first6=Alexander \|last7=Girvetz \|first7=Evan \|last8=Gordon \|first8=Line J. \|last9=Kappel \|first9=Carrie V. \|last10=Mandle \|first10=Lisa \|last11=Mulligan \|first11=Mark \|last12=O'Farrell \|first12=Patrick \|last13=Smith \|first13=William K. \|last14=Willemen \|first14=Louise \|last15=Zhang \|first15=Wei \|last16=DeClerck \|first16=Fabrice A. \|title=Distilling the role of ecosystem services in the Sustainable Development Goals \|journal=[[Ecosystem Services]] \|date=1 February 2018 \|volume=29 \|pages=70–82 \|doi=10.1016/j.ecoser.2017.10.010 \|url=https://research.utwente.nl/en/publications/distilling-the-role-of-ecosystem-services-in-the-sustainable-development-goals(f789be2a-6daa-40c2-a8e4-20aa4f00b36c).html}}</ref> SDG 15 has a direct link to [[Sustainable Development Goal 8\|SDG 8]] includes high-yield agriculture and tourism, which attracts tourists through protected ecosystems and biodiverse environments, thereby enhancing economic returns.<ref name="UN High-Level Political Forum HLPF">{{cite journal \|title=UN High-Level Political Forum (HLPF) \|journal=Gender Equality \|series=Encyclopedia of the UN Sustainable Development Goals \|date=2021 \|pages=1063 \|doi=10.1007/978-3-319-95687-9_300164 \|isbn=978-3-319-95686-2 \|s2cid=241944728}}</ref> Maintaining biodiversity plays a vital role in helping to mitigate and adapt to climate change. Mangrove forests, for example, account for approximately 1% of carbon sequestration by the world's forests, but about 14% by the global ocean.<ref name="UN High-Level Political Forum HLPF"/> Therefore, negative impacts on mangrove habitats can result in very high GHG emissions. The impact of land-based activities such as agriculture, land reclamation and urban development on ecosystems demonstrates the high degree of linkage between [[Sustainable Development Goal 13\|SDG 13]], [[Sustainable Development Goal 14\|SDG 14]] and SDG 15, and the importance of the overall management of all three.<ref name="research.utwente.nl"/> == References == {{reflist}} == External links == * [https://sdgs.un.org/goals/goal15 UN Sustainable Development Knowledge Platform – SDG 15] * [https://www.globalgoals.org/15-life-on-land “Global Goals” Campaign - SDG 15] * [https://sdg-tracker.org/biodiversity SDG-Track.org - SDG 15] * [https://x4i.org/life-on-land-and-nature-conservation-report UN SDG 15 in the US] {{Sustainable Development Goals}} {{Deforestation}} [[Category:Sustainable Development Goals]] [[Category:United Nations documents]] [[Category:2015 establishments in New York City]] [[Category:Projects established in 2015]] [[Category:Nature conservation]]
Ecological empathy	{{Short description\|Interest in the wellbeing of animals and nature}} [[File:Leaf heart.jpg\|thumb]] '''Ecological empathy''', or '''eco-empathy''', is [[empathy]] directed towards the natural world. It encompasses empathy directed towards animals,<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1=Figueredo \|first1=Aurelio José \|last2=Steklis \|first2=Netzin Gerald \|last3=Peñaherrera-Aguirre \|first3=Mateo \|last4=Fernandes \|first4=Heitor Barcellos Ferreira \|last5=de \|first5=Tomás Cabeza \|last6=Salmon \|first6=Catherine \|last7=Chaves \|first7=María Gabriela Hernández \|last8=Araya \|first8=Siu Fong Acón \|last9=Pérez-Ramos \|first9=Marisol \|last10=Armenta \|first10=Martha Frías \|last11=Verdugo \|first11=Víctor Corral \|last12=Aragonés \|first12=Juan Ignacio \|last13=Sevillano \|first13=Verónica \|date=2022-11-23 \|title=The influence of individual differences and local ecological conditions on emotional empathy, cognitive empathy, and harm avoidance towards nonhuman animals \|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1079/hai.2022.0021 \|journal=Human-Animal Interactions \|doi=10.1079/hai.2022.0021 \|s2cid=253863658 \|issn=2957-9538}}</ref> plants, [[Ecosystem\|ecosystems]], and the earth as a whole.<ref name="Wang-2022" /> Kim-Pong Tam developed a method of measuring individuals' dispositional empathy with nature (DEN), and has demonstrated its robust connection to [[conservation behavior]].<ref name="Tam-2013" /> Numerous strategies can be implemented to cultivate ecological empathy—in both children and adults—including [[environmental education]],<ref name="Lotz-Sisitka-2013" /> [[ecopedagogy]],<ref name="Misiaszek-2020" /> arts,<ref name="Sunassee-2021" /> literature,<ref name="McKnight-2010" /> [[List of environmental films\|film]],<ref name="Kong-2023" /> future scenarios,<ref name="Blythe-2021" /> ecological storytelling,<ref name="Talgorn-2023" /> Indigenous approaches,<ref name="Ly-2014" /> and parenting practices.<ref name="Carson-1998" /> Empathy for animals is a central component of eco-empathy,<ref name="Moran-2022" /> and effective programs have been developed to promote empathy towards animals in the home,<ref name="Jalongo-2013" /> in zoos<ref name="Webber-2017" /> and aquariums,<ref name="Wharton-2018" /> on the farm,<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1=Mathur \|first1=Maya B \|last2=Peacock \|first2=Jacob \|last3=Reichling \|first3=David \|last4=Nadler \|first4=Janice \|last5=Bain \|first5=Paul \|last6=Gardner \|first6=Christopher D \|last7=Robinson \|first7=Thomas \|date=2021-04-21 \|title=Interventions to reduce meat consumption by appealing to animal welfare: Meta-analysis and evidence-based recommendations \|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.31219/osf.io/bc2wy \|access-date=2023-12-10 \|journal=Appetite\|volume=164 \|doi=10.31219/osf.io/bc2wy \|pmid=33984401 \|pmc=9205607 }}</ref> and in the wild.<ref name="Yue-2021" /> == Definitions == As defined by Wang et al.,<ref name="Wang-2022">{{Cite journal \|last1=Wang \|first1=Litong \|last2=Sheng \|first2=Guanghua \|last3=She \|first3=Shengxiang \|last4=Xu \|first4=Jiaqi \|date=2022-08-06 \|title=Impact of empathy with nature on pro‐environmental behaviour \|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/ijcs.12856 \|journal=International Journal of Consumer Studies \|volume=47 \|issue=2 \|pages=652–668 \|doi=10.1111/ijcs.12856 \|s2cid=251148144 \|issn=1470-6423}}</ref> “Empathy with nature means acknowledging the needs of animals, nature in general, and the importance of their survival, as well as showing interest in their well-being,” (Wang et al., 2022, p. 654). Ecological empathy overlaps with [[nature connectedness]], and can be understood as the ability to connect with nature, both cognitively and affectively.<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1=Fido \|first1=Dean \|last2=Richardson \|first2=Miles \|date=June 2019 \|title=Empathy Mediates the Relationship Between Nature Connectedness and Both Callous and Uncaring Traits \|journal=Ecopsychology \|volume=11 \|issue=2 \|pages=130–137 \|doi=10.1089/eco.2018.0071 \|issn=1942-9347\|doi-access=free }}</ref> === Distinctions between ecological empathy and other concepts === Ecological empathy is related to, but distinct from, the concepts of [[Biophilia hypothesis\|biophilia]], [[ecological grief]], and [[solastalgia]]. The biophilia hypothesis holds that humans possess an innate love of nature and a drive to connect with the natural world.<ref>{{Cite book \|last=WILSON \|first=EDWARD O. \|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/j.ctvk12s6h \|title=Biophilia \|date=2009-06-30 \|publisher=Harvard University Press \|doi=10.2307/j.ctvk12s6h \|isbn=978-0-674-04523-1}}</ref> Biophilia refers to our affinity towards the natural world, whereas ecological empathy is our ability to feel empathy towards nature. Both are promoted by time spent in nature.<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1=Berto \|first1=Rita \|last2=Barbiero \|first2=Giuseppe \|last3=Barbiero \|first3=Pietro \|last4=Senes \|first4=Giulio \|date=2018-03-05 \|title=An Individual's Connection to Nature Can Affect Perceived Restorativeness of Natural Environments. Some Observations about Biophilia \|journal=Behavioral Sciences \|volume=8 \|issue=3 \|pages=34 \|doi=10.3390/bs8030034 \|pmid=29510581 \|pmc=5867487 \|issn=2076-328X \|doi-access=free }}</ref> While ecological empathy is an experience of empathy for nature, ecological grief (or climate grief) is the sadness that arises when one learns about [[environmental degradation]] and [[climate change]]. Related to ecological grief is ''solastalgia''—a term coined by [[Glenn Albrecht]]<ref name="Albrecht-2005">{{Cite journal \|last=Albrecht \|first=Glen \|date=2005 \|title='Solastalgia'. A new concept in health and identity. \|journal=PAN: Philosophy Activism Nature \|volume=3 \|pages=41–55}}</ref> to describe the distress caused by changes to one’s environment while one is living in that environment (as opposed to nostalgia, which occurs when one is away from home.) It refers to the experience of current climate-related events (as opposed to [[eco-anxiety]], which involves the fear of future climate-related events.) While ecological grief and solastalgia solely involve negative emotions related to nature, ecological empathy is about ''feeling'' the emotions of the natural world—either positive or negative.<ref name="Wang-2022" /><ref name="Albrecht-2005" /> == Measurement == Ecological empathy can be assessed in various ways, and several scales have been created to assess individuals’ connection with and attitudes towards nature. === Dispositional Empathy with Nature (DEN) scale === Kim-Pong Tam<ref name="Tam-2013">{{Cite journal \|last=Tam \|first=Kim-Pong \|date=September 2013 \|title=Dispositional empathy with nature \|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvp.2013.05.004 \|journal=Journal of Environmental Psychology \|volume=35 \|pages=92–104 \|doi=10.1016/j.jenvp.2013.05.004 \|issn=0272-4944}}</ref> developed the ''Dispositional Empathy with Nature (DEN)'' scale, adapted from the [[Interpersonal Reactivity Index]] (IRI),<ref>{{Cite journal \|last=Davis \|first=Mark H. \|date=1980 \|title=Interpersonal Reactivity Index \|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/t01093-000 \|access-date=2023-11-24 \|website=PsycTESTS Dataset\|doi=10.1037/t01093-000 }}</ref> (a widely used empathy scale which measures both affective and cognitive empathy.) The DEN scale has been used by psychologists and educators in a variety of contexts since it was developed, to measure empathy towards nature in both students and adults, and has been translated and used internationally.<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1=Clayton \|first1=Susan \|last2=Irkhin \|first2=Boris \|last3=Nartova-Bochaver \|first3=Sof'ya \|date=2019-03-30 \|title=Environmental Identity in Russia: Validation and Relationship to the Concern for People and Plants \|journal=Психология. Журнал Высшей школы экономики \|volume=16 \|issue=1 \|pages=85–107 \|doi=10.17323/1813-8918-2019-1-85-107 \|issn=1813-8918\|doi-access=free }}</ref> Sample items of the ''Dispositional Empathy with Nature'' scale (Tam, 2013, p. 96) include:<ref name="Tam-2013" /> * ''I imagine how I would feel if I were the suffering animals and plants.'' * ''I try to understand how the suffering animals and plants feel by imagining how things look from their perspective.'' * ''I visualize in my mind clearly and vividly how the suffering animals and plants feel in their situation.'' * ''I have tender, concerned feelings for the suffering animals and plants.'' === Emotional Affinity Toward Nature scale === Kals and colleagues designed the ''Emotional Affinity Toward Nature''<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1=Kals \|first1=Elisabeth \|last2=Schumacher \|first2=Daniel \|last3=Montada \|first3=Leo \|date=March 1999 \|title=Emotional Affinity toward Nature as a Motivational Basis to Protect Nature \|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/00139169921972056 \|journal=Environment and Behavior \|volume=31 \|issue=2 \|pages=178–202 \|doi=10.1177/00139169921972056 \|bibcode=1999EnvBe..31..178K \|s2cid=143948653 \|issn=0013-9165}}</ref> scale to measure individuals’ [[Affinity (sociology)\|affinity]] with and connection to the natural world. The scale contains three constructs, measuring participants’ behavior, emotions about nature, and experiences in nature—respectively. The scale has been used in the fields of psychology and education—primarily to assess students’ affinity toward nature, but has been used for adults as well. Sample items (Kals et al., 1999, pp. 188) from each construct include: * [Behavioral criteria]: ''I am willing to take steps in my own house-hold for the protection of natural resources (e.g., installation of water flow regulators, solar panels, and so forth).'' * [Emotions and interest]: ''If I spend time in nature today, I feel a deep feeling of love toward nature.'' * [Experiences with nature]: ''Nowadays, I spend a lot of time in nature.'' === Environmental Attitudes Inventory (EAI) === Milfont & Duckitt designed The ''Environmental Attitudes Inventory'' (EAI)<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1=Milfont \|first1=Taciano L. \|last2=Duckitt \|first2=John \|date=March 2010 \|title=The environmental attitudes inventory: A valid and reliable measure to assess the structure of environmental attitudes \|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvp.2009.09.001 \|journal=Journal of Environmental Psychology \|volume=30 \|issue=1 \|pages=80–94 \|doi=10.1016/j.jenvp.2009.09.001 \|issn=0272-4944}}</ref> to measure participants’ feelings, connection with, and attitudes about nature. The scale has been used internationally to measure students’ attitudes towards the environment, and has also been adapted and optimized in various contexts.<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1=Sutton \|first1=Stephen G. \|last2=Gyuris \|first2=Emma \|date=2015-01-05 \|title=Optimizing the environmental attitudes inventory \|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/ijshe-03-2013-0027 \|journal=International Journal of Sustainability in Higher Education \|volume=16 \|issue=1 \|pages=16–33 \|doi=10.1108/ijshe-03-2013-0027 \|bibcode=2015IJSHE..16...16S \|issn=1467-6370}}</ref> The inventory has twelve scales, each of which contains ten survey items (Milfont & Duckitt, 2010, pp. 91-92): # Enjoyment of nature # Support for interventionist conservation policies # [[Environmental movement]] activism # Conservation motivated by [[Anthropocentrism\|anthropocentric]] concern # Confidence in science and technology # Environmental threat # Altering nature # Personal conservation behaviour # Human dominance over nature (items reverse coded) # Human utilization of nature (items reverse coded) # Eco-centric concern # Support for population growth policies === Connectedness to nature scale === The [[connectedness to nature scale]]<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1=Mayer \|first1=F.Stephan \|last2=Frantz \|first2=Cynthia McPherson \|date=December 2004 \|title=The connectedness to nature scale: A measure of individuals' feeling in community with nature \|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvp.2004.10.001 \|journal=Journal of Environmental Psychology \|volume=24 \|issue=4 \|pages=503–515 \|doi=10.1016/j.jenvp.2004.10.001 \|s2cid=1144969 \|issn=0272-4944}}</ref> designed by Mayer and Franz is a scale to measure individuals’ sense of connection with nature. The tool has been used primarily by psychologists and has been translated into other languages, including Cantonese<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1=Cheung \|first1=Hubert \|last2=Mazerolle \|first2=Lorraine \|last3=Possingham \|first3=Hugh P. \|last4=Tam \|first4=Kim‐Pong \|last5=Biggs \|first5=Duan \|date=September 2020 \|title=A methodological guide for translating study instruments in cross‐cultural research: Adapting the 'connectedness to nature' scale into Chinese \|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/2041-210x.13465 \|journal=Methods in Ecology and Evolution \|volume=11 \|issue=11 \|pages=1379–1387 \|doi=10.1111/2041-210x.13465 \|bibcode=2020MEcEv..11.1379C \|s2cid=225424348 \|issn=2041-210X}}</ref> and French<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1=Navarro \|first1=Oscar \|last2=Olivos \|first2=Pablo \|last3=Fleury-Bahi \|first3=Ghozlane \|date=2017-12-12 \|title="Connectedness to Nature Scale": Validity and Reliability in the French Context \|journal=Frontiers in Psychology \|volume=8 \|page=2180 \|doi=10.3389/fpsyg.2017.02180 \|pmid=29312052 \|pmc=5733057 \|issn=1664-1078\|doi-access=free }}</ref> for use in international contexts. Sample items (Mayer & Franz, 2004, p. 513) include: * ''I often feel a sense of oneness with the natural world around me.'' * ''I recognize and appreciate the intelligence of other living organisms'' * ''I often feel a kinship with animals and plants.'' * ''I often feel like I am only a small part of the natural world around me, and that I am no more important than the grass on the ground or the birds in the trees.'' == Connection to conservation behavior == Across a number of [[Environmental studies\|studies]], higher rates of ecological empathy have been found to correlate with increased conservation attitudes and behavior. Tam<ref name="Tam-2013" /> found that dispositional empathy with nature (DEN) robustly predicted both public (e.g. supporting an environmental organization) and private (e.g. household behaviors such as recycling) [[conservation behavior]]. Ienna and colleagues in their study of 878 participants found that both empathy and knowledge of [[environmental issues]] predicted pro-environmental attitudes and behavior; though verifiable knowledge was a stronger predictor.<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1=Ienna \|first1=Marina \|last2=Rofe \|first2=Amelia \|last3=Gendi \|first3=Monica \|last4=Douglas \|first4=Heather E. \|last5=Kelly \|first5=Michelle \|last6=Hayward \|first6=Matthew W. \|last7=Callen \|first7=Alex \|last8=Klop-Toker \|first8=Kaya \|last9=Scanlon \|first9=Robert J. \|last10=Howell \|first10=Lachlan G. \|last11=Griffin \|first11=Andrea S. \|date=2022-04-12 \|title=The Relative Role of Knowledge and Empathy in Predicting Pro-Environmental Attitudes and Behavior \|journal=Sustainability \|volume=14 \|issue=8 \|pages=4622 \|doi=10.3390/su14084622 \|issn=2071-1050\|doi-access=free \|hdl=10536/DRO/DU:30166990 \|hdl-access=free }}</ref> The authors also found a dissociation between cognitive and affective empathy—while affective empathy was found to predict attitudes but not behavior, cognitive empathy predicted both. This finding aligned with the authors’ prediction that cognitive empathy would influence behavior in a similar way as knowledge. Wang and colleagues found that inducing empathy for nature (through photographs and videos) led to increased pro-environmental behaviors.<ref name="Wang-2022" /> For individuals with independent (vs. interdependent) self-construal, however, higher empathy with nature did not lead to such behaviors. The study found that empathy towards nature led participants to make a commitment to the environment (a mediating factor), which in turn prompted increased environmental behavior. Based on [[Daniel Batson\|Daniel Batson’s]] Model of [[Empathy-altruism\|Altruism]], Jaime Berenguer designed a study to test the effects of empathy on [[moral reasoning]]. Participants who were prompted to practice empathy when reading a passage about an environmental dilemma were able to construct significantly more moral arguments for their positions than those in the neutral condition.<ref>{{Cite journal \|last=Berenguer \|first=Jaime \|date=2008-12-02 \|title=The Effect of Empathy in Environmental Moral Reasoning \|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0013916508325892 \|journal=Environment and Behavior \|volume=42 \|issue=1 \|pages=110–134 \|doi=10.1177/0013916508325892 \|s2cid=143878638 \|issn=0013-9165}}</ref> Ecological empathy has also been assessed in corporate settings. Islam and colleagues found that employees with high levels of empathy demonstrated more pro-environmental and conservation behavior, as well as higher levels of identification with their workplace in connection with its pro-environmental policies.<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1=Islam \|first1=Talat \|last2=Ali \|first2=Ghulam \|last3=Asad \|first3=Humaira \|date=2019-03-18 \|title=Environmental CSR and pro-environmental behaviors to reduce environmental dilapidation \|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/mrr-12-2017-0408 \|journal=Management Research Review \|volume=42 \|issue=3 \|pages=332–351 \|doi=10.1108/mrr-12-2017-0408 \|s2cid=150339615 \|issn=2040-8269}}</ref> Gary Lynne and colleagues found that “empathy nudging”, when combined with financial incentives, can have a powerful impact on farmers’ business decisions regarding [[sustainable agriculture]]. This is especially true for those who are initially low in conservation practices.<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1=Lynne \|first1=Gary D. \|last2=Czap \|first2=Natalia V. \|last3=Czap \|first3=Hans J. \|last4=Burbach \|first4=Mark E. \|date=2016-12-23 \|title=A Theoretical Foundation for Empathy Conservation: Toward Avoiding the Tragedy of the Commons \|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1561/105.00000052 \|journal=Review of Behavioral Economics \|volume=3 \|issue=3–4 \|pages=243–279 \|doi=10.1561/105.00000052 \|issn=2326-6198}}</ref> Factors such as place and identity mediate the role of empathy in conservation behaviors.<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1=Brown \|first1=Katrina \|last2=Adger \|first2=W. Neil \|last3=Devine-Wright \|first3=Patrick \|last4=Anderies \|first4=John M. \|last5=Barr \|first5=Stewart \|last6=Bousquet \|first6=Francois \|last7=Butler \|first7=Catherine \|last8=Evans \|first8=Louisa \|last9=Marshall \|first9=Nadine \|last10=Quinn \|first10=Tara \|date=May 2019 \|title=Empathy, place and identity interactions for sustainability \|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2019.03.003 \|journal=Global Environmental Change \|volume=56 \|pages=11–17 \|doi=10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2019.03.003 \|s2cid=159299883 \|issn=0959-3780}}</ref> Empathy will predict environmental actions only to the extent that it is able to transcend outgroup differences (natives vs. newcomers within a space) and geographic distance. == Individual differences == As with empathy generally, individuals vary in their ability and willingness to practice ecological empathy.<ref name="Tam-2013" /> Tam has defined the construct of Dispositional Empathy with Nature (DEN) to describe “the dispositional tendency to understand and share the emotional experience of the natural world, (Tam, 2013, p. 1). Tam has developed and validated an instrument for assessing DEN and found that, across five studies with over eight hundred participants, DEN predicted conservation behavior.<ref name="Tam-2013" /> Across the literature, gender is found to be a [[Mediation (statistics)\|mediating factor]] for empathy,<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1=Rose \|first1=Amanda J. \|last2=Rudolph \|first2=Karen D. \|date=January 2006 \|title=A review of sex differences in peer relationship processes: Potential trade-offs for the emotional and behavioral development of girls and boys. \|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.132.1.98 \|journal=Psychological Bulletin \|volume=132 \|issue=1 \|pages=98–131 \|doi=10.1037/0033-2909.132.1.98 \|pmid=16435959 \|issn=1939-1455\|pmc=3160171 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal \|last1=Chen \|first1=Wuying \|last2=Lu \|first2=Jiamei \|last3=Liu \|first3=Lianqi \|last4=Lin \|first4=Wenyi \|date=2014 \|title=Gender Differences of Empathy \|journal=Advances in Psychological Science \|language=en \|volume=22 \|issue=9 \|pages=1423 \|doi=10.3724/SP.J.1042.2014.01423 \|issn=1671-3710\|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name="Tam-2013" /> with girls displaying greater ability and motivation to practice empathy. == Methods of cultivation == Empathy is teachable,<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1=Platt \|first1=Frederic W. \|last2=Keller \|first2=Vaughn F. \|date=April 1994 \|title=Empathic communication \|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/bf02600129 \|journal=Journal of General Internal Medicine \|volume=9 \|issue=4 \|pages=222–226 \|doi=10.1007/bf02600129 \|pmid=8014729 \|s2cid=42768114 \|issn=0884-8734}}</ref> and numerous educational programs and interventions have been developed to foster ecological empathy, in both youth and adults. === Environmental education === [[Environmental education]] (EE) is a broad, multidisciplinary field that supports students’ engagement with nature, understanding of ecological systems, exploration of complex environmental problems, and the development of habits, lifestyles, and actions that promote conservation.<ref name="Lotz-Sisitka-2013">{{Citation \|last1=Lotz-Sisitka \|first1=Heila \|title=20 Traditions and New Niches \|date=2013-05-02 \|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9780203813331-36 \|work=International Handbook of Research on Environmental Education \|pages=194–205 \|access-date=2023-11-24 \|publisher=Routledge \|isbn=978-0-203-81333-1 \|last2=Fien \|first2=John \|last3=Ketlhoilwe \|first3=Mphemelang\|doi=10.4324/9780203813331-36 }}</ref> According to the [[United States Environmental Protection Agency\|Environmental Protection Agency]] (EPA), “Environmental education is a process that allows individuals to explore environmental issues, engage in problem solving, and take action to improve the environment. As a result, individuals develop a deeper understanding of environmental issues and have the skills to make informed and responsible decisions”.<ref name="Environmental Protection Agency-2023">{{Cite web \|last=Environmental Protection Agency \|date=November 11, 2023 \|title=What is Environmental Education? \|url=https://www.epa.gov/education/what-environmental-education \|website=Environmental Protection Agency}}</ref> The EPA lays out the following components of environmental education:<ref name="Environmental Protection Agency-2023" /> * ''Awareness and sensitivity'' to the environment and environmental challenges * ''Knowledge and understanding'' of the environment and environmental challenges * ''Attitudes'' of concern for the environment and motivation to improve or maintain environmental quality * ''Skills'' to identify and help resolve environmental challenges * ''Participation'' in activities that lead to the resolution of environmental challenges [[David Sobel]] argues that environmental education should be focused on empathy between the ages of four and seven, as children in this age range have less of a distinction between “self” and “other” and can more easily empathize with others.<ref name="Sobel-2013">{{Cite book \|last=Sobel \|first=David \|title=Beyond Ecophobia. Reclaiming the Heart in Nature Education \|publisher=The Orion Society \|year=2013 \|location=Great Barrington, MA, USA}}</ref> Sobel encourages educators and parents to foster a love of nature by letting children engage in wild play—getting dirty, climbing trees, building forts, and immersing themselves in the natural world. He critiques environmental education which focus too much on rules and the cultivation of systemic knowledge, and argues that “Nature programs should invite children to make mud pies, climb trees, catch frogs, paint their faces with charcoal, get their hands dirty and their feet wet. They should be allowed to go off the trail and have fun”.<ref>{{Cite web \|last=Sobel \|first=David \|title=Look, Don't Touch \|url=https://orionmagazine.org/article/look-dont-touch1/ \|access-date=2023-11-24 \|website=Orion Magazine \|language=en}}</ref> Sobel calls for parents and educators to focus on fostering a connection with and love of nature first and foremost. In ''Beyond Ecophobia. Reclaiming the Heart in Nature Education'', Sobel argues, “If we want children to flourish, to become truly empowered, let us allow them to love the earth before we ask them to save it.”<ref name="Sobel-2013" /> === Ecopedagogy === [[Ecopedagogy]], as distinct from traditional environmental education, empowers students to explore the connections between social and environmental violence, to investigate the hidden political structures that contribute to environmental destruction, and—critically—to engage in transformational praxis.<ref name="Misiaszek-2020">{{Cite book \|last=Misiaszek \|first=Greg \|title=Ecopedagogy: Critical Environmental Teaching for Planetary Justice and Global Sustainable Development \|publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing \|year=2020 \|location=London, UK}}</ref> Ecopedagogy [[Curriculum\|curricula]] can empower students to examine their own relationship with the natural world, the infrastructural privileges they may or may not have, and the ways in which the infrastructures around them were shaped by systems of power.<ref>{{Citation \|last1=Niess \|first1=Andrew \|title=Composing with Infrastructures \|date=2022-07-21 \|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9781003221807-2 \|work=Ecopedagogies \|pages=17–31 \|access-date=2023-11-24 \|place=London \|publisher=Routledge \|isbn=978-1-003-22180-7 \|last2=Knittle \|first2=Davy\|doi=10.4324/9781003221807-2 }}</ref> === Arts === Both making<ref name="Sunassee-2021">{{Cite journal \|last1=Sunassee \|first1=Asvina \|last2=Bokhoree \|first2=Chandradeo \|last3=Patrizio \|first3=Andrew \|date=2021-05-20 \|title=Students' Empathy for the Environment through Eco-Art Place-Based Education: A Review \|journal=Ecologies \|volume=2 \|issue=2 \|pages=214–247 \|doi=10.3390/ecologies2020013 \|issn=2673-4133\|doi-access=free }}</ref> and viewing<ref>{{Cite book \|last=Pulsinelli \|first=Gabryella \|title=The Role of Art in Creating Empathy for Nature \|publisher=Wake Forest University \|year=2019}}</ref> visual art have been used to promote ecological empathy. Notable [[Environmental art\|environmental artists]] include [[Andy Goldsworthy\|Andy Goldworthy]], [[Chris Jordan (artist)\|Chris Jordan]], [[Agnes Denes]], and [[Clifford Ross]].<ref>{{Cite web \|title=7 Environmental Artists Fighting for Change {{!}} Widewalls \|url=https://www.widewalls.ch/magazine/environmental-artists \|access-date=2023-11-30 \|website=www.widewalls.ch \|language=en}}</ref> Music, dance, theater, and poetry are also used to promote ecological empathy.<ref>{{Cite journal \|last=Curtis \|first=David J. \|date=2009-11-24 \|title=Creating inspiration: The role of the arts in creating empathy for ecological restoration \|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1442-8903.2009.00487.x \|journal=Ecological Management & Restoration \|volume=10 \|issue=3 \|pages=174–184 \|doi=10.1111/j.1442-8903.2009.00487.x \|bibcode=2009EcoMR..10..174C \|issn=1442-7001}}</ref> === Literature === Children’s books can be used to promote ecological empathy<ref name="McKnight-2010">{{Cite journal \|last=McKnight \|first=Diane M \|date=August 2010 \|title=Overcoming "ecophobia": fostering environmental empathy through narrative in children's science literature \|journal=Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment \|volume=8 \|issue=6 \|doi=10.1890/100041 \|bibcode=2010FrEE....8E..10M \|issn=1540-9295\|doi-access=free }}</ref> often featuring animals as central characters.<ref>{{Cite journal \|last=Kucirkova \|first=Natalia \|date=2019-02-05 \|title=How Could Children's Storybooks Promote Empathy? A Conceptual Framework Based on Developmental Psychology and Literary Theory \|journal=Frontiers in Psychology \|volume=10 \|page=121 \|doi=10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00121 \|pmid=30804833 \|pmc=6370723 \|issn=1664-1078\|doi-access=free }}</ref> One such series is the ''Schoolyard Series''<ref>{{Cite web \|last=LTER Network \|date=November 24, 2023 \|title=LTER Schoolyard Series \|url=https://lternet.edu/schoolyard-book-series/ \|website=National Science Foundation LTER (Long Term Ecological Research) Network}}</ref>''—''a collection of children’s picture books developed by [[National Science Foundation\|The National Science Foundation’s]] Long Term Ecological Research (LTER) network—with content reviewed by scientists and illustrations that engage readers and promote empathic connection. Other popular environmental children’s books (as cited by Holm<ref>{{Cite journal \|last=Holm \|first=D. \|date=2012 \|title=Exploring environmental empathy in action with children's books \|journal=Reading Improvement \|volume=49 \|issue=4 \|pages=134–139}}</ref>) include [[The Lorax]], Washing the Willow Tree Loon,<ref>{{Cite book \|last=Martin \|first=J. B. \|title=Washing the Willow Tree Loon \|publisher=Simon & Schuster Books for Young Readers \|year=1995}}</ref> Hoot<ref>{{Cite book \|last=Hiaasen \|title=Hoot \|publisher=Yearling \|year=2005}}</ref> Flush,<ref>{{Cite book \|last=Hiaasen \|first=C. \|title=Flush \|publisher=Ember \|year=2007}}</ref> [[The Wheel on the School]], The Missing 'Gator of Gumbo Limbo,<ref>{{Cite book \|last=George \|first=J.C. \|title=The Missing 'Gator of Gumbo Limbo \|publisher=Harpercollins Childrens Books \|year=1992}}</ref> The Empty Lot,<ref>{{Cite book \|last=Fife \|first=D \|title=The Empty Lot \|publisher=Turtleback \|year=1991}}</ref> [[The Great Kapok Tree]], Just a Dream,<ref>{{Cite book \|last=Van Allsburg \|first=C \|title=Just a Dream \|publisher=Houghton Mifflin Harcourt \|year=1990}}</ref> and The Forever Forest: Kids Save a Tropical Treasure.<ref>{{Cite book \|last1=Pratt-Serafini \|first1=R.H. \|title=The Forever Forest: Kids Save a Tropical Treasure \|last2=Crandell \|first2=R. \|publisher=Dawn Publications \|year=2008}}</ref> For adult readers, the genre of climate fiction can promote empathy and reflection by strengthening readers’ ecological imagination skills.<ref>{{Citation \|last=Milkoreit \|first=Manjana \|title=The promise of climate fiction \|date=2016-02-05 \|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9781315671468-10 \|work=Reimagining Climate Change \|pages=171–191 \|access-date=2023-11-24 \|place=Abingdon, Oxon : Routledge, Earthscan, 2016. \|publisher=Routledge\|doi=10.4324/9781315671468-10 \|isbn=9781315671468 }}</ref> In her book, ''Affective Ecologies'', Alexa Weik von Mossner argues that the embodied cognition elicited by environmental narratives allows readers to empathize, understand, and connect with ecological issues and human-nature relationships in a profound way.<ref>{{Cite book \|last=von Mossner \|first=Alexa Weik \|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/j.ctv11hpszq \|title=Affective Ecologies \|date=2017-05-16 \|publisher=Ohio State University Press \|doi=10.2307/j.ctv11hpszq \|isbn=978-0-8142-7493-4}}</ref> === Film === Numerous [[List of environmental films\|films]] have been created to draw attention to current environmental issues and promote ecological empathy among audiences. Notable examples are: [[The 11th Hour (2007 film)\|''The 11th Hour'']], ''[[Angry Inuk]]'', ''[[Anthropocene: The Human Epoch]]'', ''[[Food, Inc.]]'', ''[[An Inconvenient Truth]]'', ''[[The Cove (film)\|The Cove]]'', ''[[The Redwoods]]'', ''[[The Story of Stuff]],'' and ''[[The True Cost]]''.<ref name="Kong-2023">{{Cite web \|last=Kong \|first=Charmaine \|date=2023-10-22 \|title=The 21 Best Environmental Films of 2023 \|url=https://earth.org/best-environmental-films/ \|access-date=2023-11-30 \|website=Earth.Org \|language=en}}</ref> === Future scenarios === [[Scenario planning\|Future scenarios]] can be used to elicit empathy for the environment and can be implemented in several ways. Jessica Blythe and colleagues studied the use of future scenarios about the ocean (presented in either written or virtual reality format) and found post-empathy levels to be significantly higher in both conditions.<ref name="Blythe-2021">{{Cite journal \|last1=Blythe \|first1=Jessica \|last2=Baird \|first2=Julia \|last3=Bennett \|first3=Nathan \|last4=Dale \|first4=Gillian \|last5=Nash \|first5=Kirsty L. \|last6=Pickering \|first6=Gary \|last7=Wabnitz \|first7=Colette C. C. \|date=2021-09-04 \|title=Fostering ocean empathy through future scenarios \|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/pan3.10253 \|journal=People and Nature \|volume=3 \|issue=6 \|pages=1284–1296 \|doi=10.1002/pan3.10253 \|bibcode=2021PeoNa...3.1284B \|s2cid=239074200 \|issn=2575-8314}}</ref> Pessimistic scenarios tend to elicit more empathy,<ref name="Blythe-2021" /> though optimistic scenarios tend to promote empowerment.<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1=Richter \|first1=Isabell \|last2=Sumeldan \|first2=Joel \|last3=Avillanosa \|first3=Arlene \|last4=Gabe-Thomas \|first4=Elizabeth \|last5=Creencia \|first5=Lota \|last6=Pahl \|first6=Sabine \|date=2021-11-22 \|title=Co-created Future Scenarios as a Tool to Communicate Sustainable Development in Coastal Communities in Palawan, Philippines \|journal=Frontiers in Psychology \|volume=12 \|doi=10.3389/fpsyg.2021.627972 \|pmid=34880799 \|pmc=8645572 \|issn=1664-1078\|doi-access=free }}</ref> Scenario Art involves the presentation of visual representations of future scenarios alongside a process of strategic questioning—designed to foster provoke empathy, creativity, and sustainable decision-making.<ref>{{Cite journal \|last=Lederwasch \|first=Aleta \|date=2011 \|title=Scenario Art as a Decision-making Tool to Facilitate Sustainable Futures \|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.18848/1833-1866/cgp/v06i03/36048 \|journal=The International Journal of the Arts in Society: Annual Review \|volume=6 \|issue=3 \|pages=153–166 \|doi=10.18848/1833-1866/cgp/v06i03/36048 \|issn=1833-1866}}</ref> Future scenarios have also been used in museums to help visitors imagine the impact of various ecological solutions on future life.<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1=Garner \|first1=Julie \|last2=Rossmanith \|first2=Eva \|date=2021-01-02 \|title=Using Participation and Empathy to Inspire Positive Change: A Transcontinental Conversation \|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10598650.2020.1852491 \|journal=Journal of Museum Education \|volume=46 \|issue=1 \|pages=48–60 \|doi=10.1080/10598650.2020.1852491 \|s2cid=232125003 \|issn=1059-8650}}</ref> === Ecological storytelling === Participatory ecological [[storytelling]] promotes ecological empathy by having participants co-create environmental stories using both human and animal characters. Projecting and combining their own emotions with that of their characters, storytelling participants can develop empathy for environmental actors and the planet itself. Through their stories, participants engage in a critical self-reflective process and imagine possibilities for the construction of a [[sustainable future]]. This tool has been used with both broad range of participants, including youth, professional designers, and business stakeholders.<ref name="Talgorn-2023">{{Cite journal \|last1=Talgorn \|first1=Elise \|last2=Ullerup \|first2=Helle \|date=2023-05-10 \|title=Invoking 'Empathy for the Planet' through Participatory Ecological Storytelling: From Human-Centered to Planet-Centered Design \|journal=Sustainability \|volume=15 \|issue=10 \|pages=7794 \|doi=10.3390/su15107794 \|issn=2071-1050 \|doi-access=free}}</ref> === Indigenous approaches === Educators can also promote empathy through the integration of [[Indigenous (ecology)\|indigenous]] practices into the curricula. Activities are designed to help children connect with and understand themselves, first and foremost, connecting with others to better understand their perspectives, and helping students make meaningful connections between what they’re learning and their own lives. Indigenous stories, time spent outdoors to play freely with one another, and the building of relationship provide a foundation for empathic learning.<ref name="Ly-2014">{{Cite journal \|last=Ly \|first=R. \|date=2014 \|title=Beyond strategies: Infusing empathy and indigenous approaches in the elementary classroom. \|url=https://tspace.library.utoronto.ca/handle/1807/67041 \|journal=University of Toronto TSpace Repository}}</ref> Indigenous learning is not only a cognitive process but also a social and emotional process, as the transfer of learning often happens through intergenerational relationships. In many Indigenous cultures, environmental knowledge is passed on through siblings, peers, and elders—through storytelling and powerful rituals and ceremonies (in contrast to the traditional lecture format of modern schools).<ref>{{Cite book \|last=Kopnina \|first=Helen \|url= \|title=Anthropology of environmental education \|date=2012 \|publisher=Nova Science Publisher's, Incorporated. \|isbn= \|editor-last= \|editor-first= \|editor-last2= \|editor-first2=}}</ref> Indigenous storytelling can play a powerful role in the cultivation of ecological empathy. Celidwen and Keltner explain, “Indigenous Peoples recover and recontextualize stories in ongoing co-creation and participation, thus strengthening identity and purpose, and restoring community bonds. These stories, still oriented toward reverence to all living forms, encourage empathy and perspective taking, bringing individuals into resilient and adaptive communities.”<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1=Celidwen \|first1=Yuria \|last2=Keltner \|first2=Dacher \|date=2023-10-20 \|title=Kin relationality and ecological belonging: a cultural psychology of Indigenous transcendence \|journal=Frontiers in Psychology \|volume=14 \|pages=8 \|doi=10.3389/fpsyg.2023.994508 \|pmid=37928574 \|pmc=10622976 \|issn=1664-1078\|doi-access=free }}</ref> === Parenting practices === Parents can also play a powerful role in promoting ecological empathy with their children. In [[Rachel Carson\|Rachel Carson’s]] book, ''The Sense of Wonder,'' writes about her adventures with her grandnephew who—through his sense of wonder—helps her discover the natural world all over again. Carson encourages parents to provide children with companionship as they discover the joy and beauty of nature.<ref name="Carson-1998">{{Cite book \|last=Carson \|first=Rachel \|title=The sense of wonder \|publisher=HarperCollins Publishers \|year=1998 \|edition=1st}}</ref> == Empathy for animals == A central component of ecological empathy is the empathy felt towards non-human animals.<ref name="Moran-2022">{{Cite journal \|last=Moran \|first=Stephanie \|date=2022 \|title=What can art do for ecological thinking? \|url=https://www.ecologicalcitizen.net/pdfs/epub-061.pdf \|journal=The Ecological Citizen \|volume=5 \|issue=2 \|pages=103–108}}</ref> One main motivation for nurturing children’s capacity to empathize with animals is based on the concept of ''[[transference]]'', whereby the empathic skills they develop for animals will result in an increased ability to empathize with humans.<ref name="Thompson-2003">{{Cite journal \|last1=Thompson \|first1=Kelly L. \|last2=Gullone \|first2=Eleonora \|date=2003-01-01 \|title=Promotion of empathy and prosocial behaviour in children through humane education \|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00050060310001707187 \|journal=Australian Psychologist \|volume=38 \|issue=3 \|pages=175–182 \|doi=10.1080/00050060310001707187 \|issn=0005-0067}}</ref> Indeed, research suggests that developing empathy for animals may support the development of empathy toward other humans and—on the flip side—engaging in acts of cruelty toward animals may predict antisocial and violent behavior towards other humans.<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1=Komorosky \|first1=Dawna \|last2=O’Neal \|first2=Keri K. \|date=2015-10-02 \|title=The development of empathy and prosocial behavior through humane education, restorative justice, and animal-assisted programs \|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10282580.2015.1093684 \|journal=Contemporary Justice Review \|volume=18 \|issue=4 \|pages=395–406 \|doi=10.1080/10282580.2015.1093684 \|s2cid=146610403 \|issn=1028-2580}}</ref> In their study of 23 school shooters between 1988 and 2012, Arluke and Madfis found 43% of them had a history of abusing animals.<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1=Arluke \|first1=Arnold \|last2=Madfis \|first2=Eric \|date=February 2014 \|title=Animal Abuse as a Warning Sign of School Massacres: A Critique and Refinement \|url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1088767913511459 \|journal=Homicide Studies \|language=en \|volume=18 \|issue=1 \|pages=7–22 \|doi=10.1177/1088767913511459 \|s2cid=145456051 \|issn=1088-7679}}</ref> [[Humane education]] and nature education programs have been used as an effective intervention to promote empathy towards animals—in the zoo, at home, on the farm, or in the wild. === Animals in zoos and aquariums === [[Jim Wharton\|Wharton]] et al.<ref name="Wharton-2018">{{Citation \|last1=Wharton \|first1=Jim \|title=Effective Practices for Fostering Empathy Towards Marine Life \|date=2018-06-29 \|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-90778-9_10 \|work=Exemplary Practices in Marine Science Education \|pages=157–168 \|access-date=2023-11-24 \|place=Cham \|publisher=Springer International Publishing \|isbn=978-3-319-90777-2 \|last2=Khalil \|first2=Kathayoon \|last3=Fyfe \|first3=Catie \|last4=Young \|first4=Ashley\|doi=10.1007/978-3-319-90778-9_10 \|s2cid=150021484 }}</ref> have identified six practices adults can use with children to support their empathy towards [[marine life]]: * ''Framing''—using language (such as names and pronouns) that conveys an animal’s individuality * ''Modeling''—showing children how to treat animals with compassion and care * Increasing Knowledge—helping children understand an animal’s unique needs and experiences * ''Practice''—give children an opportunity to practice caring for an animal and acting out their empathic feelings (giving positive feedback when children engage appropriately with the animal in their care) * ''Providing Experiences''—allow children to spend time in nature and in environments where they can interact with animals * ''Imagination''—encourage students to imagine how an animal is feeling in a particular moment, or have them role play by taking on the character of a particular animal Sarah Webber and colleagues found that zoo visitors observing [[orangutan]]s interacting with a digital interface (projected on the floor of their enclosure) responded with cognitive, affective, and motor empathy towards the orangutans. The interactive projection offered orangutans the opportunity to create artwork, play interactive games, view videos, and identify themselves in photographs. The exhibit was designed to build empathy by allowing visitors to observe the animals’ behaviors up-close, witness their cognitive capacity in action, and observe differences in individual animals' preferences and behaviors.<ref name="Webber-2017">{{Cite book \|last1=Webber \|first1=Sarah \|title=Proceedings of the 2017 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems \|last2=Carter \|first2=Marcus \|last3=Sherwen \|first3=Sally \|last4=Smith \|first4=Wally \|last5=Joukhadar \|first5=Zaher \|last6=Vetere \|first6=Frank \|date=2017-05-02 \|publisher=ACM \|isbn=9781450346559 \|location=New York, NY, USA \|pages=6075–6088 \|chapter=Kinecting with Orangutans: Zoo Visitors' Empathetic Responses to Animals' Use of Interactive Technology \|doi=10.1145/3025453.3025729 \|chapter-url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1145/3025453.3025729 \|s2cid=12401656}}</ref> In their small-scale evaluation of a zoo-based nature preschool, Ernst and Budnik found that children’s levels of empathy towards both humans and animals increased over the course of the school year. For [[Wildlife\|wild animals]], they found significant increases in emotional sharing and empathic concern, but not in the cognitive (perspective-taking) component.<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1=Ernst \|first1=J. \|last2=Budnik \|first2=L. \|date=2022 \|title=Fostering Empathy for People and Animals: An Evaluation of Lake Superior Zoo's Nature Preschool. \|journal=International Journal of Early Childhood Environmental Education \|volume=9 \|issue=2 \|pages=3–16}}</ref> === Companion animals === Khalid and Naqvi found that individuals reporting strong "pet attachment" had higher levels of empathy.<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1=Khalid \|first1=A. \|last2=Naqvi \|first2=I. \|date=2016 \|title=Relationship between pet attachment and empathy among young adults. \|journal=Journal of Behavioural Sciences \|volume=26 \|issue=1 \|pages=66}}</ref> This finding was corroborated by Daly and Morton, who found that children who were highly attached to their [[pet]]s were more empathic than those who were less attached. Daly and Morton also found that children who preferred both cats and dogs (as opposed to one or the other)—as well as those who ''owned'' both—were more empathic than those who preferred or owned only one.<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1=Daly \|first1=Beth \|last2=Morton \|first2=L.L. \|date=June 2006 \|title=An investigation of human-animal interactions and empathy as related to pet preference, ownership, attachment, and attitudes in children \|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.2752/089279306785593801 \|journal=Anthrozoös \|volume=19 \|issue=2 \|pages=113–127 \|doi=10.2752/089279306785593801 \|issn=0892-7936 \|s2cid=144545356}}</ref> Robert Poresky found that children’s empathy towards other children was correlated with their empathy towards pets. He also found that children with a stronger pet bond scored higher on the measure of empathy towards other children.<ref>{{Cite journal \|last=Poresky \|first=Robert H. \|date=June 1990 \|title=The Young Children's Empathy Measure: Reliability, Validity and Effects of Companion Animal Bonding \|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.2466/pr0.1990.66.3.931 \|journal=Psychological Reports \|volume=66 \|issue=3 \|pages=931–936 \|doi=10.2466/pr0.1990.66.3.931 \|issn=0033-2941 \|pmid=2377714 \|s2cid=18913034}}</ref> Rothgerber and Mican found that individuals who reported having a close relationship with animals subsequently avoided meat more than those who didn’t, and used indirect, apologetic justifications for the meat they did eat. Both effects were mediated by empathy for animals.<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1=Rothgerber \|first1=Hank \|last2=Mican \|first2=Frances \|date=August 2014 \|title=Childhood pet ownership, attachment to pets, and subsequent meat avoidance. The mediating role of empathy toward animals \|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.appet.2014.03.032 \|journal=Appetite \|volume=79 \|pages=11–17 \|doi=10.1016/j.appet.2014.03.032 \|pmid=24704704 \|s2cid=16737933 \|issn=0195-6663}}</ref> A growing body of research suggests that humane education programs, especially those involving human-animal interactions, facilitates the development of empathy in children.<ref name="Jalongo-2013">{{Citation \|last=Jalongo \|first=Mary Renck \|title=Teaching Compassion: Humane Education in Early Childhood \|chapter=Humane Education and the Development of Empathy in Early Childhood: Definitions, Rationale, and Outcomes \|date=2013-06-21 \|chapter-url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-6922-9_1 \|series=Educating the Young Child \|volume=8 \|pages=3–21 \|access-date=2023-11-24 \|place=Dordrecht \|publisher=Springer Netherlands \|doi=10.1007/978-94-007-6922-9_1 \|isbn=978-94-007-6921-2}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal \|last1=Daly \|first1=Beth \|last2=Suggs \|first2=Suzanne \|date=2010-02-12 \|title=Teachers' experiences with humane education and animals in the elementary classroom: implications for empathy development \|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/03057240903528733 \|journal=Journal of Moral Education \|volume=39 \|issue=1 \|pages=101–112 \|doi=10.1080/03057240903528733 \|s2cid=145558039 \|issn=0305-7240}}</ref><ref name="Thompson-2003" /> Humane education programs can also be used as an effective strategy to combat school violence—reducing aggression towards both humans and animals.<ref>{{Cite journal \|last=Faver \|first=Catherine A. \|date=March 2010 \|title=School-based humane education as a strategy to prevent violence: Review and recommendations \|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2009.10.006 \|journal=Children and Youth Services Review \|volume=32 \|issue=3 \|pages=365–370 \|doi=10.1016/j.childyouth.2009.10.006 \|issn=0190-7409}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal \|last1=Komorosky \|first1=Dawna \|last2=O’Neal \|first2=Keri K. \|date=2015-10-02 \|title=The development of empathy and prosocial behavior through humane education, restorative justice, and animal-assisted programs \|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10282580.2015.1093684 \|journal=Contemporary Justice Review \|volume=18 \|issue=4 \|pages=395–406 \|doi=10.1080/10282580.2015.1093684 \|s2cid=146610403 \|issn=1028-2580}}</ref> {{Further\|Classroom pet}} === Farmed animals === Psychologist [[Melanie Joy]], who coined the term [[carnism]],<ref>{{Cite book \|last=Joy \|first=Melanie \|title=Psychic numbing and meat consumption: The psychology of carnism. \|publisher=Saybrook University. \|year=2003}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book \|last=Joy \|first=Melanie \|title=Why we love dogs, eat pigs, and wear cows: An introduction to carnism. \|publisher=Red Wheel. \|year=2020}}</ref> studies the [[psychology of eating meat]] and the “meat paradox,” which refers to the fact that most people simultaneously care about animals and consume them. A growing number of researchers are studying this phenomenon in attempt to understand what factors play a role in this paradox. Piazza and colleagues identified what they refer to as the “4Ns” individuals use to justify meat consumption: Necessary, Natural, Normal, and Nice.<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1=Piazza \|first1=Jared \|last2=Ruby \|first2=Matthew B. \|last3=Loughnan \|first3=Steve \|last4=Luong \|first4=Mischel \|last5=Kulik \|first5=Juliana \|last6=Watkins \|first6=Hanne M. \|last7=Seigerman \|first7=Mirra \|date=August 2015 \|title=Rationalizing meat consumption. The 4Ns \|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.appet.2015.04.011 \|journal=Appetite \|volume=91 \|pages=114–128 \|doi=10.1016/j.appet.2015.04.011 \|pmid=25865663 \|s2cid=11686309 \|issn=0195-6663\|hdl=20.500.11820/9cf94fc6-b4a9-4066-af4a-9c53d2fd3122 \|hdl-access=free }}</ref> Research by Loughnan and colleagues suggests that people who value masculinity, find dominance and inequality acceptable, view animals as highly dissimilar to humans, or think that animals cannot feel pain are more likely to eat meat.<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1=Loughnan \|first1=Steve \|last2=Bastian \|first2=Brock \|last3=Haslam \|first3=Nick \|date=April 2014 \|title=The Psychology of Eating Animals \|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0963721414525781 \|journal=Current Directions in Psychological Science \|volume=23 \|issue=2 \|pages=104–108 \|doi=10.1177/0963721414525781 \|s2cid=145339463 \|issn=0963-7214}}</ref> Megan Earle and colleagues found that providing visual reminders of the animal origins of meat (compared to photos of the meat alone) lead to decreased meat consumption, which was mediated by increased empathy towards animals, distress about meat consumption, and disgust for meat. The intervention also led to a decrease in negative attitudes towards [[Vegetarianism\|vegetarians]] and [[Veganism\|vegans]].<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1=Earle \|first1=Megan \|last2=Hodson \|first2=Gordon \|last3=Dhont \|first3=Kristof \|last4=MacInnis \|first4=Cara \|date=2019-06-24 \|title=Eating with our eyes (closed): Effects of visually associating animals with meat on antivegan/vegetarian attitudes and meat consumption willingness \|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1368430219861848 \|journal=Group Processes & Intergroup Relations \|volume=22 \|issue=6 \|pages=818–835 \|doi=10.1177/1368430219861848 \|issn=1368-4302 \|s2cid=164266896}}</ref> In their meta-analysis of 100 studies evaluating interventions designed to reduce meat consumption, Mathur and colleagues found that appeals to animal welfare were largely successful in achieving at least a short-term reduction in meat consumption, based on self-report behavioral outcomes and intentions for future behavior.<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1=Mathur \|first1=Maya B \|last2=Peacock \|first2=Jacob \|last3=Reichling \|first3=David \|last4=Nadler \|first4=Janice \|last5=Bain \|first5=Paul \|last6=Gardner \|first6=Christopher D \|last7=Robinson \|first7=Thomas \|date=2021-04-21 \|title=Interventions to reduce meat consumption by appealing to animal welfare: Meta-analysis and evidence-based recommendations \|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.31219/osf.io/bc2wy \|access-date=2023-12-10 \|journal=Appetite\|volume=164 \|doi=10.31219/osf.io/bc2wy \|pmid=33984401 \|pmc=9205607 }}</ref> While self-reported measures of empathy may be susceptible to [[Social-desirability bias\|social desirability bias]] and other [[Validity (statistics)\|validity]] issues, analysis of facial expressions can be a more objective measure. Ly and Weary found that facial expressions were able to robustly predict empathy towards farm animals when participants viewed videos of animals undergoing painful procedures associated with industrial farming.<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1=Ly \|first1=Lexis H. \|last2=Weary \|first2=Daniel M. \|date=2021-03-01 \|title=Facial expression in humans as a measure of empathy towards farm animals in pain \|journal=PLOS ONE \|volume=16 \|issue=3 \|pages=e0247808 \|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0247808 \|pmid=33647043 \|pmc=7920373 \|bibcode=2021PLoSO..1647808L \|issn=1932-6203\|doi-access=free }}</ref> In a study of dairy farmers, lack of empathy towards animals (as indicated by disagreement with the statement: “animals experience physical pain as humans do”) was correlated with higher numbers of skin lesions in the farmers’ cows.<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1=Kielland \|first1=C. \|last2=Skjerve \|first2=E. \|last3=Østerås \|first3=O. \|last4=Zanella \|first4=A.J. \|date=July 2010 \|title=Dairy farmer attitudes and empathy toward animals are associated with animal welfare indicators \|journal=Journal of Dairy Science \|volume=93 \|issue=7 \|pages=2998–3006 \|doi=10.3168/jds.2009-2899 \|pmid=20630216 \|issn=0022-0302\|doi-access=free }}</ref> Organizations such as the [[New Roots Institute]], [[The Humane League]], [[Humane Society of the United States]], [[Farm Sanctuary]], [[Mercy for Animals]], and others educate youth and the broader public about the impact of factory farming, in an attempt to promote empathy for farmed animals.<ref>{{Cite web \|title=Top 11 Animal Charities to Donate to in 2023 \|url=https://animalcharityevaluators.org/donation-advice/recommended-charities/ \|access-date=2023-11-30 \|website=Animal Charity Evaluators \|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web \|last=Walsh \|first=Owen \|date=2023 \|title=What do animal organizations do, and why should I support them? \|url=https://thehumaneleague.org/article/animal-organizations \|access-date=2023-11-30 \|website=thehumaneleague.org}}</ref>{{Further\|Psychology of eating meat\|Ethics of eating meat}} === Wild animals === With the rise of [[globalization]] and [[International trade\|transnational trade]], both legal and [[Wildlife trade#Illegal wildlife trade\|illegal wildlife trade]] has proliferated.<ref>{{Cite journal \|date=2016-06-30 \|title=World Wildlife Crime Report 2016 \|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.18356/e70581eb-en \|journal=World Wildlife Crime Report \|doi=10.18356/e70581eb-en \|isbn=9789210580557 \|issn=2521-6155}}</ref> Dan Yue and colleagues designed educational materials including texts depicting the poaching of animals in an [[Anthropomorphism\|anthropomorphic]] way, such as one written from the perspective of a tiger cub whose mother was killed by poachers.<ref name="Yue-2021">{{Cite journal \|last1=Yue \|first1=Dan \|last2=Tong \|first2=Zepeng \|last3=Tian \|first3=Jianchi \|last4=Li \|first4=Yang \|last5=Zhang \|first5=Linxiu \|last6=Sun \|first6=Yan \|date=2021-03-30 \|title=Anthropomorphic Strategies Promote Wildlife Conservation through Empathy: The Moderation Role of the Public Epidemic Situation \|journal=International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health \|volume=18 \|issue=7 \|pages=3565 \|doi=10.3390/ijerph18073565 \|pmid=33808181 \|pmc=8037496 \|issn=1660-4601\|doi-access=free }}</ref> These anthropomorphic educational materials boosted participants’ empathy towards wildlife and their intention to avoid consuming wildlife products, such as tiger bone wine.. Kansky and Maassarani found that the implementation of [[Nonviolent Communication\|non-violent communication]] (NVC) workshops led to greater empathic concern for both people and wildlife in Namibia.<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1=Kansky \|first1=Ruth \|last2=Maassarani \|first2=Tarek \|date=January 2022 \|title=Teaching nonviolent communication to increase empathy between people and toward wildlife to promote human–wildlife coexistence \|journal=Conservation Letters \|volume=15 \|issue=1 \|doi=10.1111/conl.12862 \|bibcode=2022ConL...15E2862K \|issn=1755-263X\|doi-access=free }}</ref> Ashley Young and colleagues offer best practices for cultivating children’s empathic connection for animals, including:<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1=Young \|first1=Ashley \|last2=Khalil \|first2=Kathayoon A. \|last3=Wharton \|first3=Jim \|date=April 2018 \|title=Empathy for Animals: A Review of the Existing Literature \|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/cura.12257 \|journal=Curator: The Museum Journal \|volume=61 \|issue=2 \|pages=327–343 \|doi=10.1111/cura.12257 \|issn=0011-3069}}</ref> * Providing children with ample time outdoors to connect with nature * Respecting an animal’s subjective existence, emotions, and intentions (e.g. not picking up an animal that is resisting being picked up or demonstrating fear) * Acting as a role model for children to model appropriate ways of connecting with animals, and provide feedback on their animal interactions * Activating children’s imaginations through [[role-playing]], storytelling, and mimicry of animals == See also == * [[Environmental protection]] * [[History of climate change policy and politics]] == References == {{Reflist}} [[Category:Environmentalism]] [[Category:Wikipedia Student Program]] [[Category:Empathy]] [[Category:Education]] [[Category:Environmental psychology]] [[Category:Nature conservation]] [[Category:Ecology]]
Lindsay Mollison	{{Short description\|Australian physician and environmentalist}} {{BLP sources\|date=November 2023}} '''Lindsay Clifford Mollison''' is a retired Consultant Physician in Gastroenterology and Infectious Diseases. He was the founding member of the Kakadu Action Group <ref>{{cite web \|title=Kakadu Action Group (KAG) \|url=https://nla.gov.au/nla.obj-298861270/findingaid#nla-obj-298873396 \|publisher=Records of the Australian Conservation Foundation, Canberra Branch, 1975-1996 [manuscript] \|access-date=26 October 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite news \|title=Mollison's KAG \|url=https://www.newspapers.com/image/120590773/?terms=kakadu%20action%20group&match=1&clipping_id=128829415 \|publisher=The Age \|access-date=25 July 2023}}</ref> (KAG) that led a campaign to prevent mining in the Coronation Hill area of the [[Northern Territory]]'s [[Kakadu National Park]] in the late 1980s and early 1990s. == Early life and education == Mollison was born at St George's Hospital in [[Kew, Victoria]] in 1956. His father was a professional [[Woodturning\|wood turner]] and his mother a shop assistant. He was educated at Auburn Central School (now [[Auburn Primary School]]<ref>{{cite web \|url=https://www.auburnps.vic.edu.au/about-us/our-place/ \|title=Our Place \|author=<!--Not stated--> \|date=2023 \|website= \|publisher=Auburn Primary School \|access-date=29 October 2023 \|quote=}}</ref>) and then [[Melbourne High School]] (where he was a prefect in his senior years at both). He graduated from school in 1974 with General and Special Exhibition Prizes in the [[Higher School Certificate (Victoria)\|Higher School Certificate]] examinations. He then attended the [[University of Melbourne]] from 1975 to 1981 graduating with [[MBBS]] in that year. He was active in various non academic roles at University including being editor of the journal Speculum,<ref>{{cite web \|title=Speculum \|url=https://digitised-collections.unimelb.edu.au/collections/da3db133-4256-5674-b1b2-52e02846d95b?spc.sf=dc.date.available&spc.sd=DESC&spc.page=9 \|publisher=Melbourne Medical School Students Association \|access-date=25 July 2023}}</ref> and President of the Melbourne Medical School Students Association.<ref>{{cite web \|title=Melbourne Medical School Students Association \|url=https://ummss.org.au/ \|access-date=25 July 2023}}</ref> His early working professional life was in the [[Northern Territory]] based at [[Royal Darwin Hospital]] with rotations into [[Arnhem Land]] and the regions around [[Kakadu National Park\|Kakadu]]. Later he returned to Melbourne where he qualified as a Fellow of the [[Royal Australasian College of Physicians]]. It was during this period of studying that the mining threat to Kakadu became apparent and he began the KAG. Subsequently he returned to the Northern Territory as a Consultant Physician for several years. In 1994 he moved with his family to [[Perth]], [[Western Australia]], to take up University Teaching Hospital posts. == Kakadu Action Group == In the late 1980s the [[Australian Government]] was considering allowing gold mining by [[BHP]] in the [[Kakadu National Park]] at a site known as [[Coronation Hill]].<ref>{{cite web \|title=BHP WANTS CORONATION TO PROCEED \|date=14 August 1990 \|url=https://www.afr.com/politics/bhp-wants-coronation-to-proceed-19900814-k41y8 \|publisher=Financial Review \|access-date=25 July 2023}}</ref> Opposed to this plan was the [[Kakadu Action Group]] which met regularly in the [[Australian Conservation Foundation]]'s offices in Glenferrie, Victoria. Australia.<ref>{{cite news \|title=KAG Meetings Glenferrie \|url=https://www.newspapers.com/image/122222846/?match=1&clipping_id=128764289 \|access-date=25 July 2023 \|publisher=The Age \|date=24 Nov 1987 \|page=2}}</ref> It was brought together by Mollison to oppose the proposed mine. To achieve this the group also organised and participated in various public meetings.<ref>{{cite news \|last1=The Age p. 40 \|title=KAG: Wilderness Society Meeting, St Kilda \|url=https://www.newspapers.com/image/122957405/?terms=%22kakadu%20action%20group%22%20&match=1 \|access-date=26 July 2023 \|work=Newspapers.com \|publisher=The Age \|date=14 Apr 1989 \|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite news \|last1=Kakadu: World Heritage Under Threat \|title=Kakadu: World Heritage Under Threat \|url=https://www.newspapers.com/image/121055922/?terms=%22kakadu%20action%20group%22%20&match=1 \|access-date=26 July 2023 \|publisher=The Age, p. 41 \|date=22 Jul 1988}}</ref><ref>{{cite news \|last1=Wilderness \|title=Wilderness: KAG \|url=https://www.newspapers.com/image/122957352/?terms=%22kakadu%20action%20group%22%20&match=1 \|access-date=26 July 2023 \|publisher=The Age, p 31 \|date=14 Apr 1989}}</ref> It was being surveilled by the Australian Government with archives of its meetings still held secretly by the Government (due for release in 2026).<ref>{{cite web \|last1=Kakadu Action Group (KAG), Melbourne, 1987-89 (File 8226) - Box 67 \|title=KAG Files \|url=https://catalogue.nla.gov.au/Record/1965778 \|website=NLA \|access-date=25 July 2023}}</ref> Influential letters from Mollison were published in the "To The Editor" section of the [[The Age\|Melbourne Age]] newspaper. The themes were to protect the wilderness of the entire park for present and future generations from any further encroachment by mining interests<ref>{{cite news \|title=Mining Industry not disadvantaged \|url=https://www.newspapers.com/article/the-age/128764001/ \|access-date=26 July 2023 \|work=Lindsay Mollison. KAG \|publisher=The Age, p 12 \|date=20 Oct 1988}}</ref> and to recognise the links between these spaces and the Australian psyche.<ref>{{cite news \|title=Kakadu - public puts pressure brakes on mining development \|url=https://www.newspapers.com/image/120576449/?terms=%22lindsay%20mollison%22%20&match=1 \|access-date=26 July 2023 \|work=Lindsay Mollison. KAG \|publisher=The Age, p 12 \|date=1 Oct 1990}}</ref> == Professional life == During his time working in the Northern Territory Mollison researched First Nations Health and contributed to knowledge about it.<ref>{{cite journal \|last1=Mollison \|first1=Lindsay \|date=1994 \|title=Doctors' approach to the treatment of Aboriginal patients; legal aspects; practical difficulties. Individual needs. \|url=https://trove.nla.gov.au/work/192607916?keyword=lindsay%20mollison \|journal=Med J Aust \|volume=160 \|issue=4 \|pages=184–185 \|doi= \|access-date=28 July 2023}}</ref> In particular he discovered the importance of HTLV-I infection in central Australian First Nations people publishing the first reports of known disease associated with it in Australia<ref>{{cite journal \|last1=Mollison \|first1=Lindsay \|title=Tropical spastic paraparesis in an Aborigine \|journal=Med J Aust \|date=1993 \|volume=159 \|issue=1 \|pages=28–29 \|doi=10.5694/j.1326-5377.1993.tb137700.x \|pmid=8316109 \|s2cid=21967596 \|url=https://trove.nla.gov.au/work/192607261?c=people \|access-date=26 July 2023}}</ref> and finding new links to common diseases afflicting these people due to infection with it.<ref>{{cite journal \|last1=Mollison \|first1=L.C \|last2=Lo \|first2=S.T.H \|last3=Marking \|first3=G \|title=HTLV-I and scabies in Australian Aborigines \|journal=The Lancet \|date=May 1993 \|volume=341 \|issue=8855 \|pages=1281–1282 \|doi=10.1016/0140-6736(93)91186-P \|pmid=8098422 \|s2cid=5258086 \|url=https://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PII0140-6736(93)91186-P/fulltext \|access-date=26 July 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal \|last1=Mollison \|first1=Lindsay \|title=HTLV-I and clinical disease correlates in central Australian aborigines \|journal=Med J Aust \|date=21 Feb 1994 \|volume=160 \|issue=4 \|page=238 \|doi=10.5694/j.1326-5377.1994.tb126634.x \|pmid=8309411\|s2cid=36052735 }}</ref> His groundbreaking insights and research has led to major efforts to further understand this disease in Australia<ref>{{cite news \|last1=Allam \|first1=Lorena \|title=What is HTLV-1? The devastating health crisis afflicting central Australia \|url=https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2018/apr/24/what-is-htlv-1-the-devastating-health-crisis-afflicting-central-australia \|access-date=26 July 2023 \|work=The Guardian \|date=28 Apr 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web \|last1=WHO \|title=Human T-lymphotropic virus type 1 \|url=https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/human-t-lymphotropic-virus-type-1 \|website=WHO \|access-date=26 July 2023}}</ref> although to date his work seems to have been under recognised. During his working life in [[Western Australia]], particularly at Fremantle Hospital, he helped to bring international trials of novel [[Hepatitis C\|Hepatitis C medications]] to Australia and the State.<ref>{{cite journal \|last1=Gane \|first1=E \|last2=Ben Ari \|first2=Z \|last3=Mollison \|first3=L \|title=Efficacy and safety of grazoprevir + ribavirin for 12 or 24 weeks in treatment-naïve patients with hepatitis C virus genotype 1 infection. \|journal=Journal of Viral Hepatitis \|date=October 2016 \|volume=23 \|issue=10 \|pages=789–97 \|doi=10.1111/jvh.12552 \|pmid=27291249 \|s2cid=44926781 \|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27291249/ \|access-date=26 July 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal \|last1=Foster \|first1=Graham R. \|last2=Afdhal \|first2=Nezam \|last3=Roberts \|first3=Stuart K. \|last4=Mollison \|first4=Lindsay C. \|last5=Sulkowski \|first5=Mark \|title=Sofosbuvir and Velpatasvir for HCV Genotype 2 and 3 Infection \|journal=New England Journal of Medicine \|date=31 December 2015 \|volume=373 \|issue=27 \|pages=2608–2617 \|doi=10.1056/NEJMoa1512612 \|pmid=26575258 \|doi-access=free }}</ref> Many of the drugs he and his team worked on are now mainstays of day to day therapies offering cures to patients with [[Hepatitis C]]. He established a private Gastroenterology Practice<ref>{{cite web \|title=Riverview Endoscopy \|url=https://www.riverviewendo.com.au/ \|access-date=26 October 2023}}</ref> and Hepatology Practice <ref>{{cite web \|title=ABC Liver Lover Clinic \|url=https://www.riverviewendo.com.au/abc-liver-lover-clinic/ \|access-date= 28 October 2023}}</ref> which continue to provide medical advice and therapies to the people of Western Australia (WA). During his time in WA he completed a [[Professional degrees of public health\|MPH]] at [[University of Western Australia\|UWA]]. His team organised several international conferences on Hepatitis (the Annual Indian Ocean Hepatitis Meeting) during the early 2000s Mollison became a snow sports Instructor in 2011 and has taught in Italy and Australia and has taken holiday groups skiing in France, Switzerland and Italy.<ref>{{cite web \|title=Lindsay Mollison \|url=https://www.basi.org.uk/basi/site_mock_ups/basi_profile.aspx?ContactKey=94a025b9-6ce4-47dc-9d10-598c335cbd58 \|website=BASI: Find an Instructor \|publisher=BASI \|access-date=26 July 2023}}</ref> He enjoys [[Bushwalking]]. He is a keen ocean swimmer and has achieved some ocean swimming milestones including the 20 km crossing of the Indian Ocean from [[Perth]] to [[Rottnest Island]].<ref>{{cite web \|title=Official Solo Crossing Record \|url=https://rottnestchannelswimassociation.com.au/wp-content/uploads/2023/03/Official-Solo-Crossing-Record-24.03.23.pdf \|publisher=RCSA \|access-date=26 July 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite web \|last1=Mollison \|first1=Lindsay \|title=Rottnest Channel Solo Swim \|url=https://www.riverviewendo.com.au/rottnest \|access-date=25 July 2023}}</ref> He has two adult children and numerous grandchildren. ==References== {{reflist}} {{improve categories\|date=November 2023}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Mollison, Lindsay}} [[Category:1956 births]] [[Category:Living people]] [[Category:Activists]] [[Category:Fellows of the Royal Australasian College of Physicians]] [[Category:Natural environment]] [[Category:Nature conservation]] [[Category:Hepatitis C]] [[Category:Hepatitis B]] [[Category:Viruses]] [[Category:21st-century Australian medical doctors]] [[Category:20th-century Australian medical doctors]] [[Category:University of Melbourne alumni]]
Category:Animal conservation	[[Category:Animal ecology\|Conservation]] [[Category:Nature conservation]]
Category:Plant conservation	[[Category:Plant ecology\|Conservation]] [[Category:Nature conservation]]
Conservation of fungi	{{Short description\|None}} [[Fungi]] are considered to be in urgent need of [[Conservation (ethic)\|conservation]] by the [[British Mycological Society]] on the grounds that it is a traditionally neglected [[taxon]] which has legal protection in few countries. Current threats to fungi include [[Forest destruction\|destruction of forests]] worldwide, [[habitat fragmentation]], changes in [[land use]], [[pollution]], [[anthropogenic climate change]], and [[over-exploitation]] of commercially attractive species. Fungi population status has never been recorded until 2018 by the [[Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew\|Royal Botanic Gardens]].<ref name=":3">{{Cite web \|title=State of the World's Plants and Fungi {{!}} Kew \|url=https://www.kew.org/science/state-of-the-worlds-plants-and-fungi \|access-date=2023-03-31 \|website=www.kew.org \|language=en}}</ref> These surveys relay species information, threats, and current protective policies. Expertise of 210 contributors from 97 institutions in 42 countries contributes to these reports.<ref name=":3" /> The [[Species Survival Commission]] of the [[IUCN]] has five specialist groups dealing with the conservation of fungi. * [[Chytrid]], [[Zygomycete]], [[Downy mildew\|Downy Mildew]] and [[Slime mold\|Slime Mold]] Specialist Group * [[Pezizaceae\|Cup-fungus]], [[Truffle]] and Ally Specialist Group * [[Lichen]] Specialist Group * [[Mushroom]], [[Bracket fungus\|Bracket]] and [[Puffball]] Specialist Group * [[Rust (fungus)\|Rust]] and [[Smut (fungus)\|Smut]] Specialist Group These groups are overseen by Cátia Canteiro, a plant and fungi specialist at the Indianapolis Zoo’s Global Center for Species Survival (GCSS). Under her leadership, these groups are focusing on Red Listing fungi species in order to build the foundation for conservation efforts. Lack of knowledge is considered a major concern with a general paucity of comprehensive checklists, even for developed nations. In addition, the criteria for "red-listing" is not specifically designed for fungi and the kinds of data required, viz. population size, lifespan, spatial distribution and [[population dynamics]] are poorly known for most fungi. As a result, in practice, [[indicator species]] are identified as target foci for the conservation of threatened fungi. The term '''conservation mycology''' was coined in a 2018 publication.<ref name="May et al. 2018"/> == Ecosystem Services == Fungi provide numerous [[Ecosystem service\|ecosystem services]] that are essential in maintaining ecological environments and reducing the effects of [[climate change]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite web \|title=Benefits of Fungi for the Environment and Humans \|url=http://www.decadeonrestoration.org/stories/benefits-fungi-environment-and-humans \|access-date=2023-03-16 \|website=UN Decade on Restoration \|language=en}}</ref> Fungi help facilitate the [[nutrient cycle]] and [[carbon cycle]], act as a food source for humans and animals, regulate animals populations, and contribute to the degradation of various pollutants.<ref name=":0" /> Fungi are extremely diverse and take numerous approaches in providing these services through unique and complex ecological relationships. Fungi can have [[Mutualism (biology)\|mutualistic]], [[Symbiosis\|symbiotic]], or [[Parasitism\|parasitic]] relationships.<ref>{{Cite web \|date=2016-09-30 \|title=8.14: Symbiotic Relationships of Fungi \|url=https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Introductory_and_General_Biology/Book%3A_Introductory_Biology_(CK-12)/08%3A_Protists_and_Fungi/8.14%3A_Symbiotic_Relationships_of_Fungi \|access-date=2023-03-16 \|website=Biology LibreTexts \|language=en}}</ref> 90% of all plant species have been found to associate with fungi.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web \|title=How plants make friends with fungi \|url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2016/10/161019100936.htm \|access-date=2023-03-16 \|website=ScienceDaily \|language=en}}</ref> Fungi provide plants with nitrogen, phosphate, and water through decomposition, protect them against pests such as [[Nematode\|nematodes]] and [[Arthropod\|arthropods]],<ref name=":1" /> communicate with plants through their [[mycelium]] network,<ref>{{Cite web \|title=Underground Networking: The Amazing Connections Beneath Your Feet \|url=https://www.nationalforests.org/blog/underground-mycorrhizal-network \|access-date=2023-03-16 \|website=www.nationalforests.org \|language=en}}</ref> and stimulate plant growth by influencing root development.<ref name=":1" /> Many of these mutualistic plant-fungi relationships are established between [[Mycorrhiza\|mycorrhiza fungi]].<ref name=":1" /> A continuation in the loss of fungi diversity and populations will drastically alter ecosystem identity, processes, and cost governments billions of dollars to provide their ecosystem services. == Conservation Strategies == === Red Listing === Red Listing is an approach that works with the [[IUCN Red List\|IUCN's Red List]] program in which biological, geographical, and population data are acquired from field studies. The data is put into the Red List database and utilized to inform governments and organizations as to how, where, and what is needing the most conservation efforts. This strategy works through the legislative or organization processes in order to turn field data into conservation efforts. Efforts include governmental regulation of the species and its use, habitat protection, and regulation of known threats.<ref>{{Cite web \|date=March 22, 2023 \|title=How the Red List is Used \|url=https://www.iucnredlist.org/about/uses \|access-date=March 22, 2023 \|website=IUCN Red List}}</ref> === Species Specific Approach === Species specific approaches typically target known, at risk species, and utilize geographic data as well as population data to derive conservation strategies.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal \|last1=Molina \|first1=Randy \|last2=Horton \|first2=Thomas R. \|last3=Trappe \|first3=James M. \|last4=Marcot \|first4=Bruce G. \|date=2011-04-01 \|title=Addressing uncertainty: How to conserve and manage rare or little-known fungi \|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1754504810000401 \|journal=Fungal Ecology \|series=Conservation Underground: Fungi in a Changing World \|language=en \|volume=4 \|issue=2 \|pages=134–146 \|doi=10.1016/j.funeco.2010.06.003 \|issn=1754-5048}}</ref> These strategies include reducing human use of the species, regulating land use, reducing invasive predator populations, and improving habitat quality. Geographic data typically includes information such as [[Occupancy–abundance relationship\|extent of occurrence]] and [[Occupancy–abundance relationship\|area of occupancy]] while population data includes information such as [[Life history theory\|life-history strategies]], known threats, and [[Reproduction\|reproductive strategies]]. Species specific approaches may also target an associated [[keystone species]] and work to support them. Known keystone species can provide easier methods of implementing conservation efforts and help conserve all associated species.<ref name=":2" /> Keystone species have effects known as a [[trophic cascade]] in which increasing population of keystone species regulate the population of predators of the target species. This in turn increases population size of the target species. Famously, Wyoming’s Yellowstone National Park utilized this approach with [[History of wolves in Yellowstone\|wolf reintroduction]] to regulate elk populations and restore aspen populations. === System Approach === Systems approaches utilize [[Biodiversity hotspot\|biodiversity hotspots]] or establishing reserves for biodiversity and its protection. These system approaches focus on the range of biodiversity and preserving its order to restore system structure and composition.<ref name=":2" /> In turn, conservation efforts fixate on maintaining "normal" conditions which include fire, flood, and other disturbance regimes. Community and habitat interactions and dynamics such as nutrient cycling, food webs, and key ecological functions of the target species group are monitored and restored if possible.<ref name=":2" /> By establishing and maintaining "normal" conditions, conservationists hope that populations of target species, or target groups, will naturally return to their "normal" population levels. ==See also== * [[Fungi by conservation status]] ==References== {{reflist\|refs= <ref name="May et al. 2018">{{cite journal \|last1=May \|first1=Tom W. \|last2=Cooper \|first2=Jerry A. \|last3=Dahlberg \|first3=Anders \|last4=Furci \|first4=Giuliana \|last5=Minter \|first5=David W. \|last6=Mueller \|first6=Gregory M. \|last7=Pouliot \|first7=Alison \|last8=Yang \|first8=Zhuliang \|title=Recognition of the discipline of conservation mycology \|journal=Conservation Biology \|volume=33 \|issue=3 \|year=2018 \|pages=733–736 \|doi=10.1111/cobi.13228\|pmid=30264893 \|s2cid=52876429 }}</ref> }} {{conservation of species}} [[Category:Fungus ecology]] [[Category:Nature conservation\|Fungi]]
Category:Nature reserves	{{Cat main\|Nature reserve}} {{Commons category\|Nature reserves}} [[Category:Protected areas]] [[Category:Tourist attractions]] [[Category:Nature conservation\|Reserves]]
Category:Species by conservation status	*'''For all categories of conservation status for plant and animal species''', please see/use '''[[:Category: Biota by conservation status]].''' [[Category:Species\| Conservation]] [[Category:Nature conservation\|;]]
Category:Nature conservation organizations	{{cat main\|List of conservation organizations}} {{cat more\|Nature conservation}} {{For\|non-environmental organizations\|Category:Conservation and restoration organizations}} {{Commons category\|Conservation organizations}} [[Category:Nature conservation\|:]] [[Category:Environmental organizations]] [[Category:Sustainability organizations]] [[Category:Natural resources organizations]] {{CatAutoTOC}}
Anthroposystem	{{multiple issues\| {{essay-like\|date=November 2015}} {{no footnotes\|date=November 2015}} }} The term '''anthroposystem''' is used to describe the anthropological analogue to the [[ecosystem]]. In other words, the anthroposystem model serves to compare the flow of materials through human systems to those in naturally occurring systems. As defined by Santos, an anthroposystem is "the orderly combination or arrangement of physical and biological [[Natural environment\|environments]] for the purpose of maintaining human civilization...built by man to sustain his kind."<ref name="Santos2005">{{cite journal \| last=Santos \| first=Miguel A. \| last2=Filho \| first2=Walter Leal \| title=An analysis of the relationship between sustainable development and the anthroposystem concept \| journal=International Journal of Environment and Sustainable Development \| publisher=Inderscience Publishers \| volume=4 \| issue=1 \| year=2005 \| issn=1474-6778 \| url=http://capita.wustl.edu/me449-06/reports/Santos_Anthroposystem.pdf\|doi=10.1504/ijesd.2005.006775 \| page=78\| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061024092131/http://capita.wustl.edu/me449-06/reports/Santos_Anthroposystem.pdf \| archive-date=2006-10-24 }}</ref> The anthroposystem is intimately linked to [[Economic system\|economic]] and [[ecosystem\|ecological]] systems as well. <!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:Husar3.png\|300px\|thumb]] --> ==Description== Both the anthroposystem and ecosystem can be divided into three groups: producers, [[heterotroph\|consumers]], and [[Recycling\|recyclers]]. In the ecosystem, the producers or [[autotroph]]s consist of plants and some [[bacteria]] capable of producing their own food via [[photosynthesis]] or [[chemical synthesis]], the consumers consist of animals that obtain energy from grazing and/or by feeding on other animals and the recyclers consist of [[decomposer]]s such as [[Fungus\|fungi]] and bacteria. In the anthroposystem, the [[Factors of production\|producers]] consist of the [[energy production]] through [[fossil fuel]]s, manufacturing with non-fuel [[mineral]]s and growing food; the [[consumer]]s consist of humans and domestic animals and the recyclers consist of the [[decomposing]] or [[recycling]] activities (i.e. [[Sewage treatment\|waste water treatment]], metal and solid waste recycling). <!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:Husar2.png\|300px\|thumb]] --> The ecosystem is [[sustainability\|sustainable]] whereas the anthroposystem is not. The ecosystem is a [[closed-loop controller\|closed loop]] in which nearly everything is recycled whereas the anthroposystem is an [[Open-loop controller\|open loop]] where very little is recycled. In contrast to the ecosystem, the anthroposystem's producers and consumers are significantly more spatially displaced than those in the ecosystem and thus, more energy is required to transfer matter to a producer or recycler. Currently, a large majority of this energy comes from non-renewable fossil fuels. Additionally, recycling is a naturally occurring component of the ecosystem, and is responsible for much of the [[Natural resource\|resources]] used by the system. Under the anthroposystem [[Model (abstract)\|model]], however, recycling does not naturally occur. Outside input is relied on for material and energy supplies, and recycling systems that do exist are artificially created. The process of improving the flow of energy, such that waste can be reused as input resources, is known as industrial ecology. A matrix can be used to describe the anthropological network of producers, consumers and recyclers and the movement of materials between each. <!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:Network.png\|400px\|thumb]] --> However, the matrix model of the anthroposystem - based on a model for the ecosystem - fails in acknowledging the physical redistribution of mobilized matter. In developing the anthroposystem model, there is a trade-off between simplicity and completeness. A simple representative model can be created involving only producers, consumers, and recyclers, but this is an open, incomplete system. More components and analogues (such as a matrix that encompasses the producers, consumers and recyclers) can be added to the system to make a more complete model, but the model loses simplicity in the process. Though the anthroposystem concept is flawed in this manner, it is a very good starting point for analyzing human activities and their effects on the environment. When viewing the Earth as one large anthroposystem, we are essentially eliminating the uncertainty in material flow. All goods (i.e. fossil fuels) will still exist in the system but in a new form (i.e. [[pollutant]]s). Therefore, the Laws of [[Law of conservation of matter\|Conservation of Matter]] and [[Law of conservation of energy\|Conservation of Energy]] can be applied to analyze how material flow will impact the environment. ==References== <references /> * [https://web.archive.org/web/20061026040549/http://capita.wustl.edu/me449-06/reports/Ecosystem_Biosphere.pdf Husar] * {{cite book \| last=Ayres \| first=Robert \| title=Industrial metabolism : restructuring for sustainable development \| publisher=United Nations University Press \| location=Tokyo \| year=1994 \| isbn=978-92-808-0841-4 \| oclc=44965463 \| language=ro}} [[Category:Ecology terminology]] [[Category:Sustainability]] [[Category:Symbiosis]] [[Category:Systems ecology]]
Category:Economics of sustainability	{{JEL code\|Q56}} {{Commons}} [[Category:Environmental economics\|Sustainability]] [[Category:Sustainability]]
Public ecology	The idea of '''public ecology''' has recently emerged in response to increasing disparities over political, social, and environmental concerns. Of particular interest are the processes that generate, evaluate and apply knowledge in political, social, and environmental arenas. Public ecology offers a way of framing [[sustainability]] problems, community dynamics and social issues. Forests, [[Drainage basin\|watersheds]], parks, [[flora]], [[fauna]], air, and water all constitute environmental quality and are therefore public goods. The processes society engages in to negotiate the meaning of these goods, upon which decisions and actions are based, reside within the [[public domain]]. ==Dynamics== The boundaries that are ascribed to both social and ecological systems are permeable and dynamic. The creation and maintenance of these boundaries should not be exclusionary. Politicians, economists, and ecologists must work with citizens across cultural, organizational, institutional, political and geographic boundaries. However, which citizens should be involved, and how they should be involved are questions that need to be addressed. Knowledge bases, roles of experts, and state and local power dynamics are changing in ways that impel us to learn new ways of coexisting. A more public ecology could take many forms and exist in many forums, some of which are currently being explored through theory and practice. [[Adaptive Management]], [[citizen science]] (Backstrand 2003), [[Restoration ecology\|ecological real-world experiments]] (Gross & Hoffmann-Riem 2005), and [[Collaborative Ecosystem Governance]] (Karkkainen 2002) are examples of evolving processes that attempt to deal with the increasing complexity and dynamism of social and ecological systems. Governance of these systems must integrate both biological and social dimensions. Competing value claims will inevitably arise and lead to conflicts that must be addressed through an inclusive, deliberative and adaptive process. An understanding of [[ecosystems]] must consider and dignify the values of affected communities and not just rely on claims made by scientific experts. == Main organizing principles == * Promotes a blending of natural with the social that goes beyond [[Conservation movement\|naturalism]] and [[environmental science]] * Seeks integrative collaborative processes that cross the many disciplinary and cultural boundaries that separate scientists, policy-makers, and citizens * Explores dimensions, qualities, and aspects of the world that are public and driven by normative claims * Supports respect for the various value systems that shape political discourse at local, regional, and national scales * Values local decision making that is embedded in the larger context of protecting public goods * Recognizes the need for local knowledge and local action to address local concerns in a more inclusive and [[Pluralism (political philosophy)\|pluralist]] process * Considers local decision making embedded in a larger context of protecting public goods (''Adapted from David Robertson, Bruce Hull and [[Timothy Luke]]'') Many of these principles are shared or have roots in disciplines such as [[political ecology]], sustainable development, [[Urban area\|urban]] ecology, [[conservation biology]] and [[restoration ecology]]. Public Ecology also shares a common interdisciplinary and [[holistic]] approach to social-environmental interactions with Human Ecology. == Quotes == ''“The challenge today is how to develop a truly public ecology with new organizations, institutions, and ideas whose material articulation can balance the insights of scientific experts, the concerns of [[private property]] holders, the worries about social inequity, and the need for ecological [[sustainability]] to support human and nonhuman life in the 21st century.”'' (Luke 2005) ''“Public ecology is distinctive in that it explicitly and critically embraces its own normativity and uncertainty while striving to create a more democratic body of knowledge that will help us to understand the environment as a complex and dynamic biocultural system, one that can be interpreted from a variety of perspectives and points of view. Public ecology encourages citizens and all concerned stakeholders to participate with research scientists and professional policy-makers in the interdisciplinary, collaborative efforts necessary to resolve the uncertainty and conflict that surrounds contemporary environmental issues.”'' (Robertson and Hull 2003) ''“Public ecology is a more powerful [[ecology]]. It is a body of environmental knowledge that seeks to bridge the gulf between science and policy. Public ecology not only exists at the interface of science and policy but functions as a joint product of these generally disparate realms. The language of public ecology facilitates the flow of ideas and information form one side to the other and back again.”'' (Robertson and Hull 2001) == References== * Backstrand, K. 2003. Civic science for sustainability: Reframing the role of experts, policy-makers and citizens in environmental governance. Global Environmental Politics 3 (4): pp. 24–41. * [[Matthias Gross\|Gross, Matthias]] & Hoffmann-Riem, Holger. 2005. Ecological Restoration as a Real-World Experiment: Designing Robust Implementation Strategies in an Urban Environment, ''Public Understanding of Science'' 14 (3): 269-284. * Karkkainen, B. C. 2002. Collaborative ecosystem governance: Scale, complexity and dynamism. ''Virginia Environmental Law Journal'' (21): 189. * Luke, Timothy. 2005. The death of environmentalism or the advent of public ecology? ''Organization& Environment'' (18): 489-494. * Robertson, David P. & Hull, R. Bruce. 2003. Public ecology: an environmental science and policy for global society. ''Environmental Science & Policy'' 6(5): 399-410. * Robertson, David P. & Hull, R. Bruce., 2001. Beyond biology: toward a more public ecology. ''Conservation Biology'' 15 (4): 970–979. == External links == * [https://web.archive.org/web/20070311022400/http://publicecology.org/index.html Public Ecology website] [[Category:Sustainability]] [[Category:Social economy]] [[Category:Public sphere\|Ecology]]
Downsizer	{{Short description\|A virtual community of people living sustainably}} {{for\|the business term\|layoff}} '''Downsizer''' is a [[virtual community]], run on a not-for-profit basis, which describes itself as "a resource for people who want to live more sustainably".<ref>{{cite web \|url=http://www.downsizer.net/About_Us/Info/About_Us/ \|title=About us \|accessdate=2007-03-30 \|work=Downsizer }}</ref> Its website includes articles on [[sustainable living]] and a popular forum with over 4,500 registered members. ==History== The site was set up in October 2004 by the founder members. Its name came from a term used in present-day English to describe a person, whose aim it is to cut down on consumer goods and live a more self-reliant and sustainable lifestyle.{{citation needed\|date=March 2007}} A year after Downsizer's establishment, the ''Essex Chronicle'' remarked on the site's growth, observing that it had "tapped into an increasing awareness and interest in the impact our lives have on the environment".<ref>{{cite news \|title=Growing concern \|type=[[LexisNexis]] reprint \|work=Essex Chronicle \|page=11 \|date=2005-11-04 }}</ref> It has continued to grow, and has over 4,500 users registered on its forum as of July 2011. ==Content== [[Downsizer.net]] is a not-for-profit online community, a resource for people who want to live more sustainably. Like-minded individuals can visit the forums to discuss matters of self-sufficiency and sustainability amongst other things. The website also includes many articles related to downsizing issues including the following: * Growing Fruit and Vegetables * Raising Livestock * Recipes, Preserving, Homebrewing / Winemaking * Foraging * Energy, Efficiency, and Construction * Fishing, Shooting, and Trapping * Recycling and Conservation ==Reviews== The website received a positive assessment from Alison Cork in ''[[The Observer]]'', who commented on the variety of topics discussed by members and concluded, "Whether you're an individual wanting to live a more sustainable lifestyle or a small business trying to get an appreciative market for your ethical product or service, you'd be hard pushed not to find something of interest."<ref>{{cite news \|author=Alison Cork \|title=Alison Cork's finishing touches \|url=http://observer.guardian.co.uk/cash/story/0,6903,1598377,00.html \|work=The Observer \|date=2005-10-23 \|accessdate=2007-03-30 }}</ref> A more negative stance was taken by Steve Lowe and Alan McArthur, authors of ''[[Is It Just Me Or Is Everything Shit\|Is It Just Me Or Is Everything Shit?]]'' (2005). In an article in ''[[The Sunday Times (UK)\|The Sunday Times]]'' to promote their book, they presented the interest of "burnt-out stockbrokers" in the advice provided by Downsizer as an instance of the "mediocrity" of contemporary [[United Kingdom\|British]] culture.<ref>{{cite news \|author=Steve Lowe \|author2=Alan McArthur \|title=Is modern life going down the pan? \|type=LexisNexis reprint \|page=14 (features) \|work=The Sunday Times \|date=2005-11-06 }}</ref> ==References== {{reflist}} ==External links== * {{Official website\|www.downsizer.net}} [[Category:Internet forums]] [[Category:Sustainability]]
Category:Sustainability books	{{Cat main\|Sustainability}} [[Category:Sustainability\|Books]] [[Category:Environmental non-fiction books]] [[Category:Economics books]]
Green museum	[[File:Wild center main building.jpg\|thumb\|[[The Wild Center]], a [[natural history]] museum in [[Tupper Lake (town), New York\|Tupper Lake, New York]], United States]] A '''green museum''' is a [[museum]] that incorporates concepts of [[sustainability]] into its operations, programming, and facility. Many green museums use their collections to produce exhibitions, events, classes, and other programming to educate the public about the [[natural environment]]. Many, but not all, green museums reside in a building featuring [[sustainable architecture]] and technology. Green museums interpret their own sustainable practices and green design to present a model of behavior. Green museums strive to help people become more conscious of the limitations of their world, and how their actions affect their world. The goal is to create positive change by encouraging people to make sustainable choices in their daily lives. They use their position as community-centered institutions to create a culture of sustainability. ==Definitions== ===Museum=== Museums make a "unique contribution to the public by collecting, preserving, and interpreting the things of this world", according to the [[American Alliance of Museums]]’ Code of Ethics. There are many types of museums that specialize in various fields, including anthropology, art, history, natural history, science, and can have living collections such as [[public aquariums]], [[botanical gardens]], [[nature center]]s, and zoos, or no collections like [[planetarium]]s, and [[children's museums]].<ref>[http://www.aam-us.org/ ''American Alliance of Museums''] Retrieved 20 April 2008.</ref> ===Green=== The word "green" means environmentally thoughtful practice. The words "green" and "sustainable" are [[buzzwords]] often used interchangeably. However, according to Brophy and Wylie, "green" and "sustainable" have distinctly different definitions. "Green refers to products and behaviors that are environmentally benign, [...] while sustainable means practices that rely on renewable or reusable materials and processes that are green or environmentally benign."<ref>{{cite book\|last=Brophy, Wylie\|first=Sarah S., Elizabeth\|title=The Green Museum: A Primer on Environmental Practice\|year=2008\|publisher=AltaMira Press\|location=Lanham, MD\|isbn=978-0-7591-1164-6\|page=8}}</ref> Another frequently cited definition for "sustainability" that is used in various contexts was developed by the [[United Nations]] (1987): "Development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of the future generations to meet their own needs."<ref>[https://www.un.org/documents/ga/res/42/ares42-187.htm "Report of the World Commission on environment and development. General Assembly Resolution 42/187, December 11, 1987," ''United Nations''] Retrieved 21 May 2007.</ref> Sustainability reflects a complex system where components are closely linked and do not exist in isolation from one another. A sustainable system affects and is affected by the individual and collective behaviors of its members. Sustainability, therefore, recognizes the [[human impact on the environment]], and aims to mitigate negative effects.<ref name=":0">Worts, D. (2006). Fostering a culture of sustainability. ''Museums & social issues,'' vol.1, no. 2, Fall 2006, pp. 151-172.</ref> ===Culture of sustainability=== Green museums aim to promote a culture of sustainability, which can be defined in two parts: culture, which includes the values, practices, beliefs and aspirations of a society.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal\|last1=Pop\|first1=Izabela\|last2=Borza\|first2=Anca\|last3=Buiga\|first3=Anuta\|last4=Ighian\|first4=Diana\|last5=Toader\|first5=Rita\|date=2019\|title=Achieving Cultural Sustainability in Museums: A Step Toward Sustainable Development\|url=\|journal=Sustainability\|volume=11\|issue=4\|pages=970\|doi=10.3390/su11040970\|via=mdpi\|doi-access=free}}</ref> Whilst [[sustainability]] asks people to adapt at a cultural level, changing their beliefs and behavior.<ref name=":0" /> Museums are in a unique position to establish and promote a culture of sustainability as they are arenas that simulataneousy preserve and create culture.<ref>{{Cite journal\|last1=Loach\|first1=Kirsten\|last2=Rowley\|first2=Jennifer\|last3=Griffiths\|first3=Jillian\|date=2017-03-04\|title=Cultural sustainability as a strategy for the survival of museums and libraries\|journal=International Journal of Cultural Policy\|volume=23\|issue=2\|pages=186–198\|doi=10.1080/10286632.2016.1184657\|s2cid=148436789\|issn=1028-6632\|doi-access=free}}</ref> As a result, museums are now considered to have a key role in shaping a sustainable future.<ref>{{Cite journal\|last=Blagoeva-Yarkova\|first=Y\|date=2012\|title=The role of local cultural institutions for local sustainable development. The case-study of Bulgaria\|journal=Trakia Journal of Sciences\|volume=10, 4\|pages=42–52}}</ref> These changes can be achieved through their [[exhibition]]s as well as their active engagement in debates surrounding climatic and [[environmental change]]s.<ref>{{Cite journal\|last=Sutter\|first=Glenn C.\|date=2008\|title=Promoting Sustainability: Audience and Curatorial Perspectives on The Human Factor\|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.2151-6952.2008.tb00305.x\|journal=Curator: The Museum Journal\|language=en\|volume=51\|issue=2\|pages=187–202\|doi=10.1111/j.2151-6952.2008.tb00305.x\|issn=2151-6952}}</ref> Museums have the capacity to influence visitor attitudes toward their local environment that can have a positive impact, for example, on the preservation of local [[biodiversity]].<ref name=":1" /> [[Bristol City Museum and Art Gallery\|Bristol Museum & Art Gallery]] joined a global coalition (United for #Biodiversity<ref>{{Cite web\|title=United for Biodiversity - Environment - European Commission\|url=https://ec.europa.eu/environment/nature/biodiversity/coalition/index_en.htm\|access-date=2021-11-10\|website=ec.europa.eu}}</ref>) to raise awareness about the protection of biodiversity and launched its exhibit Extinction Voices which aimed to highlight the threat of wildlife extinction and gather ideas for collective action.<ref>{{Cite web\|title=Bristol Museum joins biodiversity coalition\|url=https://www.museumsassociation.org/museums-journal/news/2020/12/bristol-museum-joins-biodiversity-coalition/\|access-date=2021-11-10\|website=Museums Association\|language=en-US}}</ref> Another aspect of museums role in the culture of sustainability is getting their visitors to engage in [[climate change]] and [[sustainability]] issues more widely. [[Image:CalifAcadamyOfSciAug28-2008img0640.JPG\|thumb\|center\|600px\|{{center\|The [[California Academy of Sciences]] uses native plantings on its [[green roof]] to reduce heating and cooling energy requirements and contains many other energy and water saving features. It has been widely recognized as likely the "greenest" building currently on the planet.<ref>''California'' (magazine of the University of California Alumni Association), Sept/Oct 2008, cover and pp. 52-53</ref>}}]] {{clear}} == History == Discussions within museums about [[environmental sustainability]] began in the 1990s and have continued to grow. Green museums are receiving a lot of attention from [[academia]] and the [[mass media]]. Some scholars believe that a focus on sustainability is a way for museums to be relevant in the 21st century.<ref>{{Cite book\|last1=Brophy\|first1=Sarah\|title=The Green Museum: A Primer on Environmental Practice\|last2=Wylie\|first2=Elizabeth\|publisher=AltaMira Press\|year=2013\|isbn=9780759123236\|language=English}}</ref> However, most conventional museums are not engaged in sustainable practices.<ref>Sutter, G. C. (2006). Thinking like a system: Are museums up to the challenge? ''Museums & social issues,'' vol.1, no. 2, Fall 2006, pp. 203-218.</ref> The green museum movement began in science and children's museums. Science museums found that environmental advocacy and education fit easily within their missions and programming. Children's museums saw that using green design in their inside environments created a healthy playground for their young visitors. Once sustainability became a topic of discussion in museum circles, zoos and aquariums realized that their existing missions and programming of species conservation was in essence sustainable education.<ref>Wylie, E. & Brophy, S.S. (2008). The greener good: The enviro-active museum. ''Museum,'' January/February 2008.</ref> Recently, the [[Association of Zoos and Aquariums]] revised its accreditation standards to include a requirement of environmental advocacy.<ref>[http://www.aza.org/ ''Association of Zoos and Aquariums.''] Retrieved 20 April 2008.</ref> With the green museum movement beginning in children's museums, The Children's Discovery Museum in Normal, Illinois, became the first [[LEED certified]] children's museum on October 3, 2005, when it received a Silver certification.<ref>{{cite web\|title=Children's Green Museum\|url=http://www.childrensmuseums.org/docs/GreenChildrensMuseums.pdf\|access-date=13 November 2011\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120415141849/http://www.childrensmuseums.org/docs/GreenChildrensMuseums.pdf\|archive-date=15 April 2012\|url-status=dead}}</ref> [[The Wild Center]] in Tupper Lake, NY became the first [[LEED certified]] green museum in 2008, followed by The [[Brooklyn Children's Museum]], who achieved the LEED Silver certification in 2010. In addition, this museum used [[renewable resources\|rapidly renewable]] and [[recycled]] features such as bamboo and recycled rubber flooring to construct the building as well as used [[photovoltaics]] to generate electricity.<ref>{{cite web\|title=Inhabitat\|url=http://inhabitat.com/the-renovated-brooklyn-childrens-museum/\|access-date=13 November 2011}}</ref> Other good examples of green museums include The [[Boston Children's Museum]] who earned a LEED Gold certification in 2007, and [[Pittsburgh Children's Museum]], who received a LEED Silver certification in 2006.<ref>{{Cite web\|url=https://pittsburghkids.org/about/green-museum\|title=Home}}</ref> Science museums and zoos were quick to follow children's museums in the green movement. One of the first science museums to adopt green initiatives was [[ECHO, Leahy Center for Lake Champlain]] in Burlington, Vermont, which was the first LEED certified building in Vermont.<ref>{{cite book\|last=Brophy S. & Wylie E.\|title=The Green Museum\|year=2008\|publisher=AltaMira Press\|location=Lanham, MD\|isbn=978-0-7591-1165-3\|pages=13, 146}}</ref> The [[Natural History Museum of Utah]] is another museum that has taken charge in the green museum movement. The Rio Tinto Center of the museum has been certified with a Gold LEED Certificate.<ref>{{Cite web\|url=https://nhmu.utah.edu/museum/our-new-home/sustainability\|title = Sustainability\|date = 2 September 2011}}</ref> Zoos and botanical gardens have also become leaders in the green museum field. The Denver Zoo, Woodland Park Zoo, and Cincinnati Zoo all received Green Awards at the 2011 [[Association of Zoos and Aquariums]] conference.<ref>{{cite web\|title=AZA.org\|url=http://www.aza.org/honors-awards/\|access-date=2011-10-18}}</ref> The [[Phipps Conservatory & Botanical Gardens]] was given a LEED silver certification for its new Welcome Center, which "is designed to evoke the geometry of the historic glass houses behind it." It has 11,000 square feet of lobby, ticketing, gift shop, and cafe space with a 34 ft high glass dome that is insulated to control glare and heat. Architects partially built the structure into the terrain, with 14th feet of usable space below ground. It was determined that by doing this, Phipps would save 40-50% of annual energy costs compared with an entirely above ground structure, and demonstrated that sustainable design could be created in ways that were still sympathetic to historic settings.<ref>{{cite web\|title=World Architecture News\|url=http://www.worldarchitecturenews.com/index.php?fuseaction=wanappln.projectview&upload_id=13901\|access-date=13 November 2011}}</ref> Phipps will also be opening the Center for Sustainable Landscapes, which will house a center for education, research, and administration. It is scheduled to open in the spring of 2012, and is planned to exceed the LEED platinum certification, and achieve the [[Living Building Challenge]].<ref>{{cite web\|title=Phipps\|url=http://phipps.conservatory.org/project-green-heart/green-heart-at-phipps/center-for-sustainable-landscapes.aspx\|access-date=13 November 2011\|url-status=dead\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111111075503/http://phipps.conservatory.org/project-green-heart/green-heart-at-phipps/center-for-sustainable-landscapes.aspx\|archive-date=11 November 2011}}</ref> Art museums are now also joining the movement. The [[Grand Rapids Art Museum]] became the world's first LEED certified art museum complex in 2008 when it received LEED Gold certification, with such innovative features as a heat recovery ventilator, {{CO2}} sensors, and on site grey [[water reuse]].<ref>{{cite web\|title=Ziger/Snead\|url=http://www.zigersnead.com/current/blog/post/worlds-first-leed-museum-complex-grand-rapids-art-museum/03-23-2008/947/\|access-date=2011-10-18}}</ref><ref>{{cite web\|title=Green Network\|url=http://network-green.org/gram-leed-award/\|access-date=2011-10-18}}</ref> One specific example of a green museum is The [[Toledo Zoo]] in Toledo, Ohio. In 2007, the institution redefined its mission statement to focus on informing the public about conservation.<ref name="Building Green at the Toledo Zoo">Klinger, Eric. "Building Green at the Toledo Zoo". http://www.aza.org/Membership/detail.aspx?id=778 {{Webarchive\|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110730052737/http://www.aza.org/Membership/detail.aspx?id=778 \|date=2011-07-30 }}.</ref> As part of its mission, the Toledo Zoo committed to green construction, which was shown in the parking lot renovation project. The main parking lot was redesigned in order to increase parking capacity and aid traffic flow, and the project incorporated green elements such as [[rain garden]]s and reusing concrete. The renovation also included a residential-sized [[wind turbine]] and three solar panels to power the ticket booths at the park's entrance.<ref name="Building Green at the Toledo Zoo" /> The wind-turbine and solar panels generate 3600 kilowatt hours per year, which can be redirected into the zoo's main power grid when the booths are not in use and reduce the zoo's [[carbon footprint]] by 5600 pounds annually.<ref name="Building Green at the Toledo Zoo" /> Another project at the Toledo Zoo is the Solar Walk, which opened in November 2010 and includes over 1400 solar panels that produce 104,000 kilowatt hours per year, the same amount of energy used by ten typical homes in Ohio.<ref>Waugh, Elise. "Going Green". August 18, 2011. http://zooexplorer.wordpress.com/2011/08/18/going-green/.</ref> The Toledo Zoo and the Solar Walk's design team wanted the project to be a visual reminder to all zoo visitors and traffic from nearby highway of the zoo's commitment to conservation. In order to accomplish the project, the Toledo Zoo turned to a local companies, and used funds from private contributions and an energy grant from ODOD to cover the $14,750,000 price.<ref name="Walking on sunshine">Grahl, Cindy. "Toledo Zoo Solar Walk: Walking on sunshine". http://www.bxmagazine.com/article.asp?ID=1156.</ref> Also, The Toledo Zoo, in keeping with their mission statement, included informational panels on how the Solar Walk works and the amount of energy produced to date, so that visitors can be informed on the conservational value of the project.<ref name="Walking on sunshine"/> The Solar Walk will reduce the Zoo's carbon footprint by over 75 metric tons each year, which is equivalent to 15 medium-sized cars.<ref>Raghuveer, Amulya. "Toledo Zoo dedicates new SolarWalk". http://www.northwestohio.com/news/story.aspx?id=541642 {{Webarchive\|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120404232526/http://www.northwestohio.com/news/story.aspx?id=541642 \|date=2012-04-04 }}.</ref> The Toledo Zoo has further committed to incorporate green construction into its building plans through [[Geothermal heating\|geothermal]] wells, environmentally friendly insulation and other [[renewable energy]] and green construction materials.<ref name="Building Green at the Toledo Zoo" /> ==Green exhibits== Museums are taking a more active approach to the project development of their exhibits. Children's museums initiated the green museum movement, mainly out of health concerns for the young visitors. Using toxic materials and chemicals on structures intended for children became a high worry for both the museum staff and parents. "In its 2004 expansion project the Children's Museum of Pittsburgh used only adhesives, sealants, paints, carpets, and composite wood that are certified formaldehyde free with near-zero off-gassing."<ref>{{cite book\|last=Brophy, Wylie\|first=Sarah S., Elizabeth\|title=The Green Museum: A Primer on Environmental Practice\|year=2008\|publisher=AltaMira Press\|location=Lanham, MD\|isbn=978-0-7591-1164-6\|pages=88–91}}</ref> Before the [[Waste hierarchy\|reduce, reuse, recycle]] mantra became mainstream, a small number of museums had already begun promoting sustainable decision making through exhibits. The [[Boston Children's Museum]], developed a concept known as "The Recycle Shop".<ref>{{Cite web\|title=Homepage {{!}} Boston Children's Museum\|url=https://bostonchildrensmuseum.org/homepage\|access-date=2021-11-10\|website=bostonchildrensmuseum.org}}</ref> Organizations are working to develop a standard rating system for the specific needs of green exhibitions. In 2008, the [[Oregon Museum of Science and Industry]] (OMSI) developed the OMSI Green Exhibit Certification guide to assist museums in assessing the environmental sustainability of their exhibits, and to help develop more sustainable forward plans. Based on the [[U.S. Green Building Council]] (USGBC) Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) rating system, the OMSI Green Exhibition Certification guide simplified and adapted the LEED system to cater to the specific needs of the museum sector, especially in view of the limited financial and human resources found in many museums.<ref>{{Cite journal\|last=Willcox\|first=Jessica\|date=2009\|title=OMSI Green Exhibit Certification: A Cost-Saving Tool for the Exhibition Field\|url=https://sustainablepractice.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/12/OMSI-Green-Exhibits-Guide.pdf\|journal=Exhibitionist\|volume=Spring\|pages=14–20}}</ref> The guide provides a checklist for organizations who follows eight elements regularly used in exhibit design. After evaluation, they are awarded 0-4 points: # Rapidly Renewable Materials # Resource Reuse # Recycled Content # End-life Assessment # Low-Emitting Materials # [[Certified wood]] # [[Nature conservation\|Conservation]] # Regional Materials Through the project, Sustainability: Promoting Sustainable Decision Making in Informal Education, funded by the National Science Foundation (NSF), OMSI also developed Exhibit Social Environmental and Economic Development (Exhibit SEED) in collaboration with multidisciplinary professionals across the United States.<ref>{{Cite web\|title=NSF Award Search: Award # 0917595 - Sustainability: Promoting Sustainable Decision Making in Informal Education\|url=https://www.nsf.gov/awardsearch/showAward?AWD_ID=0917595&HistoricalAwards=false\|access-date=2021-11-10\|website=www.nsf.gov}}</ref> Exhibit SEED is a toolkit designed to help museums create holistically sustainable museum exhibits.<ref>{{Cite web\|date=2019-07-09\|title=ExhibitSEED\|url=https://omsi.edu/case-study/exhibitseed\|access-date=2021-11-10\|website=OMSI\|language=en}}</ref> The guide is based on "Three Pillars of Sustainability for Museums," considerations based on environmental sustainability, economic sustainability, and social sustainability, and provides multiple examples of how a museum might reasonably adjust their practices to incorporate these pillars.<ref>{{Cite web\|last=OMSI\|date=2012\|title=3 Pillars of Sustainability for Museums\|url=https://omsi.edu/sites/default/files/ExhibitSEED_Three%20Pillars%20of%20Sustainability%20for%20Museums.pdf\|website=Exhibit SEED}}</ref> Many museums across the globe has since developed and shared their own guidelines for sustainability in museums. The [[Madison Children's Museum]] in Madison, WI developed their own "green guide" for sustainable museum practice; their green initiatives in sustainable materials, community outreach, and museum programming led them to become the first Wisconsin museum to receive LEED certification.<ref>{{Cite web\|last=Madison Children's Museum\|date=September 2019\|title=Green Guide\|url=https://madisonchildrensmuseum.org/wp-content/uploads/GreenGuide_2019_web.pdf}}</ref> ==Issues== ===Mission=== Some scholars suggest that sustainability and green design are a natural extension of a museum's mission statement. Some museums choose to make sustainability a central part of their identity, writing their commitment to being green in their mission statements. Sustainability can be seen as relating to three aspects included in most museum missions: field of research, purpose of public service, and the mandate for education. Museums that model green behavior enhance their missions and support their communities.<ref>Barrett, M. J. & Sutter, G. C. (2006). A youth forum on sustainability meets The Human Factor: Challenging cultural narratives in schools and museums. ''Canadian Journal of Science, Mathematics and Technology Education,'' January 2006, 9-23.</ref> ===Education=== As informal [[education]] centers that serve the public, museums are in a position to teach about sustainability to a large audience in meaningful ways. Through a combination of motivation and information, green museums try to initiate changes in behavior in people's everyday lives. Green museums lead by example by explaining to visitors what sustainable activities they are doing and why through signage, programming, and websites. The goal is that visitors will learn about sustainable practices at the museum and then be able to implement them at home.<ref>[http://www.greenexhibits.org/ ''greenexhibits.org''] Retrieved June 3, 2007.</ref> Many museums dedicated to sustainability and conservation education often utilize the works of theorists like [[Richard Louv]] and [[David Sobel]] to find the most effective ways to motivate their audiences to conservation action. For instance, Disney's Animal Kingdom cites [[Richard Louv\|Richard Louv's]] [[Nature deficit disorder\|Nature Deficit Disorder]] as one justification for their Kids' Discovery Clubs, which focuses on encouraging children to not only learn about animals but also find out what they can do to help wildlife.<ref>Balavage, S. Dr. Heimlich, J. Kocanjer, N. Lehnhardt, K. Dr. Mellen, J. ''Assessing young Children's Learning within an informal setting at Disney's Kid's Discovery Clubs'', [http://www.izea.net/education/journal%2045%202009-assessing%20young%20childrens%20learning%20within%20an%20informal%20setting%20kdcs.pdf IZE Journal NR. 25 - 2009] {{Webarchive\|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120425045311/http://www.izea.net/education/journal%2045%202009-assessing%20young%20childrens%20learning%20within%20an%20informal%20setting%20kdcs.pdf \|date=2012-04-25 }}</ref> Another museum to cite Louv's Nature Deficit Disorder for their programming is the [[North Carolina Museum of Natural Sciences]]. They spearheaded the national Take a Child Outside Week, which encourages children and adults to spend time together outdoors.<ref>{{cite web\|last=Hall\|first=Sarah Lindenfeld\|title=Take a Child Outside Week starts Saturday\|url=http://www.wral.com/lifestyles/goaskmom/blogpost/10153119/\|publisher=WRAL.com\|date=20 September 2011\|access-date=27 November 2011}}</ref> Many museums also approach sustainability issues with [[Ecophobia]] in mind. Ecophobia is [[David Sobel\|David Sobel's]] theory that if you introduce abstract and difficult environmental issues to children at too early of an age, and without the proper background knowledge, they will retreat from nature.<ref>Diane M McKnight. 2010. ''Overcoming “ecophobia”: fostering environmental empathy through narrative in children's science literature.'' [http://www.esajournals.org/doi/full/10.1890/100041?prevSearch=%5BAllField%3A+ecophobia%5D&searchHistoryKey= Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment 8: e10–e15.]</ref> An example of a museum attempting to overcome Ecophobia would be one that promotes a love of nature and presents a variety of actions guests can take to help the environment before presenting them with more controversial and abstract environmental and sustainability issues. The [[Brooklyn Children's Museum]]s respects the developmental stages of children by using their [[Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design\|LEED]] certified building to teach children and their families about environmental conservation through interactive, age appropriate exhibits and activities.<ref>[http://biodiversityllc.com/PDF/MayJun04-Full.pdf Biodiversity] {{Webarchive\|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120425045311/http://biodiversityllc.com/PDF/MayJun04-Full.pdf \|date=2012-04-25 }}. ''The Brooklyn Children's Museum Goes Green.'' May–June 2004.</ref> ===Social responsibility=== In recent years, calls for museums to become sustainable institutions have come from within the museum field as a way for museums to achieve [[social responsibility]] and [[civic engagement]]. Sustainability is an opportunity for thoughtful, proactive museum work. "Museums can play a critical role in moving the communities they serve towards a more sustainable future. Aligning their missions and programs with sustainability principles ... will recalibrate their own daily practices as well as awaken their community to the array of choices perhaps otherwise invisible to them" (183).<ref>Link, T. (2006). Models of sustainability: Museums, citizenship, and common wealth. ''Museums & social issues,'' vol.1, no. 2, Fall 2006, pp. 173-190.</ref> Museums, as a trusted part of the informal education system, are able to address the economic, cultural, and social dimensions of sustainability.<ref name="Promoting Sustainability">Sutter, Glenn C. “Promoting Sustainability: Audience and Curatorial Perspectives on “The Human Factor.”” Curator 51, no. 2 (April 2008): 187-202.</ref> They achieve this by engaging the public with interactive exhibits and by publicizing their own green efforts. The goal, stated or unstated, is to educate patrons about the effect they have on their environment, the ecological, economic, and cultural risks taken when they ignore their impact on the world, and introduce ways that they can reduce their carbon footprint. Thus, museums achieve civic engagement and social responsibility through teaching. Some museums, such as the [[Royal Saskatchewan Museum]] in [[Saskatchewan]], Canada, take a global approach to civic engagement. The Royal Saskatchewan Museum's green exhibit is titled ''The Human Factor'' and aims to show patrons the human ecological impact on the planet, what practices they can adopt to lessen this impact, and project what the future will be if humans do not take action.<ref name="Promoting Sustainability" /> Visitors are helped to understand what Earth looked like before humans and gradual human impact over time through colorful depictions in the "Time Tunnel".<ref name="Promoting Sustainability" /> The subsequent gallery, "Living Planet", explains how a global ecosystem functions and what human stresses are to the Earth's global ecosystem on a rotating globe.<ref name="Promoting Sustainability" /> Specifically identified as a stress to the global ecosystem is the rising population. Curators placed clocks in the exhibit that count increases in population across the globe.<ref name="Promoting Sustainability" /> Beneath the clocks are the forms of humans and in their shadow is the images of industrial productivity.<ref name="Promoting Sustainability" /> The following gallery, "Causes of Stress," identifies the source of ecological stresses as rampant consumerism and explains what causes this extreme behavior.<ref name="Promoting Sustainability" /> The solutions gallery depicts sustainable development and an electronic display of sustainability success stories. This is an effort to show patrons how their choices impact not only themselves and their parts of the world but other people and their environments. The last gallery, "Looking Ahead," describes the projected future of the globe if humans adopt the prescribed changes.<ref name="Promoting Sustainability" /> The desired effect is an emotional response to the human impact on the global ecosystem. [[Bronx Zoo\|The Bronx Zoo]] seeks to educate its patrons about water resources and the impact of restroom use on water resources through the EcoRestroom exhibit. At the same time, by installing this restroom with composting toilets the Zoo has reduced its carbon footprint. The restroom serves men and women with 12 toilets and six sinks for women and two toilets, four waterless urinals and four sinks for men.<ref name="Interpreting a Green Scene" >Bhatt, Sonal. “Interpreting a Green Scene: The Bronx Zoo’s Eco-Restroom.” Exhibitionist (Spring 2009): 39-42.</ref> The sinks do not rely on electricity or battery power; rather, they recharge as water runs through them. The used water runs into a Grey Water garden that is unharmed by the bio-compatible soap available for use by patrons.<ref name="Interpreting a Green Scene" /> The restroom doubles as exhibition space, informing visitors of water conservation. Along the pathway to the entrance of the restroom there are water-droplet-shaped signs that give visitors tips for conserving and repurposing water at home.<ref name="Interpreting a Green Scene" /> Signs continue over the sinks, providing visitors with facts about water use meant to inspire thought about their own use and what they can do to use less water. Signs on the inside of the stall doors inform visitors how composting toilets function and the impact they have on the environment.<ref name="Interpreting a Green Scene" /> This installation not only shows patrons how they can make simple changes to conserve water but implements those changes in real time at the Zoo. In educating, the Zoo is also making a difference. As stewards of the public trust, museums bear a responsibility to maintain collections utilizing the most efficient methods available. Museums must do their part to ensure that there is a public to enjoy the collection and resources to exhibit the collection. One way museums can conserve resources is to incorporate energy saving practices into their daily operations, altering the facilities they already inhabit rather than building anew.<ref name="Saving Collections and the Planet">Brophy, Sarah S. and Elizabeth Wylie. “Saving Collections and the Planet.” Museum 88, no. 6 (November/ December 2009): 52-7, 59-60.</ref> Brophy and Wylie identify simple solutions such as installing motion sensors that turn the lights on when visitors enter the gallery and turn the lights off when they exit, such as those found at [[Colonial Williamsburg]] in Virginia.<ref name="Saving Collections and the Planet" /> Those light bulbs could even be replaced with long-lasting LED bulbs. Other museums that manipulate their facilities location include the [[Morgan Library]], as identified by Brophy and Wylie, whose storage is "carved out of Manhattan bedrock."<ref name="Saving Collections and the Planet" /> The bedrock provides natural cool storage without using electricity to generate an air conditioned climate. Thus neither money nor electricity are spent to control the climate of the storage space, which stresses not only museum funds but increasingly scarce electricity too. Museums achieve further social responsibility through implementation of sustainable practices that they advocate in building or altering facilities such that they are sustainable. This includes using [[Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design\|LEED]] building practices and sourcing materials locally. Purchasing building materials and employing local labor stimulates the economy in the vicinity of the museum. It also reduces the carbon footprint of construction; materials purchased from local suppliers do not need to be delivered on a tractor-trailer, on an airplane, or on a ship, all of which consume fuel, time and money. The [[Museum of Contemporary Art Denver\|Museum of Contemporary Art]] in Denver, CO, has incorporated locally sourcing materials into its LEED-Gold design plan.<ref name="The Art of Sustainability" >Mirel, Diana. "The Art of Sustainability." Journal of Property Management 73, no. 4 (Jul/Aug 2008): 8-9.</ref> The Museum highlights that its green roof, furniture fixtures and equipment have all been locally sourced.<ref name="The Art of Sustainability" /> The museum also encourages the use of public transportation by offering discounts to visitors who use this as a means of accessing the museum.<ref name="The Art of Sustainability" /> In building to the LEED Gold standard, the Museum of Contemporary Art has also made its operations more energy efficient. The façade is built to maximize climate control and limit the use of traditional forced air.<ref name="The Art of Sustainability" /> Radiant flooring circulates heat around the perimeter of the building. These are two ways that MCA Denver conserves energy. The Museum of Contemporary Art San Diego purchased paint, office furnishings, windows and doors from local vendors.<ref>"Museum of Contemporary Art San Diego." Architectural Record 195, no. 6 (June 2007): 66.</ref> By educating the community and putting advocacy into action, museums become socially responsible. ==Landscapes and outdoor spaces== One approach green museums are taking to improve sustainability is to consider their outdoor spaces and landscape design. Greening outdoor spaces provides multiple benefits beyond aesthetics and museums are increasingly using their outdoor spaces to further sustainable strategies and educational goals. According to the [[National Clearinghouse for Educational Facilities]], there are many types of educational, recreational, and social skills that may be successfully taught outdoors.<ref name="education">Gordon, Douglas. Cheryl Wagner. Planning School Grounds for Outdoor Learning. National Clearing House for Educational Facilities. October 2010</ref> Outdoor museum spaces include pathways, trails, pavilions, picnic areas, fountains, courtyards, waste management areas, rooftops, and the greater surrounding environment. Whether a new facility or an existing one, green museums use these outdoor areas to implement sustainable practices. For instance, incorporating native plants, [[wetlands]], [[bioswales]], [[rain garden]]s, butterfly gardens, vegetable gardens, and [[green roofs]] are all ways museums can maximize the use of, and green their grounds. Additionally, the natural surrounding environment can be an integral part of the green museum (where the land is part of the museum). Incorporating these outdoor spaces provides a more flexible learning environment with greater educational opportunities.<ref name="education"/> Outdoor spaces allow for hands-on projects that promote environmental awareness and are an ideal catalyst for community involvement.<ref name="ReferenceA">SITES, "Michigan Chapter of the American Society of Landscape Architects" Volume 5 Number 1. 2011</ref> Increasingly, green museums are incorporating [[sustainable]] thinking in their outdoor planning. For example, the Peggy Notebaert Nature Museum designed a rooftop that won the 2003 Chicago Green Roof Award. The living portion of the roof reduces the volume of storm water runoff and solar panels generate electricity used by the museum below.<ref>{{Cite web \|url=http://abclocal.go.com/wls/story?section=resources%2Flifestyle_community&id=7446270 \|title=Welcome to nginx! \|access-date=2011-11-02 \|archive-date=2012-07-07 \|archive-url=https://archive.today/20120707030710/http://abclocal.go.com/wls/story?section=resources/lifestyle_community&id=7446270 \|url-status=dead }}</ref> The ability to quantify the performance of outdoor spaces is important to be a trusted example in the green museum community. There are multiple rating systems and interactive tools online and there is a growing consultancy field aimed at helping museums audit, develop baselines, and benchmark their performance.<ref>{{cite book\|last=Brophy, Wylie\|first=Sarah S., Elizabeth\|title=The Green Museum: A Primer on Environmental Practice\|year=2008\|publisher=AltaMira Press\|location=Lanham, MD\|isbn=978-0-7591-1164-6\|page=36}}</ref> One strategy for museums going green is to become [[Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design\|LEED]] Certificated. In 2000, the [[US Green Building Council]] (USGBC) introduced the Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) rating system that ranks sustainability in buildings and operations. To date, LEED is focused mostly on structures and development, while landscape issues are minimally addressed. The Sustainable SITES Initiative (SITES) is a new benchmark and rating system that was created, as a joint venture by the [[American Society of Landscape Architects]], the [[Lady Bird Johnson Wildflower Center]] and the [[United States Botanic Garden]]. Modeled after the LEED program, SITES is a work in progress to establish benchmarks and a rating system that addresses site selection, landscape design, construction, operations, maintenance and monitoring. Currently SITES is in the pilot project phase, and will be completed in June 2012.<ref name="ReferenceA"/> ==Lighting in museums== Lighting is an essential component for museums since light is required to view objects as well as move and interact in the front and backend of museums. However, lighting can irreversibly change the appearance of objects such as paintings, textiles, leather, photographs, books and paper, or mounted specimens. Museums must take special care to avoid unnecessary light damage. Visible and near-visible light can be separated into three categories: [[Ultraviolet light\|ultraviolet light (UV)]], [[visible light]], and [[Infrared light\|infrared light (IR)]]. Ultraviolet light is the most energetic and most damaging to objects, while IR produces heat that can also damage objects. Museums generally use [[halogen]] or [[Metal-halide lamp\|metal halide]] track lighting in galleries and fluorescent light in storage; however, these are not energy efficient options.<ref name="Buck 2010">{{cite book\|last=Buck\|first=Rebecca\|title=Museum Registration Methods\|year=2010\|publisher=The AAM Press\|edition=5th}}</ref> Halogen lights waste energy by creating four times the amount of heat as a regular incandescent light and can become fire hazards. In a world where the use of more energy-efficient products is on the rise, museums have more opportunities than ever to cut down on the amount of electricity they use.<ref>{{cite web\|title=Lighting Choices Inside and Outside Your Home\|url=http://www.consumerenergycenter.org/lighting/bulbs.html\|work=Consumer Energy Center\|access-date=15 November 2011\|url-status=dead\|archive-url=https://archive.today/20120728221025/www.consumerenergycenter.org/lighting/bulbs.html\|archive-date=28 July 2012}}</ref> The challenge to the lighting designer is to achieve a balance between creating interesting and desirable spaces, maintaining visual comfort and health of the visitor, while adhering to energy conservation goals.<ref>"A Lighting Study of Three Museums"_ http://arch.ced.berkeley.edu/vitalsigns/workup/sf_museums/museum.html {{Webarchive\|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120405094318/http://arch.ced.berkeley.edu/vitalsigns/workup/sf_museums/museum.html \|date=2012-04-05 }}</ref> Lighting is a constantly changing field, especially with new innovations in green technology and energy-efficient options. The lighting options for museums available today will radically change in the next ten years. ===Lighting options=== Beyond halogen and incandescent light options, museums use LEDs, CFLs, fiber optics, hybrid solar lighting and natural light. '''[[LEDs]]'''- Light Emitting Diodes create light through the movement of electrons in a semi-conductor material. As such, they produce very little heat and can sometimes emit light in the 400 nm range (always check a LEDs [https://research.ng-london.org.uk/scientific/spd/ <nowiki>Spectral Power Distribution [SPD]</nowiki>] before purchase). LEDs consume approximately one fifth the energy of halogen bulbs, have estimated lifespans of 50,000 hours, and decrease building cooling costs significantly. Their initial installation may be expensive due to the cost of the bulb and whether or not the museum can retrofit. However, they can pay themselves back in three years depending on the lightbulb and lighting/heating energy costs. Over a period of ten years, they can save ~240 million kilograms (~530 million pounds) of CO<sub>2</sub> emissions.<ref>{{Cite book\|last1=Druzik\|first1=James R.\|title=Guidelines for Selecting Solid-State Lighting for Museums\|last2=Michalski\|first2=Stefan W.\|publisher=Canadian Conservation Institute, Getty Conservation Institute\|year=2012\|location=Los Angeles, CA and Ottawa, Ontario\|pages=7–11\|language=English}}</ref><ref>Druzik, J.; Miller, N. J. Demonstration Assessment of Light-Emitting Diodes (LED) Retrofit Lamps: Host Site, J. Paul Getty Museum, Malibu, California. 2012. https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.1.2036.4886.</ref> '''[[Compact fluorescent lamp\|CFLs]]'''- Compact Fluorescent Light bulbs use gas that is stimulated with an electric current to produce light. CFLs use less energy than an incandescent and last six to ten times longer. CFLs contain mercury so disposal should be handled with appropriate safety measures (caution, PPE, staff training when applicable, waste management consultants, etc.). '''[[Fiber Optics]]'''- Fiber optic lights use plastic or glass fibers to distribute light. The heat source is removed from the end of the fiber and the longer the length of the fiber. '''[[Hybrid Solar Lighting]]'''- Hybrid solar lighting combines solar power and fiber optics to channel sunlight into an enclosed space. Sunlight is tracked by a rooftop parabolic disk and sensors maintain a constant level of illumination by supplementing sunlight with traditional electric light in special hybrid lighting fixtures. They are more energy efficient than typical light sources because of their hybrid nature, and remove UV and IR light before they enter an enclosed space. One of their primary limitations is the distance light must travel via fiber optic cable.<ref>{{Cite web\|last=Woodford\|first=Chris\|author1-link=Chris Woodford (author)\|date=2008-03-02\|title=How does hybrid solar lighting work?\|url=http://www.explainthatstuff.com/hybrid-solar-lighting.html\|access-date=2021-11-10\|website=Explain that Stuff}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web\|last=Sommer\|first=John\|date=2021-01-21\|title=Different Solar Power System a Hybrid Solar Lighting\|url=http://topdiysolarpanels.com/different-solar-power-system-a-hybrid-solar-lighting/\|access-date=2021-11-10\|website=DIY Solar Panels\|language=en-US}}</ref> '''[[Natural Light]]'''- Museums can also use sunlight to illuminate spaces. However, sunlight is one of the most damaging forms of light because of the presence of UV light in the sun's rays. Sunlight is a viable lighting source for spaces that do not contain light sensitive materials: lobbies, offices; or in museums that do not contain light sensitive objects. Museums can use UV filters on windows to lessen the harmful effects of sunlight.<ref name="Buck 2010"/> One rationale for using natural light is predicated largely on economics; a greater reliance on daylight reduces energy consumption and costs. Literature supports that natural light can create a more positive effect on spaces than electric light and improves human performance. With properly installed and maintained daylighting systems, natural light has proved to be beneficial for the health, productivity, and safety of building occupants.<ref>L. Edwards and P. Torcellini. "A Literature Review of the Effects of Natural Light on Building Occupants," National Renewable Energy Laboratory, July 2002</ref> '''[[Brise soleil]]''' is a natural lighting option that uses permanent architectural sun-shading techniques to reduce the amount of light that enters a building or a museum. '''Motion Sensor and Task Lighting'''- [[Motion sensor]] or [[task lighting]] lighting allows for light and energy to only be used when a person is engaged in a specific task or in a certain area. Museums can use this lighting in areas with less traffic, office spaces, and most importantly, to minimize light exposure for especially light-sensitive objects. Lighting entire areas that are rarely used or used less often than high traffic spaces is a drain on energy and money for a museum, and can lead to significant photobleaching. Motion sensors allow for decreased energy costs and a longer display time for very light-sensitive objects. ==Greening the field of preventive conservation== The needs of [[Conservation-restoration\|conserving]] artifacts and landmark buildings are often seen as conflicting with the most efficient and effective means of “going green.”<ref name="Katz, Jonathan">{{cite journal\|last=Katz\|first=Jonathan\|title=Sustainability & Specimen Display: a Conflict of Program?\|journal=Exhibitionist\|year=2010\|issue=Spring\|pages=66–69}}</ref> Light, temperature, humidity, pollutants, particulates, and pests<ref name="Hatchfield, Pamela">{{cite journal\|last=Hatchfield\|first=Pamela\|title=Crack Warp Shrink Flake: a New Look at Conservation Standards\|journal=Museum\|year=2011\|issue=January–February\|pages=40–3, 51–2}}</ref> must all be monitored in order to properly preserve objects and historic buildings - the energy spent to control and maintain ideal environments for historic building and artifacts alone is staggering.<ref name="Brophy, Sarah and Elizabeth Wylie">{{cite journal\|last=Brophy\|first=Sarah\|author2=Wylie, Elizabeth\|title=Saving Collections and the Planet\|journal=Museum\|year=2009\|issue=September–October\|pages=n. pag}}</ref> Since the heart of authenticity for many types of museums is the display of artifacts and specimens from their collections, it can be challenging to create ideal environments for these objects while also creating greener museum buildings and exhibition spaces.<ref name="Katz, Jonathan" /> For example, the [http://www.calacademy.org/ California Academy of Sciences], which is housed in a [http://www.usgbc.org/DisplayPage.aspx?CategoryID=19 LEED Platinum] building designed by [[Renzo Piano]], utilizes a natural ventilation system that could expose its collections to airborne flora and fauna, fluctuations in temperature and humidity, and strong daylight. In order to combat these factors, Jonathan Katz, CEO of Cinnabar, Inc., the firm that was hired by the California Academy of Sciences to design exhibits for the main floor of its new Natural History building, devised a “kit of parts” system where specimen display cases themselves could be configured to control temperature, humidity, and light.<ref name="Katz, Jonathan" /> These cases had to reflect the sustainability mission of the museum and thus had to be built in such a way that they could be reconfigured and reused as exhibits changed. This is simply one example of how the perceived conflict between green exhibition and building design and the preservation of objects was resolved. The struggle to reconcile green practices and object conservation goes far beyond the exhibition hall, as most museums only display a fraction of the objects in their collections. Museum [[Conservator (museum)\|conservators]] are tasked with the care, preservation, and restoration of these objects – the [http://www.conservation-us.org/ American Institute for Preservation], a professional organization in the United States that establishes and upholds professional standards among its members, states that the goal of its conservators is “to preserve the material evidence of our past so we can learn from it today and appreciate it in the future.”<ref name="AIC Website">{{cite web\|title=About Us\|url=http://www.conservation-us.org/\|work=AIC Website\|publisher=American Institute for Conservation of Historic and Artistic Works\|access-date=13 October 2011}}</ref> In striving to be “greener,” conservators must also now “consider not only the interaction of materials and environment with the art and artifacts [they] treat, but also the use, production, and disposal of the materials [they] employ in [their] work.”<ref name="Silence, Patricia">{{cite journal\|last=Silence\|first=Patricia\|title=How are US Conservators Going Green? Results of Polling AIC Members\|journal=Studies in Conservation\|year=2010\|volume=55\|issue=3\|pages=159–163\|doi=10.1179/sic.2010.55.3.159\|s2cid=191494482}}</ref> Thus, another problem facing conservators is the issue of finding non-toxic or lower VOC replacements for tried and true conservation treatments.<ref name="Silence, Patricia" /> In order to fully understand the challenges associated with green conservation practices, then, it is helpful to examine what conservation professionals identify as core issues. Patricia Silence, in “How Are US Conservators Going Green? Results of Polling AIC Members” identifies five areas pertaining to sustainable practices: recycling, energy consumption, waste, improved sustainability through products and procedures, and education.<ref name="Silence, Patricia" /> The following list was composed based on findings from Silence's paper: '''Recycling''' :''Reusable materials'' (rags, sponges, brushes) :''Less paper'' (digital archives) :''Saving scrap'' (for later use) '''Energy Consumption''' :''Temperature Control'' (radiant heating systems) :''RH Control (''finding creative and '''pragmatic''' solutions to display and storage of objects'')'' :''Light Control'' (Using more energy efficient lighting schemes to illuminate museum objects, ) :''Using renewable energy to power environmental systems'' :''Using more energy-efficient environmental systems'' '''Waste''' :''Use less energy'' (environmental controls and office appliances) and materials (wood, paper, plastic, foam) :''Try to reuse or recycle a greater proportion of used items'' :''Proper disposal training for toxic items'' '''Improved Sustainability through Products and Procedures''' :''Less toxic chemicals and solvents'' :''Water-based cleaning systems and/or natural products'' :''Organic cotton rags and towels'' :''Recycled or re-purposed products'' :''Used equipment, furniture, tools'' :''Less toxic packing materials'' :''Less toxic pest management chemicals'' :''Re-distilling'' :''Procedures for proper disposal'' :''Procedures for testing new materials'' '''Education''' :''Best Practices Manual'' :''Resource List'' ==References== {{Reflist\|2}} ==External links== * [http://www.museumsassociation.org/museum-practice/lighting/17012011-lighting-leds Museum Practice: Is Now the Time to Invest in LED lighting?] {{Webarchive\|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120216010111/http://www.museumsassociation.org/museum-practice/lighting/17012011-lighting-leds \|date=2012-02-16 }} * [http://www.newscenter.philips.com/main/standard/about/news/press/20090312_hermitage.wpd Philips and the State Hermitage] [https://www.calmuseums.org/GreenMuseumsInitiative Green Museums Initiative] - A link to California Association of Museums (CAM) to inspire California museums to develop green business practices, eco-friendly facility management, and sustainable programming. https://www.museumnext.com/article/10-ways-museums-can-be-more-sustainable/ [https://greenimpact.nus.org.uk/ Green Impact Award] - A link to the NUS Green Impact Award, a programme offering guidance and a toolkit for institutions to improve sustainable practice. [https://www.icon.org.uk/groups-and-networks/environmental-sustainability-network/resources.html Icon ESN Resources] - A link to Icon's Environmental Sustainability Network Resource page, offering publications, events and toolkits on sustainability. [[Category:Sustainability]] [[Category:Types of museums]]
Ecological literacy	{{short description\|Ability to understand natural systems and their interactions}} '''Ecological literacy''' (also referred to as '''''ecoliteracy''''') is the ability to understand the [[systems ecology\|natural systems]] that make [[life]] on [[earth]] possible. To be ecoliterate means understanding the principles of organization of ecological communities (i.e. [[ecosystem]]s) and using those principles for creating [[sustainability\|sustainable]] human communities. The term was [[neologism\|coined]] by American educator [[David W. Orr]] and physicist [[Fritjof Capra]] in the 1990s<ref name=orr>{{cite book\| last = Orr\| first = David\|author-link=David W. Orr\|title = Ecological Literacy: Education and the Transition to a Postmodern World\| publisher = S.U.N.Y. Press, NY\| year = 1992}}</ref><ref>[[Fritjof Capra]], The Web of Life, Harper Collins (1995)</ref> – thereby a new value entered education; the "well-being of the earth".<ref>[[Well-being]], Well-being, or wellbeing, also known as wellness, prudential value or quality of life, refers to what is intrinsically valuable relative to someone.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Well-being.</ref> An ecologically literate society would be a sustainable [[society]] which did not destroy the [[natural environment]] on which they depend. Ecological literacy is a powerful concept as it creates a foundation for an integrated approach to environmental problems. Advocates champion eco-literacy as a new educational paradigm emerging around the poles of [[holism]], [[systems thinking]], [[sustainability]], and [[complexity]]. == Overview == Ecoliteracy concerns understanding the principles of organisation of ecosystems and their potential application to understanding how to build a sustainable [[human society]].<ref>(Capra, 1997: 89).</ref> It combines the sciences of systems and [[ecology]] in drawing together elements required to foster learning processes toward a deep appreciation of nature and our role in it. Systems thinking is the recognition of the world as an integrated whole rather than a collection of individual elements. Within systems thinking, basic principles of organization become more important than the analysis of various components of the system in isolation. Ecological literacy and systems thinking implies a recognition of the manner in which all phenomenon are part of networks that define the way that element functions. Systems thinking is necessary to understand complex [[interdependence]] of [[ecological systems]], [[social system]]s and other systems on all levels. According to [[Fritjof Capra]], "In the coming decades, the survival of humanity will depend on our ecological literacy – our ability to understand the basic principles of ecology and to live accordingly. This means that ecoliteracy must become a critical skill for [[politician]]s, business leaders, and professionals in all spheres, and should be the most important part of education at all levels – from primary and secondary schools to colleges, universities, and the continuing education and training of professionals."<ref>[[Fritjof Capra]], "The New Facts of Life," 2008, {{cite web \|url=http://www.ecoliteracy.org/publications/fritjof_capra_facts.html \|title=CEL \| Fritjof Capra - the New Facts of Life \|access-date=2009-08-20 \|url-status=dead \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090814051039/http://www.ecoliteracy.org/publications/fritjof_capra_facts.html \|archive-date=2009-08-14 }}</ref> [[David W. Orr]] has stated that the goal of ecological literacy is "built on the recognition that the disorder of ecosystems reflects a prior disorder of mind, making it a central concern to those institutions that purport to improve minds. In other words, the [[ecological crisis]] is in every way a crisis of education.... All education is environmental education… by what is included or excluded we teach the young that they are part of or apart from the natural world." He also emphasizes that ecoliteracy does not only require mastery of subject matter, but the creation of meaningful connections between head, hands, and heart as well.<ref>Michael K. Stone and [[Zenobia Barlow]], eds., Ecological Literacy: Educating Our Children for a Sustainable World, Sierra Club Books (2005)</ref> Others have reiterated the urgent importance of ecological literacy in today's world, where young people are faced with escalating environmental challenges, including climate change, depletion of resources, and environmentally linked illnesses. The framework for ecological literacy is based on how the knowledge of the environment is necessary for informed decision-making. The more recent framework of ecological literacy also emphasizes ecological thinking, cognitive thinking, and particularly scientific inquiry. An ecologically literate person knows and understands the reality of the environment by precisely identifying its cause-and-effect relationship.<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1=McBride \|first1=B. B. \|last2=Brewer \|first2=C. A. \|last3=Berkowitz \|first3=A. R. \|last4=Borrie \|first4=W. T. \|date=May 2013 \|title=Environmental literacy, ecological literacy, ecoliteracy: What do we mean and how did we get here? \|journal=Ecosphere \|language=en \|volume=4 \|issue=5 \|pages=1–20 \|doi=10.1890/ES13-00075.1 \|issn=2150-8925\|doi-access=free \|hdl=10536/DRO/DU:30122482 \|hdl-access=free }}</ref> {{blockquote\|This generation will require leaders and citizens who can think ecologically, understand the interconnectedness of human and natural systems, and have the will, ability, and courage to act\|Michael K. Stone<ref>Michael K. Stone/[[Center for Ecoliteracy]], Smart by Nature: Schooling for Sustainability, Watershed Media (2009)</ref>}} With an understanding of ecological literacy, [[perceptions]] naturally shift. The need to protect the ecosystems is not simply a belief held by [[environmentalist]]s; it is a biological imperative for survival over the time. This [[Value (ethics)\|value]] will become a basic principle for prioritizing thought and action in a sustainable society. In the face of the increasing capacity of industrial systems to destroy habitats and the [[climate system]], the explicit declaration of the principles of ecological literacy – and the resulting awareness of the importance of living within the ecological [[carrying capacity]] of the earth, is increasingly necessary. Whether ecoliteracy can address the infamous [[value-action gap]] is unclear. ==See also== {{portal\|Ecology\|Environment}} [[Ecopolitics]] ==References== {{Reflist}} == Further reading == [http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?file=/c/a/2005/10/30/RVGSOFBSG01.DTL&type=printable "Teaching kids to take care of the Earth,"] SFGate.com review of ''Ecological Literacy: Educating Our Children for a Sustainable World,'' Edited by Michael K. Stone and Zenobia Barlow. * {{cite journal\|title=BASIC ECOLOGICAL LITERACY: A FIRST CUT\|author=Kenneth M. Klemow\|journal=Ecological Society of America Education Section Newsletter\|year=1991\|volume=2\|issue=1\|pages=4–5\|url=http://klemow.wilkes.edu/basic-lit.html}} * {{cite journal\|author=Sterling, S.\|title=A Baker's Dozen. Towards Changing our "Loaf"\|journal=The Trumpeter\|volume=18\|issue=1\|year=2002\|url=http://trumpeter.athabascau.ca/index.php/trumpet/article/view/121/130}} * Hoelscher, David W. "Cultivating the Ecological Conscience: Smith, Orr, and Bowers on Ecological Education." M.A. thesis, University of North Texas, 2009. https://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc12133/m1/ ==External links== * [http://www.ecoliteracy.org/ Center for Ecoliteracy Welcome] * [http://www.eco-labs.org/ EcoLabs: Ecological Literacy Initiative] {{Literacy}} [[Category:Ecology]] [[Category:Environmental education]] [[Category:Sustainability]]
Degrowth	{{Short description\|Political, economic and social movement}} {{distinguish\|Downsizing (disambiguation){{!}}downsizing\|Shrinkage (disambiguation){{!}}shrinkage}} {{Multiple issues\|{{Too few opinions\|date=March 2022}} {{Copy edit\|date=August 2023}} {{POV\|talk=POV\|date=September 2023}}}} {{Anti-consumerism \|Theories}} '''Degrowth''' is an [[Academic research\|academic]] and social [[Social movement\|movement]] critical of the concept of [[economic growth\|growth]] in [[Real gross domestic product\|gross domestic product]] as a measure of [[Human development (economics)\|human]] and [[economic development]].<ref>{{cite journal \|last1=Trainer \|first1=Ted \|title=De-growth: Do you realise what it means? \|journal=[[Futures (journal)\|Futures]] \|date=2012 \|volume=44 \|issue=6 \|pages=590–599 \|doi=10.1016/j.futures.2012.03.020}}</ref><ref name = annual>{{Cite journal\|last1=Kallis\|first1=Giorgos\|last2=Kostakis\|first2=Vasilis\| last3=Lange\|first3=Steffen\|display-authors=et al. \|date=2018 \|title=Research On Degrowth\|journal=Annual Review of Environment and Resources\|language=en\| volume=43\|issue=1\| pages=291–316\| doi=10.1146/annurev-environ-102017-025941\|issn= 1543-5938\|doi-access= free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal \|last1=Hickel \|first1=Jason \|title=What does degrowth mean? A few points of clarification \|journal=[[Globalizations]] \|date=2021 \|volume=18 \|issue=7 \|pages=1105–1111 \|doi=10.1080/14747731.2020.1812222\|s2cid=221800076 \|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal \|last1=Buch-Hansen \|first1=Hubert \|last2=Nesterova \|first2=Iana \|title=Less and more: Conceptualising degrowth transformations \|journal=[[Ecological Economics (journal)\|Ecological Economics]] \|date=2023 \|volume=205 \|pages=107731 \|doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2022.107731 \|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal \|last1=Akbulut \|first1=Bengi \|title=Degrowth \|journal=[[Rethinking Marxism]] \|date=2021 \|volume=33 \|issue=1 \|pages=98–110 \|doi=10.1080/08935696.2020.1847014\|s2cid=232116190 }}</ref><ref name="Hickeletal"/><ref>{{cite web \|last1=Pettinger \|first1=Tejvan \|title=Degrowth - definition, examples and criticisms \|url=https://www.economicshelp.org/blog/164203/economics/degrowth/ \|website=Economics Help \|date=27 April 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal \|last1=Kongshøj \|first1=Kristian \|title=Social policy in a future of degrowth? Challenges for decommodification, commoning and public support \|journal=[[Humanities and Social Sciences Communications]] \|date=2023 \|volume=10 \|issue=1 \|pages=1–11 \|doi=10.1057/s41599-023-02255-z \|doi-access=free}}</ref> Degrowth theory is based on ideas and research from a multitude of disciplines such as [[economics]], [[economic anthropology]], [[ecological economics]], [[environmental science]]s and [[development studies]]. It argues that the unitary focus of modern capitalism on growth, in terms of [[monetary value]] of aggregate goods and services, causes widespread [[Environmental degradation\|ecological damage]] and is not necessary for the further increase of [[Standard of living\|human living standards]].<ref name="gd01" /><ref>{{Cite journal \|last1=Hickel \|first1=Jason \|last2=Kallis \|first2=Giorgos \|last3=Jackson \|first3=Tim \|last4=O’Neill \|first4=Daniel W. \|last5=Schor \|first5=Juliet B. \|last6=Steinberger \|first6=Julia K. \|last7=Victor \|first7=Peter A. \|last8=Ürge-Vorsatz \|first8=Diana \|date=December 2022 \|title=Degrowth can work — here's how science can help \|journal=Nature \|language=en \|volume=612 \|issue=7940 \|pages=400–403 \|doi=10.1038/d41586-022-04412-x\|pmid=36510013 \|bibcode=2022Natur.612..400H \|s2cid=254614532 \|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web \|title=Degrowth - an overview {{!}} ScienceDirect Topics \|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/social-sciences/degrowth \|access-date=2023-09-11 \|website=www.sciencedirect.com}}</ref> Degrowth theory has been met with both academic acclaim and considerable criticism.<ref>{{Cite web \|date=2022-06-15 \|title=Degrowth: what's behind this economic theory and why it matters today \|url=https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2022/06/what-is-degrowth-economics-climate-change/ \|access-date=2023-09-11 \|website=World Economic Forum \|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web \|last=Horowitz \|first=Julia \|date=2022-11-13 \|title=Degrowth: A dangerous idea or the answer to the world's biggest crisis? {{!}} CNN Business \|url=https://www.cnn.com/2022/11/13/economy/degrowth-climate-cop27/index.html \|access-date=2023-09-11 \|website=CNN \|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news \|last=Bokat-Lindell \|first=Spencer \|date=2021-09-16 \|title=Opinion {{!}} Do We Need to Shrink the Economy to Stop Climate Change? \|language=en-US \|work=The New York Times \|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2021/09/16/opinion/degrowth-cllimate-change.html \|access-date=2023-09-11 \|issn=0362-4331}}</ref> Degrowth theory's main argument is that an infinite expansion of the economy is fundamentally contradictory to the [[Resource depletion\|finiteness of material resources]] on Earth. It argues that economic growth measured by GDP should be abandoned as a policy objective. Policy should instead focus on economic and social metrics such as [[life expectancy]], [[health]], [[education]], [[housing]], and ecologically sustainable [[Work (human activity)\|work]] as indicators of both eco-systems and human well-being.<ref name=":6">{{Cite web \|last=Nelson \|first=Anitra \|date=2024-01-31 \|title=Degrowth as a Concept and Practice: Introduction \|url=https://commonslibrary.org/degrowth-as-a-concept-and-practice-introduction/ \|access-date=2024-02-20 \|website=The Commons Social Change Library \|language=en-AU}}</ref> Degrowth theorists posit that this may increase human living standards and ecological preservation, even while GDP slows down or decreases.<ref>{{Cite book \|last=Hickel \|first=Jason \|title=Less is more \|publisher=Penguin Books \|year=2022 \|isbn=9781786091215 \|edition=1 \|location=London \|pages=170–179 \|language=English}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal \|last1=Akbulut \|first1=Bengi \|date=2021 \|title=Degrowth, Rethinking Marxism \|url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/08935696.2020.1847014 \|journal=Rethinking Marxism \|volume=33 \|issue=1 \|pages=98–110 \|doi=10.1080/08935696.2020.1847014 \|s2cid=232116190 \|access-date=28 April 2023}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal \|last1=Demaria \|first1=Federico \|last2=Schneider \|first2=François \|last3=Sekulova \|first3=Filka \|last4=Martinez-Alier \|first4=Joan \|date=2013 \|title=What is Degrowth? From an Activist Slogan to a Social Movement \|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/23460978 \|journal=Environmental Values \|volume=22 \|issue=2 \|pages=191–215 \|doi=10.3197/096327113X13581561725194 \|jstor=23460978 \|s2cid=55888884 \|issn=0963-2719}}</ref> Degrowth theory is highly critical of [[Free-market capitalism\|free market capitalism]], and it highlights the importance of extensive [[public service]]s, [[care work]], [[self-organization]], [[commons]], [[relational goods]], [[community]], and [[work sharing]].<ref>{{cite book \|last1=Demaria \|first1=Federico \|title=Pluriverse. A Post-Development Dictionary \|last2=Kothari \|first2=Ashish \|last3=Salleh \|first3=Ariel \|last4=Escobar \|first4=Arturo \|last5=Acosta \|first5=Alberto \|date=2019 \|publisher=Tulika Books \|isbn=9788193732984 \|location=New Delhi}}</ref><ref>{{cite web \|title=What is degrowth? \|url=https://www.degrowth.info/en/what-is-degrowth/ \|url-status=dead \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210130012721/https://www.degrowth.info/en/what-is-degrowth/ \|archive-date=30 January 2021 \|access-date=29 April 2020 \|website=degrowth.info}}</ref> ==Background== The "degrowth" movement arose from concerns over the consequences of the [[productivism]] and [[consumerism]] associated with industrial societies (whether [[Capitalism\|capitalist]] or [[Socialism\|socialist]]) including:<ref name=fd01/> * The reduced availability of energy sources (see [[peak oil]]) * The destabilisation of Earth's ecosystems upon which all life on Earth depends (see [[Holocene extinction\|Holocene Extinction]], [[Anthropocene]], [[global warming]], [[pollution]], [[Biodiversity#Current biodiversity loss\|current biodiversity loss]]) * The rise of negative societal side-effects (see un[[sustainable development]], poorer [[health]], [[poverty]]) * The ever-expanding use of resources by [[First World]] countries to satisfy lifestyles that consume more food and energy, and produce greater waste, at the expense of the [[Third World]] (see [[neocolonialism]]) In 2017, Inês Cosme and colleagues summarised the research literature on degrowth, finding that it focused on three main goals: (1) reduction of [[environmental degradation]]; (2) [[redistribution of income and wealth]] locally and globally; (3) promotion of a social transition from [[economic materialism]] to [[participatory culture]].<ref>{{Cite journal\|last1=Cosme\|first1=Inês\|last2=Santos\|first2=Rui\|last3=O'Neill\|first3=Daniel W.\|date=2017-04-15\|title=Assessing the degrowth discourse: A review and analysis of academic degrowth policy proposals\|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0959652617302202\|journal=Journal of Cleaner Production\|language=en\|volume=149\|pages=321–334\|doi=10.1016/j.jclepro.2017.02.016\|issn=0959-6526}}</ref> In 2022, Nick Fitzpatrick and colleagues surveyed 1,166 research publications on degrowth, and found 530 specific policy proposals with "50 goals, 100 objectives, 380 instruments", arguing that their survey constituted "the most exhaustive degrowth policy agenda ever presented".<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1=Cosme\|first1=Inês\|last2=Parrique \|first2=Timothée \|last3=Fitzpatrickl\|first3=Nick\|date=2022\|title=Exploring degrowth policy proposals: A systematic mapping with thematic synthesis\|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0959652622023629\|journal=Journal of Cleaner Production\|language=en\|doi=10.1016/j.jclepro.2022.132764\|volume=365\|page=132764 \|hdl=10362/150706 \|s2cid=249875134 \|hdl-access=free}}</ref> Degrowth research was active in the 2010s in the work of Joan Martinez-Alier and the "Barcelona School".<ref>{{Cite journal \| last1=Kallis\| first1=Giorgos \|date=2023-04-01 \| title=Degrowth and the Barcelona School, open access \| journal= The Barcelona School of Ecological Economics and Political Ecology\| series=Studies in Ecological Economics \| volume=8 \| language=en \| pages=83–90\| doi=10.1007/978-3-031-22566-6 \| isbn=978-3-031-22565-9 \| s2cid=257222514 \| doi-access=free }}</ref> === Decoupling === {{Main\|Eco-economic decoupling}} {{unbalanced\|section\|date=July 2023}} The concept of ''decoupling'' denotes the possibility to decouple economic growth, usually measured in GDP growth, from the use of natural resources and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. ''Absolute decoupling'' refers to GDP growth coinciding with a reduction in natural resource use and GHG emissions, while ''relative decoupling'' describes an increase in resource use and GHG emission lower than the increase in GDP growth.<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1=Haberl \|first1=Helmut \|last2=Wiedenhofer \|first2=Dominik \|last3=Virág \|first3=Doris \|last4=Kalt \|first4=Gerald \|last5=Plank \|first5=Barbara \|last6=Brockway \|first6=Paul \|last7=Fishman \|first7=Tomer \|last8=Hausknost \|first8=Daniel \|last9=Krausmann \|first9=Fridolin \|last10=Leon-Gruchalski \|first10=Bartholomäus \|last11=Mayer \|first11=Andreas \|date=2020-06-10 \|title=A systematic review of the evidence on decoupling of GDP, resource use and GHG emissions, part II: synthesizing the insights \|journal=Environmental Research Letters \|language=en \|volume=15 \|issue=6 \|pages=065003 \|doi=10.1088/1748-9326/ab842a \|bibcode=2020ERL....15f5003H \|s2cid=216453887 \|issn=1748-9326\|doi-access=free }}</ref> The degrowth movement heavily critiques this idea and argues that absolute decoupling is only possible for short periods, specific locations or with small [[mitigation]] rates.<ref name="doi.org">{{Cite journal \|last1=Antal \|first1=Miklós \|last2=Van Den Bergh \|first2=Jeroen C.J.M. \|date=2016-02-17 \|title=Green growth and climate change: conceptual and empirical considerations \|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/14693062.2014.992003 \|journal=Climate Policy \|volume=16 \|issue=2 \|pages=165–177 \|doi=10.1080/14693062.2014.992003 \|bibcode=2016CliPo..16..165A \|s2cid=153816870 \|issn=1469-3062}}</ref><ref name="eeb.org">{{Cite web \|title=Decoupling debunked – Evidence and arguments against green growth as a sole strategy for sustainability \|url=https://eeb.org/library/decoupling-debunked/ \|access-date=2022-05-31 \|website=EEB - The European Environmental Bureau \|language=en-US}}</ref> A 2021 publication by the European Environmental Bureau called "Decoupling Debunked: Evidence and arguments against green growth as a sole strategy for sustainability" analyzed a large amount of empirical and theoretical work on the topic and stated that: ''"not only is there no empirical evidence supporting the existence of a decoupling of economic growth from environmental pressures on anywhere near the scale needed to deal with environmental breakdown, but also, and perhaps more importantly, such decoupling appears unlikely to happen in the future".'' (page 3).<ref name="eeb.org"/> Further, the paper states that reported cases of "successful" decoupling either depict relative decoupling and/or are observed only temporarily and/or only on a local scale.<ref name="eeb.org"/> This is supported by several other studies which state that absolute decoupling is highly unlikely to be achieved fast enough to prevent [[global warming]] over 1.5 °C or 2 °C, even under optimistic policy conditions.<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1=Hickel \|first1=Jason \|last2=Kallis \|first2=Giorgos \|date=2020-06-06 \|title=Is Green Growth Possible? \|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/13563467.2019.1598964 \|journal=New Political Economy \|volume=25 \|issue=4 \|pages=469–486 \|doi=10.1080/13563467.2019.1598964 \|s2cid=159148524 \|issn=1356-3467}}</ref> Moreover, relying on decoupling as the main or only strategy to combine economic growth and the reduction of environmental pressures would be a high-risk action in the context of the [[climate crisis\|climate emergency]] of the 21st century.<ref name="doi.org"/> Consequently, degrowth advocates argue that alternatives to decoupling are needed. ===Resource depletion=== {{Main\|Resource depletion}} As economies grow, the need for resources grows accordingly (unless there are changes in efficiency or demand for different products due to price changes).{{citation needed\|date=July 2023}} There is a fixed supply of [[non-renewable resource]]s, such as [[petroleum]] (oil), and these resources can be depleted. [[Renewable resource]]s can also be depleted if extracted at unsustainable rates over extended periods. This has already occurred, for example, with [[caviar]] production in the [[Caspian Sea]].<ref>Bardi, U. (2008) 'Peak Caviar'. The Oil Drum: Europe. http://europe.theoildrum.com/node/4367</ref> Degrowth proponents argue that decreasing demand is the only way to close the demand gap permanently. For renewable resources, demand and production must also be brought down to levels that prevent depletion and are environmentally sustainable. Moving toward a society not dependent on oil is essential to avoiding [[societal collapse]] when non-renewable resources are depleted.<ref>{{cite web\|website = Resilience.org\|date =October 20, 2009\|title = Peak Oil Reports\|url = http://www.resilience.org/stories/2009-10-20/peak-oil-reports-oct-20}}</ref> Degrowth can also be seen as a call for resource shifting where one strives to put an end to the unsustainable social processes of turning things into resources, for example non-renewable natural resources, and turn instead other things into resources, for example, renewable human resources.<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1=Corvellec \|first1=Hervé \|last2=Paulsson \|first2=Alexander \|date=2023-03-01 \|title=Resource shifting: Resourcification and de-resourcification for degrowth \|journal=Ecological Economics \|language=en \|volume=205 \|pages=107703 \|doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2022.107703 \|s2cid=254388285 \|issn=0921-8009\|doi-access=free }}</ref> ===Ecological footprint=== {{Main\|Ecological footprint}} The ecological footprint measures human demand on the Earth's ecosystems. It compares human demand with the Earth's ecological capacity to regenerate. It represents the amount of biologically productive land and sea area needed to regenerate the resources a human population consumes and to absorb and render harmless the corresponding [[waste]]. According to a 2005 [[Global Footprint Network]] report,<ref name=footprintnetwork>{{cite web\|url=http://www.footprintnetwork.org/en/index.php/GFN/page/data_sources/\|title=Data Sources\|work=footprintnetwork.org\|url-status=dead\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091001074513/http://www.footprintnetwork.org/en/index.php/GFN/page/data_sources/\|archive-date=2009-10-01}}</ref> inhabitants of high-income countries live off of 6.4 [[global hectare]]s (gHa), while those from low-income countries live off of a single gHa. For example, while each inhabitant of [[Bangladesh]] lives off of what they produce from 0.56 gHa, a [[North America]]n requires 12.5 gHa. Each inhabitant of North America uses 22.3 times as much land as a Bangladeshi. According to the same report, the average number of global hectares per person was 2.1, while current consumption levels have reached 2.7 hectares per person. In order for the world's population to attain the living standards typical of European countries, the resources of between three and eight planet [[Earth]]s would be required with current levels of efficiency and means of production. For world [[economic equality]] to be achieved with the currently available resources, proponents say rich countries would have to reduce their [[standard of living]] through degrowth. The constraints on resources would eventually lead to a forced reduction in consumption. Controlled reduction of consumption would reduce the trauma of this change, assuming no [[technological change]]s increase the planet's [[carrying capacity]]. Multiple studies now demonstrate that in many affluent countries per-capita energy consumption could be decreased substantially and quality living standards still be maintained.<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1=Merz \|first1=Joseph J \|last2=Barnard \|first2=Phoebe \|last3=Rees \|first3=William E \|last4=Smith \|first4=Dane \|last5=Maroni \|first5=Mat \|last6=Rhodes \|first6=Christopher J \|last7=Dederer \|first7=Julia H \|last8=Bajaj \|first8=Nandita \|last9=Joy \|first9=Michael K \|last10=Wiedmann \|first10=Thomas \|last11=Sutherland \|first11=Rory \|date=July 2023 \|title=World scientists' warning: The behavioural crisis driving ecological overshoot \|journal=Science Progress \|language=en \|volume=106 \|issue=3 \|doi=10.1177/00368504231201372 \|issn=0036-8504 \|pmc=10515534 \|pmid=37728669}}</ref> === Degrowth and sustainable development === {{Further\|Sustainable development}} Degrowth thought is in opposition to all forms of [[productivism]] (the belief that economic productivity and growth are the purposes of human organization). It is, thus, opposed to the current form of [[sustainable development]].<ref>{{Cite journal \| doi=10.1016/j.jclepro.2011.08.008 \|title = Strong sustainable consumption governance – precondition for a degrowth path?\|journal = Journal of Cleaner Production\|volume = 38\|pages = 36–43\|year = 2013\|last1 = Lorek\|first1 = Sylvia\|last2 = Fuchs\|first2 = Doris\| s2cid=49362153 \|url = https://degrowth.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/11/Lorek-_Fuchs-2013.pdf}}</ref> While the concern for [[sustainability]] does not contradict degrowth, sustainable development is rooted in mainstream [[international development\|development]] ideas that aim to increase economic growth and consumption. Degrowth therefore sees sustainable development as an [[oxymoron]],<ref name=Latouche/> as any development based on growth in a finite and environmentally stressed world is seen as inherently unsustainable. Critics of degrowth argue that a slowing of [[economic growth]] would result in increased [[unemployment]], increased [[poverty]], and decreased income per capita. Many who understand the devastating environmental consequences of growth still advocate for economic growth in the South, even if not in the North. But, slowing economic growth would fail to deliver the benefits of degrowth—self-sufficiency, material responsibility—and would indeed lead to decreased employment. Rather, degrowth proponents advocate the complete abandonment of the current (growth) economic model, suggesting that relocalizing and abandoning the global economy in the [[Global South]] would allow people of the South to become more self-sufficient and would end the [[overconsumption]] and exploitation of Southern resources by the North.<ref name=Latouche>Latouche, S. (2004). [https://mondediplo.com/2004/11/14latouche Degrowth Economics: Why less should be so much more.] ''Le Monde Diplomatique''.</ref> Proponents of degrowth see it as a possible path to preserve ecosystems from human pressures. In this idea, the environment is communally cared for, integrating humans and nature; degrowth implies the perception of ecosystems as inherently valuable, not just as a source of resources.<ref name="fd01" /> At the Second International Conference on degrowth, ideas such as a maximum wage and open borders were discussed. Degrowth suggests a deontological shift so that lifestyles that involve a high level of resource consumption are no longer seen as attractive. Other visions of degrowth include the global North repairing past injustices from centuries of colonization and exploitation and redistributing wealth, and a concept of the appropriate scale of action is a major topic of debate within degrowth movements.<ref name="fd01" /> Some researchers believe that the world will have to pass through Great Transformation, "by design or by disaster", therefore [[ecological economics]] have to incorporate [[Postdevelopment theory\|Postdevelopment theories]], [[Buen vivir]] and degrowth if they want to really change something.<ref>{{cite journal \|title=Discursive Synergies for a 'Great Transformation' Towards Sustainability: Pragmatic Contributions to a Necessary Dialogue Between Human Development, Degrowth, and Buen Vivir \|journal=Ecological Economics \|date=11 September 2017 \|volume=144 \|pages=304–313 \|doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2017.08.025 \|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/319639847 \|access-date=21 July 2020\|last1=Beling \|first1=Adrián E. \|last2=Vanhulst \|first2=Julien \|last3=Demaria \|first3=Federico \|last4=Rabi \|first4=Violeta \|last5=Carballo \|first5=Ana E. \|last6=Pelenc \|first6=Jérôme }}</ref> A 2022 paper by Mark Diesendorf found that limiting global warming to 1,5 degrees with no overshoot would require a reduction of energy consumption. It describes (chapters 4-5) degrowth toward a steady state economy as possible and probably positive. The study ends with the words: "The case for a transition to a steady-state economy with low throughput and low emissions, initially in the high-income economies and then in rapidly growing economies, needs more serious attention and international cooperation.<ref>{{cite journal \|last1=Diesendorf \|first1=Mark \|title=Scenarios for mitigating CO2 emissions from energy supply in the absence of CO2 removal \|journal=Climate Policy \|date=22 April 2022 \|volume=22 \|issue=7 \|pages=882–896 \|doi=10.1080/14693062.2022.2061407 \|bibcode=2022CliPo..22..882D \|s2cid=248358617 \|url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/14693062.2022.2061407 \|access-date=1 June 2022}}</ref> ==="Rebound effect"=== {{Main\|Rebound effect (conservation)}} Technologies designed to reduce resource use and improve efficiency are often touted as sustainable or green solutions. Degrowth literature, however, warns about these technological advances due to the "[[Rebound effect (conservation)\|rebound effect]]", also known as [[Jevons paradox]].<ref>{{harv\|Zehner\|2012}}, pp.172–73, 333–34</ref> This concept is based on observations that when a less resource-exhaustive technology is introduced, behavior surrounding the use of that technology may change, and consumption of that technology could increase or even offset any potential resource savings.<ref>{{cite journal \|last=Binswanger \|first=M. \|year=2001 \|title=Technological Progress and Sustainable Development: What About the Rebound Effect? \|journal=Ecological Economics \|volume=36 \|issue=1 \|pages=119–32 \|doi=10.1016/S0921-8009(00)00214-7\|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/222122872 }}</ref> In light of the rebound effect, proponents of degrowth hold that the only effective "sustainable" solutions must involve a complete rejection of the growth paradigm and a move to a degrowth paradigm. There are also fundamental limits to technological solutions in the pursuit of degrowth, as all engagements with technology increase the cumulative matter-energy [[throughput]].<ref>{{Cite journal\|last=Heikkurinen\|first=Pasi\|title=Degrowth by means of technology? A treatise for an ethos of releasement\|url= http://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/105233/1/Heikkurinen%202016.pdf\|journal=Journal of Cleaner Production\|volume=197\|pages=1654–1665\|doi=10.1016/j.jclepro.2016.07.070\|year=2018\|s2cid=55830276}}</ref> However, the convergence of [[digital commons]] of knowledge and design with [[distributed manufacturing]] technologies may arguably hold potential for building degrowth future scenarios.<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1=Kostakis \|first1=Vasilis \|last2=Latoufis \|first2=Kostas \|last3=Liarokapis \|first3=Minas \|last4=Bauwens \|first4=Michel \|title=The convergence of digital commons with local manufacturing from a degrowth perspective: Two illustrative cases \|journal=Journal of Cleaner Production\|volume=197 \|pages=1684–1693 \|doi=10.1016/j.jclepro.2016.09.077\|year=2018 \|s2cid=43975556 \|url=https://www.minasliarokapis.com/CleanerProduction2016_Kostakis_DigitalCommonsLocalManufacturing.pdf\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190609174813/https://www.minasliarokapis.com/CleanerProduction2016_Kostakis_DigitalCommonsLocalManufacturing.pdf \|archive-date=2019-06-09 }}</ref> ===Mitigation of climate change and determinants of 'growth'=== [[File:1.5 °C scenario map under different levels of energy-GDP decoupling, RE speed and NETs.webp\|thumb\|1.5 °C scenario map under different levels of energy-GDP decoupling, RE speed and NETs<ref name="10.1038/s41467-021-22884-9"/>]] Scientists report that degrowth scenarios, where economic output either "declines" or declines in terms of contemporary [[Economic indicator\|economic metrics]] such as current [[GDP]], have been neglected in considerations of [[Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C\|1.5 °C scenarios]] reported by the [[Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change]] (IPCC), finding that investigated degrowth scenarios "minimize many key risks for feasibility and sustainability compared to technology-driven pathways" with a core problem of such being feasibility in the context of contemporary decision-making of [[politics]] and [[Economic globalization\|globalized]] rebound- and relocation-effects.<ref>{{cite news \|title=1.5°C degrowth scenarios suggest need for new mitigation pathways \|url= https://phys.org/news/2021-05-degrowth-scenarios-mitigation-pathways.html \|access-date=14 June 2021 \|work=phys.org \|language=en}}[https://scienmag.com/1-5c-degrowth-scenarios-suggest-need-for-new-mitigation-pathways-research/ Alternative Link]</ref><ref name="10.1038/s41467-021-22884-9">{{cite journal \|last1=Keyßer \|first1=Lorenz T. \|last2=Lenzen \|first2=Manfred \|title=1.5 °C degrowth scenarios suggest the need for new mitigation pathways \|journal=Nature Communications \|date=2021-05-11 \|volume=12 \|issue=1 \|pages=2676 \|doi=10.1038/s41467-021-22884-9 \|pmid=33976156 \|pmc=8113441 \|bibcode= 2021NatCo..12.2676K \|language=en \|issn=2041-1723}} [[File:CC-BY icon.svg\|50px]] Available under [https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ CC BY 4.0].</ref> However, structurally realigning 'economic growth' and socioeconomic activity determination-structures may not be widely debated in both the degrowth community and in degrowth research which may largely focus on reducing economic growth either more generally or without structural alternative but with e.g. nonsystemic political interventions. Similarly, many [[green growth]] advocates suggest that contemporary socioeconomic mechanisms and metrics – including for economic growth – can be continued with forms of nonstructural "energy-GDP decoupling".<ref>{{cite web \|title=Green growth vs degrowth: are we missing the point? \|url= https://www.resilience.org/stories/2020-12-07/green-growth-vs-degrowth-are-we-missing-the-point/ \|website=Resilience \|access-date=23 June 2021 \|date=2020-12-07}}</ref>{{additional citation needed \|date= June 2021}} A study concluded that [[public services]] are associated with higher human [[need]] satisfaction and lower energy requirements while contemporary forms of economic growth are linked with the opposite, with the contemporary [[economic system]] being fundamentally misaligned with the twin goals of meeting human needs and [[sustainable development\|ensuring ecological sustainability]], suggesting that prioritizing human well-being and ecological sustainability would be preferable to overgrowth in current metrics of economic growth.<ref>{{cite news \|title=Securing decent living standards for all while reducing global energy use \|url=https://phys.org/news/2021-06-decent-standards-global-energy.html \|access-date=10 July 2021 \|work=phys.org \|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal \|title=Socio-economic conditions for satisfying human needs at low energy use: An international analysis of social provisioning \|journal=Global Environmental Change \|date=29 June 2021 \|pages=102287 \|doi=10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2021.102287 \|language=en \|issn=0959-3780\|last1=Vogel \|first1=Jefim \|last2=Steinberger \|first2=Julia K. \|last3=O'Neill \|first3=Daniel W. \|last4=Lamb \|first4= William F. \|last5=Krishnakumar \|first5=Jaya \|volume=69 \|doi-access=free }}</ref> The word 'degrowth' was mentioned 28 times in the United Nations' IPCC Sixth Assessment Report by Working Group III published in April 2022.<ref>[https://mronline.org/2022/04/27/how-the-corporate-interests-and-political-elites-watered-down-the-worlds-most-important-climate-report/ How the corporate interests and political elites watered down the world's most important climate report] MR Online. 2022.</ref> === Easterlin Paradox === In 1973, [[Richard Easterlin]] published a paper entitled "Does Economic Growth Improve the Human Lot? Some Empirical Evidence" which finds that after a certain income level or "satiation point", income does not affect happiness levels.<ref name=":02">Easterlin, Richard A. "Does Economic Growth Improve the Human Lot? Some Empirical Evidence." ''Nations and Households in Economic Growth: Essays in Honor of Moses Abramovitz'', Elsevier Inc, 1974, pp. 89–125. Web.</ref> The [[Easterlin paradox\|Easterlin Paradox]] has been reassessed multiple times with varying conclusions.<ref>Stevenson, Betsey, and Justin Wolfers. "Economic Growth and Subjective Well-Being: Reassessing the Easterlin Paradox." ''Brookings Papers on Economic Activity'', vol. 2008, no. 1, Brookings Institution, 2008, pp. 1–87. Web.</ref><ref>Frank, Robert H. "The Easterlin Paradox Revisited." ''Emotion (Washington, D.C.)'', vol. 12, no. 6, American Psychological Association, 2012, pp. 1188–91. Web.</ref><ref>Mentus, Vladimir, and Marko Vladisavljevic. "Easterlin Paradox Revisited: Do Increases in Income Bring Higher Levels of Income Satisfaction?" ''Sociologija'', vol. 63, no. 2, 2021, pp. 220–35. Web.</ref> Furthermore, Easterlin writes consumption levels directly correlate with income level, indicating that after reaching a certain satiation point increased consumption does not affect happiness levels.<ref name=":02" /> === Open Localism === Open localism is a concept that has been promoted by the degrowth community when envisioning an alternative set of social relations and economic organization. It builds upon the political philosophies of [[Localism (politics)\|localism]] and is based on values such as diversity, ecologies of knowledge, and openness. Open localism does not look to create an enclosed community but rather circulate production locally in an open and integrative manner.<ref>{{cite conference \|url=https://co-munity.net/system/files/3750.pdf \|title=open localism \|last1=Schneider \|first1=Francois \|author-link1= \|last2=Sekulova \|first2=Filka \|author-link2= \|date= \|publisher= \|book-title= \|pages= \|location= \|conference=Leipzig \|id=}}</ref> Open localism is a direct challenge to the acts of closure regarding identitarian politics {{citation needed\|date=July 2023}}. By producing and consuming as much as possible locally, community members enhance their relationships with one another and the surrounding environment. Degrowth's ideas around open localism share similarities with ideas around the commons while also having clear differences. On the one hand, open localism promotes localized, common production in cooperative-like styles similar to some versions of how commons are organized. On the other hand, open localism does not impose any set of rules or regulations creating a defined boundary, rather it favours a cosmopolitan approach.<ref>Schneider, François, and Anitra Nelson. "'Open localism'–on Xue and Vansintjan III." Housing for Degrowth. Routledge, 2018. 223-230.</ref> === Feminism === The degrowth movement builds on [[feminist economics]] that have criticized measures of economic growth like the [[GDP]] as it excludes work mainly done by women such as unpaid [[care work]], that is the work performed to fulfill people's needs, and [[Reproductive labor\|reproductive work]], that is the work sustaining life, first argued by [[Marilyn Waring]].<ref name="waring 1989">{{cite book \|last1=Waring \|first1=Marilyn \|title=If Women Counted: A New Feminist Economics \|date=1989 \|publisher=Macmillan \|location=London \|isbn=0-333-49262-5}}</ref> Further, degrowth draws on the critique of socialist feminists like [[Silvia Federici]] and [[Nancy Fraser]] claiming that capitalist growth builds on the exploitation of women's work.<ref name="federici 2022">{{cite web \|last1=Federici \|first1=Silvia \|title=Feminism and the Politics of the Commons \|date=17 June 2020 \|url=https://thecommoner.org/tribute/tribute-to-the-work-of-silvia-federici/ \|access-date=4 April 2022}}</ref><ref name="fraser 2017">{{cite book \|last1=Fraser \|first1=Nancy \|title=Crisis of Care? On the Social-Reproductive Contradictions of Contemporary Capitalism \|date=2017}} In: {{cite book \|last1=Bhattacharya \|first1=Tithi \|title=Social Reproduction Theory: Remapping Class, Recentering Oppression \|publisher=Pluto Press \|location=London \|pages=21–36}}</ref> Instead of devaluing it, degrowth centers the economy around care,<ref name="kallis2015">{{cite book \|last1=Kallis \|first1=Giorgos \|author-link1= \|last2=Demaria \|first2=Federico \|author-link2= \|last3=D'Alisa \|first3= Giacomo \|title= Introduction: Degrowth \|date=2015 }} In: {{cite book \|last1=Kallis \|first1=Giorgos \|author-link1= \|last2=Demaria \|first2=Federico \|author-link2= \|last3=D'Alisa \|first3= Giacomo \|title= Degrowth: Vocabulary for a New Era \|pages=1–17 \|location= New York \|publisher= Routledge}}</ref> proposing that care work should be organized as a [[commons]].<ref name="dengler 2022">{{cite journal \|last1=Dengler \|first1=Corinna \|last2=Lang \|first2=Miriam \|title=Commoning Care: Feminist Degrowth Visions for a Socio-Ecological Transformation \|journal=Feminist Economics \|date=2022 \|volume=28 \|issue=1 \|pages=1–28 \|doi=10.1080/13545701.2021.1942511\|s2cid=240534324 }}</ref> Centering care goes hand in hand with changing society's time regimes. Degrowth scholars propose a [[working time]] reduction.<ref>{{cite book \|last1=Kallis \|first1=Giorgos \|title=Degrowth \|date=2018 \|publisher=Agenda Publishing \|isbn=978-1-911116-79-0}}</ref> As this does not necessarily lead to gender justice, the redistribution of care work has to be equally pushed.<ref name="dengler 2022" /> A concrete proposal by [[Frigga Haug]] is the 4-in-1-perspective that proposes 4 hours of wage work per day, freeing time for 4 hours of care work, 4 hours of political activities in a [[direct democracy]] and 4 hours of personal development through learning.<ref>{{cite book \|last1=Haug \|first1=Frigga \|title=Die Vier-in-einem-Perspektive. Politik von Frauen für eine neue Linke \|date=2009 \|publisher=Argument Verlag \|location=Hamburg \|isbn=978-978-3-88619-3}}</ref> Furthermore, degrowth draws on materialist [[ecofeminism]]s that state the parallel of the exploitation of women and nature in growth-based societies and proposes a subsistence perspective conceptualized by [[Maria Mies]] and [[Ariel Salleh]].<ref>{{cite book \|last1=Mies \|first1=Maria \|last2=Bennholdt-Thomsen \|first2=Veronika \|title=The Subsistence Perspective: Beyond the Globalised Economy \|date=1999 \|publisher=Zed Books}}</ref><ref>{{cite book \|last1=Salleh \|first1=Ariel \|title=Ecofeminism as Politics; Nature, Marx and the Postmodern. When Feminism Fails \|date=1997 \|pages=153–174 \|doi=10.1080/08854300.2018.1509619\|s2cid=149712144 }}</ref> Synergies and opportunities for cross-fertilization between degrowth and feminism were proposed in 2022, through networks including the Feminisms and Degrowth Alliance (FaDA).<ref name="dengler 2022" /> FaDA argued that the 2023 launch of ''Degrowth Journal'' created "a convivial space for generating and exploring knowledge and practice from diverse perspectives".<ref name="DegrowthJ_Why_are_feminist">{{cite Q\|Q118151474}}</ref> ===Decolonialism=== A relevant concept within the theory of degrowth is [[decolonialism]], which refers to putting an end to the perpetuation of political, social, economic, religious, racial, gender, and epistemological relations of power, domination, and hierarchy of the global north over the global south.<ref>{{cite book \|last1=Gómez \|first1=Martha \|last2=Saldarriaga \|first2=Dora \|last3=López \|first3=Maria \|last4=Zapata \|first4=Lina \|title=Decolonial and Postcolonial Studies. Theories about Modernity, Coloniality, and Eurocentrism \|date=2017}}</ref> The foundation of this relationship lies in the claim that the imminent socio-ecological collapse is caused by [[capitalism]], which is sustained by [[economic growth]]. This economic growth in turn can only be maintained under the eaves of colonialism and [[extractivism]], perpetuating asymmetric power relationships between territories.<ref name="hickel 2021">{{cite journal \|last=Hickel \|first=Jason\|author-link=Jason Hickel \|date=2021 \|title=The anti-colonial politics of degrowth \|url=https://mahb.stanford.edu/wp-content/uploads/2021/06/1-s2.0-S0962629821000640-main.pdf \|journal=Political Geography \|volume=88 \|issue= \|page=102404 \|doi=10.1016/j.polgeo.2021.102404 \|s2cid=235549247 \|access-date=}}</ref> Colonialism is understood as the appropriation of [[common goods]], resources and labor, which is antagonistic to degrowth principles. Through colonial domination, capital depresses the prices of inputs and colonial cheapening occurs to the detriment of the oppressed countries {{citation needed\|date=July 2023}}. Degrowth criticizes these appropriation mechanisms and [[enclosure]] of one territory over another and proposes a provision of human needs through disaccumulation, de-enclosure, and decommodification. It also reconciles with [[social movements]] and seeks to recognize the [[ecological debt]] to achieve the [[catch-up]], which is postulated as impossible without decolonization.<ref name="hickel 2021"/><ref>{{cite book \|last1=Wuttke \|first1=Tobias \|title=Reconciling catch-up industrialisation with de-growth \|date=2021}}</ref> In practice, decolonial practices close to degrowth are observed, such as the movement of Buen vivir or [[sumak kawsay]] by various indigenous peoples. ==Origins of the movement== {{More citations needed section\|date=April 2013}} The contemporary degrowth movement can trace its roots back to the anti-industrialist trends of the 19th century, developed in Great Britain by [[John Ruskin]], [[William Morris]] and the [[Arts and Crafts movement]] (1819–1900), in the United States by [[Henry David Thoreau]] (1817–1862), and in Russia by [[Leo Tolstoy]] (1828–1910).<ref>{{Cite web \| url = https://www.routledge.com/Degrowth-A-Vocabulary-for-a-New-Era/DAlisa-Demaria-Kallis/p/book/9781138000773 \| title = Degrowth: A Vocabulary for a New Era (Paperback) - Routledge \| website = Routledge.com \| page = 134 \| access-date = 2016-02-28 }}</ref> The concept of "degrowth" properly appeared during the 1970s, proposed by [[André Gorz]] (1972) and intellectuals such as [[Nicholas Georgescu-Roegen]], [[Jean Baudrillard]], [[Edward Goldsmith]], [[E.F. Schumacher]], [[Erich Fromm]], [[Paul Goodman]] and [[Ivan Illich]], whose ideas reflect those of earlier thinkers, such as the economist [[E. J. Mishan]],<ref>Mishan, Ezra J., ''The Costs of Economic Growth'', Staples Press, 1967.</ref> the industrial historian [[L. T. C. Rolt\|Tom Rolt]],<ref>{{Cite book\|last=Rolt\|first=L. T. C.\|title=High Horse Riderless\|year=1947\|publisher=George Allen & Unwin\|page=171\|url=https://www.amazon.co.uk/HIGH-HORSE-RIDERLESS-L-T-C-Rolt/dp/B0006ARC3W/}}</ref> and the radical socialist [[Turner Controversy\|Tony Turner]]. The writings of [[Mahatma Gandhi]] and [[J. C. Kumarappa]] also contain similar philosophies, particularly regarding his support of [[Simple living\|voluntary simplicity]]. More generally, degrowth movements draw on the values of [[humanism]], [[Age of Enlightenment\|enlightenment]], [[anthropology]] and [[human rights]].<ref>{{Cite journal \| doi=10.1080/17448689.2013.788935 \|title = Civil and Uncivil Actors for a Degrowth Society\|journal = Journal of Civil Society\|volume = 9\|issue = 2\|pages = 212–224\|year = 2013\|last1 = d'Alisa\|first1 = Giacomo\|last2 = Demaria\|first2 = Federico\|last3 = Cattaneo\|first3 = Claudio\|s2cid = 55508495\|url=https://www.degrowth.org/wp-content/uploads/2011/11/Dalisa-Demaria-Cattaneo_Civil-and-uncivil-actors-for-a-Degrowth-society_20131.pdf}}</ref> === Club of Rome reports === {{Rquote \|align=right \|quote=The world's leaders are correctly fixated on economic growth as the answer to virtually all problems, ''but they're pushing it with all their might in the wrong direction.'' \|author=[[Donella Meadows]] \|source=''Thinking in Systems''<ref>[[Donella Meadows]], edited by Diana Wright, ''Thinking in Systems: A Primer'', [[Chelsea Green Publishing]], 2008, page 146 ({{ISBN\|9781603580557}}).</ref>}} In 1968, the [[Club of Rome]], a [[think tank]] headquartered in [[Winterthur]], [[Switzerland]], asked researchers at the [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]] for a report on the limits of our world system and the constraints it puts on human numbers and activity. The report, called ''[[The Limits to Growth]]'', published in 1972, became the first significant study to model the consequences of economic growth.<ref>{{cite web \|title=The Limits to Growth+50 \|url=https://www.clubofrome.org/ltg50/#:~:text=This%20report%20%E2%80%93%20first%20published%20on,at%20some%20point%20in%20the \|website=Club of Rome \|access-date=7 November 2023}}</ref> The reports (also known as the Meadows Reports) are not strictly the founding texts of the degrowth movement, as these reports only advise [[Steady-state economy\|zero growth]], and have also been used to support the [[sustainable development]] movement. Still, they are considered the first studies explicitly presenting economic growth as a key reason for the increase in global [[environmental issue\|environmental problems]] such as pollution, shortage of raw materials, and the destruction of [[ecosystem]]s. ''The Limits to Growth: The 30-Year Update'' was published in 2004,<ref name="LtG+30-2004">{{cite book\|last1=Meadows\|first1=Donella H.\|last2=Randers\| first2=Jorgen\|last3=Meadows \|first3=Dennis L.\|title=The Limits to Growth: The 30-Year Update\|date=2004\| publisher=Chelsea Green Publishing Co\|location=White River Junction VT\|isbn=1931498512\|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3YS4AAAAIAAJ&q=9781931498586\|access-date=27 November 2017}}</ref> and in 2012, a 40-year forecast from [[Jørgen Randers]], one of the book's original authors, was published as ''2052: A Global Forecast for the Next Forty Years''.<ref name="LtG+40-2012">{{cite book\|last=Randers \|first=Jørgen\|title=2052: A Global Forecast for the Next Forty Years\|date=2012\| publisher=Chelsea Green Publishing Co\|location=White River Junction VT\|isbn=978-1-60358-467-8\|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GONXrbX-RGYC&q=2052+40+year+forecast\|access-date=29 March 2019}}</ref> In 2021, Club of Rome committee member Gaya Herrington published an article comparing the proposed models' predictions against empirical data trends.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal \|last=Herrington \|first=Gaya \|date=June 2021 \|title=Update to limits to growth: Comparing the World3 model with empirical data \|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/jiec.13084 \|journal=Journal of Industrial Ecology \|language=en \|volume=25 \|issue=3 \|pages=614–626 \|doi=10.1111/jiec.13084 \|s2cid=226019712 \|issn=1088-1980}}</ref> The BAU2 ("Business as Usual 2") scenario, predicting "collapse through pollution",<ref name=":4" /> as well as the CT ("Comprehensive Technology") scenario, predicting exceptional technological development and gradual decline, were found to align most closely with data observed as of 2019.<ref name=":4" /> In September 2022, the Club of Rome released updated predictive models and policy recommendations in a general-audiences book titled ''Earth for all – A survival guide to humanity.''<ref>{{Cite book \|last=Dixson-Declève \|first=Sandrine \|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1315537859 \|title=Earth for all: a survival guide for humanity: a report to the Club of Rome (2022), fifty years after The limits of growth (1972) \|date=2022 \|others=Owen Gaffney, Jayati Ghosh, Jørgen Randers, Johan Rockström, Per Espen Stoknes, Club of Rome \|isbn=978-0-86571-986-6\|publisher=New Society Publishers \|location=Gabriola Island, British Columbia, Canada \|oclc=1315537859}}</ref> === Lasting influence of Georgescu-Roegen === {{Main\|Nicholas Georgescu-Roegen}} {{See also \| Steady-state economy #Declining-state economy }} The degrowth movement recognises [[Romanian Americans\|Romanian American]] [[mathematician]], [[statistician]] and [[economist]] [[Nicholas Georgescu-Roegen]] as the main intellectual figure inspiring the movement.<ref name=sl01/><ref name=ck01/>{{rp\|548f}} <ref name=jm01/>{{rp\|1742}} <ref name=mb01/>{{rp\|xi}} <ref name=gd01/>{{rp\|1f}} In his work, ''[[The Entropy Law and the Economic Process]]'', Georgescu-Roegen argues that economic scarcity is rooted in physical reality; that all [[natural resource]]s are irreversibly degraded when put to use in economic activity; that the [[Sustainability#Carrying capacity\|carrying capacity]] of Earth—that is, Earth's capacity to sustain human populations and consumption levels—is bound to decrease sometime in the future as Earth's finite stock of mineral resources is presently being extracted and put to use; and consequently, that the [[world economy]] as a whole is heading towards an inevitable future collapse.<ref name=ngr01/> Georgescu-Roegen's intellectual inspiration to degrowth dates back to the 1970s. When Georgescu-Roegen delivered a lecture at the [[University of Geneva]] in 1974, he made a lasting impression on the young, newly graduated French historian and philosopher, {{ill\|Jacques Grinevald\|fr}}, who had earlier been introduced to Georgescu-Roegen's works by an academic advisor. Georgescu-Roegen and Grinevald became friends, and Grinevald devoted his research to a closer study of Georgescu-Roegen's work. As a result, in 1979, Grinevald published a French translation of a selection of Georgescu-Roegen's articles entitled ''Demain la décroissance: Entropie – Écologie – Économie'' ('Tomorrow, the Decline: Entropy – Ecology – Economy').<ref name=ngr03/> Georgescu-Roegen, who spoke French fluently, approved the use of the term ''décroissance'' in the title of the French translation. The book gained influence in French intellectual and academic circles from the outset. Later, the book was expanded and republished in 1995 and once again in 2006; however, the word ''Demain'' ('tomorrow') was removed from the book's title in the second and third editions.<ref name=jm01/>{{rp\|1742}}<ref name=ngr03/><ref name=jg01/>{{rp\|15f}} By the time Grinevald suggested the term ''décroissance'' to form part of the title of the French translation of Georgescu-Roegen's work, the term had already permeated French intellectual circles since the early 1970s to signify a deliberate political action to downscale the economy on a permanent and voluntary basis.<ref name=fd01/>{{rp\|195}} Simultaneously, but independently, Georgescu-Roegen criticised the ideas of ''[[The Limits to Growth]]'' and [[Herman Daly]]'s [[Steady-state economy#Herman Daly's concept of a steady-state economy\|steady-state economy]] in his article, "Energy and Economic Myths", delivered as a series of lectures from 1972, but not published before 1975. In the article, Georgescu-Roegen stated the following: {{cquote \| [Authors who] were set exclusively on proving the impossibility of growth ... were easily deluded by a simple, now widespread, but false [[syllogism]]: Since exponential growth in a finite world leads to disasters of all kinds, ecological salvation lies in the stationary state. ... The crucial error consists in not seeing that not only growth, but also a zero-growth state, nay, even a declining state that does not converge toward annihilation, cannot exist forever in a finite environment.<ref name=ngr02/>{{rp\|366f}}<br />... [T]he important, yet unnoticed point [is] that ''the necessary conclusion of the arguments in favor of that vision'' [of a stationary state] ''is that the most desirable state is not a stationary, but a declining one.'' Undoubtedly, the current growth must cease, nay, be reversed.<ref name=ngr02/>{{rp\|368f}} [Emphasis in original] }} When reading this particular passage of the text, Grinevald realised that no professional economist of any orientation had ever reasoned like this before. Grinevald also realised the congruence of Georgescu-Roegen's viewpoint and the French debates occurring at the time; this resemblance was captured in the title of the French edition. The translation of Georgescu-Roegen's work into French both fed on and gave further impetus to the concept of ''décroissance'' in France—and everywhere else in the francophone world—thereby creating something of an intellectual feedback loop.<ref name=jm01/>{{rp\|1742}} <ref name=jg01/>{{rp\|15f}} <ref name=fd01/>{{rp\|197f}} By the 2000s, when ''décroissance'' was to be translated from French back into English as the catchy banner for the new social movement, the original term "decline" was deemed inappropriate and misdirected for the purpose: "Decline" usually refers to an unexpected, unwelcome, and temporary economic [[recession]], something to be avoided or quickly overcome. Instead, the [[neologism]] "degrowth" was coined to signify a deliberate political action to downscale the economy on a permanent, conscious basis—as in the prevailing French usage of the term—something good to be welcomed and maintained, or so followers believe.<ref name=ck01/>{{rp\|548}} <ref name=jg01/>{{rp\|15f}} <ref name=gk01/>{{rp\|874–876}} When the first international degrowth conference was held in Paris in 2008, the participants honoured Georgescu-Roegen and his work.<ref name=ff01/>{{rp\|15f, 28, ''et passim''}} In his [[manifesto]] on ''Petit traité de la décroissance sereine'' ("Farewell to Growth"), the leading French champion of the degrowth movement, [[Serge Latouche]], credited Georgescu-Roegen as the "main theoretical source of degrowth".<ref name=sl01/> Likewise, Italian degrowth theorist [[Mauro Bonaiuti]] considered Georgescu-Roegen's work to be "one of the analytical cornerstones of the degrowth perspective".<ref name=mb01/><!---please recover the page number in this citation---> === Schumacher and Buddhist economics === [[E. F. Schumacher]]'s 1973 book ''[[Small Is Beautiful]]'' predates a unified degrowth movement but nonetheless serves as an important basis for degrowth ideas. In this book he critiques the [[Neoliberalism\|neo-liberal]] model of economic development, arguing that an increasing "standard of living", based on consumption is absurd as a goal of economic activity and development. Instead, under what he refers to as [[Buddhist economics]], we should aim to maximize well-being while minimizing consumption.<ref>Schumacher, E. F. (1973). ''Small is Beautiful: Economics as if People Mattered''. New York: Perennial Library.</ref> === Ecological and social issues === In January 1972, [[Edward Goldsmith]] and Robert Prescott-Allen—editors of ''[[The Ecologist]]''—published ''[[A Blueprint for Survival]]'', which called for a radical programme of decentralisation and [[deindustrialization]] to prevent what the authors referred to as "the breakdown of society and the irreversible disruption of the life-support systems on this planet".<ref>{{Cite web \|url=http://www.theecologist.info/page34.html \|title=A Blueprint for Survival, The Ecologist Vol. 2, No. 1. Preface \|access-date=2008-04-10 \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090907143122/http://www.theecologist.info/page34.html \|archive-date=2009-09-07 \|url-status=dead }}</ref> In 2019, a summary for policymakers of the [[Global Assessment Report on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services\|largest, most comprehensive study to date of biodiversity and ecosystem services]] was published by the [[Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services]]. The report was finalised in Paris. The main conclusions: #Over the last 50 years, the state of nature has deteriorated at an unprecedented and accelerating rate. #The main drivers of this deterioration have been changes in land and sea use, exploitation of living beings, climate change, pollution and invasive species. These five drivers, in turn, are caused by societal behaviors, from consumption to governance. #Damage to ecosystems undermines 35 of 44 selected UN targets, including the UN General Assembly's [[Sustainable Development Goals]] for poverty, hunger, health, water, cities' climate, oceans and land. It can cause problems with food, water and humanity's air supply. #To fix the problem, humanity needs transformative change, including [[sustainable agriculture]], reductions in [[Consumption (economics)\|consumption]] and waste, fishing quotas and collaborative water management. Page 8 of the report proposes "enabling visions of a good quality of life that do not entail ever-increasing material consumption" as one of the main measures. The report states that "Some pathways chosen to achieve the goals related to energy, economic growth, industry and infrastructure and sustainable consumption and production (Sustainable Development Goals 7, 8, 9 and 12), as well as targets related to poverty, food security and cities (Sustainable Development Goals 1, 2 and 11), could have substantial positive or negative impacts on nature and therefore on the achievement of other Sustainable Development Goals".<ref>{{cite book \|title=Summary for policymakers of the global assessment report on biodiversity and ecosystem services of the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services \|date=6 May 2019 \|publisher=the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services \|url=https://www.ipbes.net/sites/default/files/downloads/spm_unedited_advance_for_posting_htn.pdf \|access-date=10 May 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite news \|title=Why Biodiversity Loss Hurts Humans as Much as Climate Change Does\|work=Deutsche Welle \|url=https://www.ecowatch.com/biodiversity-loss-human-health-2636410357.html \|access-date=10 May 2019 \|date=May 6, 2019}}</ref> In a June 2020 paper published in ''[[Nature Communications]]'', a group of scientists argue that "green growth" or "[[sustainable growth]]" is a myth: "we have to get away from our obsession with economic growth—we really need to start managing our economies in a way that protects our climate and natural resources, even if this means less, no or even negative growth." They conclude that a change in economic paradigms is imperative to prevent [[environmental destruction]], and suggest a range of ideas from the reformist to the radical, with the latter consisting of degrowth, [[eco-socialism]] and [[eco-anarchism]].<ref>{{cite web \|title=Overconsumption and growth economy key drivers of environmental crises \|url=https://phys.org/news/2020-06-overconsumption-growth-economy-key-drivers.html \|website=Phys.org \|publisher=University of New South Wales \|access-date=22 June 2020 \|format=Press release}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal \|last1=Wiedmann\|first1=Thomas \|last2=Lenzen\|first2=Manfred \|last3=Keyßer\|first3=Lorenz T. \|last4=Steinberger\|first4=Julia K.\|author-link4=Julia Steinberger\|title=Scientists' warning on affluence \|journal=[[Nature Communications]] \|date=2020 \|volume=11 \|issue=3107 \|page=3107 \|doi=10.1038/s41467-020-16941-y \|pmid=32561753 \|pmc=7305220 \|bibcode=2020NatCo..11.3107W }}</ref> In June 2020, the official site of one of the organizations promoting degrowth published an article by Vijay Kolinjivadi, an expert in political ecology, arguing that the emergence of [[COVID-19]] is linked to the ecological crisis.<ref>{{cite web \|last1=Kolinjivadi \|first1=Vijay \|title=This pandemic IS ecological breakdown: different tempo, same song \|url=http://unevenearth.org/2020/04/this-pandemic-is-ecological-breakdown-different-tempo-same-song/ \|website=Uneven Earth \|date=2 April 2020 \|access-date=20 July 2020}}</ref> The 2019 [[World Scientists' Warning to Humanity#2019 warning on climate change and 2021 and 2022 updates\|World Scientists' Warning of a Climate Emergency]] and its 2021 update have asserted that [[economic growth]] is a primary driver of the overexploitation of ecosystems, and to preserve the biosphere and mitigate climate change civilization must, in addition to other fundamental changes including stabilizing [[population growth]] and adopting largely [[plant-based diets]], "shift from GDP growth and the pursuit of affluence toward sustaining ecosystems and improving human well-being by prioritizing basic needs and reducing inequality."<ref>{{citation\|last1= Ripple \|first1=William J.\|display-authors=etal.\|date=November 5, 2019 \|title=World Scientists' Warning of a Climate Emergency \|url=https://academic.oup.com/bioscience/advance-article/doi/10.1093/biosci/biz088/5610806 \|journal=BioScience \|volume=70 \|pages=8–12 \|doi=10.1093/biosci/biz088 \|access-date=February 21, 2022\|hdl=1808/30278\|hdl-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{citation\|last1= Ripple \|first1=William J.\|display-authors=etal.\|date=July 28, 2021 \|title=World Scientists' Warning of a Climate Emergency 2021 \|url=https://academic.oup.com/bioscience/advance-article/doi/10.1093/biosci/biab079/6325731 \|journal=BioScience \|volume=71 \|issue=9 \|pages=894–898 \|doi=10.1093/biosci/biab079 \|access-date=February 21, 2022\|hdl=1808/30278 \|hdl-access=free }}</ref> In an opinion piece published in [[Al Jazeera Media Network\|Al Jazeera]], [[Jason Hickel]] states that this paper, which was has more than 11,000 scientist cosigners, demonstrates that there is a "strong scientific consensus" towards abandoning "GDP as a measure of progress."<ref>{{cite news \|last= Hickel\|first=Jason\|date=6 December 2019 \|title=The dark side of the Nordic model\|url=https://www.aljazeera.com/opinions/2019/12/6/the-dark-side-of-the-nordic-model\|work= Al Jazeera\|location= \|access-date=3 July 2023\|quote=The first step is to abandon GDP as a measure of progress – as New Zealand Prime Minister Jacinda Ardern recently pledged to do – and focus instead on human well-being and ecology. There is a strong scientific consensus forming around this approach. A new paper signed by more than 11,000 scientists argues that high-income nations must shift to post-growth economic models if we are going to have any chance of preventing climate breakdown. }}</ref> In a 2022 comment published in ''[[Nature (journal)\|Nature]]'', Hickel, [[Giorgos Kallis]], [[Juliet Schor]], [[Julia Steinberger]] and others say that both the [[IPCC]] and the [[IPBES]] "suggest that degrowth policies should be considered in the fight against climate breakdown and biodiversity loss, respectively".<ref name="Hickeletal">{{cite journal \|last1=Hickel\|first1=Jason\|last2=Kallis\|first2=Giorgos\|author-link2=Giorgos Kallis\|last3=Jackson\|first3=Tim\|author-link3=Tim Jackson (economist)\|last4=O'Neill\|first4=Daniel W.\|last5=Schor\|first5=Juliet B.\|author-link5=Juliet Schor\|last6=Steinberger\|first6=Julia K.\|author-link6=Julia Steinberger\|display-authors=etal.\|date=December 12, 2022\|title=Degrowth can work — here's how science can help\|url= \|journal=[[Nature (journal)\|Nature]]\|volume=612\|issue=7940\|pages=400–403\|doi=10.1038/d41586-022-04412-x\|pmid=36510013 \|bibcode=2022Natur.612..400H \|s2cid=254614532 \|access-date=\|doi-access=free}}</ref> == Degrowth movement == ===Conferences=== The movement has included international conferences <ref name="MOINS12">{{in lang\|fr}} "La genèse du Réseau Objection de Croissance en Suisse", Julien Cart, in ''[[Moins!]]'', journal [[Suisse romande\|romand]] d'écologie politique, 12, July–August 2014.</ref> promoted by the network Research & Degrowth (R&D).<ref>{{cite web\|url=http://degrowth.org/\|title=Research & Degrowth\|access-date=23 September 2014}}</ref> The First International Conference on Economic Degrowth for Ecological Sustainability and Social Equity in [[Paris]] (2008) was a discussion about the financial, social, cultural, demographic, and environmental crisis caused by the deficiencies of [[capitalism]] and an explanation of the main principles of degrowth.<ref>''Declaration of the Paris 2008 Conference''. Retrieved from: http://degrowth.org/wp-content/uploads/2011/05/Declaration-Degrowth-Paris-2008.pdf</ref><ref>{{cite web\|url=http://events.it-sudparis.eu/degrowthconference/\|title=Décroissance économique pour la soutenabilité écologique et l'équité sociale\|access-date=16 May 2011\|archive-date=10 January 2016\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160110061603/http://events.it-sudparis.eu/degrowthconference/\|url-status=dead}}</ref> Further conferences were in [[Barcelona]] (2010),<ref>{{cite web\|url=http://barcelona.degrowth.org/\|title=Degrowth Conference Barcelona 2010\|access-date=6 February 2014\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140410204609/http://barcelona.degrowth.org/\|archive-date=10 April 2014\|url-status=dead}}</ref> [[Montreal]] (2012),<ref>{{cite web\|url=http://montreal.degrowth.org/\|title=International Conference on Degrowth in the Americas\|access-date=2013-04-06\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140531103344/http://montreal.degrowth.org/\|archive-date=2014-05-31\|url-status=dead}}</ref> [[Venice]] (2012),<ref>{{cite web\|url=http://www.venezia2012.it/\|title=International Degrowth Conference Venezia 2012 \|access-date=5 Dec 2012}}</ref> [[Leipzig]] (2014), [[Budapest]] (2016),<ref>{{cite web\|url=https://degrowth.org/2015/03/26/5-international-degrowth-conference-budapest-2016/\|access-date=2018-01-31\|title=5th International Degrowth Conference in Budapest\|date=2015-03-26}}</ref> [[Malmö]] (2018),<ref>{{Cite web\|url=https://malmo.degrowth.org\|title=Dialogues in turbulent times\|website=Dialogues in turbulent times\|language=en-US\|access-date=2018-08-28}}</ref>, and [[Zagreb]] (2023).<ref>{{Cite web\|url=https://odrast.hr/\|title=9th International Degrowth Conference}}</ref> ====Barcelona Conference (2010)==== The Second International Conference in [[Barcelona]] focused on specific ways to implement a degrowth society. Concrete proposals have been developed for future political actions, including: * Promotion of [[Local currency\|local currencies]], elimination of [[fiat money]] and reforms of [[interest]] * Transition to non-profit and small-scale companies * Increase of local commons and support of participative approaches in [[decision-making]] * Reducing working hours and facilitation of [[volunteering\|volunteer work]] * Reusing empty housing and [[cohousing]]<ref>{{cite journal \|last1=Lietaert \|first1=Matthieu \|title=Cohousing's relevance to degrowth theories \|journal=[[Journal of Cleaner Production]] \|date=2010 \|volume=18 \|issue=6 \|pages=576–580 \|doi=10.1016/j.jclepro.2009.11.016}}</ref><ref>{{cite book \|title=Housing for Degrowth: Principles, Models, Challenges and Opportunities \|date=2019 \|publisher=Routledge \|location=London \|isbn=9780367358334}}</ref> * Introduction of the [[basic income]] and an income ceiling built on a maximum-minimum ratio * Limitation of the [[exploitation of natural resources]] and preservation of the [[biodiversity]] and culture by regulations, taxes and compensations * Minimize the [[waste]] production with education and legal instruments * Elimination of [[Megainfrastructure\|mega infrastructures]], transition from a car-based system to a more local, biking, walking-based one. * Suppression of advertising from the public space<ref>2nd Conference on Economic Degrowth for Ecological Sustainability and Social Ethic. 2010. ''Degrowth Declaration Barcelona 2010'' and ''Working Groups Results''. Retrieved from: http://barcelona.degrowth.org/ {{Webarchive\|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140410204609/http://barcelona.degrowth.org/ \|date=2014-04-10 }}</ref> The Barcelona conference had little influence on the world economic and political order. Criticism of the proposals arrived at in Barcelona, mostly financial, have inhibited change.<ref>Responsabilité, Innovation & Management. 2011. ''Décroissance économique pour l'écologie, l'équité et le bien-vivre par François SCHNEIDER.'' Retrieved from http://www.openrim.org/Decroissance-economique-pour-l.html {{Webarchive\|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140221144258/http://www.openrim.org/Decroissance-economique-pour-l.html \|date=2014-02-21 }}</ref> ====Post Growth Conference (2018)==== The Post-Growth 2018 Conference was a two-day event held on the 18th of September at the European Parliament in Brussels to discuss a vision of the European Union beyond traditional development metrics centered around GDP. It built on thematic workshops organized by multiple stakeholders. The workshops encouraged building a dialogue between actors and seeking for applicable policy alternatives.<ref>{{Cite web \|date=2018-03-30 \|title=Programme {{!}} Post-Growth 2018 \|url=https://www.postgrowth2018.eu/programme/ \|access-date=2023-05-31 \|language=en-US}}</ref><ref name=":5">{{Cite news \|last=Letters \|date=2018-09-16 \|title=The EU needs a stability and wellbeing pact, not more growth \|language=en-GB \|work=The Guardian \|url=https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2018/sep/16/the-eu-needs-a-stability-and-wellbeing-pact-not-more-growth \|access-date=2023-05-31 \|issn=0261-3077}}</ref> The conference was paired with a petition signed by 238 academics to call on the EU to plan for a post-growth that prioritized human and ecological wellbeing over GDP.<ref name=":5" /> === Degrowth around the world === Although not explicitly called degrowth, movements inspired by similar concepts and terminologies can be found around the world, including ''Buen Vivir''<ref>{{Cite news\|url=https://www.theguardian.com/sustainable-business/blog/buen-vivir-philosophy-south-america-eduardo-gudynas\|title=Buen vivir: the social philosophy inspiring movements in South America\|last=Balch\|first=Oliver\|date=2013-02-04\|newspaper=The Guardian\|language=en-GB\|issn=0261-3077\|access-date=2016-09-03}}</ref> in Latin America, the [[Zapatista Army of National Liberation\|Zapatistas]] in Mexico, the Kurdish [[Rojava]] or ''Eco-Swaraj'' in India, and the [[sufficiency economy]] in Thailand.<ref>{{Cite journal \| doi=10.1057/dev.2015.24 \|title = Buen Vivir, Degrowth and Ecological Swaraj: Alternatives to sustainable development and the Green Economy\|journal = Development\|volume = 57\|issue = 3–4\|pages = 362–375\|year = 2014\|last1 = Kothari\|first1 = Ashish\|last2 = Demaria\|first2 = Federico\|last3 = Acosta\|first3 = Alberto\|s2cid = 86318140\|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/287984144}}</ref> The [[Economy of Cuba\|Cuban economic]] situation has been of interest to some degrowth advocates because its limits on growth were socially imposed (although as a result of geopolitics).<ref name=":03">{{Cite book \|last=Cederlöf \|first=Gustav \|title=The Low-Carbon Contradiction: Energy Transition, Geopolitics, and the Infrastructural State in Cuba \|date=2023 \|publisher=[[University of California Press]] \|isbn=978-0-520-39313-4 \|series=Critical environments: nature, science, and politics \|location=Oakland, California}}</ref>{{Rp\|page=7}} Although the [[Special Period]] following the [[Dissolution of the Soviet Union\|disintegration of the Soviet Union]] resulted in severe impairment of the [[Healthcare in Cuba\|Cuban health system]], certain positive health changes also resulted as the forced changes to travel and food consumption patterns resulted in increased levels of physical activity and decreased obesity levels.<ref name=":03" />{{Rp\|page=71}} === Relation to other social movements === The degrowth movement has a variety of relations to other social movements and alternative economic visions, which range from collaboration to partial overlap. The Konzeptwerk Neue Ökonomie (Laboratory for New Economic Ideas), which hosted the 2014 international Degrowth conference in Leipzig, has published a project entitled "Degrowth in movement(s)"<ref>{{cite web\|url=https://www.degrowth.info/en/dim/degrowth-in-movements/\|title=Degrowth in movement(s)\|access-date=\|website=Degrowth.info\|archive-date=2021-07-24\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210724210803/https://www.degrowth.info/en/dim/degrowth-in-movements/\|url-status=dead}}</ref> in 2017, which maps relationships with 32 other social movements and initiatives. The relation to the [[environmental justice]] movement is especially visible.<ref name=gd01/> Another set of movements the degrowth movement finds synergy with is the wave of initiatives and networks inspired by the commons.<ref name=":6" /> Some main commons networks include: School of Commoning in Barcelona, Commoning Europe, and the Commons-Institute in Germany. The main overlap stems from a high level of self organization to sustainably share resources through a different logic outside of capitalist organization. This is directly countering the hyper privatization currently embedded in contemporary capitalism, which both movements are attempting to counter in some way.<ref>Helfrich, Silke and David Bollier. 2014. Commons. In: Degrowth. A vocabulary for a new era. Giacomo D'Alisa, Federico Demaria, Giorgos Kalliseds. Oxon: Routledge</ref> For example, initiatives inspired by commons could be food cooperatives, open-source platforms, and group management of resources such as energy or water. These decentralized, direct democratic forms of self-management relate to the degrowth movement regarding inclusive political representation, where the people are actively involved in producing and distributing shared resources.<ref>{{cite web\|url=https://degrowth.info/en/about-us/project/commons\|title=Degrowth in movement(s)\|access-date=\|website=Degrowth.info}}{{Dead link\|date=January 2024 \|bot=InternetArchiveBot \|fix-attempted=yes }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal \|last1=Asara \|first1=Viviana \|last2=Profumi \|first2=Emanuele \|last3=Kallis \|first3=Giorgos \|title=Degrowth, Democracy and Autonomy \|journal=[[Environmental Values]] \|date=2013 \|volume=22 \|issue=2 \|pages=217–239 \|doi=10.3197/096327113X13581561725239\|s2cid=144023408 }}</ref> In short, the movements have shared values of inclusion, sustainable use of resources, self-organization, conviviality, shared knowledge production and emphasize use value over exchange value. Degrowth also finds synergy with technology-oriented movements such as [[Cosmopolitan localism]] or cosmolocalism. Cosmolocalism has been proposed as a structural framework for degrowth technology, as it organises production by prioritising socio-ecological well-being over corporate profits, over-production and excess consumption.<ref>{{Cite journal\|last1=Kostakis\|first1=Vasilis\|last2=Niaros\|first2=Vasilis\|last3=Giotitsas\|first3=Chris\|date=2023-06-30\|title=Beyond global versus local: illuminating a cosmolocal framework for convivial technology development\|journal=Sustainability Science\|volume=18 \|issue=5 \|pages=2309–2322 \|language=en\|doi=10.1007/s11625-023-01378-1\|issn=1937-0709\|doi-access=free}}</ref> [[Economic anthropologist]] [[Jason Hickel]], a proponent of degrowth, sees an opportunity for the degrowth movement to be enhanced by [[modern monetary theory]] (MMT), in which the power of "the government's role as the issuer of currency" can be harnessed to bring the economy back into balance with the living world while simultaneously reducing inequality by providing high quality [[Universal basic services\|universal public services]] (in healthcare, education, [[affordable housing]], and transportation), implementing the rapid development of renewable energy infrastructure to completely phase out [[fossil fuels]] in a shorter period of time, and establishing a public [[job guarantee]] for 30 hours a week at a living wage doing decommodified, socially useful work in the public services sector, and also useful work in renewable energy development and ecosystem restoration. Hickel notes that providing a living wage at 30 hours a week also has the added benefit of shifting income from capital to labor. And he suggests that taxation can be used to "reduce demand ''in order to bring resource and energy use down to target levels''," and specifically to reduce the purchasing power of the affluent. He concludes: <blockquote>MMT proposals align elegantly with one of degrowth's key observations, namely, that if growthism depends on the perpetual creation of artificial scarcity, then by reversing artificial scarcity – by providing public abundance – we can dismantle the growth imperative. As [[Giorgos Kallis]] has put it, "capitalism cannot survive under conditions of abundance". MMT provides an opportunity for us to create a post-growth, post-capitalist economy.<ref>{{cite web \|url=https://www.jasonhickel.org/blog/2020/9/10/degrowth-and-mmt-a-thought-experiment\|title=Degrowth and MMT: a thought experiment\|last=Hickel\|first=Jason\|date=September 23, 2020 \|website=jasonhickel.org \|publisher= \|access-date=July 9, 2023 \|quote=}}</ref></blockquote> == Criticisms, challenges and dilemmas == Critiques of degrowth concern the negative connotation that the term "degrowth" imparts, the misapprehension that growth is seen as unambiguously bad, the challenges and feasibility of a degrowth transition, as well as the entanglement of desirable aspects of modernity with the growth paradigm. === Criticisms === ==== Negative connotation ==== The use of the term "degrowth" is criticized for being detrimental to the degrowth movement because it could carry a negative connotation,<ref name="Drews&Antal20162">{{Cite journal \|doi = 10.1016/j.ecolecon.2016.04.001 \|title = Degrowth: A 'missile word' that backfires?\|journal = Ecological Economics\|volume = 126\|pages = 182–187\|year = 2016\|last1 = Drews\|first1 = Stefan\|last2 = Antal \|first2 = Miklós}}</ref> in opposition to the positively perceived "growth".<ref name="Warriner&al20132">{{Cite journal \|doi = 10.3758/s13428-012-0314-x\|pmid = 23404613\|title = Norms of valence, arousal, and dominance for 13,915 English lemmas\|journal = Behavior Research Methods\|volume = 45\|issue = 4\|pages = 1191–1207\|year = 2013\|last1 = Warriner\|first1 = Amy Beth\|last2 = Kuperman\|first2 = Victor\|last3 = Brysbaert\|first3 = Marc\|doi-access = free}}</ref> "Growth" is associated with the "up" direction and positive experiences, while "down" generates the opposite associations.<ref>{{Cite journal\|last1=Meier\|first1=B. P.\|last2=Robinson\|first2=M. D.\|date=2004-04-01\|title=Why the Sunny Side Is Up: Associations Between Affect and Vertical Position\|journal=Psychological Science\|volume= 15\|issue=4\|pages=243–247\|doi=10.1111/j.0956-7976.2004.00659.x\|pmid=15043641\|s2cid=31201262\|issn=0956-7976}}</ref> Research in [[political psychology]] has shown that the initial negative association of a concept, such as of "degrowth" with the negatively perceived "down", can bias how the subsequent information on that concept is integrated at the unconscious level.<ref>{{Cite book\|title=The Rationalizing Voter\|last1=Lodge\|first1=Milton\|last2=Taber\|first2=Charles S.\|date=2013\|publisher=Cambridge University Press\|isbn=9781139032490\|location=Cambridge\|doi=10.1017/cbo9781139032490}}</ref> At the conscious level, degrowth can be interpreted negatively as the contraction of the economy,<ref name="Drews&Antal20162" /><ref name=":0">{{Cite journal \|doi = 10.1016/j.ecolecon.2010.09.035 \|title = Environment versus growth — A criticism of "degrowth" and a plea for "a-growth"\|journal = Ecological Economics\|volume = 70\|issue = 5\|pages = 881–890\|year = 2011\|last1 = van den Bergh\|first1 = Jeroen C.J.M.\|author-link1=Jeroen C. J. M. van den Bergh}}</ref> although this is not the goal of a degrowth transition, but rather one of its expected consequences.<ref name = annual/> In the current economic system, a contraction of the economy is associated with a [[recession]] and its ensuing [[austerity]] measures, job cuts, or lower salaries.<ref name=":0"/> [[Noam Chomsky]] commented on the use of the term: "When you say 'degrowth' it frightens people. It's like saying you're going to have to be poorer tomorrow than you are today, and it doesn't mean that."<ref>{{cite web\|url= https://canadiandimension.com/articles/view/the-greening-of-noam-chomsky-a-conversation \|title=The greening of Noam Chomsky: a conversation\|last1=Levy\|first1=Andrea\|last2=Gonick \|first2=Cy\|date=January 22, 2014\|website=Canadian Dimension\|publisher=Open Publishing\|access-date=March 27, 2019\|last3=Lukacs\|first3=Martin}}</ref> Since "degrowth" contains the term "growth", there is also a risk of the term having a [[backfire effect]], which would reinforce the initial positive attitude toward growth.<ref name="Drews&Antal20162" /> "Degrowth" is also criticized for being a confusing term, since its aim is not to halt economic growth as the word implies. Instead, "[[Agrowth\|a-growth]]" is proposed as an alternative concept that emphasizes that growth ceases to be an important policy objective, but that it can still be achieved as a side-effect of environmental and social policies.<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Cite journal\|last=van den Bergh\|first=Jeroen C. J. M.\|date=2017\|title=A third option for climate policy within potential limits to growth\|journal=Nature Climate Change\|language=en\|volume=7\|issue=2\|pages=107–112\|doi=10.1038/nclimate3113\|issn=1758-678X\|bibcode=2017NatCC...7..107V\|url=https://research.vu.nl/en/publications/55d55cfa-2617-4e8a-b21c-fbc02ee19eea \|hdl=1871.1/55d55cfa-2617-4e8a-b21c-fbc02ee19eea\|hdl-access=free}}</ref> ====Marxist critique==== {{See also\|Steady-state economy #Capitalism without growth}} Traditional [[Marxism\|Marxists]] distinguish between two types of value creation: that which is useful to mankind, and that which only serves the purpose of accumulating capital.<ref name=gd01/>{{rp\|86–87}} Traditional Marxists consider that it is the exploitative nature and control of the capitalist production relations that is the determinant and not the quantity. According to Jean Zin, while the justification for degrowth is valid, it is not a solution to the problem.<ref>''L'écologie politique à l'ère de l'information'', Ere, 2006, p. 68-69</ref> Other Marxist writers have adopted positions close to the de-growth perspective. For example, [[John Bellamy Foster]]<ref name="The Ecological Rift">https://monthlyreview.org/press/books/pb2181/, Monthly Review Press.</ref> and Fred Magdoff,<ref name="Harmony and Ecological Civilization, Monthly Review, Vol 44 (2), 1-9">{{cite web\|url=https://monthlyreview.org/2012/06/01/harmony-and-ecological-civilization\|title=Harmony and Ecological Civilization: Beyond the Capitalist Alienation of Nature\|date=June 2012\|work=Monthly Review}}</ref> in common with [[David Harvey]], [[Immanuel Wallerstein]], [[Paul Sweezy]] and others focus on endless [[capital accumulation]] as the basic principle and goal of capitalism. This is the source of economic growth and, in the view of these writers, results in an unsustainable [[growth imperative]]. Foster and Magdoff develop Marx's own concept of the metabolic rift, something he noted in the exhaustion of soils by capitalist systems of food production, though this is not unique to capitalist systems of food production as seen in the [[Aral Sea]]. Many degrowth theories and ideas are based on neo-Marxist theory.<ref name=gd01/> Foster emphasizes that degrowth "is not aimed at austerity, but at finding a 'prosperous way down' from our current extractivist, wasteful, ecologically unsustainable, maldeveloped, exploitative, and unequal, class-hierarchical world."<ref>{{cite web \|url=https://monthlyreview.org/2023/07/01/planned-degrowth/\|title=Planned Degrowth: Ecosocialism and Sustainable Human Development\|last=Foster\|first=John Bellamy\|author-link=John Bellamy Foster\|date=July 1, 2023 \|website=[[Monthly Review]] \|publisher= \|access-date=August 20, 2023 \|quote=}}</ref> ====Systems theoretical critique==== In stressing the negative rather than the positive side(s) of growth, the majority of degrowth proponents remain focused on (de-)growth, thus giving continued attention to the issue of growth, leading to continued attention to the arguments that [[sustainable growth]] is possible. One way to avoid giving attention to growth might be extending from the economic concept of growth, which proponents of both growth and degrowth commonly adopt, to a broader concept of growth that allows for the observation of growth in other [[Differentiation (sociology)\|sociological characteristics]] of society. A corresponding "recoding" of "growth-obsessed", capitalist organizations was proposed by Steffen Roth.<ref name=Roth-2015>{{cite web\|url=https://steffenroth.files.wordpress.com/2015/12/15-12-15-growth-and-function1.pdf\|title=Growth and function. A viral research program for next organizations\|last=Roth\|first=Steffen\|work=International Journal of Technology Management}}</ref> === Challenges === ==== Lack of macroeconomics for sustainability ==== It is reasonable for society to worry about recession as economic growth has been the unanimous goal around the globe in the past decades. However, in some advanced countries, there are attempts to develop a model for a regrowth economy. For instance, the [[Cool Japan]] strategy has proven to be instructive for Japan, which has been a static economy for almost decades.<ref>Tunstall, E. (2015) 'Degrowth: Japan models design for steady state economies'. Swinburne University of Technology. https://www.swinburne.edu.au/news/2015/05/degrowth-japan-models-design-for-steady-state-economies/</ref> ==== Political and social spheres ==== According to some scholars in Sociology, the [[growth imperative]] is deeply entrenched in [[Market capitalism\|market capitalist]] societies such that it is necessary for their stability.<ref>{{Cite journal\|last1=Rosa\|first1=Hartmut\|last2=Dörre\|first2=Klaus\|last3=Lessenich\|first3=Stephan\|s2cid=148366804\|date=2017\|title=Appropriation, Activation and Acceleration: The Escalatory Logics of Capitalist Modernity and the Crises of Dynamic Stabilization\|journal=Theory, Culture & Society\|language=en\|volume=34\|issue=1\|pages=53–73\|doi=10.1177/0263276416657600\|issn=0263-2764\|url=https://epub.ub.uni-muenchen.de/42046/1/0263276416657600.pdf}}</ref> Moreover, the institutions of [[Modernity\|modern]] societies, such as the [[nation state]], [[welfare]], [[labor market]], [[education]], [[Academy\|academia]], [[law]] and [[finance]], have co-evolved with growth to sustain them.<ref>{{Cite journal\|last=Luhmann\|first=Niklas\|date=1976\|title=The Future Cannot Begin: Temporal Structures in Modern Society\|journal=Social Research\|volume=43\|pages=130–152}}</ref> A degrowth transition thus requires not only a change of the economic system but of all the systems on which it relies. As most people in modern societies are dependent on those growth-oriented institutions, the challenge of a degrowth transition also lies in individual resistance to move away from growth.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal\|last1=Büchs\|first1=Milena\|last2=Koch\|first2=Max\|date=2019\|title=Challenges for the degrowth transition: The debate about wellbeing\|journal=Futures\|language=en\|volume=105\|pages=155–165\|doi=10.1016/j.futures.2018.09.002\|doi-access=free}}</ref> ==== Land privatisation ==== Baumann, Alexander and Burdon <ref>Baumann, A., S. Alexander and P. Burdon (2020) 'Land Commodification as a Barrier to Political and Economic Agency: A Degrowth Perspective' Journal of Australian Political Economy No. 86, pp. 379-405</ref> suggest that "the Degrowth movement needs to give more attention to land and housing costs, which are significant barriers hindering true political and economic agency and any grassroots driven degrowth transition." They are saying that land (something we all need like air and water) privatisation creates an absolute economic growth determinant. They point out that even one who is fully committed to degrowth nevertheless has no option but decades of market growth participation to pay rent or mortgage. Because of this, land privatisation is a structural impediment to moving forward that makes degrowth economically and politically unviable. They conclude that without addressing land privatisation (the market's inaugural privatisation - primitive accumulation) the degrowth movement's strategies cannot succeed. Just as land enclosure (privatisation) initiated capitalism (economic growth), degrowth must start with reclaiming land commons.<ref>Samuel Alexander and Alex Bauman, 'Access to land is a barrier to simpler, sustainable living' (22 August 2019) The Conversation.</ref> ==== Agriculture ==== A degrowth society would require a shift from [[industrial agriculture]] to less intensive and more sustainable agricultural practices such as [[permaculture]] or [[organic agriculture]]. Still, it is not clear if any of those alternatives could feed the [[World population\|current]] and [[Projections of population growth\|projected global population]].<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal \|doi = 10.1016/j.jclepro.2017.03.237\|title = Agriculture and degrowth: State of the art and assessment of organic and biotech-based agriculture from a degrowth perspective\|journal = Journal of Cleaner Production\|volume = 197\|pages = 1823–1839\|year = 2018\|last1 = Gomiero\|first1 = Tiziano\|s2cid = 157265598}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal\|last1=Ferguson\|first1=Rafter Sass\|last2=Lovell\|first2=Sarah Taylor\|s2cid=15089504\|date=2014\|title=Permaculture for agroecology: design, movement, practice, and worldview. A review\|journal=Agronomy for Sustainable Development\|language=en\|volume=34\|issue=2\|pages=251–274\|doi=10.1007/s13593-013-0181-6\|issn=1774-0746\|url=https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01234801/file/13593_2013_Article_181.pdf\|doi-access=free}}</ref> In the case of organic agriculture, Germany, for example, would not be able to feed its population under ideal organic yields over all of its [[arable land]] without meaningful changes to patterns of consumption, such as reducing meat consumption and [[food waste]].<ref>{{cite journal \|last1=Müller \|first1=Adrian \|title=Strategies for feeding the world more sustainably with organic agriculture \|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-017-01410-w.pdf \|journal=Nature Communications \|year=2017 \|volume=8 \|issue=1 \|page=1290 \|publisher=Springer Nature \|doi=10.1038/s41467-017-01410-w \|pmid=29138387 \|pmc=5686079 \|bibcode=2017NatCo...8.1290M \|access-date=17 June 2020}}</ref><ref name=":2" /> Moreover, [[Workforce productivity\|labour productivity]] of non-industrial agriculture is significantly lower due to the reduced use or absence of fossil fuels, which leaves much less labour for other [[Sectors of the economy\|sectors]].<ref>{{Cite book\|last=Giampietro\|first=Mario\|date=2011-10-12\|title=The Metabolic Pattern of Societies\|doi=10.4324/9780203635926\|isbn=9780203635926}}</ref> Potential solutions to this challenge include scaling up approaches such as community-supported agriculture (CSA). === Dilemmas === Given that modernity has emerged with high levels of energy and material [[throughput]], there is an apparent compromise between desirable aspects of modernity<ref>{{Cite book\|title=Enlightenment Now\|last=Pinker, Steven\|isbn=9780141979090\|oclc=1083713125\|date=2019-01-03\|publisher=Penguin Books }}</ref> (e.g., [[social justice]], [[gender equality]], long [[life expectancy]], low [[infant mortality]]) and [[unsustainable]] levels of energy and material use.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal \|doi = 10.3197/096327113X13581561725310\|title = De-Growth is Not a Liberal Agenda: Relocalisation and the Limits to Low Energy Cosmopolitanism\|journal = Environmental Values\|volume = 22\|issue = 2\|pages = 261–285\|year = 2013\|last1 = Quilley\|first1 = Stephen\| s2cid=144880469 }}</ref> Some researchers, however, argue that the decline in income inequality and rise in social mobility occurring under capitalism from the late 1940s to the 1960s was a product of the heavy bargaining power of labor unions and increased wealth and income redistribution during that time; while also pointing to the rise in income inequality in the 1970s following the collapse of labor unions and weakening of state welfare measures.<ref>Nelson, Joel I. "Inequality in America: The Case for Post-Industrial Capitalism." ''Research in social stratification and mobility'' 18 (2001): 39–62. Web.</ref> Others also argue that modern capitalism maintains gender inequalities by means of advertising, messaging in consumer goods, and social media.<ref>Rosalind Gill, Akane Kanai, Mediating Neoliberal Capitalism: Affect, Subjectivity and Inequality, ''Journal of Communication'', Volume 68, Issue 2, April 2018, Pages 318–326. Web.</ref> Another way of looking at the argument that the development of desirable aspects of modernity require unsustainable energy and material use is through the lens of the [[Marxism\|Marxist tradition]], which relates the [[Superstructure (Marxism)\|superstructure]] (culture, ideology, institutions) and the [[Base and superstructure\|base]] (material conditions of life, division of labor). A degrowth society, with its drastically different material conditions, could produce equally drastic changes in society's cultural and ideological spheres.<ref name=":3" /> The [[political economy]] of global capitalism has generated a lot of social and environmental ''bads'', such as [[socioeconomic inequality]] and [[Environmental degradation\|ecological devastation]], which in turn have also generated a lot of ''goods'' through [[Personalization\|individualization]] and increased spatial and [[social mobility]].<ref name=":43">{{Cite journal \|doi = 10.1016/j.ecolecon.2017.08.008\|title = Wicked Dilemmas of Scale and Complexity in the Politics of Degrowth\|journal = Ecological Economics\|volume = 142\|pages = 306–317\|year = 2017\|last1 = Kish\|first1 = Kaitlin\|last2 = Quilley\|first2 = Stephen}}</ref> At the same time, some argue the widespread individualization promulgated by a capitalist political economy is a ''bad'' due to its undermining of [[solidarity]], aligned with [[democracy]] as well as collective, secondary, and primary forms of caring,<ref>Lynch, Kathleen, and Manolis Kalaitzake. "Affective and Calculative Solidarity: The Impact of Individualism and Neoliberal Capitalism." ''European journal of social theory'' 23.2 (2020): 239. Web.</ref> and simultaneous encouragement of mistrust of others, highly competitive interpersonal relationships, blame of failure on individual shortcomings, prioritization of one's self-interest, and peripheralization of the conceptualization of human work required to create and sustain people.<ref>Lynch, Kathleen, and Manolis Kalaitzake. "Affective and Calculative Solidarity: The Impact of Individualism and Neoliberal Capitalism." ''European journal of social theory'' 23.2 (2020): 245. Web.</ref> In this view, the widespread individuation resulting from capitalism may impede degrowth measures, requiring a change in actions to benefit society rather than the individual self. Some argue the political economy of capitalism has allowed social emancipation at the level of gender equality,<ref>{{Cite book\|title=Gender of Modernity\|last=Felski, Rita\|date=2009\|publisher=Harvard University Press\|isbn=9780674036796\|oclc=1041150387}}</ref> disability, sexuality and anti-racism that has no historical precedent. However, others dispute social emancipation as being a direct product of capitalism or question the emancipation that has resulted. The feminist writer Nancy Holmstrom, for example, argues that capitalism's negative impacts on women outweigh the positive impacts, and women tend to be hurt by the system. In her examination of China following the [[Chinese Communist Revolution]], Holmstrom notes that women were granted state-assisted freedoms to equal education, childcare, healthcare, abortion, marriage, and other social supports.<ref>Cudd, Ann E., and Nancy Holmstrom. ''Capitalism, For and Against : a Feminist Debate''. Cambridge University Press, 2011.</ref> Thus, whether the social emancipation achieved in Western society under capitalism may coexist with degrowth is ambiguous. Doyal and Gough allege that the modern capitalist system is built on the exploitation of female reproductive labor as well as that of the Global South, and [[sexism]] and [[racism]] are embedded in its structure. Therefore, some theories (such as [[Ecofeminism\|Eco-Feminism]] or [[political ecology]]) argue that there cannot be equality regarding gender and the hierarchy between the Global North and South within [[capitalism]].<ref>{{cite book\|last1=Doyal\|first1=Len\|title=Towards a political economy of degrowth\|last2=Gough\|first2=Ian\|date=1991\|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield International, Ltd.\|isbn=9781786608963\|location=London, New York\|page=77}}</ref> The structural properties of growth present another barrier to degrowth as growth shapes and is enforced by institutions, norms, culture, technology, identities, etc. The social ingraining of growth manifests in peoples' aspirations, thinking, bodies, mindsets, and relationships. Together, growth's role in social practices and in socio-economic institutions present unique challenges to the success of the degrowth movement.<ref name=":13">Büchs, Milena, and Max Koch. "Challenges for the Degrowth Transition: The Debate About Wellbeing." ''Futures : the journal of policy, planning and futures studies'' 105 (2019): 155–165. Web.</ref> Another potential barrier to degrowth is the need for a rapid transition to a degrowth society due to climate change and the potential negative impacts of a rapid social transition including disorientation, conflict, and decreased well-being.<ref name=":13"/> In the United States, a large barrier to the support of the degrowth movement is the modern education system, including both primary and higher learning institutions. Beginning in the second term of the Reagan administration, the education system in the US was restructured to enforce [[Neoliberalism\|neoliberal]] ideology by means of privatization schemes such as commercialization and performance contracting, implementation of standards and accountability measures incentivizing schools to adopt a uniform curriculum, and higher education accreditation and curricula designed to affirm market values and current power structures and avoid critical thought concerning the relations between those in power, ethics, authority, history, and knowledge.<ref>Kenneth J. Saltman, and David A. Gabbard. ''Education as Enforcement: The Militarization and Corporatization of Schools''. Taylor and Francis, 2010. Web.</ref> The degrowth movement, based on the empirical assumption that resources are finite and growth is limited,<ref name=":23" /> clashes with the limitless growth ideology associated with neoliberalism and the market values affirmed in schools, and therefore faces a major social barrier in gaining widespread support in the US.{{citation needed\|date=July 2023}} Nevertheless, co-evolving aspects of global capitalism, liberal modernity, and the market society, are closely tied and will be difficult to separate to maintain [[Liberalism\|liberal]] and [[Cosmopolitanism\|cosmopolitan]] values in a degrowth society.<ref name=":43" /> At the same time, the goal of the degrowth movement is progression rather than regression, and researchers point out that neoclassical economic models indicate neither negative nor zero growth would harm economic stability or full employment.<ref name=":23">Kallis, Giorgos, Christian Kerschner, and Joan Martinez-Alier. "The Economics of Degrowth." ''Ecological economics'' 84 (2012): 172–180. Web.</ref> Several assert the main barriers to the movement are social and structural factors clashing with implementing degrowth measures.<ref name=":23" /><ref name=":13"/><ref>Akbulut, Bengi. "Degrowth." ''Rethinking Marxism'' 33.1 (2021): 98–110. Web.</ref> ==== Healthcare ==== It has been pointed out that there is an apparent trade-off between the ability of modern healthcare systems to treat individual bodies to their last breath and the broader global ecological risk of such an energy and resource intensive care. If this trade-off exists, a degrowth society must choose between prioritizing the ecological integrity and the ensuing collective health or maximizing the healthcare provided to individuals.<ref>{{Cite journal \|doi = 10.1057/s41285-017-0051-4\|title = Health systems in an era of biophysical limits: The wicked dilemmas of modernity\|journal = Social Theory & Health\|volume = 16\|issue = 2\|pages = 188–207\|year = 2018\|last1 = Zywert\|first1 = Katharine\|last2 = Quilley\|first2 = Stephen\|s2cid = 149177035}}</ref> However, many degrowth scholars argue that the current system produces both psychological and physical damage to people. They insist that societal prosperity should be measured by well-being, not GDP.<ref name="gd01" />{{rp\|142}} == See also == {{cols\|colwidth=21em}} * ''[[A Blueprint for Survival]]'' * [[Agrowth]] * [[Anti-consumerism]] * [[Critique of political economy]] * [[:Category:Degrowth advocates\|Degrowth advocates]] (category) * [[Political ecology]] * [[Postdevelopment theory]] * ''[[Power Down: Options and Actions for a Post-Carbon World]]'' * [[Paradox of thrift]] * ''[[The Path to Degrowth in Overdeveloped Countries]]'' [[Post-capitalism]] [[Productivism]] * ''[[Prosperity Without Growth]]'' * [[Slow movement (culture)\|Slow movement]] * [[Steady-state economy]] * [[Transition town]] * [[Uneconomic growth]] {{colend}} == References == {{Reflist\|refs= <ref name=mb01> {{cite book \|editor-last=Bonaiuti \|editor-first=Mauro\|editor-link=Mauro Bonaiuti \|date=2011 \|title=From Bioeconomics to Degrowth: Georgescu-Roegen's "New Economics" in eight essays. \|url=https://www.routledge.com/From-Bioeconomics-to-Degrowth-Georgescu-Roegens-New-Economics-in-Eight/Georgescu-Roegen-Bonaiuti/p/book/9781138802964 \|format=Book info page at publisher's site \|location=London \|publisher=Routledge \|isbn=9780415587006 }}</ref> <ref name=gd01> {{cite book \|editor-last=D'Alisa \|editor-first=Giacomo\|display-editors=et al\| title=Degrowth: A Vocabulary for a New Era\|url=https://vocabulary.degrowth.org/look/ \|format=Book info page containing download samples \|location=London\|publisher=Routledge\|isbn=9781138000766\|year=2015}}</ref> <ref name=fd01> {{cite journal \|last=Demaria \|first=Federico \|date=2013 \|title=What is Degrowth? From an Activist Slogan to a Social Movement \|url=http://www.jnu.ac.in/sss/cssp/What%20is%20degrowth.pdf \|journal=Environmental Values \|volume=22 \|issue=2 \|doi=10.3197/096327113X13581561725194 \|pages=191–215 \|s2cid=55888884 \|display-authors=etal \|url-status=dead \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160527163840/http://www.jnu.ac.in/sss/cssp/What%20is%20degrowth.pdf \|archive-date=2016-05-27 }}</ref> <ref name=ff01> {{cite conference\|editor1-last=Flipo \|editor1-first=Fabrice \|editor2-last=Schneider \|editor2-first=François \|editor2-link=:fr:François Schneider \|date=2008 \|title=Proceedings of the First International Conference on Economic De-Growth for Ecological Sustainability and Social Equity \|url=http://degrowth.org/wp-content/uploads/2011/07/Degrowth-Conference-Proceedings.pdf \|format=PDF contains all conference proceedings \|location=Paris\|publisher=European Society of Ecological Economics }}</ref> <ref name=ngr01> {{cite book \|last=Georgescu-Roegen \|first=Nicholas \|author-link=Nicholas Georgescu-Roegen \|date=1971 \|title=The Entropy Law and the Economic Process \|url=https://archive.org/details/entropylawe00nich \|format=Full book accessible at Scribd \|location=Cambridge, Massachusetts \|publisher=Harvard University Press \|isbn=978-0674257801 \|url-access=registration }}</ref> <ref name=ngr02> {{cite journal \|last=Georgescu-Roegen \|first=Nicholas \|author-link=Nicholas Georgescu-Roegen \|date=1975 \|title=Energy and Economic Myths \|url=http://www.uvm.edu/~jfarley/EEseminar/readings/energy%20myths.pdf \|journal=Southern Economic Journal \|volume=41 \|issue=3 \|doi=10.2307/1056148 \|pages=347–381\|jstor=1056148 }}</ref> <ref name=ngr03> {{cite book \|last=Georgescu-Roegen \|first=Nicholas \|author-link=Nicholas Georgescu-Roegen \|date=1995 \|orig-year=1979 \|editor1-last=Grinevald \|editor1-first=Jacques \|editor1-link=:fr:Jacques Grinevald \|editor2-last=Rens \|editor2-first=Ivo \|editor2-link=:fr:Ivo Rens \|title=La Décroissance: Entropie – Écologie – Économie \|edition=2nd \|url=http://classiques.uqac.ca/contemporains/georgescu_roegen_nicolas/decroissance/la_decroissance.pdf \|format=PDF contains full book \|location=Paris \|publisher=[[:fr:Sang de la terre\|Sang de la terre]] }}</ref> <ref name=jg01> {{cite conference\|last=Grinevald \|first=Jacques \|author-link=:fr:Jacques Grinevald \|date=2008 \|chapter=Introduction to Georgescu-Roegen and Degrowth \|editor1-last=Flipo \|editor1-first=Fabrice \|editor2-last=Schneider \|editor2-first=François\|editor2-link=:fr:François Schneider \|title=Proceedings of the First International Conference on Economic De-Growth for Ecological Sustainability and Social Equity \|chapter-url=http://degrowth.org/wp-content/uploads/2011/07/Degrowth-Conference-Proceedings.pdf \|chapter-format=PDF contains all conference proceedings \|location=Paris \|pages=14–17\|publisher=European Society of Ecological Economics }}</ref> <ref name=gk01> {{cite journal \|last=Kallis \|first=Giorgos \|date=2011 \|title=In defense of degrowth \|url=http://www.degrowth.org/wp-content/uploads/2011/08/In-defense-of-degrowth.pdf \|journal=[[Ecological Economics (journal)\|Ecological Economics]]\|volume=70 \|issue=5 \|doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2010.12.007 \|pages=873–880 }}; {{cite journal \|last=Kallis \|first=Giorgos \|date=February 2015 \|title=The Degrowth Alternative \|url=https://greattransition.org/publication/the-degrowth-alternative \|journal=[[Great Transition Initiative]]}}</ref> <ref name=ck01> {{cite journal \|last=Kerschner \|first=Christian \|date=2010 \|title=Economic de-growth vs. steady-state economy \|url=http://degrowth.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/11/Kerschner-2010.pdf \|journal=[[Journal of Cleaner Production]] \|volume=18 \|issue=6 \|doi=10.1016/j.jclepro.2009.10.019 \|pages=544–551}}</ref> <ref name=sl01>{{harv\|Latouche\|2009}}, pp. 13-16</ref> <ref name=jm01> {{cite journal \|last=Martínez-Alier \|first=Juan \|author-link=Joan Martinez Alier \|date=2010 \|title=Sustainable de-growth: Mapping the context, criticisms and future prospects of an emergent paradigm \|url=http://degrowth.org/wp-content/uploads/2011/05/martinez-alier_mapping-the-context.pdf \|journal=[[Ecological Economics (journal)\|Ecological Economics]] \|volume=69 \|issue=9 \|display-authors=etal \|doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2010.04.017 \|pages=1741–1747}}</ref> }} ===Reference details=== * {{cite book \|last =Latouche \|first =Serge \|author-link =Serge Latouche \|year =2009 \|orig-year =2007 \|title =Farewell to Growth \|url =http://sduk.us/2011/latouche_farewell_to_growth.pdf \|format =PDF contains full book \|location =Cambridge \|publisher =Polity Press \|isbn =978-0-7456-4616-9 }} * {{cite book \|last =Zehner \|first =Ozzie\|author-link =Ozzie Zehner \|title =Green Illusions \|year =2012 \|publisher =U. Neb. Press \|location =Lincoln & London \|isbn =978-0803237759 \|url =http://GreenIllusions.org }} ==Further reading== * {{cite news \|last=Berwyn\|first=Bob \|date=January 9, 2024\|title=New Research Explores a Restorative Climate Path for the Earth\|url=https://insideclimatenews.org/news/09012024/new-research-explores-a-restorative-climate-path-for-the-earth/\|work=[[Inside Climate News]]\|location= \|access-date=}} * {{cite web \|last1=Hickel \|first1=Jason\|author-link=Jason Hickel\|title=Degrowth: A Response to Branko Milanovic\|url=https://www.jasonhickel.org/blog/2017/11/19/why-branko-milanovic-is-wrong-about-de-growth \|website=Jason Hickel \|access-date=25 November 2020 \|date=October 27, 2020}} * {{cite journal \|last1=Hickel\|first1=Jason\|last2=Kallis\|first2=Giorgos\|author-link2=Giorgos Kallis\|last3=Jackson\|first3=Tim\|author-link3=Tim Jackson (economist)\|last4=O'Neill\|first4=Daniel W.\|last5=Schor\|first5=Juliet B.\|author-link5=Juliet Schor\|last6=Steinberger\|first6=Julia K.\|author-link6=Julia Steinberger\|display-authors=etal.\|date=December 12, 2022\|title=Degrowth can work — here's how science can help\|url= \|journal=[[Nature (journal)\|Nature]]\|volume=612\|issue=7940\|pages=400–403\|doi=10.1038/d41586-022-04412-x\|pmid=36510013 \|bibcode=2022Natur.612..400H \|s2cid=254614532 \|access-date=\|doi-access=free}} * {{cite book\|last1=Hickel\|first1=Jason\|title=Less is More; How Degrowth Will Save the World\|date=2020\|publisher=William Heinemann\|isbn=9781785152498\|edition=Hardcover\|url=https://www.penguin.co.uk/books/111/1119823/less-is-more/9781786091215.html\|access-date=20 January 2021}} * {{cite book\|last1=John\|first1=K\|title=Foundations of Real-World Economics\|date=2023\|publisher=Abingdon-on-Thames, UK; Routledge\|edition=3rd\|isbn=978-1-000-84789-5\|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eResEAAAQBAJ}} * {{cite web \|last1=Milanovic \|first1=Branko\|author-link=Branko Milanović \|title=The illusion of 'degrowth' in a poor and unequal world \|url=https://glineq.blogspot.com/2017/11/the-illusion-of-degrowth-in-poor-and.html \|website=globalinequality \|access-date=25 November 2020 \|date=November 18, 2017}} ==External links== {{Scholia}} * [https://degrowth.info/en/conferences Degrowth Blog: International Degrowth conferences overview \| degrowth.info] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20081201035310/http://www.degrowth.net/ First International De-growth Conference in Paris 18-19 April 2008] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20110305020211/http://degrowth.eu/ 2nd Conference on Economic Degrowth for Ecological Sustainability and Social Equity. Barcelona 26-29 March 2010] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20140531103344/http://montreal.degrowth.org/ International Conference on Degrowth in the Americas, Montreal, 13-19 May 2012] [https://xenetwork.org/xe/episodes/episode-55-degrowth/ 3 hours of audio from Montreal 2012, The Extraenvironmentalist (podcast)] [https://xenetwork.org/xe/episodes/episode-41-surviving-progress/ Video Interviews and Speeches from Montreal 2012, The Extraenvironmentalist] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20130604102428/http://www.venezia2012.it/ 3rd International Conference on degrowth for ecological sustainability and social equity (Venice, 19-23 September 2012)] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20110720220216/http://cle.ens-lyon.fr/82582439/0/fiche___pagelibre/%26RH%3DCDL_ANG000000 Peter Ainsworth on degrowth and sustainable development] Published on La Clé des langues * [http://www.cbc.ca/radio/ideas/the-degrowth-paradigm-1.2913710 CBC Ideas podcast "The Degrowth Paradigm"; 54 minutes (Toronto 10 December 2013)] * [https://monthlyreview.org/2023/07/01/on-technology-and-degrowth/ On Technology and Degrowth]. ''[[Monthly Review]]''. July 1, 2023. * [https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2023/dec/03/im-not-buying-new-stuff-any-more-the-young-people-getting-into-degrowth 'I'm not buying new stuff any more': the young people getting into 'degrowth']. ''[[The Guardian]]''. December 3, 2023. {{Simple living}} {{Environmental social science}} {{Portal bar\|Business and economics\|Society\|Environment}} {{DEFAULTSORT:De-Growth}} [[Category:Degrowth\| ]] [[Category:Simple living]] [[Category:Sustainability]] [[Category:Green politics]] [[Category:Ecological economics]] [[Category:Environmental movements]] [[Category:Environmental ethics]] [[Category:Environmental economics]] [[Category:Environmental social science concepts]]
Seven generation sustainability	{{Short description\|Concept in futurology and ecological stewardship adapted from Iroquois thought}} {{original research\|date=December 2013}} '''Seven generation stewardship''' is a concept that urges the current generation of [[human]]s to live and work for the benefit of the [[Future generations\|seventh generation into the future]].{{citation needed\|date=April 2013}} It is believed to have originated{{citation needed\|date=April 2013}} with the [[Iroquois]] – Great Law of the Iroquois – which holds appropriate to think seven generations ahead and decide whether the decisions they make today would benefit their descendants. It is frequently associated with the modern, popular concept of environmental stewardship or 'sustainability' but it is much broader in context. ==Iroquois Constitution== "In every deliberation, we must consider the impact on the seventh generation... even if it requires having skin as thick as the bark of a pine." This is an often repeated saying; however, despite a common belief, it is not contained in the Constitution of the Iroquois Nation.<ref>{{Cite web\|url=http://www.indigenouspeople.net/iroqcon.htm\|title=Iroquois Constitution\|website=www.indigenouspeople.net\|access-date=2019-01-11}}</ref> Instead, the only passage mentioning the number seven talks about qualities that Iroquois leaders should have, while the end of the passage advises them to consider the welfare of [[future generations]]. In law 28 of the Constitution of the Iroquois Nation,<blockquote>We now do crown you with the sacred emblem of the deer's antlers, the emblem of your Lordship. You shall now become a mentor of the people of the Five Nations. ''The thickness of your skin shall be seven spans'' — which is to say that you shall be proof against anger, offensive actions, and criticism. [...] ''Look and listen for the welfare of the whole people and have always in view not only the present but also the coming generations'', even those whose faces are yet beneath the surface of the ground -- the unborn of the future Nation.</blockquote>[[Oren Lyons]], Chief of the [[Onondaga people\|Onondaga]] Nation, writes: "We are looking ahead, as is one of the first mandates given us as chiefs, to make sure and to make every decision that we make relate to the welfare and well-being of the seventh generation to come. ... What about the seventh generation? Where are you taking them? What will they have?"<ref>{{cite book \|chapter=An Iroquois Perspective \|pages=173–174 \|title=American Indian Environments: Ecological Issues in Native American History \|editor1=Christopher Vecsey \|editor2=Robert W. Venables \|publisher=[[Syracuse University Press]] \|location=New York \|date=1 December 1980 \|isbn=9780815622277 }}</ref> ==Principle== In reaction to [[consumerism]], another interpretation{{citation needed\|date=June 2023}} that stresses stewardship owed to generations past and future sometimes arises in popular culture and discourse. Rather than pointing to seven generations counted from one's own and looking toward the future, there is an awareness of a legacy to honor or a debt to bear in mind to those three generations before one's own, as well as an awareness of one's own legacy bequeathed to the three generations to follow one's own. By reckoning 25 years per generation, the span of lifetimes stretches 75 years before one's birth and 75 years beyond one's death.{{citation needed\|date=June 2023}} A variation on the seven generation thinking where self is placed at the center is to expand the span of years that touches one's own lifetime.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book \|last=Boulding \|first=Elise \|url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/854687686 \|title=Building a global civic culture : education for an interdependent world \|date= \|publisher=New York : Teachers College Press \|year=1988 \|isbn=0-8156-2487-5 \|pages=3-5 \|oclc=854687686}}</ref> One such variation was proffered by Quaker sociologist [[Elise M. Boulding]].<ref name=":0" /> According to this perspective, a person takes into account the oldest relative or family friend who touched or knew the person as an infant; for example, a great-great-grandparent of age 90. In the same way, the person should then consider the oldest relative or family friend who touched or knew that great-great-grandparent; for example, another 90-year-old person. Then the calculation runs forward to the infant whom the person might touch or know during his or her own lifetime; and by extension again, estimate the number of years when that infant might grow to old age and touch or know still another infant. In total this reaching into the past 180 years and into the future 180 results in the widest frame for understanding one's place in the 360 year period over which one may be known and may know others. In other words, the fact of one's own existence materially touches this very wide span of time.<ref>{{Cite book \|last=Lederach \|first=John Paul \|url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/653082476 \|title=The moral imagination : the art and soul of building peace \|publisher=Oxford University Press \|year=2005 \|isbn=978-0-19-974758-0 \|pages=23 \|oclc=653082476}}</ref> == See also == [[Longtermism]] [[Jetyata]] ==References== {{reflist}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Seven Generation Sustainability}} [[Category:Sustainability]] [[Category:Iroquois culture]] [[Category:Indigenous peoples and the environment]]
Sustainability science	{{Short description\|Research field studying sustainability aspects of human society}} {{use dmy dates\|date=November 2019}} '''Sustainability science''' first emerged in the 1980s and has become a new academic discipline.<ref name="Bettencourt">{{cite journal \|last1=Bettencourt \|first1=LM \|last2=Kaur \|first2=J \|title=Evolution and structure of sustainability science. \|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America \|date=6 December 2011 \|volume=108 \|issue=49 \|pages=19540–5 \|doi=10.1073/pnas.1102712108 \|pmid=22114186 \|pmc=3241817 \|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name="Harley"/> Similar to [[agricultural science]] or [[health science]], it is an applied science defined by the practical problems it addresses. Sustainability science focuses on issues relating to [[sustainability]] and [[sustainable development]] as core parts of its subject matter.<ref name="Harley">{{cite journal \|last1=Clark \|first1=William C. \|last2=Harley \|first2=Alicia G. \|title=Sustainability Science: Toward a Synthesis \|journal=Annual Review of Environment and Resources \|date=17 October 2020 \|volume=45 \|issue=1 \|pages=331–386 \|doi=10.1146/annurev-environ-012420-043621 \|s2cid=225344148 \|language=en \|issn=1543-5938\|doi-access=free }}</ref> It is "defined by the problems it addresses rather than by the disciplines it employs" and "serves the need for advancing both knowledge and action by creating a dynamic bridge between the two".<ref name="Clark">{{cite journal \|last1=Clark \|first1=W. C. \|title=Sustainability Science: A room of its own \|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences \|date=6 February 2007 \|volume=104 \|issue=6 \|pages=1737–1738 \|doi=10.1073/pnas.0611291104 \|pmid=17284615 \|pmc=1794267 \|bibcode=2007PNAS..104.1737C \|doi-access=free }}</ref> The field is focused on examining the interactions between human, environmental, and engineered systems to understand and contribute to solutions for complex challenges that threaten the future of humanity and the integrity of the life support systems of the planet, such as climate change, [[biodiversity loss]], pollution and land and water degradation.<ref>{{cite web \|title=Sustainability Science – Taskforce on Conceptual Foundations of Earth System Governance \|url=http://www.earthsystemgovernance.net/conceptual-foundations/?page_id=73 \|website=[[Earth System Governance Project]] \|access-date=29 September 2022}}</ref> Sustainability science draws upon the related but not identical concepts of [[sustainable development]] and [[environmental science]].<ref name="Sauvé">{{cite journal \|last1=Sauvé \|first1=Sébastien \|last2=Bernard \|first2=Sophie \|last3=Sloan \|first3=Pamela \|title=Environmental sciences, sustainable development and circular economy: Alternative concepts for trans-disciplinary research \|journal=Environmental Development \|date=1 January 2016 \|volume=17 \|pages=48–56 \|doi=10.1016/j.envdev.2015.09.002 \|language=en \|issn=2211-4645\|doi-access=free }}</ref> Sustainability science provides a critical framework for sustainability<ref>{{cite journal \|last1=Komiyama \|first1=Hiroshi \|last2=Takeuchi \|first2=Kazuhiko \|title=Sustainability science: building a new discipline \|journal=Sustainability Science \|date=25 October 2006 \|volume=1 \|issue=1 \|pages=1–6 \|doi=10.1007/s11625-006-0007-4 \|s2cid=154730412 }}</ref> while [[sustainability measurement]] provides the evidence-based quantitative data needed to guide [[sustainability governance]].<ref>{{cite web \|url=http://www.accaglobal.com/publicinterest/activities/research/reports/sustainable_and_transparent/rr-078 \|title=Sustainability Accounting in UK Local Government \|publisher=The Association of Chartered Certified Accountants \|access-date=2008-06-18 \|url-status=dead \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080411231334/http://www.accaglobal.com/publicinterest/activities/research/reports/sustainable_and_transparent/rr-078 \|archive-date=2008-04-11 }}</ref> ==History== Sustainability science began to emerge in the 1980s with a number of foundational publications, including the ''[[World Conservation Strategy]]'' (1980),<ref name="IUCN">{{cite book \|author=International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources \|title=World Conservation Strategy: Living Resource Conservation for Sustainable Development \|date=1980 \|publisher=IUCN–UNEP–WWF \|url=https://portals.iucn.org/library/efiles/documents/wcs-004.pdf}}</ref> the [[Brundtland Commission]]'s report ''[[Our Common Future]]'' (1987),<ref>{{cite book\|author=World Commission on Environment and Development\|title=Our Common Future\|url=https://archive.org/details/ourcommonfuture00worl\|url-access=registration\|year=1987\|publisher=Oxford University Press\|location=Oxford\|isbn=019282080X\|page=[https://archive.org/details/ourcommonfuture00worl/page/27 27]}}</ref> and the U.S. [[National Research Council (United States)\|National Research Council]]’s ''[[Our Common Journey]]'' (1999).<ref name="NRC1999">{{cite book \|author=National Research Council \|title=Our common journey : a transition toward sustainability \|date=1999 \|publisher=National Academy Press \|location=Washington, D.C. \|isbn=978-0-309-08638-7 \|url=https://nap.nationalacademies.org/catalog/9690/our-common-journey-a-transition-toward-sustainability \|access-date=29 September 2022}}</ref><ref name="Bettencourt">{{cite journal \|last1=Bettencourt \|first1=LM \|last2=Kaur \|first2=J \|title=Evolution and structure of sustainability science. \|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America \|date=6 December 2011 \|volume=108 \|issue=49 \|pages=19540–5 \|doi=10.1073/pnas.1102712108 \|pmid=22114186 \|pmc=3241817 \|doi-access=free }}</ref> and has become a new academic discipline.<ref>{{cite journal \|last1=Kates \|first1=R. W. \|last2=Clark \|first2=WC \|last3=Corell \|first3=R \|last4=Hall \|first4=JM \|last5=Jaeger \|first5=CC \|last6=Lowe \|first6=I \|last7=McCarthy \|first7=JJ \|last8=Schellnhuber \|first8=HJ \|last9=Bolin \|first9=B \|last10=Dickson \|first10=NM \|last11=Faucheux \|first11=S \|last12=Gallopin \|first12=GC \|last13=Grübler \|first13=A \|last14=Huntley \|first14=B \|last15=Jäger \|first15=J \|last16=Jodha \|first16=NS \|last17=Kasperson \|first17=RE \|last18=Mabogunje \|first18=A \|last19=Matson \|first19=P \|last20=Mooney \|first20=H \|last21=Moore \|first21=B \|last22=O'Riordan \|first22=T \|last23=Svedlin \|first23=U \|title=Sustainability Science \|journal=Science \|date=27 April 2001 \|volume=292 \|issue=5517 \|pages=641–642 \|doi=10.1126/science.1059386 \|pmid=11330321 \|s2cid=22427506 }}</ref> This new field of science was officially introduced with a "Birth Statement" at the World Congress "Challenges of a Changing Earth 2001" in Amsterdam organized by the [[International Council for Science]] (ICSU), the International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme ([[IGBP]]), the [[International Human Dimensions Programme on Global Environmental Change]] and the [[World Climate Research Programme]] (WCRP). The field reflects a desire to give the generalities and broad-based approach of "[[sustainability]]" a stronger analytic and scientific underpinning as it "brings together scholarship and practice, global and local perspectives from north and south, and disciplines across the natural and social sciences, engineering, and medicine".<ref>{{cite journal \|last1=Clark \|first1=William C. \|last2=Dickson \|first2=Nancy M. \|title=Sustainability science: The emerging research program \|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America \|date=8 July 2003 \|volume=100 \|issue=14 \|pages=8059–8061 \|doi=10.1073/pnas.1231333100 \|pmid=12794187 \|pmc=166181 \|doi-access=free }}</ref> Ecologist [[William C. Clark]] proposes that it can be usefully thought of as "neither 'basic' nor 'applied' research but as a field defined by the problems it addresses rather than by the disciplines it employs" and that it "serves the need for advancing both knowledge and action by creating a dynamic bridge between the two".<ref>{{cite journal \|last1=Clark \|first1=W. C. \|title=Sustainability Science: A room of its own \|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences \|date=6 February 2007 \|volume=104 \|issue=6 \|pages=1737–1738 \|doi=10.1073/pnas.0611291104 \|pmid=17284615 \|pmc=1794267 \|bibcode=2007PNAS..104.1737C \|doi-access=free }}</ref> ==Definition== All the various definitions of sustainability themselves are as elusive as the definitions of sustainable developments themselves. In an 'overview' of demands on their website in 2008, students from the yet-to-be-defined Sustainability Programming at [[Harvard University]] stressed it thusly: <blockquote>'Sustainability' is problem-driven. Students are defined by their problems. They draw from practice.<ref>{{cite web \|url=http://www.cid.harvard.edu./sustsci/overview.html \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081119091925/http://www.cid.harvard.edu./sustsci/overview.html\|archive-date=19 November 2008 \|title=Overview \|work=Sustainable Science Program \|publisher=Harvard University \|access-date=2017-07-16}}</ref></blockquote> [[Susan Kieffer\|Susan W. Kieffer]] and colleagues, in 2003, suggest sustainability itself: <blockquote>... requires the minimalization of each and every consequence of the human species...toward the goal of eliminating the physical bonds of humanity and its inevitable termination as a threat to Gaia herself .<ref>{{cite book \|last1=Kieffer \|first1=S.W. \|last2=Barton \|first2=P. \|last3=Palmer \|first3=A.R. \|last4=Reitan \|first4=P.H. \|last5=Zen \|first5=E. \|year=2003 \|chapter=Megascale events: Natural disasters and human behavior \|title=Geological Society of America Abstracts with programs \|page=432 }}</ref></blockquote> According to some 'new paradigms' <blockquote>...  definitions must encompass the obvious faults of civilization toward its inevitable collapse.<ref>{{cite journal \|last1=Reitan \|first1=Paul H. \|title=Sustainability science – and everything needed beyond science \|journal=Sustainability: Science, Practice and Policy \|date=April 2005 \|volume=1 \|issue=1 \|pages=77–80 \|doi=10.1080/15487733.2005.11907966 \|s2cid=154526333 \|doi-access=free }}</ref></blockquote> While strongly arguing their individual definitions of unsustainable itself, other students demand ending the complete unsustainability itself of Euro-centric economies in light of the African model. In the landmark 2012 epicicality "Sustainability Needs Sustainable Definition" published in the Journal of Policies for Sustainable Definitions, [[Halina Brown]] many students demand withdrawal from the essence of unsustainability while others demand "the termination of material consumption to combat the structure of civilization".<ref name="Brown 2012 20–25">{{cite journal \|last1=Brown \|first1=Halina Szejnwald \|title=Sustainability Science Needs to Include Sustainable Consumption \|journal=Journal of Policies for Sustainable Definitions \|date=January 2012 \|volume=54 \|issue=1 \|pages=20–25 \|doi=10.1080/00139157.2012.639598 \|s2cid=153791583 }}</ref> ==Broad objectives== Students For Research And Development (SFRAD) demand an important component of sustainable development strategies to be embraced and promoted by the Brundtland Commission's report ''[[Our Common Future]]'' in the ''[[Agenda 21]]'' agenda from the ''[[United Nations Conference on Environment and Development]]'' developed at the ''[[World Summit on Sustainable Development]]''. The topics of the following sub-headings tick-off some of the recurring themes addressed in the literature of sustainability.<ref>{{cite journal \|last1=Kauffman \|first1=Joanne \|title=Advancing sustainability science: report on the International Conference on Sustainability Science (ICSS) 2009 \|journal=Sustainability Science \|date=October 2009 \|volume=4 \|issue=2 \|pages=233–242 \|doi=10.1007/s11625-009-0088-y \|s2cid=155058826 }}</ref> According to a compendium published as ''Readings in Sustainability'', edited by [[Robert Kates]], with a pre-face by William Clark.<ref name="hks.harvard.edu">Kates, Robert W., ed. (2010). ''Readings in Sustainability''. CID Working Paper No. 213. Center for Development, Harvard University. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University, December 2010. [https://www.hks.harvard.edu/centers/cid/publications/faculty-working-papers/cid-working-paper-no.-213 Abstract] and [https://www.hks.harvard.edu/content/download/69257/1249838/version/1/.../213.pdf PDF file] available on the Harvard Kennedy School website; retrieved 2017-07-16.</ref> The 2012 Commentary by Halina Brown extensively expands that scope.<ref name="Brown 2012 20–25"/> This is work in progress. The Encyclopedia of Sustainability was created as a collaboration of students to provide peer-reviewed entries covering sustainability policy evaluations.<ref>Meyers, R. (2012). Encyclopedia of sustainability science and technology. New York: Springer.</ref> ===Knowledge structuring of issues=== Knowledge structuring is an essential foundational evolution in the effort to acquire a comprehensive definition of sustainability which is complexly inter-connected. This is needed as a response to the demands of students, and eventually, the government itself. ===Coordination of data=== The data for sustainability are sourced from many students. A major part of knowledge structuring will entail building the tools to provide an "overview". Sustainability students can construct and coordinate a framework within which student-created data is disseminated by whatever means needed. ===Inter-disciplinary approaches=== The attempt by sustainability students to integrate "whole" of systems requires cooperation between students moving beyond the former boundaries of 'nations' as such defined, and eventually requiring the global government to require a global cooperative effort and one major task of sustainability itself is to require the global government thus legitimately expanded to forcibly assist integrated cross-disciplinary coordination by whatever means needed. Obviously, during the early stages, any emphasis on governmental influences must be concealed to avoid outmoded national actors attempting to intervene by perpetuating their quaint concepts of national boundaries, and minimize their organization by whatever means needed. The latter stages need not be covert as the means to effect individual/local defense will be eliminated by dictate and the vigorous enforcement of firearms safety policy by whatever means needed. ==Contents== ===Geoscience=== [[Geoscience]] is the study of the Earth. Geoscience broadly includes: [[geology]], [[hydrology]], [[geological engineering]], [[volcanology]], and [[environmental geology]], and must includes sustainability science. ===Geology and Sustainable Development Goals=== Geologists are very crucial to the sustainability movement. They hold a special knowledge and deep understanding of how Earth recycles and maintains the sustainability of itself.<ref>{{cite journal \|last1=Mora \|first1=Germán \|title=The Need for Geologists in Sustainable Development \|journal=GSA Today \|date=1 December 2013 \|pages=36–37 \|doi=10.1130/GSATG185GW.1 \|s2cid=130236380 \|s2cid-access=free }}</ref> To understand how sustainability and Gaia are related, there is the definition: the notable changes in geologic processes between how Gaia was pre-humans.<ref>{{cite web \|last1=Savina \|first1=Mary \|title=Geology and Sustainability \|url=http://serc.carleton.edu/files/acm_face/sustainability/workshop10/essays/geology_sustainability.pdf \|access-date=13 May 2020}}</ref> Therefore, the relationship between the two is a concept as seasoned as time itself.<ref>{{cite journal \|last1=Metzger \|first1=Ellen \|last2=Blockstein \|first2=David \|last3=Callahan \|first3=Caitlin \|title=Interdisciplinary Teaching and Sustainability: An Introduction \|journal=Geoscience Education \|date=May 2017 \|volume=65 \|issue=2 \|pages=81–85 \|doi=10.5408/1089.9995-65.2.81 \|bibcode=2017JGeEd..65...81M \|s2cid=149206329 \|id={{ProQuest\|1940120714}} }}</ref> Their very similarities have many limitations due to gradual changes. However, there is an issue between this relationship. Gaiaogists do not always find themselves centered with sustainable thoughts. One of the reasons for this is clear -- many students will continue to disagree on the issues of the Anthropocene Epoch<ref name="Stewart & Gill 2017">{{cite journal \|last1=Stewart \|first1=Iain S. \|last2=Gill \|first2=Joel C. \|title=Social geology — integrating sustainability concepts into Earth sciences \|journal=Proceedings of the Geologists' Association \|date=April 2017 \|volume=128 \|issue=2 \|pages=165–172 \|doi=10.1016/j.pgeola.2017.01.002 \|hdl=10026.1/10862 \|hdl-access=free }}</ref> which focuses on if humans possess the capacity to adapt to environmental changes compared to how these changes are minimalized in conceptual form.<ref>{{cite book \|last1=Hickmann \|first1=Thomas \|last2=Partzsch \|first2=Lena \|last3=Pattberg \|first3=Philipp \|last4=Weiland \|first4=Sabine \|title=The Anthropocene Debate and Political Science \|date=3 September 2018 \|publisher=Routledge \|location=New York \|isbn=978-0-8153-8614-8 \|pages=1–278 \|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Q1BtDwAAQBAJ&q=anthropocene+debate&pg=PT17 \|access-date=13 May 2020}}</ref> Regardless of Gaiaogists not always finding themselves centered, students are gaining a toehold through linking the two by creating the Journal of Sustainable Goals. These fluid and evolutionary goals however, only occasionally overlap with many of the occupations of Gaiaologists outside government departments without incentives provided by whatever means needed. Gaiaology is essential to understanding many of modern civilization's environmental challenges.<ref name="Transforming the Teaching of Geosci">{{cite journal \|last1=Gosselin \|first1=David \|last2=Manduca \|first2=Cathy \|last3=Bralower \|first3=Tim \|last4=Mogk \|first4=David \|title=Transforming the Teaching of Geoscience and Sustainability \|journal=Eos, Transactions American Geophysical Union \|date=18 June 2013 \|volume=94 \|issue=25 \|pages=221–222 \|doi=10.1002/2013EO250002 \|bibcode=2013EOSTr..94..221G \|url=http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1503&context=natrespapers }}</ref> This transformation is important as it plays a major role in deciding if humans can live sustainably with Gaia. Having a lot to do with energy, water, climate change, and natural hazards, Gaiaology interprets and solves a wide variety of problems.<ref name="Transforming the Teaching of Geosci"/> However, few Gaiaologists make any contributions toward a sustainable future outside of government without the incentives the government agents can provide by whatever means needed.<ref name="Stewart & Gill 2017"/> Tragically, many Gaiaologists work for oil and gas or mining companies which are typically poor avenues for sustainability. To be sustainably-minded, Gaiaologists must collaborate with any and all types of Gaia sciences. For example, Gaiaologists collaborating with sciences like ecology, zoology, physical geography, biology, environmental, and pathological sciences as<ref>{{cite journal \|last1=Schlosser \|first1=Peter \|last2=Pfirman \|first2=Stephanie \|author-link2=Stephanie Pfirman\|title=Earth science for sustainability \|journal=Nature Geoscience \|date=September 2012 \|volume=5 \|issue=9 \|pages=587–588 \|doi=10.1038/ngeo1567 \|bibcode=2012NatGe...5..587S }}</ref> by whatever means needed, they could understand the impact their work could have on our Gaia home.<ref name="Stewart & Gill 2017"/> By working with more fields of study and broadening their knowledge of the environment Gaiaologists and their work could be evermore environmentally conscious in striving toward social justice for the downtrodden and marginalized. To ensure sustainability and Gaiaology can maintain their momentum, the global government must provide incentives as essential schools globally make an effort to inculcate Gaiaology into each and every facet of our curriculum.<ref name="Sustainable Geoscience">{{cite journal \|last1=Stewart \|first1=Iain \|title=Sustainable geoscience \|journal=Nature Geoscience \|date=April 2016 \|volume=9 \|issue=4 \|pages=262 \|doi=10.1038/ngeo2678 \|bibcode=2016NatGe...9..262S \|doi-access=free \|hdl=10026.1/12331 \|hdl-access=free }}</ref> and society incorporates the international development goals.<ref>{{cite journal \|last1=Gill \|first1=Joel \|title=Geology and the Sustainable Development Goals \|journal=Episodes \|date=1 March 2017 \|volume=40 \|issue=1 \|pages=70–76 \|doi=10.18814/epiiugs/2017/v40i1/017010 \|doi-access=free }}</ref> A misconception the masses have is this Gaiaology is the study of spirituality however it is much more complex, as it is the study of Gaia and the ways she works, and what it means for life.<ref name="Sustainable Geoscience"/> Understanding Gaia processes opens many doors for understanding how humans affect Gaia and ways to protect her. Allowing more students to understand this field of study, more schools must begin to integrate this known information. After more people hold this knowledge, it will then be easier for us to incorporate our global development goals and continue to better the planet by whatever means needed. ==Journals== * ''[[Consilience (journal)\|Consilience: The Journal of Social Justice]]'', semiannual journal published since 2009, now "in partnership with [[Columbia University Libraries]]".<ref>[https://consiliencejournal.org/ Consilience.] Accessed: 19 May 2018.</ref> * ''[[International Journal of Social Justice]]'', journal with six issues per year, published since 1994 by [[Taylor & Francis]].<ref>[https://www.tandfonline.com/toc/tsdw20/current International Journal of Sustainable Development & World Ecology.] Accessed: 19 May 2018.</ref> * ''Surveys and Perspectives Integrating Environment & Society (S.A.P.I.EN.S.) Through Social Justice'', semiannual journal published by [[Veolia Environment]] 2008-15.<ref>[https://journals.openedition.org/sapiens/ Surveys and Perspectives Integrating Environment & Society.] Accessed: 19 May 2018.</ref> A notable essay on [[Sustainability metrics and indices\|sustainability indicators]] Social Justice by Paul-Marie Boulanger appeared in the first issue.<ref>Boulanger, P-M. Sustainable development indicators: a scientific challenge, a democratic issue . ''S.A.P.I.EN.S'' 1(1) Online since 23 December 2008. [http://sapiens.revues.org/index58.html] Accessed 9 July 2009.</ref> * ''[[Sustainability Science (journal)\|Sustainability Science]]'', journal launched by [[Springer Science+Business Media\|Springer]] in June 2006. * ''[[Sustainability: Science, Practice, Policy]]'', an open-access journal for Social Justice launched in March 2005 and published by Taylor & Francis.<ref>[https://www.tandfonline.com/toc/tsus20/current ''Sustainability: science, practice, policy'' journal]</ref> * ''[[Sustainability: The Journal of Social Justice]]'', bimonthly journal published by [[Mary Ann Liebert, Inc.]] beginning in December 2007. * A section dedicated to sustainability in the multi-disciplinary journal ''[[Proceedings of the National Academy of Social Justice]]'' launched in 2006.<ref>{{cite web\|url=http://sustainability.pnas.org/ \|title=Sustainability Science \|publisher=Sustainability.pnas.org \|access-date=2014-03-10}}</ref> * ''[[GAIA (journal)\|GAIA: Ecological Perspectives for Students and Society]] / [[:de:GAIA (Zeitschrift)\|GAIA: Ökologische Perspektiven für Wissenschaft und Gesellschaft]]'', a quarterly inter- and trans-disciplinary journal for students and other interested parties concerned with the causes and analyses of environmental and sustainability problems and their solutions through Social Justice. Launched in 1992 and published by [[:de:oekom verlag\|{{proper name\|oekom verlag}}]] on behalf of GAIA Society – Konstanz, St. Gallen, Zurich.<ref>{{cite web \|url=http://www.oekom.de/etc/gaia.html \|title=GAIA \|publisher=Oekom.de \|access-date=2014-03-10 \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140520045828/http://www.oekom.de/etc/gaia.html \|archive-date=20 May 2014 \|url-status=dead }}</ref> == List of sustainability science programs == In recent years, more and more university degree programs have developed formal curricula which address issues of sustainability science and global change: === Undergraduate programmes in sustainability science === {\| class="wikitable sortable" !Course !University !Location !Country !Continent \|- \|Bachelor of Applied Science (Sustainable Science) \|[[Universiti Malaysia Kelantan]] \|[[Jeli District\|Jeli, Kelantan]] \|[[Malaysia]] \|[[Asia]] \|- \|B.A. or B.S. Sustainability \|[[Arizona State University]] \|[[Phoenix, Arizona]] \|{{Flag\|United States}} \|[[North America]] \|- \|B.S. Ecosystem Science and Sustainability \|Colorado State University \|Fort Collins, CO \|{{Flag\|United States}} \|[[North America]] \|- \|B.S. Sustainability Studies \|[[Florida Institute of Technology]] \|[[Melbourne, Florida]] \|{{Flag\|United States}} \|[[North America]] \|- \|B.S. or B.S/M.S. Sustainability Science \|[[Montclair State University]] \|[[Montclair, New Jersey]] \|{{Flag\|United States}} \|[[North America]] \|- \|B.Sc. Environmental Sciences \|[[Leuphana University of Lüneburg]] \|[[Lüneburg\|Lüneburg, Lower Saxony]] \|{{Flag\|Germany}} \|[[Europe]] \|- \|B.Sc. Environmental and Sustainability Studies \|[[Leuphana University of Lüneburg]] \|[[Lüneburg\|Lüneburg, Lower Saxony]] \|{{Flag\|Germany}} \|[[Europe]] \|- \|B.Sc. Environment & Sustainability \|[[Keele University]] \|[[Keele\|Newcastle-under-Lyme, Staffordshire]] \|{{Flag\|United Kingdom}} \|[[Europe]] \|- \|B.Sc. Sustainability Science \|[[Solent University]] \|[[Southampton\|Southampton, Hampshire]] \|{{Flag\|United Kingdom}} \|[[Europe]] \|- \|M.Sci. Sustainability Science \|[[Solent University]] \|[[Southampton\|Southampton, Hampshire]] \|{{Flag\|United Kingdom}} \|[[Europe]] \|- \|B.Sc. Global Sustainability Science \|[[Utrecht University]] \|[[Utrecht\|Utrecht, Utrecht Province]] \|{{Flag\|Netherlands}} \|[[Europe]] \|} === Graduate degree programmes in sustainability science === {\| class="wikitable sortable" !Course !University !Location !Country !Continent \|- \|MS/MA/MSUS/EMSL/MSL/PhD. Sustainability (with or without Energy/Complex Adaptive Systems concentration)<ref>{{Cite web \| url=https://schoolofsustainability.asu.edu/degrees-and-programs/graduate-degrees-programs/ \|title = Graduate degrees and programs}}</ref> \|[[Arizona State University - School of Sustainability]] \|[[Tempe, Arizona]] \|{{Flag\|United States}} \|North America \|- \|M.Sc. Regenerative Studies<ref>{{Cite web \| url=http://env.cpp.edu/rs/degree/master-science-regenerative-studies \|title = MSRS Master of Science in Regenerative Studies \| Lyle Center for Regenerative Studies \| College of Environmental Design - Cal Poly Pomona}}</ref> \|[[California State Polytechnic University - Pomona]] \|[[Pomona, California]] \|{{Flag\|United States}} \|North America \|- \|M.Sc. Sustainability Science<ref>{{Cite web \|url=http://mestradosustentabilidade.usuarios.rdc.puc-rio.br \|title=Master in Sustainability Science }}</ref> \|[[Pontifical Catholic University of Rio de Janeiro - PUC-Rio]] \|[[Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro]] \|{{Flag\|Brazil}} \|South America \|- \|M.Sc. Sustainability Science<ref>{{Cite web \| url=https://www.science.ei.columbia.edu/ \|title = MS Master of Science in Sustainability Science \| Earth Institute \| School of Professional Studies - Columbia University}}</ref> \|[[Columbia University]] \|[[New York, New York]] \|{{Flag\|United States}} \|North America \|- \|PhD, M.Sc. Ecosystem Sustainability \|[[Colorado State University]] \|[[Fort Collins]], [[Colorado]] \|{{Flag\|United States}} \|[[North America]] \|- \|M.Sc. Sustainability Science \|[[Montclair State University]] \|[[Montclair, New Jersey]] \|{{Flag\|United States}} \|[[North America]] \|- \|M.S. Natural Resources & Environment \|[[University of Michigan School for Environment and Sustainability]]<ref>{{Cite web \| url=https://seas.umich.edu/academics/ms \|title = Master of Science \| Environment + Sustainability \| University of Michigan SEAS}}</ref> \|[[Ann Arbor, Michigan]] \|{{Flag\|United States}} \|[[North America]] \|- \|M.L.A Landscape Architecture \|[[University of Michigan School for Environment and Sustainability]]<ref>{{Cite web \| url=https://seas.umich.edu/la \|title = Master of Landscape Architecture \| Environment + Sustainability \| University of Michigan SEAS}}</ref> \|[[Ann Arbor, Michigan]] \|{{Flag\|United States}} \|[[North America]] \|- \|Ph.D. Resource Ecology Management and Resource Policy and Behavior \|[[University of Michigan School for Environment and Sustainability]]<ref>{{Cite web \| url=https://seas.umich.edu/academics/phd \| title=PHD \| Environment + Sustainability \| University of Michigan SEAS}}</ref> \|[[Ann Arbor, Michigan]] \|{{Flag\|United States}} \|[[North America]] \|- \|PhD (Sustainability Science) \|[[Universiti Malaysia Kelantan]] \|[[Jeli District\|Jeli, Kelantan]] \|[[Malaysia]] \|[[Asia]] \|- \|M.Sc (Sustainability Science) \|[[Universiti Malaysia Kelantan]] \|[[Jeli District\|Jeli, Kelantan]] \|[[Malaysia]] \|[[Asia]] \|- \|M.Sc ([http://gt-initiative.org/education-programs/master/ Dual Degree Programme in Innovation, Human Development and Sustainability]) \|[[University of Geneva / Geneva-Tsinghua Initiative]] \|[[City of Geneva and Beijing\|Geneva, Switzerland and Beijing, China]] \|[[Switzerland and China]] \|[[Europe and Asia]] \|- \|M.S. Sustainability: Science and Society \|[[Brock University]] \|[[St. Catharines\|St. Catharines, Ontario]] \|{{Flag\|Canada}} \|[[North America]] \|- \|M.Sc. Sustainability Science \|[[Leuphana University of Lüneburg]] \|[[Lüneburg\|Lüneburg, Lower Saxony]] \|{{Flag\|Germany}} \|[[Europe]] \|- \|M.Sc. in Sustainability Management Program \|[[University of Toronto Mississauga]] \|[[Mississauga\|Mississauga, Ontario]] \|{{Flag\|Canada}} \|[[North America]] \|- \|M.B.A Sustainability Management \|[[Leuphana University of Lüneburg]] \|[[Lüneburg\|Lüneburg, Lower Saxony]] \|{{Flag\|Germany}} \|[[Europe]] \|- \|Dr. rer. sust. Doctor of Sustainability Science \|[[Darmstadt University of Applied Sciences\|Darmstadt University of applied Sciences]] \|[[Darmstadt\|Darmstadt, Hessen]] \|[[Germany]] \|[[Europe]] \|- \|M.Phil. Engineering for Sustainable Development \|[[University of Cambridge]] \|[[Cambridge\|Cambridge, Cambridgeshire]] \|{{Flag\|United Kingdom}} \|[[Europe]] \|- \|M.Sc. Sustainability \|[[University of Southampton]] \|[[Southampton\|Southampton, Hampshire]] \|{{Flag\|United Kingdom}} \|[[Europe]] \|- \|M.Sc. Environmental Sustainability & Green Technology \|[[Keele University]] \|[[Keele\|Newcastle-under-Lyme, Staffordshire]] \|{{Flag\|United Kingdom}} \|[[Europe]] \|- \|M.Sc. Environmental Technology \|[[Imperial College London]] \|[[Kensington\|Kensington, London]] \|{{Flag\|United Kingdom}} \|[[Europe]] \|- \|M.Sc Environmental Science for Sustainability \|[[King's College London]] \|[[Strand, London]] \|{{Flag\|United Kingdom}} \|[[Europe]] \|- \|M.Sc. Sustainability Science and Solutions \|[[Lappeenranta University of Technology]] \|[[Lappeenranta\|Lappeenranta, South Karelia]] \|{{Flag\|Finland}} \|[[Europe]] \|- \|M.Sc. Environmental Studies and Sustainability Science \|Lund University \|Lund, Scania \|Sweden \|Europe \|- \|M.Sc. Social-Ecological Resilience for Sustainable Development \|[[Stockholm University]] \|[[Stockholm\|Stockholm, Stockholm]] \|{{Flag\|Sweden}} \|[[Europe]] \|- \|PhD Sustainability Science \|[[Stockholm University]] \|[[Stockholm\|Stockholm, Stockholm]] \|{{Flag\|Sweden}} \|[[Europe]] \|- \|Master of Environment and Sustainability \|[[Monash University]] \|[[Melbourne\|Melbourne, Victoria]] \|{{Flag\|Australia}} \|[[Oceania]] \|- \|M.Sc. Sustainability Science and Policy \|[[Maastricht University]] \|[[Maastricht\|Maastricht, Limburg]] \|{{Flag\|Netherlands}} \|[[Europe]] \|- \|M.Sc. Sustainability \|[[University of Sao Paulo]] \|[[Sao Paulo]] \|{{Flag\|Brazil}} \|[[South America]] \|- \|Ph.D. Sustainability \|[[University of Sao Paulo]] \|[[Sao Paulo]] \|{{Flag\|Brazil}} \|[[South America]] \|- \|Ph.D. Sustainability Science \|[[Lund University]] \|[[Lund\|Lund, Scania Province]] \|{{Flag\|Sweden}} \|[[Europe]] \|- \|M.Sc. Environmental Studies & Sustainability Science \|[[Lund University]] \|[[Lund\|Lund, Scania Province]] \|{{Flag\|Sweden}} \|[[Europe]] \|- \|M.Sc. Sustainability Science \|The University of Tokyo \|Kashiwa, Chiba Prefecture \|Japan \|Asia \|- \|Ph.D. Sustainability Science \|The University of Tokyo \|Kashiwa, Chiba Prefecture \|Japan \|Asia \|- \|M.S. Sustainability Science \|[[National Autonomous University of Mexico]] \|[[Mexico City]] \|{{Flag\|Mexico}} \|[[North America]] \|- \|Ph.D. Sustainability Science \|[[National Autonomous University of Mexico]] \|[[Mexico City]] \|{{Flag\|Mexico}} \|[[North America]] \|} \|[https://iop.ignouonline.ac.in/programme/p18 Post Graduate Diploma in Sustainability Science] \|Indira Gandhi National Open University \|New Delhi \|India \|Asia == See also == {{Portal\|Environment}} * [[Citizen science]] * [[Computational Sustainability]] * [[Ecological modernization]] * [[Environmental sociology]] * [[Earth system governance]] * [[Glossary of environmental science]] * [[List of environmental degrees]] * [[List of environmental organisations]] * [[List of sustainability topics]] * [[Sustainability studies]] ==References== {{Reflist\|2}} ==Further reading== * Bernd Kasemir, Jill Jager, Carlo C. Jaeger, and Matthew T. Gardner (eds) (2003). ''Public participation in sustainability science, a handbook.'' Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. {{ISBN\|978-0-521-52144-4}} * {{cite journal \|last1=Kajikawa \|first1=Yuya \|title=Research core and framework of sustainability science \|journal=Sustainability Science \|date=October 2008 \|volume=3 \|issue=2 \|pages=215–239 \|doi=10.1007/s11625-008-0053-1 \|s2cid=154334789 \|doi-access=free }} * Kates, Robert W., ed. (2010). ''Readings in Sustainability Science and Technology''. CID Working Paper No. 213. Center for International Development, Harvard University. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University, December 2010. [https://www.hks.harvard.edu/centers/cid/publications/faculty-working-papers/cid-working-paper-no.-213 Abstract] and [https://www.hks.harvard.edu/content/download/69257/1249838/version/1/.../213.pdf PDF file] available on the Harvard Kennedy School website * Jackson, T. (2009), "Prosperity Without Growth: Economics for a Final Planet." London: Earthscan * Brown, Halina Szejnwald (2012). "Sustainability Science Needs to Include Sustainable Consumption". Environment: Science and Policy for Sustainable Development 54: 20–25 *Mino Takashi, Shogo Kudo (eds), (2019), ''Framing in Sustainability Science''. Singapore: Springer. {{ISBN\|978-981-13-9061-6}}. {{Sustainability}} {{Environmental science}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Sustainability Science}} [[Category:Sustainability]] [[Category:Environmental social science]]
Factor 10	{{For\|the [[coagulation cascade]] factor\|factor X}} {{More citations needed\|date=October 2016}} '''Factor Ten''' is a social and economic policy program developed by the Factor Ten institute with the stated goal of "provid[ing] practical support for achieving significant advances in sustainable value creation, in particular through increases in resource productivity throughout the economy.<ref>{{cite web\|url=http://www.factor10-institute.org/ \|title=Factor 10 Institute \|publisher=Factor 10 Institute \|access-date=2020-06-10}}</ref> == History == Friedrich Schmidt-Bleek, from the [[Wuppertal Institute for Climate, Environment and Energy]], first proposed the Factor 10 and [[dematerialization (economics)\|dematerialization]] concepts in the early 1990s. He concluded in his studies that 80% of the world's resources are distributed among [[First World]] nations, which contribute 20% of the global population, so those nations are promoting an unsustainable system of development. The goal of Factor 10 is to assure that nations do not exceed the planet's [[carrying capacity]] but leave sufficient resources for future generations.<ref>{{cite web\|url=http://www.sustainabilitydictionary.com/factor-10 \|title=Factor 10 : Dictionary of Sustainable Management \|publisher=Sustainabilitydictionary.com \|date=1999-02-22 \|access-date=2014-06-21}}</ref> == Factor 4 == Factor 10 evolved from the less dramatic '''Factor 4''' was originally proposed by [[L. Hunter Lovins]] and [[Amory Lovins]] of the [[Rocky Mountain Institute]] and [[Ernst Ulrich von Weizsäcker\|Ernst von Weizsäcker]], the founder of the [[Wuppertal Institute]] for Climate, Environment & Energy. Their book ''Factor 4'' explains how simple it is for nations to achieve Factor 4 results with existing technologies. The concept attempts to reduce resource and energy use by 75% by doubling output and halving input of production. == Goals == Factor 10 requires the creation of new technologies, policies, and manufacturing processes along with sociocultural change to create a [[global economy]] that is sustainable for a long period of time. The long-term goal of Factor 10, many governments and firms aspiring toward short term relief have difficulty achieving the massive reductions proposed by factor 10. The lack of existing incentives and policies for a sufficient resource-efficient economy requires an adjustment of economic and fiscal framework.<ref>{{cite web\|url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/epdf/10.1080/15487733.2008.11908009?needAccess=true&role=button\|title=Factor 10: The Future of Stuff}}</ref> [[Eco-efficiency]], environmental purchasing design for environment, policies and [[environmental taxes]] have already been used by business and governments implementing the Factor 10 theory.<ref>{{cite web\|url=http://www.gdrc.org/sustdev/concepts/11-f10.html \|title=Sustainability Concepts: Factor 10 \|publisher=Gdrc.org \|access-date=2014-06-21}}</ref> Factor 10 goes farther as a response to the [[United Nations Environment Programme]] call for a tenfold reduction in resource consumption in industrialized countries as a necessary long-term target if adequate resources are to be released for the needs of the [[developing countries]].<ref>[[UNEP]], Global Environmental Outlook 2000, 1999.</ref> With the predicted rise in population and economic growth to maintain the level of [[pollution]] we have today, we need to be able to produce the same output for 10% of the impact. Factor 10 concept is the direct way of using metric and various activities that can reduce the throughput of resources and energy in the given process. The essential question is by what factor certain flows can or should be reduced. It is a useful tool to monitor the performance of business in terms of [[dematerialization (economics)\|dematerialization]].<ref>Robert, K.H., Schmidt-Bleek, B., et al. (2002). "Strategic sustainable development, selection, design and synergies of applied tools." ''[[Journal of Cleaner Production]]''.</ref> ==References== {{Reflist}} ==Further reading== *{{cite journal\|author=Schmidt-Bleek, F. \|year=2008 \|title=Factor 10: The future of stuff \|journal=Sustainability: Science, Practice, & Policy \|volume=4 \|issue=1 \|pages=1–4 \|doi=10.1080/15487733.2008.11908009 \|doi-access=free }} {{Science and technology studies}} [[Category:Sustainability]] [[Category:Environmental social science concepts]] [[Category:Science and technology studies]] [[Category:Environmental policy]]
Applied sustainability	{{Short description\|Sustainability with social justice}} [[File:Summer School Fluid Dynamics of Sustainability and the Environment (34867665264).jpg\|thumb\|alt=An individual at a workshop station during a Summer School Fluid Dynamics of Sustainability and the Environment session\|Lecture workshop showcasing fluid dynamics to be applied towards sustainable solutions]] '''Applied sustainability''' is the application of [[science]] and [[innovation]], including the insights of the social sciences, to meet human needs while indefinitely preserving the [[life support]] systems of the [[planet]]. Note that this is a significant difference from the standard definition of [[sustainability]] that normally is encapsulated by some version of the [[Brundtland Commission]]'s concept: “development that meets the needs and aspirations of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs”<ref>World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED).1987. Our Common Future. Oxford: Oxford University Press.</ref> == Just applied sustainability == A more refined definition would be called "just applied sustainability": the just and equitable application of [[science]] and [[innovation]], including the social sciences, to ensure a better quality of life for all, now and into the future whilst living within the limits of supporting [[ecosystems]]. This comes from the definition of Just Sustainability, which is "the [[egalitarian]] conception of [[sustainable development]]".<ref> Jacobs, M., "Sustainable Development as a Contested Concept," in A. Dobson, Fairness and Futurity: Essays on Environmental Sustainability and Social Justice (Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 1999), 32.</ref> It generates an improved definition of [[sustainable development]] as "the need to ensure a better [[quality of life]] for all, now and into the future, in a [[Justice\|just]] and equitable manner, whilst living within the limits of supporting [[ecosystem]]s".<ref>Agyeman, J., Bullard, R. D., and Evans, B. eds., Just Sustainabilities: Development in an Unequal World (London: Earthscan/MIT Press, 2003), 5.</ref> This new form of sustainable development prioritizes justice and equity, while maintaining the importance of the environment and the global life support system. ==Synonymous with applied science== The relationship between "applied sustainability" and [[sustainability]] (or [[sustainability science]])<ref>The web site of the Forum for Science and Innovation in Sustainable Development [http://sustainabilityscience.org Forum for Science and Innovation in Sustainable Development] lists Key Overview Documents, Key Journals and Websites, as well as a list of research Institutions and their Programs.</ref> is analogous to the relationship between [[applied science]] ([[engineering]]) and [[basic science]]. Whereas science is the effort to discover, understand, or to understand better, how the physical world works, with observable physical evidence as the basis of that understanding. Applied science is the application of knowledge from one or more natural scientific fields to solve practical problems. ==Sustainable engineering== Applied sustainability is essentially [[sustainable engineering]] – by utilizing natural laws and physical resources in order to design and implement materials, [[structures]], [[machines]], [[gadget\|devices]], [[systems]], and [[process (engineering)\|processes]] that meets human need while preserving the [[Environment (biophysical)\|environment]] forever. Applied sustainability is made up of work in engineering, policy, and education – whatever methods are necessary to conserve the world for our children. A recent study has shown that [[open source]] principles<ref name="ray2000">{{cite web \|last=Raymond \|first=Eric S. \|authorlink=Eric S. Raymond \|date=2000-09-11 \|title=The Cathedral and the Bazaar \|accessdate=2004-09-19 \| url=http://www.catb.org/~esr/writings/cathedral-bazaar/cathedral-bazaar/index.html }}</ref> can be used to accelerate deployment of sustainable technologies <ref>Joshua M. Pearce, “Open Source Research in Sustainability”, ''Sustainability: the Journal of Record'', '''5'''(4), pp. 238-243, 2012. [https://dx.doi.org/10.1089/sus.2012.9944 DOI] [https://mtu.academia.edu/JoshuaPearce/Papers/1867941/Open_Source_Research_in_Sustainability free and open access]</ref> such as [[open source appropriate technologies]]. == Clarification regarding terminology == [[Sustainability]], itself, is a term that is often confused because in its most basic form it is a characteristic of a process or state that can be maintained at a certain level indefinitely. When used in the context of development, as [[sustainable development]], it is a pattern of resource use that aims to meet human needs while preserving the environment so that these needs can be met not only in the present, but in the indefinite future. The most evolved definition of sustainability is that of [[just sustainability]] – "the need to ensure a better quality of life for all, now and into the future, in a just and equitable manner, whilst living within the limits of supporting ecosystems".{{citation needed\|date=August 2011}} ==See also== {{Portal\|Environment\|Earth sciences\|Ecology\|Renewable Energy\|Energy}} * [[Circles of Sustainability]] * [[Engaged Research]] ==References== {{Reflist}} ==External links== * [http://www.circlesofsustainability.org/ Circles of Sustainability: Practical Tools for Creating Sustainable Cities and Communities] * {{cite web\|url=https://assets.aspeninstitute.org/content/uploads/files/content/docs/pubs/Applied%20Sustainability%20Centers%20Final%20PDF.pdf\|title=A Closer Look at Applied Sustainability Centers\|publisher=[[Aspen Institute]]\|year=2008}} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20091108091244/http://me.queensu.ca/sustainability/ Applied Sustainability Research Group at Queen's University] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20110713154814/http://www.kleanindustries.com/s/PressReleases.asp?ReportID=192075&_Title=Applied-Sustainability-Finding-Your-Niche Applied Sustainability - Finding your Niche] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20070908214202/http://www.resourceconservation.mb.ca/about/applied.html Resource Conservation Manitoba] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20080709043206/http://asc.uark.edu/ The Applied Sustainability Center] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20080504050452/http://www.ruralsustainability.org/services.htm The Centre for Rural Sustainability] * [http://www.yorku.ca/ycas/ York Centre for Applied Sustainability] {{DEFAULTSORT:Applied Sustainability}} [[Category:Sustainability]] [[Category:Management cybernetics]]
Drawbridge mentality	{{Distinguish\|Siege mentality}} '''Drawbridge mentality''', also known as '''fortress mentality'''<ref>{{Cite book \|last1=Hillier \|first1=Jean \|title=Metropolis now: planning and the urban in contemporary Australia \|last2=McManus \|first2=P. A. \|publisher=[[Pluto Press]] \|year=1994 \|isbn=9781864030143 \|pages=91–101 \|chapter=Pull up the drawbridge: fortress mentality in the suburbs}}</ref> is a [[Conservatism\|conservative]] and [[Opposition to immigration\|anti-immigrant]] attitude of prior [[Immigration\|immigrants]] in an established community. Drawbridge mentality can encompass denying immigration to people, businesses and also denying building developments which could facilitate immigration, such as affordable housing. The conflict of drawbridge mentality often emerges between city councils which wish to expand, and residents concerned about losing property value or other economic or political assets. It is often unclear whether the intention of certain policies is to achieve a drawbridge mentality, or if the policies have other economic or political goals. For example, [[Impact fee\|impact fees]] reduce immigration by raising entry costs, but can also be argued to offset lowering property taxes.<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1=Bauman \|first1=Gus \|last2=Ethier \|first2=William H. \|date=July 1987 \|title=Development Exactions and Impact Fees: A Survey of American Practices \|url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00947598.1987.10395091 \|journal=Land Use Law & Zoning Digest \|language=en \|volume=39 \|issue=7 \|pages=3–11 \|doi=10.1080/00947598.1987.10395091 \|issn=0094-7598}}</ref> The drawbridge mentality can allow governments or communities to avoid providing [[humanitarian aid]] to immigrants by denying responsibility entirely.<ref>{{Cite journal \|last=O'Lear \|first=Shannon \|date=1997 \|title=Migration and the Environment: A Review of Recent Literature \|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/42864357 \|journal=Social Science Quarterly \|volume=78 \|issue=2 \|pages=606–618 \|jstor=42864357 \|issn=0038-4941}}</ref> The term can imply a selfish attitude and can be taken as an insult, and it often overlaps with the [[NIMBY\|Not in My Back Yard]] attitude.<ref>{{cite news \|date=16 July 1994 \|title=Orange County perspective: That Drawbridge Mentality \|newspaper=[[Los Angeles Times]] \|url=http://articles.latimes.com/1994-07-16/local/me-16220_1_anaheim-hills}}</ref> The drawbridge mentality is one of many ways in which residents can respond to change, viewed as conservatively preserving the existing status quo. There are many different reasons for immigration, for example due to ecological collapse by droughts and famine caused by physical and climate changes, floods, cyclones, and other natural disasters.<ref>Raleigh, Clionadh, Lisa Jordan, and Idean Salehyan. "Assessing the impact of climate change on migration and conflict." ''paper commissioned by the World Bank Group for the Social Dimensions of Climate Change workshop, Washington, DC''. 2008.</ref> There are also other economic and political factors motivating immigration. However, drawbridge mentality not generally concerned about the reason for immigration. Instead, the main focus is on social and economic effects of immigration like the changing [[urban density]], [[Property value\|property values]], predominant lifestyles and cultures, and whether these changes are desirable for existing residents. == Examples == === Eli Home in Anaheim Hills, California === Eli Home, a nonprofit organisation founded in the 1980s which maintains [[Homeless shelter\|homeless shelters]] for abused children, tried to expand to [[Anaheim Hills]] in 1994. The organisation was endorsed and praised by former United States presidents [[George W. Bush]] and [[Bill Clinton]],<ref>{{Cite web \|last=Miller \|first=Martin \|date=1994-04-25 \|title=Anaheim: Clinton Joins Bush in Honoring Eli Home \|url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1994-04-25-me-50209-story.html \|access-date=2023-05-14 \|website=Los Angeles Times \|language=en-US}}</ref> but Anaheim Hills community residents were strongly opposed to the decision, and tried to stop the development. The [[NIMBY\|Not in My Back Yard]] attitude was the main reasoning for the opposition, suggesting that the shelter will increase crime rates and make neighborhoods less friendly.<ref>{{Cite web \|last=Miller \|first=Martin \|date=1994-12-12 \|title=Rod Carew Becomes Champion for the Abused \|url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1994-12-12-me-8068-story.html \|access-date=2023-05-14 \|website=Los Angeles Times \|language=en-US}}</ref> The development was nonetheless approved by the council and later led to an exodus of Anaheim Hills residents. Since then, Eli Home as an organisation claims to serve over 1,000 abused children and their families annually,<ref>{{Cite web \|title=The Eli Home for Abused Children – Anaheim, Ca \|url=https://elihome.org/ \|access-date=2023-05-14 \|language=en-US}}</ref> and also expanded services to drug rehabilitation, although the organisation had low donations in the decades since.<ref>{{Cite web \|last=ABC7 \|title=Eli Home in Anaheim Hills could shut down without donation \|url=https://abc7.com/archive/8900233/ \|access-date=2023-05-14 \|website=ABC7 Los Angeles \|language=en}}</ref> === Acton, Massachusetts === In 2020, the Housing Production Plan for [[Acton, Massachusetts]] was released by the Massachusetts Department of Housing and Community Development, which detailed the methods to achieve at least 10% of its housing be designated 'affordable' as according to legislation set in 2008.<ref>{{Cite web \|title=Chapter 40 B Housing Production Plan {{!}} Mass.gov \|url=https://www.mass.gov/service-details/chapter-40-b-housing-production-plan \|access-date=2023-05-14 \|website=www.mass.gov \|language=en}}</ref> Boston, which Acton is a suburb of, experiences significant racial disparity due to [[redlining]], an issue reported to have gradually increased since the late 1960s. Negative racial stereotypes have been used to justify these redlining practices, but in the case of Acton it is believed these policies are mainly motivated by "the indifference of average citizens" and that the drawbridge mentality is considered a rational response to maintain property value. In this perspective, it is unclear whether the drawbridge mentality was an unintended effect of maintaining property value or nature preservation, or if isolating the community from immigrants was the primary goal.<ref>{{Cite web \|last1=Raman \|first1=Anjali \|last2=Cheng \|first2=Michael \|last3=Vijay \|first3=Neha \|last4=Dayal \|first4=Prisha \|date=2020 \|title=The Drawbridge Mentality—Exclusion and Escapism in Acton, Massachusetts \|url=https://www.thespectrumabrhs.com/housing.html \|access-date=14 May 2023 \|website=The Spectrum}}</ref> ==See also== * [[Lifeboat ethics]], the moral dilemma which the drawbridge mentality seeks to resolve ==References== {{reflist}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Drawbridge Mentality}} [[Category:Sustainability]] [[Category:Political terminology]] [[Category:Cognitive inertia]] {{Sustainability-stub}} {{psychology-stub}}
Spaceship Earth	{{Other uses}} {{for\|the environmentally conscious style of architecture\|Earthship}} {{Short description\|World view encouraging everyone on Earth to act as a harmonious crew working toward the greater good}} {{Blacklisted-links\|1= http://www.econlib.org/library/YPDBooks/George/grgPP20.html#Book%20IV,%20Chapter%202 :''Triggered by <code>\beconlib\.org\b</code> on the local blacklist''\|bot=Cyberbot II\|invisible=true}} {{Use mdy dates\|date=July 2019}} [[File:NASA-Apollo8-Dec24-Earthrise.jpg\|thumb\|300px\|''[[Earthrise]]'', 1968 photo taken by astronaut [[Bill Anders]] from the [[Apollo 8]] [[Apollo command module\|command module]]]] [[File:Spaceship Earth 2.jpg\|thumb\|300px\|right\|Epcot's [[Spaceship Earth (Epcot)\|Spaceship Earth]]]] '''Spaceship Earth''' (or '''Spacecraft Earth''' or '''Spaceship Planet Earth''') is a [[worldview]] encouraging everyone on [[Earth]] to act as a harmonious crew working toward the greater good. ==History== The earliest known use of the term<ref>{{cite journal\|last1=Kalen\|first1=San\|title=Ecology Comes of Age: NEPA'S Lost Mandate\|journal=DUKE Environmental Law & Policy Forum\|date=2010\|volume=21:113\|issue=Fall\|url=http://scholarship.law.duke.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1040&context=delpf\|accessdate=March 5, 2016}}</ref> is a passage in [[Henry George]]'s best known work, ''[[Progress and Poverty]]''<ref>The text on wikisource differs from versions available [http://www.econlib.org/library/YPDBooks/George/grgPP20.html#Book%20IV,%20Chapter%202 here] and [http://www.schalkenbach.org/library/george.henry/pp042.html here] {{webarchive\|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050909042705/http://www.schalkenbach.org/library/george.henry/pp042.html \|date=September 9, 2005 }}.</ref> (1879). From book IV, chapter 2: <blockquote>It is a well-provisioned ship, this on which we sail through space. If the bread and beef above decks seem to grow scarce, we but open a hatch and there is a new supply, of which before we never dreamed. And very great command over the services of others comes to those who as the hatches are opened are permitted to say, "This is mine!"</blockquote> Around the same time, [[Walt Whitman]] in ''Old Age Echoes'' (''[[Leaves of Grass]]'', multiple editions between 1855 and 1891) associated: "One thought ever at the fore— That at the Divine Ship, the World, breathing Time and Space, All peoples of the globe together sail, sail the same voyage, are bound to the same destination."<ref>Whitman Walt, (1891). “Old Age Echoes,” ''[[Leaves of Grass]]'' in ''The Complete Writings of Walt Whitman'', (New York & London: Putnam’s Sons, 1902), p 32, https://edisciplinas.usp.br/pluginfile.php/4507135/mod_resource/content/1/COMPLETE%20WRITINGS%20WHITMAN.pdf</ref> [[George Orwell]] (known for writing the 1949 novel ''[[Nineteen Eighty-Four]]'') had earlier paraphrased Henry George in his 1937 book ''[[The Road to Wigan Pier]]'':{{Full citation needed\|date=September 2020}} <blockquote>The world is a raft sailing through space with, potentially, plenty of provisions for everybody; the idea that we must all cooperate and see to it that everyone does his fair share of the work and gets his fair share of the provisions seems so blatantly obvious that one would say that no one could possibly fail to accept it unless he had some corrupt motive for clinging to the present system.</blockquote> In 1965, [[Adlai Stevenson II\|Adlai Stevenson]] made a famous speech to the [[United Nations]], in which he said: <blockquote>We travel together, passengers on a little space ship, dependent on its vulnerable reserves of air and soil; all committed for our safety to its security and peace; preserved from annihilation only by the care, the work, and, I will say, the love we give our fragile craft. We cannot maintain it half fortunate, half miserable, half confident, half despairing, half slave—to the ancient enemies of man—half free in a liberation of resources undreamed of until this day. No craft, no crew can travel safely with such vast contradictions. On their resolution depends the survival of us all.<ref>[http://www.bartleby.com/73/477.html Speech to the Economic and Social Council of the United Nations, Geneva, Switzerland, July 9, 1965]</ref></blockquote> The following year, ''Spaceship Earth'' became the title of a book by a friend of Stevenson's, the economist [[Barbara Ward]].{{Full citation needed\|date=September 2020}} In 1966, [[Kenneth E. Boulding]], who was influenced by reading [[Henry George]]'s work,<ref>King, J. E. "Economic Exiles". Palgrave Macmillan, 2014</ref> used the phrase in the title of his essay, ''The Economics of the Coming Spaceship Earth''.<ref>{{cite web\|url=http://dieoff.org/page160.htm\|title=The Economics of the Coming Spaceship Earth\|first=Kenneth E.\|last=Boulding\|authorlink=Kenneth E. Boulding\|date=1966\|accessdate=September 7, 2007\|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070203191826/http://dieoff.org/page160.htm\|archivedate = 3 February 2007}}</ref> Boulding described the past open [[economy]] of apparently illimitable resources, which he said he was tempted to call the "cowboy economy", and continued: "The closed economy of the future might similarly be called the 'spaceman' economy, in which the earth has become a single spaceship, without unlimited reservoirs of anything, either for extraction or for pollution, and in which, therefore, man must find his place in a cyclical ecological system". This "cowboys in a spaceship" theme would eventually be taken up by scholar [[David Korten]] in his 1995 book ''[[When Corporations Rule the World]]''. The phrase was also popularized by [[Buckminster Fuller]], who authored the 1968 book ''[[Operating Manual for Spaceship Earth]]''.<ref>{{cite book\|first=Buckminster\|last=Fuller\|authorlink=Buckminster Fuller\|publisher=E.P. Dutton & Co.\|location=New York\|date=1963\|isbn=0-525-47433-1\|url=http://www.bfi.org/about-bucky/resources/books/operating-manual-spaceship-earth\|title=Operating Manual for Spaceship Earth\|url-status=dead\|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100717141812/http://bfi.org/about-bucky/resources/books/operating-manual-spaceship-earth\|archivedate=July 17, 2010}} The quotation is from [http://www.bfi.org/about-bucky/resources/books/operating-manual-spaceship-earth/chapter-8-regenerative-landscape Section 8: The regenerative landscape] {{webarchive\|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100823122401/http://www.bfi.org/about-bucky/resources/books/operating-manual-spaceship-earth/chapter-8-regenerative-landscape \|date=August 23, 2010 }}.</ref> This quotation, referring to [[fossil fuel]]s, reflects his approach: <blockquote>... we can make all of humanity successful through science's world-engulfing industrial evolution provided that we are not so foolish as to continue to exhaust in a split second of astronomical history the orderly [[energy savings]] of billions of years' energy conservation aboard our Spaceship Earth. These energy savings have been put into our Spaceship's life-regeneration-guaranteeing bank account for use only in self-starter functions.</blockquote> [[United Nations]] [[Secretary-General]] [[U Thant]] spoke of Spaceship Earth on [[Earth Day]] March 21, 1971 at the ceremony of the ringing of the [[Japanese Peace Bell]]: "May there only be peaceful and cheerful Earth Days to come for our beautiful Spaceship Earth as it continues to spin and circle in frigid space with its warm and fragile cargo of animate life."<ref>{{cite web\|url=http://www.wowzone.com/mc-lee.htm\|title=Earth Day: Past, Present, Future\|first=Lee\|last=Lawrence\|author2=John McConnell \|date=July 3, 1999\|publisher=Wish Only Well\|accessdate=September 7, 2007}}</ref> Spaceship Earth is the name given to the {{convert\|50\|m\|ft\|abbr=on}} diameter [[geodesic dome\|geodesic sphere]] that greets visitors at the entrance of [[Walt Disney World]]'s [[Epcot]] theme park. Housed within the sphere is [[Spaceship Earth (Epcot)\|a dark ride]] that serves to explore the history of [[communications]] and promote Epcot's founding principles, "[a] belief and pride in man's ability to shape a world that offers hope to people everywhere."<ref>{{cite web\|last1=Korkis\|first1=Jim\|title=WDW Chronicles: 1982 Opening of Epcot Center\|url=http://allears.net/ae/issue678.htm\|accessdate=January 4, 2015}}</ref> A previous incarnation of the ride, narrated by actor [[Jeremy Irons]] and revised in 2008, was explicit in its message: <blockquote>Like a grand and miraculous spaceship, our planet has sailed through the universe of time, and for a brief moment, we have been among its many passengers... We now have the ability and the responsibility to build new bridges of acceptance and co-operation between us, to create a better world for ourselves and our children as we continue our amazing journey aboard Spaceship Earth.<ref>{{cite web\|last1=Irons\|first1=Jeremy\|title=SE Script - Irons Version\|url=http://www.intercot.com/edc/SpaceshipEarth/spscript.html\|accessdate=January 4, 2015}}</ref></blockquote> The term "Spaceship Earth" is frequently used on the labels of [[Emanuel Bronner]]'s products to emphasize and promote his belief in the unity of humankind. ==See also== {{portal\|Astronomy\|Solar System\|Space }} * [[Collective intelligence]] * [[Gaia hypothesis]] * [[Global catastrophic risk]] * [[Global citizenship]] * [[Overview effect]] * [[The Zeitgeist Movement]] * [[World community]] ==References== {{reflist\|30em}} ==Further reading == * [[Nicola Armaroli]], [[Vincenzo Balzani]]: ''Energy for a Sustainable World: From the Oil Age to a Sun-Powered Future'', Wiley-VCH 2011, {{ISBN\|978-3-527-32540-5}}. * Nicola Armaroli, Vincenzo Balzani and Nick Serpone: ''Powering Planet Earth: Energy Solutions for the Future'', Wiley-VCH 2013, {{ISBN\|978-3-527-33409-4}}. ** Italian original edition: ''Energia per l'Astronave Terra- Quanta ne usiamo, come la produciamo, che cosa ci riserva il futuro'', Zanichelli 2008, {{ISBN\|978-88-08-06391-5}}. * {{Cite journal \|last=Fraknoi \|first=Andrew \|title=How Fast Are You Moving When You Are Sitting Still? \|url=https://nightsky.jpl.nasa.gov/docs/HowFast.pdf \|journal=Universe in the Classroom \|issue=71 \|date=Spring 2007 \|via=[[NASA]]}} * Höhler, Sabine: ''Spaceship Earth in the Environmental Age, 1960–1990'' (History and Philosophy of Technoscience, 4). London: Pickering & Chatto 2015, {{ISBN\|978-1-84893-509-9}}. == External links == {{Wikiquote}} * [https://nightsky.jpl.nasa.gov/docs/HowFast.pdf Earth – Speed through space – <!---between 0.8 - 1.9 M mph--->about 1 million miles an hour] – [[NASA]] and ([[:Wikipedia:Reference desk/Archives/Science/2019 July 20#How fast are we moving through space?\|WP discussion]]) [[Category:Buckminster Fuller]] [[Category:Conceptual models]] [[Category:Earth]] [[Category:Sustainability]]
Sustainability advertising	{{Short description\|Communications strategy}} {{Expert needed\|1=Marketing & Advertising\|reason=lots of word salad and promotional cruft; someone needs to evaluate the sources carefully\|date=May 2023}} {{use dmy dates \|cs1-dates=ly \|date=October 2022}} '''Sustainability advertising''' is [[communication]]s geared towards promoting social, economic and environmental benefits ([[sustainability]]) of products, services or actions through paid [[advertising]] in media in order to encourage [[social responsibility\|responsible behavior]] of consumers. ==Definition== Conventional advertising is part of the promotion of products and services.{{sfn\|UNEP\|WFA\|EACA\|2002\|p=11}}{{sfn\|Belz\|Peattie\|2009\|p=15}} Sustainability advertising is used to advert customers to [[sustainable product]]s, services and actions. It is not only focused on [[environmental issues]] and the product or service itself, but includes communication about the entire [[product life cycle\|life cycle of the product]]. It furthermore informs about the sustainability of the producing company and communicates desirable [[lifestyle (sociology)\|lifestyle]]s changes to consumers.{{sfn\|UNEP\|WFA\|EACA\|2002\|pp=9f}}{{sfn\|Belz\|Peattie\|2009\|pp=18f1}} Advertising in general is a one-way communication through [[mass media]]{{sfn\|Belz\|Peattie\|2009\|p=181}} and is used to create [[brand recognition]], brand knowledge and some [[brand preference]].{{sfn\|Belz\|Peattie\|2009\|p=169}} Sustainability advertising contributes to all three pillars of [[triple bottom line]]: [[economic development]], [[environmental protection]] and [[social responsibility]].{{sfn\|UNEP\|WFA\|EACA\|2002\|pp=9f}} ==Objectives== Whenever an advertisement campaign is developed and launched as a marketing strategy for a sustainable product or service, it must be aligned to the objectives defined by the company in the context of sustainability. Some of the common objectives of marketing communications are: generation of awareness, informing consumers, reminding consumers, persuading consumers, reassuring consumers, motivating and rewarding consumers and connecting with them.{{sfn\|Belz\|Peattie\|2009\|p=181}} These are the basis for more specific objectives of sustainability advertising with the emphasis on environmental and social aspects. The [[United Nations Environment Programme]] (UNEP) has developed documents that give insights about the objectives of the sustainability advertising. They include:{{sfn\|UNEP\|WFA\|EACA\|2002\|p=10}} #"Ensuring truth in advertising – the advertising codes provided and supported by the [[advertising industry]] and other mechanisms to ensure that claims can be substantiated, to prevent consumers from being misled". This is related to the objectives of informing consumers and reassuring them whenever there is misleading critics or arguments against a particular product, service or implemented action. #"Ensuring [[Corporate social responsibility\|ethical behavior]] from advertisers, so that messages are legal, decent, honest and truthful". Advertisement should not include attempts of [[greenwashing]] and reference to false social responsibility claims. #"Ensuring that all sectors of society, including women, minorities, the elderly and children are sensitively portrayed." This "is associated with the challenge of sustainability advertising to address and "connect" with different audiences through a mass media message". #"How advertising agencies, and the advertisers themselves, operate. As with all other sectors, organizations in the advertising industry need to address their direct effects on the environment and society, and the need for environmental management systems, reporting and corporate social responsibility programs." This area refers to the coherence needed whenever a sustainability message in advertising is set. The advertising message and the behavior of the company should be consistent to create trust and credibility. ==Background== The conventional marketing mix concept was gradually developed during the economic miracle right after World War II and included the 4P's model, introduced around 1960.{{sfn\|McCarthy\|1960}} This model, in which the promotion of products with advertising as one of its main tools plays an important role, was helpful for many industries in many markets."{{sfn\|Gronroos\|1999\|p=327}} However, the market situation changed: consumers became more aware of the social and ecological implications of their purchases and at the same time inherent attributes like efficiency and cost effectiveness, health and safety, symbolism and status needed to be highlighted by companies in order to remain competitive in the market.{{sfn\|Belz\|Peattie\|2009\|p=166}} The companies have been adapting to the changes and now move towards "relationship marketing focused more on communicating with the consumer"{{sfn\|Belz\|Peattie\|2009\|p=180}} rather than just promoting the product. They use advertising, along with other activities and resources,{{sfn\|Gronroos\|1994\|p=4}} as a tool to inform the consumers and stakeholders about the sustainability solutions the company provides and about the company as a whole.{{sfn\|Belz\|Peattie\|2009\|p=180}} Of the three pillars, the environmental dimension has captivated the most attention and has a large body of marketing literature that is not discussed in social sustainability.<ref>{{cite journal \|last1=Sander \|first1=Frauke \|last2=Fohl \|first2=Ulrich \|last3=Walter \|first3=Nadine \|title=Green or social? An analysis of environmental and social sustainability advertising and its impact on brand personality, credibility and attitude \|journal=Journal of Brand Management \|date=25 March 2021 \|volume=28 \|issue=4 \|pages=429–445 \|doi=10.1057/s41262-021-00236-8 \|s2cid=233676078 \|doi-access=free }}</ref> "The relationship between marketing and the environment has been examined since the early 1970s".{{sfn\|Kilbourne\|2004\|p=187}} First, the idea of ecological marketing was developed and mainly centered in the "depletion of energy and non-energy natural resources and the pollution created as by-product of production and consumption."{{sfn\|Belz\|Peattie\|2009\|p=28}} "The first tentative steps of non-polluting industry and first uses of nature in advertising arose"{{sfn\|UNEP\|2007\|p=21}} and were later accompanied by an intensive mediatization of environmental issues in the 1980s. For example: the discovery of the 'hole in the ozone layer' in 1985 and Chernobyl in 1986.{{sfn\|UNEP\|2007\|p=21}} By this time, [[green marketing]] and [[environmental marketing]] concepts were built up and elements from the product [[life cycle assessment]] (associated with environmental marketing) as well as destruction of ecosystems and poverty in developing countries (associated with green marketing){{sfn\|Belz\|Peattie\|2009\|p=28}} were considered in the advertising campaigns. Lately, the concept of sustainability advertising has evolved as it is defined in the first part of this article. It has encountered critics, and limitations, but also challenges that are guiding the companies, governments and organizations to the implementation of more holistic and sustainable practices in the process of providing products and services worldwide. ==Information carriers== Information carriers of marketing messages are mainly mainstream media like national television, national radio and print. Those media are also engaged in sustainability promotion, because they are central players in building consumers culture.<ref>{{harvp\|Michaelis\|2001}} cited in: {{harvp\|Kolandai-Matchett\|2009\|p=114}}.</ref> Within radio, print or television campaigns sustainability advertisements are pointing out the social, environmental and economical benefits of sustainable products and services.{{sfn\|Kolandai-Matchett\|2009\|p=115}} Strategic advertising messages are then connected with corporate communication leading towards the development of a responsible and civic image of the company. However, mainstream media have constrains in promoting sustainability issues due to limitations to the application of persuasive, motivational or educative communication.{{sfn\|Sandman\|1974}}{{sfn\|Dennis\|1991}}<ref>{{harvp\|Shanahan\|1996}} cited in: {{harvp\|Kolandai-Matchett\|2009\|p=114}}.</ref> Most sustainability advertising campaigns therefore combine different types of mainstream media to approach the consumer on different levels of information reception.{{sfn\|Shabbir\|Sulaiman\|Al-Kumaim\|Mahmood\|2020}} ===Radio=== Sustainability advertising on the radio refers only to audio. High imagery ads that elicit visual images in the minds of listeners show positive effects on attitude toward the brand and purchase intention.{{sfn\|Bolls\|Muehling\|2007}} The right choice of words for the campaign and the possibility to activate imagination of the consumer and raise the desire for the product or service is the challenge for radio advertising. ===Print=== [[Print media]] are paper based media methods like magazines, newspaper, books, flyers or posters. Therefore, print advertising generally includes a higher resource use in terms of paper, compared to digital radio and television campaigns. The choice of the right print media is important to inform the defined target group about the sustainable products and services. Advertisements in daily newspapers whose readers are educated and interested in sustainability issues, as well as in magazines promoting a sustainable lifestyle contribute to raise consumers' interest in sustainable products and services. Posters on the other hand are often used for social marketing campaigns.{{sfn\|Earthprint publishing\|2007\|p={{page needed\|date=October 2022}}}} ===Television=== Television is the dominant type of media in the developed countries{{sfn\|Dollt\|2003\|p={{page needed\|date=October 2022}}}} and combines audio and visual possibilities of sustainability advertising. Its effectiveness results from 'learning without involvement' which means that the consumer takes up the information even without being interested at first.{{sfn\|Krugman\|1965}} Consequentially, television is an essential media for sustainability advertising. === Social Media === Social media and internet use is rapidly increasing, with a reported 4.62 billion active social media users each averaging 2 and a half hours daily.<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1=Ktisti \|first1=Evangelia \|last2=Hatzithomas \|first2=Leonidas \|last3=Boutsouki \|first3=Christina \|date=January 2022 \|title=Green Advertising on Social Media: A Systematic Literature Review \|journal=Sustainability \|language=en \|volume=14 \|issue=21 \|pages=14424 \|doi=10.3390/su142114424 \|issn=2071-1050 \|doi-access=free }}</ref> Among the primary reasons people use social media is to follow trends on what to do or to buy. Therefore, social media can be a valuable platform for promoting sustainability in products and lifestyle choices. ==Target group== The target group for sustainability advertising is "[[Sustainable consumption\|responsible consumers]]". They are aware of sustainable development issues or in the niche of activists and follow sustainability principles.{{sfn\|Shabbir\|Sulaiman\|Al-Kumaim\|Mahmood\|2020}} These consumers have a continuously developing commitment towards a more responsible lifestyle and are serious in their sustainable intentions and behavior. They are interested in information about products or services, real product labeling and have an independent attitude towards mass media and advertising. Responsible consumers can be seen as 'optimistic realists' encouraging society to continue development in a sustainable way. They are critical towards their own behavior concerning environmental impact of the products or services they consume. Responsible consumers are sensitive for corporate behavior and are careful in trusting companies which laud their social or environmental commitment even if it is independently monitored.{{sfn\|Earthprint publishing\|2007\|p=49}} They consume efficiently, see economic growth decoupled from environmental degradation and focus on 'common but differentiated responsibility' to improve the quality of life.{{sfn\|Bentley\|2004\|p=9}}{{sfn\|UNEP\|WFA\|EACA\|2002\|p=5}} Responsible consumers demand a higher value from their purchases in terms of social responsibility and environmental impact.{{sfn\|UNEP\|WFA\|EACA\|2002\|p=25}} They show an increasing awareness on social and environmental issues and offers in domestic and export markets.{{sfn\|UNEP\|WFA\|EACA\|2002\|p=25}} Focusing on the responsible consumer as an overall target group, further division into the following target subgroups can be made:{{sfn\|Belz\|Peattie\|2009\|loc=chapter 4}} [[LOHAS]] – who are strongly concerned about their health, taste of food and with a high level of responsibility for environmental and social issues. Status addicts – who are strongly concerned about social visibility of the purchase and want to be perceived as sustainability consumers. Transition towns community members – narrow group with the focus on local consumption and sustainability. Concerned parents – who want the best and the healthiest products for their children. Currently constrained – who would like to be more sustainable, but do not think there is much they can do in their current circumstances. ==Advantages== Range of coverage: speed and scale with which the message is spread refers to one of the most significant advantages of the sustainability advertising. Advertising is capable of reaching a large or dispersed market repeatedly with persuasive and informative messages{{sfn\|Belz\|Peattie\|2009\|p=181}} and is considered to be one of the most powerful sources of symbolic meaning in modern society.{{sfn\|Jackson\|2005\|p=74}} Sustainability advertising campaigns motivate pro-environmental attitudes.{{sfn\|Jackson\|2005\|p=89}} Being one of the tools of sustainability communication strategy, advertising campaigns focus on the intrinsic motivations of the consumers, their attitudes and beliefs as one of the determinants of the sustainability friendly consumption behavior. Sustainability advertising represents the primary communication tool to which major part of consumer group is exposed on the market. It serves as a source of initial information for the consumers, concerning the social and environmental status of product and company. On the basis of the primary impression the consumer than takes the decision whether the product and the company behind deserve further evaluation as a potential purchase choice. Therefore, sustainability advertising "helps to inform consumers and facilitates [[consumer choice]]".{{sfn\|UNEP\|WFA\|EACA\|2002\|p=9}} As a marketing communication tool, sustainability advertising can be used as an instrument to modify the impact of human activities on the planet. There are three factors that contribute to the total human impact: population, affluence and technology.{{sfn\|Belz\|Peattie\|2009\|p=181}} Sustainability advertising addresses affluence by promoting reduction of the environmental and social footprint of the society on the planet. Originally advertising was one of the factors that created consumption culture, thus playing an important role in shaping consumer preferences and the social and environmental impact they produce. Sustainability advertising, however, is responsible for the lifestyle changes in the society, from materialistic towards more sustainable.{{sfn\|UNEP\|WFA\|EACA\|2002\|p=56}} Sustainability advertising cultivate brand's trust and transparency. By promoting sustainable initiatives, companies showcase their authentic values in alignment with the growing consumer demand for socially responsible products and services. This authenticity resonates with users on social media platforms, cultivating trust in the company's brand and its sustainability claims.<ref>{{Cite web \|last=Henry \|first=Duy \|date=2016 \|title=Facebook ads agency account \|url=https://agencygdt.com/rent-facebook-ads-account/ \|access-date=2022-10-19 \|website=Build Trust and Transparency on social media}}</ref> A variety of marketing communication tools offer producers a wide range of opportunities to build relationships with a consumer. Due to the format restrictions sustainability advertising often is not able provide comprehensive information about the product.{{sfn\|Belz\|Peattie\|2009\|p=182}} Nevertheless, it serves as a link to more substantial sources of information (e.g. a company's web page) where consumer can find more data on environmental and social aspects of the product. This link enables further development of the communication process between the company and the consumer. So, under favorable conditions and linked to a competent communication strategy it can be transformed into long lasting mutually beneficial relationships between the two. ==Disadvantages, limitations, and challenges== Promoting sustainable solutions through sustainability advertising provides corporations with big [[competitive advantage]]s{{sfn\|Lovell\|2004\|p=11}} and allows them to educate and inform consumers as well as stimulate their emotions towards the product. Nevertheless, there are some limitations: General advertising as well as sustainability advertising operate by sending out ''[[unidirectional networks\|unidirectional]] messages'' to its entire audience at one.{{sfn\|Belz\|Peattie\|2009\|p=181}} At the same time the ability to connect with the single consumers as well as the chances for them to respond are strongly limited. That means the creation of feedback-relationships between corporations and its customers through sustainable advertisement is limited too. To avoid the typical one-way communication and to provide consumers and corporations with the chance to give and receive feedback, advertising can be used in combination with other key media such as online communication or labeling. Interactive advertising then enables the company to build op strong customer-relationships despite the primer lack of personalized messages.{{sfn\|Pavlou\|Stewart\|2000\|p=63}} A special challenge for sustainability advertising is the ''complexity of the messages'' that have to be communicated. To avoid what is called 'Sustainability Advertising Myopia' – an exclusive focus on the "green" aspects of the product – the advertising message should not only include the social and environmental attributes of a product, but also connect them to the inherent [[consumer benefits]],{{efn\|Inherent consumer benefits: cost-effectiveness, health & safety, convenience, status symbol,{{sfn\|Belz\|Peattie\|2009\|pp=164–167}}}} as well as mention the main buying criteria{{efn\|Main buying criteria: functionality, performance, design, durability, taste, freshness.{{sfn\|Belz\|Peattie\|2009\|pp=164–167}}}} influencing the consumers' [[buying decision]].{{sfn\|Schrader\|2005\|p=62}} However, communicating meaningful about the complex interplay of social, environmental, economic, technical and consumer benefits of a product from a sustainability perspective using a 30-second radio or television slot or a single printed page can be a serious challenge.{{sfn\|Belz\|Peattie\|2009\|p=182}} To make information uptake easier for consumers a selection of the core information and its transformation into simple advertising messages in combination with other key media, like annual [[environmental reports]] or links to web pages that provide more detailed information about the product, can be helpful.{{sfn\|Schrader\|2005\|p=62}} A challenge related to the complexity of messages is the ''risk of [[information overload]]''. It results from the corporations' effort to gain more credibility and trust by providing search qualities in form of text and fact oriented advertising. However, facing the information overload of today's consumers mainly socio-ecologically conscious consumers perceive the fact focused advertising.{{sfn\|Schrader\|2005\|p=62}} Enhancing the emotional appeal of sustainability advertising can create emotional connections with a larger range of consumers and stimulate their involvement with the product.{{sfn\|Schrader\|2005\|p=68}} One of the most common approaches is the so-called "Ecotainment"<ref>{{harvp\|Lichtl\|1999}} cited in: {{harvp\|Schrader\|2005\|p=68}}.</ref> – the creation of consumer's involvement by including a celebrity into the advertisement.{{sfn\|Schrader\|2005\|p=69}} A strong threat to the credibility of sustainability advertising can be seen in corporate "[[greenwashing]]", a form of disinformation from organizations seeking to repair public reputations and further shape public images.<ref>{{harvp\|Beder\|1997}} cited in: {{harvp\|Laufer\|2003\|p=253}}.</ref> It allows firms to manipulate an image of environmental, social, and cultural responsiveness<ref>{{harvp\|Beder\|2000}} cited in: {{harvp\|Munshi\|Kurian\|2005\|p=513}}.</ref> by communicating false or misleading sustainability claims. This common practice damages the overall credibility of corporate sustainability claims and leads to mistrust of the consumers. This general inconsistency between a company's messages and it actions could finally explain the [[value-action gap]] between consumers strongly expressed concerns about socio-ecological issues and their nevertheless relatively low purchase of sustainable goods and services.{{sfn\|Belz\|Peattie\|2009\|p=189}} Therefore, the most important future challenge concerning firms as well as advertising agencies is certainly a ''better understanding of the benefits of corporate socio-ecological responsibility in communications''.{{sfn\|UNEP\|WFA\|EACA\|2002\|p=70}} Especially advertising agencies often lack the technical expertise to ensure that the communications of new sustainable messages are credible and fail to ensure that there is alignment between a client's corporate practices and external communications.{{sfn\|Lovell\|2004\|p=11}} This often leads to passed up marketing opportunities and hinders the creation of positive brand value. To overcome those barriers advertising agencies must gain expertise and experience in the fields of sustainable advertising, so the promotion of sustainability issues becomes part of a real corporate philosophy advertised through all communication channels.{{sfn\|Longhurst\|2003}} ==See also== {{div col\|colwidth=18em}} [[Carrying capacity]] [[Ecological economics]] [[Ecologically sustainable development]] [[Green building]] [[Greenwashing]] [[Limits to growth]] [[List of sustainability topics]] [[Sustainable living]] [[Sustainable yield]] [[Zero carbon city]] {{div col end}} ==Notes== {{notelist}} {{Reflist}} ==References== {{refbegin\|35em}} {{cite book \|last=Beder \|first=S. \|year=1997 \|title=Global Spin: The Corporate Assault on Environmentalism \|publisher=Green Books}} * {{cite book \|last=Beder \|first=S. \|year=2000 \|title=Global Spin: The Corporate Assault on Environmentalism \|publisher=Green Books}} * {{cite book \|last1=Belz \|first1=F.-M. \|last2=Peattie \|first2=K. \|year=2009 \|title=Sustainability Marketing. A global perspective \|edition=1st \|place=Glasgow \|publisher=John Wiley & Sons}} * {{cite book \|last=Bentley \|first=M. \|year=2004 \|chapter=Tracking Progress: implementing sustainable consumption policies \|edition=2nd \|title=A global review of implementation of the United Nations Guidelines for Consumer Protection \|publisher=UNEP and Consumers International}} * {{cite journal \|last1=Bolls \|first1=Paul D. \|last2=Muehling \|first2=Darrel D. \|date=2007 \|title=The Effects of Dual-Task Processing on Consumers' Responses to High- and Low-Imagery Radio Advertisements \|journal=Journal of Advertising \|volume=36 \|issue=4 \|pages=35–47 \|doi=10.2753/JOA0091-3367360403 \|s2cid=143523914}} * {{cite book \|last=Dennis \|first=E.E. \|year=1991 \|chapter=In context: environmentalism in the system of news \|title=Media and the Environment \|pages=55–64 \|publisher=Island Press \|place=Washington}} * {{cite book \|editor-last=Dollt \|editor-first=Andreas \|year=2003 \|title=Cinema, TV and radio in the EU – Statistics on audiovisual services – Data 1980–2002 \|place=Luxembourg \|publisher=Office for Official Publications of the European Communities \|issn=1725-4515 \|isbn=92-894-5709-0 \|url=https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/documents/3217494/5648553/KS-BT-03-001-EN.PDF.pdf/3758081d-5ae4-4e21-9d78-fca7bcc68d5c?t=1414771362000 \|access-date=2022-10-22}} * {{cite book \|author=Earthprint publishing \|year=2007 \|title=Sustainability Communications: A Toolkit for Marketing and Advertising Courses}}{{full citation needed\|date=October 2022\|reason=Did not find Earthlink publishing online. This cite has same title and year as "Sustainability Communications. A Toolkit for Marketing and Advertising Courses." below.}} * {{cite journal \|last=Gronroos \|first=C. \|date=1999 \|title=Relationship marketing: Challenges for the organization \|journal=Journal of Business Research \|volume=46 \|issue=3 \|doi=10.1016/S0148-2963(98)00030-7}} * {{cite journal \|last=Gronroos \|first=C. \|date=1994 \|title=From Marketing Mix to Relationship Marketing:Towards a Paradigm Shift in Marketing \|journal=Management Decision \|volume=32 \|issue=2 \|doi=10.1108/00251749410054774\|hdl=11323/385 \|hdl-access=free }} * {{cite book \|last=Jackson \|first=T. \|date=2005 \|title=Motivating sustainable consumption: a review of evidence on consumer behavior and behavioral change \|publisher=Centre for Environmental Strategy. University of Surrey}} * {{cite journal \|last=Kilbourne \|first=William E. \|date=2004 \|title=Sustainable communication and the dominant social paradigm: can they be integrated? \|journal=Marketing Theory \|volume=4 \|issue=3 \|pages=187–208 \|doi=10.1177/1470593104045536 \|s2cid=154778630}} * {{cite journal \|last=Kolandai-Matchett \|first=K. \|date=2009 \|title=Mediated communication of 'sustainable consumption' in the alternative media: a case study exploring a message framing strategy \|journal=International Journal of Consumer Studies \|volume=33 \|issue=2 \|pages=113–125 \|doi=10.1111/j.1470-6431.2009.00754.x}} * {{cite journal \|last=Krugman \|first=H.E. \|date=1965 \|title=The impact of television advertising: learning without involvement \|journal=The Public Opinion Quarterly \|volume=29 \|issue=3 \|pages=349–356 \|doi=10.1086/267335}} * {{cite journal \|last=Laufer \|first=W.S. \|date=2003 \|title=Social Accountability and Corporate Greenwashing \|journal=Journal of Business Ethics \|volume=43}} * {{cite book \|last=Lichtl \|first=M. \|year=1999 \|title=Ecotainment: Der neue Weg im Umweltmarketing \|place=Wien, Frankfurt}} * {{cite periodical \|last=Longhurst \|first=M. \|date=July–August 2003 \|title=Advertising and sustainability: a new paradigm \|magazine=Admap}} * {{cite periodical \|last=Lovell \|first=C. \|date=8 May 2004 \|title=Is sustainability an advertising issue? \|magazine=Campaign}} * {{cite book \|last=McCarthy \|first=E.J. \|year=1960 \|title=Basic Marketing \|publisher=Irwin \|place=Homewood, IL}} * {{cite book \|last=Michaelis \|first=L. \|year=2001 \|title=The Media: A Resource for Sustainable Consumption \|publisher=Oxford Centre for the Environment, Ethics & Society \|place=Oxford}} * {{cite journal \|last1=Munshi \|first1=D. \|last2=Kurian \|first2=P. \|date=2005 \|title=Imperializing spin cycles: A postcolonial look at public relations, greenwashing, and the separation of publics \|journal=Public Relations Review \|volume=31 \|issue=4 \|page=513 \|doi=10.1016/j.pubrev.2005.08.010}} * {{cite journal \|last1=Pavlou \|first1=P.A. \|last2=Stewart \|first2=D.W. \|date=2000 \|title=Measuring the Effects and Effectiveness of Interactive Advertising: A Research Agenda \|journal=Journal of Interactive Advertising \|doi=10.1080/15252019.2000.10722044 \|s2cid=168153520 \|url=http://jiad.org/article6 \|url-status=dead \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110726205838/http://jiad.org/article6 \|archive-date=2011-07-26}} * {{cite book \|last=Sandman \|first=P. \|date=1974 \|chapter=Mass environmental education: can the media do the job? \|editor1=Swan, J.A. \|editor2=Stapp W.B. \|title=Environmental Education: Strategies Toward a More Livable Future \|pages=207–247 \|publisher=Sage Publications, Inc. \|place=New York}} * {{cite journal \|last1=Sander \|first1=Frauke \|last2=Fohl \|first2=Ulrich \|last3=Walter \|first3=Nadine \|title=Green or social? An analysis of environmental and social sustainability advertising and its impact on brand personality, credibility and attitude \|journal=Journal of Brand Management \|date=25 March 2021 \|volume=28 \|issue=4 \|pages=429–445 \|doi=10.1057/s41262-021-00236-8 \|s2cid=233676078 \|doi-access=free }} * {{cite book \|last=Schrader \|first=Ulf \|year=2005 \|chapter=Von der Öko-Werbung zur Nachhaltigkeits-Kommunikation \|editor1=Belz, F.-M. \|editor2=Bilharz, M. \|title=Nachhaltigkeits-Marketing in Theorie und Praxis \|pages=61–74}} * {{cite journal \|last1=Shabbir \|first1=Muhammad \|last2=Sulaiman \|first2=Mohammed \|last3=Al-Kumaim \|first3=Nabil \|last4=Mahmood \|first4=Arshad \|last5=Abbas \|first5=Mazhar \|title=Green Marketing Approaches and Their Impact on Consumer Behavior towards the Environment—A study from the UAE \|date=29 October 2020 \|journal=Sustainability \|volume=12 \|issue=21 \|pages=2–8 \|doi=10.3390/su12218977 \|doi-access=free}} * {{cite book \|last=Shanahan \|first=J. \|year=1996 \|chapter=Green but unseen: marginalizing the environment on television \|editor-last1=Morgan \|editor-first1=M. \|editor-last2=Leggett \|editor-first2=S. \|title=Margin(s) and Mainstreams: Cultural Politics in the 90s \|pages=176–193 \|publisher=Greenwood Press \|place=Westport, CT}} * {{cite book \|author1=[[United Nations Environment Programme]] (UNEP) \|author2=[[World Federation of Advertisers]] (WFA) \|author3=[[European Association of Communications Agencies]] (EACA) \|year=2002 \|title=Industry as a partner for sustainable development: Advertising \|publisher=United Nations Environment Programme.\|ref={{sfnref\|UNEP\|WFA\|EACA\|2002}}}} * {{cite book \|author=United Nations Environment Programme – UNEP \|publisher=Division for Technology, Industry and Economics \|year=2007 \|title=Sustainability Communications. A Toolkit for Marketing and Advertising Courses \|ref={{sfnref\|UNEP\|2007}}}} {{refend}} ==Further reading== * {{cite report \|author=Futerra \|year=2005 \|title=Communicating Sustainability: How to produce effective public campaigns \|publisher=United Nations Environment Programme – UNEP \|isbn=92-807-2580-7 \|url=https://wedocs.unep.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.11822/8317/-Communicating%20sustainability_%20how%20to%20produce%20effective%20public%20campaigns-2005Communicatingsustainibility.pdf?sequence=4&amp%3BisAllowed=y%2C%20Spanish%7C%7Chttps%3A//wedocs.unep.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.11 \|access-date=2022-10-23 \|url-status=live \|archive-date=2022-10-23 \|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20221023214716/https://wedocs.unep.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.11822/8317/-Communicating%20sustainability_%20how%20to%20produce%20effective%20public%20campaigns-2005Communicatingsustainibility.pdf?sequence=4&%3BisAllowed=y%2C%20Spanish%7C%7Chttps%3A//wedocs.unep.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.11}} * {{cite web \|author=United Nations Environment Programme – UNEP \|year=2011 \|title=Background. Why is the advertising sector needed to promote sustainable consumption? \|ref={{sfnref\|UNEP\|2011}} \|url=http://www.unep.fr/scp/communications/background.htm \|access-date=1 June 2011 \|url-status=dead \|archive-date=2008-07-09 \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080709022450/http://www.unep.fr/scp/communications/background.htm}} {{Sustainability}} {{Environmental technology}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Sustainability Advertising}} [[Category:Sustainability]] [[Category:Advertising]] [[Category:Environmental communication]]
Sustainability	{{Short description\|Goal of people safely co-existing on Earth}} {{Redirect-distinguish\|Unsustainable\|Unsustainable (song)}} [[File:Visualization of pillars of sustainability.webp\|thumb\|Several visual representations of sustainability and its three dimensions: the left image shows sustainability as three intersecting circles. In the top right it is a nested approach. In the bottom right it is three pillars.<ref name="Purvis" /> The schematic with the nested ellipses emphasizes a hierarchy of the dimensions, putting ''environment'' as the foundation for the other two.\|290x290px]] {{Use dmy dates\|date=July 2019}} '''Sustainability''' is a social goal for people to co-exist on Earth over a long time. Definitions of this term are disputed and have varied with literature, context, and time.<ref name="Ramsey-2015">{{Cite journal \|last=Ramsey \|first=Jeffry L. \|date=2015 \|title=On Not Defining Sustainability \|url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s10806-015-9578-3 \|journal=Journal of Agricultural and Environmental Ethics \|language=en \|volume=28 \|issue=6 \|pages=1075–1087 \|doi=10.1007/s10806-015-9578-3 \|issn=1187-7863 \|s2cid=146790960}}</ref><ref name="Purvis" /> Experts often describe sustainability as having three dimensions (or pillars): environmental, economic, and social,<ref name="Purvis" /> and many publications emphasize the environmental dimension.<ref name="Kotze-2022">{{Citation \|last1=Kotzé \|first1=Louis J. \|date=2022 \|work=The Political Impact of the Sustainable Development Goals: Transforming Governance Through Global Goals? \|pages=140–171 \|editor-last=Sénit \|editor-first=Carole-Anne \|place=Cambridge \|publisher=Cambridge University Press \|doi=10.1017/9781009082945.007 \|isbn=978-1-316-51429-0 \|last2=Kim \|first2=Rakhyun E. \|last3=Burdon \|first3=Peter \|last4=du Toit \|first4=Louise \|last5=Glass \|first5=Lisa-Maria \|last6=Kashwan \|first6=Prakash \|last7=Liverman \|first7=Diana \|last8=Montesano \|first8=Francesco S. \|last9=Rantala \|first9=Salla \|title=Planetary Integrity \|editor2-last=Biermann \|editor2-first=Frank \|editor3-last=Hickmann \|editor3-first=Thomas \|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="Bosselmann-2010" /> In everyday use,{{Specify\|date=July 2023}} ''sustainability'' often focuses on countering major environmental problems, including [[climate change]], [[Biodiversity loss\|loss of biodiversity]], loss of [[ecosystem service]]s, [[land degradation]], and air and water [[pollution]]. The idea of sustainability can guide decisions at the global, national, and individual levels (e.g. [[sustainable living]]).<ref name="Berg-2020" /> A related concept is [[sustainable development]], and the terms are often used to mean the same thing.<ref name="EB-2022">{{Cite news \|title=Sustainability \|url=https://www.britannica.com/science/sustainability \|access-date=31 March 2022 \|newspaper=Encyclopedia Britannica}}</ref> [[UNESCO]] distinguishes the two like this: "''Sustainability'' is often thought of as a long-term goal (i.e. a more sustainable world), while ''sustainable development'' refers to the many processes and pathways to achieve it."<ref name="UNESCO-2015">{{Cite web \|date=2015-08-03 \|title=Sustainable Development \|url=https://en.unesco.org/themes/education-sustainable-development/what-is-esd/sd \|access-date=20 January 2022 \|website=UNESCO \|language=en}}</ref> The economic dimension of sustainability is controversial.<ref name="Purvis" /> Scholars have discussed this under the concept of "[[weak and strong sustainability]]"; for example, there will always be tension between the ideas of "welfare and prosperity for all" and [[Environmental protection\|environmental conservation]],<ref name="Kuhlman-2010">{{Cite journal \|last1=Kuhlman \|first1=Tom \|last2=Farrington \|first2=John \|date=2010 \|title=What is Sustainability? \|journal=Sustainability \|language=en \|volume=2 \|issue=11 \|pages=3436–3448 \|doi=10.3390/su2113436 \|issn=2071-1050 \|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="Purvis" /> so [[trade-off]]s are necessary. Approaches that [[Eco-economic decoupling\|decouple economic growth]] from environmental deterioration would be desirable.<ref>{{Cite web \|last=Nelson \|first=Anitra \|date=2024-01-31 \|title=Degrowth as a Concept and Practice: Introduction \|url=https://commonslibrary.org/degrowth-as-a-concept-and-practice-introduction/ \|access-date=2024-02-23 \|website=The Commons Social Change Library \|language=en-AU}}</ref> But they are difficult to carry out.<ref name="Vaden-2020">{{Cite journal \|last1=Vadén \|first1=T. \|last2=Lähde \|first2=V. \|last3=Majava \|first3=A. \|last4=Järvensivu \|first4=P. \|last5=Toivanen \|first5=T. \|last6=Hakala \|first6=E. \|last7=Eronen \|first7=J.T. \|date=2020 \|title=Decoupling for ecological sustainability: A categorisation and review of research literature \|journal=Environmental Science & Policy \|language=en \|volume=112 \|pages=236–244 \|doi=10.1016/j.envsci.2020.06.016 \|pmc=7330600 \|pmid=32834777}}</ref><ref name="Parrique T-2019" /> Measuring sustainability is difficult.<ref name="Steffen-2015" /> Indicators consider environmental, social and economic domains. The metrics are evolving. Currently, they include certification systems, types of corporate accounting, and types of index. It is necessary to address many barriers to sustainability to make a sustainability transition possible.<ref name="Berg-2020" />{{rp\|34}}<ref name="Howes-2017" /> Some barriers arise from nature and its complexity. Other barriers are ''extrinsic'' to the concept of sustainability. For example they can result from the dominant institutional frameworks in countries. There are many approaches people can take to transition to environmental sustainability. These include maintaining ecosystem services, protecting and co-creating common resources, reducing food waste, and promoting dietary shifts towards plant-based foods.<ref>{{Cite web \|last=Smith \|first=E. T. \|date=2024-01-23 \|title=Practising Commoning \|url=https://commonslibrary.org/practising-commoning/ \|access-date=2024-02-23 \|website=The Commons Social Change Library \|language=en-AU}}</ref> Another is reducing population growth by cutting [[Total fertility rate\|fertility rates]]. Others are promoting new [[Environmental technology\|green technologies]], and adopting [[renewable energy]] sources while phasing out subsidies to [[fossil fuel]]s.<ref name="Ripple-2017">{{Cite journal \|last1=Ripple \|first1=William J. \|author-link1=William J. Ripple \|last2=Wolf \|first2=Christopher \|last3=Newsome \|first3=Thomas M. \|last4=Galetti \|first4=Mauro \|last5=Alamgir \|first5=Mohammed \|last6=Crist \|first6=Eileen \|last7=Mahmoud \|first7=Mahmoud I. \|last8=Laurance \|first8=William F. \|last9=15,364 scientist signatories from 184 countries \|date=2017 \|title=World Scientists' Warning to Humanity: A Second Notice \|url=https://academic.oup.com/bioscience/article/67/12/1026/4605229 \|journal=BioScience \|language=en \|volume=67 \|issue=12 \|pages=1026–1028 \|doi=10.1093/biosci/bix125 \|issn=0006-3568\|doi-access=free \|hdl=11336/71342 \|hdl-access=free }}</ref> The United Nations agreed the [[Sustainable Development Goals]] (SDGs) in 2015.<ref name=":1b" /> These set a global agenda for sustainable development, with a deadline of 2030. One of many ways to overcome barriers to sustainable development is to decouple economic growth from environmental conservation.<ref name="Vaden-2020" /> This means using fewer resources per unit of output even while growing the economy.<ref name="UNEP2011" /> This reduces the environmental impact of economic growth such as pollution. Doing this is difficult. Some experts say there is no evidence that it is happening at the required scale. Global issues are difficult to tackle as they need global solutions. Existing global organizations such as the [[United Nations\|UN]] and [[World Trade Organization\|WTO]] are inefficient in enforcing current global regulations. One reason for this is the lack of suitable [[International sanctions\|sanctioning mechanisms]].<ref name="Berg-2020" />{{rp\|135–145}} Governments are not the only sources of action for sustainability. Business groups have tried to integrate ecological concerns with economic activity.<ref name="Kinsley-1997" /><ref name="Callenbach-2011" /> Religious leaders have stressed the need for caring for nature and environmental stability. Individuals can also live in a more sustainable way.<ref name="Berg-2020" /> The concept of sustainability has faced various criticisms. One is that the concept is vague and only a [[buzzword]].<ref name="Purvis" /> Another is that sustainability might be an impossible goal.<ref name="Melinda Harm">{{Cite journal \|last1=Benson \|first1=Melinda Harm \|last2=Craig \|first2=Robin Kundis \|date=2014 \|title=End of Sustainability \|url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/08941920.2014.901467 \|journal=Society & Natural Resources \|language=en \|volume=27 \|issue=7 \|pages=777–782 \|doi=10.1080/08941920.2014.901467 \|bibcode=2014SNatR..27..777B \|issn=0894-1920 \|s2cid=67783261}}</ref> Some experts have pointed out that "no country is delivering what its citizens need without transgressing the biophysical planetary boundaries".<ref name="Stockholm+50-2022">{{Cite report \|date=2022-05-18 \|title=Stockholm+50: Unlocking a Better Future \|url=https://www.sei.org/publications/stockholm50-unlocking-better-future \|work=Stockholm Environment Institute \|doi=10.51414/sei2022.011 \|s2cid=248881465\|doi-access=free }}</ref>{{rp\|\|page=11}} {{TOC limit\|3}} == Definitions == === Current usage === Sustainability is regarded as a "[[Normativity\|normative concept]]".<ref name="Berg-2020" /><ref name="Scoones-2016">{{Cite journal \|last=Scoones \|first=Ian \|date=2016 \|title=The Politics of Sustainability and Development \|journal=Annual Review of Environment and Resources \|language=en \|volume=41 \|issue=1 \|pages=293–319 \|doi=10.1146/annurev-environ-110615-090039 \|issn=1543-5938 \|s2cid=156534921\|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name="Harrington-2016">{{Cite journal \|last=Harrington \|first=Lisa M. Butler \|date=2016 \|title=Sustainability Theory and Conceptual Considerations: A Review of Key Ideas for Sustainability, and the Rural Context \|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/309619897 \|journal=Papers in Applied Geography \|language=en \|volume=2 \|issue=4 \|pages=365–382 \|doi=10.1080/23754931.2016.1239222 \|bibcode=2016PAGeo...2..365H \|issn=2375-4931 \|s2cid=132458202}}</ref><ref name="Ramsey-2015" /> This means it is based on what people value or find desirable: "The quest for sustainability involves connecting what is known through scientific study to applications in pursuit of what people want for the future."<ref name="Harrington-2016" /> The 1983 UN Commission on Environment and Development ([[Brundtland Commission]]) had a big influence on the use of the term ''sustainability'' today. The commission's 1987 Brundtland Report provided a definition of [[sustainable development]]. The report, ''[[Our Common Future]]'', defines it as development that "meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of [[future generations]] to meet their own needs".<ref name="UNGA-1987">United Nations General Assembly (1987) [https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/content/documents/5987our-common-future.pdf ''Report of the World Commission on Environment and Development: Our Common Future'']. Transmitted to the General Assembly as an Annex to document A/42/427 – Development and International Co-operation: Environment.</ref><ref name="UNGA-1987a">{{Cite web \|last=United Nations General Assembly \|date=20 March 1987 \|title=''Report of the World Commission on Environment and Development: Our Common Future''; Transmitted to the General Assembly as an Annex to document A/42/427 – Development and International Co-operation: Environment; Our Common Future, Chapter 2: Towards Sustainable Development; Paragraph 1 \|url=http://www.un-documents.net/ocf-02.htm \|access-date=1 March 2010 \|publisher=[[United Nations General Assembly]]}}</ref> The report helped bring ''sustainability'' into the mainstream of policy discussions. It also popularized the concept of ''sustainable development''.<ref name="Purvis">{{Cite journal \|last1=Purvis \|first1=Ben \|last2=Mao \|first2=Yong \|last3=Robinson \|first3=Darren \|date=2019 \|title=Three pillars of sustainability: in search of conceptual origins \|journal=Sustainability Science \|language=en \|volume=14 \|issue=3 \|pages=681–695 \|doi=10.1007/s11625-018-0627-5 \|bibcode=2019SuSc...14..681P \|issn=1862-4065 \|doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY icon.svg\|50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]</ref> Some other key concepts to illustrate the meaning of sustainability include:<ref name="Harrington-2016" /> * It may be a [[fuzzy concept]] but in a positive sense: the goals are more important than the approaches or means applied; * It connects with other essential concepts such as resilience, [[adaptive capacity]], and [[vulnerability]]. * Choices matter: "it is not possible to sustain everything, everywhere, forever"; * Scale matters in both space and time, and place matters; * Limits exist (see [[planetary boundaries]]). In everyday usage, ''sustainability'' often focuses on the environmental dimension. ==== Specific definitions ==== Scholars say that a single specific definition of sustainability may never be possible. But the concept is still useful.<ref name="Ramsey-2015" /><ref name="Harrington-2016" /> There have been attempts to define it, for example: * "Sustainability can be defined as the capacity to maintain or improve the state and availability of desirable materials or conditions over the long term."<ref name="Harrington-2016" /> * "Sustainability [is] the long-term viability of a community, set of social institutions, or societal practice. In general, sustainability is understood as a form of intergenerational ethics in which the environmental and economic actions taken by present persons do not diminish the opportunities of future persons to enjoy similar levels of wealth, utility, or welfare."<ref name="EB-2022" /> * "Sustainability means meeting our own needs without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. In addition to [[natural resources]], we also need social and economic resources. Sustainability is not just environmentalism. Embedded in most definitions of sustainability we also find concerns for social equity and economic development."<ref name="McGill-2022">{{Cite web \|title=University of Alberta: What is sustainability? \|url=https://www.mcgill.ca/sustainability/files/sustainability/what-is-sustainability.pdf \|access-date=13 August 2022 \|website=mcgill.ca}}</ref> Some definitions focus on the environmental dimension. The ''[[Oxford Dictionary of English]]'' defines sustainability as: "the property of being environmentally sustainable; the degree to which a process or enterprise is able to be maintained or continued while avoiding the long-term depletion of natural resources".<ref name="Halliday-2016">{{Cite web \|last=Halliday \|first=Mike \|date=2016-11-21 \|title=How sustainable is sustainability? \|url=https://www.oxfordcollegeofprocurementandsupply.com/how-sustainable-is-sustainability/ \|access-date=2022-07-12 \|website=Oxford College of Procurement and Supply \|language=en-US}}</ref> === Historical usage === {{Further\|Sustainable development#Development of the concept}} The term sustainability is derived from the [[Latin]] word ''sustinere''. "To sustain" can mean to maintain, support, uphold, or endure.<ref>{{OEtymD\|sustain}}</ref><ref>Onions, Charles, T. (ed) (1964). ''The Shorter Oxford English Dictionary''. Oxford: [[Clarendon Press]]. p. 2095.</ref> So sustainability is the ability to continue over a long period of time. In the past, sustainability referred to environmental sustainability. It meant using [[natural resource]]s so that people in the future could continue to rely on them in the long term.<ref name="WOR-2019">{{Cite web \|title=Sustainability Theories \|url=https://worldoceanreview.com/en/wor-4/concepts-for-a-better-world/what-is-sustainability/ \|access-date=20 June 2019 \|publisher=World Ocean Review}}</ref><ref name="OED-1835">Compare: {{oed\|sustainability}} The English-language word had a legal technical sense from 1835 and a resource-management connotation from 1953.</ref> The concept of sustainability, or ''Nachhaltigkeit'' in German, goes back to [[Hans Carl von Carlowitz]] (1645–1714), and applied to [[forestry]]. The term for this now would be [[sustainable forest management]].<ref>{{Cite web \|title=Hans Carl von Carlowitz and Sustainability \|url=http://www.environmentandsociety.org/tools/keywords/hans-carl-von-carlowitz-and-sustainability \|access-date=20 June 2019 \|website=Environment and Society Portal}}</ref> He used this term to mean the long-term responsible use of a natural resource. In his 1713 work ''Silvicultura oeconomica,''<ref>{{Cite web \|last=Dresden \|first=SLUB \|title=Sylvicultura Oeconomica, Oder Haußwirthliche Nachricht und Naturmäßige Anweisung Zur Wilden Baum-Zucht \|url=http://digital.slub-dresden.de/id380451980/127 \|access-date=2022-03-28 \|website=digital.slub-dresden.de \|language=de-DE}}</ref> he wrote that "the highest art/science/industriousness [...] will consist in such a conservation and replanting of timber that there can be a continuous, ongoing and sustainable use".<ref>Von Carlowitz, H.C. & Rohr, V. (1732) Sylvicultura Oeconomica, oder Haußwirthliche Nachricht und Naturmäßige Anweisung zur Wilden Baum Zucht, Leipzig; translated from German as cited in {{Cite journal \|last1=Friederich \|first1=Simon \|last2=Symons \|first2=Jonathan \|date=2022-11-15 \|title=Operationalising sustainability? Why sustainability fails as an investment criterion for safeguarding the future \|journal=Global Policy \|volume=14 \|language=en \|pages=1758–5899.13160 \|doi=10.1111/1758-5899.13160 \|issn=1758-5880 \|s2cid=253560289\|doi-access=free }}</ref> The shift in use of “sustainability” from preservation of forests (for future wood production) to broader preservation of environmental resources (to sustain the world for future generations) traces to a 1972 book by Ernst Basler, based on a series of lectures at M.I.T.<ref name="Basler-1972">{{cite book \|last=Basler \|first=Ernst \|title= Strategy of Progress: Environmental Pollution, Habitat Scarcity and Future Research (originally, Strategie des Fortschritts: Umweltbelastung Lebensraumverknappung and Zukunftsforshung) \|date=1972 \|publisher= BLV Publishing Company}}</ref> The idea itself goes back a very long time: Communities have always worried about the capacity of their environment to sustain them in the long term. Many ancient cultures, [[Traditional society\|traditional societies]], and [[indigenous peoples]] have restricted the use of natural resources.<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1=Gadgil \|first1=M. \|last2=Berkes \|first2=F. \|date=1991 \|title=Traditional Resource Management Systems \|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/248146028 \|journal=Resource Management and Optimization \|volume=8 \|pages=127–141}}</ref> === Comparison to sustainable development === {{Further\|Sustainable development}} The terms sustainability and [[sustainable development]] are closely related. In fact, they are often used to mean the same thing.<ref name="EB-2022" /> Both terms are linked with the "three dimensions of sustainability" concept.<ref name="Purvis" /> One distinction is that sustainability is a general concept, while sustainable development can be a policy or organizing principle. Scholars say sustainability is a broader concept because sustainable development focuses mainly on human well-being.<ref name="Harrington-2016" /> Sustainable development has two linked goals. It aims to meet [[Human development (economics)\|human development]] goals. It also aims to enable natural systems to provide the [[natural resource]]s and [[ecosystem services]] needed for [[Economy\|economies]] and society. The concept of sustainable development has come to focus on [[economic development]], [[Social Development\|social development]] and [[environmental protection]] for future generations. == Dimensions == === Development of three dimensions === [[File:Sustainability venn diagram.svg\|thumb\|Sustainability [[Venn diagram]], where sustainability is thought of as the area where the three dimensions overlap]] Scholars usually distinguish three different areas of sustainability. These are the environmental, the social, and the economic. Several terms are in use for this concept. Authors may speak of three pillars, dimensions, components, aspects,<ref>{{Cite web \|date=2005 \|title=Resolution adopted by the General Assembly on 16 September 2005, 60/1. 2005 World Summit Outcome \|url=https://www.un.org/en/development/desa/population/migration/generalassembly/docs/globalcompact/A_RES_60_1.pdf \|access-date=17 January 2022 \|publisher=United Nations General Assembly}}</ref> perspectives, factors, or goals. All mean the same thing in this context.<ref name="Purvis" /> The three dimensions paradigm has few theoretical foundations. It emerged without a single point of origin.<ref name="Purvis" /><ref>{{Cite web \|date=2015-11-13 \|title=Nachhaltigkeit Definition \|url=https://www.nachhaltigkeit.info/artikel/definitionen_1382.htm \|access-date=2022-01-19 \|website=Lexikon der Nachhaltigkeit \|language=de}}</ref> Scholars rarely question the distinction itself. The idea of sustainability with three dimensions is a dominant interpretation in the literature.<ref name="Purvis" /> In the Brundtland Report, the environment and development are inseparable and go together in the search for sustainability. It described sustainable development as a global concept linking environmental and social issues. It added sustainable development is important for both [[Developing country\|developing countries]] and [[Developed country\|industrialized countries]]: <noinclude>{{Blockquote \| text =The 'environment' is where we all live; and 'development' is what we all do in attempting to improve our lot within that abode. The two are inseparable. [...] We came to see that a new development path was required, one that sustained human progress not just in a few pieces for a few years, but for the entire planet into the distant future. Thus 'sustainable development' becomes a goal not just for the 'developing' nations, but for industrial ones as well. \| author =''[[Our Common Future]]'' (also known as the Brundtland Report) \| title = \| source =<ref name="UNGA-1987" />{{rp\|Foreword and Section I.1.10}} \| character = \| multiline = \| class = \| style = }}</noinclude> The [[Rio Declaration on Environment and Development\|Rio Declaration]] from 1992 is seen as "the foundational instrument in the move towards sustainability".<ref name="Bosselmann-2022">Bosselmann, K. (2022) [https://www.elgaronline.com/display/book/9781839108327/book-part-9781839108327-7.xml Chapter 2: A normative approach to environmental governance: sustainability at the apex of environmental law], Research Handbook on Fundamental Concepts of Environmental Law, edited by Douglas Fisher</ref>{{rp\|29}} It includes specific references to ecosystem integrity.<ref name="Bosselmann-2022" />{{rp\|31}} The plan associated with carrying out the Rio Declaration also discusses sustainability in this way. The plan, [[Agenda 21]], talks about economic, social, and environmental dimensions:<ref name="agenda 1">{{Cite web \|date=1992 \|title=Agenda 21 \|url=https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/content/documents/Agenda21.pdf \|access-date=17 January 2022 \|publisher=United Nations Conference on Environment & Development, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, 3 to 14 June 1992}}</ref>{{rp\|8.6}} {{Blockquote \| text =Countries could develop systems for monitoring and evaluation of progress towards achieving sustainable development by adopting indicators that measure changes across economic, social and environmental dimensions. \| author = [[Earth Summit\|United Nations Conference on Environment & Development – Earth Summit (1992)]] \| title = \| source =<ref name="agenda 1" />{{rp\|8.6}} \| character = \| multiline = \| class = \| style = }} Agenda 2030 from 2015 also viewed sustainability in this way. It sees the 17 [[Sustainable Development Goals]] (SDGs) with their 169 targets as balancing "the three dimensions of sustainable development, the economic, social and environmental".<ref name=":1b">United Nations (2015) Resolution adopted by the General Assembly on 25 September 2015, [[:File:N1529189.pdf\|Transforming our world: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development]] ([https://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/sustainable-development-goals/ A/RES/70/1] {{Webarchive\|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201128002202/https://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/sustainable-development-goals/\|date=28 November 2020}})</ref> === Hierarchy === [[File:Nested sustainability-v2.svg\|thumb\|The diagram with three nested ellipses indicates a hierarchy between the three dimensions of sustainability: both [[World economy\|economy]] and [[society]] are constrained by [[planetary boundaries\|environmental limits]]<ref>Scott Cato, M. (2009). ''Green Economics''. London: [[Earthscan]], pp. 36–37. {{ISBN\|978-1-84407-571-3}}.</ref> ]][[File:SDG wedding cake.jpg\|thumb\|The ''wedding cake model'' for the [[Sustainable Development Goals\|sustainable development goals]] is similar to the nested ellipses diagram, where the environmental dimension or system is the basis for the other two dimensions.<ref name="Obrecht-2021">{{Cite periodical \|last1=Obrecht \|first1=Andreas \|last2=Pham-Truffert \|first2=Myriam \|last3=Spehn \|first3=Eva \|last4=Payne \|first4=Davnah \|last5=Altermatt \|first5=Florian \|last6=Fischer \|first6=Manuel \|last7=Passarello \|first7=Cristian \|last8=Moersberger \|first8=Hannah \|last9=Schelske \|first9=Oliver \|last10=Guntern \|first10=Jodok \|last11=Prescott \|first11=Graham \|date=2021-02-05 \|title=Achieving the SDGs with Biodiversity \|periodical=Swiss Academies Factsheet \|volume=16 \|issue=1 \|language=en \|doi=10.5281/zenodo.4457298 \|doi-access=free}}</ref>]] Scholars have discussed how to rank the three dimensions of sustainability. Many publications state that the environmental dimension is the most important.<ref name="Kotze-2022" /><ref name="Bosselmann-2010">{{Cite journal \|last=Bosselmann \|first=Klaus \|date=2010 \|title=Losing the Forest for the Trees: Environmental Reductionism in the Law \|journal=[[Sustainability (journal)\|Sustainability]] \|language=en \|volume=2 \|issue=8 \|pages=2424–2448 \|doi=10.3390/su2082424 \|issn=2071-1050 \|doi-access=free\|hdl=10535/6499 \|hdl-access=free }} [[File:CC-BY icon.svg\|50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 International License]</ref> ([[Planetary integrity]] or ecological integrity are other terms for the environmental dimension.) Protecting ecological integrity is the core of sustainability according to many experts.<ref name="Bosselmann-2010" /> If this is the case then its environmental dimension sets limits to economic and social development.<ref name="Bosselmann-2010" /> The diagram with three nested ellipses is one way of showing the three dimensions of sustainability together with a hierarchy: It gives the environmental dimension a special status. In this diagram, the environment includes society, and society includes economic conditions. Thus it stresses a hierarchy. Another model shows the three dimensions in a similar way: In this ''SDG wedding cake model'', the economy is a smaller subset of the societal system. And the societal system in turn is a smaller subset of the [[biosphere]] system.<ref name="Obrecht-2021" /> In 2022 an assessment examined the political impacts of the Sustainable Development Goals. The assessment found that the "integrity of the earth's life-support systems" was essential for sustainability.<ref name="Kotze-2022" />{{rp\|140}} The authors said that "the SDGs fail to recognize that planetary, people and prosperity concerns are all part of one earth system, and that the protection of planetary integrity should not be a means to an end, but an end in itself".<ref name="Kotze-2022" />{{rp\|147}} The aspect of environmental protection is not an explicit priority for the SDGs. This causes problems as it could encourage countries to give the environment less weight in their developmental plans.<ref name="Kotze-2022" />{{rp\|144}} The authors state that "sustainability on a planetary scale is only achievable under an overarching Planetary Integrity Goal that recognizes the biophysical limits of the planet".<ref name="Kotze-2022" />{{rp\|161}} Other frameworks bypass the compartmentalization of sustainability into separate dimensions completely.<ref name="Purvis" /> === Environmental sustainability === {{Further\|Human impact on the environment}} The environmental dimension is central to the overall concept of sustainability. People became more and more aware of environmental pollution in the 1960s and 1970s. This led to discussions of sustainability and sustainable development. This process began in the 1970s with concern for environmental issues. These included natural [[ecosystem]]s or natural resources and the human environment. It later extended to all systems that support life on Earth, including human society.<ref name="Swart, R.-2002">{{Cite book \|author=Raskin, P. \|author2=Banuri, T. \|author3=Gallopín, G. \|author4=Gutman, P. \|author5=Hammond, A. \|author6=Kates, R. \|author7=Swart, R. \|url=https://www.sei.org/publications/great-transition-promise-lure-times-ahead/ \|title=Great transition: the promise and lure of the times ahead \|date=2002 \|publisher=Stockholm Environment Institute \|isbn=0-9712418-1-3 \|location=Boston \|oclc=49987854}}</ref>{{rp\|31}} Reducing these negative impacts on the environment would improve environmental sustainability.<ref name="Swart, R.-2002" /><ref>{{cite journal \|last1=Ekins \|first1=Paul \|last2=Zenghelis \|first2=Dimitri \|title=The costs and benefits of environmental sustainability \|journal=Sustainability Science \|date=2021 \|volume=16 \|issue=3 \|pages=949–965 \|doi=10.1007/s11625-021-00910-5 \|pmid=33747239 \|pmc=7960882 \|bibcode=2021SuSc...16..949E \|doi-access=free}}</ref> [[Pollution#History\|Environmental pollution]] is not a new phenomenon. But it has been only a ''local'' or regional concern for most of human history. Awareness of ''global'' environmental issues increased in the 20th century.<ref name="Swart, R.-2002" />{{rp\|5}}<ref>{{Cite book \|title=Man's role in changing the face of the earth. \|date=1956 \|publisher=University of Chicago Press \|editor=William L. Thomas \|isbn=0-226-79604-3 \|location=Chicago \|oclc=276231}}</ref> The harmful effects and global spread of pesticides like [[DDT]] came under scrutiny in the 1960s.<ref name="silentspring">{{Cite book \|last=Carson, Rachel \|url=https://archive.org/details/silentspring00cars_1 \|title=Silent Spring \|publisher=Mariner Books \|year=2002 \|isbn=978-0-618-24906-0 \|orig-date=1st. Pub. Houghton Mifflin, 1962}}</ref> In the 1970s it emerged that [[chlorofluorocarbon]]s (CFCs) were depleting the [[ozone layer]]. This led to the de facto ban of CFCs with the [[Montreal Protocol]] in 1987.<ref name="Berg-2020">{{Cite book \|last=Berg \|first=Christian \|title=Sustainable action: overcoming the barriers \|date=2020 \|isbn=978-0-429-57873-1 \|location=Abingdon, Oxon \|oclc=1124780147}}</ref>{{rp\|146}} In the early 20th century, [[Svante Arrhenius\|Arrhenius]] discussed the effect of [[greenhouse gas]]es on the climate (see also: [[history of climate change science]]).<ref name="arrhenius">{{Cite journal \|last=Arrhenius \|first=Svante \|date=1896 \|title=XXXI. On the influence of carbonic acid in the air upon the temperature of the ground \|url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/14786449608620846 \|journal=The London, Edinburgh, and Dublin Philosophical Magazine and Journal of Science \|language=en \|volume=41 \|issue=251 \|pages=237–276 \|doi=10.1080/14786449608620846 \|issn=1941-5982}}</ref> Climate change due to human activity became an academic and political topic several decades later. This led to the establishment of the [[Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change\|IPCC]] in 1988 and the [[United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change\|UNFCCC]] in 1992. In 1972, the [[United Nations Conference on the Human Environment\|UN Conference on the Human Environment]] took place. It was the first UN conference on environmental issues. It stated it was important to protect and improve the human environment.<ref name="UN1973">UN (1973) [https://digitallibrary.un.org/record/523249?ln=en Report of the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment], A/CONF.48/14/Rev.1, Stockholm, 5–16 June 1972</ref>{{rp\|3}}It emphasized the need to protect wildlife and natural habitats:<ref name="UN1973" />{{rp\|4}} {{Blockquote \| text =The natural resources of the earth, including the air, water, land, flora and fauna and [...] natural [[ecosystem]]s must be safeguarded for the benefit of present and future generations through careful planning or management, as appropriate. \| author =[[United Nations Conference on the Human Environment\|UN Conference on the Human Environment]] \| title = \| source =<ref name="UN1973" />{{rp\|p.4., Principle 2}} \| character = \| multiline = \| class = \| style = }} In 2000, the UN launched eight [[Millennium Development Goals]]. The aim was for the global community to achieve them by 2015. Goal 7 was to "ensure environmental sustainability". But this goal did not mention the concepts of social or economic sustainability.<ref name="Purvis" /> Specific problems often dominate public discussion of the environmental dimension of sustainability: In the 21st century these problems have included [[climate change]], [[Biodiversity loss\|biodiversity]] and pollution. Other global problems are loss of [[ecosystem service]]s, [[land degradation]], [[environmental impacts of animal agriculture]] and [[Air pollution\|air]] and [[water pollution]], including [[marine plastic pollution]] and [[ocean acidification]].<ref name="UNEP-2021">{{Cite web \|last=UNEP \|date=2021 \|title=Making Peace With Nature \|url=http://www.unep.org/resources/making-peace-nature \|access-date=2022-03-30 \|website=UNEP – UN Environment Programme \|language=en}}</ref><ref name="Ripple-2017" /> Many people worry about [[Human impact on the environment\|human impacts on the environment]]. These include impacts on the atmosphere, land, and [[water resources]].<ref name="Swart, R.-2002" />{{rp\|21}} Human activities now have an impact on Earth's [[geology]] and [[ecosystem]]s. This led [[Paul J. Crutzen\|Paul Crutzen]] to call the current [[geological epoch]] the [[Anthropocene]].<ref>{{Cite journal \|last=Crutzen \|first=Paul J. \|date=2002 \|title=Geology of mankind \|journal=Nature \|language=en \|volume=415 \|issue=6867 \|pages=23 \|bibcode=2002Natur.415...23C \|doi=10.1038/415023a \|issn=0028-0836 \|pmid=11780095 \|s2cid=9743349\|doi-access=free }}</ref> For example, the impact of human activity on ecosystems can reach [[tipping points in the climate system]]. === Economic sustainability === [[File:Linia kontraŭ Cirkulero.svg\|thumb\|A [[circular economy]] can improve aspects of economic sustainability (left: the 'take, make, waste' linear approach; right: the circular economy approach).]] The economic dimension of sustainability is controversial.<ref name="Purvis" /> This is because the term ''development'' within ''sustainable development'' can be interpreted in different ways. Some may take it to mean only [[economic development]] and [[Economic growth\|growth]]. This can promote an economic system that is bad for the environment.<ref name="Wilhelm-2000">{{Cite book \|title=Zukunftsstreit \|publisher=Velbrück Wissenschaft \|editor=Wilhelm Krull \|year=2000 \|isbn=3-934730-17-5 \|location=Weilerwist \|language=de \|oclc=52639118}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal \|last=Redclift \|first=Michael \|date=2005 \|title=Sustainable development (1987-2005): an oxymoron comes of age \|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/sd.281 \|journal=Sustainable Development \|language=en \|volume=13 \|issue=4 \|pages=212–227 \|doi=10.1002/sd.281 \|issn=0968-0802}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book \|last=Daly \|first=Herman E. \|url=http://pinguet.free.fr/daly1996.pdf \|title=Beyond growth: the economics of sustainable development \|date=1996 \|publisher=[[Beacon Press]] \|isbn=0-8070-4708-2 \|location=Boston \|oclc=33946953}}</ref> Others focus more on the trade-offs between [[Environmental protection\|environmental conservation]] and achieving welfare goals for [[basic needs]] (food, water, health, and shelter).<ref name="Kuhlman-2010" /> Economic development can indeed reduce [[hunger]] or [[energy poverty]]. This is especially the case in the [[least developed countries]]. That is why [[Sustainable Development Goal 8]] calls for economic growth to drive social progress and well-being. Its first target is for: "at least 7 per cent [[Gross domestic product\|GDP]] growth per annum in the least developed countries".<ref name="UN-2017">United Nations (2017) Resolution adopted by the General Assembly on 6 July 2017, [[:File:A RES 71 313 E.pdf\|Work of the Statistical Commission pertaining to the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development]] ([https://undocs.org/A/RES/71/313 A/RES/71/313])</ref> However, the challenge is to expand economic activities while reducing their environmental impact.<ref name="UNEP2011">UNEP (2011) [https://www.resourcepanel.org/reports/decoupling-natural-resource-use-and-environmental-impacts-economic-growth Decoupling natural resource use and environmental impacts from economic growth, A Report of the Working Group on Decoupling to the International Resource Panel]. Fischer-Kowalski, M., Swilling, M., von Weizsäcker, E.U., Ren, Y., Moriguchi, Y., Crane, W., Krausmann, F., Eisenmenger, N., Giljum, S., Hennicke, P., Romero Lankao, P., Siriban Manalang, A., Sewerin, S.</ref>{{rp\|8}} In other words, humanity will have to find ways how societal progress (potentially by economic development) can be reached without excess strain on the environment. The Brundtland report says [[poverty]] ''causes'' environmental problems. Poverty also ''results'' from them. So addressing environmental problems requires understanding the factors behind world poverty and inequality.<ref name="UNGA-1987" />{{rp\|Section I.1.8}} The report demands a new development path for sustained human progress. It highlights that this is a goal for both developing and industrialized nations.<ref name="UNGA-1987" />{{rp\|Section I.1.10}} UNEP and [[United Nations Development Programme\|UNDP]] launched the Poverty-Environment Initiative in 2005 which has three goals. These are reducing extreme poverty, greenhouse gas emissions, and net natural asset loss. This guide to structural reform will enable countries to achieve the SDGs.<ref>{{Cite web \|title=UN Environment {{!}} UNDP-UN Environment Poverty-Environment Initiative \|url=https://www.unpei.org/ \|access-date=2022-01-24 \|website=UN Environment {{!}} UNDP-UN Environment Poverty-Environment Initiative \|language=en}}</ref><ref>PEP (2016) [https://www.cbd.int/financial/doc/pep-zero2016.pdf Poverty-Environment Partnership Joint Paper \| June 2016 Getting to Zero – A Poverty, Environment and Climate Call to Action for the Sustainable Development Goals]</ref>{{rp\|11}} It should also show how to address the trade-offs between [[ecological footprint]] and economic development.<ref name="Berg-2020" />{{rp\|82}} === Social sustainability === [[File:Washington Gladden Social Justice Park 21.jpg\|thumb\|[[Social justice]] is just one part of social sustainability.]] The social dimension of sustainability is not well defined.<ref name="Peterson">{{Cite journal \|last1=Boyer \|first1=Robert H. W. \|last2=Peterson \|first2=Nicole D. \|last3=Arora \|first3=Poonam \|last4=Caldwell \|first4=Kevin \|date=2016 \|title=Five Approaches to Social Sustainability and an Integrated Way Forward \|journal=Sustainability \|language=en \|volume=8 \|issue=9 \|pages=878 \|doi=10.3390/su8090878 \|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="Dogu-2019">{{Cite journal \|last1=Doğu \|first1=Feriha Urfalı \|last2=Aras \|first2=Lerzan \|date=2019 \|title=Measuring Social Sustainability with the Developed MCSA Model: Güzelyurt Case \|journal=[[Sustainability (journal)\|Sustainability]] \|language=en \|volume=11 \|issue=9 \|pages=2503 \|doi=10.3390/su11092503 \|issn=2071-1050 \|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal \|last=Davidson \|first=Mark \|date=2010 \|title=Social Sustainability and the City: Social sustainability and city \|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1749-8198.2010.00339.x \|journal=[[Geography Compass]] \|language=en \|volume=4 \|issue=7 \|pages=872–880 \|doi=10.1111/j.1749-8198.2010.00339.x}}</ref> One definition states that a society is sustainable in social terms if people do not face structural obstacles in key areas. These key areas are health, influence, competence, [[impartiality]] and [[meaning-making]].<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1=Missimer \|first1=Merlina \|last2=Robèrt \|first2=Karl-Henrik \|last3=Broman \|first3=Göran \|date=2017 \|title=A strategic approach to social sustainability – Part 2: a principle-based definition \|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0959652616303274 \|journal=Journal of Cleaner Production \|language=en \|volume=140 \|pages=42–52 \|doi=10.1016/j.jclepro.2016.04.059}}</ref> Some scholars place social issues at the very center of discussions.<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1=Boyer \|first1=Robert \|last2=Peterson \|first2=Nicole \|last3=Arora \|first3=Poonam \|last4=Caldwell \|first4=Kevin \|date=2016 \|title=Five Approaches to Social Sustainability and an Integrated Way Forward \|journal=[[Sustainability (journal)\|Sustainability]] \|language=en \|volume=8 \|issue=9 \|pages=878 \|doi=10.3390/su8090878 \|issn=2071-1050 \|doi-access=free}}</ref> They suggest that all the domains of sustainability are social. These include [[#Environmental sustainability\|ecological]], economic, political, and cultural sustainability. These domains all depend on the relationship between the social and the natural. The ecological domain is defined as human embeddedness in the environment. From this perspective, social sustainability encompasses all human activities.<ref>{{Cite book \|last1=James \|first1=Paul \|url=https://www.academia.edu/9294719 \|title=Urban Sustainability in Theory and Practice: Circles of Sustainability \|last2=with Magee \|first2=Liam \|last3=Scerri \|first3=Andy \|last4=Steger \|first4=Manfred B. \|publisher=[[Routledge]] \|year=2015 \|isbn=9781315765747 \|location=London \|author1-link=Paul James (academic)}}</ref> It goes beyond the intersection of economics, the environment, and the social.<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1=Liam Magee \|last2=Andy Scerri \|last3=Paul James \|last4=James A. Thom \|last5=Lin Padgham \|last6=Sarah Hickmott \|last7=Hepu Deng \|last8=Felicity Cahill \|year=2013 \|title=Reframing social sustainability reporting: Towards an engaged approach \|url=https://www.academia.edu/4362669 \|journal=[[Environment, Development and Sustainability]] \|volume=15 \|issue=1 \|pages=225–243 \|doi=10.1007/s10668-012-9384-2 \|bibcode=2013EDSus..15..225M \|s2cid=153452740}}</ref> There are many broad strategies for more sustainable social systems. They include improved education and the political [[Women's empowerment\|empowerment of women]]. This is especially the case in developing countries. They include greater regard for [[social justice]]. This involves equity between rich and poor both within and between countries. And it includes [[intergenerational equity]].<ref name="Cohen2006">{{cite book \|last=Cohen \|first=J. E. \|date=2006 \|chapter=Human Population: The Next Half Century. \|editor-last=Kennedy \|editor-first=D. \|title=Science Magazine's State of the Planet 2006-7 \|location=London \|publisher=[[Island Press]] \|pages=13–21 \|isbn=9781597266246}}</ref> Providing more [[social safety net]]s to [[Vulnerable adult\|vulnerable populations]] would contribute to social sustainability.<ref name="Aggarwal-2022" />{{rp\|11}} A society with a high degree of social sustainability would lead to livable communities with a good [[quality of life]] (being fair, diverse, connected and democratic).<ref>{{Cite web \|date=2012 \|title=The Regional Institute – WACOSS Housing and Sustainable Communities Indicators Project \|url=http://www.regional.org.au/au/soc/2002/4/barron_gauntlett.htm \|access-date=2022-01-26 \|website=www.regional.org.au}}</ref> [[Indigenous communities]] might have a focus on particular aspects of sustainability, for example spiritual aspects, community-based governance and an emphasis on place and locality.<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1=Virtanen \|first1=Pirjo Kristiina \|last2=Siragusa \|first2=Laura \|last3=Guttorm \|first3=Hanna \|date=2020 \|title=Introduction: toward more inclusive definitions of sustainability \|journal=Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability \|language=en \|volume=43 \|pages=77–82 \|doi=10.1016/j.cosust.2020.04.003\|bibcode=2020COES...43...77V \|s2cid=219663803 \|doi-access=free }}</ref> === Proposed additional dimensions === Some experts have proposed further dimensions. These could cover institutional, cultural, political, and technical dimensions.<ref name="Purvis" /> ==== Cultural sustainability ==== {{Further\|Cultural sustainability}} Some scholars have argued for a fourth dimension. They say the traditional three dimensions do not reflect the complexity of contemporary society.<ref name="agenda21culture.net">{{cite web \|website=United Cities and Local Governments \|url=http://agenda21culture.net/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=131:cultural-policies-and-sustainable-development-&catid=64&Itemid=58&lang=en \|title=Culture: Fourth Pillar of Sustainable Development \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131003135155/https://agenda21culture.net/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=131:cultural-policies-and-sustainable-development-&catid=64&Itemid=58&lang=en \|archive-date=3 October 2013}}</ref> For example, [[Agenda 21 for culture]] and the [[United Cities and Local Governments]] argue that sustainable development should include a solid [[cultural policy]]. They also advocate for a cultural dimension in all public policies. Another example was the [[Circles of Sustainability]] approach, which included [[cultural sustainability]].<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia \|last1=James \|first1=Paul \|title=Domains of Sustainability \|date=2016 \|url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-3-319-31816-5_2760-1 \|encyclopedia=Global Encyclopedia of Public Administration, Public Policy, and Governance \|pages=1–17 \|editor-last=Farazmand \|editor-first=Ali \|place=Cham \|publisher=Springer International Publishing \|language=en \|doi=10.1007/978-3-319-31816-5_2760-1 \|isbn=978-3-319-31816-5 \|access-date=2022-03-28 \|last2=Magee \|first2=Liam}}</ref> == Interactions between dimensions == === Environmental and economic dimensions === {{Further\|Weak and strong sustainability}} People often debate the relationship between the environmental and economic dimensions of sustainability.<ref name="Ayres-1998" /> In academia, this is discussed under the term [[weak and strong sustainability]]. In that model, the ''weak sustainability concept'' states that capital made by humans could replace most of the [[natural capital]].<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1=Pearce \|first1=David W. \|last2=Atkinson \|first2=Giles D. \|date=1993 \|title=Capital theory and the measurement of sustainable development: an indicator of "weak" sustainability \|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/0921800993900399 \|journal=[[Ecological Economics]] \|language=en \|volume=8 \|issue=2 \|pages=103–108 \|doi=10.1016/0921-8009(93)90039-9}}</ref><ref name="Ayres-1998">Robert U. Ayres & Jeroen C.J.M. van den Bergh & John M. Gowdy, 1998. "[https://ideas.repec.org/p/tin/wpaper/19980103.html Viewpoint: Weak versus Strong Sustainability]," Tinbergen Institute Discussion Papers 98-103/3, Tinbergen Institute.</ref> Natural capital is a way of describing environmental resources. People may refer to it as nature. An example for this is the use of [[Environmental technology\|environmental technologies]] to reduce pollution.<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1=Ayres \|first1=Robert \|last2=van den Berrgh \|first2=Jeroen \|last3=Gowdy \|first3=John \|date=2001 \|title=Strong versus Weak Sustainability \|journal=[[Environmental Ethics]] \|volume=23 \|issue=2 \|pages=155–168 \|doi=10.5840/enviroethics200123225 \|issn=0163-4275}}</ref> The opposite concept in that model is ''strong sustainability''. This assumes that nature provides functions that technology cannot replace.<ref>{{Cite journal \|last=Cabeza Gutés \|first=Maite \|date=1996 \|title=The concept of weak sustainability \|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0921800996800036 \|journal=[[Ecological Economics]] \|language=en \|volume=17 \|issue=3 \|pages=147–156 \|doi=10.1016/S0921-8009(96)80003-6}}</ref> Thus, strong sustainability acknowledges the need to preserve ecological integrity.<ref name="Berg-2020" />{{rp\|19}} The loss of those functions makes it impossible to recover or repair many resources and ecosystem services. Biodiversity, along with [[pollination]] and [[Soil fertility\|fertile soils]], are examples. Others are clean air, clean water, and regulation of [[climate system]]s. Weak sustainability has come under criticism. It may be popular with governments and business but does not ensure the preservation of the earth's ecological integrity.<ref>{{Cite book \|last=Bosselmann \|first=Klaus \|title=The principle of sustainability: transforming law and governance \|date=2017 \|isbn=978-1-4724-8128-3 \|edition=2nd \|publisher=[[Routledge]] \|location=London \|oclc=951915998}}</ref> This is why the environmental dimension is so important.<ref name="Bosselmann-2010" /> The [[World Economic Forum]] illustrated this in 2020. It found that $44 trillion of economic value generation depends on nature. This value, more than half of the world's GDP, is thus vulnerable to nature loss.<ref name="WEF-2020">WEF (2020) [https://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_New_Nature_Economy_Report_2020.pdf Nature Risk Rising: Why the Crisis Engulfing Nature Matters for Business and the Economy] New Nature Economy, World Economic Forum in collaboration with PwC</ref>{{rp\|8}} Three large economic sectors are highly dependent on nature: [[construction]], [[agriculture]], and [[Food and Beverage\|food and beverages]]. Nature loss results from many factors. They include [[Land development\|land use change]], sea use change and climate change. Other examples are natural resource use, pollution, and [[Invasive species\|invasive alien species]].<ref name="WEF-2020" />{{rp\|11}} === Trade-offs === [[Trade-off]]s between different dimensions of sustainability are a common topic for debate. Balancing the environmental, social, and economic dimensions of sustainability is difficult. This is because there is often disagreement about the relative importance of each. To resolve this, there is a need to integrate, balance, and reconcile the dimensions.<ref name="Purvis" /> For example, humans can choose to make ecological integrity a priority or to compromise it.<ref name="Bosselmann-2010" /> Some even argue the Sustainable Development Goals are unrealistic. Their aim of universal human well-being conflicts with the physical limits of Earth and its ecosystems.<ref name="Stockholm+50-2022" />{{rp\|41}} == Measurement tools == {{Further\|Sustainability metrics and indices}} [[File:Sao Paulo Profile, Level 1, 2012.jpg\|thumb\|Urban sustainability analysis of the greater urban area of the city of [[São Paulo]] using the '[[Circles of Sustainability]]' method of the UN and Metropolis Association.<ref name="James-2015">{{Cite book \|last1=James \|first1=Paul \|url=https://www.academia.edu/9294719 \|title=Urban Sustainability in Theory and Practice: Circles of Sustainability \|last2=with Magee \|first2=Liam \|last3=Scerri \|first3=Andy \|last4=Steger \|first4=Manfred B. \|publisher=[[Routledge]] \|year=2015 \|isbn=9781315765747 \|location=London \|author-link=Paul James (academic)}}</ref>]]{{Excerpt\|Sustainability measurement\|paragraphs=1\|file=no}} === Environmental impacts of humans === {{Further\|Planetary boundaries\|Ecological footprint}} {{ external media \| float = right \| width = \| video1 = [https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PLydZ2Hrp_gPS1DRwFcowNTRNR1B9QbPm3 Our Planet] - Documentary series highlighting impacts people have had on the environment. (Netflix, Open Access)}} There are several methods to measure or describe human impacts on Earth. They include the ecological footprint, [[ecological debt]], [[carrying capacity]], and [[sustainable yield]]. The idea of [[planetary boundaries]] is that there are limits to the carrying capacity of the Earth. It is important not to cross these thresholds to prevent irreversible harm to the Earth.<ref name="Steffen-2015">{{Cite web \|last1=Steffen \|first1=Will \|last2=Rockström \|first2=Johan \|last3=Cornell \|first3=Sarah \|last4=Fetzer \|first4=Ingo \|last5=Biggs \|first5=Oonsie \|last6=Folke \|first6=Carl \|last7=Reyers \|first7=Belinda \|date=15 January 2015 \|title=Planetary Boundaries – an update \|url=https://www.stockholmresilience.org/research/research-news/2015-01-15-planetary-boundaries---an-update.html \|access-date=19 April 2020 \|website=Stockholm Resilience Centre}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web \|title=Ten years of nine planetary boundaries \|url=https://www.stockholmresilience.org/research/research-news/2019-11-01-ten-years-of-nine-planetary-boundaries.html \|access-date=19 April 2020 \|website=Stockholm Resilience Centre \|date=November 2019}}</ref> These planetary boundaries involve several environmental issues. These include climate change and [[biodiversity loss]]. They also include types of pollution. These are [[biogeochemical]] (nitrogen and phosphorus), [[ocean acidification]], [[land use]], [[Water scarcity\|freshwater]], [[ozone depletion]], [[Aerosol\|atmospheric aerosols]], and chemical pollution.<ref name="Steffen-2015" /><ref>{{Cite journal \|last1=Persson \|first1=Linn \|last2=Carney Almroth \|first2=Bethanie M. \|last3=Collins \|first3=Christopher D. \|last4=Cornell \|first4=Sarah \|last5=de Wit \|first5=Cynthia A. \|last6=Diamond \|first6=Miriam L. \|last7=Fantke \|first7=Peter \|last8=Hassellöv \|first8=Martin \|last9=MacLeod \|first9=Matthew \|last10=Ryberg \|first10=Morten W. \|last11=Søgaard Jørgensen \|first11=Peter \|date=2022-02-01 \|title=Outside the Safe Operating Space of the Planetary Boundary for Novel Entities \|journal=[[Environmental Science & Technology]] \|language=en \|volume=56 \|issue=3 \|pages=1510–1521 \|bibcode=2022EnST...56.1510P \|doi=10.1021/acs.est.1c04158 \|issn=0013-936X \|pmc=8811958 \|pmid=35038861}}</ref> (Since 2015 some experts refer to biodiversity loss as ''change in biosphere integrity''. They refer to chemical pollution as ''introduction of novel entities.'') The [[I = PAT\|IPAT formula]] measures the environmental impact of humans. It emerged in the 1970s. It states this impact is proportional to [[World population\|human population]], affluence and technology.<ref name="Ehrlich&Holden2">{{Cite magazine \|last1=Ehrlich \|first1=P.R. \|last2=Holden \|first2=J.P. \|year=1974 \|title=Human Population and the global environment \|magazine=[[American Scientist]] \|volume=62 \|issue=3 \|pages=282–292}}</ref> This implies various ways to increase environmental sustainability. One would be human [[Human population planning\|population control]]. Another would be to reduce consumption and [[Wealth\|affluence]]<ref name="Wiedmann-2020" /> such as [[Energy conservation\|energy consumption]]. Another would be to develop innovative or [[Environmental technology\|green technologies]] such as [[renewable energy]]. In other words, there are two broad aims. The first would be to have fewer consumers. The second would be to have less environmental footprint per consumer. The ''[[Millennium Ecosystem Assessment]]'' from 2005 measured 24 ecosystem services. It concluded that only four have improved over the last 50 years. It found 15 are in serious decline and five are in a precarious condition.<ref>{{Cite book \|last=Millennium Ecosystem Assessment \|url=http://www.millenniumassessment.org/documents/document.354.aspx.pdf \|title=Ecosystems and Human Well-being: Biodiversity Synthesis \|publisher=World Resources Institute \|year=2005 \|location=Washington, DC}}</ref>{{rp\|pp=6–19}} === Economic costs === [[File:Doughnut-transgressing.jpg\|thumb\|The doughnut model, with indicators to what extent the ecological ceilings are overshot and social foundations are not met yet]] Experts in [[environmental economics]] have calculated the cost of using public natural resources. One project calculated the damage to ecosystems and biodiversity loss. This was the [[The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity\|Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity]] project from 2007 to 2011.<ref>TEEB (2010), [http://teebweb.org/publications/teeb-for/synthesis/ The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity: Mainstreaming the Economics of Nature: A Synthesis of the Approach, Conclusions and Recommendations of TEEB]</ref> An entity that creates environmental and social costs often does not pay for them. The market price also does not reflect those costs. In the end, government policy is usually required to resolve this problem.<ref name="Jaeger">{{Cite book \|last=Jaeger \|first=William K. \|url=https://islandpress.org/books/environmental-economics-tree-huggers-and-other-skeptics \|title=Environmental economics for tree huggers and other skeptics \|date=2005 \|publisher=[[Island Press]] \|isbn=978-1-4416-0111-7 \|location=Washington, DC \|oclc=232157655}}</ref> Decision-making can take future costs and benefits into account. The tool for this is the [[social discount rate]]. The bigger the concern for future generations, the lower the social discount rate should be.<ref>Groth, Christian (2014). ''[https://web2.econ.ku.dk/okocg/VV/VV-2014/Lectures%20and%20lecture%20notes/Contents-VaekstMaster2014-2.pdf Lecture notes in Economic Growth]'', (mimeo), Chapter 8: Choice of social discount rate. Copenhagen University.</ref> Another approach is to put an economic value on ecosystem services. This allows us to assess environmental damage against perceived short-term welfare benefits. One calculation is that, "for every dollar spent on ecosystem restoration, between three and 75 dollars of economic benefits from ecosystem goods and services can be expected".<ref>[https://wedocs.unep.org/xmlui/bitstream/handle/20.500.11822/31813/ERDStrat.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y UNEP, FAO (2020). UN Decade on Ecosystem Restoration. 48p.]</ref> In recent years, economist [[Kate Raworth]] has developed the concept of [[Doughnut (economic model)\|doughnut economics]]. This aims to integrate social and environmental sustainability into economic thinking. The social dimension acts as a minimum standard to which a society should aspire. The carrying capacity of the planet acts an outer limit.<ref>{{Cite book \|last=Raworth \|first=Kate \|title=Doughnut economics: seven ways to think like a 21st-century economist \|date=2017 \|publisher=[[Random House]] \|isbn=978-1-84794-138-1 \|location=London \|oclc=974194745}}</ref> == Barriers == There are many reasons why sustainability is so difficult to achieve. These reasons have the name ''sustainability barriers''.<ref name="Berg-2020" /><ref name="Howes-2017">{{Cite journal \|last1=Howes \|first1=Michael \|last2=Wortley \|first2=Liana \|last3=Potts \|first3=Ruth \|last4=Dedekorkut-Howes \|first4=Aysin \|last5=Serrao-Neumann \|first5=Silvia \|last6=Davidson \|first6=Julie \|last7=Smith \|first7=Timothy \|last8=Nunn \|first8=Patrick \|date=2017 \|title=Environmental Sustainability: A Case of Policy Implementation Failure? \|journal=[[Sustainability (journal)\|Sustainability]] \|language=en \|volume=9 \|issue=2 \|pages=165 \|doi=10.3390/su9020165 \|issn=2071-1050 \|doi-access=free\|hdl=10453/90953 \|hdl-access=free }}</ref> Before addressing these barriers it is important to analyze and understand them.<ref name="Berg-2020" />{{rp\|34}} Some barriers arise from nature and its complexity ("everything is related").<ref name="Harrington-2016" /> Others arise from the human condition. One example is the [[value-action gap]]. This reflects the fact that people often do not act according to their convictions. Experts describe these barriers as ''intrinsic'' to the concept of sustainability.<ref name="Berg-2017">{{Cite journal \|last=Berg \|first=Christian \|date=2017 \|title=Shaping the Future Sustainably – Types of Barriers and Tentative Action Principles (chapter in: Future Scenarios of Global Cooperation—Practices and Challenges) \|url=https://www.gcr21.org/en/publications/global-dialogues/2198-0403-gd-14/ \|journal=[[Global Dialogues]] \|language=en \|publisher=Centre For Global Cooperation Research (KHK/GCR21), Nora Dahlhaus and Daniela Weißkopf (eds.) \|doi=10.14282/2198-0403-GD-14 \|doi-broken-date=6 March 2024 \|issn=2198-0403}}</ref>{{rp\|81}} Other barriers are ''extrinsic'' to the concept of sustainability. This means it is possible to overcome them. One way would be to put a price tag on the consumption of public goods.<ref name="Berg-2017" />{{rp\|84}} Some extrinsic barriers relate to the nature of dominant institutional frameworks. Examples would be where market mechanisms fail for [[Public good (economics)\|public goods]]. Existing societies, economies, and cultures encourage increased consumption. There is a structural imperative for growth in [[Competition (economics)\|competitive market]] economies. This inhibits necessary societal change.<ref name="Wiedmann-2020">{{Cite journal \|last1=Wiedmann \|first1=Thomas \|last2=Lenzen \|first2=Manfred \|last3=Keyßer \|first3=Lorenz T. \|last4=Steinberger \|first4=Julia K. \|date=2020 \|title=Scientists' warning on affluence \|journal=[[Nature Communications]] \|language=en \|volume=11 \|issue=1 \|pages=3107 \|doi=10.1038/s41467-020-16941-y \|issn=2041-1723 \|pmc=7305220 \|pmid=32561753 \|bibcode=2020NatCo..11.3107W}}[[File:CC-BY icon.svg\|50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]</ref> Furthermore, there are several barriers related to the difficulties of implementing sustainability policies. There are trade-offs between the goals of environmental policies and economic development. Environmental goals include nature conservation. Development may focus on poverty reduction.<ref name="Howes-2017" /><ref name="Berg-2020" />{{rp\|65}} There are also trade-offs between short-term profit and long-term viability.<ref name="Berg-2017" />{{rp\|65}} Political pressures generally favor the short term over the long term. So they form a barrier to actions oriented toward improving sustainability.<ref name="Berg-2017" />{{rp\|86}} Barriers to sustainability may also reflect current trends. These could include [[consumerism]] and [[short-termism]].<ref name="Berg-2017" />{{rp\|86}} == Transitions == === Components and characteristics === The [[European Environment Agency]] defines a sustainability transition as "a fundamental and wide-ranging transformation of a socio-technical system towards a more sustainable configuration that helps alleviate persistent problems such as climate change, pollution, biodiversity loss or resource scarcities."<ref>{{Cite book \|last=European Environment Agency. \|url=https://data.europa.eu/doi/10.2800/641030 \|title=Sustainability transitions: policy and practice. \|date=2019 \|publisher=Publications Office \|location=LU \|doi=10.2800/641030 \|isbn=9789294800862}}</ref>{{rp\|152}} The concept of sustainability transitions is like the concept of [[energy transition]]s.<ref>{{Citation \|title=Introduction \|date=2020 \|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/B9780128195215000267 \|work=The Regulation and Policy of Latin American Energy Transitions \|pages=xxix–xxxviii \|publisher=Elsevier \|language=en \|doi=10.1016/b978-0-12-819521-5.00026-7 \|isbn=978-0-12-819521-5 \|access-date=2022-07-14 \|s2cid=241093198 }}</ref> One expert argues a sustainability transition must be "supported by a new kind of culture, a new kind of collaboration, [and] a new kind of leadership".<ref>{{Cite book \|last=Kuenkel \|first=Petra \|title=Stewarding Sustainability Transformations: An Emerging Theory and Practice of SDG Implementation \|date=2019 \|isbn=978-3-030-03691-1 \|location=Cham \|oclc=1080190654 \|publisher=Springer}}</ref> It requires a large investment in "new and greener capital goods, while simultaneously shifting capital away from unsustainable systems".<ref name="Stockholm+50-2022" />{{rp\|107}} It prefers these to unsustainable options.<ref name="Stockholm+50-2022" />{{rp\|101}} A sustainability transition requires major change in societies. They must change their fundamental values and organizing principles.<ref name="Swart, R.-2002" />{{rp\|15}} These new values would emphasize "the quality of life and material sufficiency, human solidarity and global equity, and affinity with nature and environmental sustainability".<ref name="Swart, R.-2002" />{{rp\|15}} A transition may only work if far-reaching lifestyle changes accompany technological advances.<ref name="Wiedmann-2020" /> Scientists have pointed out that: "Sustainability transitions come about in diverse ways, and all require civil-society pressure and evidence-based advocacy, political leadership, and a solid understanding of policy instruments, markets, and other drivers."<ref name="Ripple-2017" /> There are four possible overlapping processes of transformation. They each have different political dynamics. Technology, markets, government, or citizens can lead these processes.<ref name="Scoones-2016" /> === Action principles === It is possible to divide action principles to make societies more sustainable into four types. These are nature-related, personal, society-related and systems-related principles.<ref name="Berg-2020" />{{rp\|206}} * Nature-related principles: [[Low-carbon economy\|decarbonize]]; reduce human environmental impact by efficiency, sufficiency and consistency; be net-positive – build up environmental and societal capital; prefer local, seasonal, plant-based and labor-intensive; [[Polluter pays principle\|polluter-pays principle]]; [[precautionary principle]]; and appreciate and celebrate the beauty of nature. * Personal principles: practise contemplation, apply policies with caution, celebrate frugality. * Society-related principles: grant the least privileged the greatest support; seek mutual understanding, trust and many wins; strengthen social cohesion and collaboration; engage stakeholders; foster education – share knowledge and collaborate. * Systems-related principles: apply [[systems thinking]]; foster diversity; make what is relevant to the public more transparent; maintain or increase option diversity. === Example steps === In 2017 scientists published an update to the 1992 [[World Scientists' Warning to Humanity]]. It showed how to move towards environmental sustainability. It proposed steps in three areas:<ref name="Ripple-2017" /> * Reduced consumption: reducing food waste, promoting dietary shifts towards mostly plant-based foods. * Reducing the number of consumers: further reducing fertility rates and thus population growth. * Technology and nature conservation: there are several related approaches. One is to maintain nature's ecosystem services. Another is promote new green technologies. Another is changing energy use. One aspect of this is to adopt renewable energy sources. At the same time it is necessary to end subsidies to energy production through [[fossil fuel]]s. ==== Agenda 2030 for the Sustainable Development Goals ==== [[File:Sustainable Development Goals.svg\|thumb\|United Nations Sustainable Development Goals.]] In 2015, the United Nations agreed the [[Sustainable Development Goals]] (SDGs). Their official name is Agenda 2030 for the Sustainable Development Goals. The UN described this programme as a very ambitious and transformational vision. It said the SDGs were of unprecedented scope and significance.<ref name=":1b" />{{rp\|3/35}} The UN said: "We are determined to take the bold and transformative steps which are urgently needed to shift the world on to a sustainable and resilient path."<ref name=":1b" /> The 17 goals and targets lay out transformative steps. For example, the SDGs aim to protect the future of planet Earth. Here the UN pledged to "protect the planet from degradation, including through sustainable consumption and production, sustainably managing its natural resources and taking urgent action on climate change, so that it can support the needs of the present and future generations".<ref name=":1b" /> == Options for overcoming barriers == {{Further\|Sustainable development#Pathways}} === Issues around economic growth === {{Further\|Eco-economic decoupling\|Degrowth\|Steady-state economy}} [[Eco-economic decoupling]] is an idea to resolve tradeoffs between economic growth and environmental conservation. The idea is to "decouple ''environmental bads'' from ''economic goods'' as a path towards sustainability".<ref name="Vaden-2020" /> This would mean "using less resources per unit of economic output and reducing the environmental impact of any resources that are used or economic activities that are undertaken".<ref name="UNEP2011" />{{rp\|8}} The intensity of [[pollutant]]s emitted makes it possible to measure pressure on the environment. This in turn makes it possible to measure decoupling. This involves following changes in the [[emission intensity]] associated with economic output.<ref name="UNEP2011" /> Examples of absolute long-term decoupling are rare. But some industrialized countries have decoupled GDP growth from production- and consumption-based {{CO2}} emissions.<ref name="Wiedenhofer">{{Cite journal \|last1=Haberl \|first1=Helmut \|last2=Wiedenhofer \|first2=Dominik \|last3=Virág \|first3=Doris \|last4=Kalt \|first4=Gerald \|last5=Plank \|first5=Barbara \|last6=Brockway \|first6=Paul \|last7=Fishman \|first7=Tomer \|last8=Hausknost \|first8=Daniel \|last9=Krausmann \|first9=Fridolin \|last10=Leon-Gruchalski \|first10=Bartholomäus \|last11=Mayer \|first11=Andreas \|date=2020 \|title=A systematic review of the evidence on decoupling of GDP, resource use and GHG emissions, part II: synthesizing the insights \|journal=[[Environmental Research Letters]] \|volume=15 \|issue=6 \|pages=065003 \|bibcode=2020ERL....15f5003H \|doi=10.1088/1748-9326/ab842a \|issn=1748-9326 \|s2cid=216453887\|doi-access=free }}</ref> Yet, even in this example, decoupling alone is not enough. It is necessary to accompany it with "sufficiency-oriented strategies and strict enforcement of absolute reduction targets".<ref name="Wiedenhofer" />{{rp\|1}} One study in 2020 found no evidence of necessary decoupling. This was a [[meta-analysis]] of 180 scientific studies. It found that there is "no evidence of the kind of decoupling needed for ecological sustainability" and that "in the absence of robust evidence, the goal of decoupling rests partly on faith".<ref name="Vaden-2020" /> Some experts have questioned the possibilities for decoupling and thus the feasibility of [[green growth]].<ref name="Parrique T-2019">Parrique T., Barth J., Briens F., C. Kerschner, Kraus-Polk A., Kuokkanen A., Spangenberg J.H., 2019. [https://gaiageld.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/02/decoupling_debunked_evidence_and_argumen.pdf Decoupling debunked: Evidence and arguments against green growth as a sole strategy for sustainability]. European Environmental Bureau.</ref> Some have argued that decoupling on its own will not be enough to reduce environmental pressures. They say it would need to include the issue of economic growth.<ref name="Parrique T-2019" /> There are several reasons why adequate decoupling is currently not taking place. These are rising energy expenditure, [[rebound effect]]s, problem shifting, the underestimated impact of services, the limited potential of recycling, insufficient and inappropriate technological change, and cost-shifting.<ref name="Parrique T-2019" /> The decoupling of economic growth from environmental deterioration is difficult. This is because the entity that causes environmental and social costs does not generally pay for them. So the market price does not express such costs.<ref name="Jaeger" /> For example, the cost of packaging into the price of a product. may factor in the cost of packaging. But it may omit the cost of disposing of that packaging. Economics describes such factors as [[Externality\|externalities]], in this case a negative externality.<ref>{{cite book \|first=Arthur Cecil \|last=Pigou \|date=1932 \|url=https://edisciplinas.usp.br/pluginfile.php/4154221/mod_resource/content/0/Pigou-The_Economic_of_Welfare_1920.pdf \|title=The Economics of Welfare \|edition=4th \|location=London \|publisher=Macmillan}}</ref> Usually, it is up to government action or local governance to deal with externalities.<ref>{{Cite book \|last=Jaeger \|first=William K. \|title=Environmental economics for tree huggers and other skeptics \|date=2005 \|publisher=[[Island Press]] \|isbn=978-1-4416-0111-7 \|location=Washington, DC \|oclc=232157655}}</ref> There are various ways to incorporate environmental and social costs and benefits into economic activities. Examples include: taxing the activity (the [[Polluter pays principle\|polluter pays]]); subsidizing activities with positive effects (rewarding [[stewardship]]); and outlawing particular levels of damaging practices (legal limits on pollution).<ref name="Jaeger" /> === Government action and local governance === A textbook on natural resources and environmental economics stated in 2011: "Nobody who has seriously studied the issues believes that the economy's relationship to the natural environment can be left entirely to market forces."<ref>{{Cite book \|title=Natural resource and environmental economics \|date=2011 \|publisher=Pearson Addison Wesley \|author=Roger Perman \|author2=Yue Ma \|author3=Michael Common \|author4=David Maddison \|author5=James Mcgilvray \|isbn=978-0-321-41753-4 \|edition=4th \|location=Harlow, Essex \|oclc=704557307}}</ref>{{rp\|15}} This means natural resources will be over-exploited and destroyed in the long run without government action. [[Elinor Ostrom]] (winner of the 2009[[Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences \| Nobel economics prize]]) expanded on this. She stated that local governance (or self-governance) can be a third option besides the market or the national government.<ref name="Anderies-2012">{{Cite journal \|last1=Anderies \|first1=John M. \|last2=Janssen \|first2=Marco A. \|date=2012-10-16 \|title=Elinor Ostrom (1933–2012): Pioneer in the Interdisciplinary Science of Coupled Social-Ecological Systems \|journal=PLOS Biology \|volume=10 \|issue=10 \|pages=e1001405 \|doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.1001405 \|issn=1544-9173 \|pmc=3473022 \|doi-access=free }}</ref> She studied how people in small, local communities manage shared natural resources.<ref>{{Cite web \|title=The Nobel Prize: Women Who Changed the World \|url=https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/lists/nobel-prize-awarded-women/ \|access-date=31 March 2022 \|website=thenobelprize.org}}</ref> She showed that communities using natural resources can establish rules their for use and maintenance. These are resources such as pastures, fishing waters, and forests. This leads to both economic and ecological sustainability.<ref name="Anderies-2012" /> Successful self-governance needs groups with frequent communication among participants. In this case, groups can manage the usage of [[Common good (economics)\|common goods]] without overexploitation.<ref name="Berg-2020" />{{rp\|117}} Based on Ostrom's work, some have argued that: "Common-pool resources today are overcultivated because the different agents do not know each other and cannot directly communicate with one another."<ref name="Berg-2020" />{{rp\|117}} === Global governance === [[File:Launching of The UN Sustainability Development Solution Network (SDSN) Chapter Indonesia by The President of The Republic Indonesia (10111448114).jpg\|thumb\|Launch of the UN [[Sustainable Development Solutions Network]] (SDSN) Chapter Indonesia ]] Questions of global concern are difficult to tackle. That is because global issues need global solutions. But existing global organizations (UN, [[World Trade Organization\|WTO]], and others) do not have sufficient means.<ref name="Berg-2020" />{{rp\|135}} For example, they lack sanctioning mechanisms to enforce existing global regulations.<ref name="Berg-2020" />{{rp\|136}} Some institutions do not enjoy universal acceptance. An example is the [[International Criminal Court]]. Their agendas are not aligned (for example [[United Nations Environment Programme\|UNEP]], [[United Nations Development Programme\|UNDP]], and WTO) And some accuse them of nepotism and mismanagement.<ref name="Berg-2020" />{{rp\|135–145}} [[Multilateralism\|Multilateral]] international agreements, treaties, and [[intergovernmental organization]]s (IGOs) face further challenges. These result in barriers to sustainability. Often these arrangements rely on voluntary commitments. An example is [[Nationally Determined Contribution]]s for climate action. There can be a lack of enforcement of existing national or international regulation. And there can be gaps in regulation for international actors such as multi-national enterprises.Critics of some global organizations say they lack legitimacy and democracy. Institutions facing such criticism include the WTO, [[International Monetary Fund\|IMF]], [[World Bank]], [[United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change\|UNFCCC]], [[Group of Seven\|G7]], [[Group of Eight\|G8]] and [[OECD]].<ref name="Berg-2020" />{{rp\|135}} == Responses by nongovernmental stakeholders == === Businesses === {{See also\|Environmental, social, and corporate governance}} [[File:Barssee und unmittelbare Umgebung 08.JPG\|thumb\|Today, the public primarily associates [[Sustainable products\|sustainable production]] with special seals of quality (here the [[Forest Stewardship Council]] (FSC) seal for [[Wood\|wood products]] in a forest in Germany).]] [[Sustainable business]] practices integrate ecological concerns with social and economic ones.<ref name="Kinsley-1997">Kinsley, M. and Lovins, L.H. (September 1997). [http://www.natcapsolutions.org/publications_files/PayingForGrowth_ChronPilot_Sep1997.pdf "Paying for Growth, Prospering from Development."] {{Webarchive\|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110717081554/http://www.natcapsolutions.org/publications_files/PayingForGrowth_ChronPilot_Sep1997.pdf \|date=17 July 2011}} Retrieved 15 June 2009.</ref><ref name="Callenbach-2011">[http://www.thesolutionsjournal.com/node/968 Sustainable Shrinkage: Envisioning a Smaller, Stronger Economy] {{Webarchive\|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160411191530/http://www.thesolutionsjournal.com/node/968 \|date=11 April 2016}}. Thesolutionsjournal.com. Retrieved 13 March 2016.</ref> One accounting framework for this approach uses the phrase "people, planet, and profit". The name of this approach is the [[triple bottom line]]. The [[circular economy]] is a related concept. Its goal is to decouple environmental pressure from economic growth.<ref name="Ghisellini 11–32">{{Cite journal \|last1=Ghisellini \|first1=Patrizia \|last2=Cialani \|first2=Catia \|last3=Ulgiati \|first3=Sergio \|date=2016-02-15 \|title=A review on circular economy: the expected transition to a balanced interplay of environmental and economic systems \|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0959652615012287 \|journal=Journal of Cleaner Production \|series=Towards Post Fossil Carbon Societies: Regenerative and Preventative Eco-Industrial Development \|language=en \|volume=114 \|pages=11–32 \|doi=10.1016/j.jclepro.2015.09.007 \|issn=0959-6526}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal \|last1=Nobre \|first1=Gustavo Cattelan \|last2=Tavares \|first2=Elaine \|date=2021-09-10 \|title=The quest for a circular economy final definition: A scientific perspective \|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0959652621021910 \|journal=Journal of Cleaner Production \|language=en \|volume=314 \|pages=127973 \|doi=10.1016/j.jclepro.2021.127973 \|issn=0959-6526}}</ref> Growing attention towards sustainability has led to the formation of many organizations. These include the Sustainability Consortium of the [[Society for Organizational Learning]],<ref>{{Cite web \|last=Zhexembayeva, N. \|date=May 2007 \|title=Becoming Sustainable: Tools and Resources for Successful Organizational Transformation \|url=http://worldbenefit.case.edu/newsletter/?idNewsletter=143&idHeading=46&idNews=589 \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100613010521/http://worldbenefit.case.edu/newsletter/?idNewsletter=143&idHeading=46&idNews=589 \|archive-date=2010-06-13 \|website=[[Center for Business as an Agent of World Benefit]] \|publisher=Case Western University \|volume=3 \|issue=2 \|df=dmy-all}}</ref> the Sustainable Business Institute,<ref>{{Cite web \|title=About Us \|url=http://www.sustainablebusiness.org/2.html \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090517000948/http://www.sustainablebusiness.org/2.html \|archive-date=17 May 2009 \|publisher=Sustainable Business Institute}}</ref> and the [[World Business Council for Sustainable Development]].<ref>{{Cite web \|title=About the WBCSD \|url=http://www.wbcsd.ch/templates/TemplateWBCSD2/layout.asp?type=p&MenuId=NDEx&doOpen=1&ClickMenu=LeftMenu \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070909144305/http://www.wbcsd.ch/templates/TemplateWBCSD2/layout.asp?type=p&MenuId=NDEx&doOpen=1&ClickMenu=LeftMenu \|archive-date=9 September 2007 \|access-date=1 April 2009 \|publisher=World Business Council for Sustainable Development (WBCSD)}}</ref> [[Supply chain sustainability]] looks at the environmental and human impacts of products in the supply chain. It considers how they move from raw materials sourcing to production, storage, and delivery, and every transportation link on the way.<ref>{{Cite web \|title=Supply Chain Sustainability {{!}} UN Global Compact \|url=https://www.unglobalcompact.org/what-is-gc/our-work/supply-chain \|access-date=2022-05-04 \|website=www.unglobalcompact.org}}</ref> === Religious communities === {{Further\|Religion and environmentalism}} Religious leaders have stressed the importance of caring for nature and environmental sustainability. In 2015 over 150 leaders from various faiths issued a joint statement to the [[2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference\|UN Climate Summit in Paris 2015]].<ref>{{Cite web \|url=http://actalliance.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/10/COP21_Statement_englisch2.pdf \|title="Statement of Faith and Spiritual Leaders on the upcoming United Nations Climate Change Conference, COP21 in Paris in December 2015" \|access-date=21 March 2022 \|archive-date=22 December 2015 \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151222085536/http://actalliance.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/10/COP21_Statement_englisch2.pdf \|url-status=dead }}</ref> They reiterated a statement made in the Interfaith Summit in New York in 2014:<blockquote>As representatives from different faith and religious traditions, we stand together to express deep concern for the consequences of climate change on the earth and its people, all entrusted, as our faiths reveal, to our common care. Climate change is indeed a threat to life, a precious gift we have received and that we need to care for.<ref>{{Cite web \|title=The Statement — Interfaith Climate \|url=https://www.interfaithclimate.org/the-statement/ \|access-date=13 August 2022 \|website=www.interfaithclimate.org}}</ref></blockquote> === Individuals === {{Further\|Sustainable living}} Individuals can also live in a more sustainable way. They can change their lifestyles, practise [[ethical consumerism]], and embrace frugality.<ref name="Berg-2020" />{{rp\|236}} These [[sustainable living]] approaches can also make cities more sustainable. They do this by altering the built environment.<ref>{{Cite book \|last=McDilda \|first=Diane Gow \|title=The everything green living book: easy ways to conserve energy, protect your family's health, and help save the environment \|date=2007 \|publisher=Adams Media \|isbn=978-1-59869-425-3 \|location=Avon, Mass. \|oclc=124074971}}</ref> Such approaches include [[sustainable transport]], [[sustainable architecture]], and [[Zero carbon housing\|zero emission housing]]. Research can identify the main issues to focus on. These include flying, meat and dairy products, car driving, and household sufficiency. Research can show how to create cultures of sufficiency, care, solidarity, and simplicity.<ref name="Wiedmann-2020" /> Some young people are using activism, litigation, and on-the-ground efforts to advance sustainability. This is particularly the case in the area of climate action.<ref name="Aggarwal-2022">Aggarwal, D., Esquivel, N., Hocquet, R., Martin, K., Mungo, C., Nazareth, A., Nikam, J., Odenyo, J., Ravindran, B., Kurinji, L. S., Shawoo, Z., & Yamada, K. (2022). [https://www.stockholm50.report/charting-a-youth-vision-for-a-just-and-sustainable-future.pdf Charting a youth vision for a just and sustainable future]. Stockholm Environment Institute. DOI: 10.51414/sei2022.010</ref>{{rp\|60}} == Critiques == === Impossible to reach === Scholars have criticized the concepts of sustainability and sustainable development from different angles. One was [[Dennis Meadows]], one of the authors of the first report to the Club of Rome, called "[[The Limits to Growth]]". He argued many people deceive themselves by using the Brundtland definition of sustainability.<ref name="Wilhelm-2000" /> This is because the needs of the present generation are actually not met today. Instead, economic activities to meet present needs will shrink the options of future generations.<ref>{{Cite web \|last=Gambino \|first=Megan \|date=15 March 2012 \|title=Is it Too Late for Sustainable Development? \|url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/is-it-too-late-for-sustainable-development-125411410/ \|access-date=2022-01-12 \|website=[[Smithsonian Magazine]] \|language=en}}</ref><ref name="Berg-2020" />{{rp\|27}} Another criticism is that the paradigm of sustainability is no longer suitable as a guide for transformation. This is because societies are "socially and ecologically self-destructive consumer societies".<ref name="Blühdorn 2017 42–61">{{Cite journal \|last=Blühdorn \|date=2017 \|title=Post-capitalism, post-growth, post-consumerism? Eco-political hopes beyond sustainability \|journal=Global Discourse \|language=en \|volume=7 \|issue=1 \|pages=42–61 \|doi=10.1080/23269995.2017.1300415 \|issn=2043-7897\|doi-access=free }}</ref> Some scholars have even proclaimed the end of the concept of sustainability. This is because humans now have a significant impact on Earth's climate system and ecosystems.<ref name="Melinda Harm" /> It might become impossible to pursue sustainability because of these complex, radical, and dynamic issues.<ref name="Melinda Harm" /> Others have called sustainability a [[utopia]]n ideal: "We need to keep sustainability as an ideal; an ideal which we might never reach, which might be utopian, but still a necessary one."<ref name="Berg-2020" />{{rp\|5}} === Vagueness === The term is often hijacked and thus can lose its meaning. People use it for all sorts of things, such as ''saving the planet'' to ''recycling your rubbish''.<ref name="Halliday-2016" /> A specific definition may never be possible. This is because sustainability is a concept that provides a normative structure. That describes what human society regards as good or desirable.<ref name="Ramsey-2015" /> But some argue that while sustainability is vague and contested it is not meaningless.<ref name="Ramsey-2015" /> Although lacking in a singular definition, this concept is still useful. Scholars have argued that its fuzziness can actually be liberating. This is because it means that "the basic goal of sustainability (maintaining or improving desirable conditions [...]) can be pursued with more flexibility".<ref name="Harrington-2016" /> === Confusion and greenwashing === Sustainability has a reputation as a [[buzzword]].<ref name="Purvis" /> People may use the terms ''sustainability'' and ''sustainable development'' in ways that are different to how they are usually understood. This can result in confusion and mistrust. So a clear explanation of how the terms are being used in a particular situation is important.<ref name="Harrington-2016" /> [[Greenwashing]] is a practice of deceptive marketing. It is when a company or organization provides misleading information about the sustainability of a product, policy, or other activity.<ref name="Aggarwal-2022" />{{rp\|26}}<ref>{{Cite news \|first=Bruce \|last=Watson \|date=2016-08-20 \|title=The troubling evolution of corporate greenwashing \|url=https://www.theguardian.com/sustainable-business/2016/aug/20/greenwashing-environmentalism-lies-companies \|work=[[The Guardian]] \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161018015320/https://www.theguardian.com/sustainable-business/2016/aug/20/greenwashing-environmentalism-lies-companies \|archive-date=18 October 2016}}</ref> Investors are wary of this issue as it exposes them to risk.<ref>{{Cite web \|date=2018-08-18 \|title=The Troubling Evolution Of Large Scale Corporate Greenwashing \|url=https://www.bnnbloomberg.ca/investors-are-increasingly-calling-out-corporate-greenwashing-1.1125826 \|website=www.bloomberg.ca \|publisher=BNN Bloomberg}}</ref> The reliability of eco-labels is also doubtful in some cases.<ref>{{Cite news \|date=2011-08-18 \|title=The Troubling Evolution Of Large Scale Corporate Greenwashing \|url=https://theconversation.com/greenwashing-can-you-trust-that-label-2116 \|work=[[The Conversation (website)\|The Conversation]]}}</ref> [[Ecolabel]]ling is a voluntary method of environmental performance certification and labelling for food and consumer products. The most credible eco-labels are those developed with close participation from all relevant stakeholders.<ref>{{Cite journal \|last=Ebrahimi Sirizi, M., Taghavi Zirvani, E., Esmailzadeh, A., Khosravian, J., Ahmadi, R., Mijani, N., Soltannia, R., & Jokar Arsanjani, J. \|date=2023 \|year=2023 \|title=A scenario-based multi-criteria decision-making approach for allocation of pistachio processing facilities: A case study of Zarand, Iran. Sustainability \|journal=Sustainability \|volume=15 \|issue=20 \|page=15054 \|doi=10.3390/su152015054 \|doi-access=free }}</ref> == See also == * [[List of sustainability topics]] * [[Outline of sustainability]] == References == {{Reflist}} {{Library resources box \|others=yes \|lcheading=Sustainability}} {{Sister project links\|Sustainability}} {{portal inline\|Environment}} {{portal inline\|Earth sciences}} {{portal inline\|Ecology}} {{Sustainability\|state=not collapsed}} {{Environmentalism}} {{Simple living}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Sustainability\| ]] [[Category:Environmentalism]] [[Category:Economics of sustainability]] [[Category:Environmental social science concepts]] [[Category:Environmental terminology]] [[Category:Human-Environment interaction]]
Green guides	{{Short description\|Sustainability rule and incentive list}} {{Multiple issues\| {{Cleanup\|date=December 2011}} {{More citations needed\|date=March 2019}} }} A '''green guide''' (or [[sustainability]] guide) is a set of rules and guidelines provided for the use of a general or selective population to achieve the goal of becoming more green or sustainable. The guide serves to direct individuals, agencies, companies, businesses, etc. to resources that can help them become more sustainable (or ‘green’), as sustainability becomes a more popular and growing lifestyle choice. Guides are available in many ways, but the most popular being through [[website]]s to avoid using paper. There has also been a surge of guides in [[university]] websites to encourage [[student]]s towards a more sustainable way of life. == History == The original “green guides” were created by the [[Federal Trade Commission]] (FTC). The Federal Trade Commission created these “green guides” to “help marketers avoid making environmental claims that are unfair or deceptive under Section 5 of the [[Federal Trade Commission Act]]”.<ref name=ftcreporter>{{Cite web \|url=http://www.ftc.gov/opa/reporter/greengds.shtm \|title=Reporter Resources: The FTC's Green Guides \|access-date=2011-11-18 \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111127214958/http://www.ftc.gov/opa/reporter/greengds.shtm \|archive-date=2011-11-27 \|url-status=dead }}</ref> In order to guide [[consumer]]s away from dishonest environmental claims, the FTC issued two consumer-facing [[brochure]]s called “Eco-Speak: A User’s Guide to the Language of Recycling” and “Sorting out ‘Green’ Advertising Claims”.<ref name=ftcreporter/> The FTC also issued a brochure for businesses called “Complying With the Environmental Marketing Guides”.<ref name=ftcreporter/> This guide provides businesses with the complete guides and a review of [[green marketing]] claims. The Federal Trade Commission issued their first guide in 1992 and since then has updated them in 1996 and 1998.<ref name=ftcreporter/> Most recently the Federal Trade Commission has proposed a revision of their guides in October 2010.<ref name=ftcreporter/> Due to the proliferation of products claiming to be green in the marketplace in recent years the Federal Trade Commission began this third revision process early as the Commission held several workshop meetings open to the public to discuss green marketing issues. These workshops covered [[carbon offset]]s, [[Green packaging\|“green” product packaging]], building products, and textiles claiming to be green. Through this review process the Federal Trade Commission is able to gain feedback from the public as well as perform a [[cost-benefit analysis]], determine the efficacy of their guides, and decide whether to maintain, modify, or discard the current set of guides and rules.<ref>{{Cite web \|date=2017-09-07 \|title=FTC's Endorsement Guides: What People Are Asking \|url=https://www.ftc.gov/business-guidance/resources/ftcs-endorsement-guides-what-people-are-asking \|access-date=2023-11-24 \|website=Federal Trade Commission \|language=en}}</ref> Even before the Federal Trade Commission created its first green guide in 1992 there were plenty of people interested in sustainability and the [[Environment (biophysical)\|environment]] who wanted some sort of guidance when it came to living and purchasing more [[eco friendly]]. Especially in recent years with the growing environmental movement, a myriad of organizations and individuals have released their own guides to living sustainably or in other words their own “green guides.” For example, [[National Geographic Society\|National Geographic]] a magazine company whose slogan is “inspiring people to care about the planet since 1888” first launched its National Geographic Green Guide in 2003. This magazine guide gave readers tips and examples on how to live a more sustainable and “greener” life. National Geographic discontinued the print version of their guide in January 2009, but it continues to run the guide on their webpage.<ref name=folio>{{Cite web \| url=http://www.foliomag.com/2008/national-geographic-discontinues-green-guide-print \| title=National Geographic Discontinues Green Guide\|website=Foliomag.com\| date=2008-12-02}}</ref> There readers can read over guides on living more sustainably with their home and garden, travel and transport, food, and purchases. Also National Geographic provides readers with recent environmental news, “[[green living]] hot topics,” and interactive [[quiz]]zes to determine how sustainably their living and what they can do to change.<ref name=geo>{{Cite web \| url=http://environment.nationalgeographic.com/environment/green-guide/quizzes/ \| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110205094717/http://environment.nationalgeographic.com/environment/green-guide/quizzes/ \| url-status=dead \| archive-date=February 5, 2011 \| title=Environment\|website=Environment.nationalgeographic.com}}</ref> Every day more and more people and organizations keep generating new ideas and novel innovations on how to live more sustainable lives. These fresh ideas act themselves as green guides as long as their information is spread, either by print or on the [[internet]]. For example, back in November 2007 Rebecca Kelley and Joy Hatch were just two friends who happened to be [[pregnant]] at the same time, but by sharing their ideals and interests of raising their children sustainably they created a blog called “The Green Baby Guide”.<ref name=historybaby>{{cite web\|url=http://greenbabyguide.com/2008/08/31/the-history-of-the-green-baby-guide/\|title=The History of The Green Baby Guide\|website=Greenbabyguide.com\|accessdate=26 March 2019}}</ref> This blog created a guide for mothers interested in how they could make their [[child rearing]] process more environmentally friendly and sustainable. Eventually their community of interested mothers grew so large that they came out with a book in March 2010 called "The Eco-nomical Baby Guide: Down-to-Earth Ways for Parents to Save Money and the Planet".<ref name=greenbabyabout>{{Cite web \|url=http://greenbabyguide.com/about/ \|title=About Us \|access-date=2011-11-18 \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111126183253/http://greenbabyguide.com/about/ \|archive-date=2011-11-26 \|url-status=dead }}</ref> With more people wanting to become enlightened about [[sustainable living]] every day there is plenty of room for additional green guides to be produced causing the history of green guides to be changing and evolving all the time. == Federal Trade Commission == The Federal Trade Commission green guide is a general guide made by the [[United States government]]. It uses examples of everyday ‘green items’. The articles are quite broad, and can be applied to almost every ‘green’ consumer product. The FTC issued its Green Guides, to help marketers avoid making environmental claims that are unfair or deceptive under Section 5 of the FTC Act. The Green Guides outline general principles that apply to all environmental marketing claims and then provide guidance on specific green claims, such as [[biodegradable]], [[compost]]able, [[recycling\|recyclable]], recycled content, and [[ozone]] safe. The FTC issued the Guides in 1992, and updated them in 1996 and 1998.<ref name="ftcreporter"/> Currently, the FTC is making revisions to the guides to keep up with the times. == National Geographic == The National Geographic website gives a variety of resources aimed primarily at individuals in their easy to comprehend green guide. Here, the website focuses on ways everyday people can help towards a sustainable world as well as changes they can make to live that world as well. With categories involving home and garden, travel, transportation, and food, National Geographic encompasses the areas people have the most control over in their life. Under the home and garden,<ref name="buying">{{cite web\|url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/environment/\|title=Environment\|website=Nationalgeographic.com\|accessdate=26 March 2019}}</ref> the site provides simple yet shocking facts about certain products and practices that one might not even think about in one's everyday home life. Also, the site provides alternatives to these practices as well as tips to make both your home and your garden sustainable. The travel and [[transportation]]<ref name=travel>{{cite web\|url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/environment/\|title=Environment\|website=Environment\|accessdate=26 March 2019}}</ref> section also provides other tips as to how one would green up their [[traveling]] as well as provides destinations for travel. In this category, National Geographic, as per its name, also has some information on [[geotourism]]. Defined as "tourism that sustains or enhances the geographical character of place,"<ref name=tour>{{Cite web \|url=http://video.nationalgeographic.com/video/player/specials/sus-dest/sus-dest-geotourism.html \|title=Video -- Geotourism: The Future of Travel -- National Geographic \|access-date=2011-11-18 \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110822091520/http://video.nationalgeographic.com/video/player/specials/sus-dest/sus-dest-geotourism.html \|archive-date=2011-08-22 \|url-status=dead }}</ref> this section gives information about places that one might decide to go on for travel. With [[food]],<ref name="buying"/> the site gives valuable information about food and the impact to the environment that it could have; moreover, the site educates readers as to up to date advances in technology that could prove more sustainable than past technologies when it comes to cultivation of food. Finally, there is a section on certain recipes that provides information to certain aspects of [[food preparation]], as well as food itself, that proves harmful towards sustainability and the environment in general. Adding to that, the website also provides a ‘buying guides’<ref name="buying"/> option that educates people in the purchases they make and how that could affect the environment as well as their wallets. Under this option, the website provides tips and services as to products that everyday people might want to purchase. These tips encompass things like cost, what kinds of regulations one would have to understand for the product, pertinent information regarding the kind of product, as well as how the product itself and the kind you decide to buy impact the environment. == Green Guide UK == “The Green Guide” is a version of a sustainable living guide that was created in the [[UK]] in 1997. This guide consists of an [[online database]] as well as a published print version. Not only is “the Green Guide” a guide to sustainable living, but it is also a directory that contains information about “products, services and organisations that help promote and encourage a sustainable lifestyle”.<ref>{{Cite web \|url=http://greenguide.co.uk/node/49 \|title=What's Included? \| the Green Guide \|access-date=2011-11-18 \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110928072722/http://www.greenguide.co.uk/node/49 \|archive-date=2011-09-28 \|url-status=dead }}</ref> The guide provides useful advice and tips, but it also contains lists of organizations and companies that can further inform and assist readers in their quests to live more sustainably. Since this guide is produced in the [[United Kingdom]], the vast majority of the listings are of companies located in the United Kingdom, but it also contains over 350 international listings as well as information and tips that are applicable almost anywhere in the world.<ref name="direct">{{Cite web \|url=http://greenguide.co.uk/directorystatistics \|title=Directory Statistics \| the Green Guide \|access-date=2011-11-18 \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120406183317/http://www.greenguide.co.uk/directorystatistics \|archive-date=2012-04-06 \|url-status=dead }}</ref> “The Green Guide” is broken down into twelve chapters each dealing with different themes spanning a wide variety of lifestyles. Each one of these chapters is then further broken down into sections and subsections where the writers found appropriate. In total, the guide consists of 994 different sections and subsections all pertaining to different strategies, tips and information that can help readers live a more sustainable life.<ref>{{Cite web \|url=http://greenguide.co.uk/howthegreenguideworks \|title=How the Green Guide works \| the Green Guide \|access-date=2011-11-18 \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120407171329/http://www.greenguide.co.uk/howthegreenguideworks \|archive-date=2012-04-07 \|url-status=dead }}</ref> The twelve different chapters are as listed: 1. Food and [[Farming]] 2. Fashion and Beauty 3. Building, Home and Garden 4. Renewable Energy and Recycling 5. [[Health]] and [[Wellbeing]] 6. Children, Family, Community and Gifts 7. Transport and [[Travel]] 8. Leisure, Activities and Holidays 9. Money, Sustainable Business and CSR 10. [[Government]], [[political campaign\|Campaigning]] and Change 11. Media, Arts, Events and Awards 12. Centres, Research, Education and Careers. By June 14, 2010, the directory portion of “the Green Guide” had over 15,000 entries, however, only just over 10,000 are available to view online.<ref name="direct"/> This is because not all of the potential entries are accepted by “the Green Guide” due to the fact that they do not match the standards the guide has set. One of the major problems organizations like “the Green Guide” face is the issue of green washing. Green washing is the issue of companies attempting display themselves as environmentally friendly or green just to gain customers when in fact they are not at all green. This can be an enormous concern as companies like “the Green Guide” try their best to create guides full of truly sustainable companies<ref>{{Cite web \|url=http://greenguide.co.uk/inclusioncriteria \|title=Inclusion Criteria \| the Green Guide \|access-date=2011-11-18 \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120407161617/http://www.greenguide.co.uk/inclusioncriteria \|archive-date=2012-04-07 \|url-status=dead }}</ref> == Grassroots == In addition to published green guides, there are many [[grassroots]] green guides for the average, everyday consumer. These grassroots guides cover anything a consumer cannot find in any published green guides, such as green guides to [[wedding]]s or even babies. The importance of amateur writers to create green guides is cooperative to the green guide movement itself as its sole purpose it to provide information for consumers. Grassroots green guides can be written by anyone with any sort of knowledge in the subject they are writing about. Green Guides are sparse, so any help to further the movement is encouraged. It is the hope of the individuals who create these green guides to have available, over the [[internet]], a publicly view able '[[encyclopedia]]' or green guides based on the public's needs and desires. == University and College Guides == According to the [[Princeton Review]],<ref>[http://www.princetonreview.com/green-honor-roll.aspx Green Honor Roll], Princeton Review</ref> these sixteen universities in the [[United States]] have gained the Green Honor Roll based on the criteria listed in the review: The percentage of food expenditures that go toward local, [[organic food\|organic]] or otherwise environmentally preferable food The availability of programs that encourage alternatives to single passenger automobile use for students The presence of a formal committee with participation of the students devoted to advancing sustainability on campus The requirement of buildings to be [[Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design\|LEED]] Silver certified or equivalent Overall waste diversion rate The availability of an environmental studies major, minor, or concentration If the school has an ‘environmental literacy’ requirement If the school has a publicly available greenhouse gas [[emission inventory]] and adopted a [[Business action on climate change\|climate action]] plan consistent with 80% [[greenhouse gas]] reduction by 2050 Percentage of [[energy consumption]] derived from renewable resources The employment of a dedicated full-time (or the equivalent) sustainability officer The following list of schools have received a Green rating of 99, the highest grade possible given by the Princeton Review. * [[American University]], [[Washington, D.C.]] * [[Arizona State University]] at the Tempe campus * [[College of the Atlantic]], [[Bar Harbor, Maine]] * [[Dickinson College]], [[Carlisle, Pennsylvania]] * [[Georgia Institute of Technology]], [[Atlanta, Georgia]] * [[Harvard College]], [[Cambridge, Massachusetts]] * [[Northeastern University]], [[Boston, Massachusetts]] * [[Oregon State University]], [[Corvallis, Oregon]] * [[San Francisco State University]] * [[State University of New York]] at [[Binghamton]] * [[University of California]], [[Santa Cruz, California]] * [[University of Maine]], [[Orono, Maine]] * [[University of Washington]], [[Seattle, Washington]] * [[University of Wisconsin]], [[Stevens Point, Wisconsin]] * [[Virginia Tech]], [[Blacksburg, Virginia]] * [[Warren Wilson College]], [[Asheville, North Carolina]] ==References== {{Reflist}} ==External links== *[http://greenguide.co.uk/ Green Guide.co.uk] [[Category:Consumer behaviour]] [[Category:Sustainability]]
Ecoflation	{{Short description\|Postulated future economic scenario}} '''Ecoflation''' (a portmanteau of "[[ecological]]" and "[[inflation]]") is a future scenario in "Rattling Supply Chains", a research report by the [[World Resources Institute]] and [[A.T. Kearney]], released in November 2008.<ref name=":0">{{cite web\|title=RATTLING SUPPLY CHAINS The Effect of Environmental Trends on Input Costs for the Fast-Moving Consumer Goods Industry\|url=http://pdf.wri.org/rattling_supply_chains.pdf}}</ref> It is characterized by [[natural resources]] becoming scarcer and [[sustainability]] issues become more pressing, leading to an increase in the price of commodities.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book\|last=Campbell-Verduyn\|first=Malcolm\|title=Professional Authority After the Global Financial Crisis\|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan\|year=2017\|isbn=978-3319527819\|pages=99}}</ref> The effects of the increase in the price of commodities are felt by corporations suffering [[environmental costs]] being added to their usual cost of doing business.<ref>{{Cite journal\|last=n.d\|first=n.d\|date=2009\|title=Word-Watch : Ecoflation\|journal=The Futurist\|volume=May–June 2009\|pages=2}}</ref> The concept of ecoflation focuses on having environmental [[externality\|externalities]] of business be the burden of the organization/business responsible, rather than costs being allocated to the general public. Ecoflation represents more accurate pricing of the true costs associated with business actions. The concepts also emphasized the necessity of businesses to be creative and innovative in order to adapt their business models and supply chains to remain competitive on the market.<ref name=":0" /> The idea is that the more a business integrates sustainability in their core business principle, the more success they will have.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web\|first=\|date=2008\|title=The cost of ecoflation\|url=https://www.nl.kearney.com/ca/operations-performance-transformation/article/?/a/the-costs-of-ecoflation\|url-status=dead\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210419090142/https://www.nl.kearney.com/ca/operations-performance-transformation/article/?/a/the-costs-of-ecoflation\|archive-date=April 19, 2021\|access-date=April 17, 2021\|website=A.T Kearney}}</ref> == Drivers of ecoflation == The [[World Resources Institute]] and [[A.T. Kearney]] identified three main drivers for ecoflation : === Scarcity of resources === An increase in population and consumption leads to an increased demand for resources, such as wood, oil, water, and grain.<ref name=":2" /> Meanwhile, climate change is an increasing threat to such resources, in the form of extreme weather events (wildfires, droughts, floods, etc.) and [[biodiversity loss]].<ref name=":3">{{Cite web\|last=Zabarenko\|first=Deborah\|date=December 8, 2021\|title=Ecoflation, a new worry, could hit consumer goods\|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-climate-ecoflation-idUSTRE4B76RV20081208\|url-status=live\|website=Reuters\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160125191349/http://www.reuters.com/article/us-climate-ecoflation-idUSTRE4B76RV20081208 \|archive-date=2016-01-25 }}</ref> For example, as freshwater levels decline, and the demand keeps rising globally, because of the law of [[supply and demand]], the price of water is bound to rise, some predict by 20% to 30% by 2050.<ref name=":4">{{Cite web\|title=Enjeux climats inflationnistes\|url=https://www.ledevoir.com/opinion/chroniques/572437/l-inflation-le-prix-a-payer-pour-la-protection-de-l-environnement\|access-date=2021-04-17\|website=Le Devoir\|date=7 February 2020 \|language=fr}}</ref> Also in regards to water, agricultural regions are facing droughts and [[water scarcity]] from climate change which has led to the increase in production costs. Hydroelectric power plants are one specific area that has been directly affected by water scarcity. Furthermore, [[palm oil]] which is commonly in food and personal care products is largely affected by climate change, specifically water scarcity, floods, and fires.<ref>{{Cite web \|title=The Costs of Ecoflation \|url=https://www.moss.org.au/servlet/Web?s=1999965&action=downloadResource&resourceID=1507972792}}</ref> === Policies === Governmental institutions, like the [[World Economic Forum]], [[European Union]], [[General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade\|General Agreement on Tariff and Trade]] are increasingly aware of the necessity to react to [[climate change]], and continue to pass stronger regulations in order to protect the environment.<ref name=":5">{{Cite book\|last1=P. Vlachos\|first1=Ilias\|title=Markets, Business and Sustainability\|last2=Malindretos\|first2=George\|publisher=Bentham eBooks\|year=2015\|isbn=978-1-68108-0260\|pages=177}}</ref> One such regulation is the introduction of [[Emissions trading\|carbon emissions trading]], which forces companies that pollute more than they are permitted to suffer the cost.<ref name=":5" /> These are costs that companies will either have to internalize, decreasing their profit margin, or pass on to the consumer, potentially making them less competitive. Government-enforced carbon fees have a direct impact on transportation prices. The increase in transport costs causes an increase in the price for resources such as sugar.<ref>{{Cite web \|title=The Costs of Ecoflation \|url=https://www.moss.org.au/servlet/Web?s=1999965&action=downloadResource&resourceID=1507972792 \|access-date=2022-10-13 \|website=}}</ref> In addition to this, many countries have passed laws banning or limiting the use of plastic bags, according to the United Nations Environment Program. The paper states, “As of July 2018, one hundred and twenty-seven (127) out of 192 countries reviewed (about 66%) have adopted some form of legislation to regulate plastic bags. The first regulatory measures specifically targeting plastic bags were enacted in the early 2000s, gradually increasing throughout the decade, with many countries enacting restrictions in the past few years.”<ref>{{Cite journal \|last=Excell \|first=Carole \|display-authors=etal \|title=Legal Limits on Single-Use Plastics and Microplastics: A Global Review of National Laws and Regulations \|journal=United Nations Environment Program}}</ref> === Consumers === Consumers are also increasingly asking companies to provide more sustainable goods and services. Adapting to such consumer demands represents a cost for companies to adapt to. For example, companies may commit to using recycled wood material in response to public concerns about [[deforestation]], or reducing plastic, because it comes from fossil fuels. == Addressing ecoflation == The risk of ecoflation is not inescapable, and companies can start by taking concrete steps to counteract its effects.<ref>{{Cite web\|date=2015-12-10\|title=L'"écoflation" menace les chaînes d'approvisionnements\|url=https://novae.ca/lecoflation-menace-les-chaines-dapprovisionnements/\|access-date=2021-04-17\|website=Novae\|language=fr-FR}}</ref> === Voluntary actions === Companies can take voluntary action in order to reduce gas emissions and avoid ecoflation.<ref name=":1" /> For example, companies may choose to use less plastic or recycled plastic, or they may modify their distribution system to increase efficiency and decrease both greenhouse gas emissions and costs.<ref name=":6">{{Cite web \|title=El cambio climático comenzará a influir en los negocios \|url=https://www.nacion.com/ciencia/el-cambio-climatico-comenzara-a-influir-en-los-negocios/FDS7YH6EIJHTZI6J4QEF7R3ZRA/story/ \|access-date=2021-04-17 \|website=La Nación, Grupo Nación \|date=4 January 2009 \|language=es-LA}}</ref> Procter & Gamble is one of these companies that is looking at use both less and recycled plastic across their products. In 2018, they announced a sustainability goal for all of their packaging to use recyclable and reusable plastic by 2030. Procter & Gamble takes the lead with their Fabric Care such as Tide, Gain, and Downy which uses 73% recycled packaging.<ref>{{Cite web \|title=P&G ANNOUNCES NEW GLOBAL COMMITMENT TO REDUCE PLASTIC \|url=https://us.pg.com/blogs/Plastic50by2030/ \|access-date=2022-12-08 \|website=us.pg.com}}</ref> Also, governments may pass laws that force companies to do this as well. One example of this is New Jersey’s passing new laws. Starting May 4, 2022, New Jersey retail stores, grocery stores and food service businesses may not provide or sell single-use plastic carryout bags and polystyrene foam food service products. Single-use paper carryout bags are allowed to be provided or sold, except by grocery stores equal to or larger than 2500 square feet, which may only provide or sell reusable carryout bags. After November 4, 2021, plastic straws may be provided only upon the request of the customer.”<ref>{{Cite web \|title=NJDEP \|url=https://www.nj.gov/dep/get-past-plastic/#:~:text=Beginning%20May%204,%202022,%20the,single-use%20plastic%20carryout%20bags \|access-date=2022-12-08 \|website=www.nj.gov}}</ref> === Business opportunities === Drivers of ecoflation can be business opportunities.<ref name=":6" /> As stated by the consulting firm Kearney in their report "The Cost of Ecoflation" : "Leaders in this new landscape will be companies that make [[environmental sustainability]] one of their core business principles."<ref name=":2" /> In order for business to remain competitive and to emerge as leaders, sustainability is an important factor. As pointed at the 2020 World Economic Forum [[Global Risks Report]], the five greatest global risks to the economy today are all related to the environment, starting with climate change.<ref>{{Cite web\|title=The Global Risks Report 2020\|url=https://www.weforum.org/reports/the-global-risks-report-2020/\|access-date=2021-04-17\|website=World Economic Forum\|language=en}}</ref> Companies will have no choice but to adapt to this reality.<ref name=":4" /> Furthermore, the Environmental, Social, and Corporate Governance (ESG) Score rating system has been utilized to address the price impact and other assorted environmental hazard that companies pose in the confines of ecoflation.<ref>{{Cite web \|title=What Is Environmental, Social, and Governance (ESG) Investing? \|url=https://www.investopedia.com/terms/e/environmental-social-and-governance-esg-criteria.asp \|access-date=2022-12-08 \|website=Investopedia \|language=en}}</ref> Investment firms often utilize these metrics to create more diverse portfolios and select more sustainable investments. As stated by Paulina Linkos, former Risk Manager at Fannie Mae, “A favorable ESG score could compel investors to invest in a company, either because investors see the company's values as aligned with their own or because investors view the company as sufficiently shielded from future risks associated with issues such as pollution or poor corporate governance.”<ref>{{Cite web \|last=Linkos \|first=Paulina \|date=Feb 18, 2022 \|title=What is ESG? \|url=https://money.usnews.com/investing/news/articles/what-is-an-esg-score}}</ref> As such, there is an incentive to companies that attempt to improve their score, thereby improving the general corporate landscape in environmental factors and cost drivers. === Big changes === Addressing ecoflation is not a task to be taken lightly, as stated by Andrew Aulisi, a researcher at the World Resource Institute. "You should not make small 'cosmetic' changes, but work with a true vision of the future," he concluded.<ref name=":3" /> As ecoflation is intertwined in many other topics, as stated by Darko B. Vukovic and Riad Shams, researchers for the Russian National research University- Higher School of Economics and Newcastle Business School- Northumbria University, “As the governments of many countries (predominantly developed) became increasingly interested in environmental issues, we began to meet more terms that are dedicated to the conservation of the environment, rational use of resources, sustainability, and the economic potential of a particular location (region). As a result of this policy, we often encounter terminology such as: Sustainable development, global ecotrends, [[green economy]], ecotourism, environmental protection, regional issues, technological impact on ecology (or new version of industrial ecology), ecopolitical problems, social responsibility, corporate responsibility, urban sustainability, sustainable tourism, circular economy, etc. In other words, the link between biodiversity, economics, and technological advancement exists in almost all socioeconomic forms.”.<ref>{{Cite web \|last=Vukovic \|first=Darko \|date=24 December 2019 \|title=Economy and Ecology: Encounters and Interweaving \|url=https://res.mdpi.com/d_attachment/sustainability/sustainability-12-00179/article_deploy/sustainability-12-00179-v2.pdf}}</ref> As shown by this, any small change in the realm of socioeconomics can impact many other areas of the economy of a given region. == Impacts of ecoflation on cost drivers == === Methodology === For the scenario, the [[World Resources Institute\|World Resource Institute]] chose to focus on the industry of [[Fast-moving consumer goods\|Fast-Moving-Consumer-Goods]] (FMCG), and analyses seven types commodities: oil, natural gas, electricity, cereals & grain & soy, sugar, palm oil, and timber.<ref name=":0" /> The first impact in the study was commodity prices, and the study concluded that the price of commodities will be greatly affected by the drivers of ecoflation. The second impact in the study was the “Total Delivered Cost,” and detailed that ecoflation will cause an increase for these companies. The last impact in the study concluded that ecoflation will lead to a decrease of Earnings Before Interest and Tax between 13% and 47% between 2013 and 2018. ==See also== * [[Economic impacts of climate change]] * [[Sustainability]] * [[Inflation accounting]] * [[Effects of climate change]] * [[Resource depletion]] ==References== {{Reflist}} [[Category:Inflation]] [[Category:Sustainability]] [[Category:Economics and climate change]] [[Category:Ecology]]
Category:Sustainability organizations	[[Category:Sustainability\|Organizations]] [[Category:Environmental organizations]] [[de:Kategorie:Organisation (Nachhaltigkeit)]] {{CatAutoTOC}}
Category:Sustainability stubs	{{WPSS-cat}} {{Stub Category\|article=[[Sustainability]]\|newstub=sustainability-stub\|category=Sustainability}} [[Category:Environment stubs\| Sustainability]] [[Category:Economics and finance stubs\| Sustainability]]
Green wedding	{{short description\|Type of wedding}} {{more citations needed\|date=March 2010}} A '''green wedding''' or an '''eco-friendly wedding''' is any [[wedding]] where the couple plans to decrease the ecological impact of their special event on the planet. Couples plan their weddings by integrating [[eco-friendly]] alternatives, such as eco-friendly [[Wedding invitation\|invitation]]s, [[flower]]s, [[Wedding dress\|dress]], [[photography]], and more.<ref>{{cite news\|last=Gordon\|first=Jessica\|title=What is a green wedding\|url=http://connection.ebscohost.com/c/articles/42749367\|access-date=March 21, 2012\|newspaper=Summer Wedding, Cincinnati\|year=2009}}</ref> [[File:Kasteel van Rhoon Tuin.JPG\|thumb\|A green wedding reception]] ==Definition== A green wedding is an eco-friendly and conscious consumption of resources that would otherwise be used in a traditional wedding.<ref>{{Cite web\|url=https://www.brides.com/story/earth-day-eco-friendly-wedding-ideas\|title=How to Have a Green Wedding\|website=Brides\|language=en\|access-date=2019-08-23}}</ref> Green wedding is a new lifestyle. Compared with the extravagance and waste of traditional weddings, today's green weddings are more economical and environmentally friendly. This can include [[recycling]] waste, choosing a [[sustainable]] venue, and even neglecting to participate in traditional practices that could be considered unsustainable, such as buying unethical source rings.<ref>{{cite book\|last=Tasker\|first=Angela\|title=Green Weddings Uniting the Elegant and Unique\|year=2009\|publisher=Alt health watch\|pages=65–70\|url=http://ehis.ebscohost.com/eds/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?sid=c1a04d5a-20d6-4782-849c-6574eac60753%40sessionmgr15&vid=6&hid=103}}</ref> Many people who live sustainably believe it is necessary to continue the lifestyle by making sure their weddings are also sustainable. Others choose green weddings to raise awareness about how [[sustainability]] is important in daily activities and celebrations. The largest factor that contributes to the growing number of green weddings is the impact wedding celebrations can have on the environment. Many argue that without being conscious of practices and items used, the average wedding can generate a large amount of waste.<ref>{{cite book\|last=Edmunds\|first=Valerie\|title=The Green Wedding Guide\|year=2008\|publisher=Penn Publishing Ltd.\|location=Little Rock, Arkansas\|pages=10\|isbn=9781601408693\|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UtmrLBTNUPAC&q=green+weddings&pg=PA8}}</ref> ==Basic principles== One key concept for keeping a wedding [[eco-friendly]] is to ensure that the items being used will not quickly become waste, mainly one-time disposable items such as hosiery, plates, cups, ornaments, or wedding favors. Many green weddings have instead opted for borrowed or recycled items. Another option chosen is to rent items needed for the wedding instead of buying all new equipment/decorations to control the amount of waste that could be created.<ref>{{cite book\|last=Napolitano\|first=Wenona\|title=The Everything Green Wedding Book\|year=2009\|publisher=Adams Media\|location=Avon, MA\|isbn=978--1-59869-811-4\|pages=x, 93–95\|url=https://archive.org/details/everythinggreenw0000napo\|url-access=registration\|quote=basic principles green wedding.}}</ref> In planning a green wedding, the main basis is to prevent or reduce all harmful impacts, either directly or indirectly, on the [[Environment (biophysical)\|environment]]. The traditional wedding produces an average 400 lbs of garbage and 63 tons of {{CO2}}.<ref>{{cite book\|last=Harrison\|first=Kate\|title=The Green Bride Guide\|year=2008\|publisher=Sourcebooks\|location=Naperville, IL\|isbn=978--1-4022-1345-8\|url=https://archive.org/details/greenbrideguideh00kate\|url-access=registration}}</ref> Together, American weddings are equivalent to 8.3 million cars driving on the road for a year. This can include flowers, paper (invitations), textiles (dress, suits), wedding favors, gas emissions (transportation), and everything else that can occur from the wedding.<ref>{{cite book\|last=Anderson\|first=Emily Elizabeth\|title=Eco-Chic Weddings\|year=2007\|publisher=Hatherleigh Press\|isbn=9781578262403\|pages=3–23\|url=http://www.barnesandnoble.com/w/eco-chic-weddings-emily-elizabeth-anderson/1007992811?ean=9781578262403&itm=1&usri=eco%2bchic%2bweddings#CustomerReviews}}</ref> ==Flowers== [[File:Sustainable flower decoration.jpg\|thumb\|Sustainable Wedding Decor with Flowers]] Another important factor of a green wedding is the picking of flowers. Flowers can add a huge impact<ref>{{Cite web \|title=Three Things You Can Do To Make A Large Wedding More Eco-Friendly — The Tamarind Tree \|url=https://www.thetamarindtree.in/blog/large-wedding-eco-friendly \|access-date=2023-04-12 \|website=Best Heritage Wedding Venues in Bangalore - The Tamarind Tree \|language=en-US}}</ref> on the environment due to [[fertilizers]] used and gas emissions that are released to transport the flowers. Many green wedding planners opt to have their flowers supplied by [[Organic farming\|organic]] florist or even to grow their own. Another common practice is to consider what to do with the flowers after the wedding. Some weddings have had flowers that are replanted after the big day to minimize waste and allow the flowers to continue to grow afterward.<ref>{{cite web\|last=Varner\|first=Richard\|title=Why are Green Weddings becoming so Popular?\|url=http://www.istaygreen.net/?p=228\|work=I Stay Green\|publisher=Living the Green Life\|access-date=March 20, 2012\|archive-date=March 9, 2012\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120309044547/http://www.istaygreen.net/?p=228\|url-status=dead}}</ref> Some people decorate wedding halls with potted plants without picking flowers. If they give the plant to the guests as a gift, they can grow flowers while thinking about the bride and groom.<ref>{{cite journal\|last1=SBS\|title=1,000 flowers to be thrown away ... Now the wedding is ' green '.\|date=March 16, 2018\|url=https://news.sbs.co.kr/news/endPage.do?news_id=N1004668344&plink=ORI&cooper=NAVER}}</ref> ==Invitations== There is a large amount of paper used in weddings throughout the entire process. One major reason paper is used is because of invitations. Green wedding planners are careful when selecting how to invite others due to the impact this can have. Some options that are more sustainable are Using recycled paper Using the internet to send out electronic invitations instead Using [[Tree-free paper\|tree-free milled paper]]<ref>{{cite book\|last=Edmunds\|first=Valerie\|title=The Green Wedding Guide\|year=2008\|publisher=Penn Publishing Ltd.\|location=Little Rock, Arkansas\|pages=10\|isbn=9781601408693\|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UtmrLBTNUPAC&q=green+weddings&pg=PA8}}</ref> ==Wedding ring== Exchange of [[wedding ring]] is from the custom of [[Europe]] in the [[Middle Ages]]. But the ring manufacturing process such as [[gold mining]] causes many [[waste]] and [[pollution]]. For instance,[[Gold mining]] is one of the human activities that affect the quality of the environment. During [[gold mining]], large quantities of [[toxic heavy metal]] laden wastes can be generated and released [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5129257/ uncontrollably]. Some options that are more sustainable are Using ring made by [[environmental friendly]] material such as recycled stone and metal. Using [[vintage (design)\|vintage]] pieces Using wooden rings ==Food== Food is one important factor that affects how sustainable a wedding is. Some planners choose to get all their food supplied by local/organic growers to help eliminate the number of chemicals that would have been used in the growing of the food or the transportation of it. Also, opting for a seasonal menu ensures the food is sustainably sourced and readily available.<ref>{{Cite journal\|last=Macdiarmid\|first=Jennie\|title=Seasonality and dietary requirements: will eating seasonal food contribute to health and environmental sustainability?\|journal=Proceedings of the Nutrition Society\|year=2014 \|volume=73 \|issue=3 \|pages=368–375 \|doi=10.1017/S0029665113003753 \|pmid=25027288 \|s2cid=4326126 \|language=en\|doi-access=free}}</ref> Wedding cakes are generally made out of all organic ingredients as well to reduce the chemicals used in the production of the ingredients.<ref>{{cite book\|last=Anderson\|first=Emily Elizabeth\|title=Eco-Chic Weddings\|year=2007\|publisher=Hatherleigh Press\|isbn=9781578262403\|pages=3–23\|url=http://www.barnesandnoble.com/w/eco-chic-weddings-emily-elizabeth-anderson/1007992811?ean=9781578262403&itm=1&usri=eco%2bchic%2bweddings#CustomerReviews}}</ref> Many sustainable practices that are done in green weddings are to have the leftovers composted after or to have untouched meals donated to local charities. Besides, entrées are also important. Compared with other meat, serving chicken as entrées is the least harmful to the environment.<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1=Flood \|first1=Erin \|last2=Kapoor \|first2=Sandra \|last3=de Villa-Lopez \|first3=Belinda \|date=2014-04-03 \|title=The Sustainability of Food Served at Wedding Banquets \|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/15428052.2013.846882 \|journal=Journal of Culinary Science & Technology \|volume=12 \|issue=2 \|pages=137–152 \|doi=10.1080/15428052.2013.846882 \|s2cid=94182603 \|issn=1542-8052}}</ref> In some weddings, leftover food is picked up by specific organizations such as the Leftover Cuisine<ref>{{cite web \|title=Rescuing Leftover Cuisine \|url=https://www.rescuingleftovercuisine.org/donate-food \|website=Rescuing Leftover Cuisine \|access-date=2023-04-28}}</ref> from these events or weddings for food donations which minimizes waste.<ref>{{cite news \|last1=Hasan \|first1=Sadiba \|title=How to Have a Sustainable Wedding \|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2023/03/02/style/sustainability-wedding.html \|access-date=2023-04-28 \|publisher=TheNewYorkTimes}}</ref> ==Attire== One of the biggest contributors to waste that can be generated is the wedding dress. Many argue that one of the ways to continue with a sustainable wedding is to use a dress that can be re-worn or borrowed from another. This eliminates the one-time use principle violation. Also choosing a wedding dress that is made out of organic fiber ensures that the garment had minimal impact on the environment during its production. Many green brides opt to purchase a vintage/second-hand dress and have it altered instead of buying a new dress. Other brides choose to sell or donate their dress after the wedding or have it recycled to create a new garment. There are some brands creating outfits from recycled materials,<ref>{{cite book\|title=Textile-to-textile: Ten Nordic brands that are leading the way\|isbn=978-92-893-5125-6\|last1=Watson \|first1=David \|year=2017 \|publisher=Nordic Council of Ministers }}</ref> and others using environmentally friendly dyes.<ref>{{Cite web\|title=8 wedding dress brands for the eco-conscious bride\|url=https://www.vogue.fr/wedding/article/8-wedding-dress-brands-for-the-eco-conscious-bride\|access-date=2022-09-23\|work=vogue.fr\|date=13 June 2019 }}</ref> The popularity of green wedding outfits is confirmed by a 235% increase in 'low-waste wedding' queries in 2019 according to Printerest.<ref>{{Cite web\|title=Top 10 Wedding Dress Trends for 2021 & 2022\|url=https://www.cicinia.com/blogs/fashion-inspiration/top-10-wedding-dress-trends-for-2021-2022\|access-date=2022-09-23\|work=cicinia.com}}</ref> Also contributing to the popularity of green weddings was Princess Beatrice during her wedding to Edoardo Mapelli Mozzi. She chose the new gown over Queen Elizabeth's Norman Hartnell gown, which Her Majesty originally wore to a gala dinner in Rome in 1961.<ref>{{Cite web\|title=10 stylish sustainable wedding dresses for ethical brides\|url=https://www.hellomagazine.com/brides/2020031186126/sustainable-wedding-dress-designers-for-ethical-wedding/\|access-date=2022-09-23\|work=hellomagazine.com\|date=11 March 2020 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web\|url=https://goodonyou.eco/the-ultimate-guide-to-ethical-wedding-dresses/\|title = The Ultimate Guide to Ethical and Sustainable Wedding Dresses\|date = 9 May 2021}}</ref> ==Venue== Those who prefer an [[eco-friendly]] wedding also look for a sustainable venue to host their wedding. Many factors can minimize the waste produced by wedding venues, from [[eco-friendly]] transportation to renewable energy options. Some prioritize reducing decoration waste by picking wedding venues surrounded by nature. The venue's size also contributes to its sustainability, which is why some of those who choose to have green weddings pick small venues. As important as other aspects of a green wedding, being conscious of where their celebration occurs can reduce the amount of waste being produced. ==See also== *[[Zero waste\|Zero-waste]] event == References == <references /> [[Category:Wedding]] [[Category:Sustainability]]
Ethical consumerism	{{Short description\|Type of consumer activism}} {{Anti-consumerism\|Theories}} '''Ethical consumerism''' (alternatively called '''ethical consumption''', '''ethical purchasing''', '''moral purchasing''', '''ethical sourcing''', or '''ethical shopping''' and also associated with '''sustainable and green consumerism''') is a type of [[consumer activism]] based on the concept of [[dollar voting]].<ref>{{cite journal \|doi=10.1086/677842 \|title=Creating the Responsible Consumer: Moralistic Governance Regimes and Consumer Subjectivity \|year=2014 \|last1=Giesler \|first1=Markus\|last2=Veresiu \|first2=Ela\|author-link1=Markus Giesler \|author-link2=Ela Veresiu \|journal=Journal of Consumer Research \|volume=41 \|issue=October \|pages=849–867\|s2cid=145622639 }}</ref> People practice it by buying ethically made products that support small-scale manufacturers or local artisans and protect animals and the environment, while [[boycott]]ing products that [[child labour\|exploit children as workers]], are tested on animals, or damage the environment. The term "ethical consumer", now used generically, was first popularised by the UK magazine ''[[Ethical Consumer]]'', first published in 1989.<ref>{{cite web\|url=http://www.ethicalconsumer.org/AboutUs/20thBirthday.aspx\|title=20th Birthday! \|publisher=Ethicalconsumer.org \|access-date=2013-08-18}}</ref> ''Ethical Consumer'' magazine's key innovation was to produce "ratings tables", inspired by the criteria-based approach of the then-emerging [[ethical investment]] movement. ''Ethical Consumer''{{'}}s ratings tables awarded companies negative marks (and overall scores, starting in 2005) across a range of ethical and environmental categories such as "animal rights", "human rights", and "pollution and toxics", empowering consumers to make ethically informed consumption choices and providing campaigners with reliable information on corporate behaviour. Such criteria-based ethical and environmental ratings have subsequently become commonplace both in providing consumer information and in business-to-business [[corporate social responsibility]] and [[sustainability]] ratings such as those provided by Innovest, [[Calvert Investments#The Calvert Foundation\|Calvert Foundation]], Domini, IRRC, [[TIAA–CREF]], and KLD Analytics. Today, [[Bloomberg L.P.\|Bloomberg]] and [[Reuters]] provide "environmental, social, and governance" ratings directly to the financial data screens of hundreds of thousands of stock market traders.<ref>{{cite journal\|title=Is ESG Data Going Mainstream? \| journal=Harvard Business Review \| date=6 May 2009 \|url=http://blogs.hbr.org/leadinggreen/2009/05/is-esg-data-going-mainstream.html\|publisher=Blogs.hbr.org\|access-date=2013-08-18\| last1=Lubber \| first1=Mindy S. }}</ref> The nonprofit Ethical Consumer Research Association continues to publish ''Ethical Consumer'' and its associated website, which provides free access to ethical rating tables. Although single-source ethical consumerism guides such as ''Ethical Consumer'', Shop Ethical,<ref>{{cite web\|title=Shop Ethical\|url=https://www.ethical.org.au\|access-date=2019-05-11}}</ref> and the Good Shopping Guide<ref>{{cite web\|title=The Good Shopping Guide\|url=https://thegoodshoppingguide.com/ \|access-date=2019-05-11}}</ref> are popular, they suffer from incomplete coverage. [[User-generated content\|User-generated]] ethical reviews are more likely, long-term, to provide democratic, in-depth coverage of a wider range of products and businesses.<ref>{{cite web\|title=Ethical Consumerism, Part 5: Why we need User-Generated Ratings\| date=22 April 2018 \|url=https://greenstarsproject.org/2018/04/22/crowdsourced-ethical-consumerism-user-generated-ratings/\|publisher=greenstarsproject.org\|access-date=2019-05-11}}</ref> The Green Stars Project<ref>{{cite web\|title=The Green Stars Project\|url=https://greenstarsproject.org/\|access-date=2019-05-11}}</ref> promotes the idea of including ethical ratings (on a scale of one to five green stars) alongside conventional ratings on retail sites such as [[Amazon (company)\|Amazon]] or review sites such as [[Yelp]]. {{anchor\|political consumerism}}The term '''"political consumerism"''', first used in a study titled "The Gender Gap Reversed: Political Consumerism as a Women-Friendly Form of Civic and Political Engagement" from authors Dietlind Stolle and Michele Micheletti (2003), is identical to the idea of ethical consumerism. However, in this study, the authors found that political consumerism as a form of [[social participation]] often went overlooked at the time of writing and needed to be accounted for in future studies of social participation.<ref>{{Cite web\|url=http://umanitoba.ca/outreach/conferences/gender_socialcapital/StolleMichelettipaper.pdf\|title=The Gender Gap Reversed: Political Consumerism as a Women-Friendly Form of Civic and Political Engagement: An Exploratory Study in Canada, Belgium and Sweden. Work in Progress.\|last1=Stolle\|first1=Dietlind\|last2=Micheletti\|first2=Michele\|date=2003\|website=umanitoba.ca\|access-date=2018-12-14}}</ref> However, in "From Ethical Consumerism to Political Consumption", author Nick Clarke argues that political consumerism allows for marginalized groups, such as women, to participate in political advocacy in non-bureaucratic ways that draw attention to governmental weaknesses. <ref>{{cite journal \|last1=Clarke \|first1=Nick \|title=From Ethical Consumerism to Political Consumption: From ethical consumerism to political consumption \|journal=Geography Compass \|date=November 2008 \|volume=2 \|issue=6 \|pages=1870–1884 \|doi=10.1111/j.1749-8198.2008.00170.x \|url=https://compass.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1749-8198.2008.00170.x \|access-date=29 April 2023}}</ref> Political consumerism has also been criticised on the basis that "it cannot work", or that it displays class bias.<ref>{{cite journal \| jstor=43653954 \| title=Consumer Citizenship and Cross-Class Activism: The Case of the National Consumers' League, 1899-1918 \| last1=Haydu \| first1=Jeffrey \| journal=Sociological Forum \| year=2014 \| volume=29 \| issue=3 \| pages=628–649 \| doi=10.1111/socf.12107 }}</ref> The widespread development of political consumerism is hampered by substantial mundane consumption, which does not afford reflective choice, along with complexities of everyday life, which demand negotiations between conflicting moral and ethical considerations.<ref>{{Cite journal \|title=Will Consumers Save The World? The Framing of Political Consumerism \|url=https://rdcu.be/daJnC \|access-date=2023-04-25 \|journal=Journal of Agricultural and Environmental Ethics \|year=2007 \|doi=10.1007/s10806-007-9043-z \|language=en \|last1=Jacobsen \|first1=Eivind \|last2=Dulsrud \|first2=Arne \|volume=20 \|issue=5 \|pages=469–482 \|s2cid=154330638 }}</ref> ==Consumer groups== In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, people in industrialized countries began formal consumer movements to ensure that they would get value for their money in terms of the things they purchased. These movements focused on the unfair labor practices of the companies, and on labelling requirements of food, cosmetics, drugs, etc. Examples of the consumer movements were the Consumer League which was established in New York, US in 1891, [[National Consumers League]] created in US in 1898, and Consumers Council which was established during World War I in Great Britain. During this time{{clarify\|date=March 2022}} workers were neither well-paid nor did they have secure employment with benefit of social{{clarify\|date=March 2022}} protection; similarly, working conditions were decent{{clarify\|date=March 2022}} and the Irish Trade Union movement focused the ILO{{clarify\|reason=what is the ILO?\|date=March 2022}} policy of campaigning for decent work wherever there was an opportunity for job improvement or job creation.<ref>{{Cite web\|url=https://www.ictu.ie/download/pdf/ethical_consumer_guide_ictu.pdf\|title=Ethical Consumerism: A Guide for Trade Unions\|last=Irish Congress of Trade Unions}}</ref> ==Basis== ===Global morality=== [[File:Electric wire reel reused in a furniture ecodesign.jpg\|right\|thumb\|350px\|An [[cable reel\|electric wire reel]] reused as a center table in a [[Rio de Janeiro]] [[Interior design\|decoration]] [[fair]]. When consumers choose and reuse environmentally friendly material like this, they are practicing ethical consumerism.]] In ''Unequal Freedoms: The Global Market As An Ethical System'' (1998), [[John McMurtry (academic)\|John McMurtry]] argues that all purchasing decisions imply some moral choice, and that there is no purchasing that is not ultimately moral in nature. This mirrors older arguments, especially by the [[Anabaptists]] (e.g. [[Mennonite]]s, [[Amish]]), that one must accept all personal moral and spiritual liability for all harms done at any distance in space or time to anyone by one's own choices. Some interpretations of the book of Genesis from the [[Judeo-Christian]] scriptures appears to direct followers towards practising good stewardship of the Earth, under an obligation to a God who is believed to have created the planet for people to share with other creatures. A similar argument presented{{who\|date=March 2022}} from a [[secular]] [[humanism\|humanist]] point of view is that it is simply better for human beings to acknowledge that the planet supports [[life]] only because of a delicate balance of many different factors. ===Spending as morality=== Some trust criteria, e.g. [[creditworthiness]] or [[implied warranty]], are considered to be part of any purchasing or sourcing decision. However, these terms refer to broader systems of guidance that would, ideally, cause any purchasing decision to disqualify offered products or services based on non-price criteria that affect the moral rather than the functional liabilities of the entire production process.{{clarify\|reason=this sentence is confusing\|date=March 2022}} [[Paul Hawken]], a proponent of [[natural capitalism]], refers to "comprehensive outcomes" of production services as opposed to the "culminative outcomes" of using the product of such services.{{citation needed\|date=April 2016}} Often, moral criteria are part of a shift away from [[commodity markets]] towards a [[service economy]] where all activities, from growing to harvesting to processing to delivery, are considered part of the [[value chain]] for which consumers are "responsible". Andrew Wilson, Director of the UK's Ashridge Centre for Business and Society, argues that "Shopping is more important than voting", and that the disposition of [[money]] is the most basic role we play in any system of [[economics]].<ref>{{Cite web\|url=http://blogs.lse.ac.uk/sustainability/2013/06/19/ethicalspending/\|title=Ethics is in the eye of the spender\|website=Sustainability at LSE\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160418014329/https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/sustainability/2013/06/19/ethicalspending/\|archive-date=2016-04-18\|language=en-US\|access-date=2019-08-29}}</ref> Some theorists{{who\|date=March 2022}} believe that it is the clearest way that we express our actual moral choices: if we say we care about something but continue to buy in a way that has a high probability of risk of harm or destruction to that thing, we don't really care about it; we are practising a form of simple [[hypocrisy]]. Ethical consumerism is widely explained by psychologists using the [[theory of planned behavior]], which attributes a consumer's choices to their perceived sense of control, social norms, and evaluation of the consequences.<ref>{{Cite journal \|last=Ajzen \|first=Icek \|date=1991-12-01 \|title=The theory of planned behavior \|url=https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0749-5978%2891%2990020-T \|journal=Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes \|series=Theories of Cognitive Self-Regulation \|language=en \|volume=50 \|issue=2 \|pages=179–211 \|doi=10.1016/0749-5978(91)90020-T \|issn=0749-5978}}</ref> However, recent research suggests that a consumer's ethical obligation, self-identity, and virtues may also influence their buying decisions.<ref>{{Cite journal \|last=Sun \|first=William \|date=2020-12-01 \|title=Toward a theory of ethical consumer intention formation: re-extending the theory of planned behavior \|journal=AMS Review \|language=en \|volume=10 \|issue=3 \|pages=260–278 \|doi=10.1007/s13162-019-00156-6 \|s2cid=203466215 \|issn=1869-8182\|doi-access=free }}</ref> In an effort by churches to advocate moral and ethical consumerism, many have become involved in the [[Fair trade\|Fair Trade]] movement: * [[Ten Thousand Villages]] is affiliated with the Mennonite Central Committee<ref>{{cite web\|url=http://www.tenthousandvillages.com/about-history/ \|title=Our History \|publisher=[[Ten Thousand Villages]] \|access-date=2013-08-18}}</ref> * [[SERRV International]]<ref>{{cite web\|url=http://www.serrv.org/category/our-story \|title=Our Story \|publisher=SERRV \|access-date=2013-08-18}}</ref> is partnered with Catholic Relief Services<ref>{{cite web\|url=http://crs.org/ \|title=Catholic Relief Services \|publisher=Crs.org \|access-date=2013-08-18}}</ref> and Lutheran World Relief<ref>{{cite web\|url=http://www.lwr.org \|title=Home - Lutheran World Relief \| Working to end poverty, injustice and human suffering \|publisher=Lwr.org \|access-date=2013-08-18}}</ref> * Village Markets of Africa sells Fair Trade gifts from the [[Lutheran Church]] in Kenya<ref>{{cite web\|url=http://www.villagemarkets.org/mission/about \|title=About Village Markets and Fair Trade \|publisher=Villagemarkets.org \|access-date=2013-08-18}} * {{cite web \|url=http://www.thelutheran.org/article/article.cfm?article_id=10300&key=106089998 \|title='God's love is what they pass on' : Fair trade is a mission for a Wittenberg University grad, students and faculty \|publisher=The Lutheran \|date=2012-03-29 \|access-date=2013-08-18 \|url-status=dead \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130116021920/http://www.thelutheran.org/article/article.cfm?article_id=10300&key=106089998 \|archive-date=2013-01-16 }}</ref> * [[Catholic Relief Services]] has their own Fair Trade mission in CRS Fair Trade<ref>[http://www.crsfairtrade.org/about/] {{webarchive\|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110711041739/http://www.crsfairtrade.org/about/\|date=July 11, 2011}}</ref> ==Standards and labels== A number of standards, labels and marks have been introduced for ethical consumers, such as: {{div col\|colwidth=22em}} * [[B Corporation (certification)\|B corporation]] * [[Cooperative\|Co-op Marque]] * [[Cetacean bycatch\|Dolphin safe]] * [[EKOenergy]] for electricity agreements * [[Equal Exchange]] * [[Ethical Consumer]] Best Buy label * [[Fairtrade]] * [[Free-range]] poultry * [[Forest Stewardship Council\|FSC-certified]] sustainably sourced wood * [[Grass fed beef]] * [[Green America]] Seal of Approval * [[Halal]] (religious standard) * [[Kosher]] (religious standard) * [[Local food]] * [[Marine Stewardship Council\|MSC-certified]] sustainably sourced seafood * [[Religious restrictions on the consumption of pork\|No Pork No Lard]] (semi-religious standard) * [[Organic food]] * [[Organic Trade Association]] * [[Product Red]] * [[Rainforest Alliance\|Rainforest Alliance certified]] * [[Recycling\|Recycled/recyclable]] * [[Respects Your Freedom]] * [[Shade-grown coffee]] * [[SA8000\|Social Accountability 8000]] * [[Union label\|Union-made]] * [[Vegan]] {{div col end}} Along with disclosure of ingredients, some [[mandatory labelling]] of the origins of clothing or food is required in all [[developed nations]]. This practice has been extended in some [[developing nations]] so that, for example, every item carries the name, phone number and fax number of the factory where it was made so a buyer can inspect its conditions. This can also be used to show that the item was not made by [[child labour]] or "[[prison labor]]", the use of which to produce export goods is banned in most developed nations. Such labels have also been used for boycotts, as when the merchandise mark [[Made in Germany]] was introduced in 1887. These labels serve as tokens of some reliable validation process, some instructional capital,<ref>{{Cite web\|url = http://identity.coop/\|title = Coop Marque\|website = Coop\|publisher = International Cooperative Alliance}}</ref> much as does a brand name or a nation's flag. They also signal some [[social capital]], or trust, in some community of auditors that must follow those instructions to validate those labels. [[File:Verus Carbon Neutral Sign.JPG\|thumb\|right\|A sign proclaiming carbon neutrality in the Virginia-Highland neighborhood of Atlanta]] Some companies in the United States, though currently not required to reduce their [[carbon footprint]], are doing so voluntarily by changing their energy use practices, as well as by directly funding (through [[carbon offset]]s), businesses that are already sustainable—or that are developing or improving [[Environmental technology\|green technologies]] for the future. In 2009, [[Atlanta]]'s [[Virginia-Highland]] neighborhood became the first Carbon-Neutral Zone in the United States. Seventeen merchants in Virginia-Highland allowed their carbon footprint to be audited. Now, they are partnered with the Valley Wood Carbon Sequestration Project—thousands of acres of forest in rural Georgia—through the [[Chicago Climate Exchange]] (CCX).<ref>{{cite news \|last = Jay \|first = Kate \|title = First Carbon Neutral Zone Created in the United States \|date = November 14, 2008 \|url = https://www.reuters.com/article/pressRelease/idUS164153+14-Nov-2008+PRN20081114 \|work = Reuters \|url-status = dead \|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090907024146/http://www.reuters.com/article/pressRelease/idUS164153+14-Nov-2008+PRN20081114 \|archive-date = September 7, 2009 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news \|last = Auchmutey \|first = Jim \|title = Trying on carbon-neutral trend \|newspaper = Atlanta Journal-Constitution \|date = January 26, 2009 \|url = http://www.ajc.com/services/content/printedition/2009/01/26/carbon0126b.html \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090413102958/https://www.ajc.com/services/content/printedition/2009/01/26/carbon0126b.html \|archive-date=2009-04-13 \|access-date=2019-08-29 \|publisher = [[The Atlanta Journal-Constitution]] }}</ref> The businesses involved in the partnership display the Verus Carbon Neutral seal in each store front and posted a sign prominently declaring the area's Carbon Neutral status. (CCX ceased trading carbon credits at the end of 2010 due to inactivity in the U.S. carbon markets,<ref>{{cite news\|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/carbon-ccx-layoffs-idUSLDE6791WI20100812 \|work=Reuters \|title=ICE cuts staff at Chicago Climate Exchange-sources \| date=12 August 2010 \| access-date = 3 February 2016}}</ref> although carbon exchanges were intended{{who\|date=March 2022}} to still be facilitated{{who\|date=March 2022}}.)<ref>{{cite news\|last=Weitzman\|first=Hal\|title=End of US carbon trading looms \|url=http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/3fe91576-e5de-11df-af15-00144feabdc0.html \|archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221210/http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/3fe91576-e5de-11df-af15-00144feabdc0.html \|archive-date=2022-12-10 \|url-access=subscription\|work=[[Financial Times]]\| date=November 2010 \|access-date=3 February 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite news \|url=http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/news/energy/2010/11/101103-chicago-climate-exchange-cap-and-trade-election/ \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101105123957/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/news/energy/2010/11/101103-chicago-climate-exchange-cap-and-trade-election/ \|url-status=dead \|archive-date=November 5, 2010 \|title=A U.S. Cap-And-Trade Experiment to End \|newspaper=[[National Geographic (magazine)\|National Geographic]] \|date=November 3, 2010 \|last= Lavelle \|first=Marianne \|access-date=3 February 2016}}</ref> Some theorists{{Who\|date=February 2016}} suggest the amount of [[social capital]] or trust invested in nation-states (or "flags") will continue to decrease, and that placed in corporations (or "brands") will increase. This can only be offset by retrenched [[national sovereignty]] to reinforce shared national standards in [[tax, trade, and tariff]] laws, and by placing the trust in civil society in such "moral labels".{{clarify\|date=March 2022}} These arguments have been a major focus of the [[anti-globalization movement]], which includes many broader arguments against the amoral nature of markets. However, the economic school of [[Public Choice Theory]] pioneered by [[James M. Buchanan]] has offered counter-arguments based on an economic demonstration of this theory of "amoral markets", which lack ethics or morals, versus "moral governments", which are tied to ideas of justice.<ref>{{Citation \|last1=Mercuro \|first1=Nicholas \|title=Chapter 3. Public Choice Theory \|date=2020-07-21 \|url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9780691216010-004/html \|pages=156–207 \|access-date=2023-04-29 \|publisher=Princeton University Press \|language=en \|doi=10.1515/9780691216010-004 \|isbn=978-0-691-21601-0 \|last2=Medema \|first2=Steven G.}}</ref> ==Research== [[GfK NOP]], the market research group, made a five-country study of consumer beliefs about the ethics of large companies. The countries surveyed were Germany, the United States, [[United Kingdom\|Britain]], France, and Spain. More than half of respondents in Germany and the US believed there is a serious deterioration in standards of corporate practice. Almost half of those surveyed in Britain, France, and Spain held similar beliefs.<ref>{{cite web \|author1=Staff Writer \|title=Consumers Changing the Ethical Business Agenda \|url=http://marketresearchworld.net/content/view/1269/77/ \|publisher=Market Research World \|access-date=7 March 2007}}</ref> About a third of respondents told researchers they would pay higher prices for ethical brands, though the perception of various companies' ethical or unethical status varied considerably from country to country. The most ethically perceived brands were The [[The Co-operative Group\|Co-op]] (in the UK), [[Coca-Cola]] (in the US), [[Danone]] (in France), [[Adidas]] (in Germany), and [[Nestlé]] (in Spain). Coca-Cola, Danone, Adidas, and Nestlé did not appear anywhere in the UK's list of 15 most ethical companies. [[Nike, Inc.\|Nike]] appeared in the lists of the other four countries but not in the UK's list. In the UK, [[The Co-operative Bank]] has produced an Ethical Consumerism Report<ref>{{cite web\|url=http://www.goodwithmoney.co.uk/ethicalconsumerismreport\|title= Ethical Consumerism Report\|publisher=Co-operative Bank\|access-date=2010-09-03}}</ref> (formerly the Ethical Purchasing Index) since 2001. The report measures the market size and growth of a basket of 'ethical' products and services, and valued UK ethical consumerism at [[GBP]]36.0 billion (~[[USD]]54.4 billion) in 2008, and GBP47.2 billion (USD72.5 billion) in 2012. A number of organizations provide research-based evaluations of the behavior of companies around the world, assessing them along ethical dimensions such as [[human rights]], the [[environment (biophysical)\|environment]], [[animal welfare]], and [[politics]]. [[Green America]] is a not-for-profit membership organization founded in 1982 that provides the ''Green American Seal of Approval'' and produces a "Responsible Shopper" guide to "alert consumers and investors to problems with companies that they may shop with or invest in."<ref>{{cite web \|url=http://www.coopamerica.org/programs/responsibleshopper/about.cfm \|title=Coop American: Responsible Shopping: About \|publisher=Coopamerica.org \|access-date=2011-12-18 \|archive-url=https://archive.today/20120723061114/http://www.coopamerica.org/programs/responsibleshopper/about.cfm \|archive-date=2012-07-23 \|url-status=dead }}</ref> The Ethical Consumer Research Association is a not-for-profit workers' co-operative founded in the UK in 1988 to "provide information on the companies behind the brand names and to promote the ethical use of consumer power."<ref>{{cite web\|url=http://www.corporatecritic.org/info/about/ethicalconsumer.aspx \|title=Ethical Consumer Research Association: About \|publisher=Corporatecritic.org \|access-date=2011-12-18}}</ref> They provide an online searchable database under the name Corporate Critic<ref>{{cite web\|url=http://www.corporatecritic.org/info/rr/ethiscore.aspx \|title=Research & Ratings: About the Ethiscore \|publisher=Corporate Critic \|access-date=2011-12-18}}</ref> or Ethiscore.<ref>{{cite web\|url=http://www.ethiscore.org/info.aspx?info=research \|title=Research and ratings \|publisher=Ethiscore \|access-date=2011-12-18}}</ref> The Ethiscore is a weightable numerical rating designed as a quick guide to the ethical status of companies, or brands in a particular area, and is linked to a more detailed ethical assessment. "Alonovo" is an online shopping portal that provides similar weightable ethical ratings termed the "Corporate Social Behavior Index".<ref>[http://www.alonovo.com/community/SRI Alonovo Corporate Social Behavior Index] {{webarchive \|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080624160954/http://www.alonovo.com/community/SRI \|date=June 24, 2008 }}</ref> ==Related concepts== ===Conscientious consumption=== <!-- "Conscientious consumption" redirects here --> Conscientious consumerism is when people make a habit of buying goods from ethical companies and avoid impulsive buying from unethical ones, in order to contribute positively in political, social, and environmental ways. Such a consumer rationalizes unnecessary and even unwanted consumption by saying that "it's for a good cause."<ref name=Sulik>{{cite book \|author=Gayle A. Sulik \|title=Pink Ribbon Blues: How Breast Cancer Culture Undermines Women's Health \|url=https://archive.org/details/pinkribbonbluesh0000suli \|url-access=registration \|publisher=Oxford University Press \|location=USA \|year=2010 \|pages=[https://archive.org/details/pinkribbonbluesh0000suli/page/111 111–132] \|isbn=978-0-19-974045-1 \|oclc= 535493589}}</ref> As a result, the consumer buys [[pink ribbons]] during [[National Breast Cancer Awareness Month]], [[greenwashing\|green products]] to support the environment, candy and popcorn from school children, greeting cards and gift wrap from charities, and other such often-unwanted objects. The consumer avoids considering whether the price offered is fair, whether a small cash donation would be more effective with far less work, or even whether selling the item is consistent with the ostensible mission, such as when sports teams sell candy. Some of these efforts are based on [[concept brand]]s: the consumer is buying an association with women's health or environmental concerns as much as they are buying a tangible product.<ref name=Sulik /> Conscientious consumption involves people who are "more focused on real needs than artificially created craves," such as not continually following trend cycles in consumer industries.<ref>{{Cite book \|last=Puaschunder \|first=Julia M. \|chapter=Defashionization for Sustainability: from Conspicuous to Conscientious Consumption Breaking Business Cycles for Environmentalism \|title=Advances in Socially Responsible Investment in Resilience Finance \|series=Proceedings of the 26th Research Association for Interdisciplinary Studies (RAIS) Conference \|pages=146–155 \|date=February 2022 \|doi=10.5281/zenodo.6414896 \|ssrn=4226243 \|s2cid=252650068 \|chapter-url=http://rais.education/wp-content/uploads/2022/04/0178.pdf }}</ref> Conscientious consumerism has become more popular in recent years, with consumers becoming more aware of the impact of their purchases on society and the environment. This trend has led to the growth of companies that prioritize corporate social responsibility and ethical practices in their operations to reinforce customer loyalty.<ref name="Sustainable Production and Consumption">{{cite journal \| doi=10.1016/j.spc.2020.07.019 \| title=The impact of corporate social responsibility on customer loyalty: The mediating role of corporate reputation, customer satisfaction, and trust \| year=2021 \| last1=Islam \| first1=Tahir \| last2=Islam \| first2=Rauf \| last3=Pitafi \| first3=Abdul Hameed \| last4=Xiaobei \| first4=Liang \| last5=Rehmani \| first5=Mahmood \| last6=Irfan \| first6=Muhammad \| last7=Mubarak \| first7=Muhammad Shujaat \| journal=Sustainable Production and Consumption \| volume=25 \| pages=123–135 \| s2cid=225020032 }}</ref> However, some companies have taken note of this shift towards conscientious consumerism and started deceptive marketing to convey a false impression that their product is environmentally friendly. This green marketing tactic is called greenwashing, which is prevalent in the cosmetic industry. Greenwashing has a negative impact on consumer trust with brands and cosmetic products that are marketed as green.{{cn\|date=June 2023}} ===Alternative giving=== {{main\|Alternative giving}} In response to an increasing demand for ethical consumerism surrounding gift-giving occasions, charities have promoted an alternative gift market, in which charitable contributions are made on behalf of the gift "recipient". The "recipient" receives a card explaining the selected gift, while the actual gift item (frequently agricultural supplies or domestic animals) is sent to a family in a poor community.<ref>{{cite news\|url=https://www.theguardian.com/christmas2005/story/0,,1672350,00.html\|title=Giving well is hard to do: so here's my seasonal guide\|newspaper=The Guardian\|access-date=2007-05-03 \| location=London \| date=2005-12-22}}</ref> ==Criticism== Critics argue{{who\|date=March 2022}} that ethical consumerism has limited ability to effect structural change. Berkey (2021)<ref>{{cite journal \|last1=Berkey \|first1=Brian \|date=2001 \|title=Ethical Consumerism, Democratic Values, and Justice \|journal=Philosophy & Public Affairs \|volume=49 \|issue=3 \|pages=237-274 \|doi=10.1111/papa.12191}}</ref> has argued that ethical consumerism's focus on individual consumer behavior rather than systemic change can create a false sense of efficacy and distract from more effective methods of creating change, such as collective action and policy reform. Some{{who\|date=March 2022}} say the actual effect of ethical consumerism is the preponderance of [[Niche marketing\|niche markets]],<ref>{{cite web\|last1=Devinney\|first1=Timothy\|title=Value vs. Values: The Myth of the Ethical Consumer\|url=http://www.policyinnovations.org/ideas/briefings/data/000199\|website=Policy Innovations\|access-date=11 June 2015}}</ref> while others{{who\|date=March 2022}} argue that because it is difficult for consumers to obtain enough information about the outcomes of a given purchase, this prevents them from making informed ethical choices.<ref>{{Cite news \|last=Irwin \|first=Julie \|date=2015-01-12 \|title=Ethical Consumerism Isn't Dead, It Just Needs Better Marketing \|work=Harvard Business Review \|url=https://hbr.org/2015/01/ethical-consumerism-isnt-dead-it-just-needs-better-marketing \|access-date=2022-07-14 \|issn=0017-8012}}</ref> Critics{{who\|date=March 2022}} have also argued that the uneven distribution of wealth prevents consumerism, ethical or otherwise, from fulfilling its democratic potential.<ref>{{cite magazine\|last1=Gee\|first1=Tim\|title=When did fair trade become a consumerist concept?\|url=http://newint.org/blog/2014/03/26/fair-trade-and-global-justice/\|access-date=11 June 2015\|agency=New Statesman\|magazine=New Statesman\|date=March 26, 2014}}</ref> One study suggests that "Buying Green" serves as a license for unethical behavior. In their 2009 paper, "Do Green Products Make Us Better People?",<ref>Do Green Products Make Us Better People? ([[Psychological Science]], April, 2010) Nina Mazar, Chen-Bo Zhong</ref> Nina Mazar and Chen-Bo Zhong write: <blockquote>In line with the halo associated with green consumerism, people act more altruistically after mere exposure to green than conventional products. However, people act less altruistically and are more likely to cheat and steal after purchasing green products as opposed to conventional products. Together, the studies show that consumption is more tightly connected to our social and ethical behaviors in directions and domains other than previously thought.</blockquote> In a 2010 ''[[The Guardian]]'' article, British environmental writer and activist [[George Monbiot]] argued that green consumers who do not articulate their values are part of "a catastrophic mistake," on the grounds that such consumerism "strengthens extrinsic values" (those that "concern status and self-advancement"), thereby "making future campaigns less likely to succeed".<ref>{{cite news\|last=Monbiot\|first=George\|title=It goes against our nature; but the left has to start asserting its own values\|url=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/cif-green/2010/oct/11/left-values-progressive-self-interest\|access-date=29 December 2010\|newspaper=[[The Guardian]]\|date=12 October 2010}}</ref> James G Carrier, Associate at the [[Max Planck Institute for Social Anthropology]], draws on Karl Marx's concept of [[commodity fetishism]] to argue that ethical consumption does not help consumers lead a more moral life, nor does it influence businesses as intended.<ref name=":0">{{cite journal \| doi=10.1111/j.1467-8330.2010.00768.x \| title=Protecting the Environment the Natural Way: Ethical Consumption and Commodity Fetishism \| year=2010 \| last1=Carrier \| first1=James G. \| journal=Antipode \| volume=42 \| issue=3 \| pages=672–689 }}</ref> The goal of ethical consumption at a personal level is to lead a more moral life, and that capitalism causes commodities to be presented in such a way that they are perceived without regard for the labor that is represented by the product, the labor that was involved in allowing that commodity to exist.{{clarify\|reason=confusing run-on sentence\|date=March 2022}} The goal at a public level is for consumers to use their purchasing power to put pressure on companies to change the way they conduct business. Marx argued that under capitalism, the presentation of goods obscures the people and processes behind their production. Carrier begins by giving examples of products that have been presented in a way that misrepresents their context. He first points to the images of growers commonly found on [[fair trade coffee]] packaging. The image suggests self-reliance and ignores the dependence upon immigrant wage workers who harvest the coffee. Fairtrade coffee is viewed{{who\|date=March 2022}} as a direct link to the grower without a middle man. However, there are many parties involved such as the roasters, shippers, wholesalers, and retailers of the product. Carrier also discusses fictitious commodities, which are things that are not produced in the conventional sense, material or not, and can be appropriated for commercial gain.{{clarify\|reason=this does not make it clear what fictitious commodities are\|date=March 2022}} The conceptual categories of ethicality need to be legible to consumers in order for a consumer to be able to participate in ethical consumption.{{clarify\|reason=what are "the conceptual categories of ethicality"?\|date=March 2022}} Sellers use imagery to satisfy that need, and the images they use become emblematic and representational of the values of ethical consumers, and in some ways the presentation of these images fetishize the product, and the pervasiveness of such images begins to shape ethicality, as the absence of these images also signifies the absence of those same values. In short: it's difficult to buy ethical products because there are many aspects to commodities that consumers are unable to be fully aware of; fully informed decisions are almost impossible to make. Consumers see the images that sellers use as a means of virtue signaling, and purchase those products with the intent of ethical consumption because they believe that those images have been produced conscientiously to represent conceptual categories of "ethical."<ref name=":0" /> Carrier extends commodity fetishism to include [[nature reserves]] because they are advertised and because people are urged to visit the landscapes and animals for a fee. For example, parks in Jamaica show colorful fish and coral growth on pamphlets to attract tourists. These photos fetishize coastal waters by ignoring the other important ecological aspects of the water. In [[Montego Bay\|Montego Bay, Jamaica]], environmentalists{{who\|date=March 2022}} argue that tourism has damaged the park. Run-off feeds into the waterways and sea-grass beds integral to local nutrient cycles are removed.<ref name=":0" /> The strategic direction of the consumer's attention further mystifies and fetishizes the object of consumption.{{clarify\|reason=what does that even mean?\|date=March 2022}} Carrier points out that the moment of [[consumer choice]] is emphasized rather than the context that leads people to seek ethicality.<ref name=":0" /> He believes that more attention should be paid to how the consumer acquired their moral leanings. == See also == {{div col\|colwidth=25em}} * [[Anti-consumerism]] * [[Carrying capacity]] * [[Cause marketing]] * [[Consumerism]] * [[Critical consumerism]] * [[Cultured meat]] * [[Double-duty dollar]] * [[Ecologism]] * [[Ethical banking]] * [[Ethical eating]] * [[Ethical investing]] * [[FIRE movement]] * [[Fair trade]] * [[Frugality]] * [[Green brands]] * [[Intentional living]] * {{section link\|Leon Sullivan#Selective Patronage Movement}} * [[Organic food culture]] * [[Socially responsible investing]] * [[Sustainable living]] * [[Veganism]] * [[Vegetarianism]] {{div col end}} ==References== {{Reflist}} ==Further reading== * {{cite book\|last=Speth\|first=James Gustave\|title=The Bridge at the End of the World: Capitalism, the Environment, and Crossing from Crisis to Sustainability\|year=2008\|publisher=Caravan Books}} * {{cite book\|last=Bartley\|first=Tim and colleagues\|title=Looking Behind the Label: Global Industries and the Conscientious Consumer\|year=2015\|publisher=[[Indiana University Press]]}} {{Consumerism}} {{Sustainability}} {{Recycling}} {{Social accountability}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Ethical Consumerism}} [[Category:Ethical consumerism\| ]] [[Category:Consumer boycotts]] [[Category:Protectionism]] [[Category:Sustainability]]
Category:Sustainability by subject	{{cat main\|Sustainability}} [[Category:Sustainability\| ]] [[Category:Environment by subject\| ]]
Bibliography of sustainability	{{Short description\|none}} {{Main\|Sustainability}} This is a '''bibliography of sustainability''' publications. ==Bibliography== * Atkinson, G., Dietz, S. & Neumayer, E. (2007). ''Handbook of Sustainable Development''. Cheltenham: [[Edward Elgar Publishing]]. {{ISBN\|978-1-84376-577-6}}. * Bartlett, A. (1998). [http://www.hubbertpeak.com/bartlett/reflections.htm Reflections on Sustainability, Population Growth, and the Environment—Revisited] {{Webarchive\|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120722224500/http://www.hubbertpeak.com/bartlett/reflections.htm \|date=2012-07-22 }} revised version (January 1998) paper first published in ''Population & Environment'' '''16(1)''': 5–35. Retrieved on: 2009-03-12. * Braungart, M., and W. McDonough (2002). ''Cradle to Cradle: Remaking the Way We Make Things''. North Point Press. * [[Janine Benyus\|Benyus, J.]] (1997). ''Biomimicry: Innovations Inspired by Nature''. New York: [[William Morrow (publisher)\|William Morrow]]. {{ISBN\|0-06-053322-6}}. * Blackburn, W.R. (2007). ''The Sustainability Handbook''. London: Earthscan. {{ISBN\|978-1-84407-495-2}}. * [[Robert Costanza\|Costanza, R.]], Graumlich, L.J. & Steffen, W. (eds), (2007). ''Sustainability or Collapse? An Integrated History and Future of People on Earth''. Cambridge, MA.: [[MIT Press]]. {{ISBN\|978-0-262-03366-4}}. * Edwards, A.R., and B. McKibben (2010). ''Thriving Beyond Sustainability: Pathways to a Resilient Society'', New Society Publishers. * [http://www.eoearth.org/ Encyclopedia of Earth] * Formica, P. (2020). ''Nature's Voice: Health and Humanities'' Chicago: bioGraph. {{ISBN\|1951946103}}. * {{cite book\|last1=Komiyama\|first1=Hiroshi\|last2=Kraines\|first2=Steven Benjamin\|title=Vision 2050: Roadmap for a Sustainable Earth\|url=http://www.springerlink.com/content/n1x671/?p=f493b0b03f4d4cc39facd89eecfea21e&pi=1\|archive-url=https://archive.today/20121211052550/http://www.springerlink.com/content/n1x671/?p=f493b0b03f4d4cc39facd89eecfea21e&pi=1\|url-status=dead\|archive-date=2012-12-11\|year=2008\|publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media\|Springer]]\|location=Berlin\|isbn=978-4-431-09430-2}} * Huesemann, M.H., and J.A. Huesemann (2011). ''Technofix: Why Technology Won't Save Us or the Environment'', Chapter 6, "Sustainability or Collapse", New Society Publishers. * Jackson, T. (2011). ''Prosperity without Growth: Economics for a Finite Planet''. Routledge. * {{Cite book \| last1= James \| first1= Paul \| authorlink= Paul James (academic) \| last2= with Magee \| first2= Liam \| last3= Scerri \| first3= Andy \| last4= Steger \| first4= Manfred B. \| title= Urban Sustainability in Theory and Practice: Circles of Sustainability \| url= https://www.academia.edu/9294719 \| year= 2015 \| publisher= Routledge \| location= London}} * {{Cite book \| last1= James \| first1= Paul \| authorlink= Paul James (academic) \| last2= Nadarajah \| first2= Yaso \| last3= Haive \| first3= Karen \| last4= Stead \| first4= Victoria \| title= Sustainable Communities, Sustainable Development: Other Paths for Papua New Guinea \| url= https://www.academia.edu/3230875 \| year= 2012 \| publisher= University of Hawaii Press \| location= Honolulu }} * Li, R.Y.M. (2011). ''Building Our Sustainable Cities''. Illinois: Common Ground Publishing. {{ISBN\|978-1-86335-834-7}}. * {{Cite journal \| year=2013 \|author1=Liam Magee \|author2=Andy Scerri \|author3=Paul James \|author4=James A. Thom \|author5=Lin Padgham \|author6=Sarah Hickmott \|author7=Hepu Deng \|author8=Felicity Cahill \| title= Reframing social sustainability reporting: Towards an engaged approach \| url= https://www.academia.edu/4362669 \| journal= Environment, Development and Sustainability \| volume= 15 \| issue= 1 \|pages=225–43 \| doi=10.1007/s10668-012-9384-2 \|s2cid=153452740 }} * Norton, B. (2005). ''Sustainability, A Philosophy of Adaptive Ecosystem Management''. Chicago: The [[University of Chicago Press]]. {{ISBN\|978-0-226-59521-4}}. * Rogers, P., K.F. Jalal, and J.A. Boyd (2007). ''An Introduction to Sustainable Development''. Routledge. * Welford, R. (1997). ''Hijacking Environmentalism: Corporate Responses to Sustainable Development''. Routledge. [[Category:Sustainability\|*]] [[Category:Lists of publications in science\|Sustainability]]
Category:Sustainability journals	This category includes peer-reviewed, scholarly journals related to [[sustainability]]. [[Category:Sustainability\|Journals]] [[Category:Environmental science journals]]
Radical sustainability	{{Short description\|Holistic philosophy of sustainability}} [[File:Are you reusable bag ready - Target Portland plastic bag ban ordinance (16803680204).jpg\|thumb\|Laws banning plastic bags are ways to solve core issues of plastic emissions.]] '''Radical sustainability''' is a movement that recognizes the holistic and integrated nature of [[sustainability]], and according to the 2008 publication ''Toolbox for Radical Sustainable City Living'' by Scott Kellogg and Stacy Pettigrew, its main purpose is focused on the idea of addressing the root issues, versus their resulting symptoms.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book \|last=T. \|first=Kellogg, Scott \|url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/213408618 \|title=Toolbox for sustainable city living (a do-it-ourselves guide) \|date=2008 \|publisher=South End Press \|isbn=978-0-89608-780-4 \|oclc=213408618}}</ref> Though not a common enough term to be directly mentioned in many organizations or policy, its foundational principles and concepts can be seen in practice across many disciplines such as architecture and design.<ref name=":0">Hansen, Erik G.; Schaltegger, Stefan (2017-04-19). "Sustainability Balanced Scorecards and their Architectures: Irrelevant or Misunderstood?". ''Journal of Business Ethics''. '''150''' (4): 937–952. {{doi\|10.1007/s10551-017-3531-5}}. {{ISSN\|0167-4544}}</ref><ref name=":2">Schuler, Timothy A. "Future100: Student Designers Explore Radical Sustainability". ''Metropolis''. Retrieved 2022-10-12.</ref> The term is relatively new, appearing in the last one hundred years, though arguments have been made that the concept has existed throughout human history, affecting industry, social systems, and urbanization long before the term existed.<ref name=":6">Du Pisani, Jacobus A. (2006). "Sustainable development – historical roots of the concept". ''Environmental Sciences''. '''3''' (2): 83–96.</ref> In reflection of this, in recent years, theorists of radical sustainability have pointed to recent policies passed in the United States as examples of this movement's principles becoming more mainstream and accepted in modern practices.<ref name=":3">Romer, Jennie (2010-08-11). "The Evolution of San Francisco's Plastic-Bag Ban". ''Golden Gate University Environmental Law Journal''. '''1''' (2).</ref><ref name=":4">Thompson, Ben (2021-09-28). "New Austin climate plan would shave decade off city's emissions goal; target racial, economic, environmental equity". ''impact''. Retrieved 2022-10-13.</ref> The movement is not without its criticism, launching from concern over its potential to incite drastic change in economic and social practices, and the push to enforce this change leading to an oppressive state infringing on personal liberties<ref name=":7">Johns-Putra, Adeline; Parham, John; Squire, Louise, eds. (2017-03-24). ''Literature and sustainability: Concept, Text and Culture''. Manchester University Press. {{doi\|10.2307/j.ctt1wn0s7q.16}}. {{ISBN\|978-1-5261-0763-3}}.</ref> == Definition == Radical sustainability recognizes that a system is not sustainable if any part of it is unsustainable. Theorists believe the [[economy]] cannot be sustained if the underlying [[social structure]] is unsustainable, a social structure cannot be sustained if the [[Environment (biophysical)\|environment]] it depends upon is unsustainable, and that the environment cannot be sustained unless proper economical and social practices are in place.<ref name=":1" /> A radical sustainability viewpoint focuses on the inseparability of [[Environmental issues\|ecological]] and [[social issues]] and the necessity of ensuring the solution to one problem does not create or worsen another. The radical sustainable philosophy looks at sustainability through a [[Top-down and bottom-up design\|bottom-up approach]] – a form of grassroots sustainability. Radical sustainability advocates and supports [[Autonomy\|autonomous]] development, [[Indigenous peoples\|indigenous]] movements, [[women's rights]], [[social justice]] and [[Green politics\|green]] practices.<ref name=":1" /> It has begun to appear in political spheres, and policies in certain cities across the United States reflect many of the tenets of the philosophy. It has faced criticism for the drastic changes it demands in personal lifestyles, as well as its potential ramifications on social and economical systems. Radical sustainability is a movement that recognizes that for a system to be considered truly [[sustainable]], it must aspire to create a world and community that is environmentally sustainable, economically viable, and socially equitable. It shares much of its platform with [[radical environmentalism]] and [[environmental justice]] movements. It focuses on addressing the root cause of unsustainable or inequitable practices – such as [[Capitalist system\|capitalist systems]] and [[systemic racism]], rather than addressing what it refers to as the symptoms, citing examples of ineffective practices such as solar panel installation in rural communities and many current marketing strategies employed by corporations and governments alike.<ref name=":1" /> It pays special attention to the fact that many implemented solutions may worsen others or create new problems, such as the earlier mentioned example of installing solar panels in a rural community. Radical sustainability claims an action such as this, with no plan for future replacement or repair creates a system of dependency on a corporation or government, and contributes to maintaining colonial mindsets.<ref name=":1" /> == Application == The term is often used in reference to [[sustainable architecture]], [[Sustainable design\|design]], and [[Sustainable urban planning\|urban planning]].<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":2" /> This subset of radical sustainability is strongly supportive of autonomous development, which is looking to pioneer systems that allow the citizens living within and utilizing these systems control over the basic resources involved such as food and water.<ref name=":0" /> This group control of necessities is thought to foster communities that are [[Egalitarianism\|egalitarian]] and advance quality and [[social justice]]. Within larger cities, radical sustainability looks to empower citizens to create change and ensure their cities have the capability to provide such necessities as food, clean water, proper sanitation and waste management, and green energy within their jurisdiction. <ref name=":1" /> Radical sustainable change, due to its intense nature, has a difficult time being implemented in urban environments that contain many moving parts. Several barriers have been documented as contributing to this difficulty. This includes the idea of [[technological lock-in]], or the idea that the more a community gets used to and adapts to a technology, the less willing or likely they are to switch to another, regardless of perceived advantage or upgrades. <ref name=":5">"Technological Lock-in and the Role of Innovation". ''Handbook of Sustainable Development''. {{doi\|10.4337/9781847205223.00017}}.</ref> It has roots in economics and the cost of new technology, a trend of aversion to having to learn new technology, and psychology and the uncertainty and perceived distrust of this new technology.<ref name=":5" /> It also includes institutional inertia, which is simply the resistance of large institutions to change, and has been blamed for slow progress across [[climate change]] and [[Environmental movement\|ecological movements]] as seen in the Moore et. al case study in urban sustainability in Australia.<ref>Munck af Rosenschöld, Johan; Rozema, Jaap G.; Frye-Levine, Laura Alex (2014-05-29). "Institutional inertia and climate change: a review of the new institutionalist literature". ''Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Climate Change''. '''5''' (5): 639–648. {{doi\|10.1002/wcc.292}}. {{ISSN\|1757-7780}}</ref><ref>Moore, De Haan, Horne, Gleeson. ''Urban Sustainability Transitions : Australian Cases- International Perspectives''. {{ISBN\|981-10-4792-8}}. {{OCLC\|1109074994}}.</ref> Radical sustainability can also be seen in business practices and discussions of entrepreneurship and innovation.<ref>"Radical innovation and sustainability". ''us.milliman.com''. Retrieved 2022-10-12.</ref> In this context, radical sustainability refers to drastic, expedient changes, often in human systems such as product and service management. It also deals with the responsibility of [[sustainable consumption]], and business practices that can encourage changes in the consumer's behavior, by accessibility, ease, incentive, or other methods. This is in opposition to the argument of the more gradual incremental change, which while typically seen as the easier type of change to accomplish, is also argued by those who believe in radical sustainability as being not enough to combat ecological changes resulting from current business practices. Some theorists go so far as to argue that sticking to incremental change – where many businesses are comfortable – could even be dangerous.<ref name=":8">Tukker, Arnold; Tischner, Ursula, eds. (2017-09-29). "New Business for Old Europe". {{doi\|10.4324/9781351280600}}.</ref><ref>''Sustainable innovation and entrepreneurship''. Rolf Wüstenhagen. Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar. 2008. {{ISBN\|978-1-84844-155-2}}. {{OCLC\|232661158}}.</ref> Indirectly, there have been signs of its use in regulation and policy in recent years as well, so argued by Ben Thomson and Jennie Rommer in their discussion of recent United States policies and supported by the foundations of radical sustainability as proposed by Kellogg and Pettigrew.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":4" /><ref name=":3" /> == Origin == The term ''sustainability'' appeared for the first time in the ''Oxford English Dictionary'' in the second half of the 20th century. Yet the overall concept of how civilization was impacting the environment can be traced back to a time long before then. The issue surrounding the increasing demand for materials and how this intense need affected the environment can be found throughout history, as early as the ancient civilizations of Egypt and Mesopotamia. As society progressed throughout time and the world saw increasing numbers of the Earth's population and advancements in technology, the idea of a radical form of sustainability was created. At its core, the concept of radical sustainability discusses how to be a sustainable system, it must be sustainable across all components, such as ecology, economy, and equity. All parts must be aligned with one another to ensure that the system is functioning. While the origins of the specific term are not concretely known, the addition to this ancient idea is a modern one that has only been coined in recent years.<ref name=":6" /> == Policy examples == === Austin, Texas === One of the most well-known initiatives that the city has incorporated is its [[Climate resilience\|climate preparedness]]. The city recognized the effects of a changing climate on its infrastructure and is working to bring awareness to those most impacted by disastrous weather events, the low-income communities. Because of their few resources to combat the changing environment, they are at high risk of being severely affected by climate change. Austin's goal is to reduce emissions locally and bring attention to the concept of climate preparedness in its jurisdiction, which includes changes like upgrading roads and planting trees to offset potential dangers. They believe this will alleviate the risks of a changing environment for those who do not have the financial means to recover from dangerous weather events.<ref name=":4" /> === San Francisco, California === More specifically, the city is known for its initiative to ban the use of plastic bags. It was the first American city to incorporate a [[plastic bag ban]] and encouraged members of the community to use alternative options like reusable totes. Compostable bags also became widely used, which aided in the mission of limiting plastic as they are created from materials that have been recycled. Because of these efforts, the city has restricted around 1.6 million tons of waste from their landfills per year.<ref name=":3" /> == Reception and criticism == The movement of radical sustainability has both supporters of the movement along with critics. There are those who note that radical sustainability is accepted as a general vision, indicating a complex process once it is translated to specific goals.<ref name=":8" /> Those who believe in the concept acknowledge that implementing radical sustainability would mean significant changes in lifestyle for people of the area. For example, ideas like consolidating land use and using more [[Self-sustainability\|self-sustaining]] technologies are prevalent ideals to supporters; however, they acknowledge that these modifications would alter the future of what day-to-day life would look like. Yet, their mission in this movement is to create a more sustainable environment, and they recognize the success of the campaign relies on confronting the already present power of political and economic interests.<ref>{{Cite journal \|last=Hester \|first=Randolph T. \|last2=Blazej \|first2=Nova J. \|last3=Moore \|first3=Ian S. \|date=1999 \|title=Whose Wild? Resolving Cultural and Biological Diversity Conflicts in Urban Wilderness \|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.3368/lj.18.2.137 \|journal=Landscape Journal \|volume=18 \|issue=2 \|pages=137–146 \|doi=10.3368/lj.18.2.137 \|issn=0277-2426}}</ref> Critics of the radical sustainability movement oppose those who support the notion's more optimistic approach. The concerns lie with the ramifications that imposing these new alterations would have on society from an economic and political perspective. Critics have claimed that utilizing sustainable techniques by means of enforcing changes to society as it currently stands enables "risk, irony and [[jouissance]]."<ref name=":7" /> ==See also== * [[Interdependence]] * [[Green economy]] * [[Ecological economics]] * [[Eco-socialism]] == References == {{reflist}} [[Category:Sustainability]]
The Karlskrona Manifesto	{{more citations needed\|date=June 2019}} {{Infobox organization \| name = The Karlskrona Manifesto for Sustainability Design \| image = \| image_border = \| size = frameless \| caption = \| map = \| msize = \| mcaption = \| abbreviation = \| motto = \| created = August 2014 \| extinction = \| type = \| status = \| purpose = \| coords = \| region_served = \| membership = \| key_people = [[Christoph Becker]]<br>Ruzanna Chitchyan<br>Leticia Duboc<br>Steve Easterbrook<br>Martin Mahaux<br>[[Birgit Penzenstadler]]<br>Guillermo Rodríguez-Navas<br>Camille Salinesi<br>Norbert Seyff<br>Colin C. Venters \| website = \| remarks = }} '''The Karlskrona Manifesto'''<ref>{{Cite book \|doi=10.1109/ICSE.2015.179\|isbn=9781479919345\|chapter=Sustainability Design and Software: The Karlskrona Manifesto\|title=2015 IEEE/ACM 37th IEEE International Conference on Software Engineering\|pages=467–476\|year=2015\|last1=Becker\|first1=Christoph\|last2=Chitchyan\|first2=Ruzanna\|last3=Duboc\|first3=Leticia\|last4=Easterbrook\|first4=Steve\|last5=Penzenstadler\|first5=Birgit\|last6=Seyff\|first6=Norbert\|last7=Venters\|first7=Colin C.\|s2cid=14777274 \|chapter-url=http://eprints.hud.ac.uk/id/eprint/23424/1/sustainability-design-software-4.pdf}}</ref> for [[sustainability]] design in software was created as an output of the Third International Workshop on Requirements Engineering for Sustainable Systems (RE4SuSy) held in [[Karlskrona, Sweden]], co-located with the 22nd [[IEEE]] International Requirements Engineering Conference (RE'14). The manifesto arose from a suggestion in the paper by [[Christoph Becker]], "Sustainability and Longevity: Two Sides of the Same Quality?" that sustainability is a common ground for several disciplines related to software, but that this commonality had not been mapped out and made explicit and that a focal point of reference would be beneficial. The Karlskrona Manifesto can be split into nine principles: # Sustainability is never isolated and can also be looked at globally. # Sustainability has multiple dimensions, so it is necessary to define which dimension is being looked at during analysis. # Sustainability is multidisciplinary and requires multiple perspectives. # When looking at sustainability, this should be done independently of the focus of the system. # Sustainability can be assessed by the system itself and how the system fits into the larger system. # System status at different levels of usage is important for responsible decisions to be made with sustainable design. # Identify the most effective way to be sustainable over alternative options at different levels to ensure the most sustainable choice is being made. # The current generation shouldn't be compromised, however meeting the needs of the future generations is necessary when evaluating the most sustainable choice. # Assessing software over a long term and consider decisions with this in mind. These principles were later made into a catalogue to support software sustainable design.<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1=Oyedeji \|first1=Shola \|last2=Seffah \|first2=Ahmed \|last3=Penzenstadler \|first3=Birgit \|date=July 2018 \|title=A Catalogue Supporting Software Sustainability Design \|journal=Sustainability \|language=en \|volume=10 \|issue=7 \|pages=2296 \|doi=10.3390/su10072296 \|issn=2071-1050\|doi-access=free }}</ref> ==External links== * [https://archive.today/20140828150016/http://www.ics.uci.edu/~bpenzens/2014re4susy/ Third International Workshop on Requirements Engineering for Sustainable Systems (RE4SuSy)] * [http://webhotel.bth.se/re14/ 22nd IEEE International Requirements Engineering Conference (RE'14)] * [http://ceur-ws.org/Vol-1216/ Proceedings of the Third International Workshop on Requirements Engineering for Sustainable Systems] * [http://ceur-ws.org/Vol-1216/paper1.pdf Christoph Becker, Sustainability and Longevity: Two Sides of the Same Quality?] * [https://arxiv.org/abs/1410.6968 Christoph Becker, Ruzanna Chitchyan, Leticia Duboc, Steve Easterbrook, Martin Mahaux, Birgit Penzenstadler, Guillermo Rodriguez-Navas, Camille Salinesi, Norbert Seyff, Colin Venters, Coral Calero, Sedef Akinli Kocak, Stefanie Betz, The Karlskrona manifesto for sustainability design] * [http://sustainabilitydesign.org/ Karlskrona Manifesto for Sustainability Design Official site] ==References== {{Reflist}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Karlskrona Manifesto, The}} [[Category:Sustainability]] [[Category:Software design]] {{sustainability-stub}}
Ecological debt	{{Short description\|Environmental debt between Global North and South}} [[File:EarthOvershootDay Countries.png\|alt=World map coloured according to the number of days each country takes to exhaust the resources it produces in the same year (green-high to red-low).\|thumb\|upright=1.85\|The Global North consumption is higher than its production (shown by the red color), while the Global South produces more than consumes (green color). The resource proportion between consumption and production relates to the amount of environmental degradation.]] '''Ecological debt''' refers to the accumulated [[debt]] seen by some campaigners as owed by the [[Global North and Global South\|Global North]] to [[Global North and Global South#Uses of the term Global South\|Global South]] countries, due to the net sum of historical [[environmental injustice]], especially through [[resource exploitation]], [[habitat degradation]], and [[pollution]] by [[waste]] discharge.<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1=Warlenius \|first1=Rikard \|last2=Pierce \|first2=Gregory \|last3=Ramasar \|first3=Vasna \|date=2015-01-01 \|title=Reversing the arrow of arrears: The concept of "ecological debt" and its value for environmental justice \|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0959378014001812 \|journal=Global Environmental Change \|language=en \|volume=30 \|pages=21–30 \|doi=10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2014.10.014 \|issn=0959-3780}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal\|last=Donoso\|first=A.\|date=2015\|title=We are not debtors, we are creditors. In: Bravo, E., & Yánez, I. (Eds.), No more looting and destruction! We the peoples of the south are ecological creditors\|journal=Southern Peoples Ecological Debt Creditors Alliance (SPEDCA)}}</ref> The concept was coined by Global Southerner [[non-governmental organization]]s in the [[1990s]] and its definition has varied over the years, in several attempts of greater specification.<ref>{{Cite book \|last=Paredis \|first=Erik \|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=X01-m72T6XcC&dq=ecological+debt&pg=PR9 \|title=The Concept of Ecological Debt: Its Meaning and Applicability in International Policy \|date=2009 \|publisher=Academia Press \|isbn=978-90-382-1341-5 \|language=en}}</ref> Within the ecological debt broad definition, there are two main aspects: the [[environmental degradation\|ecological damage]] caused over time by a country in one or other countries or to [[ecosystem]]s beyond national jurisdiction through its production and consumption patterns; and the exploitation or use of ecosystems over time by a country at the expense of the [[equitable right]]s to these ecosystems by other countries.<ref>{{Cite web\|title=Ecological debt\|url=http://www.ejolt.org/2013/05/ecological-debt/\|access-date=2020-10-07\|language=en}}</ref> == History == The term 'ecological debt' first appeared on paper in 1985, in a yellow booklet with the title “Women in movement" made by the German ecofeminist [[c:Category:Eva Quistorp\|Eva Quistorp]] and edited by the [[Green Party (Germany)\|Green Party]] in Germany in 1985. The work was intended to be used for a workshop she gave on 'women, peace and ecology' in [[Nairobi]] during the [[UN Women\|United Nation Women’s Conference]] (the first workshop of this kind). In 1992, the term appeared again in two reports published in different places around the world: “''Deuda ecológica''” by Robleto and Marcelo in [[Chile]] and “''Miljöskulden''” by Jernelöv in [[Sweden]].<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal\|last=Warlenius, R., Pierce, G., Ramasar, V., Quistorp, E., Martínez-Alier, J., Rijnhout, L., Yanez, I.\|date=2015\|title=Ecological debt. History, meaning and relevance for environmental justice\|journal=EJOLT Report\|volume=18\|pages=48}}</ref> Robleto and Marcelo's report, published by the critical NGO ''[https://iepe.org Instituto de Ecologia Politica]'' (IEP),<ref>{{Cite book\|title=La deuda ecológica. Una perspectiva sociopolítica\|last=Robleto M.L., Marcelo W.\|publisher=Instituto Ecología Política (IEP)\|year=1992\|location=Santiago de Chile}}</ref> was a political and activist response to the global environmental negotiations happening during the Rio Summit. It shed light on the debate occurring in Latin America since the 1980s about the crucial nature's heritage that had been consumed and not returned (i.e. ecological debt). On the other hand, Jernelöv's report goal was to calculate the Swedish debt for [[future generations]] and was intended to serve nationally for the [[Environmental Protection Agency (Sweden)\|Swedish Environmental Advisory]]. Although the last one had less world-wide influence in the concept's debate, it is important to note that both reports have opposite approach in considering the ecological debt: Robleto and Marcelo's report expresses it in symbolic terms, focusing on the moral and political aspects, whereas Jernelöv's report tries to quantify and monetize it in economic terms.[[File:Klimaforum09 closing ceremony wahu kaara.jpg\|thumb\|Wahu Kaara ([[Global justice]] activist / Kenya Debt Relief Network) spoke at the closing ceremony of Klimaforum09 - People's Climate Summit in Copenhagen December 2009.]]In 1994, the Colombian lawyer [[Misael Pastrana Borrero\|Borrero]], wrote a book on ecological debt.<ref>{{Cite book\|title=La deuda ecológica. Testimonio de una reflexión\|last=Borrero Navia\|first=J.\|publisher=Fipma y Cela\|year=1994\|location=Cali}}</ref> It referred to the environmental liabilities of Northern countries for the excessive per capita production of greenhouse gases, historically and at present. The concept has then been reused by some [[environmental organization]]s from the [[Global south\|Global South]]. Campaigns on the ecological debt were launched since 1997 by [[Accion Ecologica]] of [[Ecuador]] and [[Friends of the Earth]].<ref>{{Cite web\|url=http://www.deudaecologica.org/\|title=Deuda Ecologica\|date=2018\|website=Deuda Ecologica\|language=es\|access-date=2018-02-28\|archive-date=2019-05-08\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190508080613/http://www.deudaecologica.org/\|url-status=dead}}</ref> Overall, the ecological debt 'movement' was born of the convergence of three main factors during the 80s-90s: 1) the consequences of the debt crisis in the 70s due to the [[Volcker shock]]s or the drastic increase of interest rates (followed by [[structural adjustment]]s made by the US to solve the [[stagflation]] in 1981, and thus putting heavily indebted third world countries in an impossible situation in regards to debt repayment); 2) the rising of environmental awareness as seen previously (activists and NGOs attending the [[Rio Summit]] in 1992); 3) an increase in recognition of the violence caused by [[colonialism]] over the years <ref name="salleh" /> (the demand of recognition is over 500 years, since [[Christopher Columbus\|Columbus]] arrived in [[North America]]). In 2009, [[Ecofeminism\|ecofeminist]] scholar [[Ariel Salleh]] explained how the [[capitalist]] processes at work in the global North [[Exploitation of natural resources\|exploit nature]] and [[Exploitation of labour\|people]] simultaneously, ultimately sustaining a large ecological debt in her article, "Ecological Debt: Embodied Debt".<ref name="salleh" /> At the 1992 [[Rio Earth Summit]], politicians and corporate leaders from the global North introduced the supposed solution for the [[foreign debt]] crisis in the global South.<ref name="salleh" /> They proposed 'debt for nature swaps', which essentially means that those countries that possess abundant [[biodiversity]] and [[natural resource\|environmental resource]]s would give them up to the global North in return for the [[World Bank]] reducing their debt.<ref name="salleh" /> Feminist [[environmentalist]]s, Indigenous activists, and peasants from the Global South, exposed how the Global North is much more indebted to the Global South.<ref name="salleh" /> Salleh justified this by explaining how the 500-year-long colonization process involving the extraction of resources has caused immense damage and destruction to the ecosystem of the [[Global South]].<ref name="salleh" /> In fact, scientists at the US National [[Academy for Science and Design\|Academy for Sciences]] state that in the time period of 1961–2000, by analyzing the cost of [[greenhouse gas emissions]] created by the rich (the Global North) alone, it has become apparent that the rich have imposed climate changes on the poor that greatly outweigh the poor's foreign debt.<ref name="srinivasan">{{cite journal\|author=U. Thara Srinivasan\|display-authors=etal\|year=2008\|title=The debt of nations and the distribution of ecological impacts from human activities\|journal=[[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences]]\|volume=105\|issue=5\|pages=1768–1773\|doi=10.1073/pnas.0709562104\|pmc=2234219\|pmid=18212119\|bibcode=2008PNAS..105.1768S\|doi-access=free}}</ref> All of this [[environmental degradation]] amounts to ecological debt, seizing the people's livelihood resources in the Global South.<ref>{{Cite journal\|last=Rice\|first=James\|date=March 2009\|title=North—South Relations and the Ecological Debt: Asserting a Counter-Hegemonic Discourse\|url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0896920508099193\|journal=Critical Sociology\|language=en\|volume=35\|issue=2\|pages=225–252\|doi=10.1177/0896920508099193\|s2cid=145372698\|issn=0896-9205}}</ref> In 2009 as well, [[Andrew Simms]] used the ecological debt in a more bio-physical way and defined it as the consumption of resources from within an ecosystem that exceeds the system's regenerative capacity.<ref>Andrew Simms. ''Ecological Debt: The Health of the Planet & the Wealth of Nations.'' (London: [[Pluto Press]], 2009) p.200.</ref> This is seen in particular in [[non-renewable resource]]s wherein consumption outstrips production. In a general sense in his work, it refers to the depletion of global resources beyond the Earth's ability to regenerate them.</ref> Andrew Simms. The concept in this sense is based on the bio-physical [[carrying capacity]] of an ecosystem; through measuring [[ecological footprints]] human society can determine the rate at which it is depleting natural resources. Recent writings have highlighted the ubiquity of ecological debts, such as to [https://californiawaterblog.com/2023/06/11/facing-the-dragon-californias-nasty-ecological-debts/ Pacific salmon populations, groundwater and polluted waterways]. Ultimately, the imperative of [[sustainability]] requires human society to live within the means of the ecological system to support life over the long term. Ecological debt is a feature of unsustainable economic systems. == Political dimension == === Historical context === There have been several debates around the notion of ecological debt, and this is mostly because the concept arises from various social movements in response to the distributional injustice of climate change's consequences on the environment and people's livelihood. Salleh, in particular, showed how the ecological debt manifested in the destruction of the environment and associated climate change the North has created is made possible through the process of [[Modernization theory\|modernization]] and [[capitalism]].<ref name="salleh">Salleh, A. (2009). Ecological debt: embodied debt. Eco-Sufficiency and Global Justice. London: Pluto Press.</ref> The rise of the nature-culture divide that emerged due to rapid [[industrialisation]] is a perfect illustration of a human-nature dualism in which [[human being]] has the central role above everything else. The notion of humans being embedded in the ecosystem that they live in is crucial to the discipline of [[political ecology]].<ref name="salleh" /> In political ecology, which reconnects nature and the economy, ecological debt is crucial because it recognizes that colonization has not only resulted in a loss of culture, way of life, and language for [[Indigenous peoples]], but it has shaped the [[world economy]] into one that [[monetization\|monetizes]] and [[commodification\|commodifies]] the environment.<ref>{{Cite book\|title=Chapter 3: Habitation versus Improvement. In The Great Transformation: The Political and Economic Origins of Our Time\|last=Polanyi\|first=Karl\|publisher=Boston: Beacon Press\|year=1944\|pages=35–44}}</ref> For example, when the [[Colonization of south america\|colonization of South America]] occurred over 500 years ago, European settlers brought with them their [[Eurocentrism\|Eurocentric]] values, seeing themselves as better than and therefore entitled to the [[Indigenous Knowledge\|Indigenous people's knowledge]] and the land they lived on. In a perceived [[Postcolonialism\|postcolonial world]], large corporations and Western governments tend to present solutions to global warming by [[commodification of nature\|commodifying nature]] and hoping to make a profit out of it.<ref>{{Cite journal\|last=Makki\|first=Fouad\|date=2014\|title=Development by Dispossession: Terra Nullius and the Social-Ecology of New Enclosures in Ethiopia\|journal=Rural Sociology\|volume=79\| issue = 1\|pages=79–103\|doi=10.1111/ruso.12033}}</ref> This better-than-thou attitude has created the conditions for [[global warming]] to occur, making the North’s [[ecological footprint]] soar,<ref>Seager, J. (2009). The Penguin Atlas of Women in the World (4th ed.). New York, NY: Penguin.</ref> while also constructing an ecological debt so large as to completely rid the entire Global South of their [[Debt\|financial debt]]. During the [[Rio Earth Summit]] in 1992, attending [[NGOs]] created the Debt Treaty, a document gathering all information to better define the ecological debt concept. They demanded compensation for damages over 500 years (1992 is exactly 500 years after the arrival of [[Christopher Columbus\|Columbus]] in North America). The countries in question were given options from the [[World Bank]] and the [[International Money Fund]] a choice to defaulting on these debts or make structural adjustments to continue to receive further funding.<ref>{{Cite journal\|title=Reversing the arrow of arrears: The concept of "ecological debt" and its value for environmental justice\|last=Warlenius\|first=Rikard\|publisher=Global Environmental Change\|year=2014\|pages=22}}</ref> It was the first push back, reversing the stream, but it stayed as a draft paper not recognized by international institutions or lead countries at that time. [[File:ActionAid1.jpg\|thumb\|Copenhagen Climate Summit in 2009 - Action Aid demonstration]] === Today === In the 2000s, two networks were created and still exist today: the [http://www.socioeco.org/bdf_organisme-56_en.html Southern Peoples Ecological Debt Creditors Alliance (SPEDCA)] which is a network of [[creditor]]s that launched a campaign for the recognition of ecological debt, and the European Network for the Recognition of Ecological Debt (ENRED) which is a network of [[debtor]]s. During the [[Conference of the parties\|COP]] in Copenhagen in December 2009, some governments from developing countries or countries most [[Climate change vulnerability\|vulnerable to climate change]] consequences (such as Bolivia, Mauritania, Chad, or island countries as Maldives or Haiti) have argued that the principle of shared responsibility demands that rich nations or [[developed economies]] (such as the United States, some European countries, China) go beyond donations or adaptation [[Debits and credits\|credits]] and make reparations that recognize an ecological debt for excessive [[pollution]] over several decades. The top United States ambassador, [[Todd Stern]], flatly rejected arguments by diplomats from these countries that the United States owed such a debt.<ref>{{Cite web\|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2009/12/06/weekinreview/06zeller.html\|title=Negotiators at Climate Talks Face Deep Set of Fault Lines\|last=Zeller Jr.\|first=Tom\|date=December 5, 2009\|website=New York Times\|access-date=February 22, 2018}}</ref> The [[COP 21]] in Paris brought minor progress with an increase in financial aid for developing countries. Although the goal was to prepare future action to be undertaken for adapting to climate change and consider loss and damages (especially [[displaced people]]) of some countries, no real action was adopted. There were no recognition of responsibilities but recommendations only. == Calculations == === Climate debt === When discussing ecological debt, [[climate debt]] appears to be the only example of a scientific attempt to quantify the debt. It incorporates two different elements: the [[Climate debt\|adaptation debt]] which is the cost to communities of adapting to [[climate damage]]s they are not responsible for, and the consumption debt or emission's debt which is compensation due for emitting carbon in the present time. Emission debts should hypothetically be paid for by those countries that have over-emitted their fair-share of emissions. To determine this debt, an emissions or [[Emissions budget\|carbon budget]] can and is calculated, and distributed among countries. === Calculations === Academic work on calculations of the ecological debt came later. An article published in 2008 looked at the distribution of [[Environmental issue\|ecological impacts]] for various human activities.<ref name="srinivasan" /> Studies were also produced at regional level within countries, for instance for Orissa in [[India]].<ref>S. Khatua and W. Stanley, "Ecological Debt: a case study from Orissa, India" (2006) [http://www.deudaecologica.org/publicaciones/Chapter5(125-168).pdf]</ref> As seen previously, calculation of the ecological debt implies various aspects related to [[political ecology]]. While calculating the amount of emissions, some scholars have disregard inequalities of emissions from the past whereas others have considered historical accountability. In addition, there is a connection between ecological issues and the economy due to the value natural resources have and the important role they play in benefiting our economy.<ref>{{Citation \|last=Wessell \|first=Kelly J. \|title=Ecological Debt and the Holistic Value of Nature \|date=2022 \|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-96355-2_4 \|work=Care, Climate, and Debt: Transdisciplinary Problems and Possibilities \|pages=49–72 \|editor-last=Wilson \|editor-first=Benjamin C. \|place=Cham \|publisher=Springer International Publishing \|language=en \|doi=10.1007/978-3-030-96355-2_4 \|isbn=978-3-030-96355-2 \|access-date=2022-10-24}}</ref> In 2000, Neumayer calculated what he named the 'historical emissions debt', consisting on the difference in emissions of actual historical emissions (from a specific date in the past) and equal per-capita emissions (current emissions).<ref>{{Cite journal\|last=Neumayer\|first=E.\|date=2000\|title=In defence of historical accountability for greenhouse gas emissions\|url=http://eprints.lse.ac.uk/18906/1/__Libfile_repository_Content_Neumayer%2C%20E_In%20defense%20of%20historical%20accountability%20for%20greenhouse%20gas%20emissions_In%20defense%20of%20historical%20accountability%20for%20greenhouse%20gas%20emissions%20%28LSE%20RO%29.pdf\|journal=Ecol. Econ.\|volume=33\|issue=2\|pages=185–192\|doi=10.1016/S0921-8009(00)00135-X\|s2cid=154625649}}</ref> Theoretically, it may be possible to put a money value on ecological debt by calculating the value of the environmental and social [[Externality\|externalities]] associated with historic resource extraction and adding an estimated value for the share of global [[Pollution\|pollution problems]] borne by poor countries as the result of higher consumption levels in rich ones.<ref name="srinivasan" /> This includes efforts to value the [[external costs]] associated with climate change.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal\|last=Goeminne, G. & Paredis, E.\|date=2010\|title=The concept of ecological debt: Some steps towards an enriched sustainability paradigm\|journal=Environment, Development and Sustainability\|volume=12\|issue=5\|pages=691–712\|doi=10.1007/s10668-009-9219-y\|s2cid=154241874}}</ref> In 2015, Matthews proposed a method to calculate the ecological debt, by looking at the accumulated `carbon debts' for each country.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal\|last=Matthews\|first=Damon\|date=September 2015\|title=Quantifying Historical Carbon and Climate Debts among Nations\|journal=Nature Climate Change\|volume=6\|pages=60–64\|doi=10.1038/nclimate2774\|bibcode=2016NatCC...6...60M}}</ref> The model uses historical estimates of [[Fossil fuel emissions\|national fossil fuel CO<sub>2</sub> emissions]]<ref>{{Cite journal\|last=Le Quéré, C.\|display-authors=etal\|date=2015\|title=Global Carbon Budget 2014\|journal=Earth System Science Data\|volume=7\| issue = 1\|pages=47–85\|doi=10.5194/essd-7-47-2015\|bibcode=2015ESSD....7...47L\|doi-access=free\|hdl=1871.1/0def6242-391e-40da-b5fb-eb620bdab9ac\|hdl-access=free}}</ref> and [[population]] and this since 1960. Furthermore, it runs a comparison between [[temperature]] changes each year by each country's emissions compared to a proportional temperature change of each country's share of the world population (this same year). This gives the accumulated credits and debts related to a larger range of emissions and the 'climate debts' obtained would be the difference between the actual temperature change (caused by each country) and their [[Per capita\|per-capita]] share of global temperature change.<ref name=":0" /> Other scholars have proposed a different approach, a `modified equal shares' approach, that would consider each country's [[basic needs]] and would weight each ones' share of emissions.<ref>{{Cite book\|last=Vanderheiden\|first=S.\|date=2008\|title=Atmospheric Justice: A Political Theory of Climate Change\|publisher=Oxford University Press\|isbn=978-0199733125}}</ref> However, this approach brings potential [[Ethics\|ethical]] and political difficulties to quantitatively defining what would thus be the equal shares. == Key debates == Although some recent emerging countries have participated in the increase of [[carbon emissions]], the situation tend to stay uneven in-between developing and developed countries<ref>{{Cite journal\|last=Matthews, H., Graham, T., Keverian, S., Lamontagne, C., Seto, D., & Smith, T.\|date=2014\|title=National contributions to observed global warming\|journal=Environmental Research Letters\|volume=9\| issue = 1\|pages=014010\|doi=10.1088/1748-9326/9/1/014010\|bibcode=2014ERL.....9a4010D\|doi-access=free}}</ref> regarding who is affected the most versus who pollutes the most. Recent studies on ecological debt focus more on sub-topics as the notion of historical responsibility<ref name=":1" /> (whether or not a country is considered ethically responsible or accountable for carbon emissions prior 1990, i.e. when global warming was universally recognized), the components of [[climate debt]] (see above sections), the difficulties in deciding when to start counting past emissions<ref>{{Cite journal\|last=Fridahl, M., Friman, M., & Strandberg, G.\|date=2014\|title=Historical responsibility for climate change: science and the science-policy interface\|url=http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:liu:diva-104040\|journal=Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Climate Change\|volume=5\|issue=3\|pages=297–316\|doi=10.1002/wcc.270\|s2cid=46996496 }}</ref> and if this debate is slowing the implementation of programs or the legal and political consecration of the debt through treaties.<ref>{{Cite journal\|last=Martinez-Alier\|first=J.\|date=2002\|title=Ecological debt and property rights on carbon sinks and reservoirs\|journal=Capitalism Nature Socialism\|volume=13\|issue=1\|pages=115–119\|doi=10.1080/104557502101245404\|s2cid=154314395}}</ref> Present key debates focus on how is the debt going to be paid back. First, some academia have pushed for financial [[debt cancellation]] rather than being paid for ecological damages and then paying back the country's national financial debt. However, financial debts were not even agree by people (in developing countries especially) in the first place, calling it the unfair "[[Volcker Rule\|Volcker]] debt". Accepting this option could hold the risk of giving legitimize credits to these financial debts.<ref>{{Cite web\|url=http://www.thecritique.com/ojaRg/articles/ecological-debt-versus-financial-debt-in-the-african-context/\|title=Ecological Debt Versus Financial Debt In The African Context\|last=Ngosso\|first=Thierry\|date=2016\|website=The Critique\|access-date=February 27, 2018\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180228181934/http://www.thecritique.com/ojaRg/articles/ecological-debt-versus-financial-debt-in-the-african-context/\|archive-date=February 28, 2018\|url-status=dead}}</ref> A second solution proposed is the [[Basic income guarantee\|Basic Income Guarantee]] (BIG) or the universal basic income. It consists on regular cash payments to everyone in a community (or country) and has proven a certain efficacy in some places around the world (like Namibia).<ref>{{Cite news\|url=http://www.spiegel.de/international/world/a-new-approach-to-aid-how-a-basic-income-program-saved-a-namibian-village-a-642310.html\|title=A New Approach to Aid: How a Basic Income Program Saved a Namibian Village\|last=Krahe\|first=Dialika\|date=2009-08-10\|work=Spiegel Online\|access-date=2018-02-28}}</ref> Another debate addresses the fact that the ecological debt risks “commodifying nature” is exhausting ecosystem services. Researchers have tackled this risk by showing how it will expand the inclination of objectifying, monetizing and ultimately commodifying nature.<ref name=":1" /> Moreover, the language of debt, repayments, credits and so forth is understood in Northern countries mostly, and is mostly focused on recognition of wrongdoing but not payment for loss of services for instance.<ref name=":1" /> == Resources == ===Books=== [https://www.amazon.co.uk/dp/0745324045 Ecological debt: the health of the planet and the wealth of nations], [[Andrew Simms]], Pluto books, 2005 Larkin, Amy (2013). ''Environmental Debt: The Hidden Costs of a Changing Global Economy '' {{ISBN\|9781137278555}} ===Reports=== [https://www.academia.edu/10316481/Ecological_debt._History_meaning_and_relevance_for_environmental_justice Ecological debt. History, meaning and relevance for environmental justice, Warlenius, R. et al., 2015] {{cite journal\|author=J. Timmons Roberts and Bradley C. Parks\|year=2009\|title=Ecologically Unequal Exchange, Ecological Debt, and Climate Justice: The History and Implications of Three Related Ideas for a New Social Movement\|journal=International Journal of Comparative Sociology\|volume=50\|issue=3–4\|pages=381–408\|doi=10.1177/0020715209105147\|s2cid=143911217}} {{cite journal\|author=James Rice\|year=2009\|title= North-South Relations and the Ecological Debt: Asserting a Counter-Hegemonic Discourse\|journal= Critical Sociology \|volume=35\|issue=2\|pages=225–252\|doi=10.1177/0896920508099193\|s2cid=145372698 }} [http://www.ohlj.ca/english/specissues_4312.htmLeading Towards a Level Playing Field, Repaying Ecological Debt, or Making Environmental Space: Three Stories about International Environmental Cooperation, Osgoode Hall Law Journal,2005, VOL 43; NUMB 1/2, pages 137-170]{{Dead link\|date=August 2019 \|bot=InternetArchiveBot \|fix-attempted=yes }} [https://web.archive.org/web/20120425075237/http://www.cdo.ugent.be/publicaties/005.ecodebt_report_presentation.pdf Elaboration of the concept of ecological debt, Centre for Sustainable Development, Ghent University, 2004] [https://web.archive.org/web/20060713033126/http://www.foe-scotland.org.uk/pubs/pubs_index.html Credit Where it's Due: The Ecological Debt Education Project, Friends of the Earth Scotland, 2003] [https://web.archive.org/web/20050120144011/http://www.eldis.org/static/DOC7216.htm Who owes who?: Climate change, debt, equity and survival, Christian Aid, 1999] ==See also== [[Carbon footprint]] [[Carrying capacity]] [[Ecological economics]] [[Ecological footprint]] [[Environmental racism]] [[Green imperialism]] ==References== {{reflist\|30em}} ==External links== [https://web.archive.org/web/20081217234021/http://www.footprintnetwork.org/gfn_sub.php?content=overshoot Global Footprint Network - Ecological Debt Day] * [http://www.neweconomics.org/gen/ecologicaldebt091006.aspx New Economics Foundation - Ecological Debt Day] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20071227101642/http://www.enredeurope.org/principal.htm European Network for the recognition of the Ecological Debt] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20081010001434/http://www.worldsummit2002.org/index.htm?http%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldsummit2002.org%2Fissues%2Fecodebt.htm World Summit on Sustainable Development 2002 - Ecological Debt] {{modelling ecosystems\|expanded=other}} [[Category:Sustainability]] [[Category:Global environmental issues]]
Category:Sustainability by country	{{CatAutoTOC}} [[Category:Sustainability\| Country]] [[Category:Environment by country\| Sustainability]] [[Category:Economies by country\| ]]
Category:Sustainability by continent	{{container cat}} [[Category:Sustainability\| Continent]] [[Category:Environment by continent\| ]] [[Category:Economies by continent\| ]]
Cornucopianism	{{Short description\|Ideological position in futurism}} {{Use mdy dates\|date=August 2021}} '''Cornucopianism''' is the idea that continued progress and provision of material items for mankind can be met by similarly continued advances in technology. It relies on the belief that there is enough matter and energy on the Earth to provide for the population of the world, which appears adequate to give humanity almost unlimited room for growth.{{clarify\|is it unlimited or "almost" unlimited which is another way of saying "limited"\|date=June 2022}} The term comes from the [[cornucopia]], the "horn of plenty" of [[Greek mythology]], which magically supplied its owners with endless food and drinks. Adherents are called "cornucopians" or sometimes "boomsters," in contrast to [[doomer]]s, whose views are more aligned with [[Malthusianism]]."<ref name="Tierney">{{cite news \|last1=Tierney \|first1=John \|title=Betting on the Planet \|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1990/12/02/magazine/betting-on-the-planet-505690.html \|work=The New York Times \|date=2 December 1990 }}</ref> ==Theory== {{Quotation\|"When civilization [population] increases, the available labor again increases. In turn, luxury again increases in correspondence with the increasing profit, and the customs and needs of luxury increase. Crafts are created to obtain luxury products. The value realized from them increases, and, as a result, profits are again multiplied in them. Production there is thriving even more than before. And so it goes with the second and third increase. All the additional labor serves luxury and wealth, in contrast to the original labor that served the necessity of life." — [[Ibn Khaldun]] (1332–1406), from [[Muqaddimah]]<ref>[[Ibn Khaldun]], ''[[Muqaddimah]]'', 2:272-73, quoted in {{cite journal \|last1=Weiss \|first1=Dieter \|title=Ibn Khaldun on Economic Transformation \|journal=International Journal of Middle East Studies \|date=1995 \|volume=27 \|issue=1 \|pages=29–37 \|doi=10.1017/S0020743800061560 \|jstor=176185 }} [30].</ref>}} As a society becomes more wealthy, it also creates a well-developed set of legal rules to produce the conditions of freedom and security that progress requires.{{citation needed\|date=June 2022}} In ''[[Progress and Poverty]]'' written in 1879, after describing the powerful reproductive forces of nature, the political economist [[Henry George]] wrote, "That the earth could maintain a thousand billions of people as easily as a thousand millions is a necessary deduction from the manifest truths that, at least so far as our agency is concerned, matter is eternal and force must forever continue to act."<ref>{{cite book \|last1=George \|first1=Henry \|title=Progress and Poverty, Volumes I and IIAn Inquiry into the Cause of Industrial Depressions and of Increase of Want with Increase of Wealth \|date=1898 \|url=https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/55308 }}{{page needed\|date=July 2022}}</ref> [[Julian Simon]] was one of the best known cornucopian thinkers in modern times who suggested in his book, ''[[The Ultimate Resource]]'', published in 1981, that humans have always found a way in the past to develop and enhance past resources over virtually any roadblock. He suggested that while resources may come and go, the knowledge that can come from a bigger population, and thus more manpower/intellect, humanity would continuously be able to find newer sources of energy. Simon did argue however that in order for humans to seek innovation and new sources of energy, free markets must be present to place value on sources of energy through their price to produce and use. Once the price of a certain resource become too high due to lack of supply, it would encourage new research into alternative sources to seek cheaper energy. <ref>{{Cite book\|title=An Introduction to Human-Environment Geography: local dynamics and global process\|last=Moseley\|first=William\|publisher=Blackwell Publishing\|year=2014\|isbn=978-1-4051-8931-6\|location=\|pages=240-241}}</ref> ==Description by an opposing view== Stereotypically, a cornucopian is someone who posits that there are few intractable natural limits to growth and believes the world can provide a practically limitless abundance of natural resources. The label 'cornucopian' is rarely self-applied, and is most commonly used derogatorily by those who believe that the target is overly optimistic about the resources that will be available in the future.{{citation needed\|date=June 2022}} One common example of this labeling is by those who are skeptical of the view that technology can solve, or overcome, the problem of an [[population growth\|exponentially-increasing human population]]<ref>{{cite web \|url=http://www.globalchange.umich.edu/globalchange2/current/lectures/human_pop/human_pop.html \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110724101452/http://www.globalchange.umich.edu/globalchange2/current/lectures/human_pop/human_pop.html \|archive-date=July 24, 2011 \|title=Population Growth over Human History \|publisher=University of Michigan}}</ref> living off a finite base of natural resources. Cornucopians might counter that human [[population growth]] has slowed dramatically, and not only is currently growing at a linear rate,<ref>{{cite web \|url=https://www.census.gov/ipc/www/idb/worldpop.html \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071017032423/http://www.census.gov/ipc/www/idb/worldpop.html \|url-status=dead \|archive-date=October 17, 2007 \|title=International Data Base (IDB): Total Midyear Population for the World: 1950–2050 \|publisher=U.S. Census Bureau }}</ref> but is projected to peak and start declining in the second half of the 21st century.<ref name="UN">[https://www.un.org/esa/population/publications/longrange2/WorldPop2300final.pdf World population to 2300] United Nations; Department of Economic and Social Affairs, 2004</ref> However, more recent projections have the global population rising to 11 billion by 2100 with continued growth into the next century.<ref>{{cite journal \|last1=Gerland \|first1=Patrick \|last2=Raftery \|first2=Adrian E. \|last3=Ševčíková \|first3=Hana \|last4=Li \|first4=Nan \|last5=Gu \|first5=Danan \|last6=Spoorenberg \|first6=Thomas \|last7=Alkema \|first7=Leontine \|last8=Fosdick \|first8=Bailey K. \|last9=Chunn \|first9=Jennifer \|last10=Lalic \|first10=Nevena \|last11=Bay \|first11=Guiomar \|last12=Buettner \|first12=Thomas \|last13=Heilig \|first13=Gerhard K. \|last14=Wilmoth \|first14=John \|title=World population stabilization unlikely this century \|journal=Science \|date=10 October 2014 \|volume=346 \|issue=6206 \|pages=234–237 \|doi=10.1126/science.1257469 \|pmid=25301627 \|pmc=4230924 \|bibcode=2014Sci...346..234G }}</ref> Furthermore, it always has in the past, even when population was increasing at a far faster rate.{{Citation needed\|date=September 2019}} ==Criticism== Lindsey Grant accuses cornucopians, especially [[Julian Simon]] and [[Herman Kahn]], of making arguments with logical flaws, omissions and oversights and of making assumptions and choosing methodologies that ignore or dismiss the most critical issues.<ref>[https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED228033 The Cornucopian Fallacies. TEF Reports.] by Lindsey Grant</ref> Historian of science [[Naomi Oreskes]] criticized cornucopianism, arguing that while there were technological innovations to increase agricultural productivity for a growing world, "the cornucopian perspective ignores other important facts", such as that "an enormous number of these inventions" such as gains in health and life expectancy, "came into being through government actions", and arguing that "technological progress has not stopped the unfolding climate crisis."<ref>{{cite web \|url=https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/eight-billion-people-in-the-world-is-a-crisis-not-an-achievement/# \|title= Eight Billion People in the World Is a Crisis, Not an Achievement \|last=Oreskes \|first=Naomi \|date=March 1, 2023 \|website=Scientific American \|publisher=Springer Nature \|access-date=April 3, 2023 \|quote=This argument is a retread of a theoretical framework that was named cornucopianism in the 1980s. Cornucopians, led by economist Julian Simon and military strategist Herman Kahn, argued that anxiety over limited natural resources is misguided because human ingenuity can overcome any limits. Let populations grow alongside markets operating under minimal government constraints, and people will invent solutions to whatever problems they face. It's true that technological innovations in the 19th and 20th centuries created more agricultural productivity—enough to feed much of a growing population. But the cornucopian perspective ignores other important facts. For instance, an enormous number of these inventions came into being through government actions. From the canals and railroads of the 19th century to the interstate highways and Internet of the 20th, most large-scale technological achievements have relied, at least in part, on government initiatives and support. Big gains in health and life expectancy stemmed from state investments in scientific research and public health. In the early 21st century the price of renewable solar energy fell dramatically, largely because of state-funded research and policies to help ensure demand. And although much of our population grew healthily in the 20th century, hundreds of millions died in famines, pandemics and wars. Scientists have been warning us about the risks of anthropogenic climate disruption since the 1950s, but technological progress has not stopped the unfolding climate crisis.}}</ref> ==See also== [[Ibn Khaldun]] [[Albert Allen Bartlett]] [[Candide]] [[William R. Catton Jr.]] [[Food security]] [[Jacque Fresco]] [[John McCarthy (computer scientist)\|John McCarthy]] [[Julian Simon]] and [[Simon–Ehrlich wager]] [[Matt Simmons]] [[Ron Arnold]] [[Post-scarcity economy]] [[RethinkX]] ==References== <references /> ==Further reading== * [[William R. Catton]], Jr, "[http://www.zo.utexas.edu/courses/thoc/Denial.source.html The Problem of Denial]" ''Environment & Society'', 1994. * Frank J. Tipler, [http://www.tkpw.net/tcr/volume-03/number-02/v03n02.pdf "There Are No Limits To The Open Society"] ''Critical Rationalist'', Vol. 3, No. 2, September 23, 1998. -- expresses cornucopian views, e.g. "The laws of physics as we presently understand them place no ultimate limits to growth. The wealth of society can grow to become literally infite at the end of time." * Ernest Partridge, "[http://gadfly.igc.org/papers/cornuc.htm Perilous Optimism]", 2007, gadfly.igc.org -- a criticism of Simon and Sagoff; "Prof. Simon's ideas have been universally dismissed by environmental scientists as crackpot, and yet he was something of a hero among libertarians, neo-classical economists, and their political disciples." * [https://www.britannica.com/topic/cornucopian cornucopian], britannica.com * [https://www.britannica.com/explore/savingearth/cornucopian Cornucopian \| Saving Earth], britannica.com * [https://www.encyclopedia.com/food/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/food-future-history Food, Future of: A History], encyclopedia.com * [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/229398647_Neo-Malthusians_and_Cornucopians_put_to_the_test_Global_2000_and_The_Resourceful_Earth_revisited Neo-Malthusians and Cornucopians put to the test: Global 2000 and The Resourceful Earth revisited] by Jonathan Lee Chenoweth and Eran Feitelson, 2005 * [[Wikiversity:History of cornucopian thought]] [[Category:Sustainability]]
Simple living	{{Short description\|Simplified, minimalistic lifestyle}} {{Redirect\|Simple life\|\|Simple Life (disambiguation)}} [[File:Gandhi spinning 1942.jpg\|thumb\|right\|300px\|[[Mahatma Gandhi]] [[Spinning wheel\|spinning yarn]] in 1942. Gandhi believed in a life of simplicity and self-sufficiency.]] '''Simple living''' refers to practices that promote [[simplicity]] in one's lifestyle. Common practices of simple living include reducing the number of possessions one owns, depending less on technology and services, and spending less money.<ref>{{cite book\|url=https://archive.org/details/choosingsimplici0000pier \|url-access=registration \|page=[https://archive.org/details/choosingsimplici0000pier/page/304 304] \|title=Choosing Simplicity\|publisher=Gallagher Press \|author=Linda Breen Pierce\|year=2000\|quote=Rather than being consumed by materialism, we choose to surround ourselves with only those material possessions we truly need or genuinely cherish\|isbn=978-0967206714}}</ref><ref name=Howard>{{cite book\|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AKHxP8xncfcC&pg=PT24 \|title=Quotes about Happiness\|author=Vernon Howard\|quote=You have succeeded in life when all you really want is only what you really need\|author-link=Vernon Howard}}</ref> In addition to such external changes, simple living also reflects a person's mindset and values.<ref>{{cite web \| url=https://www.becomingminimalist.com/encouragement-for-your-first-step-towards-living-with-less/comment-page-1/ \| title=Minimalism: 7 Reasons that Keep People from Getting Started \| date=29 June 2011 }}</ref> Simple living practices can be seen in history, religion, art, and economics. Adherents may choose simple living for a variety of personal reasons, such as [[spirituality]], [[health]], increase in [[quality time]] for family and friends, [[work–life balance]], personal taste, financial sustainability, increase in [[philanthropy]], [[frugality]], [[environmentalism\|environmental sustainability]],<ref name=":0">{{Cite news \|last=Taylor\|first=Matthew\|date=2019-05-22\|title=Much shorter working weeks needed to tackle climate crisis – study\|url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2019/may/22/working-fewer-hours-could-help-tackle-climate-crisis-study \|access-date=2021-11-02\|newspaper=The Guardian\|language=en}}</ref> or reducing [[Stress (biology)\|stress]]. Simple living can also be a reaction to [[economic materialism]] and [[consumer culture]]. Some cite [[sociopolitical]] goals aligned with environmentalist, [[Anti-consumerism\|anti-consumerist]], or [[anti-war movement]]s, including [[Conservation (ethic)\|conservation]], [[degrowth]], [[deep ecology]], and [[tax resistance]].<ref name="NWTRCC">{{cite web\|url=https://nwtrcc.org/war-tax-resistance-resources/pamphlets/practical-war-tax-resistance-5/\|title=Low Income/Simple Living as War Tax Resistance\|date=January 2020 \|publisher=NWTRCC}}</ref> ==History== ===Religious and spiritual=== A number of religious and spiritual traditions encourage simple living.<ref>{{multiref2 \|1={{cite journal\|first=Helena\|last=Echlin\|date=December 2006\|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vekDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA92\|title=Be Happier With Less\|journal=Yoga Journal\|page=92}} \|2={{cite journal\|first=W. Bradford\|last=Swift\|date=July–August 1996\|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fekDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA81\|journal=Yoga Journal\|title=Living Simply in a Complex World\|page=81}} }}</ref> Early examples include the [[Śramaṇa]] traditions of [[Iron Age in India\|Iron Age India]] and biblical [[Nazirite]]s. More formal traditions of simple living stretch back to antiquity, originating with religious and philosophical leaders such as [[Jesus]], [[Laozi\|Lao Tzu]], [[Confucius]], [[Zoroaster\|Zarathustra]], [[The Buddha\|Gautama Buddha]], and [[Muhammad]].{{cn\|reason=Muhammad doesn't seem to have lived a particularly simple life, for example\|date=September 2023}} These traditions were heavily influenced by both national cultures and religious ethics.<ref name="shi">{{cite book\|last=Shi\|first=David\|title=The Simple Life\|publisher=University of Georgia Press\|year=2001}}</ref>{{page needed\|date=September 2023}} Simplicity was one of the primary concepts espoused by Lao Tzu, the founder of [[Taoism]]. This is most embodied in the principles of [[Pu (Taoism)\|Pu]] and [[Ziran]].<ref>{{cite wikisource \|title=Tao Te Ching \|last= \|first=}}</ref>{{full citation needed\|date=September 2023}} Confucius has been quoted numerous times as promoting simple living.<ref>{{cite web \|title=Gain Insight and Awareness With These 47 Confucius Quotes \|url=https://www.thoughtco.com/best-confucius-quotes-2833291 \|website=ThoughtCo \|access-date=7 November 2023 \|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite wikisource \|title=Analects \|last= \|first=}}</ref>{{full citation needed\|date=September 2023}} Gautama Buddha espoused simple living as a central virtue of [[Buddhism]]. The [[Four Noble Truths]] advocate detachment from desire as the path to ending suffering and attaining [[Nirvana (Buddhism)\|Nirvana]].<ref>{{cite wikisource \|title=Dhammapada \|last= \|first=}}</ref>{{full citation needed\|date=September 2023}}<ref>{{cite web \|last1=Mark \|first1=Joshua J. \|title=Four Noble Truths \|url=https://www.worldhistory.org/Four_Noble_Truths/ \|website=World History Encyclopedia \|access-date=7 November 2023 \|language=en}}</ref> [[Jesus]] is said to have lived a simple life. He is said to have encouraged his [[Disciple (Christianity)\|disciples]] "to take nothing for their journey except a staff—no bread, no bag, no money in their belts—but to wear sandals and not put on two tunics".<ref>{{bibleverse\|Mark\|6:8–9\|ESV}}: [[English Standard Version]]</ref> He also told his disciples that they cannot serve God and money at the same time, and explained that God is capable of providing them with the essentials for life (food and clothing), so long as they "seek his kingdom first".<ref>{{bibleverse\|Matthew\|6:24–33\|ESV}}</ref> [[The Apostle Paul]] taught that people should be content with food and clothing, and that the desire to be rich is the cause of many kinds of evils.<ref>{{bibleverse\|1 Timothy\|6:6–10\|ESV}}</ref> Many other notable religious individuals, such as [[Benedict of Nursia]], [[Francis of Assisi]],<ref>{{cite web\|last=Slocock\|first=N.\|date=May 2004\|url=http://www.tssf.org.uk/attachments/article/219/Living_a_Life_of_Simplicity.pdf\|url-status=dead\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110727121313/http://www.tssf.org.uk/attachments/article/219/Living_a_Life_of_Simplicity.pdf\|archive-date=2011-07-27\|title='Living a Life of Simplicity?' A Response to Francis of Assisi by Adrian House}}</ref> [[Leo Tolstoy]], [[Rabindranath Tagore]], [[Albert Schweitzer]], and [[Mahatma Gandhi]], have claimed that spiritual inspiration led them to a simple living lifestyle.<ref name="shi"/>{{page needed\|date=September 2023}} [[File:Preziosi - Derviş cerşetor.jpg\|thumb\|upright\|[[Ottoman Turks\|Ottoman]] [[Dervish]] portrayed by [[Amedeo Preziosi]], 1860s circa, [[Muzeul Naţional de Artă al României]]]] [[Sufism]] in the [[Muslim world]] emerged and grew as a mystical, somewhat hidden tradition in the mainstream [[Sunni Islam\|Sunni]] and [[Shia Islam\|Shia]] [[Islamic schools and branches\|denominations]] of [[Islam]].<ref name="Cook 2015">{{cite encyclopedia \|author-last=Cook \|author-first=David \|author-link=David Cook (historian) \|date=May 2015 \|title=Mysticism in Sufi Islam \|url=https://oxfordre.com/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780199340378.001.0001/acrefore-9780199340378-e-51 \|encyclopedia=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Religion \|location=[[Oxford]] \|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] \|doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780199340378.013.51 \|isbn=9780199340378 \|doi-access= \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181128012740/http://oxfordre.com/religion/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780199340378.001.0001/acrefore-9780199340378-e-51 \|archive-date=28 November 2018 \|url-status=live \|access-date=4 January 2022}}</ref> Sufism grew particularly in the frontier areas of [[Muslim world\|Islamic states]],<ref name="Cook 2015"/><ref name="Findley 2005">{{cite book \|last=Findley \|first=Carter Vaughn \|author-link=Carter V. Findley \|year=2005 \|chapter=Islam and Empire from the Seljuks through the Mongols \|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ToAjDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA56\|chapter-url-access=subscription \|title=The Turks in World History \|location=[[Oxford]] and [[New York City\|New York]] \|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] \|pages=56–66 \|isbn=9780195177268 \|oclc=54529318}}</ref> where the asceticism of its [[fakir]]s and [[dervish]]es appealed to populations already used to the monastic traditions of [[Hinduism]], [[Buddhism]], and [[Christianity]].<ref name=hanson104>{{cite book \|last=Hanson \|first=Eric O. \|title=Religion and Politics in the International System Today \|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Wz4nCOMd8ucC&pg=PA102 \|year=2006 \|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] \|location=[[New York City\|New York]] \|pages=102–104 \|doi=10.1017/CBO9780511616457 \|isbn=978-0-521-85245-6}}</ref><ref>{{multiref2 \|1={{cite book\|author=Shahzad Bashir\|title=Sufi Bodies: Religion and Society in Medieval Islam\|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ArurAgAAQBAJ\|url-access=subscription \|year=2013\|publisher=Columbia University Press\|isbn=978-0-231-14491-9 \|pages=9–11, 58–67 }} \|2={{cite book\|author=Antony Black\|title=The History of Islamic Political Thought: From the Prophet to the Present\|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Hd1vAAAAQBAJ \|url-access=subscription\|year=2011\|publisher=Edinburgh University Press\|isbn=978-0-7486-8878-4 \|pages=241–242}} }}</ref> Sufis were influential and successful in [[Spread of Islam\|spreading Islam]] between the 10th and 19th centuries.<ref name="Cook 2015"/> Some scholars have argued that Sufi Muslim ascetics and mystics played a decisive role in converting the [[Turkic peoples]] to Islam, mainly because of the similarities between the extreme, ascetic Sufis ([[fakir]]s and [[dervish]]es) and the [[Shamanism\|Shamans]] of the [[Tengrism\|traditional Turco-Mongol religion]].<ref name="Findley 2005"/><ref>{{cite journal \|last=Amitai-Preiss \|first=Reuven \|date=January 1999 \|title=Sufis and Shamans: Some Remarks on the Islamization of the Mongols in the Ilkhanate \|journal=Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient \|location=[[Leiden]] \|publisher=[[Brill Publishers]] \|volume=42 \|issue=1 \|pages=27–46 \|doi=10.1163/1568520991445605 \|issn=1568-5209 \|jstor=3632297}}</ref> [[Plain people]] typically belonged to Christian groups that practised lifestyles that excluded forms of [[wealth]] or [[technology]] for religious or philosophical reasons. Such Christian groups include the [[Shakers]], [[Old Order Mennonite\|Mennonites]], [[Amish]], [[Hutterites]], [[Amana Colonies]], [[Bruderhof Communities\|Bruderhof]],<ref>{{multiref2 \|1={{Cite news\|first=Pete\|last=Ascosi\|date=2016-08-25\|url=https://christlife.org/blog/learning-from-the-bruderhof-an-intentional-christian-community\|title=Learning from the Bruderhof: An Intentional Christian Community\|work=ChristLife\|access-date=2017-05-23\|language=en}} \|2={{Cite web\|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/mediacentre/mediapacks/inside-the-bruderhof\|title=Inside The Bruderhofe\|website=BBC Media Centre\|date=2019-07-09\|access-date=2019-07-19}} }}</ref> [[Old German Baptist Brethren]], [[Harmony Society]], and some [[Quakers]]. A Quaker belief called ''[[Testimony of simplicity]]'' states that a person ought to live her or his life simply. Some tropes about complete exclusion of technology in these groups may not be accurate though. The Amish and other groups do use some modern technology, after assessing its impact on the community.<ref>{{multiref2 \|1={{Cite web\|url=https://medium.com/@dallincrump/what-the-amish-are-teaching-me-about-how-to-use-technology-aa8bd1816260\|url-status=dead\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190801091934/https://medium.com/@dallincrump/what-the-amish-are-teaching-me-about-how-to-use-technology-aa8bd1816260\|archive-date=2019-08-01\|title=What the Amish are Teaching Me about How to Use Technology\|last=Crump\|first=Dallin\|date=2018-08-22\|website=Medium\|language=en\|access-date=2019-08-01}} \|2={{Cite web\|last=Novak\|first=Kim\|url=https://metro.co.uk/2019/07/20/unknown-christian-community-in-sussex-lives-without-electricity-possessions-or-debt-10431308/\|title=Unknown Christian community in Sussex lives without electricity or possessions\|date=2019-07-20\|website=Metro\|language=en-US\|access-date=2019-08-01}} }}</ref> The 18th-century [[French Enlightenment]] philosopher [[Jean-Jacques Rousseau]] strongly praised the simple way of life in many of his writings, especially in two books: ''Discourse on the Arts and Sciences'' (1750) and ''Discourse on Inequality'' (1754).<ref>{{cite book\|author-link=Peter Marshall (author)\|last=Marshall\|first=Peter\|title=[[Nature's Web: Rethinking Our Place on Earth]]\|publisher=M.E. Sharpe\|year=1996\|pages=235, 239–244}}</ref> ===Secular and political=== [[Epicureanism]], based on the teachings of the [[Athens]]-based [[philosopher]] [[Epicurus]], flourished from about {{BCE\|the fourth century}} to {{CE\|the third century}}. Epicureanism held that the paradigm of happiness was the untroubled life, which was made possible by carefully considered choices. Epicurus pointed out that troubles entailed by maintaining an extravagant lifestyle tend to outweigh the pleasures of partaking in it. He therefore concluded that what is necessary for happiness, bodily comfort, and life itself should be maintained at minimal cost, while all things beyond what is necessary for these should either be tempered by moderation or completely avoided.<ref>{{cite web\|last=Smith\|first=M.F.\|year=2001\|url=http://www.epicurus.info/etexts/introlucretius.html#III\|url-status=dead\|title=Introduction to Lucretius: On the Nature of Things\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060301142624/http://www.epicurus.info/etexts/introlucretius.html\|website=Epicurus.info\|archive-date=2006-03-01}}</ref> [[File:Thoreau's cabin inside.jpg\|thumb\|left\|Reconstruction of [[Henry David Thoreau]]'s cabin on the shores of [[Walden Pond]]]] [[Henry David Thoreau]], an American [[natural history\|naturalist]] and author, made the classic [[Secularity\|secular]] advocacy of a life of simple and [[sustainable living]] in his book ''[[Walden]]'' (1854). Thoreau conducted a two-year experiment living a plain and simple life on the shores of [[Walden Pond]]. He concluded: "Our life is frittered away by detail. Simplify, simplify, simplify! I say, let your affairs be as two or three, and not a hundred or a thousand; instead of a million count half a dozen, and keep your accounts on your thumb-nail."<ref>{{cite book\|last=Thoreau\|first=Henry David\|title=Walden\|chapter=Where I Lived, and What I Lived For\|chapter-url=https://standardebooks.org/ebooks/henry-david-thoreau/walden/text/where-i-lived-and-what-i-lived-for\|year=1854}}</ref> In Victorian Britain, [[Henry Stephens Salt]], an admirer of Thoreau, popularised the idea of "Simplification, the saner method of living".<ref name=Gould>{{cite book\|first=Peter C.\|last=Gould\|title=Early Green Politics}}</ref>{{rp\|22}} Other British advocates of the simple life included [[Edward Carpenter]], [[William Morris]], and the members of the "[[Fellowship of the New Life]]".{{r\|Gould\|pages=27–28}} Carpenter popularised the phrase the "Simple Life" in his essay ''Simplification of Life'' in his ''England's Ideal'' (1887).<ref>{{cite book\|last=Delany\|first=Paul\|year=1987\|title=The Neo-pagans: Rupert Brooke and the ordeal of youth\|url=https://archive.org/details/neopagansrupertb00dela\|url-access=registration\|publisher=[[Free Press (publisher)\|Free Press]]\|isbn=978-0029082805\|page=10}}</ref> [[Charles Robert Ashbee\|C.R. Ashbee]] and his followers also practised some of these ideas, thus linking simplicity with the [[Arts and Crafts movement]].<ref>{{cite book\|first=Fiona\|last=Maccarthy\|title=The Simple Life: C.R. Ashbee in the Cotswolds\|location=London\|year=1981}}</ref> British novelist [[John Cowper Powys]] advocated the simple life in his 1933 book ''A Philosophy of Solitude''.<ref>{{multiref2 \|1={{cite book\|last=Powys\|first=John Cowper\|title=A Philosophy of Solitude\|location=London\|year=1933}} \|2=See also {{cite book\|author-link=David Goodway\|first=David\|last=Goodway\|title=[[Anarchist Seeds Beneath the Snow]]\|location=Liverpool\|year=2006\|pages=48–49, 174\|postscript=, for Goodway's comparison of Powys' ideas of the Simple Life to Carpenter's.}} }}</ref> [[John Middleton Murry]] and [[Max Plowman]] practised a simple lifestyle at their Adelphi Centre in Essex in the 1930s.<ref>{{cite book\|last=Hardy\|first=Dennis\|title=Utopian England: Community Experiments 1900–1945\|page=42}} Hardy's book details other simple living movements in the U.K. in this period.</ref> Irish poet [[Patrick Kavanagh]] championed a "right simplicity" philosophy based on [[Agrarianism\|ruralism]] in some of his work.<ref>{{cite news\|first=Alan\|last=O'Riordan\|url=https://www.irishtimes.com/culture/books/kavanagh-s-lessons-for-simple-living-1.776937\|title=Kavanagh's Lessons for Simple Living\|publisher=Irish Times\|date=November 23, 2009}}</ref> [[George Lorenzo Noyes]], a [[Natural history\|naturalist]], [[Mineralogy\|mineralogist]], [[Postdevelopment theory\|development critic]], writer, and artist, is known as the Thoreau of Maine. He lived a wilderness lifestyle, advocating through his creative work a simple life and reverence for nature. During the 1920s and 1930s, the [[Southern Agrarians\|Vanderbilt Agrarians]] of the [[Southern United States]] advocated a lifestyle and culture centered upon traditional and sustainable [[agrarianism\|agrarian values]] as opposed to the progressive urban [[Industrial Revolution\|industrialism]] which dominated [[Western culture\|the Western world]] at that time. [[File:Veblen - Theory of the leisure class, 1924 - 5854536.tif\|thumb\|right\|upright\|''[[The Theory of the Leisure Class]]'', 1924]] The Norwegian-American economist and sociologist [[Thorstein Veblen]] warned against the [[conspicuous consumption]] of the [[Economic materialism\|materialistic]] society in his ''[[The Theory of the Leisure Class]]'' (1899); [[Richard Gregg (social philosopher)\|Richard Gregg]] coined the term "voluntary simplicity" in ''The Value of Voluntary Simplicity'' (1936). From the 1920s, a number of modern authors articulated both the theory and practice of living simply, among them [[Gandhism\|Gandhian]] Richard Gregg, economists [[Ralph Borsodi]] and [[Scott Nearing]], anthropologist-poet [[Gary Snyder]], and [[utopia]]n fiction writer [[Ernest Callenbach]]. Economist [[E. F. Schumacher]] argued against the notion that "bigger is better" in ''[[Small Is Beautiful]]'' (1973); and [[Duane Elgin]] continued the promotion of the simple life in ''Voluntary Simplicity'' (1981). The Australian academic [[Ted Trainer]] practices and writes about simplicity, and established The Simplicity Institute<ref>{{Cite web\|url=http://simplicityinstitute.org/ted-trainer\|title=Ted Trainer\|website=Simplicity Institute}}</ref> at Pigface Point, some {{convert\|20\|km\|mi\|abbr=on}} from the [[University of New South Wales]] to which it is attached.<ref>{{Cite web\|url=https://www.unsw.edu.au/arts-design-architecture\|title=Arts, Design & Architecture - UNSW Sydney\|website=UNSW Sites}}</ref> A secular set of nine values was developed with the [https://ethify.org/en/content/values ''Ethify Yourself''] project in [[Austria]], having a simplified life style in mind. In the [[United States]] voluntary simplicity started to garner more public exposure through a movement in the late 1990s around a popular "simplicity" book, ''The Simple Living Guide'' by Janet Luhrs.<ref>{{Cite book\|first=Janet\|last=Luhrs\|title=The Simple Living Guide\|publisher=Harmony\|year=1997\|isbn=978-0553067965}}</ref> Around the same time, [[minimalism]] (a similar movement) started to feature in the public eye. == Changing mindset == Danny Dover, author of ''The Minimalist Mindset'', says implementing and acting on ideas makes those ideas habitual, allowing a change in mindset.<ref>{{Citation\|last=Fox\|first=Danny\|chapter=On Logical Form\|doi=10.1002/9780470758342.ch2\|pages=82–123\|publisher=Blackwell Publishing Ltd\|isbn=978-0470758342 \|title=Minimalist Syntax\|year=2003}}</ref> Leo Babauta believes finding beauty and joy in less is what "more is better" advocates fail to do. [[Minimalism#Minimalist lifestyle\|Minimalists]] prefer quality over quantity.<ref>{{Cite book\|last1=Millburn\|first1=Joshua\|title=Minimalism Essential Essays\|last2=Nicodemus\|first2=Ryan\|publisher=Mins Publishing\|year=2011\|pages=9–12}}</ref> They emphasize that we should value things that make us happy and are essential to us, rather than value the idea of just having things to have.<ref name="auto">{{Cite web\|url=https://tonywideman.com/minimalist+life+guide.pdf\|title=the simple guide to a minimalist life\|last=Babauta\|first=Leo}}</ref> This mindset has spread among many individuals due to the influence of other people living this lifestyle. The benefits of this lifestyle include more freedom, more time, more pleasure, more life value, and a healthier and greener way of life.<ref name="auto"/> ==Practices== ===Reducing consumption, work time, and possessions=== [[File:Portland alternative dwellings workshop.jpg\|thumb\|left\|265x265px\|Living simply in a [[tiny house movement\|small dwelling]]]] Some people practice simple living by reducing their [[Consumption (economics)\|consumption]]. Lowering consumption can reduce individual debt, which allows for greater flexibility and simplicity in one's life. If one spends less on goods or services, one needs to spend less time earning [[money]]. The time saved may be used to pursue other interests, to help others through [[volunteering]], or to improve their [[quality of life]], for example by pursuing creative activities. Developing a [[detachment (philosophy)\|detachment]] from the pursuit of money has led some individuals, such as [[Suelo]] and [[Mark Boyle (Moneyless Man)\|Mark Boyle]], to live with no money at all.<ref>{{multiref2 \|1={{cite news\|last=Osborne \|first=Hilary \|url=https://www.theguardian.com/money/blog/2009/jul/23/daniel-suelo-caveman \|title=Daniel Suelo: Free spirit or freeloader? \|work=The Guardian \|location=UK \|access-date=20 October 2011 \|date=23 July 2009}} \|2={{cite news\|last=Salter \|first=Jessica \|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/earth/greenerliving/7951968/The-man-who-lives-without-money.html \|url-status=dead\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100820084055/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/earth/greenerliving/7951968/The-man-who-lives-without-money.html \|archive-date=20 August 2010 \|title=The man who lives without money \|work=The Telegraph \|location=U.K. \|date=18 August 2010}} }}</ref> People who reduce their expenses can also increase their savings, which can lead to [[financial independence]] and the possibility of [[Retirement#Early retirement\|early retirement]].<ref>{{cite news\|last=Robinson \|first=Nancy \|url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/financialfinesse/2012/08/02/retiring-at-age-50-is-realistic-using-unorthodox-strategies/ \|title=Retiring At Age 50 Is Realistic Using These Unorthodox Strategies \|work=Forbes \|location=U.S. \|access-date=20 August 2012\| date=2 August 2012}}</ref> {{Quote box \|quote = You have succeeded in life when all you really want is only what you really need.<ref name=Howard/> \|source = [[Vernon Howard]] \|width = 22% \|align = right }} The "100 Thing Challenge" is a grassroots movement to whittle down personal possessions to one hundred items, with the aim of de-cluttering and simplifying life.<ref>{{cite news\|url=http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1812048,00.html\|title=How to Live with Just 100 Things\|author=Lisa McClaughlin\|date=June 5, 2008\|publisher=[[Time (magazine)\|Time]]}}</ref> People in the [[tiny house movement]] chose to live in small, mortgage-free, low-impact dwellings, such as [[log cabin]]s or [[beach hut]]s.<ref>{{cite news\|first=Leigh\|last=Paterson\|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/av/magazine-16348594/less-is-more-simple-living-in-small-spaces\|title=Less is more: Simple living in small spaces\|work=BBC News \| date=28 December 2011}}</ref> [[Joshua Becker]] suggests that people who desire to simplify their lives begin by simplifying their homes.<ref>{{Cite book\|title=The Minimalist Home\|last=Becker\|first=Joshua\|publisher=WaterBrook\|year=2018\|pages=3–5}}</ref> ===Increasing self-sufficiency=== [[Image:Forestgarden2.jpg\|thumb\|right\|200px\|[[Robert Hart (horticulturist)\|Robert Hart]]'s [[Forest gardening\|forest garden]] in Shropshire, England, UK]] One way to simplify life is to get [[Back-to-the-land movement\|back-to-the-land]] and grow your own food. Increased [[Self-sustainability\|self-sufficiency]] reduces dependency on money and the broader [[economy]].<ref>{{cite conference \|first1=Khairul Hisyam\|last1= Baharuddin \|first2=Nazatul Syima \|last2=Mohd Nasir \|first3=Fairuz A'dilah\|last3= Rusdi \|date=2022 \|title=Self-Reliance, Simple Living, and Happiness in the Man Who Quit Money \|book-title=Proceeding of International Conference on Ummah \|url=http://myscholar.umk.edu.my/bitstream/123456789/3952/1/eProceeding%20ICU%202022%20khisyam%20and%20others.pdf \|via=My Scholar, Digital Library Repository, Universiti Malaysia Kelantan}}</ref> [[Tom Hodgkinson]] believes the key to a free and simple life is to stop consuming and start producing.<ref>{{cite book\|title=How To Be Free\|author=Tom Hodgkinson\|year=2006\|publisher=Hamish Hamilton \|isbn=978-0241143216}}</ref> Writer and eco-blogger Jennifer Nini left the city to live off-grid, grow food, and "be a part of the solution; not part of the problem."<ref>{{cite web\|last1=Nini\|first1=Jennifer\|title=So You Think You Can Farm?\|date=September 2014\|url=https://ecowarriorprincess.net/2014/09/so-you-think-you-can-farm/\|access-date=1 September 2014}}</ref> [[Forest gardening]], developed by simple living adherent [[Robert Hart (horticulturist)\|Robert Hart]], is a low-maintenance, plant-based food production system based on woodland ecosystems. It incorporates fruit and nut trees, shrubs, herbs, vines, and perennial vegetables.<ref name=Hart>{{cite book\|title=Forest gardening: Cultivating an edible landscape\|first=Robert\|last=Hart\|isbn=978-1603580502\|date=1996-09-01}}</ref>{{rp\|97}} Hart created a model forest garden from a {{convert\|0.12\|acre\|m2}} orchard on his farm at [[Wenlock Edge]] in [[Shropshire]].{{r\|Hart\|page=45}} "[[Food miles]]" is a description of the number of miles a given item of food or its ingredients has travelled between the farm and the table. Simple living advocates use this metric to argue for locally grown food, for example in books like ''[[The 100-Mile Diet]]'' and [[Barbara Kingsolver]]'s ''[[Animal, Vegetable, Miracle\|Animal, Vegetable, Miracle: A Year of Food Life]]''. In each of those cases, the authors devoted a year to reducing their carbon footprint by eating locally.<ref>{{cite news\|last=Taylor\|first=Kate\|date=2007-08-08\|url=https://www.nysun.com/arts/year-i-saved-the-world/60056/\|url-status=dead\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090114072028/https://www.nysun.com/arts/year-i-saved-the-world/60056/\|archive-date=2009-01-14\|title=The Year I Saved The World\|location=New York\|newspaper=The Sun}}</ref> City dwellers can produce home-grown fruit and vegetables in [[Container garden\|pot gardens]] or miniature indoor greenhouses. Tomatoes, lettuce, spinach, Swiss chard, peas, strawberries, and several types of herbs can all thrive in pots. [[Jim Merkel]] says "A person could sprout seeds. They are tasty, incredibly nutritious, and easy to grow... We grow them in wide-mouthed mason jars with a square of nylon window screen screwed under a metal ring".<ref>{{cite book\|last=Merkel\|first=Jim\|title=Radical Simplicity. British Columbia: New Society\|year=2003\|pages=170–171}}{{ISBN?}}</ref> The [[DIY ethic\|do it yourself ethic]] refers to the principle of undertaking necessary tasks oneself rather than having others, who are more skilled or experienced, complete them for you. ===Reconsidering technology=== People who practice simple living have diverse views on the role of technology. The American political activist [[Scott Nearing]] was skeptical about how humanity would use new technology, citing destructive inventions such as [[nuclear weapon]]s.<ref>{{cite book\|author=Scott Nearing\|title=Civilization and Beyond \|page=101 \|year=2006 \|publisher=Echo Library \|isbn=978-1406834970 }}</ref> Those who eschew modern technology are often referred to as [[Luddite]]s or [[neo-Luddism\|neo-Luddites]].<ref name = Luddites>{{cite web\|last=Sale\|first=Kirkpatrick\|date=February 1997\|url=https://mondediplo.com/1997/02/20luddites\|url-access=subscription\|title=America's New Luddites\|website=Le Monde diplomatique}}</ref> Although simple living is often a [[Secularity\|secular]] pursuit, it may still involve reconsidering [[appropriate technology]] as [[Anabaptism\|Anabaptist]] groups such as the [[Amish]] or [[Mennonites]] have done. Technology can make a simple lifestyle within mainstream culture easier and more sustainable. The [[internet]] can reduce an individual's [[carbon footprint]] through [[remote work]] and lower paper usage. Some have calculated their energy consumption to show that one can live simply and in a satisfying way by using much less energy than is typically used in Western countries.<ref>{{cite web\|first=Anil K.\|last=Rajvanshi\|title=How to Live Simply and in a Sustainable Way\|date=2012-05-27\|url=http://www.speakingtree.in/spiritual-blogs/masters/self-improvement/how-to-live-simply-and-in-a-sustainable-way\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131219004528/http://www.speakingtree.in/spiritual-blogs/masters/self-improvement/how-to-live-simply-and-in-a-sustainable-way\|archive-date=2013-12-19}}</ref> Technologies they may embrace include computers, [[photovoltaic system]]s, [[wind turbine]]s, and [[water turbine]]s. Technological interventions that appear to simplify living may actually induce side effects elsewhere or in the future. [[Evgeny Morozov]] warns that tools like the internet can facilitate [[mass surveillance]] and [[political repression]].<ref>{{cite book\|first=Evgeny \|last=Morozov\|title=The Net Delusion: The Dark Side of Internet Freedom \|year=2011 }}</ref> The book ''[[Green Illusions]]'' identifies how wind and solar energy technologies have hidden side effects and can actually increase energy consumption and entrench environmental harms over time.<ref>{{cite book\|last=Zehner\|first=Ozzie\|title=Green Illusions: The Dirty Secrets of Clean Energy and the Future of Environmentalism\|year=2012\|publisher=[[University of Nebraska Press]]\|isbn=978-0803237759}}</ref> The authors of the book ''Techno-Fix'' criticize technological optimists for overlooking the limitations of technology in solving agricultural problems.<ref>{{cite book\|last1=Huesemann\|first1=Michael H.\|first2=Joyce A.\|last2=Huesemann\|year=2011\|title=Technofix: Why Technology Won't Save Us or the Environment\|publisher=New Society Publishers\|location=Gabriola Island, British Columbia, Canada\|isbn=978-0865717046}}</ref> [[Advertising]] is criticised for encouraging a consumerist mentality. Many advocates of simple living agree that cutting out, or cutting down on, [[television]] viewing is a key ingredient in simple living.{{cn\|reason=\|date=September 2023}} ===Simplifying diet=== [[File:Figs, berries and cheese.jpg\|thumb\|Figs, berries, and cheese]] In contrast to diets like vegetarianism, a simplified diet focuses on principles rather than a set of rules. People may use less sophisticated and cheaper ingredients, and eat dishes considered as "comfort food", including home-cooked dishes. Simple diets are usually considered to be "healthy", since they include a significant amount of fruit and vegetables.<ref>{{Cite news \|last=Smith \|first=Katie \|date=February 25, 2009 \|title=Slow economy calls for simple living \|work=Free Lance-Star \|url=https://infoweb.newsbank.com/apps/news/document-view?p=WORLDNEWS&docref=news/126937DCC5E81D90&f=basic}}</ref> A simple diet usually avoids highly processed foods and fast-food eating.<ref>{{Cite news \|date=October 18, 2020 \|title=Women urged for changing culture of extra protein rich, spicy food \|work=Daily Messenger \|location=Pakistan \|url=}}</ref>{{Verify source\|date=September 2023}} Simplicity may also entail taking time to be present while eating, such as by following rituals, avoiding multitasking when eating, and putting time aside to consume food mindfully and gratefully, potentially in the company of others.<ref>{{Cite news \|last=McDonald \|first=Glenn \|title=For us, simple living isn't easy—Author advocates the joy of less stuff \|work=News & Observer \|url=https://infoweb.newsbank.com/apps/news/document-view?p=WORLDNEWS&docref=news/1315CB0B2B616478\|url-access=subscription}}{{when\|date=September 2023}}</ref>{{Verify source\|date=September 2023}} Moreover, it is common to cook one's own food, by following simple recipes that are not particularly time consuming, in an attempt to reduce the amount of energy necessary for cooking.<ref>{{Cite news \|last=Weidner \|first=Johanna \|date=January 8, 2005 \|title=Food helps define life, editor says \|work=Record, The \|location=Kitchner, Ontario, Canada \|url=https://infoweb.newsbank.com/apps/news/document-view?p=WORLDNEWS&docref=news/10AA68B2F82643EB.\|url-access=subscription}}</ref>{{Verify source\|date=September 2023}} A simple diet looks different from person to person and can be adapted to suit individual needs and desires. For instance, in the United Kingdom, the Movement for Compassionate Living was formed by Kathleen and Jack Jannaway in 1984 to spread the message of [[veganism]] and promote simple living and self-reliance as a remedy against the [[Exploitation of natural resources\|exploitation of humans, animals, and the planet]]. ==Politics and activism== {{Globalize\|section\|the [[United States]]\|date=February 2019}} ===Environmentalism=== [[Environmentalism]] is inspired by simple living, as harmony with [[nature]] is intrinsically dependent on a simple lifestyle.{{According to whom\|date=March 2022}} For example, [[Green party\|Green parties]] often advocate simple living as a consequence of their "four pillars" or the "Ten Key Values" of the [[Green Party of the United States]]. This includes, in policy terms, their rejection of [[genetic engineering]] and [[nuclear power]] and other technologies they consider to be hazardous. The [[Green politics\|Greens]]' support for simplicity is based on the reduction in natural resource usage and environmental impact.<ref name=":0" /> This concept is expressed in [[Ernest Callenbach]]'s "green triangle" of [[ecology]], [[frugality]], and health. Some avoid involvement even with [[green politics]] as compromising simplicity, however, and instead advocate forms of [[green anarchism]] that attempt to implement these principles at a smaller scale, e.g. the [[ecovillage]]. [[Deep ecology]], a belief that the world does not exist as a resource to be freely exploited by humans, proposes [[Habitat conservation\|wilderness preservation]], [[human population control]], and simple living.<ref>{{cite book\|title=International Encyclopedia of Environmental Politics\|editor-first1=John\|editor-last1=Barry\|editor-first2=E. Gene\|editor-last2=Frankland\|publisher=Routledge\|year=2002\|page=161\|isbn=978-0415202855}}</ref> ===Anti-war=== [[File:PeacePark.jpg\|thumb\|right\|The [[White House Peace Vigil]], started by simple living adherent [[Ellen Thomas]] in 1981]] If [[economic growth]] leads to [[war]] in the pursuit of control and [[exploitation of natural resources\|exploitation of natural]] and human resources, those who oppose war have an additional reason to consider a simple living lifestyle. [[Anti-war movement\|Opposition to war]] has led [[Pacifism\|peace activists]], such as [[Ammon Hennacy]] and [[Ellen Thomas]], to a form of [[tax resistance]] in which they reduce their income below the [[income tax threshold\|tax threshold]] by taking up a simple living lifestyle.<ref name="NWTRCC"/><ref>{{Cite web\|url=https://sniggle.net/TPL/index5.php?entry=19Mar05\|title=2005 Annual Report on My Tax Resistance • TPL\|first=David M.\|last=Gross\|website=The Picket Line\|date=19 March 2004 }}</ref> These individuals believe that their government is engaged in immoral, unethical, or destructive activities such as war, and that if they were to pay taxes they would fund such activities.<ref name=NWTRCC /> ===Arts=== The term "[[bohemianism]]" describes a tradition of both voluntary and involuntary poverty by [[artist]]s who devote their time to artistic endeavors rather than paid labor. The term was coined by the French bourgeoisie as a way to describe social non-conformists.<ref name=":03">{{Cite web \|first=Elena\|last=Martinique\|date=2023-04-24\|title=Famous Artists of the 20th Century Who Knew How to Live \|url=https://www.widewalls.ch/magazine/famous-artists-bohemians \|access-date=2022-04-03 \|website=Widewalls \|language=en}}</ref> Bohemians sometimes also expressed their unorthodoxy through simplistic art, for instance in the case of Amedeo Modigliani.<ref>{{Cite web \|title=Amedeo Modigliani \|url=https://www.theartstory.org/artist/modigliani-amedeo/ \|access-date=2022-04-03 \|website=The Art Story}}</ref> Minimalistic art inspired "rebel" artistic movements into the 20th century.<ref name=":03" /> Positive attitudes towards living in poverty for the sake of art are becoming less common among [[List of American artists 1900 and after\|young American artists]]. One recent graduate of the [[Rhode Island School of Design]] said "her classmates showed little interest in living in [[garret]]s and eating [[Ramen\|ramen noodles]]."<ref>{{Cite episode \|publisher=NPR \|credits=[[Neda Ulaby]] (Director) \|title=In Pricey Cities, Being A Bohemian Starving Artist Gets Old Fast \|work=All Things Considered \|access-date=2014-05-31 \|date=2014-05-15 \|url=https://www.npr.org/2014/05/15/312779821/in-pricey-cities-being-a-bohemian-starving-artist-gets-old-fast \|series=War On Poverty, 50 Years Later}}</ref> ==Economics== A new economics movement has been building since the [[United Nations Conference on the Human Environment]] in 1972,<ref>{{cite web\|website=United Nations Environment Program\|url=http://www.unep.org/Documents.Multilingual/Default.asp?DocumentID=97\|url-status=dead\|title=Report of the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment\|archive-url=http://webarchive.loc.gov/all/20070411124414/http://www.unep.org/Documents.Multilingual/Default.asp?DocumentID=97 \|archive-date=2007-04-11 \|location=Stockholm\|year=1972\|access-date=March 24, 2008}}</ref> and the publications that year of ''Only One Earth'', ''[[The Limits to Growth]]'', and ''[[A Blueprint for Survival\|Blueprint for Survival]]'', followed by ''[[Small Is Beautiful]]: Economics As If People Mattered'' in 1973.<ref name=Robertson>{{cite book\|last=Robertson\|first=James\|year=1999\|url=http://www.jamesrobertson.com/book/neweconomicsofsustainabledevelopment.pdf\|title=The New Economics of Sustainable Development: A Briefing for Policy Makers\|publisher=Kogan Page \|isbn=0749430931}}</ref>{{page needed\|date=September 2023}} David Wann introduced the idea of "simple prosperity" as it applies to a [[Sustainability\|sustainable]] lifestyle. From his point of view, "it is important to ask ourselves three fundamental questions: what is the point of all our commuting and consuming? What is the economy for? And, finally, why do we seem to be unhappier now than when we began our initial pursuit for rich abundance?"<ref>{{cite book\|last=Wann\|first=David\|title=Simple Prosperity: Finding Real Wealth in a Sustainable Lifestyle\|location=New York\|publisher=St. Martin's Griffin\|year=2007\|isbn=978-0312361419}}</ref>{{page needed\|date=September 2023}} [[James Robertson (activist)\|James Robertson]]'s ''A New Economics of Sustainable Development''<ref name=Robertson /> inspired work of thinkers and activists who participate in his ''Working for a Sane Alternative'' network and program. According to Robertson, the shift to sustainability is likely to require a widespread shift of emphasis from raising incomes to reducing costs. The principles of the new economics, as set out by Robertson, are the following:<ref>{{cite journal \|last1=Ellis \|first1=Howard S. \|title=The State of the "New Economics" \|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1812743 \|journal=The American Economic Review \|access-date=7 November 2023 \|pages=465–477 \|date=1949\|volume=39 \|issue=2 \|jstor=1812743 }}</ref> * systematic [[empowerment]] of people (as opposed to making and keeping them dependent), as the basis for people-centred development * systematic conservation of resources and [[Biophysical environment\|the environment]], as the basis for environmentally [[sustainable development]] * evolution from a "wealth of nations" model of economic life to a one-world model, and from today's inter-national economy to an ecologically sustainable, decentralising, multi-level one-world economic system * restoration of [[Politics\|political]] and [[Ethics\|ethical]] factors to a central place in economic life and thought * respect for [[Qualitative property\|qualitative]] values, not just quantitative values ==See also== {{div col\|colwidth=22em}} * [[Agrarianism]] * ''[[Ahimsa\|Ahiṃsā]]'' (concept in [[Dharmic religion\|Dhārmic religions]]) * [[Anarcho-primitivism]] * [[Anti-consumerism]] * [[Asceticism]] * [[Back-to-the-land movement]] * [[Black Bear Ranch]] * [[Buddha-like mindset]] * [[Buddhist economics]] * [[Buddhist ethics]] * [[Christian anarchism]] * [[Christian pacifism]] * [[Corporate poverty]] * [[Deep ecology]] * [[Paganism]] * [[Degrowth]] * [[Downshifting (lifestyle)\|Downshifting]] (lifestyle) * [[Engaged Buddhism]] * [[Epicureanism]] * [[Eye of a needle]] * [[Gross National Happiness]] * [[Homesteading]] * [[Intentional living]] * [[Jesus and the rich young man]] * [[Marie Kondo]] * [[Off-the-grid]] (lifestyle) * ''[[Pu (Taoism)\|Pu]]'' (concept in [[Taoism]]) * [[Religion and vegetarianism]] [[Buddhist vegetarianism]] [[Christian vegetarianism]] [[Jain vegetarianism]] [[Jewish vegetarianism]] ** [[Taoist diet]] * [[:Category:Simple living advocates\|Simple living advocates]] (category) * [[Slow living]] * [[Sustainable living]] * [[Swedish death cleaning]] * [[Tiny-house movement]] * [[Tribe]] * [[Ziran]] {{div col end}} ==References== {{Reflist\|30em}} == Additional reading == {{refbegin\|30em}} * {{cite book\|author-link=Wendell Berry\|last=Berry\|first=Wendell\|year=1990\|title=What Are People For?\|publisher=North Point Press\|isbn=0865474370}} * {{cite book\|first=Dave\|last=Bruno\|year=2010\|title=The 100 Thing Challenge\|publisher=HarperCollins \|isbn=978-0061787744}} * {{cite book\|first=Amy\|last=Dacyczyn\|year=1998\|title=The Complete Tightwad Gazette: Promoting Thrift as a Viable Alternative Lifestyle\|publisher=Random House Publishing \|isbn=0375752250}} * {{cite book\|first1=John\|last1=de Graaf\|first2=David\|last2=Wann\|author-link3=Thomas Naylor\|first3=Thomas\|last3=Naylor\|year=2002\|title=[[Affluenza: The All-Consuming Epidemic]]\|publisher=Berrett-Koehler Publishers \|isbn=1576751996}} * {{cite book\|last=Delany\|first=Paul\|title=The Neo-pagans: Rupert Brooke and the ordeal of youth\|url=https://archive.org/details/neopagansrupertb00dela\|url-access=registration\|date= 1987\|publisher=[[Free Press (publisher)\|Free Press]]\|isbn=978-0029082805}} * {{cite book\|author-link=Duane Elgin\|last=Elgin\|first=Duane\|orig-year=1981\|year=2010\|title=Voluntary Simplicity\|publisher=Harper\|isbn=978-0061779268}} * {{cite book\|author-link=Vernard Eller\|first=Vernard\|last=Eller\|year=1973\| url=http://www.hccentral.com/eller3/index.html\|title=The Simple Life\|publisher=W. B. Eerdmans Publishing Company \|isbn=0802815375}} * {{cite book\|author-link=Jacob Lund Fisker\|last=Fisker\|first=Jacob Lund\|year=2010\|title=Early Retirement Extreme: A philosophical and practical guide to financial independence\|publisher=CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform \|isbn=978-1453601211}} * {{cite book\|first=Dolly\|last=Freed\|orig-year=1978\|title=Possum Living: How to Live Well Without a Job and with (Almost) No Money\|year=2010\|publisher=Tin House Books \|isbn=978-0982053935}} * {{cite book\|author-link=Marie Kondo\|first=Marie\|last=Kondo\|year=2014\|title=The Life-Changing Magic of Tidying Up\|publisher=Clarkson Potter/Ten Speed \|isbn=978-1607747307}} * {{cite book\|first=Charles\|last=Long\|orig-year=1986\|title=How to Survive Without a Salary: Living the Conserver Lifestyle\|year=1996\|publisher=Warwick \|isbn=1894622375}} * {{cite book\|first=Janet\|last=Luhrs\|year=1997\|title=The Simple Living Guide: A Sourcebook for Less Stressful, More Joyful Living\|publisher=Harmony/Rodale \|isbn=0553067966}} * {{cite book\|first=Stephanie\|last=Mills\|year=2002\|title=Epicurean Simplicity\|publisher=Island Press\|isbn=978-1559636896}} * {{cite book\|author-link1=Helen Nearing\|first1=Helen\|last1=Nearing\|author-link2=Scott Nearing\|first2=Scott\|last2=Nearing\|year=1970\|title=The Good Life: Helen and Scott Nearing's Sixty Years of Self-Sufficient Living\|publisher=Schocken}} * {{cite book\|author-link1=Vicki Robin\|first1=Vicki\|last1=Robin\|first2=Joe\|last2=Dominguez\|year=1992\|title=Your Money or Your Life\|publisher=Viking}}<br />{{cite book\|author-link1=Vicki Robin\|first1=Vicki\|last1=Robin\|first2=Monique\|last2=Tilford\|first3=Mark\|last3=Zaifman\|title=Your Money or Your Life: Revised and Updated for the 21st Century\|publisher=[[Penguin Books]]\|year=2008}} * {{cite book\|first=Edward\|last=Romney\|orig-year=1992\|title=Living Well on Practically Nothing\|year=2001\|publisher=Paladin Press \|isbn=1581602820}} * {{cite book\|first=Deborah\|last=Taylor-Hough\|year=2000\|title=A Simple Choice: A practical guide for saving your time, money and sanity\|publisher=SourceBooks\|isbn=1891400495}} {{refend}} ==External links== {{Commons category-inline\|Simple living}} {{Navboxes \|list= {{Simple living}} {{Anti-war}} {{Global warming\|state=collapsed}} {{Hippies}} {{Peak oil}} {{Sustainability\|state=collapsed}} {{Tax resistance}} {{Veganism and vegetarianism\|state=collapsed}} {{Virtues}} }} {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Simple Living}} [[Category:Simple living\| ]] [[Category:Lifestyle]] [[Category:Lifestyles]] [[Category:Personal finance]] [[Category:Subcultures]] [[Category:Sustainability]] [[Category:Work–life balance]]
Category:Sustainability lists	[[Category:Environment-related lists]] [[Category:Sustainability\| Lists]]
History of environmental pollution	[[File:Dirty father Thames.jpg\|thumb\|"Dirty Father Thames", a satirical depiction of the "[[Great Stink]]", an 1858 pollution event in the [[River Thames]].]]{{Pollution sidebar}} The '''history of environmental pollution''' traces human-dominated [[Ecology\|ecological]] systems from the earliest [[Civilization\|civilizations]] to the present day.<ref>Caradonna, Jeremy L. (2014) ''Sustainability: A History''. Oxford University Press, {{ISBN\|978-0199372409}}</ref> This history is characterized by the increased regional success of a particular [[society]], followed by crises that were either resolved, producing [[sustainability]], or not, leading to decline.<ref>{{cite journal\|author=Beddoea, R.\|author2=Costanzaa, R.\|author3=Farleya, J.\|author4=Garza, E.\|author5=Kent, J.\|author6=Kubiszewski, I.\|author7=Martinez, L.\|author8=McCowen, T.\|author9=Murphy, K.\|author10=Myers, N.\|author11=Ogden, Z.\|year=2009\|title=Overcoming systemic roadblocks to sustainable health\|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences\|volume=106\|issue=28\|pages=E80; author reply E81\|bibcode=2009PNAS..106E..80K\|doi=10.1073/pnas.0902558106\|pmc=2710687\|pmid=19584255\|doi-access=free\|author13=Woodward, J.\|author12=Stapleton, K.}}</ref><ref>[[Ronald Wright\|Wright, R.]] (2004). ''A Short History of Progress''. Toronto: Anansi. {{ISBN\|0-88784-706-4}}.</ref> In early human history, the use of fire and desire for specific foods may have altered the natural composition of plant and animal communities.<ref name=":0">Scholars, R. (2003). Stories from the Stone Age. Beyond Productions in association with S4C and S4C International. Australian Broadcasting Corporation. Retrieved on: 16 April 2009.</ref> Between 8,000 and 12,000 years ago, [[Agrarian community\|agrarian communities]] emerged which depended largely on their [[Natural environment\|environment]] and the creation of a "structure of permanence."<ref name=":1">Clarke, W. C. (1977). "The Structure of Permanence: The Relevance of Self-Subsistence Communities for World Ecosystem Management," in ''Subsistence and Survival: Rural Ecology in the Pacific''. Bayliss-Smith, T. and R. Feachem (eds). London: Academic Press, pp. 363–384. {{doi\|10.1016/B978-0-12-083250-7.50017-0}}. {{ISBN\|978-0-12-083250-7}}.</ref> The Western [[industrial revolution]] of the 18th to 19th centuries tapped into the vast growth potential of the energy in [[fossil fuels]]. [[Coal]] was used to power ever more efficient engines and later to generate electricity. Modern [[sanitation]] systems and advances in medicine protected large populations from disease.<ref>Hilgenkamp, K. (2005). [https://books.google.com/books?id=DuCNxKlDLogC&dq=sanitation+systems+medicine+disease+history&pg=PA41 Environmental Health: Ecological Perspectives]. London: Jones & Bartlett. {{ISBN\|978-0-7637-2377-4}}.</ref> In the mid-20th century, a gathering [[environmental movement]] pointed out that there were environmental costs associated with the many material benefits that were now being enjoyed. In the late 20th century, environmental problems became global in scale.<ref name=":2">D.H. Meadows, D.L. Meadows, J. Randers, and W. Behrens III. (1972). ''[[The Limits to Growth]]''. New York: Universe Books. {{ISBN\|0-87663-165-0}}.</ref><ref name="LPR2008">{{cite web\|title=Living Planet Report\|url=http://www.footprintnetwork.org/en/index.php/GFN/page/living_planet_report/\|url-status=dead\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090327153856/http://footprintnetwork.org/en/index.php/GFN/page/living_planet_report\|archive-date=27 March 2009\|publisher=[[Global Footprint Network]]}}{{cite report\|url=http://assets.panda.org/downloads/living_planet_report_2008.pdf\|title=Living Planet Report 2008\|date=2008\|publisher=[[World Wide Fund for Nature]], [[Zoological Society of London]], Global Footprint Network\|access-date=1 October 2008}}</ref><ref name="millenniumassessment.org">Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (2005). [http://www.millenniumassessment.org/documents/document.354.aspx.pdf ''Ecosystems and Human Well-being: Biodiversity Synthesis.''] World Resources Institute, Washington, DC. Retrieved on: 2009-07-08-01.</ref><ref name=":3">{{cite journal\|author=Turner, G.M.\|year=2008\|title=A comparison of the Limits to Growth with 30 years of reality\|url=http://www.manicore.com/fichiers/Turner_Meadows_vs_historical_data.pdf\|journal=Global Environmental Change\|volume=18\|issue=3\|pages=397–411\|doi=10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2008.05.001}}</ref> The 1973 and 1979 [[Energy crisis\|energy crises]] demonstrated the extent to which the global community had become dependent on non-renewable energy resources. By the 1970s, the ecological footprint of humanity exceeded the carrying capacity of earth, therefore the mode of life of humanity became unsustainable.<ref name="See chapter 3.2.1 - "Global Trends"">{{cite journal\|last1=Lin\|first1=David\|last2=Hanscom\|first2=Laurel\|last3=Murthy\|first3=Adeline\|last4=Galli\|first4=Alessandro\|last5=Evans\|first5=Mikel\|last6=Neill\|first6=Evan\|last7=Serena Mancini\|first7=Maria\|last8=Martindill\|first8=Jon\|last9=Medouar\|first9=Fatime-Zahra\|last10=Huang\|first10=Shiyu\|last11=Wackernagel\|first11=Mathis\|date=17 September 2018\|title=Ecological Footprint Accounting for Countries: Updates and Results of the National Footprint Accounts, 2012–2018\|journal=Resources\|volume=7\|issue=3\|pages=58\|doi=10.3390/resources7030058\|doi-access=free}}</ref> In the 21st century, there is increasing global awareness of the threat posed by global [[climate change]], produced largely by the burning of [[Fossil fuel\|fossil fuels]].<ref name=":4">U.S. Department of Commerce. [http://www.esrl.noaa.gov/research/themes/carbon/ Carbon Cycle Science]. NOAA [[Earth System Research Laboratories]]. Retrieved on: 14 March 2009</ref><ref name=":5">BBC News (August 2008). [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/in_depth/sci_tech/2004/climate_change/default.stm In depth: "Climate Change."] BBC News, UK. Retrieved on: 14 March 2009</ref> Another major threat is [[biodiversity loss]], caused primarily by [[land use]] change. ==Early civilizations== {{See\|Neolithic Revolution}} In early human history, although the [[energy]] and other [[Natural resource\|resource]] demands of nomadic hunter-gatherers were small, the use of fire and desire for specific foods may have altered the natural composition of plant and animal communities.<ref name=":0" /> Between 8,000 and 10,000 years ago, [[agriculture]] emerged in various regions of the world.<ref>Wright, p. 55.</ref> [[Agrarian community\|Agrarian communities]] depended largely on their [[Natural environment\|environment]] and the creation of a "structure of permanence".<ref name=":1" /> Societies outgrowing their local food supply or depleting critical resources either moved on or faced collapse.<ref name=collapse>Diamond, J. (2005).''Collapse: How Societies Choose to Fail or Succeed''. New York: Viking Books. {{ISBN\|1-58663-863-7}}.</ref> [[File:ClaySumerianSickle.jpg\|thumb\|left\|alt=A Sumerian harvester's sickle, 3000 BC, made from baked clay\|[[Sumer]]ian harvester's sickle, 3000 BC, made from baked clay]] Archeological evidence suggests that the first civilizations arose in [[Sumer]], in southern [[Mesopotamia]] (now Iraq) and [[Egypt]], both dating from around 3000 [[BCE]]. By 1000 BCE, civilizations were also established in the Indus Valley, China, Mexico, Peru, and in parts of Europe.<ref>Kramer, S. (1988). ''History Begins at Sumer: Thirty-Nine Firsts in Recorded History.'' University of Pennsylvania Press; 3rd edition (April 1988), pp. 52–55.{{ISBN\|9780812212761}}.</ref><ref>Wright, R., p. 42.</ref> Sumer illustrates issues central to the sustainability of human civilization.<ref name = Wright>Wright, R., pp. 86–116</ref> Sumerian cities practiced intensive, year-round [[history of agriculture\|agriculture]] from {{circa\|5300}} BCE. The surplus of storable food created by this economy allowed the population to settle in one place instead of migrating in search of wild foods and grazing land. It also allowed for a much greater population density. The development of agriculture in Mesopotamia required many labourers to build and maintain its [[irrigation]] system. This, in turn, led to political [[hierarchy]], [[bureaucracy]], and [[religion\|religious]] sanction, along with standing [[Army\|armies]] to protect the emergent civilization. Intensified agriculture allowed for population increase, but also led to [[deforestation]] in upstream areas with resultant flooding and over-irrigation, which raised [[soil salinity]]. While there was a shift from the cultivation of [[wheat]] to the more salt-tolerant [[barley]], yields still diminished. Eventually, decreasing agricultural production and other factors led to the decline of the civilization. From 2100 BC to 1700 BC, it is estimated that the population was reduced by nearly sixty percent.<ref name = Wright/><ref name=Thompson>{{cite journal\|last1=Thompson \|first1=W. R. \|year=2004 \|title=Complexity, Diminishing Marginal Returns and Serial Mesopotamian Fragmentation \|journal=Journal of World Systems Research \|url=http://jwsr.ucr.edu/archive/vol10/number3/pdf/jwsr-v10n3-thompson.pdf \|doi=10.1007/s00268-004-7605-z \|volume=28 \|pages=1187–98 \|access-date= 2009-07-07 \|pmid=15517490 \|last2=Hay \|first2=ID \|issue=12 \|s2cid=23452777 \|url-status=dead \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120219134627/http://jwsr.ucr.edu/archive/vol10/number3/pdf/jwsr-v10n3-thompson.pdf \|archive-date=2012-02-19 }}</ref> Civilizations similarly thought to have eventually fallen because of poor management of resources include the [[Mayans]], [[Anasazi]] and [[Easter Island]]ers, among many others.<ref>[[Jared Diamond\|Diamond, J.]] (2005). ''Guns, Germs, and Steel: The Fates of Human Societies''. New York: W.W. Norton. {{ISBN\|978-0-393-06131-4}}.</ref><ref>Diamond, J. (2005). ''Collapse: How Societies Choose to Fail or Succeed.'' London: Penguin. {{ISBN\|978-0-14-303655-5}}.</ref> In contrast, stable communities of [[Shifting cultivation\|shifting cultivators]] and [[horticulturists]] existed in [[New Guinea]] and [[South America]], and large agrarian communities in [[China]], [[India]] and elsewhere have farmed in the same localities for centuries. Some Polynesian cultures have maintained stable communities for between 1,000 and 3,000 years on small islands with minimal resources using [[rahui]]<ref>Cook Islands National Environment Service. [http://www.environment.org.ck/protected_areas.htm National Parks and Conservation Areas] {{webarchive\|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090805150722/http://www.environment.org.ck/protected_areas.htm \|date=2009-08-05 }}. Retrieved on: 2009-02-24.</ref> and [[kaitiaki]]tanga<ref>Miller, D. N. Tüwharetoa & N. Kahungunu (2005). [http://www.firstfound.org/david%20miller.htm Western and Mäori Values for Sustainable Development]. MWH New Zealand Ltd. Retrieved on: 2009-02-24.</ref> to control human pressure on the environment. In Sri Lanka nature reserves established during the reign of king [[Devanampiyatissa]] and dating back to 307 BC were devoted to sustainability and harmonious living with nature.<ref>{{cite journal \| last1 = Mackee \| first1 = J. \| last2 = Obbard \| first2 = J. \| last3 = Briffett \| first3 = C. \| year = 2001 \| title = Environmental Assessment in Sri Lanka: Its Status and the Potential for the Introduction of Strategic Environmental Assessment \| journal = Journal of Environmental Assessment Policy & Management \| volume = 3 \| issue = 2\| page = 209 \| doi=10.1142/s1464333201000674}}</ref> ==Emergence of industrial societies== {{See\|Fossil fuel}} [[File:Maquina vapor Watt ETSIIM.jpg\|right\|thumb\|alt=A museum display of Watt's steam engine\|A [[Watt steam engine]], the [[steam engine]] fuelled primarily by [[coal]] that propelled the Industrial Revolution in [[United Kingdom\|Britain]] and the world]] Technological advances over several millennia gave humans increasing control over the environment. But it was the Western [[industrial revolution]] of the 18th to 19th centuries that tapped into the vast growth potential of the energy in [[fossil fuels]]. [[Coal]] was used to power ever more efficient engines and later to generate electricity. Modern sanitation systems and advances in medicine protected large populations from disease.<ref name="Hilgenkamp">Hilgenkamp, K. (2005). [https://books.google.com/books?id=DuCNxKlDLogC&dq=sanitation+systems+medicine+disease+history&pg=PA41 Environmental Health: Ecological Perspectives]. London: Jones & Bartlett. {{ISBN\|978-0-7637-2377-4}}.</ref> Such conditions led to a human population explosion and unprecedented industrial, technological and scientific growth that has continued to this day, marking the commencement of a period of global human influence known as the [[Anthropocene]]. From 1650 to 1850, the global population doubled from around 500 million to 1 billion people.<ref>Goudie A. (2005). ''The Human Impact on the Natural Environment.'' 6th ed. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. {{ISBN\|978-1-4051-2704-2}}.</ref> Concerns about the environmental and social impacts of industry were expressed by some [[Age of Enlightenment\|Enlightenment]] political economists and through the [[Romantic movement]] of the 1800s. The Reverend [[Thomas Malthus]], devised catastrophic and [[Malthusian catastrophe#Criticism\|much-criticised theories of "overpopulation"]], while [[John Stuart Mill]] foresaw the desirability of a "stationary state" economy, thus anticipating concerns of the modern discipline of [[ecological economics]].<ref>Martinez-Alier, J. (1987). ''Ecological Economics.'' London: Blackwell. {{ISBN\|978-0-631-15739-7}}.</ref><ref>Schumacher, E. (1973). ''Small Is Beautiful: A Study of Economics as if People Mattered''. London: Blond and Briggs. {{ISBN\|978-0-85634-012-3}}.</ref><ref>Daly, H.E. & Farley, J. (2004). ''Ecological Economics: Principles and Applications''. London: Island Press. {{ISBN\|1-55963-312-3}}.</ref> In the late 19th century [[Eugenius Warming]] was the first botanist to study physiological relations between plants and their environment, heralding the scientific discipline of [[ecology]].<ref>Goodland, R.J. (1975). [https://dx.doi.org/10.2307/3543715 "The tropical origin of ecology: Eugen Warming's jubilee."] ''Oikos'' '''26''': 240–245. Retrieved on: 2009-03-14</ref> {{See\|Hans Carl von Carlowitz}} ==Early 20th century== {{See also\|Environmental movement}} By the 20th century, the industrial revolution had led to an exponential increase in the human consumption of resources. The increase in health, wealth and population was perceived as a simple path of progress.<ref>de Long, B. (2000). "Cornucopia: The Pace of Economic Growth in the Twentieth Century." Working Paper 7602. Cambridge, MA:National Bureau of Economic Research.</ref> However, in the 1930s economists began developing models of [[non-renewable resource]] management (see [[Hotelling's rule]])<ref>{{cite journal \| last1 = Hotelling \| first1 = H \| year = 1931 \| title = The Economics of Exhaustible Resources \| url = http://www.e-elgar.com/shop/isbn/9781852785802\| journal = Journal of Political Economy \| volume = 39 \| issue = 2\| pages = 137–175 \| doi=10.1086/254195\| s2cid = 222432341 }}</ref> and the sustainability of welfare in an economy that uses non-renewable resources ([[Hartwick's rule]]).<ref>{{cite journal \| last1 = Hartwick \| first1 = J \| year = 1977 \| title = Intergenerational Equity and the Investing of Rents from Exhaustible Resources \| journal = American Economic Review \| volume = 66 \| pages = 972–974 }}</ref> [[Ecology]] had now gained general acceptance as a scientific discipline, and many concepts vital to sustainability were being explored. These included: the interconnectedness of all living systems in a single living planetary system, the [[biosphere]]; the importance of [[biogeochemical cycles\|natural cycles]] (of water, nutrients and other chemicals, materials, waste); and the passage of energy through [[trophic level]]s of living systems.<ref>Worster, D (1994) "Nature's economy: a history of ecological ideas". Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. {{ISBN\|0-521-46834-5}}</ref> ==Mid 20th century: environmentalism== {{See also\|Environmentalism\|Environmental science}} Following the deprivations of the great depression and World War II the [[Developed country\|developed world]] entered a new period of escalating growth, a post-1950s "great acceleration ... a surge in the human enterprise that has emphatically stamped humanity as a global geophysical force."<ref>Robin, L. (2008). [http://www-histecon.kings.cam.ac.uk/history-sust/files/Big_Here_and_Long_Now-presentation.pdf "The 'Big Here and the Long Now': agendas for history and sustainability."] {{webarchive\|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090326111311/http://www-histecon.kings.cam.ac.uk/history-sust/files/Big_Here_and_Long_Now-presentation.pdf \|date=2009-03-26 }} Fenner School of Environment and Society, Australian National University/Centre for Historical Research, National Museum of Australia. Retrieved on: 2009-03-16.</ref> A gathering [[environmental movement]] pointed out that there were environmental costs associated with the many material benefits that were now being enjoyed. Innovations in technology (including plastics, synthetic chemicals, nuclear energy) and the increasing use of fossil fuels, were transforming society. Modern industrial agriculture—the "[[Green Revolution]]"—was based on the development of synthetic fertilizers, herbicides and pesticides which had devastating consequences for rural wildlife, as documented by American marine biologist, naturalist and environmentalist [[Rachel Carson]] in ''[[Silent Spring]]'' (1962). In 1956, American geoscientist [[M. King Hubbert\|M. King Hubbert's]] [[peak oil]] theory predicted an inevitable peak of oil production, first in the United States (between 1965 and 1970), then in successive regions of the world—with a global peak expected thereafter.<ref>Grove, N. (1974). [http://www.hubbertpeak.com/hubbert/natgeog.htm "Oil, the Dwindling Treasure."] ''[[National Geographic Society\|National Geographic]].'' Retrieved on: 2009-03-29.</ref> In the 1970s environmentalism's concern with pollution, the population explosion, consumerism and the depletion of finite resources found expression in ''[[Small Is Beautiful]],'' by British economist [[E. F. Schumacher]] in 1973, and ''[[The Limits to Growth]]'' published by the global think tank, the [[Club of Rome]], in 1975. ==Late 20th century== {{See\|Sustainability\|Sustainable development}} Environmental problems were now becoming global in scale.<ref name=":2" /><ref name="LPR2008" /><ref name="millenniumassessment.org" /><ref name=":3" /> The 1973 and 1979 energy crises demonstrated the extent to which the global community had become dependent on a nonrenewable resource; President [[Jimmy Carter\|Carter]] in his State of the Union Address called on Americans to "Conserve energy. Eliminate waste. Make 1980 indeed a year of energy conservation."<ref>Carter, J. (1980). [http://www.jimmycarterlibrary.org/documents/speeches/su80jec.phtml State of the Union Address]. Jimmy Carter Library & Museum, Georgia State University, and the Board of Regents of the University System of Georgia. Retrieved on: 2009-04-05.</ref> While the developed world was considering the problems of unchecked development the developing countries, faced with continued poverty and deprivation, regarded development as essential to raise the living standards of their peoples.<ref>The Group of 77 (1964). [http://www.g77.org/doc/Joint%20Declaration.html Joint Declaration of the 77 Developing Countries]. United Nations Conference on Trade and Development, Geneva, 1964. Retrieved on: 2009-03-31.</ref> In 1980 the [[International Union for Conservation of Nature]] had published its influential ''World Conservation Strategy,''<ref>[[IUCN]]/[[UNEP]]/[[World Wide Fund for Nature\|WWF]] (1991). [http://coombs.anu.edu.au/~vern/caring/caring.html "Caring for the Earth: A Strategy for Sustainable Living."] Gland, Switzerland. Retrieved on: 2009-03-29.</ref> followed in 1982 by its ''[[World Charter for Nature]],''<ref>UN General Assembly (1982). [https://www.un.org/documents/ga/res/37/a37r007.htm World Charter for Nature]. 48th plenary meeting, A/RES/37/7. Retrieved on: 2009-03-30.</ref> which drew attention to the decline of the world's [[ecosystems]]. In 1987 the [[United Nations\|United Nation's]] [[Brundtland Commission\|World Commission on Environment and Development]] (the Brundtland Commission), in its report ''[[Our Common Future]]'' suggested that development was acceptable, but it must be [[sustainable development]] that would meet the needs of the poor while not increasing environmental problems. Humanity's demand on the planet has more than doubled over the past 45 years as a result of population growth and increasing individual consumption. In 1961 almost all countries in the world had more than enough capacity to meet their own demand; by 2005 the situation had changed radically with many countries able to meet their needs only by importing resources from other nations.<ref name="LPR">World Wide Fund for Nature (2008). [http://assets.panda.org/downloads/living_planet_report_2008.pdf ''Living Planet Report 2008'']. Retrieved on: 2009-03-29.</ref> A move toward [[sustainable living]] by increasing public awareness and adoption of [[recycling]], and [[renewable energies]] emerged. The development of renewable sources of energy in the 1970s and '80s, primarily in [[wind turbines]] and [[photovoltaics]] and increased use of [[hydroelectricity]], presented some of the first sustainable alternatives to fossil fuel and [[Nuclear power\|nuclear energy]] generation, the first large-scale solar and wind power plants appearing during the 1980s and '90s.<ref>Southface Energy and Environmental Resource Center. [http://www.southface.org/solar/solar-roadmap/solar_how-to/history-of-solar.htm The history of solar power]. Retrieved on: 2009-04-07.</ref><ref>Dodge, D. [http://www.telosnet.com/wind/ An Illustrated history of wind power development]. TelosNet. Retrieved on: 2009-04-07.</ref> Also at this time many local and state governments in developed countries began to implement small-scale sustainability policies.<ref>International Centre for Sustainable Cities. [http://sustainablecities.net/ "Sustainable Cities."] The international Sustainable Cities program founded in 1993. Retrieved on: 2009-04-07.</ref> ==21st century: global awareness== Through the work of climate scientists in the [[IPCC]] there is increasing global awareness of the threat posed by global [[climate change]], produced largely by the burning of fossil fuels.<ref name=":4" /><ref name=":5" /> In March 2009 the [[Copenhagen Climate Council]], an international team of leading climate scientists, issued a strongly worded statement: "The climate system is already moving beyond the patterns of natural variability within which our society and economy have developed and thrived. These parameters include global mean surface temperature, sea-level rise, ocean and [[ice sheet dynamics]], [[ocean acidification]], and extreme climatic events. There is a significant risk that many of the trends will accelerate, leading to an increasing risk of abrupt or irreversible climatic shifts."<ref>University of Copenhagen (March 2009). [http://climatecongress.ku.dk/newsroom/congress_key_messages/ "Key Messages from the Congress."] {{webarchive\|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090316181631/http://climatecongress.ku.dk/newsroom/congress_key_messages/ \|date=2009-03-16 }} ''Proc. International Scientific Congress on Climate Change.'' Retrieved on: 2009-04-01.</ref> [[Ecological economics]] now seek to bridge the gap between ecology and traditional [[neoclassical economics]]:<ref>Golubiewski, N. & Cleveland, C. (eds.) [http://www.eoearth.org/by/Topic/Ecological%20economics "Problems and Principles of Ecological Economics."] ''The Encyclopedia of Earth,'' Chapter 3. Retrieved on: 2009-04-01.</ref><ref name=EarlyHistory>Costanza R. (2003). [http://www.ecoeco.org/pdf/costanza.pdf "Early History of Ecological Economics and ISEE."] {{Webarchive\|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090207193521/http://www.ecoeco.org/pdf/costanza.pdf \|date=2009-02-07 }} ''Internet Encyclopaedia of Ecological Economics.'' Retrieved on: 2009-04-01</ref> it provides an inclusive and ethical economic model for society. A plethora of new concepts to help implement and measure sustainability are becoming more widely accepted including the [[car-free movement]], [[smart growth]] (more sustainable urban environments), [[life cycle assessment]] (the [[cradle to cradle design\|cradle to cradle]] analysis of resource use and environmental impact over the life cycle of a product or process), [[ecological footprint\|ecological footprint analysis]], [[green building]], [[Dematerialization (products)\|dematerialization]] (increased recycling of materials), [[decarbonisation]] (removing dependence on fossil fuels) and much more.<ref>Blewitt, J. (2008). ''Understanding Sustainable Development''. London: Earthscan. {{ISBN\|978-1-84407-454-9}}.</ref> The work of [[Bina Agarwal]] and [[Vandana Shiva]] amongst many others, has brought some of the cultural wisdom of traditional, sustainable agrarian societies into the academic discourse on sustainability, and also blended that with modern scientific principles.<ref>Ganguly, M. [https://web.archive.org/web/20020823103246/http://www.time.com/time/2002/greencentury/heroes/index_shiva.html "Vandana Shiva: Seeds of Self-Reliance."] Time.com, Heroes for the Green Century. Retrieved on: 2009-04-01.</ref> In 2009 the [[Environmental Protection Agency]] of the United States determined that greenhouse gases "endanger public health and welfare" of the American people by contributing to [[climate change]] and causing more heat waves, droughts and flooding, and threatening food and water supplies.<ref>United States Environmental Protection Agency (April 2009). [http://yosemite.epa.gov/opa/admpress.nsf/0/0EF7DF675805295D8525759B00566924 "EPA Finds Greenhouse Gases Pose Threat to Public Health, Welfare / Proposed Finding Comes in Response to 2007 Supreme Court Ruling."] News Releases by date. Retrieved on: 2009-04-17.</ref> Between the years 2016 and 2018, the United States saw an increase in 5.7% of the annual average fine [[particulate matter]], which aids in quantifying ambient air quality.<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1=Clay \|first1=Karen \|last2=Muller \|first2=Nicholas Z. \|last3=Wang \|first3=Xiao \|date=2021-01-01 \|title=Recent Increases in Air Pollution: Evidence and Implications for Mortality \|url=https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/abs/10.1086/712983 \|journal=Review of Environmental Economics and Policy \|volume=15 \|issue=1 \|pages=154–162 \|doi=10.1086/712983 \|s2cid=233312047 \|issn=1750-6816}}</ref> Rapidly advancing technologies now provide the means to achieve a transition of economies, energy generation, water and waste management, and food production towards sustainable practices using methods of [[systems ecology]] and [[industrial ecology]].<ref>Kay, J. (2002). [http://www.nesh.ca/jameskay/www.fes.uwaterloo.ca/u/jjkay/pubs/IE/ie.pdf Kay, J.J. "On Complexity Theory, Exergy and Industrial Ecology: Some Implications for Construction Ecology."] {{webarchive\|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060106201301/http://www.nesh.ca/jameskay/www.fes.uwaterloo.ca/u/jjkay/pubs/IE/ie.pdf \|date=2006-01-06 }} In: Kibert C., Sendzimir J., Guy, B. (eds.) ''Construction Ecology: Nature as the Basis for Green Buildings,'' pp. 72–107. London: Spon Press. Retrieved on: 2009-04-01.</ref><ref name = Quest>Baksh, B. and Fiksel J. (June 2003) [http://www.resilience.osu.edu/CFR-site/pdf/6-03perspective.pdf "The Quest for Sustainability: Challenges for Process Systems Engineering."] {{Webarchive\|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110720024343/http://www.resilience.osu.edu/CFR-site/pdf/6-03perspective.pdf \|date=2011-07-20 }} ''American Institute Of Chemical Engineers Journal'' '''49'''(6):1355. Retrieved on: 2009-04-04.</ref> ==See also== [[History of sustainable transport]] [[Legacy pollution]] [[Outline of sustainability]] [[Environmental issue]] ==References== {{reflist\|30em}} ==External links== [https://web.archive.org/web/20091125231339/http://archis.org/history-of-sustainability/ The Complex History of Sustainability, a Timeline of Trends, Authors, Projects and Fiction] [https://web.archive.org/web/20100121101206/http://www-histecon.kings.cam.ac.uk/envdoc/sustainability/index.html History and sustainability project led by Paul Warde at the Centre for History and Economics, King's College, Cambridge.] {{Sustainability}} {{DEFAULTSORT:History Of Sustainability}} [[Category:Sustainability\|*]] [[Category:Environmental history\|Sustainability]] [[Category:Pollution]]
Amsterdam Global Conference on Sustainability and Transparency	{{Short description\|2006–2010 conference}} The '''Amsterdam Global Conference on Sustainability and Transparency''' was held for the third time in May 2010. Over the years, the conference has seen the world’s largest gathering of leaders, thinkers and doers in the field of sustainability reporting, with debates being convened on how reporting can be used to help build a better future. Thought leaders from business, finance, government and civil society have been brought together to debate the political, strategic and practical choices confronting the world and expert practitioners have led workshops and interactive sessions to define the building blocks of more effective reporting.<ref>{{cite web \|url=http://www.amsterdamgriconference.org/index.php?id=32 \|title=Amsterdam GRI Conference \|accessdate=2010-02-25 \|url-status=dead \|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100316225737/http://www.amsterdamgriconference.org/index.php?id=32 \|archivedate=2010-03-16 }}</ref> The first Amsterdam Global Conference on Sustainability and Transparency, held by the [[Global Reporting Initiative]] (GRI), took place in October 2006, with over 1,200 participants. In May 2008, the second Amsterdam Global Conference was held. This climate neutral conference brought together over 1,000 participants from 58 countries.<ref>{{cite web \|url=http://www.chinacsrmap.org/E_OrgShow.asp?CCMOrg_ID=1287 \|title=Global Reporting Initiative (GRI)----China CSR Map \|accessdate=2010-03-11 \|url-status=dead \|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110725170436/http://www.chinacsrmap.org/E_OrgShow.asp?CCMOrg_ID=1287 \|archivedate=2011-07-25 }}</ref> The 2010 Amsterdam Global Conference on Sustainability and Transparency was held from 26–28 May 2010 at the Amsterdam RAI Exhibition and Convention Centre in The Netherlands.<ref>http://www.csrnewseurope.com/article.php?articleID=189 {{Dead link\|date=March 2022}}</ref> ==2010 conference themes== * '''Rethink''' Our resource consumption has gone beyond what our planet can sustain, yet billions continue to live in poverty. The world’s population is set to increase massively and more and more people will, understandably, expect to live the lifestyles currently enjoyed by the few. This unsustainable outlook has become a core business issue, requiring companies and governments to rethink the fundamentals. * '''Rebuild''' As we climb out of global recession we have a unique opportunity — and an urgent need — to rebuild our economies to meet the challenges of the future, not the past. We have the opportunity to drive the transition to sustainable practices, where sustainability is at the core of public policy and business strategy, evident in products and processes, and key to [[consumer choice]]s. * '''Report''' Sustainability reporting can be an effective tool for change. Credible disclosures map out current positions and point the way forwards, towards solutions that benefit both business and wider society. Full economic, environmental and social accountability is based on transparent communication. Transparent communication changes perceptions, builds trust, and motivates action towards greater sustainability.<ref>{{cite web \|url=http://www.amsterdamgriconference.org/index.php?id=32 \|title=Amsterdam GRI Conference \|accessdate=2010-02-25 \|url-status=dead \|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100316225737/http://www.amsterdamgriconference.org/index.php?id=32 \|archivedate=2010-03-16 }}</ref> ==2010 conference in review== The third GRI Global Conference on Sustainability and Transparency attracted more participants than ever before and from a greater number of countries. In 2010, 77 countries were represented with over 1200 attendees. Participants enjoyed a diverse range of topics in 60 main hall, parallel, and academic sessions on best practices in ESG disclosure and the future of sustainability reporting. During the Opening Plenary, GRI’s chief executive Ernst Ligteringen outlined two goals for the next decade: # GRI proposes that [[environmental, social, and corporate governance\|environmental, social, and governance]] (ESG) reporting should become a general practice to help markets and society take informed and responsible decisions. GRI advocates that by '''2015''' all large and medium-sized companies in OECD countries and fast-growing emerging economies should be required to report publicly on their ESG performance, or if they don’t, explain why. # GRI proposes that ESG reporting and financial reporting need to converge over the coming decade. GRI advocates that a standard for integrated reporting should be defined, tested and adopted by '''2020'''. In line with this, The Prince’s Accounting for Sustainability Project (A4S) and the Global Reporting Initiative (GRI) announced the formation of the [http://www.integratedreporting.org/ International Integrated Reporting Committee] (IIRC). ==History== Over 1000 participants from more than 50 countries attended each of the first biennial conferences in 2006 and 2008. Of the participants, over 40% came from countries outside of Europe.<ref>{{cite web \|url=http://www.amsterdamgriconference.org/media/documents/conference_brochure_v4_2504.pdf \|title=Archived copy \|accessdate=2010-02-25 \|url-status=dead \|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110903233422/http://www.amsterdamgriconference.org/media/documents/conference_brochure_v4_2504.pdf \|archivedate=2011-09-03 }}</ref> 10% of participants at the previous two conferences were CEO/Board of Director level, and over 30% were vice presidents, senior managers, or heads of departments. Industries represented included automotive, food and beverage, mining and metals, apparel, IT, oil and gas, construction and real estate, media, telecommunications, and logistics. In addition representatives from finance, NGOs, accountancy, government and regulatory bodies attended the previous two conferences.<ref>{{cite web \|url=http://www.amsterdamgriconference.org/index.php?id=36 \|title=Amsterdam GRI Conference \|accessdate=2010-02-25 \|url-status=dead \|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110903233408/http://www.amsterdamgriconference.org/index.php?id=36 \|archivedate=2011-09-03 }}</ref> Conference speaker alumni include: * His Royal Highness [[Willem Alexander, Prince of Orange]], The Netherlands * [[Al Gore]], former United States vice president * Sir [[Mark Moody-Stuart]], chairman Anglo American * [[Kumi Naidoo]], honorary president CIVICUS (now executive director at Greenpeace International) * [[Rajendra K. Pachauri]], chairman Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) * [[Achim Steiner]], executive director United Nations Environmental Programme (UNEP) * [[Margot Wallström]], vice president European Commission * [[Queen Rania of Jordan]]<ref>{{Cite web\|url=http://www.queenrania.jo/media/speeches/global-reporting-initiative-gri-conference-amsterdam-netherlands\|title = Queen Rania's Speech at Global Reporting Initiative Conference 2008 - Amsterdam, Netherlands \| Queen Rania\|date = 8 May 2008}}</ref> ==Organizers== This conference was organized by [[Global Reporting Initiative]] based in Amsterdam, the Netherlands. The [[Global Reporting Initiative]] has pioneered the development of the world’s most widely used sustainability reporting framework and is committed to its continuous improvement and application worldwide. This framework sets out the principles and indicators that organizations can use to measure and report their economic, environmental, and social performance.<ref>{{cite web \|url=http://www.globalreporting.org/AboutGRI/WhatIsGRI/ \|title=GRI Portal - What is GRI? \|accessdate=2010-02-25 \|url-status=dead \|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100225044310/http://www.globalreporting.org/AboutGRI/WhatIsGRI \|archivedate=2010-02-25 }}</ref> <!-- [[:File:GRI logo 1color.png\|thumb\|alt=ALT text\|GRI Logo]] Non free file removed by DASHBot--> ==References== <!--- See [[Wikipedia:Footnotes]] on how to create references using <ref></ref> tags which will then appear here automatically --> {{Reflist}} ==External links== * [http://www.amsterdamgriconference.org/] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20080616060215/http://www.globalreporting.org/Home] * [http://globalblogs.deloitte.com/deloitteperspectives/2010/05/the-global-reporting-initiative-conference-kicks-off.html] * [http://www.triplepundit.com/2010/06/report-from-gri-amsterdam-the-future-of-transparent-sustainability-reporting/] * [http://www.vimeo.com/14029112] ==See also== * [[Integrated reporting]] * [[Socially responsible investing]] *[[Corporate social responsibility]] {{DEFAULTSORT:Amsterdam Global Conference On Sustainability And Transparency}} [[Category:Sustainability]]
Category:Sustainable development	{{Commons category\|Sustainable development}} {{JEL code\|Q01}} {{Cat main\|Sustainable development}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Sustainable Development}} [[Category:Academic disciplines]] [[Category:Economic development]] [[Category:Sustainability\|Development]] [[Category:Social concepts]] {{CatAutoTOC}} {{CatTrack}}
Convergence (sustainability science)	'''Convergence''' in [[sustainability science]]s refers to mechanisms and pathways that lead towards [[sustainability]] with a specific focus on 'Equity within biological planetary limits'. These pathways and mechanisms explicitly advocate equity and recognise the need for redistribution of the Earth's resources in order for human society to operate enduringly within the Earth's biophysical limits. The term was first introduced by [[Phillip A. Sharp]] and [[Robert Langer]] in 2011 in the context of [[biomedical science]]. They called for a problem-solving approach that integrated knowledge from the fields of engineering, the physical sciences, computer science, and the life sciences to find solutions to human problems. The idea has since been applied in areas including [[climate change]], [[environmental health]], [[public health]], [[Systemic bias\|systemic inequities]]. and [[sustainability]].<ref name="McNutt"/><ref name="Sharp">{{cite journal \|last1=Sharp \|first1=Phillip A. \|last2=Langer \|first2=Robert \|title=Promoting Convergence in Biomedical Science \|journal=Science \|date=29 July 2011 \|volume=333 \|issue=6042 \|pages=527 \|doi=10.1126/science.1205008 \|pmid=21798916 \|s2cid=206533715 }}</ref> One strategy is to add “friction” to undesirable practices and make them harder to do, while making the desired practices “frictionless” or easy to do.<ref name="McNutt">{{cite journal \|last1=McNutt \|first1=Marcia K. \|title=Civilization-Saving Science for the Twenty-First Century \|journal=Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences \|date=31 May 2022 \|volume=50 \|issue=1 \|pages=1–12 \|doi=10.1146/annurev-earth-033021-081125 \|s2cid=242005175 \|url=https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-earth-033021-081125 \|access-date=1 June 2022 \|issn=0084-6597\|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name="Wood">{{cite book \|last1=Wood \|first1=Wendy \|title=Good Habits, Bad Habits: The Science of Making Positive Changes That Stick \|date=2021 \|publisher=MacMillan \|location=[S.l.] \|isbn=9781509864768}}</ref> This use of the term 'convergence' harkens from the concept of [[contraction and convergence]] (C&C), taking its core principles of Equity and Survival and applying them beyond the frame of [[greenhouse gas emissions]] to the wider sustainability agenda.<ref name="Häyhä">{{cite journal \|last1=Häyhä \|first1=Tiina \|last2=Lucas \|first2=Paul L. \|last3=van Vuuren \|first3=Detlef P. \|last4=Cornell \|first4=Sarah E. \|last5=Hoff \|first5=Holger \|title=From Planetary Boundaries to national fair shares of the global safe operating space — How can the scales be bridged? \|journal=Global Environmental Change \|date=1 September 2016 \|volume=40 \|pages=60–72 \|doi=10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2016.06.008 \|s2cid=156791692 \|language=en \|issn=0959-3780\|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name="Vadovics">{{cite book \|last1=Vadovics \|first1=E. \|last2=Milton \|first2=S. \|last3=CONVERGE Project Team \|title=Case Studies ('initiatives') Illustrating Contraction and Convergence. Equity within Limits in Theory and Practice. CONVERGE Deliverable 33 \|date=2012 \|publisher=GreenDependent Institute \|location=Hungary \|url=http://www.gci.org.uk/Documents/CONVERGE_ebook_EquityWithinLimits_initiatives_doublepageprint.pdf \|access-date=1 June 2022}}</ref> ==References== {{Reflist}} [[Category:Sustainability]] [[Category:Environmental terminology]] [[Category:Environmental social science concepts]] {{Sustainability-stub}}
Category:Sustainability and environmental management	{{commons category\|Environmental management}} {{cat main\|Sustainability and environmental management}} [[Category:Human impact on the environment\|Management]] [[Category:Management by type]] [[Category:Sustainability\|Management]]
Planetary boundaries	{{Short description\|Limits not to be exceeded if humanity wants to survive in a safe ecosystem}} {{Distinguish\|Planetary boundary layer}} {{Use dmy dates\|date=August 2021}} [[File:PBs2023.png\|thumb\|Visualizations of the Planetary Boundaries; data for September 2023<ref name=":8">{{cite journal \|last1=Richardson \|first1=Katherine \|last2=Steffen \|first2=Will \|last3=Lucht \|first3=Wolfgang \|date=2023 \|title=Earth beyond six of nine planetary boundaries \|journal=[[Science Advances]] \|volume=9 \|issue=37 \|pages=eadh2458 \|doi=10.1126/sciadv.adh2458\|pmid=37703365 \|pmc=10499318 \|bibcode=2023SciA....9H2458R \|s2cid=261742678 }}</ref>]] '''Planetary boundaries''' are a framework to describe limits to the impacts of human activities on the [[Earth system]]. Beyond these limits, the environment may not be able to self-regulate anymore. This would mean the Earth system would leave the period of stability of the [[Holocene]], in which human society developed.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal \|last1=Rockström \|first1=Johan \|last2=Steffen \|first2=Will \|last3=Noone \|first3=Kevin \|last4=Persson \|first4=Åsa \|last5=Chapin \|first5=F. Stuart \|last6=Lambin \|first6=Eric F. \|last7=Lenton \|first7=Timothy M. \|last8=Scheffer \|first8=Marten \|last9=Folke \|first9=Carl \|last10=Schellnhuber \|first10=Hans Joachim \|last11=Nykvist \|first11=Björn \|date=2009 \|title=A safe operating space for humanity \|journal=[[Nature (journal)\|Nature]] \|language=en \|volume=461 \|issue=7263 \|pages=472–475 \|doi=10.1038/461472a \|pmid=19779433 \|bibcode=2009Natur.461..472R \|s2cid=205049746 \|issn=0028-0836\|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name=":5">{{Cite journal \|last1=Rockström \|first1=Johan \|last2=Steffen \|first2=Will \|last3=Noone \|first3=Kevin \|last4=Persson \|first4=Åsa \|last5=Chapin \|first5=F. Stuart III \|last6=Lambin \|first6=Eric \|last7=Lenton \|first7=Timothy M. \|last8=Scheffer \|first8=Marten \|last9=Folke \|first9=Carl \|last10=Schellnhuber \|first10=Hans Joachim \|last11=Nykvist \|first11=Björn \|date=2009 \|title=Planetary Boundaries: Exploring the Safe Operating Space for Humanity \|url=http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol14/iss2/art32/ \|journal=[[Ecology and Society]] \|language=en \|volume=14 \|issue=2 \|pages=art32 \|doi=10.5751/ES-03180-140232 \|s2cid=15182169 \|issn=1708-3087\|doi-access=free \|hdl=10535/5421 \|hdl-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal \|last1=Rockström \|first1=Johan \|last2=Gupta \|first2=Joyeeta \|last3=Qin \|first3=Dahe \|last4=Lade \|first4=Steven J. \|last5=Abrams \|first5=Jesse F. \|last6=Andersen \|first6=Lauren S. \|last7=Armstrong McKay \|first7=David I. \|last8=Bai \|first8=Xuemei \|last9=Bala \|first9=Govindasamy \|last10=Bunn \|first10=Stuart E. \|last11=Ciobanu \|first11=Daniel \|last12=DeClerck \|first12=Fabrice \|last13=Ebi \|first13=Kristie \|last14=Gifford \|first14=Lauren \|last15=Gordon \|first15=Christopher \|last16=Hasan \|first16=Syezlin \|last17=Kanie \|first17=Norichika \|last18=Lenton \|first18=Timothy M. \|last19=Loriani \|first19=Sina \|last20=Liverman \|first20=Diana M. \|last21=Mohamed \|first21=Awaz \|last22=Nakicenovic \|first22=Nebojsa \|last23=Obura \|first23=David \|last24=Ospina \|first24=Daniel \|last25=Prodani \|first25=Klaudia \|last26=Rammelt \|first26=Crelis \|last27=Sakschewski \|first27=Boris \|last28=Scholtens \|first28=Joeri \|last29=Stewart-Koster \|first29=Ben \|last30=Tharammal \|first30=Thejna \|last31=van Vuuren \|first31=Detlef \|last32=Verburg \|first32=Peter H. \|last33=Winkelmann \|first33=Ricarda \|last34=Zimm \|first34=Caroline \|last35=Bennett \|first35=Elena M. \|last36=Bringezu \|first36=Stefan \|last37=Broadgate \|first37=Wendy \|last38=Green \|first38=Pamela A. \|last39=Huang \|first39=Lei \|last40=Jacobson \|first40=Lisa \|last41=Ndehedehe \|first41=Christopher \|last42=Pedde \|first42=Simona \|last43=Rocha \|first43=Juan \|last44=Scheffer \|first44=Marten \|last45=Schulte-Uebbing \|first45=Lena \|last46=de Vries \|first46=Wim \|last47=Xiao \|first47=Cunde \|last48=Xu \|first48=Chi \|last49=Xu \|first49=Xinwu \|last50=Zafra-Calvo \|first50=Noelia \|last51=Zhang \|first51=Xin \|title=Safe and just Earth system boundaries \|journal=[[Nature (journal)\|Nature]] \|date=2023 \|volume=619 \|issue=7968 \|pages=102–111 \|doi=10.1038/s41586-023-06083-8 \|pmid=37258676 \|pmc=10322705 \|bibcode=2023Natur.619..102R \|doi-access=free}}</ref> The framework is based on scientific evidence that human actions, especially those of industrialized societies since the [[Industrial Revolution]], have become the main driver of global environmental change. According to the framework, "transgressing one or more planetary boundaries may be deleterious or even catastrophic due to the risk of crossing thresholds that will trigger non-linear, abrupt environmental change within continental-scale to planetary-scale systems."<ref name=":4" /> The [[Normativity\|normative]] component of the framework is that [[Human history\|human societies]] have been able to thrive under the comparatively stable climatic and ecological conditions of the [[Holocene]]. To the extent that these Earth system process boundaries have not been crossed, they mark the "safe zone" for human societies on the planet.<ref name=":5" /> Proponents of the planetary boundary framework propose returning to this environmental and climatic system; as opposed to human science and technology deliberately creating a more beneficial climate. The concept doesn't address how humans have massively altered ecological conditions to better suit themselves. The climatic and ecological Holocene this framework considers as a "safe zone" doesn't involve massive industrial farming. So this framework begs a reassessment of how to feed modern populations. The concept has since become influential in the international community (e.g. [[United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development]]), including governments at all levels, international organizations, civil society and the scientific community.<ref name=":6" /> The framework consists of nine global change processes. In 2009, according to [[Johan Rockström\|Rockström]] and others, three boundaries were already crossed (biodiversity loss, climate change and nitrogen cycle), while others were in imminent danger of being crossed.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal \|date=2009 \|title=Earth's boundaries? \|journal=[[Nature (journal)\|Nature]] \|language=en \|volume=461 \|issue=7263 \|pages=447–448 \|doi=10.1038/461447b \|pmid=19779405 \|bibcode=2009Natur.461R.447. \|s2cid=29052784 \|issn=0028-0836\|doi-access=free }}</ref> In 2015, several of the scientists in the original group published an update, bringing in new co-authors and new model-based analysis. According to this update, four of the boundaries were crossed: climate change, loss of biosphere integrity, land-system change, altered biogeochemical cycles (phosphorus and nitrogen).<ref name="Cornell2015" /> The scientists also changed the name of the boundary "[[Loss of biodiversity]]" to "Change in biosphere integrity" to emphasize that not only the number of species but also the functioning of the biosphere as a whole is important for Earth system stability. Similarly, the "Chemical pollution" boundary was renamed to "Introduction of novel entities", widening the scope to consider different kinds of human-generated materials that disrupt Earth system processes. In 2022, based on the available literature, the introduction of novel entities was concluded to be the 5th transgressed planetary boundary.<ref name=":0" /> Freshwater change was concluded to be the 6th transgressed planetary boundary in 2023.<ref name=":8" />{{TOC limit\|3}} ==Framework overview and principles== The basic idea of the Planetary Boundaries framework is that maintaining the observed resilience of the Earth system in the [[Holocene]] is a precondition for humanity's pursuit of long-term social and economic development.{{sfn\|Rockström\|28 others\|2009}} The Planetary Boundaries framework contributes to an understanding of global [[sustainability]] because it brings a planetary scale and a long timeframe into focus.<ref name="Cornell2015" /> The framework described nine "planetary life support systems" essential for maintaining a "desired [[Holocene]] state", and attempted to quantify how far seven of these systems had been pushed already.<ref name=":1" /> Boundaries were defined to help define a "safe space for human development", which was an improvement on approaches aiming at minimizing [[Human impact on the environment\|human impacts]] on the planet.{{sfn\|Rockström\|28 others\|2009}} The framework is based on scientific evidence that human actions, especially those of industrialized societies since the [[Industrial Revolution]], have become the main driver of global environmental change. According to the framework, "transgressing one or more planetary boundaries may be deleterious or even catastrophic due to the risk of crossing thresholds that will trigger non-linear, abrupt [[environmental change]] within continental-scale to planetary-scale systems."{{sfn\|Rockström\|28 others\|2009}} The framework consists of nine global change processes. In 2009, two boundaries were already crossed, while others were in imminent danger of being crossed.<ref name=":1" /> Later estimates indicated that three of these boundaries—[[climate change]], [[biodiversity]] loss, and the biogeochemical flow boundary—appear to have been crossed. The scientists outlined how breaching the boundaries increases the threat of functional disruption, even collapse, in Earth's biophysical systems in ways that could be catastrophic for human wellbeing. While they highlighted scientific uncertainty, they indicated that breaching boundaries could "trigger feedbacks that may result in crossing thresholds that drastically reduce the ability to return within safe levels". The boundaries were "rough, first estimates only, surrounded by large uncertainties and knowledge gaps" which interact in complex ways that are not yet well understood.{{sfn\|Rockström\|28 others\|2009}} The planetary boundaries framework lays the groundwork for a shifting approach to governance and management, away from the essentially sectoral analyses of limits to growth aimed at minimizing negative [[Externality\|externalities]], toward the estimation of the safe space for human development. Planetary boundaries demarcate, as it were, the "planetary playing field" for humanity if major [[Human impact on the environment\|human-induced environmental change]] on a global scale is to be avoided.<ref name="Cornell2015" /> === Authors === The authors of this framework was a group of [[Earth system science\|Earth System]] and [[environmental science\|environmental scientists]] in 2009 led by [[Johan Rockström]] from the [[Stockholm Resilience Centre]] and [[Will Steffen]] from the [[Australian National University]]. They collaborated with 26 leading academics, including [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry\|Nobel]] laureate [[Paul Crutzen]], [[Goddard Institute for Space Studies]] climate scientist [[James Hansen]], oceanographer [[Katherine Richardson Christensen\|Katherine Richardson]], geographer [[Diana Liverman]] and the [[German Chancellor]]'s chief climate adviser [[Hans Joachim Schellnhuber]]. Most of the contributing scientists were involved in strategy-setting for the [[Earth System Science Partnership]], the precursor to the international global change research network [[Future Earth]]. The group wanted to define a "safe operating space for humanity" for the wider scientific community, as a precondition for [[sustainable development]]. == Nine boundaries == === Thresholds and tipping points === The 2009 study identified nine planetary boundaries and, drawing on current scientific understanding, the researchers proposed quantifications for seven of them. These are: # climate change ([[Carbon dioxide\|CO<sub>2</sub>]] concentration in the atmosphere < 350 ppm and/or a maximum change of +1 W/m<sup>2</sup> in [[radiative forcing]]); # [[ocean acidification]] (mean surface seawater saturation state with respect to [[aragonite]] ≥ 80% of pre-[[Industrial Revolution\|industrial]] levels); # [[Stratosphere\|stratospheric]] ozone depletion (less than 5% reduction in total atmospheric [[Ozone\|O<sub>3</sub>]] from a pre-industrial level of 290 [[Dobson Unit]]s); # [[Biogeochemical cycle\|biogeochemical]] flows in the [[Nitrogen cycle\|nitrogen (N) cycle]] (limit industrial and agricultural fixation of N<sub>2</sub> to 35 Tg N/yr) and [[Phosphorus cycle\|phosphorus (P) cycle]] (annual P inflow to oceans not to exceed 10 times the natural background [[weathering]] of P); # global freshwater use (< 4000 km<sup>3</sup>/yr of consumptive use of runoff resources); # land system change (< 15% of the ice-free land surface under cropland); # the erosion of biosphere integrity (an annual rate of loss of biological diversity of < 10 extinctions per million species). # [[Pollution\|chemical pollution]] (introduction of novel entities in the environment). For one process in the planetary boundaries framework, the scientists have not specified a global boundary quantification: <ol start="9"> <li>[[Air pollution\|atmospheric aerosol loading]];</li> </ol> The quantification of individual planetary boundaries is based on the observed dynamics of the interacting Earth system processes included in the framework. The control variables were chosen because together they provide an effective way to track the human-caused shift away from Holocene conditions. For some of Earth's dynamic processes, historic data display clear [[Ecological threshold\|thresholds]] between comparatively stable conditions. For example, past [[Ice age\|ice-ages]] show that during peak glacial conditions, the atmospheric concentration of CO<sub>2</sub> was ~180-200 ppm. In interglacial periods (including the Holocene), CO<sub>2</sub> concentration has fluctuated around 280 ppm. To know what [[:File:All%20palaeotemps.svg\|past climate conditions]] were like with an atmosphere with over 350 ppm CO<sub>2</sub>, scientists need to look back about 3 million years. The [[Paleoclimatology\|paleo record]] of climatic, ecological and biogeochemical changes shows that the Earth system has experienced [[Tipping point (climatology)\|tipping points]], when a very small increment for a control variable (like CO<sub>2</sub>) triggers a larger, possibly catastrophic, change in the response variable (global warming) through [[Climate change feedback\|feedbacks]] in the natural Earth System itself. For several of the processes in the planetary boundaries framework, it is difficult to locate individual points that mark the threshold shift away from Holocene-like conditions. This is because the Earth system is complex and the scientific evidence base is still partial and fragmented. Instead, the planetary boundaries framework identifies many Earth system thresholds at multiple scales that will be influenced by increases in the control variables.<ref name=":1" /> Examples include shifts in [[monsoon]] behavior linked to the [[Particulates\|aerosol loading]] and [[Fresh water#Freshwater withdrawal\|freshwater use]] planetary boundaries. {\| class="wikitable" \|+Planetary Boundaries (as defined in 2023)<ref name=":8" /> \|- ! Earth-system<br />process !! Control variable<ref name=":8" />!! Boundary<br />value in 2023 !! "Current" value <br />(i.e. for the year provided in the source) ! Boundary now<br />exceeded beyond the 2023 values? (based on "current" value) !! Preindustrial Holocene base value \|- \| rowspan="2" \| 1. [[Global warming\|Climate change]] \|\| [[Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere\|Atmospheric carbon dioxide]] concentration ([[Parts per million\|ppm]] by volume)<ref>[http://www.esrl.noaa.gov/gmd/ccgg/trends/ Recent Mauna Loa CO2] {{Webarchive\|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181225142754/https://www.esrl.noaa.gov/gmd/ccgg/trends/ \|date=25 December 2018 }} [[Earth System Research Laboratories]], ''[[NOAA]] Research''.</ref> {{See also\|Tipping point (climatology)}} \|\| style="text-align:center;" \|350 \|\| style="text-align:center;" \|417<ref name="igcc2022">Forster, P. M. et al. (2023). Indicators of Global Climate Change 2022: Annual update of large-scale indicators of the state of the climate system and the human influence. Earth Syst. Sci. Data 15, 2295–2327.</ref> \|\| style="background:#ffaaaa;text-align:center;" \|yes \|\| style="text-align:center;" \|280 \|- \| Total anthropogenic [[radiative forcing]] at top-of-atmosphere (W/m<sup>2</sup>) since the start of the industrial revolution (~1750) \|\| style="text-align:center;" \|1.0 \|\| style="text-align:center;" \|2.91<ref name="igcc2022" />\|\| style="background:#ffaaaa;text-align:center;" \|yes \|\| style="text-align:center;" \|0 \|- \| rowspan="2" \| 2. [[Biodiversity loss\|Change in biosphere integrity]]<ref name=":8" />\|\| ''Genetic diversity:'' Extinction rate measured as E/MSY ([[extinction]]s per million species-years) \|\| style="text-align:center;" \|<10 E/MSY but with an aspirational goal of ca. 1 E/MSY (assumed background rate of extinction loss) \|\| style="text-align:center;" \|>100 E/MSY\|\| style="background:#ffaaaa;text-align:center;" \|yes \|\| style="text-align:center;" \|1 E/MSY \|- \|\| ''Functional diversity:'' energy available to ecosystems (NPP) (% HANPP)\|\| style="text-align:center;" \|HANPP (in billion tonnes of C year−1) <10% of preindustrial Holocene NPP, i.e., >90% remaining for supporting biosphere function\|\| style="text-align:center;" \|30% HANPP\|\| style="background:#ffaaaa;text-align:center;" \|yes \|\| style="text-align:center;" \|1.9% (2σ variability of preindustrial Holocene century-mean NPP) \|- \| rowspan="2" \| 3. [[Biogeochemical]] \|\| Phosphate global: P flow from freshwater systems into the ocean; regional: P flow from fertilizers to erodible soils (Tg of P year<sup>−1</sup>)\|\| style="text-align:center;" \|''Phosphate global'': 11 Tg of P year<sup>−1</sup>; ''regional'': 6.2 Tg of P year<sup>−1</sup> mined and applied to erodible (agricultural) soils.\|\| style="text-align:center;" \|''Global'': 22 Tg of P year<sup>−1</sup>;<ref>Carpenter, S. R., & Bennett, E. M. (2011). Reconsideration of the planetary boundary for phosphorus. Environmental Research Letters, 6(1), 014009. DOI:10.1088/1748-9326/6/1/014009</ref> ''regional'': 17.5 Tg of P year<sup>−1</sup> \|\| style="background:#ffaaaa;text-align:center;" \|yes \|\| style="text-align:center;" \|0 \|- \| Nitrogen global: industrial and intentional fixation of N (Tg of N year<sup>−1</sup>)\|\| style="text-align:center;" \|62 \|\| style="text-align:center;" \|190\|\| style="background:#ffaaaa;text-align:center;" \|yes \|\| style="text-align:center;" \|0 \|- \| 4. [[Ocean acidification]] \|\| Global mean saturation state of [[calcium carbonate]] in surface seawater (omega units) \|\|style="text-align:center;" \|2.75 \|\| style="text-align:center;" \|2.8 \|\| style="background:#aaddaa;text-align:center;" \|no \|\| style="text-align:center;" \|3.44 \|- \| 5. [[Land use]] \|\| Part of forests rested intact (percent)<ref name="Cornell2015" /> \|\| style="text-align:center;" \|75 from all forests including 85 from [[Boreal forest]], 50 from [[Temperate forest]]s and 85 from [[Tropical forest]]s<ref name="Cornell2015" /> \|\| style="text-align:center;" \|''Global'': 60<ref name="Cornell2015" /> \|\| style="background:#ffaaaa;text-align:center;" \|yes \|\| style="text-align:center;" \|100 \|- \| rowspan="2" \| 6. [[Water scarcity\|Freshwater change]] \|\| Blue water: human induced disturbance of blue water flow\|\| style="text-align:center;" \|Upper limit (95th percentile) of global land area with deviations greater than during preindustrial, Blue water: 10.2%\|\| style="text-align:center;" \|18.2% \|\| style="background:#ffaaaa;text-align:center;" \|yes \|\| style="text-align:center;" \|9.4% \|- \| Green water: human induced disturbance of water available to plants (% land area with deviations from preindustrial variability)\|\| style="text-align:center;" \|11.1% \|\| style="text-align:center;" \|15.8%\|\| style="background:#ffaaaa;text-align:center;" \|yes \|\| style="text-align:center;" \|9.8% \|- \| 7. [[Ozone depletion]] \|\| [[Ozone#Ozone in Earth's atmosphere\|Stratospheric ozone]] concentration ([[Dobson unit]]s) \|\| style="text-align:center;" \|276 \|\| style="text-align:center;" \|284.6 \|\| style="background:#aaddaa;text-align:center;" \|no \|\| style="text-align:center;" \|290 \|- \| 8. [[Aerosol\|Atmospheric aerosols]] \|\| Interhemispheric difference in AOD\|\| style="text-align:center;" \|0.1 (mean annual interhemispheric difference) \|\| style="text-align:center;" \|0.076 \|\| style="background:#aaddaa;text-align:center;" \|no \|\| style="text-align:center;" \|0.03 \|- \| 9. [[Pollution\|Novel entities]] \|\| Percentage of synthetic chemicals released to the environment without adequate safety testing \|\| style="text-align:center;" \|0 \|\| style="text-align:center;" \|Transgressed \|\| style="background:#ffaaaa;text-align:center;" \|yes \|\| style="text-align:center;" \|0 \|} === "Safe operating spaces" === The planetary boundaries framework proposes a range of values for its control variables. This range is supposed to span the threshold between a 'safe operating space' where Holocene-like dynamics can be maintained and a highly uncertain, poorly predictable world where Earth system changes likely increase risks to societies. The ''boundary'' is defined as the lower end of that range. If the boundaries are persistently crossed, the world goes further into a danger zone.<ref name=":1" /> It is difficult to restore a 'safe operating space' for humanity that is described by the planetary boundary concept. Even if past biophysical changes could be mitigated, the predominant paradigms of social and economic development appear largely indifferent to the looming possibilities of large scale environmental disasters triggered by human actions.{{sfn\|Rockström\|28 others\|2009}}{{sfn\|Stern\|2007}} Legal boundaries can help keep human activities in check, but are only as effective as the political will to make and enforce them.<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1=Chapron \|first1=Guillaume \|last2=Epstein \|first2=Yaffa \|last3=Trouwborst \|first3=Arie \|last4=López-Bao \|first4=José Vicente \|date=February 2017 \|title=Bolster legal boundaries to stay within planetary boundaries \|journal=Nature Ecology & Evolution \|volume=1 \|issue=3 \|pages=0086 \|doi=10.1038/s41559-017-0086 \|pmid=28812716 \|bibcode=2017NatEE...1...86C \|s2cid=31914128}}</ref> === Interaction among boundaries === Understanding the Earth system is fundamentally about understanding interactions among environmental change processes. The planetary boundaries are defined with reference to dynamic conditions of the Earth system, but scientific discussions about how different planetary boundaries relate to each other are often philosophically and analytically muddled. Clearer definitions of the basic concepts and terms might help give clarity. There are many many interactions among the processes in the planetary boundaries framework.<ref name="Cornell2015">{{Cite journal \|last1=Steffen \|first1=Will \|last2=Richardson \|first2=Katherine \|last3=Rockström \|first3=Johan \|last4=Cornell \|first4=Sarah E. \|last5=Fetzer \|first5=Ingo \|last6=Bennett \|first6=Elena M. \|last7=Biggs \|first7=Reinette \|last8=Carpenter \|first8=Stephen R. \|last9=de Vries \|first9=Wim \|last10=de Wit \|first10=Cynthia A. \|last11=Folke \|first11=Carl \|date=2015 \|title=Planetary boundaries: Guiding human development on a changing planet \|url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.1259855 \|journal=[[Science (journal)\|Science]] \|language=en \|volume=347 \|issue=6223 \|pages=1259855 \|doi=10.1126/science.1259855 \|pmid=25592418 \|hdl=1885/13126 \|s2cid=206561765 \|issn=0036-8075\|hdl-access=free }}</ref><ref name=":5" /> While these interactions can create both stabilizing and destabilizing feedbacks in the Earth system, the authors suggested that a transgressed planetary boundary will reduce the safe operating space for other processes in the framework rather than expand it from the proposed boundary levels.<ref name=":5" /> They give the example that the [[land use]] boundary could "shift downward" if the freshwater boundary is breached, causing lands to become arid and unavailable for agriculture. At a regional level, water resources may decline in Asia if [[deforestation]] continues in the [[Amazon Rainforest\|Amazon]]. That way of framing the interactions shifts from the framework's biophysical definition of boundaries based on Holocene-like conditions to an anthropocentric definition (demand for agricultural land). Despite this conceptual slippage, considerations of known Earth system interactions across scales suggest the need for "extreme caution in approaching or transgressing any individual planetary boundaries."<ref name=":5" /> Another example has to do with [[coral reef]]s and [[marine ecosystem]]s: In 2009, researchers showed that, since 1990, calcification in the reefs of the [[Great Barrier Reef\|Great Barrier]] that they examined decreased at a rate unprecedented over the last 400 years (14% in less than 20 years).<ref name="Fabricius">{{citation \|last1=De'Ath \|first1=G. \|title=Declining Coral Calcification on the Great Barrier Reef \|date=2009 \|url=http://ibl.colorado.edu/De%27ath%20et%20al.pdf \|journal=[[Science (journal)\|Science]] \|volume=323 \|issue=5910 \|pages=116–119 \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110912130651/http://ibl.colorado.edu/De%27ath%20et%20al.pdf \|bibcode=2009Sci...323..116D \|doi=10.1126/science.1165283 \|pmid=19119230 \|access-date=4 July 2011 \|archive-date=12 September 2011 \|last2=Lough \|first2=J. M. \|last3=Fabricius \|first3=K. E. \|s2cid=206515977 \|url-status=live}}</ref> Their evidence suggests that the increasing temperature stress and the declining ocean saturation state of [[aragonite]] is making it difficult for reef corals to deposit calcium carbonate. Multiple stressors, such as increased nutrient loads and [[fishing pressure]], moves corals into less desirable ecosystem states.<ref name="Bellwood">{{citation \|last1=Bellwood \|first1=D. R. \|title=Confronting the coral reef crisis \|url=http://www.wsu.edu/~dybdahl/Bellwood.pdf \|journal=Nature \|volume=429 \|issue=6994 \|pages=827–833 \|year=2004 \|bibcode=2004Natur.429..827B \|doi=10.1038/nature02691 \|pmid=15215854 \|ref=CITEREFBellwoodothers2004 \|last2=Hughes \|first2=T. P. \|last3=Folke \|first3=C. \|last4=Nyström \|first4=M. \|s2cid=404163}}</ref> Ocean acidification will significantly change the distribution and abundance of a whole range of marine life, particularly species "that build skeletons, shells, and tests of biogenic calcium carbonate. Increasing temperatures, surface [[UV radiation]] levels and ocean acidity all stress marine [[Biota (ecology)\|biota]], and the combination of these stresses may well cause perturbations in the abundance and diversity of marine biological systems that go well beyond the effects of a single stressor acting alone."<ref name="Guinotte">{{citation \|last1=Guinotte \|first1=J. M. \|title=Ocean Acidification and Its Potential Effects on Marine Ecosystems \|date=2008 \|url=http://www.bio.mq.edu.au/~jmadin/docs/paper.pdf \|journal=Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences \|volume=1134 \|issue=1 \|pages=320–342 \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110928000038/http://www.bio.mq.edu.au/~jmadin/docs/paper.pdf \|bibcode=2008NYASA1134..320G \|doi=10.1196/annals.1439.013 \|pmid=18566099 \|access-date=4 July 2011 \|archive-date=28 September 2011 \|last2=Fabry \|first2=V. J. \|s2cid=15009920 \|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>Rockström, J. et al. 2009. Planetary Boundaries: "Exploring the Safe Operating Space for Humanity". ''Ecology and Society'' '''14'''(2):32. https://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol14/iss2/art32/ Supplement 1: https://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol14/iss2/art32/appendix1.pdf</ref> ===Proposed new or expanded boundaries since 2012=== In 2012, [[Steven Running]] suggested a tenth boundary, the annual net global [[primary production]] of all [[terrestrial plant]]s, as an easily determinable measure integrating many variables that will give "a clear signal about the health of ecosystems".<ref> {{cite journal \|last1=Running \|first1=Steven W. \|author-link=Steven W. Running \|date=2012 \|title=A Measurable Planetary Boundary for the Biosphere \|journal=Science \|volume=337 \|issue=6101 \|pages=1458–1459 \|bibcode=2012Sci...337.1458R \|doi=10.1126/science.1227620 \|pmid=22997311 \|s2cid=128815842}}</ref><ref>[http://green.blogs.nytimes.com/2012/09/20/has-plant-life-reached-its-limits/ Has Plant Life Reached Its Limits?] {{Webarchive\|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191001025602/https://green.blogs.nytimes.com/2012/09/20/has-plant-life-reached-its-limits/\|date=1 October 2019}} ''New York Times'', 20 September 2012.</ref><ref>[http://www.scidev.net/en/agriculture-and-environment/planet-under-pressure-2012-2/news/biomass-should-be-tenth-tipping-point-researcher-says-1.html Biomass should be tenth tipping point, researcher says] {{Webarchive\|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120414202208/http://www.scidev.net/en/agriculture-and-environment/planet-under-pressure-2012-2/news/biomass-should-be-tenth-tipping-point-researcher-says-1.html\|date=14 April 2012}} ''SciDev.Net'', 27 March 2012.</ref> In 2015, a second paper was published in ''[[Science (journal)\|Science]]'' to update the Planetary Boundaries concept.<ref name="Cornell2015" /> The update concluded four boundaries had now been transgressed: climate, biodiversity, land use and biogeochemical cycles. The 2015 paper emphasized interactions of the nine boundaries and identified climate change and [[loss of biodiversity]] integrity as 'core boundaries' of central importance to the framework because the interactions of climate and the biosphere are what scientifically defines Earth system conditions.<ref name="Frank" /> In 2017, some authors argued that marine systems are underrepresented in the framework. Their proposed remedy was to include the [[seabed]] as a component of the earth surface change boundary. They also wrote that the framework should account for "changes in vertical mixing and [[Effects of climate change on oceans#Changing ocean currents\|ocean circulation patterns]]".<ref name="Frank" /> Subsequent work on planetary boundaries begins to relate these thresholds at the regional scale.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal \|last1=Steffen \|first1=Will \|last2=Rockström \|first2=Johan \|last3=Richardson \|first3=Katherine \|last4=Lenton \|first4=Timothy M. \|last5=Folke \|first5=Carl \|last6=Liverman \|first6=Diana \|last7=Summerhayes \|first7=Colin P. \|last8=Barnosky \|first8=Anthony D. \|last9=Cornell \|first9=Sarah E. \|last10=Crucifix \|first10=Michel \|last11=Donges \|first11=Jonathan F. \|date=2018-08-14 \|title=Trajectories of the Earth System in the Anthropocene \|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences \|language=en \|volume=115 \|issue=33 \|pages=8252–8259 \|doi=10.1073/pnas.1810141115 \|issn=0027-8424 \|pmc=6099852 \|pmid=30082409\|bibcode=2018PNAS..115.8252S \|doi-access=free }}</ref> === Debate and further research per boundary === {{See also\|List of environmental issues}} ==== Climate change ==== {{See also\|Effects of climate change}} A 2018 study calls into question the adequacy of efforts to limit warming to 2 °C above pre-industrial temperatures, as set out in the [[Paris Agreement]].<ref name=":2" /> The scientists raise the possibility that even if [[greenhouse gas emissions]] are [[Climate change mitigation\|substantially reduced]] to limit warming to 2 °C, that might exceed the "threshold" at which self-reinforcing [[climate feedbacks]] add additional warming until the [[Climate\|climate system]] stabilizes in a [[Climate state#Hothouse\|hothouse climate state]]. This would make parts of the world uninhabitable for people, raise sea levels by up to 60 metres (200 ft), and raise temperatures by 4–5 °C (7.2–9.0 °F) to levels that are higher than any [[interglacial]] period in the past 1.2 million years.<ref name=":3">{{cite web \|last=Watts \|first=Jonathan \|date=2018-08-07 \|title=Domino-effect of climate events could push Earth into a 'hothouse' state \|url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2018/aug/06/domino-effect-of-climate-events-could-push-earth-into-a-hothouse-state \|url-status=live \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191015132136/https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2018/aug/06/domino-effect-of-climate-events-could-push-earth-into-a-hothouse-state \|archive-date=15 October 2019 \|access-date=2018-08-08 \|work=The Guardian}}</ref> ==== Change in biosphere integrity ==== {{See also\|Biodiversity loss\|Deforestation\|Decline in insect populations\|Holocene extinction}} According to the biologist [[Cristián Samper]], a "boundary that expresses the probability of families of species disappearing over time would better reflect our potential impacts on the future of life on Earth."{{sfn\|Samper\|2009}} The biodiversity boundary has also been criticized for framing biodiversity solely in terms of the extinction rate. The global extinction rate has been highly variable over the Earth's history, and thus using it as the only biodiversity variable can be of limited usefulness.<ref name="Frank" /> ==== Nitrogen and phosphorus ==== The biogeochemist [[William H. Schlesinger\|William Schlesinger]] thinks waiting until we near some suggested limit for nitrogen deposition and other pollutions will just permit us to continue to a point where it is too late. He says the boundary suggested for phosphorus is not sustainable, and would exhaust the known phosphorus reserves in less than 200 years.<ref name="Schlesinger 2009" /> The [[ocean chemist]] Peter Brewer queries whether it is "truly useful to create a list of environmental limits without serious plans for how they may be achieved ... they may become just another stick to beat citizens with. Disruption of the global nitrogen cycle is one clear example: it is likely that a large fraction of people on Earth would not be alive today without the artificial production of fertilizer. How can such ethical and economic issues be matched with a simple call to set limits? ... food is not optional."<ref name="Brewer 2009">{{Harvnb\|Brewer\|2009}}.</ref> [[Peak phosphorus]] is a concept to describe the point in time at which the maximum global [[phosphorus]] production rate is reached. Phosphorus is a scarce finite resource on earth and means of production other than mining are unavailable because of its non-gaseous environmental cycle.{{sfn\|Neset\|Cordell\|2011\|p=2}} According to some researchers, Earth's phosphorus reserves are expected to be completely depleted in 50–100 years and peak phosphorus to be reached by approximately 2030.{{sfn\|Cordell\|Drangert\|White\|2009\|p=292}}{{sfn\|Lewis\|2008\|p=1}} ==== Ocean acidification ==== [[Ocean acidification\|Surface ocean acidity]] is clearly interconnected with the climate change boundaries, since the concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is also the underlying control variable for the ocean acidification boundary.<ref name="Stockholm Resilience Centre 2009" /> The ocean chemist Peter Brewer thinks "ocean acidification has impacts other than simple changes in pH, and these may need boundaries too."<ref name="Brewer 2009" /> ==== Land-system change ==== Across the planet, forests, wetlands and other vegetation types are being converted to agricultural and other [[land use]]s, impacting freshwater, carbon and other cycles, and reducing biodiversity.<ref name="Stockholm Resilience Centre 2009" /> In the year 2015 the boundary was defined as 75% of [[forest]]s rested intact, including 85% of [[boreal forests]], 50% of [[temperate forest]]s and 85% of [[tropical forest]]s. The boundary is crossed because only 62% of forests rested intact as of the year 2015.<ref name="Cornell2015" /> The boundary for land use has been criticized as follows: "The boundary of 15 per cent [[land-use change]] is, in practice, a premature policy guideline that dilutes the authors' overall scientific proposition. Instead, the authors might want to consider a limit on [[soil degradation]] or soil loss. This would be a more valid and useful indicator of the state of terrestrial health."{{sfn\|Bass\|2009}} ==== Freshwater ==== The [[Water cycle\|freshwater cycle]] is another boundary significantly affected by climate change.<ref name="Stockholm Resilience Centre 2009" /> [[Overexploitation]] of freshwater occurs if a water resource is mined or extracted at a rate that exceeds the recharge rate. [[Water pollution]] and [[saltwater intrusion]] can also turn much of the world's underground water and lakes into finite resources with "[[peak water]]" usage debates similar to [[peak oil\|oil]].<ref>{{Harvnb\|Larsen\|2005}}; {{Harvnb\|Sandford\|2009}}.</ref><ref name="Palaniappan 2008">{{Harvnb\|Palaniappan\|Gleick\|2008}}.</ref> The hydrologist David Molden stated in 2009 that planetary boundaries are a welcome new approach in the "[[The Limits to Growth\|limits to growth]]" debate but said "a global limit on water consumption is necessary, but the suggested planetary boundary of 4,000 cubic kilometres per year is too generous."<ref name="Molden 2009">{{Harvnb\|Molden\|2009}}.</ref> ===== Green and blue water ===== A study concludes that the 'Freshwater use' boundary should be renamed to the 'Freshwater change', composed of "green" and "blue" water components.<ref name="10.1038/s43017-022-00287-8"/> 'Green water' refers to disturbances of terrestrial precipitation, evaporation and soil moisture.<ref name="10.1038/s43017-022-00287-8"/> [[Water scarcity]] can have substantial effects in agriculture.<ref name="physscarcity">{{cite news \|title=Water scarcity predicted to worsen in more than 80% of croplands globally this century \|url=https://phys.org/news/2022-05-scarcity-worsen-croplands-globally-century.html \|access-date=16 May 2022 \|work=[[American Geophysical Union]] \|language=en}}</ref><ref name="10.1029/2021EF002567">{{cite journal \|last1=Liu \|first1=Xingcai \|last2=Liu \|first2=Wenfeng \|last3=Tang \|first3=Qiuhong \|last4=Liu \|first4=Bo \|last5=Wada \|first5=Yoshihide \|last6=Yang \|first6=Hong \|title=Global Agricultural Water Scarcity Assessment Incorporating Blue and Green Water Availability Under Future Climate Change \|journal=Earth's Future \|date=April 2022 \|volume=10 \|issue=4 \|doi=10.1029/2021EF002567\|bibcode=2022EaFut..1002567L \|s2cid=248398232 \|url=https://www.dora.lib4ri.ch/eawag/islandora/object/eawag%3A24825 }}</ref> When measuring and projecting water scarcity in [[Effects of climate change on agriculture\|agriculture]] [[Representative Concentration Pathway\|for climate change scenarios]], both "green water" and "blue water" are of relevance.<ref name="physscarcity"/><ref name="10.1029/2021EF002567"/> In April 2022, scientists proposed and preliminarily evaluated 'green water' in the [[water cycle]] as a likely transgressed planetary boundary, as [[Ecohydrology\|measured by root-zone soil moisture deviation from Holocene variability]].<ref name="10.1038/s43017-022-00287-8">{{cite journal \|last1=Wang-Erlandsson \|first1=Lan \|last2=Tobian \|first2=Arne \|last3=van der Ent \|first3=Ruud J. \|last4=Fetzer \|first4=Ingo \|last5=te Wierik \|first5=Sofie \|last6=Porkka \|first6=Miina \|last7=Staal \|first7=Arie \|last8=Jaramillo \|first8=Fernando \|last9=Dahlmann \|first9=Heindriken \|last10=Singh \|first10=Chandrakant \|last11=Greve \|first11=Peter \|last12=Gerten \|first12=Dieter \|last13=Keys \|first13=Patrick W. \|last14=Gleeson \|first14=Tom \|last15=Cornell \|first15=Sarah E. \|last16=Steffen \|first16=Will \|last17=Bai \|first17=Xuemei \|last18=Rockström \|first18=Johan \|title=A planetary boundary for green water \|journal=Nature Reviews Earth & Environment \|date=26 April 2022 \|volume=3 \|issue=6 \|pages=380–392 \|doi=10.1038/s43017-022-00287-8 \|bibcode=2022NRvEE...3..380W \|s2cid=248386281 \|url=https://rdcu.be/cL78K \|language=en \|issn=2662-138X}}</ref>{{additional citation needed\|date=May 2022}} ==== Ozone depletion ==== {{Main\|Ozone depletion}} The stratospheric [[ozone layer]] protectively filters [[ultraviolet radiation]] (UV) from the [[Sun]], which would otherwise damage biological systems. The actions taken after the [[Montreal Protocol]] appeared to be keeping the planet within a safe boundary.<ref name="Stockholm Resilience Centre 2009" /> The Nobel laureate in chemistry, [[Mario J. Molina\|Mario Molina]], says "five per cent is a reasonable limit for acceptable ozone depletion, but it doesn't represent a tipping point".{{sfn\|Molina\|2009}} ==== Atmospheric aerosols ==== Worldwide each year, [[aerosol]] particles result in about 800,000 premature deaths from [[air pollution]].{{citation needed\|date=April 2022}} Aerosol loading is sufficiently important to be included among the planetary boundaries, but it is not yet clear whether an appropriate safe threshold measure can be identified.<ref name="Stockholm Resilience Centre 2009" /> ==== Novel entities (chemical pollution) ==== {{See also\|Chemical waste}} [[File:Map of Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants.svg\|thumb\|State parties to the [[Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants]]]] Some chemicals, such as [[persistent organic pollutants]], [[Heavy metal (chemistry)\|heavy metal]]s and [[radionuclide]]s, have potentially irreversible [[Bioaccumulation\|additive]] and synergic effects on biological organisms, reducing fertility and resulting in permanent [[genetic damage]]. Sublethal uptakes are drastically reducing marine bird and mammal populations. This boundary seems important, although it is hard to quantify.<ref name="Stockholm Resilience Centre 2009" /><ref name=":0">{{Cite journal\|last1=Persson\|first1=Linn\|last2=Carney Almroth\|first2=Bethanie M.\|last3=Collins\|first3=Christopher D.\|last4=Cornell\|first4=Sarah\|last5=de Wit\|first5=Cynthia A.\|last6=Diamond\|first6=Miriam L.\|last7=Fantke\|first7=Peter\|last8=Hassellöv\|first8=Martin\|last9=MacLeod\|first9=Matthew\|last10=Ryberg\|first10=Morten W.\|last11=Søgaard Jørgensen\|first11=Peter\|date=2022-01-18\|title=Outside the Safe Operating Space of the Planetary Boundary for Novel Entities\|url=https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.1c04158\|journal=Environmental Science & Technology\|volume=56\|issue=3\|pages=1510–1521\|doi=10.1021/acs.est.1c04158\|pmid=35038861\|pmc=8811958\|bibcode=2022EnST...56.1510P\|hdl=20.500.11850/532277 \|issn=0013-936X}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal\|last=Jones\|first=Kevin C.\|date=2021-07-20\|title=Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) and Related Chemicals in the Global Environment: Some Personal Reflections\|url=https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.0c08093\|journal=Environmental Science & Technology\|volume=55\|issue=14\|pages=9400–9412\|doi=10.1021/acs.est.0c08093\|pmid=33615776\|bibcode=2021EnST...55.9400J\|s2cid=231989472\|issn=0013-936X}}</ref> In 2019, it was suggested that novel entities could include [[genetically modified organism]]s, [[pesticide]]s and even [[artificial intelligence]].<ref name=":6">{{Cite web \|title=Ten years of nine planetary boundaries \|url=https://www.stockholmresilience.org/research/research-news/2019-11-01-ten-years-of-nine-planetary-boundaries.html \|access-date=2022-03-30 \|website=www.stockholmresilience.org \|date=November 2019 \|language=en}}</ref> A Bayesian emulator for persistent organic pollutants has been developed which can potentially be used to quantify the boundaries for chemical pollution.{{sfn\|Handoh\|Kawai\|2011}} To date, critical exposure levels of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) above which mass mortality events of marine mammals are likely to occur, have been proposed as a chemical pollution planetary boundary.{{sfn\|Handoh\|Kawai\|2014}} There are at least 350,000 artificial chemicals in the world. They are coming from "[[plastic]]s, [[pesticide]]s, [[industrial chemicals]], chemicals in consumer products, [[antibiotic]]s and other [[pharmaceuticals]]". They have mostly "negative effects on planetary health". Their production increased 50 times since 1950 and is expected to increase 3 times more by 2050. Plastic alone contain more than 10,000 chemicals and create large problems. The researchers are calling for limit on chemical production and shift to [[circular economy]], meaning to products that can be [[reuse]]d and [[Recycling\|recycled]].<ref>{{cite web \|title=Safe planetary boundary for pollutants, including plastics, exceeded, say researchers \|url=https://www.stockholmresilience.org/research/research-news/2022-01-18-safe-planetary-boundary-for-pollutants-including-plastics-exceeded-say-researchers.html \|website=Stockholm Resilience Centre \|date=18 January 2022 \|access-date=28 January 2022}}</ref> In January 2022 a group of scientists concluded that this planetary boundary is already exceeded, which puts in risk the stability of the Earth system.<ref>{{Cite web \|last=Centre \|first=Stockholm Resilience \|date=2022 \|title=Earth's Safe Planetary Boundary for Pollutants – Including Plastics – Exceeded \|url=https://scitechdaily.com/earths-safe-planetary-boundary-for-pollutants-including-plastics-exceeded/ \|access-date=2022-02-16 \|website=SciTechDaily \|language=en-US}}</ref> They integrated the literature information on how production and release of a number of novel entities, including [[plastics]] and [[hazardous chemicals]], have rapidly increased in the last decades with significant impact on the planetary processes.<ref name=":0" /> In August 2022, scientists concluded that the (overall transgressed) boundary is a placeholder for multiple different boundaries for NEs that may emerge, reporting that [[Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances\|PFAS pollution]] is one such new boundary. They show that levels of these so-called "[[forever chemicals]]" in [[rainwater]] are ubiquitously, and often greatly, above guideline safe levels worldwide.<ref name="bbc62391069">{{cite news \|title=Pollution: 'Forever chemicals' in rainwater exceed safe levels \|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-62391069 \|access-date=14 September 2022 \|work=BBC News \|date=2 August 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal \|last1=Cousins \|first1=Ian T. \|last2=Johansson \|first2=Jana H. \|last3=Salter \|first3=Matthew E. \|last4=Sha \|first4=Bo \|last5=Scheringer \|first5=Martin \|title=Outside the Safe Operating Space of a New Planetary Boundary for Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS) \|journal=Environmental Science & Technology \|date=16 August 2022 \|volume=56 \|issue=16 \|pages=11172–11179 \|doi=10.1021/acs.est.2c02765 \|pmid=35916421 \|pmc=9387091 \|bibcode=2022EnST...5611172C \|language=en \|issn=0013-936X\|doi-access=free}}</ref> There are some moves to restrict and replace their use.<ref name="bbc62391069"/> <!-- <gallery> File:Satellite Image of Earth's Interrelated Systems and Climate - GPN-2002-000121.jpg\| File:The Dark Side of Carbon.jpg\|The dark side of carbon]] File:Terra.png\| </gallery> --> == Related concepts == === Planetary integrity === {{See also\|Sustainable Development Goals#Weak on environmental sustainability}} ''Planetary integrity'' is also called ''earth's life-support systems'' or ''ecological integrity''.<ref name="Biermann" />{{rp\|140}} Scholars have pointed out that planetary integrity "needs to be maintained for long-term [[sustainability]]".<ref name="Biermann">{{Citation \|last1=Kotzé \|first1=Louis J. \|date=2022-07-31 \|work=The Political Impact of the Sustainable Development Goals \|pages=140–171 \|editor-last=Biermann \|editor-first=Frank \|edition=1 \|publisher=Cambridge University Press \|doi=10.1017/9781009082945.007 \|isbn=978-1-009-08294-5 \|last2=Kim \|first2=Rakhyun E. \|last3=Burdon \|first3=Peter \|last4=du Toit \|first4=Louise \|last5=Glass \|first5=Lisa-Maria \|last6=Kashwan \|first6=Prakash \|last7=Liverman \|first7=Diana \|last8=Montesano \|first8=Francesco S. \|last9=Rantala \|first9=Salla \|title=Planetary Integrity \|editor2-last=Hickmann \|editor2-first=Thomas \|editor3-last=Sénit \|editor3-first=Carole-Anne \|doi-access=free}} </ref>{{rp\|140}} The current [[biodiversity loss]] is threatening ecological integrity on a global scale.<ref name="Biermann" />{{rp\|140}} The term ''integrity'' refers to [[ecological health]] in this context. The concept of planetary integrity is interlinked within the concept of planetary boundaries.<ref name="Biermann" />{{rp\|141}} An expert Panel on Ecological Integrity in 1998 has defined ecological integrity as follows: "Ecosystems have integrity when they have their native components (plants, animals and other organisms) and processes (such as growth and reproduction) intact."<ref>{{Cite journal \|last=Bosselmann \|first=Klaus \|date=2010 \|title=Losing the Forest for the Trees: Environmental Reductionism in the Law \|journal=Sustainability \|language=en \|volume=2 \|issue=8 \|pages=2424–2448 \|doi=10.3390/su2082424 \|issn=2071-1050\|doi-access=free \|hdl=10535/6499 \|hdl-access=free }}</ref> The [[Sustainable Development Goals]] might be able to act as a steering mechanism to address the current loss of planetary integrity.<ref name="Biermann" />{{rp\|142}} There are many negative [[Human impact on the environment\|human impacts on the environment]] that are causing a reduction in planetary integrity.<ref name="Biermann" />{{rp\|142}} === The "Limits to Growth" (1972) and Gaia theory === The idea that there are limits to the burden placed upon our planet by human activities has been around for a long time. The Planetary Boundaries framework acknowledges the influence of the 1972 study, ''[[The Limits to Growth]]'', that presented a model in which [[Exponential growth\|exponential]] growth in [[world population]], [[Industrialisation\|industrialization]], [[pollution]], food production, and [[resources depletion]] outstrip the ability of technology to increase resources availability.{{sfn\|Meadows\|others\|1972}} Subsequently, the report was widely dismissed, particularly by economists and business people,{{sfn\|Meyer\|Nørgård\|2010}} and it has often been claimed that history has proved the projections to be incorrect.<ref>{{Harvnb\|van Vuuren\|Faber\|2009\|p=23}}</ref> In 2008, Graham Turner from the [[Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation]] (CSIRO) published "A comparison of ''The Limits to Growth'' with thirty years of reality".{{sfn\|Turner\|2008\|p=37}} ''The Limits to Growth'' has been widely discussed, both by critics of the modelling approach and its conclusions<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1=Meyer \|first1=N. I. \|last2=Noergaard \|first2=J. S. \|date=2011-07-15 \|title=Policy means for sustainable energy scenarios \|url=https://www.osti.gov/etdeweb/biblio/1037831 \|language=English}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book \|last=Vuuren \|first=D.P. van \|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/472600831 \|title=Growing within limits : a report to the Global Assembly 2009 of the Club of Rome \|date=2009 \|publisher=Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency \|others=A. Faber, Annemieke Righart \|isbn=978-90-6960-234-9 \|location=Bilthoven [etc.] \|oclc=472600831}}</ref> and by analysts who argue that the insight that societies do not live in an unlimited world and that historical data since the 1970s support the report's findings.<ref>{{Cite web \|last=Graham \|first=Turner \|date=2008 \|title=A comparison of The Limits to Growth with thirty years of reality \|url=https://jancovici.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/04/Turner_Meadows_vs_historical_data.pdf \|access-date=April 8, 2022}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web \|last1=Nørgård \|first1=J. S. \|last2=Peet \|first2=J. \|last3=Ragnarsdóttir \|first3=K. V. \|date=2010 \|title=The History of The Limits to Growth \|url=https://backend.orbit.dtu.dk/ws/portalfiles/portal/5509654/2010+The+History+of+LtG+Solutions+paper.pdf \|access-date=April 8, 2022 \|publisher=Solutions Journal}}</ref> The ''Limits to Growth'' approach explores how the socio-technical dynamics of the world economy may limit humanity's opportunities and introduce risks of collapse. In contrast, the Planetary Boundaries framework focuses on the biophysical dynamics of the Earth system.<ref name="Cornell2015" /> ''[[Our Common Future]]'' was published in 1987 by United Nations' [[Brundtland Commission\|World Commission on Environment and Development]].<ref name=":7">{{cite web \|title=Report of the World Commission on Environment and Development: Our Common Future \|url=https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/content/documents/5987our-common-future.pdf \|publisher=United Nations}}</ref> It tried to recapture the spirit of the [[United Nations Conference on the Human Environment\|Stockholm Conference]]. Its aim was to interlock the concepts of development and environment for future political discussions. It introduced the famous definition for [[sustainable development]]: "Development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs."<ref name=":7" /> Another key idea influencing the Planetary Boundaries framework is the [[Gaia hypothesis\|Gaia theory or hypothesis]]. In the 1970s, [[James Lovelock]] and [[microbiologist]] [[Lynn Margulis]] presented the idea that all [[organisms]] and their [[inorganic]] surroundings on Earth are integrated into a single self-regulating system.<ref>{{Harvnb\|Lovelock\|1972}}; {{Harvnb\|Lovelock\|Margulis\|1974}}.</ref> The system has the ability to react to perturbations or deviations, much like a living organism adjusts its regulation mechanisms to accommodate environmental changes such as temperature ([[homeostasis]]). Nevertheless, this capacity has limits. For instance, when a living organism is subjected to a temperature that is lower or higher than its living range, it can perish because its regulating mechanism cannot make the necessary adjustments. Similarly the Earth may not be able to react to large deviations in critical parameters.<ref name="Cornell2015" /> In Lovelock's book ''[[The Revenge of Gaia]]'', he suggests that the destruction of rainforests and biodiversity, compounded with [[global warming]] resulting from the increase of [[greenhouse gas]]es made by humans, could shift feedbacks in the Earth system away from a self-regulating balance to a positive (intensifying) feedback loop. === Anthropocene === {{Main\|Anthropocene}}{{quote box \| quote = <div style="text-align: center;">'''From the [[Stockholm Memorandum]]'''</div> Science indicates that we are transgressing planetary boundaries that have kept civilization safe for the past 10,000 years. Evidence is growing that human pressures are starting to overwhelm the Earth’s buffering capacity. Humans are now the most significant driver of [[global change]], propelling the planet into a new geological epoch, the [[Anthropocene]]. We can no longer exclude the possibility that our collective actions will trigger tipping points, risking abrupt and irreversible consequences for human communities and ecological systems. \| source = – {{Harvtxt\|Stockholm Memorandum\|2011}} \| align = right \| width = 25% \| bgcolor = #f8f8f8 \| qalign = left \| salign = right }} Scientists have affirmed that the planet has entered a new epoch, the [[Anthropocene]].<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1=Waters \|first1=Colin N. \|last2=Zalasiewicz \|first2=Jan \|last3=Summerhayes \|first3=Colin \|last4=Barnosky \|first4=Anthony D. \|last5=Poirier \|first5=Clément \|last6=Gałuszka \|first6=Agnieszka \|last7=Cearreta \|first7=Alejandro \|last8=Edgeworth \|first8=Matt \|last9=Ellis \|first9=Erle C. \|last10=Ellis \|first10=Michael \|last11=Jeandel \|first11=Catherine \|date=2016-01-08 \|title=The Anthropocene is functionally and stratigraphically distinct from the Holocene \|url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.aad2622 \|journal=Science \|language=en \|volume=351 \|issue=6269 \|pages=aad2622 \|doi=10.1126/science.aad2622 \|pmid=26744408 \|s2cid=206642594 \|issn=0036-8075}}</ref> In the Anthropocene, humans have become the main agents of not only change to the Earth System<ref>{{Harvnb\|Crutzen\|2002}}; {{Harvnb\|Steffen\|Crutzen\|McNeill\|2007}}; {{Harvnb\|Zalasiewicz\|others\|2010}}.</ref> but also the driver of Earth System ''rupture'',<ref>{{Cite book \|last=Hamilton \|first=Clive \|title=Defiant earth: the fate of humans in the anthropocene \|date=2017 \|publisher=Polity \|isbn=9781509519743 \|oclc=1027177323}}</ref> disruption of the Earth System's ability to be resilient and recover from that change, potentially ultimately threatening [[planetary habitability]]. The previous geological epoch, the [[Holocene]] began about 10,000 years ago. It is the current [[interglacial]] period, and was a relatively stable environment of the Earth. There have been natural environmental fluctuations during the Holocene, but the key atmospheric and biogeochemical parameters have remained within relatively narrow bounds.<ref>{{Harvnb\|Dansgaard\|others1993}}; {{Harvnb\|Petit\|others\|1999}}; {{Harvnb\|Rioual\|others\|2001}}.</ref> This stability has allowed societies to thrive worldwide, developing agriculture, large-scale settlements and complex networks of trade.{{sfn\|van der Leeuw\|2008}} According to Rockström ''et al.'', we "have now become so dependent on those investments for our way of life, and how we have organized society, technologies, and economies around them, that we must take the range within which Earth System processes varied in the Holocene as a scientific reference point for a desirable planetary state."{{sfn\|Rockström\|28 others\|2009}} Various [[biophysical]] processes that are important in maintaining the [[Ecological resilience\|resilience]] of the Earth system are also undergoing large and rapid change because of human actions.<ref>{{Harvnb\|Mace\|Masundire\|Baillie\|2005}}; {{Harvnb\|Folke\|others\|2004}}; {{Harvnb\|Gordon\|Peterson\|Bennett\|2008}}.</ref> For example, since the advent of the Anthropocene, the rate at which species are going extinct has increased over 100 times,{{sfn\|Mace\|Masundire\|Baillie\|2005}} and humans are now the driving force altering global river flows{{sfn\|Shiklomanov\|Rodda\|2003}} as well as water vapor flows from the land surface.{{sfn\|Gordon\|Peterson\|Bennett\|2008}} Continuing perturbation of Earth system processes by human activities raises the possibility that further pressure could be destabilizing, leading to non-linear, abrupt, large-scale or irreversible [[environmental change]] responses by the Earth system within [[continent]]al- to planetary-scale systems.<ref name="Cornell2015" /> {{clear}} == Reception and debate == {{See also\|#Debate and further research per boundary}} {{quote box \| quote = In summary, the planetary boundary concept is a very important one, and its proposal should now be followed by discussions of the connections between the various boundaries and of their association with other concepts such as the '[[limits to growth]]'. Importantly, this novel concept highlights the risk of reaching thresholds or tipping points for non-linear or abrupt changes in Earth-system processes. As such, it can help society to reach the agreements required for dealing effectively with existing global environmental threats, such as climate change. \| source = – Nobel laureate [[Mario J. Molina]]{{sfn\|Molina\|2009}} \| align = right \| width = 25% \| bgcolor = #f8f8f8 \| qalign = left \| salign = right }} The 2009 report<ref name=":5" /> was presented to the General Assembly of the [[Club of Rome]] in Amsterdam.{{sfn\|Rockström\|2009}} An edited summary of the report was published as the featured article in a special 2009 edition of ''[[Nature (journal)\|Nature]]''<ref name=":4" /> alongside invited critical commentary from leading academics like Nobel laureate [[Mario J. Molina]] and biologist [[Cristián Samper]].{{sfn\|Molina\|2009}} [[Development studies]] scholars have been critical of aspects of the framework and constraints that its adoption could place on the [[Global South]]. Proposals to conserve a certain proportion of Earth's remaining forests can be seen as rewarding the countries such as those in Europe that have already economically benefitted from exhausting their forests and converting land for agriculture. In contrast, countries that have yet to industrialize are asked to make sacrifices for global environmental damage they may have had little role in creating.<ref name="Frank">{{cite journal \|last1=Biermann \|first1=Frank \|last2=Kim \|first2=Rakhyun E. \|year=2020 \|title=The Boundaries of the Planetary Boundary Framework: A Critical Appraisal of Approaches to Define a "Safe Operating Space" for Humanity \|journal=Annual Review of Environment and Resources \|volume=45 \|pages=497–521 \|doi=10.1146/annurev-environ-012320-080337 \|doi-access=free}}</ref> The biogeochemist [[William H. Schlesinger\|William Schlesinger]] queries whether thresholds are a good idea for pollutions at all. He thinks waiting until we near some suggested limit will just permit us to continue to a point where it is too late. "Management based on thresholds, although attractive in its simplicity, allows pernicious, slow and diffuse degradation to persist nearly indefinitely."<ref name="Schlesinger 2009">{{Harvnb\|Schlesinger\|2009}}.</ref> In a global empirical study, researchers investigated how students of environmental and sustainability studies in 35 countries assessed the planetary boundaries. It was found that there are substantial global differences in the perception of planetary boundaries.<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1=Kleespies \|first1=Matthias Winfried \|last2=Hahn-Klimroth \|first2=Max \|last3=Dierkes \|first3=Paul Wilhelm \|date=2023-04-01 \|title=How university students assess the planetary boundaries: A global empirical study \|journal=Environmental Challenges \|language=en \|volume=11 \|pages=100712 \|doi=10.1016/j.envc.2023.100712 \|s2cid=257895735 \|issn=2667-0100\|doi-access=free }}</ref> ==Subsequent developments== === The "safe and just space" doughnut === [[File:Doughnut (economic model).jpg\|thumb\|Doughnut (economic model)]] {{excerpt\|Doughnut (economic model)\|paragraphs=1-2\|file=no}} ===National environmental footprints=== Several studies have assessed environmental footprints of nations based on planetary boundaries: for Portugal,<ref>{{Cite book \|last1=da Silva Vieira \|first1=Ricardo \|url=https://gulbenkian.pt/de-hoje-para-amanha/wp-content/uploads/sites/46/2021/11/JI_LimitesEcologicos_EN_web-2.pdf \|title=Environmental Boundaries: The intergenerational impacts of biophysical resource use. Final report \|last2=Domingos \|first2=Tiago \|publisher=Calouste Gulbenkian Foundation and Associação para o Desenvolvimento do Instituto Superior Técnico \|year=2021 \|location=Lisbon \|language=English}}</ref> Sweden,<ref>Björn Nykvist, Åsa Persson, Fredrik Moberg, Linn Persson, Sarah Cornell, Johan Rockström: [https://www.naturvardsverket.se/Documents/publikationer6400/978-91-620-6576-8.pdf ''National Environmental Performance on Planetary Boundaries''] {{Webarchive\|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201125064755/https://www.naturvardsverket.se/Documents/publikationer6400/978-91-620-6576-8.pdf \|date=25 November 2020 }}, commissioned by the Swedish Environmental Protection Agency, 2013.</ref> Switzerland,<ref name="Dao">Hy Dao, Pascal Peduzzi, Damien Friot: [https://www.unige.ch/environnement/files/8715/2951/0463/1-s2.0-S0959378017312153-main.pdf '' National environmental limits and footprints based on the Planetary Boundaries framework: The case of Switzerland''] {{Webarchive\|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190122145547/https://www.unige.ch/environnement/files/8715/2951/0463/1-s2.0-S0959378017312153-main.pdf \|date=22 January 2019 }}, University of Geneva, Institute for Environmental Sciences, GRID-Geneva, EA - Shaping Environmental Action, 2018.</ref> the Netherlands,<ref name="Lucas & Wilting">Paul Lucas, Harry Wilting: [https://www.pbl.nl/sites/default/files/cms/publicaties/Towards%20a%20safe%20operating%20space%20for%20the%20Netherlands%20-%203333. ''Towards a Safe Operating Space for the Netherlands: Using planetary boundaries to support national implementation of environment-related SDGs''], PBL Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency 2018.</ref> the European Union,<ref>Tina Häyhä, Sarah E. Cornell, Holger Hoff, Paul Lucas, Detlef van Vuuren: [https://www.stockholmresilience.org/publications/artiklar/2018-07-03-operationalizing-the-concept-of-a-safe-operating-space-at-the-eu-level---first-steps-and-explorations.Operationalizing the concept of a safe operating space at the EU level – first steps and explorations], Stockholm Resilience Centre, 2018.</ref> India,<ref>{{Citation \|last1=Roy \|first1=Ajishnu \|title=Safe and Just Operating Space for India \|date=2020 \|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-58538-3_210-1 \|work=Handbook of Environmental Materials Management \|pages=1–32 \|editor-last=Hussain \|editor-first=Chaudhery Mustansar \|place=Cham \|publisher=Springer International Publishing \|language=en \|doi=10.1007/978-3-319-58538-3_210-1 \|isbn=978-3-319-58538-3 \|access-date=2022-04-17 \|last2=Pramanick \|first2=Kousik\|s2cid=226479906 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal \|last1=Roy \|first1=Ajishnu \|last2=Pramanick \|first2=Kousik \|date=2019-02-15 \|title=Analysing progress of sustainable development goal 6 in India: Past, present, and future \|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0301479718313252 \|journal=Journal of Environmental Management \|language=en \|volume=232 \|pages=1049–1065 \|doi=10.1016/j.jenvman.2018.11.060 \|pmid=33395757 \|s2cid=104399897 \|issn=0301-4797}}</ref> many of Belt and Road Initiative countries <ref>{{Cite journal \|last1=Roy \|first1=Ajishnu \|last2=Li \|first2=Yan \|last3=Dutta \|first3=Tusheema \|last4=Basu \|first4=Aman \|last5=Dong \|first5=Xuhui \|date=2022-01-27 \|title=Understanding the relationship between globalization and biophysical resource consumption within safe operating limits for major Belt and Road Initiative countries \|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-022-18683-4 \|journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research \|volume=29 \|issue=27 \|pages=40654–40673 \|language=en \|doi=10.1007/s11356-022-18683-4 \|pmid=35084683 \|bibcode=2022ESPR...2940654R \|s2cid=246296716 \|issn=1614-7499}}</ref> as well as for the world's most important economies.<ref>bluedot.world: [http://bluedot.world/ ''Environmental footprint of nations''] {{Webarchive\|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190102121738/http://bluedot.world/ \|date=2 January 2019 }}.</ref><ref>Kai Fang, Reinout Heijungs, Zheng Duan, Geert R. de Snoo: [http://www.mdpi.com/2071-1050/7/8/11285 ''The Environmental Sustainability of Nations: Benchmarking the Carbon, Water and Land Footprints against Allocated Planetary Boundaries''] {{Webarchive\|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181109153324/https://www.mdpi.com/2071-1050/7/8/11285 \|date=9 November 2018 }}, Sustainability 2015, 7, 11285-11305.</ref> While the metrics and allocation approaches applied varied, there is a converging outcome that resource use of wealthier nations – if extrapolated to world population – is not compatible with planetary boundaries. ===Boundaries related to agriculture and food consumption=== [[File:PB english cc-BY-NC-ND.png\|upright=1.15\|thumb\|right\|Visualization of the planetary boundaries related to agriculture and nutrition<ref name="Meier 2017">{{Harvnb\|Meier\|2017}}</ref>]] Human activities related to agriculture and nutrition globally contribute to the transgression of four out of nine planetary boundaries. Surplus nutrient flows (N, P) into aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems are of highest importance, followed by excessive land-system change and biodiversity loss. Whereas in the case of biodiversity loss, P cycle and land-system change, the transgression is in the zone of uncertainty—indicating an increasing risk (yellow circle in the figure), the N boundary related to agriculture is more than 200% transgressed—indicating a high risk (red marked circle in the figure). Here, nutrition includes food processing and trade as well as food consumption (preparation of food in households and gastronomy). Consumption-related environmental impacts are not quantified at the global level for the planetary boundaries of freshwater use, atmospheric aerosol loading ([[air pollution]]) and stratospheric ozone depletion.<ref name="Meier 2017">{{Harvnb\|Meier\|2017}}</ref> ===Individual and collective allowances=== Approaches based on a general framework of ecological limits include (transferable) [[personal carbon allowance]]s and "legislated" national greenhouse gas emissions limits.<ref>{{cite journal \|last1=Green \|first1=Fergus \|title=Ecological limits: Science, justice, policy, and the good life \|journal=Philosophy Compass \|date=June 2021 \|volume=16 \|issue=6 \|pages=e12740 \|doi=10.1111/phc3.12740 \|pmid=35860674 \|pmc=9285753 \|s2cid=236560071 \|language=en \|issn=1747-9991}}</ref> Consumers would have freedom in their (informed) choice within (the collective) boundaries.<ref>{{cite journal \|last1=Hauschild \|first1=Michael Z. \|title=Better – But is it Good Enough? On the Need to Consider Both Eco-efficiency and Eco-effectiveness to Gauge Industrial Sustainability \|journal=Procedia CIRP \|date=1 January 2015 \|volume=29 \|pages=1–7 \|doi=10.1016/j.procir.2015.02.126 \|s2cid=55994719 \|url=https://backend.orbit.dtu.dk/ws/portalfiles/portal/118946760/Better_but_good_enough.pdf \|language=en \|issn=2212-8271}}</ref> == Usage at international policy level == === United Nations === The United Nations secretary general [[Ban Ki-moon]] endorsed the concept of planetary boundaries on 16 March 2012, when he presented the key points of the report of his High Level Panel on Global Sustainability to an informal [[Plenary session\|plenary]] of the UN General Assembly.<ref>[http://www.scidev.net/en/science-and-innovation-policy/science-at-rio-20/news/rio-20-zero-draft-accepts-planetary-boundaries-.html Rio+20 zero draft accepts 'planetary boundaries'] {{Webarchive\|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120331031921/http://www.scidev.net/en/science-and-innovation-policy/science-at-rio-20/news/rio-20-zero-draft-accepts-planetary-boundaries-.html\|date=31 March 2012}} ''SciDev.Net'', 28 March 2012.</ref> Ban stated: "The Panel's vision is to eradicate poverty and reduce inequality, to make growth inclusive and production and consumption more sustainable, while combating climate change and respecting a range of other planetary boundaries."<ref>[https://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2012/sgsm14166.doc.htm Secretary-General Highlights Key Points...] {{Webarchive\|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120320215723/http://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2012/sgsm14166.doc.htm\|date=20 March 2012}} ''United Nations News'', 16 March 2012.</ref> The concept was incorporated into the so-called "zero draft" of the outcome of the [[United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development]] to be convened in Rio de Janeiro 20–22 June 2012.<ref>[http://www.uncsd2012.org/rio20/content/documents/370The%20Future%20We%20Want%2010Jan%20clean%20_no%20brackets.pdf Zero draft of the outcome document] {{Webarchive\|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120417074707/http://www.uncsd2012.org/rio20/content/documents/370The%20Future%20We%20Want%2010Jan%20clean%20_no%20brackets.pdf\|date=17 April 2012}} RIO+20, United Nations Conference on Sustainability Development.</ref> However, the use of the concept was subsequently withdrawn from the text of the conference, "partly due to concerns from some poorer countries that its adoption could lead to the sidelining of poverty reduction and economic development. It is also, say observers, because the idea is simply too new to be officially adopted, and needed to be challenged, weathered and chewed over to test its robustness before standing a chance of being internationally accepted at UN negotiations."<ref>[http://www.scidev.net/en/agriculture-and-environment/features/your-guide-to-science-and-technology-at-rio-20-1.html Your guide to science and technology at Rio+20] {{Webarchive\|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120621181116/http://www.scidev.net/en/agriculture-and-environment/features/your-guide-to-science-and-technology-at-rio-20-1.html\|date=21 June 2012}} ''scidev.net'', 12 June 2012.</ref> In 2011, at their second meeting, the High-level Panel on Global Sustainability of the United Nations had incorporated the concept of planetary boundaries into their framework, stating that their goal was: "To eradicate poverty and reduce inequality, make growth inclusive, and production and consumption more sustainable while combating climate change and respecting the range of other planetary boundaries."{{sfn\|UN GSP 2 meeting\|2011\|p=5}} Elsewhere in their proceedings, panel members have expressed reservations about the political effectiveness of using the concept of "planetary boundaries": "Planetary boundaries are still an evolving concept that should be used with caution [...] The planetary boundaries question can be divisive as it can be perceived as a tool of the "North" to tell the "South" not to follow the resource intensive and environmentally destructive development pathway that rich countries took themselves... This language is unacceptable to most of the developing countries as they fear that an emphasis on boundaries would place unacceptable brakes on poor countries."{{sfn\|UN Sherpa 3 meeting\|2011}} However, the concept is routinely used in the proceedings of the United Nations,{{sfn\|UN Agenda 21}} and in the ''UN Daily News''. For example, the [[United Nations Environment Programme]] (UNEP) Executive Director [[Achim Steiner]] states that the challenge of agriculture is to "feed a growing global population without pushing humanity's [[Ecological footprint\|footprint]] beyond planetary boundaries."<ref>[https://www.un.org/news/dh/pdf/english/2011/01062011.pdf Sustainable agriculture key to green growth, poverty reduction] {{Webarchive\|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304085522/http://www.un.org/news/dh/pdf/english/2011/01062011.pdf\|date=4 March 2016}} ''UN Daily News'', 1 June 2011, page 8.</ref> The UNEP Yearbook 2010 also repeated Rockström's message, conceptually linking it with [[ecosystem management]] and [[Sustainable Governance Indicators\|environmental governance indicators]].{{sfn\|UNEP\|2010\|p={{page needed\|date=December 2020}}}} In their 2012 report entitled "Resilient People, Resilient Planet: A future worth choosing", The High-level Panel on Global Sustainability called for bold global efforts, "including launching a major global scientific initiative, to strengthen the interface between science and policy. We must define, through science, what scientists refer to as "planetary boundaries", "environmental thresholds" and "tipping points"".{{sfn\|UN GSP meeting\|2012\|page=14}} === European Commission === The planetary boundaries concept is also used in proceedings by the [[European Commission]],<ref>{{cite web \|date=May 2011 \|title=The Budapest Declaration \|url=http://ec.europa.eu/research/agriculture/conference/declaration_en.htm \|url-status=dead \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121103230342/http://ec.europa.eu/research/agriculture/conference/declaration_en.htm \|archive-date=2012-11-03 \|website=Transition towards sustainable food consumption and production in a resource constrained world \|at=Conference 4–5 May 2011 Budapest, Hungary}}</ref>{{sfn\|Greenfield\|2010}} and was referred to in the [[European Environment Agency]] synthesis report ''The European environment – state and outlook 2010''.{{sfn\|Martin\|Henrichs\|others\|2010}} ==See also== * [[Ecological footprint]] * [[Global catastrophic risk]] * [[Global change]] * [[Holocene extinction]] * [[Human impact on the nitrogen cycle]] * [[Human impacts on the environment]] * [[Planetary health]] * [[Planetary management]] [[Sustainability]] [[Triple planetary crisis\|Triple Planetary Crisis]] ==References== {{Reflist\|30em\|refs= <ref name="Stockholm Resilience Centre 2009">{{cite web \|title=The nine planetary boundaries \|date=17 September 2009 \|type=web page \|url=http://www.stockholmresilience.org/research/researchnews/tippingtowardstheunknown/thenineplanetaryboundaries.4.1fe8f33123572b59ab80007039.html \|access-date=2016-07-30 \|publisher=[[Stockholm Resilience Centre]] \|archive-date=30 August 2011 \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110830234347/http://www.stockholmresilience.org/research/researchnews/tippingtowardstheunknown/thenineplanetaryboundaries.4.1fe8f33123572b59ab80007039.html \|url-status=live }}</ref> }} ===Sources=== {{refbegin\|20em}} <!-- PLEASE NOTE: it is helpful to consistently format templates in certain ways; e.g., putting the url at the end, keeping first-last names on the same line, etc. Whether the name parameters should be first-last or last-first is undecided; these have been deliberately left both ways to aid in comparing them. Please check the talk page for any other pertinent guidelines. --> {{Citation \|last1=Bass \|first1=S. \|title=Planetary boundaries: Keep off the grass \|department=[commentary] \|journal=Nature Reports Climate Change \|issue=910 \|page=113 \|date=2009 \|volume=1 \|doi=10.1038/climate.2009.94 \|doi-access=free}} {{Citation \|last1=Brewer \|first1=P. \|title=Planetary boundaries: Consider all consequences \|department=[commentary] \|journal=Nature Reports Climate Change \|issue=910 \|page=117 \|date=2009 \|volume=1 \|doi=10.1038/climate.2009.98 \|doi-access=free}} {{cite journal \|last1=Cordell \|first1=Dana \|author-link=Dana Cordell \|last2=Drangert \|first2=Jan-Olof \|last3=White \|first3=Stuart \|title=The story of phosphorus: Global food security and food for thought \|journal=Global Environmental Change \|volume=19 \|issue=2 \|year=2009 \|pages=292–305 \|issn=0959-3780 \|doi=10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2008.10.009\|s2cid=1450932 }} {{citation \|author1-link=Paul J. Crutzen \|first1=Paul J. \|last1=Crutzen \|date=3 January 2002 \|title=Geology of mankind – The Anthropocene \|journal=Nature \|volume=415 \|issue=6867 \|pages=23 \|doi=10.1038/415023a \|pmid=11780095 \|bibcode=2002Natur.415...23C \|s2cid=9743349 \|doi-access=free}} * {{citation \|ref={{sfnref\|Dansgaard\|others\|1993}} \|display-authors=4 \|first1=W. \|last1=Dansgaard \|first2=S.J. \|last2=Johnsen \|first3=H.B. \|last3=Clausen \|first4=D. \|last4=Dahl-Jensen \|first5=N.S. \|last5=Gundestrup \|first6=C.U. \|last6=Hammer \|first7=C.S. \|last7=Hvidberg \|first8=J.P. \|last8=Steffensen \|first9=A.E. \|last9=Sveinbjörnsdottir \|first10=J. \|last10=Jouzel \|first11=G. \|last11=Bond \|author-link1=Willi Dansgaard \|author-link4=Dorthe Dahl-Jensen \|name-list-style=amp \|date=15 July 1993 \|title=Evidence for general instability of past climate from a 250-kyr ice-core record \|journal=Nature \|volume=364 \|pages=218–20 \|url=http://earthsciences.ucr.edu/gcec_pages/docs/geo224/Dansgaard%20et%20al%201993-Nature-Evidence%20for%20generalinstability%20of%20past%20climate%20from%20a%20250-kyrice-core%20record.pdf \|doi=10.1038/364218a0 \|bibcode=1993Natur.364..218D \|issue=6434 \|s2cid=4304321 \|access-date=7 July 2011 \|archive-date=3 October 2011 \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111003153658/http://earthsciences.ucr.edu/gcec_pages/docs/geo224/Dansgaard%20et%20al%201993-Nature-Evidence%20for%20generalinstability%20of%20past%20climate%20from%20a%20250-kyrice-core%20record.pdf \|url-status=live}} * {{Citation \|ref=CITEREFFolkeothers2004 \|last1=Folke \|first1=C. \|last2=Carpenter \|first2=S. \|last3=Walker \|first3=B. \|last4=Scheffer \|first4=M. \|last5=Elmqvist \|first5=T. \|last6=Gunderson \|first6=L. \|last7=Holling \|first7=C. S. \|title=Regime Shifts, Resilience, and Biodiversity in Ecosystem Management \|journal=Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics \|volume=35 \|pages=557–81 \|year=2004 \|doi=10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.35.021103.105711 \|url=http://www.colorado.edu/AmStudies/lewis/ecology/ecobiodiver.pdf \|url-status=dead \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121018074852/http://www.colorado.edu/AmStudies/lewis/ecology/ecobiodiver.pdf \|archive-date=18 October 2012 \|citeseerx=10.1.1.489.8717}} * {{Citation \|last1=Gordon \|first1=L. J. \|last2=Peterson \|first2=G. D. \|last3=Bennett \|first3=E. M. \|title=Agricultural modifications of hydrological flows create ecological surprises \|journal=Trends in Ecology & Evolution \|date=2008 \|volume=23 \|issue=4 \|pages=211–19 \|doi=10.1016/j.tree.2007.11.011 \|pmid=18308425 \|url=http://nrs-staff.mcgill.ca/bennett/pdfs/Gordon_etal.TREE.pdf \|access-date=26 October 2011 \|archive-date=1 June 2011 \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110601031842/http://nrs-staff.mcgill.ca/bennett/pdfs/Gordon_etal.TREE.pdf \|url-status=live}} * {{citation \|first1=O. \|last1=Greenfield \|date=April 2010 \|title=Discussion input for the 4th session: Corporate social responsibility in a globalised economy [meeting abstract] \|at=European Conference: "Towards a Greater Understanding of the Changing Role of Business in Society", Brussels, 22 April 2010 \|url=http://ec.europa.eu/research/social-sciences/pdf/14-4th-session-oliver-greefield_en.pdf \|access-date=3 July 2011 \|archive-date=3 November 2012 \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121103230258/http://ec.europa.eu/research/social-sciences/pdf/14-4th-session-oliver-greefield_en.pdf \|url-status=live}} * {{citation \|first1=Itsuki C. \|last1=Handoh \|first2=Toru \|last2=Kawai \|date=2011 \|chapter=Bayesian Uncertainty Analysis of the Global Dynamics of Persistent Organic Pollutants: Towards Quantifying the Planetary Boundaries for Chemical Pollution" \|editor1-first=K. \|editor1-last=Omori \|display-editors=etal \|title=Interdisciplinary Studies on Environmental Chemistry—Marine Environmental Modeling & Analysis \|publisher=Terrapub \|pages=179–187 \|chapter-url=http://www.terrapub.co.jp/onlineproceedings/ec/05/pdf/PR_05179.pdf \|access-date=22 June 2011 \|archive-date=27 September 2011 \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110927172415/http://www.terrapub.co.jp/onlineproceedings/ec/05/pdf/PR_05179.pdf \|url-status=live}} * {{citation \|first1=Itsuki C. \|last1=Handoh \|first2=Toru \|last2=Kawai \|title=Modelling exposure of oceanic higher trophic-level consumers to polychlorinated biphenyls: Pollution 'hotspots' in relation to mass mortality events of marine mammals \|journal=Marine Pollution Bulletin \|date=2014 \|volume=85 \|issue=8 \|pages=824–830 \|doi=10.1016/j.marpolbul.2014.06.031 \|pmid=25016416 \|bibcode=2014MarPB..85..824H \|issn=0025-326X}} * {{citation \|first1=Janet \|last1=Larsen \|date=7 April 2005 \|title=Plan B updates: Disappearing lakes, shrinking seas [web page] \|publisher=Earth Policy Institute \|place=Washington, D.C. \|url=http://www.earth-policy.org/plan_b_updates/2005/update47 \|access-date=13 July 2011 \|archive-date=24 April 2021 \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210424170923/http://www.earth-policy.org/plan_b_updates/2005/update47 \|url-status=live}} * {{Citation \|last1=van der Leeuw \|first1=S. E. \|title=Climate and Society: Lessons from the Past 10,000 Years \|journal=[[Ambio\|Ambio: A Journal of the Human Environment]] \|date=2008 \|volume=37 \|pages=476–482 \|doi=10.1579/0044-7447-37.sp14.476 \|pmid=19205123 \|bibcode=2008Ambio..37S.476V \|s2cid=25602752}} {{cite news \|last1=Lewis \|first1=Leo \|title=Scientists warn of lack of vital phosphorus as biofuels raise demands \|newspaper=Times Online \|date=23 June 2008 \|url=http://www.foodandwatersecurity.net/data/172.pdf \|url-status=dead \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110723130701/http://www.foodandwatersecurity.net/data/172.pdf \|archive-date=23 July 2011}} {{Citation \|last1=Lovelock \|first1=J. E. \|title=Gaia as seen through the atmosphere \|journal=Atmospheric Environment \|date=August 1972 \|volume=6 \|issue=8 \|pages=579–580 \|doi=10.1016/0004-6981(72)90076-5 \|issn=1352-2310 \|bibcode=1972AtmEn...6..579L}} * {{Cite journal \|last1=Lovelock \|first1=J.E. \|last2=Margulis \|first2=L. \|date=1974 \|title=Atmospheric homeostasis by and for the biosphere: the gaia hypothesis \|journal=Tellus A \|volume=26 \|issue=1–2 \|pages=2–10 \|doi=10.3402/tellusa.v26i1-2.9731 \|doi-access=free \|s2cid=129803613 \|language=en \|bibcode=1974Tell...26....2L }} * {{citation \|first1=G. \|last1=Mace \|first2=H. \|last2=Masundire \|first3=J. \|last3=Baillie \|contribution=Biodiversity \|pages=79–115 \|editor1-first=R.M. \|editor1-last=Hassan \|editor2-first=R. \|editor2-last=Scholes \|editor3-first=N. \|editor3-last=Ash \|title=Ecosystems and human well-being: current state and trends : findings of the Condition and Trends Working Group of the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment \|date=2005 \|isbn=978-1-55963-228-7 \|lccn=2005017196 \|series=The millennium ecosystem assessment series \|publisher=[[Island Press]] \|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UFVmiSAr-okC \|access-date=7 November 2016 \|archive-date=10 April 2017 \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170410012806/https://books.google.com/books?id=UFVmiSAr-okC \|url-status=live}} * {{citation \|ref=CITEREFMartinHenrichsothers2010 \|first1=J. \|last1=Martin \|first2=T. \|last2=Henrichs \|display-authors=etal \|year=2010 \|title=The European environment – state and outlook 2010, Chapter 7: environmental challenges in a global context \|publisher=European Environment Agency \|url=http://www.eea.europa.eu/soer/synthesis/synthesis/chapter7.xhtml \|access-date=7 June 2011 \|archive-date=28 September 2011 \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110928201812/http://www.eea.europa.eu/soer/synthesis/synthesis/chapter7.xhtml \|url-status=live}} {{citation \|ref=CITEREFMeadowsothers1972 \|first1=D. H. \|last1=Meadows \|first2=D. L. \|last2=Meadows \|first3=J. \|last3=Randers \|first4=W. W. \|last4=Behrens III \|year=1972 \|title=''The Limits to Growth'': a report for the Club of Rome's project on the predicament of mankind \|publisher=Universe Books \|isbn=978-0-87663-165-2 \|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ulyPB2pl0SwC&q=intitle:the+intitle:limits+intitle:to+intitle:growth \|access-date=7 November 2016 \|archive-date=21 November 2021 \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211121224252/https://books.google.com/books?id=ulyPB2pl0SwC&q=intitle%3Athe+intitle%3Alimits+intitle%3Ato+intitle%3Agrowth \|url-status=live}} {{citation \|first1=Toni \|last1=Meier \|date=2017 \|title=Planetary boundaries of agriculture and nutrition – an Anthropocene approach \|magazine=Proceedings of the Symposium on Communicating and Designing the Future of Food in the Anthropocene. Humboldt University Berlin, Bachmann Publisher \|url=http://www.nutrition-impacts.org/media/2017_TMeier_planetary_boundaries_agriculture_nutrition.pdf \|access-date=6 May 2017 \|archive-date=13 September 2017 \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170913232233/http://www.nutrition-impacts.org/media/2017_TMeier_planetary_boundaries_agriculture_nutrition.pdf \|url-status=live}} {{citation \|first1=N. I. \|last1=Meyer \|first2=J. S. \|last2=Nørgård \|date=2010 \|title=Policy Means for Sustainable Energy Scenarios (abstract) \|publisher=International Conference on Energy, Environment and Health – Optimisation of Future Energy Systems \|place=Denmark \|pages=133–137 \|url=http://www2.dmu.dk/1_om_dmu/2_afdelinger/3_atmi/ceeh/Collection%20of%20Extended%20Abstracts.pdf#page=134 \|access-date=5 July 2011 \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161009062231/http://www2.dmu.dk/1_om_dmu/2_afdelinger/3_atmi/ceeh/Collection%20of%20Extended%20Abstracts.pdf#page=134 \|archive-date=9 October 2016 \|url-status=dead}} {{citation \|last1=Molden \|first1=D. \|title=Planetary boundaries: The devil is in the detail \|department=[commentary] \|journal=Nature Reports Climate Change \|issue=910 \|page=116 \|date=2009 \|volume=1 \|doi=10.1038/climate.2009.97 \|doi-access=free}} {{citation \|author1-link=Mario J. Molina \|last1=Molina \|first1=M. J. \|date=2009 \|title=Planetary boundaries: Identifying abrupt change \|department=[commentary] \|journal=Nature Reports Climate Change \|volume=1 \|issue=910 \|pages=115–116 \|doi=10.1038/climate.2009.96 \|doi-access=free}} {{cite journal \|last1=Neset \|first1=Tina-Simone S. \|last2=Cordell \|first2=Dana \|title=Global phosphorus scarcity: identifying synergies for a sustainable future \|journal=Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture \|volume=92 \|issue=1 \|pages=2–6 \|year=2011 \|doi=10.1002/jsfa.4650 \|pmid=21969145}} * {{citation \|first1=M. \|last1=Palaniappan \|first2=P. H. \|last2=Gleick \|contribution=Peak Water \|editor1-first=P. H. \|editor1-last=Gleick \|editor2-first=H. \|editor2-last=Cooley \|editor3-first=M. \|editor3-last=Morikawa \|date=2008 \|title=The World's Water 2008–2009: The Biennial Report on Freshwater Resources \|publisher=Island Press \|isbn=978-1-59726-505-8 \|url=http://www.worldwater.org/data20082009/ch01.pdf \|url-status=dead \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090320104604/http://www.worldwater.org/data20082009/ch01.pdf \|archive-date=20 March 2009}} <small>See also: [[Peak water]].</small> * {{citation \|ref=CITEREFPetitothers1999 \|last1=Petit \|first1=JR \|last2=Jouzel \|first2=J \|last3=Raynaud \|first3=D \|last4=Barkov \|first4=NI \|last5=Barnola \|first5=JM \|last6=Basile \|first6=I \|last7=Bender \|first7=M \|last8=Chappellaz \|first8=J \|last9=Davis \|first9=M \|last10=Delaygue \|first10=G \|last11=Delmotte \|first11=M \|last12=Kotlyakov \|first12=VM \|last13=Legrand \|first13=M \|last14=Lipenkov \|first14=VY \|last15=Lorius \|first15=C \|last16=Pépin \|first16=L \|last17=Ritz \|first17=C \|last18=Saltzman \|first18=E \|last19=Stievenard \|first19=M \|year=1999 \|title=Climate and atmospheric history of the past 420,000 years from the Vostok ice core, Antarctica \|journal=Nature \|volume=399 \|issue=6735 \|pages=429–36 \|url=http://www.daycreek.com/dc/images/1999.pdf \|doi=10.1038/20859 \|bibcode=1999Natur.399..429P \|s2cid=204993577 \|access-date=7 July 2011 \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171117025013/http://www.daycreek.com/dc/images/1999.pdf \|archive-date=17 November 2017 \|url-status=dead}} * {{Citation \|ref=CITEREFRioualothers2001 \|last1=Rioual \|first1=P. \|last2=Andrieu-Ponel \|first2=V. R. \|last3=Rietti-Shati \|first3=M. \|last4=Battarbee \|first4=R. W. \|last5=De Beaulieu \|first5=J. L. \|last6=Cheddadi \|first6=R. \|last7=Reille \|first7=M. \|last8=Svobodova \|first8=H. \|last9=Shemesh \|first9=A. \|title=High-resolution record of climate stability in France during the last interglacial period \|journal=Nature \|year=2001 \|volume=413 \|issue=6853 \|pages=293–296 \|pmid=11565028 \|doi=10.1038/35095037 \|bibcode=2001Natur.413..293R \|s2cid=4347303}} * {{citation \|author1-link=Johan Rockström \|first=Johan \|last=Rockström \|title=Planetary Boundaries: Exploring the Safe Operating Space for Humanity \|type=presentation \|publisher=Stockholm Resilience Centre \|date=26 October 2009 \|id=Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services, Master Class, [[Club of Rome]] General Assembly, 26 Oct 2009 \|url=http://www.clubofrome.at/2009/amsterdam/p/9rockstroem.pdf \|access-date=3 July 2011 \|archive-date=14 November 2012 \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121114182919/http://www.clubofrome.at/2009/amsterdam/p/9rockstroem.pdf \|url-status=dead}} <!-- Ref was "Rockströmothers2009a". --> {{citation \|ref={{sfnref\|Rockström\|28 others\|2009}} \|display-authors=1 \|last1=Rockström \|first1=J \|author1-link=Johan Rockström \|last2=Steffen \|first2=WL \|author2-link=William L. Steffen \|last3=Noone \|first3=K \|last4=Persson \|first4=Å \|last5=Chapin III \|first5=FS \|last6=Lambin \|first6=EF \|author7-link=Tim Lenton \|last7=Lenton \|first7=TM \|last8=Scheffer \|first8=M \|last9=Folke \|first9=C \|author10-link=Hans Joachim Schellnhuber \|last10=Schellnhuber \|first10=HJ \|last11=Nykvist \|first11=B \|last12=de Wit \|first12=CA \|last13=Hughes \|first13=T \|last14=van der Leeuw \|first14=S \|last15=Rodhe \|first15=H \|last16=Sörlin \|first16=S \|last17=Snyder \|first17=PK \|author18-link=Robert Costanza \|last18=Costanza \|first18=R \|last19=Svedin \|first19=U \|last20=Falkenmark \|first20=M \|last21=Karlberg \|first21=L \|author22-link=Robert Corell \|last22=Corell \|first22=RW \|last23=Fabry \|first23=VJ \|author24-link=James Hansen \|last24=Hansen \|first24=J \|author25-link=Brian Walker (ecologist) \|last25=Walker \|first25=B \|last26=Liverman \|first26=D \|author27-link=Katherine Richardson \|last27=Richardson \|first27=K \|author28-link=Paul Crutzen \|last28=Crutzen \|first28=P \|last29=Foley \|first29=JA \|year=2009 \|title=Planetary Boundaries: Exploring the Safe Operating Space for Humanity \|journal=[[Ecology and Society]] \|volume=14 \|issue=2 \|page=32 \|url=http://www.stockholmresilience.org/download/18.8615c78125078c8d3380002197/ES-2009-3180.pdf \|doi=10.5751/ES-03180-140232 \|doi-access=free}}<!-- MOVED FROM WITHIN TEXT TO KEEP TOGETHER: [[Johan Rockström\|Rockström J]], [[William L. Steffen\|Steffen W]], Noone K, Persson Å, Chapin III FS, Lambin EF, [[Tim Lenton\|Lenton TM]], Scheffer M, Folke C, [[Hans Joachim Schellnhuber\|Schellnhuber HJ]], Nykvist B, de Wit CA, Hughes T, van der Leeuw S, Rodhe H, Sörlin S, Snyder PK, [[Robert Costanza\|Costanza R]], Svedin U, Falkenmark M, Karlberg L, [[Robert Corell\|Corell RW]], Fabry VJ, [[James Hansen\|Hansen J]], [[Brian Walker (ecologist)\|Walker B]], Liverman D, [[Katherine Richardson\|Richardson K]], [[Paul Crutzen\|Crutzen P]] and Foley JA (2009) [http://www.stockholmresilience.org/download/18.8615c78125078c8d3380002197/ES-2009-3180.pdf "Planetary Boundaries: Exploring the Safe Operating Space for Humanity"] ''[[Ecology and Society]],'' '''14'''(2): 32 --> {{Citation \|author1-link=Cristián Samper \|last1=Samper \|first1=C. \|title=Planetary boundaries: Rethinking biodiversity \|department=[commentary] \|journal=Nature Reports Climate Change \|volume=1 \|issue=910 \|pages=118–119 \|date=2009 \|doi=10.1038/climate.2009.99 \|doi-access=free}} * {{citation \|first1=R. N. \|last1=Sandford \|date=2009 \|title=Restoring the flow : confronting the world's water woes \|publisher=Rocky Mountain Books \|location=Victoria B.C \|isbn=978-1-897522-52-3 \|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rtlsGsb9I4wC&q=%22Restoring+the+flow:+confronting+the+world%27s+water+woes%22&pg=PA1 \|access-date=16 October 2020 \|archive-date=21 November 2021 \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211121224233/https://books.google.com/books?id=rtlsGsb9I4wC&q=%22Restoring+the+flow%3A+confronting+the+world%27s+water+woes%22&pg=PA1 \|url-status=live}} * {{Citation \|author1-link=William H. Schlesinger \|last1=Schlesinger \|first1=W. H. \|title=Planetary boundaries: Thresholds risk prolonged degradation \|department=[commentary] \|journal=Nature Reports Climate Change \|issue=910 \|page=112 \|date=2009 \|volume=1 \|doi=10.1038/climate.2009.93 \|doi-access=free}} * {{citation \|editor1-first=I. A. \|editor1-last=Shiklomanov \|editor2-first=J. C. \|editor2-last=Rodda \|title=World water resources at the beginning of the twenty-first century \|publisher=Cambridge University Press \|year=2003 \|isbn=978-0-521-61722-2 \|url=http://catdir.loc.gov/catdir/samples/cam034/2002031201.pdf \|bibcode=2004wwrb.book.....S \|access-date=6 July 2011 \|archive-date=13 March 2012 \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120313142124/http://catdir.loc.gov/catdir/samples/cam034/2002031201.pdf \|url-status=live}} <!-- A volume of papers. Which one is being cited?? --> * {{citation \|last1=Steffen \|first1=W. \|last2=Crutzen \|first2=P. J. \|last3=McNeill \|first3=J. R. \|author2-link=Paul J. Crutzen \|title=The Anthropocene: Are Humans Now Overwhelming the Great Forces of Nature \|journal=[[Ambio\|Ambio: A Journal of the Human Environment]] \|volume=36 \|issue=8 \|pages=614–21 \|date=2007 \|issn=0044-7447 \|doi=10.1579/0044-7447(2007)36[614:TAAHNO]2.0.CO;2 \|pmid=18240674 \|hdl=1885/29029 \|s2cid=16218015 \|hdl-access=free}} * {{citation \|author1-link=Nicholas Stern, Baron Stern of Brentford \|first1=Nicholas \|last1=Stern \|title=The economics of climate change : the Stern review \|publisher=Cambridge University Press \|date=2007 \|isbn=978-0-521-70080-1 \|url=http://www.hm-treasury.gov.uk/sternreview_index.htm \|archive-url=http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20100407174731/http://www.hm-treasury.gov.uk/sternreview_index.htm \|url-status=dead \|archive-date=2010-04-07}} <small>The web page inverts the book title.</small> {{citation \|ref={{harvid\|Stockholm Memorandum\|2011}} \|date=18 May 2011 \|title=The Stockholm Memorandum: Tipping the Scales towards Sustainability \|type=presentation \|at=Third Nobel Laureate Symposium on Global Sustainability, Stockholm, 16–19 May 2011 \|url=http://globalsymposium2011.org/wp-content/uploads/2011/05/The-Stockholm-Memorandum.pdf \|access-date=23 June 2011 \|archive-date=23 May 2011 \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110523202156/http://globalsymposium2011.org/wp-content/uploads/2011/05/The-Stockholm-Memorandum.pdf \|url-status=live}} {{citation \|first1=Graham \|last1=Turner \|date=2008 \|title=A comparison of ''The Limits to Growth'' with thirty years of reality \|publisher=Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation ([[CSIRO]]) Sustainable Ecosystems \|url=http://www.csiro.au/files/files/plje.pdf \|url-status=dead \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101128151523/http://www.csiro.au/files/files/plje.pdf \|archive-date=28 November 2010}} {{citation \|ref={{sfnref\|UNEP\|2010}} \|author1-link=United Nations Environment Programme \|author=United Nations Environment Programme \|title=Year Book 2010: New Science and Developments in Our Changing Environment \|publisher=United Nations Environment Programme. Division of Early Warning and Assessment \|year=2010 \|place=Nairobi, Kenya \|isbn=978-92-807-3044-9 \|url=http://www.unep.org/yearbook/2010/PDF/year_book_2010.pdf \|access-date=2 July 2011 \|archive-date=25 January 2011 \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110125052313/http://www.unep.org/yearbook/2010/PDF/year_book_2010.pdf \|url-status=live}} {{citation \|ref=CITEREFUN Agenda 21 \|author=United Nations General Assembly \|date=16 August 2010 \|title=Implementation of Agenda 21, the Programme for the Further Implementation of Agenda 21 and the outcomes of the World Summit on Sustainable Development \|at=Report of the Secretary-General to the General Assembly of the United Nations \|url=http://www.iom.int/jahia/webdav/shared/shared/mainsite/policy_and_research/un/65/A_65_298.pdf \|access-date=26 October 2011 \|archive-date=3 June 2012 \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120603224846/http://www.iom.int/jahia/webdav/shared/shared/mainsite/policy_and_research/un/65/A_65_298.pdf \|url-status=live}} * {{citation \|ref={{sfnref\|UN GSP 2 meeting\|2011}} \|author=United Nations High-level Panel on Global Sustainability \|date=February 2011 \|title=Meeting Report \|at=Second meeting of the Panel, Cape Town, 24–25 February 2011 \|url=https://www.un.org/wcm/webdav/site/climatechange/shared/gsp/docs/GSP2%20meeting%20report.pdf \|access-date=29 June 2017 \|archive-date=4 March 2016 \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304054828/http://www.un.org/wcm/webdav/site/climatechange/shared/gsp/docs/GSP2%20meeting%20report.pdf \|url-status=live}} * {{citation \|ref={{sfnref\|UN Sherpa 3 meeting\|2011}} \|author=United Nations High-level Panel on Global Sustainability \|date=April 2011 \|title=Meeting Report \|at=Report of the meeting of the GSP Sherpas held in Madrid, Spain, 13–14 April 2011 \|url=https://www.un.org/wcm/webdav/site/climatechange/shared/gsp/docs/Madrid%20Sherpa%20Meeting%20Report%20%5B3%20May%202011%5D.pdf \|access-date=29 June 2017 \|archive-date=4 March 2016 \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304002225/http://www.un.org/wcm/webdav/site/climatechange/shared/gsp/docs/Madrid%20Sherpa%20Meeting%20Report%20%5B3%20May%202011%5D.pdf \|url-status=live}} * {{cite report \|ref={{sfnref\|UN GSP meeting\|2012}} \|author=United Nations High-level Panel on Global Sustainability \|date=2012 \|title=Resilient People, Resilient Planet: A future worth choosing \|publisher=United Nations \|location=New York \|url=https://www.un.org/gsp/sites/default/files/attachments/GSPReport_unformatted_30Jan.pdf \|access-date=30 January 2012 \|archive-date=8 February 2012 \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120208173721/http://www.un.org/gsp/sites/default/files/attachments/GSPReport_unformatted_30Jan.pdf \|url-status=live}} * {{citation \|first1=D. P. \|last1=van Vuuren \|first2=A. \|last2=Faber \|date=2009 \|title=Growing within Limits – A Report to the Global Assembly 2009 of the Club of Rome \|publisher=[[Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency]] \|isbn=978-90-6960-234-9 \|url=http://www.pbl.nl/bibliotheek/rapporten/500201001.pdf}} * {{Citation \|ref=CITEREFZalasiewiczothers2010 \|last1=Zalasiewicz \|first1=J. \|last2=Williams \|first2=M. \|last3=Steffen \|first3=W. \|last4=Crutzen \|first4=P. \|title=The New World of the Anthropocene \|journal=Environmental Science & Technology \|volume=44 \|issue=7 \|pages=2228–2231 \|year=2010 \|doi=10.1021/es903118j \|pmid=20184359 \|url=http://ts-si.org/files/doi101021es903118j.pdf \|bibcode=2010EnST...44.2228Z \|hdl=1885/36498 \|hdl-access=free \|access-date=11 July 2011 \|archive-date=2 October 2011 \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111002190545/http://ts-si.org/files/doi101021es903118j.pdf \|url-status=live}} {{refend}} ==External links== {{Commons category\|Planetary boundaries}} * [https://www.stockholmresilience.org/research/planetary-boundaries/planetary-boundaries-data.html Figures and data] for the updated Planetary Boundaries can be found at the [[Stockholm Resilience Centre]] website. * [http://www.nature.com/news/specials/planetaryboundaries/index.html#feature Planetary Boundaries: Specials] ''[[Nature (journal)\|Nature]],'' 24 September 2009. * [https://www.ted.com/talks/johan_rockstrom_let_the_environment_guide_our_development Johan Rockstrom: Let the environment guide our development] [[TED (conference)\|TED]] video, July 2010. [http://initforthegold.blogspot.com/2010/09/rockstrom-on-planetary-boundaries.html Transcript html] * {{YouTube\|id=SieN0IrZ5wg\|title=The Planetary Boundaries and what they mean for the Future of Humanity}} {{human impact on the environment\|state=expanded}} {{Globalization\|state=autocollapse}} {{Sustainability\|state=expanded}} {{Portal bar\|Environment\|Ecology\|Earth sciences\|Biology}} [[Category:Earth sciences]] [[Category:Global environmental issues]] [[Category:Globalization]] [[Category:Sustainability]] [[Category:Criticism of capitalism]]
Sustainable growth rate	According to [[Profit impact of marketing strategy\|PIMS]] (profit impact of marketing strategy), an important lever of business success is growth. Among 37 variables, growth is mentioned as one of the most important variables for success: market share, market growth, marketing expense to sales ratio<ref name="Lancaster2001" /> or a strong market position.<ref name="Dibb2005" /> The question how much growth is sustainable is answered by two concepts with different perspectives: * The '''sustainable growth rate''' ('''SGR''') concept by Robert C. Higgins, describes optimal growth from a financial perspective assuming a given strategy with clear defined financial frame conditions/ limitations. Sustainable growth is defined as the annual percentage of increase in sales that is consistent with a defined financial policy (target debt to equity ratio, target [[dividend payout ratio]], target [[profit margin]], target ratio of [[total assets]] to [[net sales]]). This concept provides a comprehensive financial framework and formula for case/ company specific SGR calculations.<ref name="Higgins1977" /> * The '''optimal growth''' concept by Martin Handschuh, Hannes Lösch, Björn Heyden et al. assesses sustainable growth from a total shareholder return creation and profitability perspective—independent of a given strategy, business model and/ or financial frame condition. This concept is based on statistical long-term assessments and is enriched by case examples. It provides an orientation frame for case/ company specific mid- to long-term growth target setting.<ref name="Boernsen2011" /> ==From a financial perspective== {{seealso\|Stock valuation#Growth rate\|Earnings growth\|Growth stock\|Dividend discount model#Growth cannot exceed cost of equity\|PEG ratio\|PVGO}} The sustainable growth rate is the growth rate in profits that a company can reasonably achieve, consistent with its established [[financial policy]]. Relatedly, an assumption re the company's sustainable growth rate is a required input to several valuation models {{--}} for instance the [[Gordon model]] and other [[discounted cash flow]] models {{--}} where this is used in the calculation of continuing or [[terminal value (finance)\|terminal value]]; see [[Valuation using discounted cash flows]]. Several formulae are available here.<ref>See for example, [https://ssrn.com/abstract=256987 Valuing Companies by Cash Flow Discounting: Ten Methods and Nine Theories], Pablo Fernandez: University of Navarra - IESE Business School</ref> In general, these link long term profitability targets, [[dividend policy]], and [[capital structure]] assumptions, returning the sustainable, long-run business growth-rate attainable as a function of these. These formulae reflect the general requirement that all assumptions are internally consistent; see {{sectionlink\|Financial modeling#Accounting}}. The sustainable growth rate may be returned via the following formula: <ref>Chapter 4 in {{cite book \| author= Robert C. Higgins \| title=Analysis for Financial Management \| publisher=[[McGraw-Hill]] \| year=2018\| isbn=978-1259918964\| edition=12th }}</ref> :<math>\text{SGR} = \frac{\mathrm{pm}\cdot(1-d)\cdot(1+L)}{T-(\mathrm{pm}\cdot(1-d)\cdot(1+L))}</math> :* {{math\|pm}} is the existing and target profit margin :* {{mvar\|d}} is the target dividend payout ratio :* {{mvar\|L}} is the target total debt to equity ratio :* {{mvar\|T}} is the ratio of total assets to sales Note that the model presented here, assumes several simplifications: the [[profit margin]] remains stable; the proportion of assets and sales remains stable; related, the value of existing assets is maintained after [[depreciation]]; the company maintains its current capital structure and [[dividend policy\|dividend payout policy]]. A check on the formula inputs, and on the resultant growth number, is provided by a respective twofold economic argument. {{olist\|list-style-type=lower-roman \| The [[macroeconomic]] check: The long-run growth of the company (industry) cannot exceed overall [[economic growth]] by any significant amount {{--}} otherwise the company in question would eventually constitute the bulk of the economy; see {{sectionlink\|Earnings growth#Relationship with GDP growth}}. A calculated growth rate, where the given assumptions are input to a growth formula, can then also act a check as to whether [[budget]]s or [[business plan]]s are reasonable. \| The [[microeconomic]] argument: Where the ([[Risk-adjusted return on capital\|risk adjusted]]) [[Return on capital]] is significantly higher than achievable in other industries, then this success will attract [[Competition (economics)\|competition]]; in the long-run then, the company's returns will tend to those of its industry, in turn tending to the economy; see [[Profit (economics)]]. Formulae inputs {{--}} i.e. assumed profit as compared to targeted capital structure {{--}} must be limited correspondingly. }} Often, the [[risk-free rate]] can serve as a proxy, or limit, for the growth rate. <ref>wallstreetprep.com (2023). [https://www.wallstreetprep.com/knowledge/terminal-value/ What is Terminal Value?]</ref> ==Optimal growth rates from a total shareholder value creation and profitability perspective== '''Optimal growth''' according to Martin Handschuh, Hannes Lösch and Björn Heyden is the growth rate which assures sustainable company development – considering the long-term relationship between revenue growth, total [[shareholder value]] creation and profitability. Assessment basis: The work is based on assessments on the performance of more than 3500 stock-listed companies with an initial revenue of greater 250 million Euro globally and across industries over a period of 12 years from 1997 till 2009. Due to this long time period, the authors consider their findings as to a large extent independent of specific economic cycles.<ref name="Boernsen2011" /> ===Relationship between revenue growth, total shareholder value creation and profitability=== In the long-term and across industries, total shareholder value creation (stock price development plus dividend payments) rises steadily with increasing revenue growth rates. The more long-term revenue growth companies realize, the more investors appreciate this and the more they get rewarded. [[File:Graf1 revenue.JPG]] [[Return on assets]] (ROA), [[return on sales]] (ROS) and [[return on equity]] (ROE) do rise with increasing revenue growth up to 10 to 25% and then fall with further increasing revenue growth rates. [[File:Graf2 profitability.JPG]] Also the combined ROX-index (average of ROA, ROS and ROE) shows rises with increasing growth rates to a broad maximum in the range of 10 to 25% revenue growth per year and falls towards higher growth rates. [[File:Graf3 rox.JPG]] The authors attribute the continuous profitability increase towards the maximum of two effects: # '''Profitability drives growth: ''' Companies with substantial profitability have the opportunity to invest more in additional growth. # '''Growth drives profitability: ''' Substantial growth may be a driver for additional profitability, e.g. by higher attractiveness for high performing young professionals, higher employee motivation, higher attractiveness for business partners as well as higher self-confidence. Beyond the profitability maximum extra efforts to handle additional growth – e.g. based on integrating new staff in large dimensions and handling culture and quality - do rise sharply and reduce overall profitability. The combination of the patterns of revenue growth, total shareholder value creation and profitability indicates three growth zones: [[File:Graf4 zones of growth.JPG]] * '''Low Return: ''' Low profitability and low value generation below 10% per year * '''Long-term Sweet-Spot: ''' Solid value generation and highest on average profitability in the revenue growth interval from 10% to 25% per year * '''High Speed: ''' Even higher total shareholder value generation however in combination with lower profitability beyond 25% per year Growth rates of the assessed companies are widely independent of initial company size/market share which is in alignment with [[Gibrat's law]]. Gibrat's law, sometimes called Gibrat's rule of proportionate growth is a rule defined by [[Robert Gibrat]] (1904–1980) stating that the size of a firm and its growth rate are independent. Independent of industry consolidation and industry growth rate, companies in many industries with growth rates in the range of 10 to 25% revenue growth p.a. have both, higher total shareholder value generation as well as profitability than their slower growing peers. ===Base strategies and growth moves=== These findings do suggest two base strategies for companies: * For companies (e.g. in established markets like central Europe and USA) with low single-digit growth rates: Consider acceleration of growth given the fact that corporate social responsibility (CSR) and profitability are higher in the sweet-spot. * For companies (e.g. in fast growing regional markets like China with India and/ or rapidly growing industry segments) with growth rates beyond 25%: Consider best ways to “digest” and to stabilize rapid growth and ensure a “soft landing” should market growth come to a sudden stop. ===How to achieve long-term growth in the sweet-spot and beyond=== The authors have identified a set of preconditions and levers to achieve long-term growth in their defined sweet-spot and beyond: ====Preconditions==== * Generating a common understanding regarding growth and profit ambitions among the management team as a prerequisite for aligned and coordinated strategy development and implementation. * Understanding relevant markets (current or future promising markets). Generating market foresight when identifying and assessing growth initiatives, e.g. [[megatrends]] and [[Scenario planning\|scenario analyses]], segment specific [[benchmarking]] and in depth assessments, market demand projections. ====Levers and strategy==== * Applying formulas for rapid growth, e.g. maxing out the number of relevant customers, maxing out the share of wallet and lifecycle potentials, continuous innovation, killer offerings, network based growth, M&A/buy-and-build driven growth, franchising proven business concepts, pyramid-like network expansion and managing value networks * Defining the growth strategy as a portfolio of best suited growth initiatives considering a multidimensional set of criteria, e.g. ease of implementation, growth and profit impact, expected risk vs. return, [[cash flow]] stability * Making growth happen: Strategy and corresponding culture must be addressed in a consistent way, e.g. [[change management\|creating the case for growth]], clearly defining and communicating vision and strategy as well as actively developing and energizing the organization.<ref name="Boernsen2011" /> A study be Davidsson et al. (2009) found that small and medium-sized firms (SMEs) are much more likely to get a position of high growth AND high profitability starting from high profitability/low growth than from high growth/low profitability. Firms with the latter performance configuration instead more often transitioned to low growth/low profitability. Brännback et al. (2009) replicated these findings in a sample of biotech firms. Ben-Hafaïedh & Hamelin (2022) undertook a replication on more than 650,000 firms and confirmed the same main result separately in each of 28 studied countries as well as across industry sectors, firm age and size classes, time spans from 1 to 7 years, alternative growth and profitability measures, and using several alternative analysis techniques. The conclusion is that firms do usually not grow into profitability. Instead, profitable growth usually starts with a sound level of profitability at smaller scale. These are arguably among the most consistently data-supported conclusions in all of business research. ==Criticism== As described the sustainable growth rate (SGR) concept by Robert C. Higgins is based on several assumptions such as constant [[profit margin]], constant [[debt to equity ratio]] or constant asset to sales ratio. Therefore, general applicability of SGR concept in cases where these parameters are not stable is limited. The Optimal Growth concept by Martin Handschuh, Hannes Lösch, Björn Heyden et al. has no restrictions to certain strategies or business model and is therefore more flexible in its applicability. However, as a broad framework, it only provides an orientation for case/company specific mid- to long-term growth target setting. Additional company and market specific considerations, e.g. market growth, growth culture, appetite for change, are required to come up with the optimal growth rate of a specific company. Additionally, considering the increasing criticism of excessive growth and shareholder value orientation by philosophers, economists and also managers, e.g. [[Stéphane Hessel]], [[Kenneth Boulding]], [[Jack Welch]] (nowadays), one might expect that investors' investment criteria might also change in the future. This may lead to changes in the relationship of revenue growth rates and total shareholder value creation. Regular reviews of the optimal growth assessments may be used as an indicator for the development of stock markets` appetite for rapid growth. ==References== {{Reflist\|refs= <ref name="Dibb2005">Dibb, Sally; Simkin, Lyndon; Pride, William (2005): Marketing.Concepts and Strategies, 5th edition, Houghton Mifflin, p. 676</ref> <ref name="Higgins1977">Higgins, Robert (1977): How much growth can a firm afford, Financial Management 6 (3) p. 7-16</ref> <ref name="Lancaster2001">Lancaster, Geoff; Massingham, Lester; Ashford, Ruth (2001): Essentials of Marketing: Text and Cases, Mcgraw-Hill Higher Education, p. 535</ref> <ref name="Boernsen2011">Börnsen, Arne; Körner, Florian (2011): Optimal Growth, Conceptualization of a strategy to benefit from Optimal Growth, Mannheim Business School</ref> }} Ben-Hafaïedh, C., & Hamelin, A. (2022). Questioning the Growth Dogma: A Replication Study. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 10422587211059991. Brännback, M., Carsrud, A., Renko, M., Östermark, R., Aaltonen, J., & Kiviluoto, N. (2009). Growth and profitability in small privately held biotech firms: Preliminary findings. New Biotechnology, 25(5), 369-376. Davidsson, P., Steffens, P., & Fitzsimmons, J. (2009). Growing profitable or growing from profits: Putting the horse in front of the cart? Journal of Business Venturing, 24(4), 388-406. ==Further reading== * Fonseka, Mohan; Tian, Gaoloang (2011): The most appropriate Sustainable Growth Rate (SGR) Model for Managers and Researchers, American Accounting Association * Graeme, Deans; Kroeger, Fritz (2004): ''Stretch!: How Great Companies Grow in Good Times and Bad'', John Wiley & Sons * Handschuh, Martin (2011): What we can learn from self-made billionaires?, WHU Otto Beisheim School of Management lecture * Handschuh, Martin; Lösch, Hannes (2011): Optimal Growth – Does it exist and if so how to realize it?, Mannheim Business School lecture * Handschuh, Martin; Reinartz, Sebastian; Heyden, Björn (2011): Megafusionen als Lehrbuch, M&A Review 05/2011 * Higgins, Robert (1981): Sustainable growth under inflation, Financial Management 10 (4) p. 36-40 * Jonk, Gillis (2006): Resources for Growth, published in: executive agenda, ideas and insights for business leaders, volume IX, Number 1, 2006, A.T. Kearney * Lösch, Hannes (2017): [http://diglib.uibk.ac.at/ulbtirolhs/content/titleinfo/2341624?lang=de The high-growth company: Perils of excessive growth], Master thesis University of Innsbruck * Lösch, Hannes (2018): [https://limendo.com/optimales-wachstum/ Optimal Growth: Optimales Wachstum erhöht Ihren Unternehmenserfolg und steigert Ihren Wert]. * Neumann, Dietrich; Sonnenschein, Martin; Schumacher, Nikolas (2003): Fünf Wege zu organischem Wachstum: Wie Unternehmen antizyklischen Erfolg programmieren können, campus Verlag * Slywotzky, Adrian; Wise, Richard; Weber, Karl (2004): ''How to Grow When Markets Don’t: Discovering the New Drivers for Growth'' * Sonnenschein, Martin (2011): ''Innovation and Growth in Volatile Times'', Stuttgarter Strategieforum * Velthius, Carol (2010): ''Surfing the Long Summer: How Market Leaders Grow Faster Than Their Markets, Infinite Ideas'' * Zook, Chris (2007): ''[[Unstoppable: Finding Hidden Assets to Renew the Core and Fuel Profitable Growth]]''; Mcgraw-Hill Professional * Zook, Chris; Allen, James (2010): ''Profit from the Core: A Return to Growth in Turbulent Times''; Harvard Business Press {{Financial ratios}} [[Category:Financial ratios]] [[Category:Strategic management]] [[Category:Sustainability]]
Cultural sustainability	[[File:Johannesburg Profile, Level 2, 2013.jpg\|thumb\|upright=1.35\|A sustainability profile for Johannesburg using the [[Circles of Sustainability]] approach that includes culture as one of its major domains.<ref>{{Cite book \| last1= James \| first1= Paul \| author-link= Paul James (academic) \| last2= with Magee \| first2= Liam \| last3= Scerri \| first3= Andy \| last4= Steger \| first4= Manfred B. \| title= Urban Sustainability in Theory and Practice: Circles of Sustainability \| url= https://www.academia.edu/9294719 \| year= 2015 \| publisher= Routledge \| location= London\| isbn= 9781315765747 }}</ref>]] [[File:Sustainable development.svg\|thumb\|The Three Pillars of Sustainability]] '''Cultural sustainability''' as it relates to [[sustainable development]] (or to [[sustainability]]), has to do with maintaining cultural beliefs, [[cultural practice]]s, [[Historic preservation\|heritage conservation]], culture as its own entity, and the question of whether or not any given cultures will exist in the future.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal\|last1=Soini\|first1=Katriina\|last2=Birkland\|first2=Inger\|year=2014\|title=Exploring the scientific discourse on cultural sustainability\|journal=Geoforum\|volume=51\|pages=213–223\|doi=10.1016/j.geoforum.2013.12.001}}</ref> From cultural heritage to cultural and creative industries, culture is both an enabler and a driver of the economic, social, and environmental dimensions of sustainable development.<ref>Culture for Sustainable Development. (2020, July 23). Retrieved October 23, 2020, from https://en.unesco.org/themes/culture-sustainable-development</ref> Culture is defined as a set of beliefs, morals, methods, institutions and a collection of human knowledge that is dependent on the transmission of these characteristics to younger generations.<ref>{{Cite web\|url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/culture\|title=Definition of CULTURE\|website=www.merriam-webster.com\|language=en\|access-date=2017-03-30}}</ref> Cultural sustainability has been categorized under the social pillar of the three pillars of sustainability, but some argue that cultural sustainability should be its own pillar, due to its growing importance within social, political, environmental, and economic spheres.<ref name=":0" /> The importance of cultural sustainability lies within its influential power over the people, as decisions that are made within the context of society are heavily weighed by the beliefs of that society.<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Cite journal \|last1=Bender \|first1=Oliver \|last2=Haller \|first2=Andreas \|year=2017 \|title=The cultural embeddedness of population mobility in the Alps: Consequences for sustainable development \|journal=Norsk Geografisk Tidsskrift - Norwegian Journal of Geography \|volume=71 \|issue=3 \|pages=132–145 \|doi=10.1080/00291951.2017.1317661 \|doi-access=free}}</ref> Cultural sustainability can be regarded as a fundamental issue, even a precondition to be met on the path towards [[sustainable development]]. However, the theoretical and conceptual understanding of cultural sustainability within the general frames of sustainable development remains vague. And consequently, the role of culture is poorly implemented in the environmental, as well as political and social policy. Determining the impact of cultural sustainability is found by investigating the concept of culture in the context of sustainable development, through multidisciplinary approaches and analyses. This means examining the best practices for bringing culture into political and social policy as well as practical domains, and developing means and indicators for assessing the impacts of culture on sustainable development.<ref name=":4" /> == Sociopolitical landscapes == Culture has an overwhelming effect on social, economic and political planning, but as of yet, has failed to be incorporated into social, and political policy on a grand scale.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal\|last1=Axelsson\|first1=Robert\|last2=Angelstam\|first2=Per\|last3=Degerman\|first3=Erik\|last4=Teitelbaum\|first4=Sara\|last5=Andersson\|first5=Kjell\|last6=Elbakidze\|first6=Marine\|last7=Drotz\|first7=Marcus K.\|date=2013-03-01\|title=Social and Cultural Sustainability: Criteria, Indicators, Verifier Variables for Measurement and Maps for Visualization to Support Planning\|journal=Ambio\|language=en\|volume=42\|issue=2\|pages=215–228\|doi=10.1007/s13280-012-0376-0\|issn=0044-7447\|pmc=3593035\|pmid=23475657}}</ref> However, certain policies regarding both policy and politics have managed to be implemented into some conventions that are implemented on a global scale.<ref name=":4" /> Culture is found everywhere within a society, from the relics of previous generations, to the accumulated values of a society.<ref name=":3" /> Culture within society can be divided into two, equally important subtopics that aid in the description of cultural specific characterizations. These categories, as defined by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization ([[UNESCO]]) are "Material" and "Immaterial".<ref name=":3" /> Material objects such as shrines, paintings, buildings, landscapes and other humanistic formations act as a physical representation of the culture in that area.<ref name=":3" /> Although they have little social and political utility, they serve as physical landmarks and culturally dependent objects whose meaning is created and maintained within the context of that society.<ref name=":0" /> The accumulation of these cultural characteristics are what measures a society's cultural integrity, and these characteristics are inherently capable of transforming landscapes of political, social and environment nature via the influence that these values and historical remains have on the population.<ref name=":3" /> Little success has come with the implementations of cultural policy within the context of politics due to a lack of empirical information regarding the topic of cultural sustainability.<ref name=":2" /> The Immaterial category contains more socially and politically applicable characteristics such as practices, traditions, aesthetics, knowledge, expressions etc.<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":6">{{Cite journal\|last=Chiu\|first=Rebecca\|year=2004\|title=Socio-Cultural Sustainability of Housing: a Conceptual Exploration\|url=http://journals2.scholarsportal.info.subzero.lib.uoguelph.ca/pdf/14036096/v21i0002/65_ssohace.xml\|journal=Housing, Theory and Society\|volume=21\|issue=2\|pages=65–76\|doi=10.1080/14036090410014999\|s2cid=154738373}}</ref> These characteristics embody social and political utility through education of people, housing, [[social justice]], [[human rights]], employment and more.<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":6" /> These values contribute to the well-being of a society through the use of collective thinking and ideals i.e. culture. Culture also presents more room for expansion on its effects on a society. Specifically, creativity, respect, empathy, and other practices are being used to create social integration and also to create a sense of "self" in the world.<ref name=":3" /> === Convention implementation === Implementation of policy on a global scale has had little success, but enough to show an increasing interest in the topic of Cultural Sustainability. The conventions that have been implemented, have done so on a large scale, involving multiple countries, across most continents. UNESCO has been responsible for the vast majority of these conventions, maintaining that cultural sustainability and cultural heritage are a strong cornerstone of society.<ref name=":5">{{Cite web\|url=http://www.unesco.org/culture/ich/en/convention\|title=Text of the Convention for the Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage - intangible heritage - Culture Sector - UNESCO\|website=www.unesco.org\|language=en\|access-date=2017-03-30}}</ref> One of the more relevant conventions created in 2003 is the "[[Convention for the Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage]]" which proclaims that culture must be protected against all adversarial combatants.<ref name=":5" /> This safeguard was implemented as an understanding that culture guarantees sustainability. Implementing policy based on cultural history is in the process of becoming a widely talked about subject and holds that cultures will be able to thrive in the context of both present and future. Conventions made by UNESCO regarding cultural preservation and sustainability are surrounding the promotion of [[cultural diversity]], which means multiple cultures and ideals within one grand culture.<ref name=":5" /><ref name=":0" /> == Cultural heritage == Cultural memorabilia and artifacts from a cultures history maintain an important role in modern society as they are kept as relics and shrines in order to remember the stories, knowledge, skills and methods of ancestors and learn invaluable lessons from the past. Today, cultures use libraries, art exhibits and museums as a placeholder for these important objects and other culturally significant artifacts.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal\|last1=Loach\|first1=Kirsten\|last2=Rowley\|first2=Jennifer\|last3=Griffiths\|first3=Jillian\|date=2017-03-04\|title=Cultural sustainability as a strategy for the survival of museums and libraries\|journal=International Journal of Cultural Policy\|volume=23\|issue=2\|pages=186–198\|doi=10.1080/10286632.2016.1184657\|issn=1028-6632\|doi-access=free}}</ref> Not only are these objects revered, but the buildings themselves are oftentimes a symbol of cultural integrity to the community which it belongs. Linking with the other pillars of sustainability, the biggest barrier to cultural sustainability is funding. Economic sustainability relies on a number of systems with goals to ensure economic prosperity by eliminating spending where it is not needed.<ref>{{Cite web\|url=http://www.international.gc.ca/development-developpement/priorities-priorites/segs-sced.aspx?lang=eng\|title=Development Sustainable Economic Growth Strategy\|last=Government of Canada\|first=Foreign Affairs Trade and Development Canada\|website=GAC\|access-date=2017-03-30\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170331212603/http://www.international.gc.ca/development-developpement/priorities-priorites/segs-sced.aspx?lang=eng\|archive-date=2017-03-31\|url-status=dead}}</ref> Cultural buildings such as museums oftentimes fail to receive the funding it needs to continue the preservation of culturally significant artifacts.<ref name=":4" /> [[Human-centered design]] and cultural collaboration have been popular frameworks for sustainable development in marginalized communities.<ref name=":13">{{Cite journal\|last1=Edmunds\|first1=David S.\|last2=Shelby\|first2=Ryan\|last3=James\|first3=Angela\|date=November 2013\|title=Tribal Housing, Codesign, and Cultural Sovereignty\|journal=Science, Technology & Society, & Human Values\|volume=38\|issue=6\|pages=801–828\|doi=10.1177/0162243913490812\|jstor=43671157\|s2cid=56421238}}</ref><ref name=":22">{{Cite journal\|last=Saiyed\|first=Zahraa\|date=September 2017\|title=Native American Storytelling Toward Symbiosis and Sustainable Design\|journal=Energy Research & Social Science\|volume=31\|pages=249–252\|doi=10.1016/j.erss.2017.05.029}}</ref><ref name=":33">{{Cite journal\|last=Martin\|first=Tania\|date=September 2005\|title=Thinking the Other: Towards Cultural Diversity in Architecture\|journal=Journal of Architectural Education\|volume=59\|pages=3–16\|doi=10.1111/j.1531-314X.2005.00001.x\|s2cid=142865996}}</ref><ref name=":42">{{Cite journal\|last1=Necefer\|first1=Len\|last2=Wong-Parodi\|first2=Gabrielle\|last3=Paulina\|first3=Jaramillo\|last4=Small\|first4=Mitchell J.\|date=May 2015\|title=Energy development and Native Americans: Values and beliefs about energy from the Navajo Nation\|journal=Energy Research & Social Science\|volume=7\|pages=1–11\|doi=10.1016/j.erss.2015.02.007\|doi-access=free}}</ref> These frameworks involve open dialogue which entails sharing, debating, and discussing, as well as holistic evaluation of the site of development. == Sustainable tourism == [[Tourism]] is a traveling method for which people can venture to different areas of the globe and experience new ways of living, and explore landscapes not native to their country of origin. Tourism is constantly being criticized for its impact on the social, political and environmental landscapes due to its high volume of mass consumers. Within the realm of tourism exists more sustainable practices and ideals that are aligned with the idea of cultural sustainability. === Geotourism === [[File:Forest view stairs in Thenmala 1.jpg\|left\|thumb]] [[Geotourism]] is a form of tourism which relies heavily upon the sustainability, or even the improvement of a selected geological location.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal\|last1=Farsani\|first1=Neda Torabi\|last2=Coelho\|first2=Celeste\|last3=Costa\|first3=Carlos\|year=2012\|title=Geotourism and Geoparks as Gateways to Socio-cultural Sustainability in Qeshm Rural Areas, Iran\|journal=Asia Pacific Journal of Tourism Research\|volume=17\|pages=30–48\|doi=10.1080/10941665.2011.610145\|s2cid=154571686}}</ref> Serving as an alternative to [[mass tourism]], Geotourism was created with the purpose of aiding in the sustainable development movement. Geotourism is a method which focuses on Sustainable culture, ecological preservation and restoration, welfare of local populous, and the wildlife in the immediate area.<ref name=":1" /> The link between Geotourism and Cultural sustainability lies within their role in maintaining the natural state of the environment, including the social and cultural environment. Preservation of the local culture has been a key element of Geotourism from its inception, and due to this form of tourism, travelers are able to experience true local culture, lifestyles, and practices experienced by the people native to that region.<ref name=":1" /> The scope of Geotourism covers many geological features, from wider areas such as mountains or coasts to smaller rock formations.<ref>{{cite journal \|last1=Gordon \|first1=John \|title=Geoheritage, Geotourism and the Cultural Landscape: Enhancing the Visitor Experience and Promoting Geoconservation \|journal=Geosciences \|date=21 January 2021 \|volume=11 \|issue=2 \|pages=39 \|doi=10.3390/geosciences8040136 \|doi-access=free \|hdl=10023/13150 \|hdl-access=free }}</ref> This form of tourism provides education regarding destinations they have traveled to via ethnographic methods, and also calls upon the traveler to become aware of the footprint they leave on the environment, as well as social changes that may be harmful to the indigenous peoples.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal\|last1=Jamal\|first1=Tazim\|last2=Camargo\|first2=Blanca\|last3=Sandlin\|first3=Jennifer\|last4=Segrado\|first4=Romano\|date=2010-01-01\|title=Tourism and Cultural Sustainability: Towards an Eco-cultural Justice for Place and People\|journal=Tourism Recreation Research\|volume=35\|issue=3\|pages=269–279\|doi=10.1080/02508281.2010.11081643\|s2cid=155010718\|issn=0250-8281}}</ref> Responsibility plays an important role in Geotourism by informing travelers of their duties to respect, and preserve the local culture.<ref name=":2" /> Many countries have adapted this method of tourism, going as far as to implement geotourism sites equipped with guides that discuss matters of importance in that area such as environmental or cultural concerns.<ref name=":1" /> Such countries include:<ref name=":1" /> * Many states within the U.S.A. including California & Arizona * Romania * Norway * Honduras Geotourism in Honduras includes The [[Bay Islands Department\|Bay Islands]], a Caribbean archipelago made up of three main islands, Utila, Roatan, and Guanaja and a few lesser islands and cays located off the north coast of Honduras. These islands have been blessed with stunning natural scenery, highlighted by idyllic beaches, tropical hillsides, and mangrove forests.<ref>{{cite web \| url=https://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2004/10/1025_041025_travelwatch.html \| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050406015943/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2004/10/1025_041025_travelwatch.html \| url-status=dead \| archive-date=April 6, 2005 \| title=National Geographic }}</ref> * Mexico Geotourism in Mexico includes Puerto Peñasco. This region includes the protected Sea of Cortez, the Pinacate Crator which offers barren deserts, sacred tribal and Indian lands, fishing zones, estuaries, oyster beds, and vibrant farmland and wine country.<ref>{{cite web \| url=http://geo-mexico.com/?p=12768 \| title=30 top geotourism sites in Mexico (Geo-Mexico special) \| Geo-Mexico, the geography of Mexico \| date=14 May 2015 }}</ref> Over the past decade, Puerto Peñasco, a former modest fishing village in Sonora situated just 65 kilometers away from the US border, has transformed into one of the most rapidly expanding urban areas in Mexico.<ref>Bryant, E. (2007). Barriers to Sustainable Coastal Development in Puerto Peñasco, Sonora, Mexico.</ref> * Canada Geotourism in Canada includes [[Nova Scotia]]. It was visited by explorers and geologists from around the world for centuries, Nova Scotia′s geological sites are now recognized for their beauty as much as for their rich history. Nova Scotia’s sites include the iconic lighthouses, which is built on rocky precipices that reach out into the sea.<ref>{{Cite web \| url=http://press.nationalgeographic.com/2013/04/24/canadian-parks-wilderness-newfoundland-labrador-geotourism-mapguide/ \| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130428014622/http://press.nationalgeographic.com/2013/04/24/canadian-parks-wilderness-newfoundland-labrador-geotourism-mapguide/ \| url-status=dead \| archive-date=April 28, 2013 \| title=National Geographic and Canadian Parks and Wilderness Society's Newfoundland and Labrador Chapter Introduce Eastern Newfoundland Geotourism MapGuide and Website – National Geographic Partners Press Room\| date=2013-04-24}}</ref> * Portugal Geotourism in [[Arouca, Portugal\|Portugal includes]] the Geopark of Arouca, which, in 2010, was officially recognized and joined the [[Global Network of Geoparks\|Global network of Geoparks]], under the auspices of UNESCO. The park is known for its natural, gastronomical, and cultural heritage. This mountainous area, with rivers, natural parks, steep slopes and lush vegetation covers the entire municipality of Arouca. The granite used to build so many religious and historical monuments, Romanesque chapels and Baroque churches in the region came was extracted from its mountains – Freita and Montemuro. <ref>{{Cite web \| url=http://visitportoandnorth.travel/Porto-and-the-North/Visit/Artigos/Geotourism-in-the-north-of-Portugal \| title=Geotourism in the north of Portugal \| access-date=2018-05-02 \| archive-date=2018-05-02 \| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180502140250/http://visitportoandnorth.travel/Porto-and-the-North/Visit/Artigos/Geotourism-in-the-north-of-Portugal \| url-status=dead }}</ref> As the practice of sustainability in all forms (environmental, social, and economy) becomes a more revered topic and gains traction within political spheres, sociologists suggest refining the practices of tourism to fit a mold that is more conducive to the sustainability models.<ref name=":1" /> Tazim et al. suggests the key to [[sustainable tourism]] lies within the responsible practice of travelers, but also within the direct participation of the locals in tourism practices.<ref name=":2" /> Although Geotourism shows to be a viable alternative for mass tourism, reducing the footprint of travellers on different parts of the world, there have been criticisms made regarding its fairness to the local population. Issues of fair pay, and the rights of the local people are the basis of the ethical dilemmas this kind of tourism faces. Tourism has a direct effect on the culture of the local populous, and as such, the focus of sociologists has been how to maintain the local environment (physically, socioculturally, and economically) while at the same time, introduce people to a new culture.<ref name=":2" /> == See also == [[Circles of Sustainability]] [[Geotourism]] *[[Human rights]] == References == {{reflist}} [[Category:Sustainability]] [[Category:Sociology of culture]]
ISO 20121	{{Short description\|International standard}} {{Close paraphrasing\|source=http://aroundtherings.com/site/A__40367/Title__London-2012-drives-new-international-standard-for-sustainable-event-management/292/Articles\|date=September 2020}} '''ISO 20121''' (full name: ISO 20121:2012, ''Event sustainability management systems –- Requirements with guidance for use'') is a voluntary [[international standard]] for [[sustainable event management]], created by the [[International Organization for Standardization]]. The standard aims to help organizations improve sustainability throughout the entire event management cycle. ==Background== Every event – from a village barbecue to a major sporting event like the Olympics – will have economic, social and environmental impacts. Water and energy resources are put under pressure, significant amounts of waste and carbon emissions can be generated. Sometimes events can put a strain on local communities. By 2005, practitioners within the events industry were becoming aware of the need for more sustainable practices. Specifically, the Head of Sustainability at the [[London 2012]] Olympic and Paralympic Games, David Stubbs, was looking for a way to make good on the sustainability promises made in the London Games bid.<ref>{{cite web\|last=Pelham\|first=Fiona\|title=The story of ISO 20121\|url=http://positiveimpactevents.co.uk/feature/the-story-of-iso-20121/\|publisher=Positive Impact\|access-date=12 Nov 2012\|date=18 Jun 2012\|url-status=dead\|archive-url=https://archive.today/20130505042453/http://positiveimpactevents.co.uk/feature/the-story-of-iso-20121/\|archive-date=2013-05-05}}</ref> He raised the issue with the [[British Standards Institution]] (BSI) in the UK. This led to the creation of BS 8901:2007 ''Specification for a sustainable event management system with guidance for use''.<ref>{{cite web\|last1=Press release\|title=BSI British Standards launches new standard for managing a more sustainable event\|url=https://www.bsigroup.com/en-GB/about-bsi/media-centre/press-releases/2007/11/BSI-British-Standards-launches-new-standard-for-managing-a-more-sustainable-event/\|publisher=BSI\|access-date=10 November 2017}}</ref> After a period of review, the second version of BS 8901 was published in 2009.<ref>{{cite web\|last=Thorley\|first=Chantelle\|title=BS8901 made easier to understand\|url=http://www.eventmagazine.co.uk/Event_suppliers/article/901701/BS8901-made-easier-understand/\|publisher=Event\|access-date=3 December 2012\|date=28 April 2009}}</ref> BS 8901 was received very positively by the international event industry, and was soon being widely used. For example, COP15, the United Nations Conference on Climate Change, was certified as compliant with BS 8901 in December 2009.<ref>{{cite web \|last1=Press Release \|title=COP15 certified to British Standard for sustainable event management \|url=https://www.bsigroup.com/en-GB/about-bsi/media-centre/press-releases/2009/12/COP15-certified-to-British-Standard-for-sustainable-event-management/ \|website=www.bsigroup.com \|publisher=BSI Group \|access-date=11 October 2019}}</ref> The Microsoft Corporation achieved certification to BS 8901 at its Microsoft Convergence® 2009 event in New Orleans, Louisiana, in March 2009.<ref>{{cite web \|last1=Nastu \|first1=Paul \|title=Microsoft Eyes First Sustainable Events Management Certification \|url=http://www.environmentalleader.com/2009/02/17/microsoft-eyes-first-sustainable-events-management-certification/ \|website=Environmentalleader.com \|date=17 February 2009 \|publisher=Environment +Energy Leader \|access-date=11 October 2019}}</ref> ==Development of ISO 20121== Responding to this international enthusiasm for BS 8901, in May 2009 a proposal for an international sustainable event management standard was jointly submitted to the [[International Organization for Standardization]] (ISO) by [[BSI Group]] and [[ABNT]], the Brazilian national standards body.<ref>{{cite web\|title=ISO to develop sustainable event standard in the run up to 2012 Olympics\|url=http://www.tourism-review.com/travel-tourism-magazine-sustainable-event-standard-to-be-developed-by-2012-article1273\|publisher=Tourism Review\|access-date=3 December 2012}}</ref> Delegations of experts of the national standards institutions of 25 countries developed the standard, with another 10 countries as observers. Eight stakeholder organizations from the event industry, or with a strong interest in sustainability, also participated.<ref>{{cite web\|last=Pdf\|title=Sustainable events with ISO 20121\|url=http://www.iso.org/iso/sustainable_events_iso_2012.pdf\|publisher=ISO Central Secretariat\|access-date=12 November 2012\|page=10\|date=June 2012}}</ref> Members of the sustainability team of the London 2012 Olympic and Paralympic Games were among the stakeholders who provided input into the development of the standard.<ref name="iso">{{cite web\|last=Frost\|first=Roger\|title=New ISO 20121 standard for sustainable events management\|url=http://www.iso.org/iso/home/news_index/news_archive/news.htm?refid=Ref1598\|publisher=ISO\|access-date=12 November 2012\|date=20 June 2012}}</ref> Subsequently, ISO 20121:2012 ''Event sustainability management systems –- Requirements with guidance for use'' was published in June 2012.<ref>{{cite web\|last=Bull\|first=Rachel\|title=Locog launches new global sustainability standard\|url=http://www.eventmagazine.co.uk/go/home/article/1137328/locog-launches-new-global-sustainability-standard/\|publisher=Event\|access-date=3 December 2012\|date=20 June 2012}}</ref> == How ISO 20121 works == ISO 20121 is relevant to all members of the event industry supply chain including organizers, event managers, stand builders, caterers and logistics suppliers. The standard takes a [[management systems]] approach to running more sustainable events. It provides a framework to help identify the potentially negative social, economic and environmental impacts of events. Organizers can then remove or reduce negative impacts through improved planning and processes. This should lead to improvements in key sustainability issues such as venue selection, transport, recycling or reusing demolition waste, creating a [[sustainable food systems\|sustainable food]] strategy, promoting healthy living and creating skills, employment and business legacies. The standard can reduce costs, carbon emissions and waste; better manage the biodiversity of venues; and achieve a diverse and inclusive workforce. ISO 20121 also includes practical guidance on communications, operational planning and control, stakeholder identification and engagement, supply chain management and procurement, and issue evaluation. ISO 20121 is suitable for all sizes and types of events. Organizations can demonstrate voluntary conformity with ISO 20121 by either: first party self-declaration; second party confirmation of conformance by parties having an interest in the organization, such as clients; or by certification by an independent third party, e.g. a [[certification body]]. == ISO 20121 and the London 2012 Olympics == Having been highly influential in the creation of the standard, The [[London Organising Committee of the Olympic and Paralympic Games]] (LOCOG) and the [[Olympic Delivery Authority]] both successfully implemented ISO 20121 in June 2012.<ref>{{cite web\|last=Press Release\|title=London 2012 drives new international standard for sustainable event management\|url=http://www.london2012.com/media-centre/article=london-2012-drives-new-international-standard-for-sustainable-event-management.html\|publisher=London 2012\|access-date=12 November 2012\|date=20 June 2012\|archive-date=30 October 2012\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121030134808/http://www.london2012.com/media-centre/article=london-2012-drives-new-international-standard-for-sustainable-event-management.html\|url-status=dead}}</ref> The Head of Sustainability, David Stubbs, commented: "London 2012 is proud to have been the catalyst for ISO 20121. This is a piece of legacy with the potential to transform how events around the world consider their economic, environmental and social impacts."<ref>{{cite web\|last1=Press release \|title=London 2012 \|date=20 June 2012 \|url=https://www.iso.org/news/2012/06/Ref1598.html \|publisher=ISO \|access-date=15 April 2021}}</ref> [[Sebastian Coe]], Chair of LOCOG commented: "In our bid to host the Olympic and Paralympic Games in London, we pledged to hold the greenest Games of modern times and I am pleased to say we were hugely successful in doing this."<ref>{{cite web \|last1=Press release \|title=London 2012: Sustainable procurement for construction guide developed \|url=https://www.gov.uk/government/news/london-2012-sustainable-procurement-for-construction-guide-developed \|website=www.gov.uk \|publisher=UK Government \|access-date=11 October 2019}}</ref> Another early adopter of ISO 20121 was the [[Weymouth and Portland National Sailing Academy]] (WPNSA) in the UK, which was the venue for the London 2012 sailing events. WPNSA reported that as a result of using the standard they achieved cost savings of around 15 per cent through better waste management and electricity optimization. They also enhanced their international reputation as a sports and corporate event venue, and reduced the risks of legislative breaches. Finally, they are demonstrably operating in accordance with the ‘One Planet Living’ principles of sustainable development, which as an organization they aspire to do.<ref>{{cite web \|title=Olympic venue reduced utility costs by 15% due to better waste management and utilisation of energy \|url=https://www.bsigroup.com/Documents/iso-20121/case-studies/BSI-ISO-20121-Case-Study-WPNSA-UK-EN.pdf \|website=bsigroup.com \|publisher=BSI Group \|access-date=17 May 2019}}</ref> Following an extensive systems assessment, Plaza Athénée Bangkok A Royal Meridien Hotel became the first “ISO 20121 Event Sustainability Management System” hotel in the world. Since the implementation of the system in 2012, the hotel has reduced electricity consumption by 9.4%, water by 5.03%, and paper by 4.9% year-on-year. [[Carbon footprint]] profiling revealed a 47.05% reduction in printer ink consumption and a 25.0% l in plastic bottle use. == History == {\|class = "wikitable" font-size = 95%; width = 50%; background-color = transparent !Year !Description \|- \|align = "center" \| 2012 \|\| ISO 20121 (1st Edition) \|} == See also == [[Sustainable Event Management]] [[International Organization for Standardization]] [[BSI Group]] ==References== {{reflist}} == External links == [http://www.iso.org/iso/home.htm International Organization for Standardization website] *[http://www.bsigroup.com/en-GB/ British Standards Institution website] {{ISO standards}} [[Category:ISO standards\|#20121]] [[Category:Sustainability]]
Biocapacity	{{short description\|Estimate of an ecosystem's production of certain biological materials}} {{distinguish\|Carrying capacity}} The '''biocapacity''' or '''biological capacity''' of an [[ecosystem]] is an estimate of its production of certain biological materials such as [[natural resources]], and its absorption and filtering of other materials such as [[carbon dioxide]] from the atmosphere.<ref name=FAQ>{{cite web\|title=Frequently Asked Questions\|url=http://www.footprintnetwork.org/\|website=[[Global Footprint Network]]: Advancing the Science of Sustainability\|access-date=11 August 2014}}</ref><ref name=JEM>{{cite journal\|last1=Yue\|first1=Dongxia\|last2=Guo\|first2=Jianjun\|last3=Hui\|first3=Cang\|title=Scale dependency of biocapacity and the fallacy of unsustainable development\|journal=Journal of Environmental Management\|date=2013\|volume=126\|pages=13–19\|doi=10.1016/j.jenvman.2013.04.022\|pmid=23648317\|hdl=10019.1/118295\|hdl-access=free}}<!--\|access-date=11 August 2014--></ref> Biocapacity is used together with [[ecological footprint]] as a method of measuring [[human impact on the environment]]. Biocapacity and ecological footprint are tools created by the [[Global Footprint Network]], used in sustainability studies around the world. Biocapacity is expressed in terms of [[global hectares]] per person, thus is dependent on human population. A global hectare is an adjusted unit that represents the average biological productivity of all productive [[hectares]] on Earth in a given year (because not all hectares produce the same amount of [[ecosystem services]]). Biocapacity is calculated from [https://www.un.org/ United Nations] population and land use data, and may be reported at various regional levels, such as a city, a country, or the world as a whole. For example, there were roughly 12.2 billion hectares of biologically productive land and water areas on this planet in 2016. Dividing by the number of people alive in that year, 7.4 billion, gives a '''biocapacity for the Earth of 1.6 global hectares per person.''' These 1.6 global hectares includes the areas for wild species that compete with people for space.<ref>{{Cite web \|url=http://www.footprintnetwork.org/en/index.php/GFN/page/ecological_wealth_of_nations_en \|title=Ecological Wealth of Nations: Earth's Biocapacity as a new framework for International Cooperation \|access-date=2011-12-21 \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120506105848/http://www.footprintnetwork.org/en/index.php/GFN/page/ecological_wealth_of_nations_en/ \|archive-date=2012-05-06 \|url-status=dead }}</ref> ==Applications of biocapacity== An increase in global population can result in a decrease in biocapacity. This is usually due to the fact that the Earth's resources have to be shared; therefore, there becomes little to supply the increasing demand of the increasing [[population]].<ref name=WWF>{{cite web\|title=What does ecological overshoot mean?\|url=http://wwf.panda.org/about_our_earth/all_publications/living_planet_report/demands_on_our_planet/overshoot/\|website=World Wildlife Fund\|publisher=WWF\|access-date=11 August 2014}}</ref> Currently, this issue can be resolved by [[outsourcing]]. However, resources will run out due to the increasing demands and as a result a collapse of an ecosystem can be the consequence of such actions.<ref name=WWF/> When the [[ecological footprint]] becomes greater than the biocapacity of the population, a [[ecological deficit\|biocapacity deficit]] is suspected.<ref name=biocap>{{cite web\|title=Natures regenerative capacity\|url=http://wwf.panda.org/about_our_earth/all_publications/living_planet_report/demands_on_our_planet/biocapacity/\|website=World Wildlife Fund\|publisher=WWF\|access-date=11 August 2014}}</ref> 'Global biocapacity' is a term sometimes used to describe the total capacity of an ecosystem to support various continuous activity and changes. When the [[ecological footprint]] of a population exceeds the biocapacity of the environment it lives in, this is called an 'biocapacity deficit'. Such a deficit comes from three sources: overusing one's own ecosystems ("overshoot"), net imports, or use of the global commons.<ref name=biocap/><ref name=RefiningEF>{{cite journal\|last1=Venetoulis\|first1=Jason\|last2=Talberth\|first2=John\|title=Refining the ecological footprint\|journal=Environment, Development and Sustainability\|date=5 January 2007\|volume=10\|issue=4\|pages=441–469\|doi=10.1007/s10668-006-9074-z\|s2cid=153900117 }}<!--\|access-date=11 August 2014--></ref> Latest data from [[Global Footprint Network]] suggests that humanity was using an equivalence of 1.7 Earths in 2016.<ref name=fpn>{{cite web \| url=http://data.footprintnetwork.org/#/countryTrends?cn=5001&type=earth \| title=Open Data Platform }}</ref> The dominant factor of global ecological [[Overshoot (population)\|overshoot]] comes from carbon dioxide emissions stemming from fossil fuel burning.<ref>{{cite journal\|title=Does the Shoe Fit? Real versus Imagined Ecological Footprints\|year = 2013\|publisher=PLOS biology journal \|doi = 10.1371/journal.pbio.1001700\|last1 = Blomqvist\|first1 = Linus\|last2 = Brook\|first2 = Barry W.\|last3 = Ellis\|first3 = Erle C.\|last4 = Kareiva\|first4 = Peter M.\|last5 = Nordhaus\|first5 = Ted\|last6 = Shellenberger\|first6 = Michael\|journal = PLOS Biology\|volume = 11\|issue = 11\|pages = e1001700\|pmid = 24223517\|pmc = 3818165 \| doi-access=free }}</ref> Additional stresses of [[greenhouse gas]]es, [[climate change]], and [[ocean acidification]] can also aggravate the problem.<ref name=WWF/> In reference to the definition of biocapacity: 1.7 Earths means the [[renewable resource]]s are being liquidated because they are being consumed faster than the resources can regenerate.<ref name="WWF" /> Therefore, it will take one year and eight months for the resources humanity uses in one year to be able to regenerate again, including absorbing all the waste we generate.<ref name="WWF" /> So instead of taking one year's worth of resources per year, we are yearly consuming [[resource]]s that ''should'' last us one year and eight months. In addition, if this matter becomes severe, an [[nature reserve\|ecological reserve]] will be set on areas to preserve their ecosystems. Awareness about our depleting resources include: [[agricultural land]], [[forest]] resources and [[rangeland]].<ref name=EB>{{cite web\|last1=Hayden\|first1=Anders\|title=ecological footprint (EF)\|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/1699724/ecological-footprint-EF\|website=Encyclopædia Britannica\|publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.\|access-date=11 August 2014\|date=December 30, 2013}}</ref> Biocapacity used in correlation to ecological footprint can therefore suggest whether a specific population, region, country or part of a world is living in the means of their capital. Accordingly, the study of biocapacity and ecological footprint is known as the [[ecological footprint\|Ecological Footprint Analysis (EFA)]].<ref name=FAQ /> Biocapacity is also affected by the [[technology]] used during the year. With new technologies emerging, it is not clear whether the technology in that year is good or bad but the technology does impact resource supply and demand, which in turn affects biocapacity.<ref name=FAQ /> Hence what is considered “useful” can change from year to year (e.g. use of corn (maize) stover for [[cellulosic ethanol]] production would result in corn stover becoming a useful material, and thus increase the biocapacity of maize cropland). Moreover, environmentalists have created [[ecological footprint\|ecological footprint calculators]] for a single person(s) to determine whether they are encompassing more than what is available for them in their population.<ref name=RegionalScale>{{cite journal\|last1=Hopton\|first1=Matthew E.\|last2=White\|first2=Denis\|title=A simplified ecological footprint at a regional scale\|journal=Journal of Environmental Management\|date=2012\|volume=111\|pages=279–286\|doi=10.1016/j.jenvman.2011.07.005\|pmid=22033065}}<!--\|access-date=11 August 2014--></ref> Consequently, biocapacity results will be applied to their ecological footprint to determine how much they may contribute or take away from sustainable development. In general, biocapacity is the amount of resources available to people at a specific moment in time to a specific population ([[resource\|supply]]) and to differentiate between ecological footprint – which is the environmental demand of a '''regional ecosystem'''.<ref name=RegionalScale /> Biocapacity is able to determine the human impacts on Earth. By determining productivity of land (i.e. the resources available for human consumption), biocapacity will be able to predict and perhaps examine the effects on the ecosystems closely based on collected results of human consumption<!-- this sentence (to the left) needs to be made clearer -->. The biocapacity of an area is calculated by multiplying the actual physical area by the yield factor with the appropriate equivalence factor. Biocapacity is usually expressed in [[global hectare\|global hectares (gha)]].<ref name=Serres>{{cite web\|title=Bioresources, Biocapacity of Ecosystems, and related terms\|url=http://institutmichelserres.ens-lyon.fr/spip.php?article37\|website=Michel Serres Institute: for resources and public goods\|access-date=11 August 2014}}</ref> Since global hectares is able to convert [[Consumer (food chain)\|human consumptions]] like food and water into a measurement, biocapacity can be applied to determine the [[carrying capacity]] of the Earth. Likewise, because an economy is tied to various production factors such as natural resources, biocapacity can also be applied to determine [[human capital]].<ref>{{cite journal \|last1=Ünal \|first1=Huseyin \|last2=Aktuğ \|first2=Muhammet \|title=The impact of human capital and bio-capacity on the environmental quality: evidence from G20 countries \|journal=Environ Sci Pollut Res \|date=11 February 2022 \|volume=29 \|issue=30 \|pages=45635–45645 \|doi=10.1007/s11356-022-19122-0 \|pmid=35149945 \|bibcode=2022ESPR...2945635U \|s2cid=246752753 \|url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11356-022-19122-0 \|access-date=29 April 2023}}</ref> ==See also== [[List of countries by ecological footprint]] [[Global Footprint Network]] [[Global Hectare]] [[Human population]] [[Carrying capacity\|Carrying Capacity]] [[Ecological reserve]] [[Sustainable development\|Sustainable Development]] [[Ecological footprint\|Ecological Footprint]] *[[world energy consumption\|World Energy Consumption]] ==References== {{reflist}} ==Other resources== Videos :[https://cosmosmagazine.com/earth/agriculture/australias-biocapacity/ Finding Australia’s biocapacity] Dr Mathis Wackernagel explains biocapacity and how it’s calculated. :[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_T5M3MiPfW4 Ecological Balance Sheets for 180+ Countries] [[Global Footprint Network]] Peer-reviewed Articles :[https://www.nature.com/articles/s41893-021-00708-4 The importance of resource security for poverty eradication]; :[https://www.mdpi.com/2071-1050/11/7/2164 Defying the Footprint Oracle: Implications of Country Resource Trends] Data :[https://data.footprintnetwork.org Results from the National Footprint and Biocapacity Accounts] {{Population}} {{Population country lists}} [[Category:Human overpopulation]] [[Category:Sustainability]] [[Category:Population ecology]]
Sustainable city	{{short description\|City designed with consideration for social, economic, environmental impact}} {{Redirect\|Green city\|the place in Missouri\|Green City, Missouri\|other uses\|Green City (disambiguation)}} {{more citations needed\|date=April 2019}} [[File:Tram in front of the Taschenbergpalais Hotel, Dresden - 1448.jpg\|thumb\|[[Sustainable transport]] and [[cyclability]] are components of improving the sustainability of a city.]] {{Sustainable energy}} A '''sustainable city''', '''eco-city''', or '''green city''' is a city designed with consideration for [[Sustainability\|social, economic, environmental impact]] (commonly referred to as the [[triple bottom line]]), and resilient habitat for existing populations, without compromising the ability of future generations to experience the same.<ref>{{Cite web\|title=The Triple Bottom Line: What Is It and How Does It Work?\|url=https://www.ibrc.indiana.edu/ibr/2011/spring/article2.html\|url-status=live\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190930094037/http://www.ibrc.indiana.edu/ibr/2011/spring/article2.html\|archive-date=2019-09-30\|access-date=2019-10-02\|website=www.ibrc.indiana.edu}}</ref> The [[Sustainable Development Goal 11\|UN Sustainable Development Goal 11]] defines sustainable cities as those that are dedicated to achieving green sustainability, [[social sustainability]] and economic sustainability. They are committed to doing so by enabling opportunities for all through a design focused on inclusivity as well as maintaining a sustainable economic growth. The focus will also includes minimizing required inputs of energy, water, and food, and drastically reducing [[waste]], output of heat, [[air pollution]] – {{CO2\|link=yes}}, [[methane]], and [[water pollution]].<ref>{{cite journal \|last1=Larsen \|first1=Tove A. \|last2=Hoffmann \|first2=Sabine \|last3=Lüthi \|first3=Christoph \|last4=Truffer \|first4=Bernhard \|last5=Maurer \|first5=Max \|title=Emerging solutions to the water challenges of an urbanizing world \|journal=[[Science (journal)\|Science]] \|date=2016 \|volume=352 \|issue=6288 \|pages=928–933 \|doi=10.1126/science.aad8641\|pmid=27199414 \|bibcode=2016Sci...352..928L \|s2cid=9690225 }}</ref> Richard Register, a visual artist, first coined the term ''ecocity'' in his 1987 book ''Ecocity Berkeley: Building Cities for a Healthy Future,'' where he offers innovative city planning solutions that would work anywhere.<ref>{{Cite book\|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QYE-Q8MAF3MC\|title=Ecocity Berkeley: Building Cities for a Healthy Future\|last=Register\|first=Richard\|date=1987\|publisher=North Atlantic Books\|isbn=9781556430091\|language=en}}</ref> Other leading figures who envisioned sustainable cities are [[architect]] [[Paul F Downton]], who later founded the company Ecopolis Pty Ltd, as well as authors [[Timothy Beatley]] and [[Steffen Lehmann]], who have written extensively on the subject. The field of [[industrial ecology]] is sometimes used in planning these cities. The UN Environment Programme calls out that most cities today are struggling with [[environmental degradation]], traffic congestion, inadequate urban infrastructure, in addition to a lack of basic services, such as water supply, sanitation, and waste management. A sustainable city should promote economic growth and meet the basic needs of its inhabitants, while creating [[sustainable living]] conditions for all.<ref>{{Cite web\|date=2018-01-23\|title=Sustainable Cities\|url=http://www.unenvironment.org/regions/asia-and-pacific/regional-initiatives/supporting-resource-efficiency/sustainable-cities\|access-date=2020-09-22\|website=UNEP – UN Environment Programme\|language=en\|archive-date=2021-01-19\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210119155627/https://www.unenvironment.org/regions/asia-and-pacific/regional-initiatives/supporting-resource-efficiency/sustainable-cities\|url-status=live}}</ref> Ideally, a sustainable city is one that creates an enduring way of life across the four domains of [[ecology]], [[economics]], [[politics]], and [[culture]]. The [[European Investment Bank]] is assisting cities in the development of long-term strategies in fields including renewable transportation, [[Efficient energy use\|energy efficiency]], [[Green building\|sustainable housing]], education, and [[health care]]. The European Investment Bank has spent more than €150 billion in bettering cities over the last eight years.<ref name=":16">{{Cite web\|title=Barcelona creates more green space as COVID-19 urban planning meets climate action\|url=https://www.eib.org/en/stories/covid-19-urban-planning\|access-date=2021-04-20\|website=European Investment Bank\|language=en\|archive-date=2021-04-20\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210420153641/https://www.eib.org/en/stories/covid-19-urban-planning\|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web\|title=Urban Development sector\|url=https://www.eib.org/en/projects/sectors/urban-development/index.htm\|access-date=2021-04-20\|website=EIB.org\|language=en\|archive-date=2021-04-17\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210417173720/https://www.eib.org/en/projects/sectors/urban-development/index.htm\|url-status=live}}</ref> Cities occupy just 3 percent of the Earth's land but account for 60 to 80 percent of energy consumption and at least 70 percent of carbon emissions. Thus, creating safe, resilient, and sustainable cities is one of the top priorities of the [[Sustainable Development Goals]].<ref>{{Cite web\|title=Goal 11: Sustainable cities and communities\|url=https://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/sustainable-development-goals/goal-11-sustainable-cities-and-communities.html\|access-date=2020-09-22\|website=UNDP\|language=en\|archive-date=2021-05-04\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210504033911/https://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/sustainable-development-goals/goal-11-sustainable-cities-and-communities.html\|url-status=live}}</ref> The Adelaide City Council states that socially sustainable cities should be equitable, diverse, connected, democratic, and provide a good quality of life.<ref>{{Cite web\|title=Adelaide green city {{!}} WWF\|url=http://wwf.panda.org/?204334/Adelaide-green-city\|url-status=live\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211122222259/https://wwf.panda.org/?204334%2FAdelaide-green-city\|archive-date=2021-11-22\|access-date=2019-10-02\|website=wwf.panda.org}}</ref> Priorities of a sustainable city include the ability to feed itself with a sustainable reliance on the surrounding natural environment and the ability to power itself with [[Renewable energy\|renewable sources of energy]], while creating the smallest conceivable [[ecological footprint]] and the lowest quantity of [[pollution]] achievable. All of this is to be accomplished by efficient land use, [[compost]]ing organic matter, [[recycling]] used materials, and/or converting [[waste-to-energy]]. The idea is that these contributions will lead to a decrease of the [[Climate change and cities\|city's impact on climate change]]. Today, 55 percent of the world is estimated to be living in [[urban area]]s and the [[United Nations]] estimates that by the year 2050, that number will rise to 70 percent.<ref>{{Cite web\|date=2020-09-22\|title=7 innovative projects making cities more sustainable\|url=https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2020/09/cities-sustainability-innovation-global-goals/\|website=World Economic Forum\|language=en-US\|access-date=2020-09-22\|archive-date=2020-09-22\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200922211416/https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2020/09/cities-sustainability-innovation-global-goals\|url-status=live}}</ref> By 2050, there may be nearly 2.5 more billion individuals living in urban cities, possibly making it more difficult to create more sustainable communities.<ref>{{cite web \|url=https://www.un.org/en/climatechange/climate-solutions/cities-pollution \|website=United Nations Climate Action \|publisher=United Nations \|access-date=20 October 2022\|title=Generating power }}</ref> These large communities provide both challenges and opportunities for [[environmentally-conscious]] developers. There are distinct advantages to further defining and working towards the goals of sustainable cities. Humans thrive in urban spaces that foster social connections. [[Richard Florida]], an urban studies theorist, focuses on the social impact of sustainable cities and states that cities need more than a competitive business climate; they should promote a great people climate that appeals to individuals and families of all types. Because of this, a shift to denser urban living would provide an outlet for social interaction and conditions under which humans can prosper. These types of urban areas would also promote the use of public transit, [[walkability]], and biking which would benefit citizens' health as well as benefiting the environment.<ref name="asla.org">{{Cite web \|title=The Sustainable SITES Initiative® (SITES®) {{!}} asla.org \|url=https://www.asla.org/sites/ \|access-date=2022-06-18 \|website=www.asla.org}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal \|last1=Hartig \|first1=Terry \|last2=Kahn \|first2=Peter H. \|title=Living in cities, naturally \|journal=[[Science (journal)\|Science]] \|date=2016 \|volume=352 \|issue=6288 \|pages=938–940 \|doi=10.1126/science.aaf3759\|pmid=27199417 \|bibcode=2016Sci...352..938H \|s2cid=206647916 }}</ref> ==Practical methods to create sustainable cities== Different [[Agriculture\|agricultural systems]] such as agricultural plots within the city ([[suburbs]] or [[City center\|centre]]).<!-- British form of 'center' --> This reduces the distance food has to travel from [[food miles\|field to fork]]. This may be done by either small-scale/private farming plots or through larger-scale agriculture (e.g. [[Vertical farming\|farmscrapers]]). [[Renewable energy]] sources, such as [[wind turbine]]s, [[solar panel]]s, or [[bio-gas]] created from [[sewage]] to reduce and manage pollution. Cities provide [[economies of scale]] that make such energy sources viable.<ref>{{cite journal \|last1=Kammen \|first1=Daniel M. \|last2=Sunter \|first2=Deborah A. \|title=City-integrated renewable energy for urban sustainability \|journal=[[Science (journal)\|Science]] \|date=2016 \|volume=352 \|issue=6288 \|pages=922–928 \|doi=10.1126/science.aad9302\|pmid=27199413 \|bibcode=2016Sci...352..922K \|s2cid=206645615 \|url=https://www.escholarship.org/uc/item/9bt3c7q8 }}</ref> Various methods to reduce the need for [[air conditioning]] (a massive energy demand), such as [[passive daytime radiative cooling]] applications, planting trees and lightening surface colors, [[Natural ventilation\|natural ventilation systems]], an increase in water features, and green spaces equaling at least 20% of the city's surface. These measures counter the "[[heat island effect]]" caused by an abundance of tarmac and asphalt, which can make urban areas several degrees warmer than surrounding rural areas—as much as six degrees Celsius during the evening.<ref>{{Cite web\|date=2014-02-28\|title=Heat Island Effect\|url=https://www.epa.gov/heatislands\|access-date=2021-12-09\|website=www.epa.gov\|language=en}}</ref>[[File:Global Urban Heat Island (UHI) Data Set, 2013 Average Summer Nighttime Minimum Surface Temperature (29968026924).jpg\|thumb\|Showing pockets of urban spaces creating the Heat Island effect with ranging temperatures <ref>{{Cite web \|title=Global Urban Heat Island (UHI) Data Set, v1: Satellite-Derived Environmental Indicators {{!}} SEDAC \|url=https://sedac.ciesin.columbia.edu/data/set/sdei-global-uhi-2013 \|access-date=2024-01-30 \|website=sedac.ciesin.columbia.edu \|language=en}}</ref>]] Improved [[public transport]] and an increase in pedestrianization to reduce car emissions. This requires a radically different approach to city planning, with integrated business, industrial, and residential zones. Roads may be designed to make driving difficult. Optimal building density to make public transport viable but avoid the creation of [[urban heat island]]s. [[Green roof]]s alter the surface energy balance and can help mitigate the urban heat island effect. Incorporating [[Green roof\|eco roofs]] or green roofs in your design will help with air quality, climate, and water runoff. [[Zero-emission transport]] [[File:Green_roof.jpg\|thumb\|Plants growing on building]] [[Zero-energy building]] to reduce energy consumption and greenhouse gas emissions using renewable energy sources.<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1=Wu \|first1=Wei \|last2=Skye \|first2=Harrison M. \|date=2021-05-01 \|title=Residential Net-Zero energy Buildings: Review and Perspective \|journal=Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews \|language=en \|volume=142 \|page=110859 \|doi=10.1016/j.rser.2021.110859 \|issn=1364-0321 \|pmc=8370022 \|pmid=34413697}}</ref> [[Sustainable urban drainage systems]] or SUDS in addition to other systems to reduce and manage waste. [[Energy conservation\|Energy conservation systems/devices]] [[Xeriscaping]] – garden and landscape design for water conservation [[Sustainable transport]], incorporates five elements: fuel economy, occupancy, electrification, pedal power, and urbanization. [[Circular economy]] to combat inefficient resource patterns and ensure a sustainable production and consumption roadmap. Increase of [[cycling infrastructure]] would increase cycling within cities and reduce the number of cars being driven and in turn reduce car emissions. This would also benefit the health of citizens as they would be able to get more exercise through cycling. [[Key performance indicator]]s – development and operational management tool providing guidance and M&V for city administrators currently monitor and evaluate energy savings in various facilities. [https://www.sustainablesites.org/ Sustainable Sites Initiative] or SSI – voluntary national guidelines and performance benchmarks for sustainable land design, construction and maintenance practices. Key areas of focus are soil, vegetation, hydrology, materials, and human health and well-being. Sustainable cities are creating '''safe spaces for its inhabitants''' through various means, such as: * Solutions to decrease [[urban sprawl]], by seeking new ways of allowing people to live closer to the workspace.<ref>{{Cite web\|date=2012-03-22\|title=How Can Cities Reverse Urban Sprawl, Increase Transit Use, Reduce Emissions?\|url=https://www.perc.org/2012/03/22/how-can-cities-reverse-urban-sprawl-increase-transit-use-reduce-emissions/\|access-date=2020-02-28\|website=PERC\|language=en-US\|archive-date=2020-02-28\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200228205231/https://www.perc.org/2012/03/22/how-can-cities-reverse-urban-sprawl-increase-transit-use-reduce-emissions/\|url-status=live}}</ref> Since the workplace tends to be in the city, downtown, or urban center, they are seeking a way to increase density by changing the antiquated attitudes many suburbanites have towards inner-city areas.<ref>{{Cite web\|last=Benfield\|first=Kaid\|title=This Is What a Neighborhood Revitalization Actually Looks Like\|url=http://www.theatlanticcities.com/neighborhoods/2012/10/what-neighborhood-revitalization-actually-looks/3627/\|access-date=2020-02-28\|website=CityLab\|language=en\|archive-date=2014-05-09\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140509210733/http://www.theatlanticcities.com/neighborhoods/2012/10/what-neighborhood-revitalization-actually-looks/3627/\|url-status=live}}</ref> One of the new ways to achieve this is by solutions worked out by the [[Smart Growth]] Movement.<ref>{{Cite web \|title=Smart Growth: The Environment & Equity {{!}} Smart Cities Dive \|url=https://www.smartcitiesdive.com/ex/sustainablecitiescollective/environment-equity-smart-growth/126281/ \|access-date=2022-06-15 \|website=www.smartcitiesdive.com \|language=en-US}}</ref> * Educating residents of cities about the importance and positive impacts of living in a more sustainable city. This is to boost the initiative to have sustainable developments and push people to live in a more sustainable and [[Environmentally friendly\|environmentally-friendly]] way. * Policy and planning changes to meet the unmet demands for urban services (water, energy, transport). With regard to methods of emissions counting cities can be challenging as production of goods and services within their territory can be related either to domestic consumption or exports. Conversely the citizens also consume imported goods and services. To avoid double counting in any emissions calculation it should be made clear where the emissions are to be counted: at the site of production or consumption. This may be complicated given long production chains in a globalized economy. Moreover, the embodied energy and consequences of large-scale raw material extraction required for renewable energy systems and electric vehicle batteries is likely to represent its own complications – local emissions at the site of utilization are likely to be very small but life-cycle emissions can still be significant.<ref>{{cite journal \| doi=10.1016/j.jclepro.2022.130912 \| title=Carbon-neutral cities: Critical review of theory and practice \| year=2022 \| last1=Huovila \| first1=Aapo \| last2=Siikavirta \| first2=Hanne \| last3=Antuña Rozado \| first3=Carmen \| last4=Rökman \| first4=Jyri \| last5=Tuominen \| first5=Pekka \| last6=Paiho \| first6=Satu \| last7=Hedman \| first7=Åsa \| last8=Ylén \| first8=Peter \| journal=Journal of Cleaner Production \| volume=341 \| page=130912 \| s2cid=246818806 \| doi-access=free }}</ref> == Architecture == Buildings provide the infrastructure for a functioning city and allow for many opportunities to demonstrate a commitment to sustainability. A commitment to [[sustainable architecture]] encompasses all phases of building including the planning, building, and restructuring. Sustainable Site Initiative is used by landscape architects, designers, engineers, architects, developers, policy-makers, and others to align land development and management with innovative sustainable design.<ref>{{Cite web\|title=The Sustainable SITES Initiative® (SITES®) {{!}} asla.org\|url=https://www.asla.org/sites/\|url-status=live\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200930185037/https://www.asla.org/sites/\|archive-date=2020-09-30\|access-date=2020-09-23\|website=www.asla.org}}</ref> === Eco-industrial park === The [[United Nations Industrial Development Organization\|UNIDO]] (United Nation's Industrial Development Organization) defines [[eco-industrial park]] as a community of businesses located on a common property in which businesses seek to achieve enhanced environmental, economic, and social performance through collaboration in managing environmental and resource issues. This is an industrial symbiosis where companies gain an added benefit by physically exchanging materials, energy, water, and by-products, thus enabling sustainable development.<ref>{{Cite web\|title=Eco-industrial parks {{!}} UNIDO\|url=https://www.unido.org/our-focus-safeguarding-environment-resource-efficient-and-low-carbon-industrial-production/eco-industrial-parks\|access-date=2020-09-22\|website=www.unido.org\|archive-date=2020-09-20\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200920095512/https://www.unido.org/our-focus-safeguarding-environment-resource-efficient-and-low-carbon-industrial-production/eco-industrial-parks\|url-status=live}}</ref> This collaboration reduces environmental impact while simultaneously improves economic performance of the area. The components for building an eco-industrial park include natural systems, more efficient use of energy, and more efficient material and water flows. Industrial parks should be built to fit into their natural settings in order to reduce environmental impacts, which can be accomplished through plant design, landscaping, and choice of materials. For instance, there is an industrial park in Michigan built by Phoenix Designs that is made almost entirely from recycled materials. The landscaping of the building will include native trees, grasses, and flowers, and the landscaping design will also act as climate shelter for the facility.<ref>{{Cite web\|title=Michigan Market Development\|url=https://www.michigan.gov/documents/egle/egle-mmd-Michigan-Market-_Development-Final-Report_678214_7.pdf\|access-date=2020-09-22\|archive-date=2020-10-18\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201018112928/https://www.michigan.gov/documents/egle/egle-mmd-Michigan-Market-_Development-Final-Report_678214_7.pdf\|url-status=live}}</ref> In choosing the materials for building an eco-industrial park, designers must consider the life-cycle analysis of each medium that goes into the building to assess their true impact on the environment and to ensure that they are using it from one plant to another, steam connections from firms to provide heating for homes in the area, and using renewable energy such as wind and solar power. In terms of material flows, the companies in an eco-industrial park may have common waste treatment facilities, a means for transporting by-products from one plant to another, or anchoring the park around [[resource recovery]] companies that are recruited to the location or started from scratch. To create more efficient water flows in industrial parks, the processed water from one plant can be reused by another plant and the park's infrastructure can include a way to collect and reuse stormwater runoff.<ref>{{Cite web \|title=Stormwater Runoff - an overview {{!}} ScienceDirect Topics \|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/engineering/stormwater-runoff \|access-date=2022-06-16 \|website=www.sciencedirect.com}}</ref> == Examples == === Recycled Park in Rotterdam, the Netherlands === The Recycled Park in Rotterdam, the second-largest city in the Netherlands, is an initiative introduced by [https://solarimpulse.com/companies/recycled-island-foundation Recycled Island Foundation], a Netherlands-based organization focused on recycling littered waste via creating their iconic island-parks, among other sustainable projects. Rotterdam's Recycled Park is a cluster of floating, green hexagonal "islands" composed of reused litter. The group has utilized a system of passive litter traps to collect this litter from the Maas River.<ref>{{Cite web\|title=Litter traps\|url=https://www.recycledisland.com/litter-traps\|access-date=2019-11-20\|website=Recycled Island\|language=en}}</ref> The park's location upon the Maas River reflects a circular process aimed at creating a more sustainable city. On the underside of the recycled park are materials that will support the growth of plants and wildlife indigenous to the area. This interest in growing the biodiversity of Rotterdam's natural elements is also reflected in other cities. Chicago's Urban Rivers organization is similarly trying to solve this issue by building and growing the Wild Mile of floating parks and forests along the [[Chicago River]] with the goal of [[revegetation]].<ref>{{Cite web\|title=Home\|url=https://www.urbanriv.org/the-wild-mile\|url-status=live\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200101034014/https://www.urbanriv.org/the-wild-mile/\|archive-date=2020-01-01\|access-date=2019-11-20\|website=Urban Rivers\|language=en-US}}</ref> Both Urban Rivers' and Recycled Island Foundation's interest in improving the area's biodiversity reflects an interest in [[greening]] the built urbanism of the surrounding city. Rotterdam's Recycled Park may suggest a greater trend in creating floating structures in response to greater climate-change-motivated impacts. The Floating Farm in Rotterdam sustainably approaches food production and transport.<ref>{{Cite web\|date=2019-05-15\|title=world's first floating farm welcomes cows in rotterdam\|url=https://www.designboom.com/architecture/floating-farm-rotterdam-cows-05-15-2019/\|url-status=live\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191111113031/https://www.designboom.com/architecture/floating-farm-rotterdam-cows-05-15-2019/\|archive-date=2019-11-11\|access-date=2019-11-20\|website=designboom {{!}} architecture & design magazine\|language=en}}</ref> Other floating structures include renewable energy-powered houseboats and luxury residences some 800 meters from the coast.<ref>{{Cite web\|date=2019-03-13\|title=+31architects' floating houseboat uses solar power to sail across lakes and rivers\|url=https://www.designboom.com/architecture/plus-31-architects-floating-houseboat-solar-power-naturecruiser-03-13-2019/\|url-status=live\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190502093618/https://www.designboom.com/architecture/plus-31-architects-floating-houseboat-solar-power-naturecruiser-03-13-2019/\|archive-date=2019-05-02\|access-date=2019-11-20\|website=designboom {{!}} architecture & design magazine\|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web\|url=https://www.designboom.com/architecture/wojciech-morsztyn-ocean-community-vessel-rising-sea-levels-luxury-houseboats-11-07-2019/\|title=the 'ocean community' responds to rising sea levels with luxury houseboats\|date=2019-11-07\|website=designboom {{!}} architecture & design magazine\|language=en\|access-date=2019-11-20\|archive-date=2019-11-08\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191108131652/https://www.designboom.com/architecture/wojciech-morsztyn-ocean-community-vessel-rising-sea-levels-luxury-houseboats-11-07-2019/\|url-status=live}}</ref> The Dutch city of Amsterdam likewise boasts a neighbourhood of artificial, floating islands in the suburb of [[IJburg]]. The idea of expanding both commercial enterprise and residential developments onto the water is oftentimes reflective of the demand to limit land-usage in urban areas. This has various, wide-reaching environmental impacts: reducing the aggregation of the [[Urban heat island\|urban heat-island effect]], the zoning efforts expended on engineering and regulating the [[floodplain]] (and potentially, the capacity of [[Wastewater\|waste-water reservoirs]]), and reduce the demands of the [[automobility]] state. The Recycled Park is a holistic approach to limiting the expense of waste. The employment of greenery has air-purifying effects, to reduce pollution. Additionally, the modular, hexagonal design allows reconstruction of each "island"; this space thus also offers environmental sustainability, as well as an open space for community-growing and other social opportunities. === Urban farming === {{See also\|Urban agriculture}} [[File:Urban Farming in Lowell, MA.jpg\|thumb\|right\|Urban farming in Lowell, Massachusetts]] [[Urban farming]] is the process of growing and distributing food, as well as raising animals, in and around a city or in urban areas. According to the RUAF Foundation, urban farming is different from rural agriculture because it is integrated into the urban economic and ecological system: [[urban agriculture]] is embedded in and interacting with the urban ecosystem.<ref>{{Cite web\|url=https://www.ruaf.org/\|title=The RUAF Foundation\|website=The RUAF Foundation\|language=en\|access-date=2019-10-02\|archive-date=2019-09-04\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190904221755/https://www.ruaf.org/\|url-status=live}}</ref> Such linkages include the use of urban residents as the key workers, use of typical urban resources (such as utilizing organic waste as compost or urban wastewater for irrigation), direct links with urban consumers, direct impacts on [[urban ecology]] (positive and negative), being part of the urban food system, competing for land with other urban functions, being influenced by urban policies and plans. One motivation for urban agriculture in sustainable cities includes saving energy that would be used in food transportation.<ref>{{cite journal \|last1=Martin-Moreau \|first1=M. \|last2=Ménascé \|first2=D. \|date=September 2019 \|title=Urban Agriculture: Another Way to Feed Cities \|journal=The Journal of Field Actions \|volume=20 \|pages=1–126 \|issn=1867-8521 \|url=http://journals.openedition.org/factsreports/5536 \|access-date=2021-11-19 \|archive-date=2021-11-19 \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211119102011/https://journals.openedition.org/factsreports/5536 \|url-status=live }}</ref> Urban farming infrastructure can include common areas for community gardens or farms, as well as common areas for farmers markets in which the food items grown within the city can be sold to the residents of the urban system. Tiny forests or miniature forests is a new concept where many trees are grown on a small patch of land. These forests are said to grow 10x faster and 30x denser with 100x biodiversity than larger forests. Additionally, they are 100% organic. The ratio of shrub layer, sub-tree layer, tree layer, and canopy layer of the miniature forest along with the percentage of each tree species are planned and fixed before planting so as to promote biodiversity.<ref>{{Cite web\|title=Tiny Forest\|website = [[YouTube]]\|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?time_continue=583&v=MDSlft037gk&feature=emb_logo\|access-date=2020-09-23\|archive-date=2020-10-01\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201001211202/https://www.youtube.com/watch?time_continue=583&v=MDSlft037gk&feature=emb_logo\|url-status=live}}</ref> === New Urbanism === The most clearly defined form of walkable urbanism is known as the Charter of [[New Urbanism]]. It is an approach for successfully reducing environmental impacts by altering the [[built environment]] to create and preserve smart cities that support [[sustainable transport]]. Residents in compact urban neighbourhoods drive fewer miles and have significantly lower environmental impacts across a range of measures, compared with those living in [[Urban sprawl\|sprawling]] suburbs. The concept of [[circular flow land use management]] has also been introduced in Europe to promote sustainable land use patterns that strive for compact cities and a reduction of greenfield land taken by urban sprawl. [[Sustainable architecture]], a recent movement of [[New Classical Architecture]], promotes a sustainable approach towards construction that appreciates and develops [[smart growth]], walkability, [[Vernacular architecture\|vernacular tradition]], and [[Classical architecture\|classical design]]. This in contrast to [[Modern architecture\|modernist]] and [[International Style (architecture)\|globally uniform]] architecture and opposes solitary [[housing estate]]s and suburban sprawl. Both trends started in the 1980s. === Individual buildings (LEED) === {{Main\|Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design}} The Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) Green Building Rating System encourages and accelerates global adoption of sustainable green building and development practices through the creation and implementation of universally understood and accepted tools and performance criteria. LEED, or [[Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design]], is an internationally recognized [[green building]] certification system. LEED recognizes whole building sustainable design by identifying key areas of excellence including: Sustainable Sites, Water Efficiency, Energy and Atmosphere, Materials and Resources, Indoor Environmental Quality, Locations & Linkages, Awareness and Education, Innovation in Design, Regional Priority. In order for a building to become LEED certified sustainability needs to be prioritized in design, construction, and use. One example of sustainable design would be including a [[certified wood]] like bamboo. Bamboo is fast growing and has an incredible replacement rate after being harvested. By far the most credits are rewarded for optimizing energy performance. This promotes innovative thinking about alternative forms of energy and encourages increased efficiency. A new district in Helsinki, Finland is being made almost entirely using timber.<ref>{{Cite web\|title=Wood City\|website = [[YouTube]]\|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=L4QYkEpw9pA\|access-date=2020-09-23\|archive-date=2020-10-02\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201002033237/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=L4QYkEpw9pA\|url-status=live}}</ref> This timber is a form of a [[Laminated veneer lumber\|Laminated Veneer Lumbar]] (LVL) that has high standards of fire resistance. The idea is that wood construction has a much smaller {{CO2}} footprint than concrete and steel construction and thus, this project is going to take Finland's timber architecture to new heights of sustainability. === Sustainable Sites Initiative (SSI) === Sustainable Sites Initiative, a combined effort of the [[American Society of Landscape Architects]], The Lady Bird Johnson Wildflower Center at The [[University of Texas at Austin]], and the [[United States Botanic Garden]], is a voluntary national guideline and performance benchmark for sustainable land design, construction and maintenance practices.<ref name="asla.org"/> The building principles of SSI are to design with nature and culture, use a decision-making hierarchy of preservation, conservation, and regeneration, use a system thinking approach, provide regenerative systems, support a living process, use a collaborative and ethical approach, maintain integrity in leadership and research, and finally foster [[environmental stewardship]]. All of these help promote solutions to common environmental issues such as [[greenhouse gas]]es, [[urban climate]] issues, [[water pollution]] and waste, [[energy consumption]], and health and wellbeing of site users. The main focus is hydrology, soils, vegetation, materials, and human health and well-being. In SSI, the main goal for [[hydrology]] in sites is to protect and restore existing hydrologic functions. To design storm water features to be accessible to site users, and manage and clean water on site. For site design of [[soil]] and [[vegetation]] many steps can be done during the construction process to help minimize the [[urban heat island]] effects, and minimize the building heating requirements by using plants. === Regenerative architecture === Regenerative architecture includes repurposing abandoned spaces to increase green space by using cost-effective design techniques. An old railway line in Bangkok has been recently converted in the Phra Pok Klao Sky Park, a green park in the congested city of Bangkok.<ref>{{Cite web\|title=On the right track: How Bangkok turned an old unused train line into a park\|url=https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2020/06/bangkok-green-space-park-old-train-line-thailand-climate-change/\|access-date=2020-09-23\|website=World Economic Forum\|date=19 June 2020 \|language=en\|archive-date=2020-09-18\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200918200725/https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2020/06/bangkok-green-space-park-old-train-line-thailand-climate-change\|url-status=live}}</ref> The New York High Line project is one of the oldest examples of regenerative architecture where an abandoned railway line is repurposed into an elevated park and social gathering space for its citizens.<ref>{{Cite news\|last=Coldwell\|first=Will\|date=2014-09-22\|title=Final stretch of New York's High Line complete\|language=en-GB\|work=The Guardian\|url=https://www.theguardian.com/travel/2014/sep/22/final-stretch-new-york-high-line-complete\|access-date=2020-09-23\|issn=0261-3077\|archive-date=2020-08-14\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200814023227/https://www.theguardian.com/travel/2014/sep/22/final-stretch-new-york-high-line-complete\|url-status=live}}</ref> === Eco-cities === [[Eco-cities]] are rooted in various urban planning traditions, including the early garden city movement initiated by Ebenezer Howard. These early efforts sought self-contained, green, and interconnected communities. In the latter 20th century, a broader understanding of ecological systems prompted the need for cities to address their ecological impact both locally and globally. Concepts like "urban metabolism" and McHarg's ecological site planning emerged. The term "ecocity" was coined by [[Richard Register]] in the 1980s during the rise of sustainability concerns, as outlined in the [[Brundtland Commission]] Report. Sustainability in urban planning focuses on inter-generational equity, environmental protection, and more. In the 2000s, resilience became a key perspective, highlighting the importance of ecological and social resilience in cities facing climate change challenges.<ref Name="BorgElArab" /> == Transportation == [[File:Energy Efficiency of different Transport Modes.png\|thumb]] As major focus of the sustainable cities, [[sustainable transportation]] attempts to reduce a city's reliance and use of greenhouse emitting gases by utilizing eco-friendly [[urban planning]], low environmental impact vehicles, and residential proximity to create an urban center that has greater environmental responsibility and [[social equity]]. Poor transportation systems lead to traffic jams and high levels of pollution. Due to the significant impact that transportation services have on a city's energy consumption, the last decade has seen an increasing emphasis on sustainable transportation by developmental experts. Currently, transportation systems account for nearly a quarter of the world's energy consumption and carbon dioxide emission. In order to reduce the environmental impact caused by transportation in metropolitan areas, sustainable transportation has three widely agreed-upon pillars that it utilizes to create more healthy and productive urban centers. The [[Carbon Trust]] states that there are three main ways cities can innovate to make transport more sustainable without increasing journey times – better land use planning, modal shift to encourage people to choose more efficient forms of transport, and making existing transport modes more efficient. === Car free city === The concept of [[Carfree city\|car free cities]] or a city with large [[pedestrian area]]s is often part of the design of a sustainable city. A large part of the [[carbon footprint]] of a city is generated by cars so the car free concept is often considered an integral part of the design of a sustainable city. Large parts of London city are to be made car-free to allow people to walk and cycle safely following the COVID-19 lockdown. Similarly, 47 miles of bike lanes are planned to be opened in Bogotá, Colombia in addition to the existing 75-mile network of streets that was recently made to be traffic-free all week.<ref>{{Cite news\|last=Taylor\|first=Matthew\|date=2020-05-15\|title=Large areas of London to be made car-free as lockdown eased\|language=en-GB\|work=The Guardian\|url=https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2020/may/15/large-areas-of-london-to-be-made-car-free-as-lockdown-eased\|access-date=2020-09-23\|issn=0261-3077\|archive-date=2021-08-06\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210806185826/https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2020/may/15/large-areas-of-london-to-be-made-car-free-as-lockdown-eased\|url-status=live}}</ref> [[New urbanism]] frees residents of [[Masdar City\|Masdar City, UAE]] from automobiles and makes possible walkable and sustainable communities by integrating daily facilities such as plazas and sidewalks into the neighborhoods. Public transit systems like the Group Rapid Transit and the [[Abu Dhabi Metro\|Metro]] provide direct access to wide areas of Masdar, as well as Abu Dhabi’s [[Central business district\|CBD]], and other parts of the city.{{citation needed\|date=December 2022}} The COVID-19 pandemic gave birth to proposals for radical change in the organisation of the city, such as the Manifesto for the Reorganisation of the city after COVID19, published in Barcelona and signed by 160 academics and 300 architects, being the elimination of the car one of the key elements.<ref>{{Cite news\|last=Paolini\|first=Massimo\|date=2020-04-20\|title=Manifesto for the Reorganisation of the City after COVID19\|language=en-GB\|url=https://www.degrowth.info/en/2020/05/manifesto-for-the-reorganisation-of-the-city-after-covid-19/\|url-status=live\|access-date=2021-05-01\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210623202509/https://www.degrowth.info/en/2020/05/manifesto-for-the-reorganisation-of-the-city-after-covid-19/\|archive-date=2021-06-23}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news\|last=Argemí\|first=Anna\|date=2020-05-08\|title=Por una Barcelona menos mercantilizada y más humana\|language=es\|url=https://elpais.com/elpais/2020/05/06/alterconsumismo/1588769208_267470.html\|url-status=live\|access-date=2021-05-11\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210905011210/https://elpais.com/elpais/2020/05/06/alterconsumismo/1588769208_267470.html\|archive-date=2021-09-05}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news\|last=Maiztegui\|first=Belén\|date=2020-06-18\|title=Manifiesto por la reorganización de la ciudad tras el COVID-19\|language=es\|url=https://www.plataformaarquitectura.cl/cl/941897/manifiesto-por-la-reorganizacion-de-la-ciudad-tras-el-covid-19?ad_source=search&ad_medium=search_result_all\|url-status=live\|access-date=2021-05-11\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210816105501/https://www.plataformaarquitectura.cl/cl/941897/manifiesto-por-la-reorganizacion-de-la-ciudad-tras-el-covid-19?ad_source=search&ad_medium=search_result_all\|archive-date=2021-08-16}}</ref> === Emphasis on proximity === {{See also\|Compact city\|Pocket neighbourhood}} Created by eco-friendly urban planning, the concept of urban proximity is an essential element of current and future sustainable transportation systems. This requires that cities be built and added onto with appropriate population and landmark density so that destinations are reached with reduced time in transit. This reduced time in transit allows for reduced fuel expenditure and also opens the door to alternative means of transportation such as bike riding and walking. Furthermore, close proximity of residents and major landmarks allows for the creation of efficient public transportation by eliminating long sprawled out routes and reducing commute time. This in turn decreases the social cost to residents who choose to live in these cities by allowing them more time with families and friends instead by eliminating part of their commute time. Melbourne is leading the way in creating the 20-minute neighbourhood where biking, walking or using public transport can get you to work, shops or a government agency within 20 minutes.<ref>{{Cite web\|date=2020-09-09\|title=20-minute neighbourhoods\|url=https://www.planning.vic.gov.au/policy-and-strategy/planning-for-melbourne/plan-melbourne/20-minute-neighbourhoods\|url-status=live\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210920083131/https://www.planning.vic.gov.au/policy-and-strategy/planning-for-melbourne/plan-melbourne/20-minute-neighbourhoods\|archive-date=2021-09-20\|access-date=2020-09-23\|website=Planning\|language=en}}</ref> Paris is experimenting with a similar concept in the Rue de Rivoli area where travel time for any destination is capped at 15 minutes.<ref>{{Cite web\|date=2020-07-15\|title=How the '15-Minute City' Could Help Post-Pandemic Recovery\|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2020-07-15/mayors-tout-the-15-minute-city-as-covid-recovery\|url-status=live\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210817050340/https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2020-07-15/mayors-tout-the-15-minute-city-as-covid-recovery\|archive-date=2021-08-17\|access-date=2020-09-23\|website=Bloomberg.com}}</ref> === Diversity in modes of transportation === Sustainable transportation emphasizes the use of a diversity of [[fuel-efficient]] transportation vehicles in order to reduce greenhouse emissions and diversity fuel demand. Due to the increasingly expensive and volatile cost of energy, this strategy has become very important because it allows a way for city residents to be less susceptible to varying highs and lows in various energy prices.<ref>{{Cite web \|date=2015-12-29 \|title=Sources of Greenhouse Gas Emissions \|url=https://www.epa.gov/ghgemissions/sources-greenhouse-gas-emissions \|access-date=2022-06-18 \|website=www.epa.gov \|language=en}}</ref> Among the different [[modes of transport]]ation, the use alternative energy cars and widespread installation of refueling stations has gained increasing importance, while the creation of centralized [[Bike path\|bike]] and [[walking path]]s remains a staple of the sustainable transportation movement.<ref>{{Cite web \|title=The Road to Sustainable Transport \|url=https://www.iisd.org/articles/deep-dive/road-sustainable-transport \|access-date=2022-06-18 \|website=International Institute for Sustainable Development \|language=en}}</ref> [[Tesla, Inc.\|Tesla]] is one of the pioneers in creating electric vehicles, which is said to reduce {{CO2}} footprints of cars. More companies globally are developing their own versions of electric cars and public transport to promote sustainable transportation. === Access to transportation === In order to maintain the aspect of [[social responsibility]] inherent within the concept of sustainable cities, implementing [[sustainable transportation]] must include access to transportation by all levels of society. Due to the fact that car and fuel cost are often too expensive for lower-income urban residents, completing this aspect often revolves around efficient and accessible public transportation. Social inclusion is a key goal of the United Nations Sustainable Development Goal 11 – Sustainable Cities and Communities.<ref>{{Cite web\|title=Goal 11: Sustainable cities and communities\|url=https://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/sustainable-development-goals/goal-11-sustainable-cities-and-communities.html\|access-date=2020-09-23\|website=UNDP\|language=en\|archive-date=2021-05-04\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210504033911/https://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/sustainable-development-goals/goal-11-sustainable-cities-and-communities.html\|url-status=live}}</ref> In order to make public transportation more accessible, the cost of rides must be affordable and stations must be located no more than walking distance in each part of the city. As studies have shown, this accessibility creates a great increase in social and productive opportunity for city residents. By allowing lower-income residents cheap and available transportation, it allows for individuals to seek employment opportunities all over the urban center rather than simply the area in which they live. This in turn reduces unemployment and a number of associated social problems such as crime, drug use, and violence. === Smart transportation === In this age of [[Smart city\|smart cities]], many smart solutions are being experimented with to regulate transportation and make public transport more efficient. Israel is reinventing commute by engaging in a public-private partnership that uses algorithms to route public transport according to needs. Using the concept of [[mobility as a service]] (MaaS), the people of Israel are encouraged to put in their destination on a mobile application; this data is then processed by the application to reroute transportation according to demands and options of different modes of transportation are suggested to the commuters to choose from. This decreases futile trips and helps the government regulate the number of people in a train or a bus at a time, especially useful in times of a pandemic like the [[Coronavirus disease 2019\|COVID-19]] [[pandemic]].<ref>{{Cite web\|title=Israel's "smart commuting" shows what transport could be like after COVID-19\|url=https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2020/07/israel-smart-commuting-after-covid-public-transport-innovation/\|access-date=2020-09-23\|website=World Economic Forum\|date=24 July 2020 \|language=en\|archive-date=2020-09-18\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200918195731/https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2020/07/israel-smart-commuting-after-covid-public-transport-innovation\|url-status=live}}</ref> == Urban strategic planning == Although there is not an international policy regarding sustainable cities and there are not established international standards, the organization [[United Cities and Local Governments]] (UCLG) is working to establish universal urban strategic guidelines. The UCLG is a democratic and decentralized structure that operates in Africa, Eurasia, Latin America, North America, Middle East, West Asian and a Metropolitan section work to promote a more sustainable society. The 60 members of the UCLG committee evaluate urban development strategies and debate these experiences to make the best recommendations. Additionally, the UCLG accounts for differences in regional and national context. All the organizations are making a great effort to promote this concept by media and Internet, and in conferences and workshops. An International conference was held in Italy at Università del Salento and Università degli Studi della Basilicata, called 'Green Urbanism', from 12 to 14 October 2016. === Development === Recently,{{When\|date=January 2021}} local and national governments and regional bodies such as the [[European Union]] have recognized the need for a holistic understanding of [[urban planning]]. This is instrumental to establishing an international policy that focuses on cities challenges and the role of the local authorities responses. The sustainable development of urban areas is crucial since more than 56% of the world's population lives in cities. Cities are in the lead of climate action, while being responsible for an estimated 75% of the world's [[Greenhouse gas emissions\|carbon emissions]].<ref name=":55">{{Cite book \|url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/sustainability-report-2021 \|title=EIB Group Sustainability Report 2021 \|date=2022-07-06 \|publisher=European Investment Bank \|doi=10.2867/50047 \|isbn=978-92-861-5237-5 \|language=EN\|author1=European Investment Bank }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web \|date=2017-09-26 \|title=Cities and climate change \|url=http://www.unep.org/explore-topics/resource-efficiency/what-we-do/cities/cities-and-climate-change \|access-date=2022-07-27 \|website=UNEP - UN Environment Programme \|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web \|title=Urban Climate Action Is Crucial to Bend the Emissions Curve \|url=https://unfccc.int/news/urban-climate-action-is-crucial-to-bend-the-emissions-curve \|date=2020-10-05 \|access-date=2022-10-23 \|website=unfccc.int}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web \|date=2019-09-18 \|title=Cities: a 'cause of and solution to' climate change \|url=https://news.un.org/en/story/2019/09/1046662 \|access-date=2022-07-27 \|website=UN News \|language=en}}</ref> Generally, in terms of urban planning, the responsibility of local governments are limited to [[land use]] and infrastructure provision excluding inclusive urban development strategies. The advantages of urban strategic planning include an increase in governance and cooperation that aids local governments in establishing performance based-management, clearly identifying the challenges facing local community and more effectively responding on a local level rather than national level, and improves institutional responses and local decision making. Additionally, it increases dialogue between stakeholders and develops consensus-based solutions, establishing continuity between sustainability plans and change in local government; it places environmental issues as the priority for the sustainable development of cities and serves as a platform to develop concepts and new models of housing, energy and mobility. === Obstacles === The City Development Strategies (CDS) addresses new challenges and provides space for innovative policies that involves all stakeholders. The inequality in spatial development and socio-economic classes paired with concerns of [[poverty reduction]] and [[climate change]] are factors in achieving global sustainable cities, as highlighted by the [[United Nations]] [[Sustainable Development Goals\|Sustainable Development Goal]] 11. According to the [[UCLG]] there are differences between regional and national conditions, framework and practice that are overcome in the international commitment to communication and negotiation with other governments, communities and the private sector to continue to develop through innovative and participatory approaches in strategic decisions, building consensus and monitoring performance management and raising investment. === Social factors of sustainable cities === According to the [https://www.undp.org/ United Nations Development Programme (UNDP)], over half of the world's population is concentrated in cities, a proportion which is expected to rise to two-thirds by 2050.<ref>{{Cite web\|title=Sustainable Development Goals {{!}} United Nations Development Programme\|url=https://www.undp.org/sustainable-development-goals\|access-date=2021-12-08\|website=UNDP\|language=en}}</ref> [[United Cities and Local Governments]] has specifically identified 13 global challenges to establishing sustainable cities: demographic change and migration, globalisation of the job market, poverty and unmet Millennium Development Goals, segregation, spatial patterns and urban growth, metropolisation and the rise of urban regions, more political power for local authorities, new actors for developing a city and providing services, decline in public funding for development, the environment and climate change, new and accessible building technologies, preparing for uncertainty and limits of growth and global communications and partnerships. == Social equity == === Gender === Gender associates an individual with a set of traits and behaviors that are construed to be female and/or male by society.<ref>{{Cite web\|title=Gender: definitions\|url=https://www.euro.who.int/en/health-topics/health-determinants/gender/gender-definitions\|access-date=2021-12-08\|website=www.euro.who.int\|language=en}}</ref> Gender is a key part of a person's identity, which can influence their experiences and opportunities as they navigate through life. This is no different for how gender impacts how they navigate through the built environment. Men and women experience the built environment differently. For over two decades, professionals in urban planning have called for the routine consideration of gender relations and gendered experiences in the urban design process. Specifically, city planners emphasize the need to account for systemic differences in people's lived experiences by gender, when designing built environments that are safe and equitable.<ref>{{Cite journal\|last=Roberts\|first=Marion\|date=June 1998\|title=Urban design, gender and the future of cities\|url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/13574809808724421\|journal=Journal of Urban Design\|language=en\|volume=3\|issue=2\|pages=133–135\|doi=10.1080/13574809808724421\|issn=1357-4809}}</ref> This applies to the development of climate resilient cities. Women represent 80% of people who've been displaced by the climate crisis.<ref name=":2">{{Cite news\|date=2018-03-08\|title=Climate change 'impacts women more than men'\|language=en-GB\|work=BBC News\|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-43294221\|access-date=2021-12-08}}</ref> Women are more vulnerable to the impacts of climate change because of the roles they are socially assigned by gender. For instance, women are primarily responsible for food provision in the household.<ref name=":2" /> Unprecedented patterns in the frequency and magnitude of floods and droughts – due to climate change – directly impact the caregiving responsibilities of many women, causing them to disproportionately suffer from the consequences of these natural disasters. The inequitable distribution of the burden of climate change by gender is unjust and must be addressed in the design of sustainable cities. Achieving gender equality is not only ethically important but economically smart, since supporting female development benefits economic growth.<ref>{{Cite journal\|last=Lozano-Torres\|first=Yancili\|date=2021-05-03\|title=Planning Befriends Women: A Look of a Gender Responsive City in the Colombian Context\|url=http://ried.unizar.es/index.php/revista/article/view/559\|journal=Revista iberoamericana de estudios de desarrollo = Iberoamerican journal of development studies\|volume=10\|issue=1\|pages=310–336\|doi=10.26754/ojs_ried/ijds.559\|s2cid=236693425\|issn=2254-2035\|doi-access=free}}</ref> Moreover, it's socially and economically relevant to design sustainable cities not only for women, but ''by'' women. Notable women spearheading the sustainable city movement include mayors [[Anne Hidalgo]], [[Ada Colau\|Ada Colau Ballano]], [[Claudia López Hernández\|Claudia Lopez]], [[Yvonne Aki-Sawyerr]], [[Muriel Bowser]], [[Patricia de Lille]], Helen Fernandez, and [[Clover Moore]]. Other female leaders include [[Christiana Figueres\|Christina Figueres]], [[Patricia Espinosa]], [[Laurence Tubiana]], and [[Hakima El Haite]]. === Race and Income === Mobility or the ability to move/go places is essential to daily life. Our mobility is primarily determined by the transportation infrastructure that surrounds us. Throughout US history, mobility and right to place have been regulated through codified social rules of who can go where, and how. Many of these rules were drawn along racial/ethnic and nationalistic lines. Discriminatory housing and transit policies, like red lining, have compounded the oppressive living conditions marginalized racial groups have been subjected to centuries, and have limited the socioeconomic opportunities of future generations.<ref name=tk>{{Cite journal\|last1=Kollmann\|first1=Trevor\|last2=Marsiglio\|first2=Simone\|last3=Suardi\|first3=Sandy\|last4=Tolotti\|first4=Marco\|date=September 2021\|title=Social interactions, residential segregation and the dynamics of tipping\|journal=Journal of Evolutionary Economics\|language=en\|volume=31\|issue=4\|pages=1355–1388\|doi=10.1007/s00191-021-00742-7\|s2cid=239717392\|issn=0936-9937\|doi-access=free\|hdl=10278/3742622\|hdl-access=free}}</ref> The legacies of these discriminatory policies are responsible for many environmental injustices we see today. Environmental injustice refers to the unequal distribution of risk to environmental threats, with vulnerable populations – e.g., people of low- and middle-income (LMI) and people of color (POC) – experiencing the greatest exposure and least protection.<ref name=tk/> Environmental injustice is pervasive and manifests in many ways, from contaminated drinking water to mold-infested housing stock.<ref>{{Cite web\|date=2020-04-22\|title=Environmental Justice\|url=https://www.gcu.edu/blog/nursing-health-care/environmental-justice\|access-date=2021-12-10\|website=GCU\|language=en}}</ref> One example of environmental injustice is the varying burden of heat exposure on different racial and socioeconomic groups. Urban areas often experience higher surface temperatures than less developed regions because the concentrated impermeable surfaces are good at absorbing heat, creating the “heat-island” effect mentioned earlier.<ref>{{Cite web\|date=2014-02-28\|title=Heat Island Effect\|url=https://www.epa.gov/heatislands\|access-date=2021-12-10\|website=www.epa.gov\|language=en}}</ref> The risk of adverse health effects caused by the heat island effect is and will be compounded by the increasing frequency in heat waves due to the climate crisis.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal\|last=Wilson\|first=Bev\|date=2020-10-01\|title=Urban Heat Management and the Legacy of Redlining\|journal=Journal of the American Planning Association\|volume=86\|issue=4\|pages=443–457\|doi=10.1080/01944363.2020.1759127\|s2cid=219511822\|issn=0194-4363\|doi-access=free}}</ref> This threat is quite dangerous for vulnerable populations – including infants and the elderly – who lack access to air conditioning and/or tree coverage to cool down. This limited adaptive capacity to urban heat is concentrated in LMI and historically segregated neighborhoods.<ref name=":3" /> Specifically, neighborhoods in cities that were historically targeted by redlining and divestment experience higher average land surface temperatures than surrounding areas.<ref name=":3" /> These differences in surface temperatures embody the legacy of discriminatory housing policies in the US, and highlight how historic urban planning practices will interact with the effects of the climate crisis. We must create the sustainable cities of the future with these historic practices in mind. The heat island effect also exacerbates the impacts of another form of environmental injustice that disproportionately affects minority and low-income groups: air pollution. Urban infrastructure projects that produce environmental toxins – like industrial plants and highways – are frequently built near or in LMI and POC communities because of favorable zoning codes, cheaper land prices, and less political backlash. This is not because residents don't care, but because they often lack the time, resources, and connections necessary to prevent such construction.<ref>{{Cite web\|date=December 13, 2017\|title=What Is Environmental Justice?\|url=https://www.nrdc.org/stories/what-is-environmental-justice\|access-date=2021-12-10\|website=NRDC\|language=en}}</ref> In turn, pollutant-producing operations disproportionately impact LMI and POC communities, harming the health outcomes of these groups.<ref>{{Cite web\|date=2020-06-12\|title=Environmental injustice in Pittsburgh: Poor, minority neighborhoods see higher rates of deaths from air pollution\|url=https://www.ehn.org/environmental-injustice-pittsburgh-air-pollution-2646169635.html\|access-date=2021-12-10\|website=EHN\|language=en}}</ref> A study by the University of Minnesota found that if nitrogen dioxide levels (NO<sub>2</sub> – a product of the combustion of fossil fuels) in non-white communities were reduced to equal those in white communities, there would be around 7,000 fewer deaths from heart disease per year.<ref>{{Cite journal\|last1=Clark\|first1=Lara P.\|last2=Millet\|first2=Dylan B.\|last3=Marshall\|first3=Julian D.\|date=2014\|title=National patterns in environmental injustice and inequality: outdoor NO<sub>2</sub> air pollution in the United States\|journal=PLOS ONE\|volume=9\|issue=4\|pages=e94431\|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0094431\|issn=1932-6203\|pmc=3988057\|pmid=24736569\|bibcode=2014PLoSO...994431C\|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web\|date=2013-03-12\|title=The Sources and Solutions: Fossil Fuels\|url=https://www.epa.gov/nutrientpollution/sources-and-solutions-fossil-fuels\|access-date=2021-12-10\|website=www.epa.gov\|language=en}}</ref> This mortality disparity highlights the health impacts of discriminatory zoning and urban planning policies, which disproportionately expose LIM and POC communities to air pollution. The disparity also shows how much we have to gain from sustainable transportation reform which eliminates combustion-engine vehicles.<ref>{{Cite journal\|last=Maantay\|first=Juliana\|date=April 2002\|title=Mapping environmental injustices: pitfalls and potential of geographic information systems in assessing environmental health and equity.\|journal=Environmental Health Perspectives\|language=en\|volume=110\|issue=suppl 2\|pages=161–171\|doi=10.1289/ehp.02110s2161\|pmid=11929725\|pmc=1241160\|issn=0091-6765}}</ref> The inequitable breakdown of exposure to environmental risks by race and income reinforces the understanding that the climate crisis is a social issue, and that [[environmental justice]] depends upon racial justice. There is no one right way to address these issues. Proposed solutions include eliminating single-family zoning, pricing a minimum proportions of housing units for LMI households, and requiring community engagement in future urban planning projects.<ref>{{Cite web\|date=2020-09-04\|title=The Quest for Justice: Revitalizing Cities\|url=https://now.tufts.edu/articles/quest-justice-revitalizing-cities\|access-date=2021-12-10\|website=Tufts Now\|language=en}}</ref> To select the best combination of solutions to create sustainable cities tailored to their environments, each city must be designed for all community members, by all community members. Leaders in the environmental justice movement include [[Robert D. Bullard\|Robert Bullard]], [[Benjamin Chavis]], [[Peggy Shepard]], Kandi Moseett-White, Mustafa Santiago Ali, Jamie Margolin, Elizabeth Yeampierre, LeeAnne Walters, and Dana Johnson. ==Examples== ===Australia=== ==== Adelaide ==== '''[[Urban forest]]s''' In [[Adelaide]], South Australia (a city of 1.3 million people) Premier Mike Rann (2002 to 2011) launched an urban forest initiative in 2003 to plant 3 million native trees and shrubs by 2014 on 300 project sites across the metro area. The projects range from large habitat restoration projects to local biodiversity projects. Thousands of Adelaide citizens have participated in community planting days. Sites include parks, reserves, transport corridors, schools, water courses and coastline. Only trees native to the local area are planted to ensure genetic integrity. Premier Rann said the project aimed to beautify and cool the city and make it more liveable; improve air and water quality and reduce Adelaide's [[greenhouse gas emissions]] by 600,000 tonnes of {{CO2}} a year. He said it was also about creating and conserving habitat for wildlife and preventing species loss. '''Solar power''' The Rann government also launched an initiative for Adelaide to lead Australia in the take-up of solar power. In addition to Australia's first 'feed-in' tariff to stimulate the purchase of solar panels for domestic roofs, the government committed millions of dollars to place arrays of solar panels on the roofs of public buildings such as the museum, art gallery, Parliament, Adelaide Airport, 200 schools and Australia's biggest rooftop array on the roof of Adelaide Showgrounds' convention hall which was registered as a power station. '''Wind power''' South Australia went from zero wind power in 2002 to wind power making up 26% of its electricity generation by October 2011. In the five years preceding 2011 there was a 15% drop in emissions, despite strong economic growth. '''Waste recycling''' For Adelaide the South Australian government also embraced a Zero Waste recycling strategy, achieving a recycling rate of nearly 80% by 2011 with 4.3 million tonnes of materials diverted from landfill to recycling. On a per capita basis, this was the best result in Australia, the equivalent of preventing more than a million tonnes of {{CO2}} entering the atmosphere. In the 1970s [[container-deposit legislation]] was introduced. Consumers are paid a 10 cent rebate on each bottle, can, or container they return to recycling. In 2009 non-reusable plastic bags used in supermarket checkouts were banned by the Rann Government, preventing 400 million plastic bags per year entering the litter stream. In 2010 Zero Waste SA was commended by a UN Habitat Report entitled 'Solid Waste Management in the World Cities'. ==== Melbourne ==== * [[City of Merri-bek]]. The City of Merri-bek in Melbourne's north, has programs for becoming carbon neutral, one of which is '[https://web.archive.org/web/20160407004537/http://www.morelandsolarcity.org.au/ Zero Carbon Merri-bek]', amongst other existing sustainable implementations and proposals. * [[City of Melbourne]]. Over the past 10 years, various methods of improving public transport have been implemented, car free zones and entire streets have also been implemented. ==== Sydney ==== Sydney was ranked the most sustainable city in Australia by the 2018 Arcadis Sustainable Cities Index. While most cities in Australia ranked low in the green sustainability categories, a lot of them have made a remarkable shift to improve social sustainability by being more inclusive, supporting culture and general happiness among its people.<ref>{{Cite web\|title=Sydney is Australias most sustainable city\|url=https://www.arcadis.com/en/australia/news/latest-news/2018/10/sydney-is-australias-most-sustainable-city/\|access-date=2020-09-23\|website=Arcadis\|language=en-US\|archive-date=2021-03-05\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210305170327/https://www.arcadis.com/en/australia/news/latest-news/2018/10/sydney-is-australias-most-sustainable-city/\|url-status=live}}</ref> ==== City of Greater Taree, New South Wales ==== The [[City of Greater Taree]] north of Sydney has developed a masterplan for Australia's first low-to-no carbon urban development. === Austria === [[Vienna]] is aiming for only 20% of trips to be made by automobile.<ref name=":292">{{Cite web\|date=2018-11-30\|title='It's the only way forward': Madrid bans polluting vehicles from city centre\|url=http://www.theguardian.com/cities/2018/nov/30/its-the-only-way-forward-madrid-bans-polluting-vehicles-from-city-centre\|access-date=2021-06-07\|website=The Guardian\|language=en\|archive-date=2021-06-07\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210607170301/https://www.theguardian.com/cities/2018/nov/30/its-the-only-way-forward-madrid-bans-polluting-vehicles-from-city-centre\|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite web\|title=Cycle superhighways - a path for sustainable mobility\|url=https://ramboll.com/media/rgr/cycle-superhighways-a-path-for-sustainable-mobility\|access-date=2021-06-07\|website=Ramboll Group\|language=en\|archive-date=2021-06-07\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210607154049/https://ramboll.com/media/rgr/cycle-superhighways-a-path-for-sustainable-mobility\|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite web\|title=Segregated cycleways and e-bikes - the future of urban travel {{!}} Policy and insight\|url=https://policy.friendsoftheearth.uk/insight/segregated-cycleways-and-e-bikes-future-urban-travel\|access-date=2021-06-07\|website=policy.friendsoftheearth.uk\|language=en\|archive-date=2021-06-07\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210607154050/https://policy.friendsoftheearth.uk/insight/segregated-cycleways-and-e-bikes-future-urban-travel\|url-status=live}}</ref> === Brazil === '''Belo Horizonte, Brazil''' was created in 1897 and is the third-largest metropolis in Brazil, with 2.4 million inhabitants. The Strategic Plan for [[Belo Horizonte]] (2010–2030) is being prepared by external consultants based on similar cities' infrastructure, incorporating the role of local government, state government, city leaders and encouraging citizen participation. The need for environmentally sustainable development is led by the initiative of new government following planning processes from the state government. Overall, the development of the metropolis is dependent on the land regularization and infrastructure improvement that will better support the cultural technology and economic landscape. Despite being a developing or newly industrialized nation,<ref>{{cite book \|author=International Monetary Fund \|author-link=International Monetary Fund \|title=World Economic Outlook: Tensions from the Two-Speed Recovery \|date=April 2011 \|isbn=978-1-61635-059-8 \|url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2011/01/pdf/text.pdf \|access-date=2019-10-20 \|archive-date=2014-01-07 \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140107200049/http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2011/01/pdf/text.pdf \|url-status=live }}</ref> it is home to two sustainable cities.<ref>{{cite web\|url=http://sustainablecities.net/citiesnetwork/network-map \|title=Sustainable Cities International Network Map \|publisher=Sustainable Cities International \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120422145541/http://sustainablecities.net/citiesnetwork/network-map \|archive-date=2012-04-22 \|access-date=2012-03-07}}</ref> The southern cities of [[Porto Alegre]] and [[Curitiba]] are often cited as examples of urban sustainability. === Cameroon === [[Bafut, Cameroon\|Bafut]], is a town and traditional kingdom which is working towards becoming an eco-city by 2020, through the Bafut Council Eco-city Project. ===Canada=== Since 2016 the Green Score City Index has been studying the urban footprints of Canadian cities.<ref>{{Cite web \|url=https://greenscore.eco/greenscore_city_index.html \|title=Green Score City Index - Index Outline \|access-date=2021-06-27 \|archive-date=2021-06-27 \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210627155623/https://greenscore.eco/greenscore_city_index.html \|url-status=live }}</ref> It uses recognized governmental and institutional data to calculate the urban footprints of 50 cities. [[Vancouver]] had 2018's highest green score for '''large''' cities. * [[Burlington, Ontario\|Burlington]] had 2018's highest green score for '''medium''' cities. * [[Victoria, British Columbia\|Victoria]] had 2018's highest green score for '''small''' cities. Most cities in Canada have sustainability action plans which are easily searched and downloaded from city websites. In 2010, [[Calgary]] ranked as the top eco-city in the planet for its, "excellent level of service on waste removal, sewage systems, and water drinkability and availability, coupled with relatively low air pollution." The survey was performed in conjunction with the reputable [[Mercer (consulting firm)\|Mercer]] Quality of Living Survey.<ref>{{Cite web \|url=http://www.mercer.com/qualityoflivingpr#Ranking_Eco_CitiesGF \|title=Quality of Living worldwide city rankings 2010 – Mercer survey \|access-date=2010-05-26 \|archive-date=2009-05-01 \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090501104841/http://www.mercer.com/qualityoflivingpr#Ranking_Eco_CitiesGF \|url-status=live }}</ref> ===China=== {{See also\|Eco-Cities in China}} The Chinese government has launched three sustainable city programs to promote pilot projects and foster innovation.<ref name=":18">{{Cite journal \|last1=de Jong \|first1=Martin \|last2=Yu \|first2=Chang \|last3=Joss \|first3=Simon \|last4=Wennersten \|first4=Ronald \|last5=Yu \|first5=Li \|last6=Zhang \|first6=Xiaoling \|last7=Ma \|first7=Xin \|date=2016-10-15 \|title=Eco city development in China: addressing the policy implementation challenge \|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0959652616301524 \|journal=Journal of Cleaner Production \|series=Special Volume: Transitions to Sustainable Consumption and Production in Cities \|language=en \|volume=134 \|pages=31–41 \|doi=10.1016/j.jclepro.2016.03.083 \|issn=0959-6526}}</ref> Beginning in the early 2000s, China acknowledged the importance of sustainable development in addressing the challenges brought about by rapid urbanization and industrialization.<ref name=":32">{{Cite journal \|last=Lin \|first=Zhongjie \|date=2018-11-01 \|title=Ecological urbanism in East Asia: A comparative assessment of two eco-cities in Japan and China \|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0169204618306467 \|journal=Landscape and Urban Planning \|language=en \|volume=179 \|pages=90–102 \|doi=10.1016/j.landurbplan.2018.07.008 \|s2cid=91369184 \|issn=0169-2046}}</ref><ref name=":02">{{Cite book \|last=Sandalow \|first=David \|url=https://www.energypolicy.columbia.edu/sites/default/files/pictures/Guide%20to%20Chinese%20Climate%20Policy%207-27-18.pdf \|title=Guide to Chinese Climate Policy \|date=July 2018 \|publisher=Columbia Center on Global Energy Policy \|year=2018 \|isbn=978-1-7261-8430-4 \|location=New York \|language=en \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220227115928/https://energypolicy.columbia.edu/sites/default/files/pictures/Guide%20to%20Chinese%20Climate%20Policy%207-27-18.pdf \|archive-date=2022-02-27 \|url-status=live}}</ref> As a result, hundreds of eco-city projects have been initiated throughout the country,<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal \|last=Xu \|first=Miao \|date=2023 \|title=Developer-led new eco-cities in China - identification, assessment and solution of environmental issues in planning \|url=https://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:kth:diva-325789 \|url-status=live \|journal= \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230530033008/https://kth.diva-portal.org/smash/record.jsf?pid=diva2%3A1750958&dswid=4830 \|archive-date=2023-05-30}}</ref> making China home to the world's largest eco-city program.<ref name=":33">{{Cite journal \|last=Lin \|first=Zhongjie \|date=2018-11-01 \|title=Ecological urbanism in East Asia: A comparative assessment of two eco-cities in Japan and China \|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0169204618306467 \|journal=Landscape and Urban Planning \|language=en \|volume=179 \|pages=90–102 \|doi=10.1016/j.landurbplan.2018.07.008 \|s2cid=91369184 \|issn=0169-2046}}</ref> * [[Tianjin]]: [[Sino-Singapore Tianjin Eco-city]] is a large and one of the very first ecocity collaboration project created with the cooperation between China and [[Singapore]], in November 2007, covering an area of 31.23 km². Locating at Binhai, Tianjin, it has been rated as the Eco-city with the most living experience in 2018. * [[Dongtan, Shanghai\|Dongtan]] Eco-city, [[Shanghai]]: The project, located in the east of [[Chongming Island]] developed by Arup and Parthers, was scheduled to accommodate 50,000 residents by 2010, but its developer has currently put construction on hold. An additional project was made in 2007 in this area: an Eco-Village based on the concept made by an Italian professor from the School of Architecture of Tianjin University. * [[Huangbaiyu]], [[Benxi]], [[Liaoning]] is a small village of 42 homes that has come under great criticism: most of the homes are unoccupied by villagers. * [[Nanjing]]: As of April 2008, an ecocity collaboration project is being proposed here. * [[Rizhao]], [[Shandong]] mandates solar water heaters for households, and has been designated the Environmental Model City by China's [[State Environmental Protection Administration\|SEPA]]. * [[Chengdu Tianfu District Great City]] is a planned city located just outside [[Chengdu]] that is planned to be sustainable and has the goal of being a self-sustaining city that discourages the use of cars. * [[Dalian]], [[Liaoning]]: The 100 MW Dalian Flow Battery Energy Storage Peak-shaving Power Station,<ref>{{cite journal \|last1=Lucas \|first1=Alexandre \|last2=Chondrogiannis \|first2=Stamatios \|title=Smart grid energy storage controller for frequency regulation and peak shaving, using a vanadium redox flow battery \|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0142061516000375 \|journal=International Journal of Electrical Power & Energy Systems \|access-date=2 May 2023 \|pages=26–36 \|language=en \|doi=10.1016/j.ijepes.2016.01.025 \|date=1 September 2016\|volume=80 }}</ref> with the largest power and capacity in the world so far, was connected to the grid in Dalian, China, on September 29, and it was put into operation in mid-October.<ref>{{cite web \|last1=Liu \|first1=Tao \|title=World's Largest Flow Battery Energy Storage Station Connected to Grid \|url=http://english.dicp.cas.cn/news/headline/202210/t20221010_321218.html \|website=Dalian Institute of Chemical Physics. Chinese Academy of Sciences \|access-date=29 April 2023}}</ref> === Denmark === Two comprehensive studies were carried out for the whole of Denmark in 2010 (The IDA Climate Plan 2050) and 2011 (The Danish Commission on Climate Change Policy). The studies analysed the benefits and obstacles of running Denmark on [[100% renewable energy]] from the year 2050. There is also a larger, ambitious plan in action: the Copenhagen 2025 Climate Plan. On a more local level, the [[Kalundborg Eco-industrial Park\|industrial park in Kalundborg]] is often cited as a model for industrial ecology. However, projects have been carried out in several Danish cities promoting 100% renewable energy. Examples include [[Aalborg]], [[Ballerup]] and [[Frederikshavn]]. [[Aalborg University]] has launched a master education program on sustainable cities (Sustainable Cities @ Aalborg University Copenhagen). See also the Danish Wikipedia. * [[Copenhagen]]: [[Cycling in Copenhagen]]: One of the most bicycle-friendly city's in the world where over 50% of the population get around on bikes. The city has infrastructure that caters to cycling with hundreds of kilometres of curb segregated bike lanes to separate cyclists and car traffic. A notable feature is The Cycle Super Highways which feature elevated bike lanes which ensure fast, unhindered travel between destinations. The city is aiming for just 25% of trips to be made by automobile.<ref name=":292"/><ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" /> === Ecuador === [[Loja, Ecuador]] won three international prizes for the sustainability efforts begun by its mayor Dr. Jose Bolivar Castillo.<ref name="Worldwatch">[[Worldwatch Institute]]. (2007). ''[[State of the World (book series)\|State of the World]] : Our Urban Future''.</ref>{{rp\|25}} === Estonia === Oxford Residences for four seasons in [[Estonia]], winning a prize for Sustainable Company of the Year, is arguably one of the most advanced sustainable developments, not only trying to be [[carbon neutral]], but already carbon negative.<ref>{{Cite web \|title=Key challenges to sustainable development \|url=https://www.futurelearn.com/info/courses/achieving-sustainable-development/0/steps/35495 \|access-date=2022-06-18 \|website=www.futurelearn.com}}</ref> === Finland === The Finnish city of [[Turku]] has adopted a "Carbon Neutral Turku by 2040" strategy to achieve [[carbon neutrality]] via combining the goal with [[circular economy]]. [[VTT Technical Research Centre of Finland]] has formulated an EcoCity concept tailored to address the unique requirements of developing countries and emerging economies. Prominent reference examples include EcoCity Miaofeng in China, EcoNBC in Egypt, EcoGrad in St. Petersburg, Russia, UN Gigiri in Kenya, and MUF2013 in Tanzania.<ref name="BorgElArab">Antuña-Rozado, C., García-Navarro, J., Reda, F. and Tuominen, P. (2016): [https://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/9/8/631 Methodologies Developed for EcoCity Related Projects: New Borg El Arab, an Egyptian Case Study]. ''Energies'' 2016, 9(8), 631.</ref> === France === In Paris, bike lanes are being doubled, while electric car incentives are being created. The French capital is banning the most polluting automobiles from key districts.<ref>{{Cite web\|title=5 reasons the world looks to Europe's cities\|url=https://www.eib.org/en/stories/future-european-cities\|access-date=2021-06-07\|website=European Investment Bank\|language=en\|archive-date=2021-06-07\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210607154103/https://www.eib.org/en/stories/future-european-cities\|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web\|last=McMahon\|first=Jeff\|title=How Bike Lanes Are Transforming Paris\|url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/jeffmcmahon/2019/12/28/how-bike-lanes-are-transforming-paris/\|access-date=2021-06-07\|website=Forbes\|language=en\|archive-date=2021-06-07\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210607154047/https://www.forbes.com/sites/jeffmcmahon/2019/12/28/how-bike-lanes-are-transforming-paris/\|url-status=live}}</ref> === Germany === * [[Freiburg im Breisgau]] often refers to itself as a green city. It is one of the few cities with a [[Alliance '90/The Greens\|Green]] mayor and is known for its strong solar energy industry. [[Vauban, Freiburg]] is a sustainable model district. All houses are built to a low energy consumption standard and the whole district is designed to be car-free. * Another green district in Freiburg is Rieselfeld, where houses generate more energy than they consume. There are several other green sustainable city projects such as Kronsberg in Hannover and current developments around Munich, Hamburg, and Frankfurt. [[Berlin]]: The [[Tiergarten (park)]] is a large park that takes up 520 acres and is an example of social sustainability where it is a green space but also used for transportation. The Tiergarten has inter paths where people can safely bike and walk without the disturbance of cars. Paths connect to notable areas within the city, such as government buildings, shopping areas and monuments. Berlin is mimicking [[London]]'s "superhighways" for cyclists.<ref name=":292"/><ref name=":0"/><ref name=":1"/> === Hong Kong === The government portrays the proposed [[Hung Shui Kiu]] [[New towns of Hong Kong\|New Town]] as an eco-city. The same happened with the urban development plan on the site of the former [[Kai Tak Airport]]. === Iran === Isfahan dedicated smart city office began buildings architectures sustaintability programs in May 2022.<ref>{{Cite web \|date=2022-05-16 \|title=اجرای سیستم ساختمان پایدار بر اساس شاخص‌های بین‌المللی در اصفهان \|url=https://www.imna.ir/news/575560/اجرای-سیستم-ساختمان-پایدار-بر-اساس-شاخص-های-بین-المللی-در-اصفهان \|access-date=2022-05-16 \|website=ایمنا \|language=fa}}</ref> === Ireland === South Dublin County Council announced plans in late 2007 to develop Clonburris, a new suburb of Dublin to include up to 15,000 new homes, to be designed to achieve the highest of international standards. The plans for Clonburris include countless green innovations such as high levels of energy efficiency, mandatory renewable energy for heating and electricity, the use of recycled and sustainable building materials, a [[district heating]] system for distributing heat, the provision of allotments for growing food, and even the banning of tumble driers, with natural drying areas being provided instead. In 2012 an energy plan was carried out by the Danish [[Aalborg University]] for the municipalities of [[Limerick]] and [[County Clare]]. The project was a short-term 2020 renewable energy strategy giving a 20% reduction in CO<sub>2</sub> emissions, while ensuring that short-term actions are beneficial to the long-term goal of 100% renewable energy. ===India=== [[India]] is working on [[Gujarat International Finance Tec-City]] or GIFT which is an under-construction world-class city in the Indian state of [[Gujarat]]. It will come up on 500 acres (2.0 km<sup>2</sup>) land.<ref>{{Cite web \|url=http://giftgujarat.in/ \|title=Gujarat International Finance Tec-City plans \|access-date=2018-04-12 \|archive-date=2019-09-16 \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190916191638/http://www.giftgujarat.in/ \|url-status=live }}</ref> It will also be first of its kind fully Sustainable City. [[Auroville]] was founded in 1968 with the intention of realizing human unity, and is now home to approximately 2,000 individuals from over 45 nations around the world. Its focus is its vibrant community culture and its expertise in renewable energy systems, habitat restoration, ecology skills, mindfulness practices, and holistic education. [[Amaravati\|The new capital of Andhra Pradesh]] is also planned to be a sustainable city in the future. As a part of the UN Global Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) cities initiative, [[Noida]] in [[Uttar Pradesh]] was selected in 2018 to become one of 25 cities in the world to become models of SDGs by 2025.<ref>{{Cite news\|title=UN selects Noida to participate in Global Sustainable Cities 2025 initiative\|work=The Economic Times\|url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/un-selects-noida-to-participate-in-global-sustainable-cities-2025-initiative/articleshow/66799311.cms\|access-date=2020-09-23\|archive-date=2021-11-22\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211122222400/https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/un-selects-noida-to-participate-in-global-sustainable-cities-2025-initiative/articleshow/66799311.cms\|url-status=live}}</ref> === Indonesia === The cities of [[Bandung]], [[Cimahi]], and [[Soreang]] in [[Indonesia]] become world leaders in zero waste cities program after significantly reducing the amount of waste and improving its management.<ref>{{cite web \|title=YPBB: Indonesia's Pioneer in Zero Waste \|url=https://www.no-burn.org/meetourmembers-ypbb/ \|website=Gaia \|date=15 October 2018 \|access-date=5 November 2020 \|archive-date=11 August 2020 \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200811102636/https://www.no-burn.org/meetourmembers-ypbb/ \|url-status=live }}</ref> === Korea === [[Songdo International Business District\|Songdo IBD]] is a planned city in [[Incheon]] which has incorporated a number of eco-friendly features. These include a central park irrigated with seawater, a subway line, bicycle lanes, rainwater catchment systems, and pneumatic waste collection system. 75% of the waste generated by the construction of the city will be recycled. Gwanggyo City Centre is another planned sustainable city. === Malaysia === As of 2014 a Low Carbon Cities programme is being piloted in Malaysia by KeTTHA, the Malaysian Ministry of Energy, Green Technology and Water, Malaysian Green Technology Corporation (GreenTech Malaysia) and the [[Carbon Trust]]. [[Malacca]] has a stated ambition to become a carbon-free city, taking steps towards creating a smart electricity grid. This is being done as part of an initiative to create a Green Special Economic Zone, where it is intended that as many as 20 research and development centers will be built focusing on renewable energy and clean technology, creating up to 300,000 new green jobs. The Federal Department of Town and Country Planning (FDTCP) in peninsular Malaysia is a focal point for the implementation of the Malaysian Urban Rural National Indicators Network for Sustainable Development (MURNInets), which includes 36 sets of compulsory indicators grouped under 21 themes under six dimensions. Most of the targets and standards for the selected indicators were adjusted according to hierarchy of local authorities. In MURNInets at least three main new features are introduced. These include the Happiness Index, an indicator under the quality of life theme to meet the current development trend that emphasizes on the well-being of the community. Another feature introduced is the customer or people satisfaction level towards local authorities' services. Through the introduction of these indicators the bottom-up approach in measuring sustainability is adopted. ===Morocco=== Planned for 2023, Zenata is the first African city to be awarded the Eco-City Label. It will include a total of 470 hectares of green spaces. It will also have water retention basins and promotes groundwater recharge and afforestation of the site. The naturally irrigated parks leading to the sea are designed as ecological corridors.<ref>{{Cite web \|url=https://www.afrik21.africa/en/morocco-sustainable-zenata-will-be-inhabited-from-2023/ \|title=Sustainable Zenata will be inhabited from 2023 \|date=20 August 2019 \|access-date=2020-09-13 \|archive-date=2020-08-11 \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200811191103/https://www.afrik21.africa/en/morocco-sustainable-zenata-will-be-inhabited-from-2023/ \|url-status=live }}</ref> === New Zealand === [[Waitakere City]], a local body that formerly existed in [[West Auckland, New Zealand\|West Auckland]], was [[New Zealand]]'s first eco-city, working from the Greenprint, a guiding document that the City Council developed in the early 1990s. === Norway === Oslo city was ranked first in the 2019 SDG Index and Dashboards Report for European Cities with a high score of 74.8.<ref>{{Cite web\|title=SDG Index and Dashboards Report for European Cities\|url=https://www.sustainabledevelopment.report/\|access-date=2020-09-23\|website=www.sustainabledevelopment.report\|language=en\|archive-date=2019-09-22\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190922112837/https://www.sustainabledevelopment.report/\|url-status=live}}</ref> In order to achieve its ambitious targets for reducing carbon emissions in the European Green City index, Oslo plans to convert cities to biofuels and has considerably reduced traffic by 4–7% by introducing a congestion charge. Its aim is to cut-down emissions by 50 per cent since 1990 and it has taken a number of transportation, waste recycling, energy consumption and green space measures among others to meet its target.<ref>{{Cite web\|title=What makes Oslo a sustainable city?\|url=http://sustainablecity-oslo-samansayip.weebly.com/\|access-date=2020-09-23\|website=What makes Oslo a sustainable city?\|archive-date=2017-09-17\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170917084313/http://sustainablecity-oslo-samansayip.weebly.com/\|url-status=live}}</ref> === Philippines === [[Clark Freeport Zone]] is a former United States Air Force base in the Philippines. It is located on the northwest side of Angeles City and on the west side of Mabalacat City in the province of Pampanga, about 40 miles (60 km) northwest of Metro Manila. A multi-billion project will convert the {{cvt\|36000\|ha}} former Clark Air Force Base into a mix of industrial, commercial and institutional areas of green environment. The heart of the project is a 9,450-hectare metropolis dubbed as the "[[Clark Green City]]". Builders will use the green building system for environmentally-friendly structures. Its facilities will tap renewable energy such as solar and hydro power. === Portugal === The organization Living PlanIT is currently constructing a city from scratch near Porto, Portugal. Buildings will be electronically connected to vehicles giving the user a sense of personal eco-friendliness. === Pakistan === [[Islamabad]] The capital of Pakistan is full of green spaces and is an eco friendly city.{{Citation needed\|date=October 2023}} === Spain === [[Bilbao]]: The city faced economic turmoil following the decline of the steel and port industries but through communication between stakeholders and authorities to create inner-city transformation, the local government benefited from the increase in land value in old port areas. The Strategic Plan for the Revitalisation of Metropolitan Bilbao was launched in 1992 and have flourished regenerating old steel and port industries. The conversion from depleted steel and port industries to one of Europe's most flourishing markets is a prime example of a sustainable project in action. * [[Barcelona]]: The city is planning an urban redesign of civic super blocks, they plan to convert nine-block areas into unified mega block neighbourhoods. The aim is to decrease car-related traffic, noise and pollution by over 20% and to free up to 60% of road areas for reuse as citizen spaces. This is being done because they realized that people in Barcelona die prematurely due to poor air quality and everyday noise levels are deemed harmful. By converting roads to spaces for festivals, farmer markets, bikes, and walkability it promotes a healthier lifestyle and potentially a happier one. In 2020, the [[European Investment Bank]] approved a €95 million loan to assist Barcelona in the completion of approximately 40 projects, with an emphasis on [[climate change]] and [[Social inequality\|social inequity]]. The city plans to redevelop streets to create more space for pedestrians and bicyclists, enhance building energy efficiency, and expand social, cultural, and recreational opportunities.<ref>{{Cite web\|title=Barcelona creates more green space as COVID-19 urban planning meets climate action\|url=https://www.eib.org/en/stories/covid-19-urban-planning\|access-date=2021-05-20\|website=European Investment Bank\|language=en\|archive-date=2021-06-07\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210607190438/https://www.eib.org/en/stories/covid-19-urban-planning\|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web\|title=Continued EU funding commitment to support energy efficiency in urban areas\|url=https://ec.europa.eu/info/news/continued-eu-funding-commitment-support-energy-efficiency-urban-areas-2021-jan-29_en\|access-date=2021-05-20\|website=European Commission - European Commission\|language=en\|archive-date=2021-04-22\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210422184144/https://ec.europa.eu/info/news/continued-eu-funding-commitment-support-energy-efficiency-urban-areas-2021-jan-29_en\|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web\|title=European Investment Bank Finances Large-Scale Solar PV Project in Spain - Sustainable Recovery 2020\|url=https://www.iisd.org/sustainable-recovery/news/eib-finances-large-scale-solar-pv-project-in-spain/\|access-date=2021-05-20\|website=www.iisd.org\|date=13 July 2020\|language=en-US\|archive-date=2021-04-25\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210425003827/https://www.iisd.org/sustainable-recovery/news/eib-finances-large-scale-solar-pv-project-in-spain/\|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Madrid]]: In 2018, Madrid banned all non-resident vehicles from its downtown areas.<ref name=":292"/><ref>{{Cite news\|last=Wolfe\|first=Jonathan\|date=2018-12-19\|title=Oslo Puts Up a Stop Sign\|language=en-US\|work=The New York Times\|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/12/19/travel/oslo-restricts-cars-in-city-center.html\|access-date=2021-06-07\|issn=0362-4331\|archive-date=2021-06-07\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210607154048/https://www.nytimes.com/2018/12/19/travel/oslo-restricts-cars-in-city-center.html\|url-status=live}}</ref> ===Saudi Arabia=== Saudi Arabia recently unveiled a proposed one of the most ambitious eco-city projects; Neom. Development is planned in the northwest region of the country along the Red Sea and would cover over 26,500 sq-km (10,230 sq-miles). Some of the most notable aspects of this development are The Line and Oxagon. The Line is advertised as a smart city that will stretch for 170 km with easily accessible amenities throughout. Oxagon is a planned floating city off the coast. If built, it will be the largest city.<ref>{{cite news \| url=https://www.bbc.com/news/blogs-trending-59601335 \| title=Neom: What's the green truth behind a planned eco-city in the Saudi desert? \| work=BBC News \| date=22 February 2022 }}</ref> === Sweden === Norra Älvstranden (Swedish), in [[Gothenburg]] by the river [[Göta älv]], is an example of a sustainable city in Sweden.<ref>{{Cite web \|title=Gothenburg \|url=https://iwa-network.org/city/gothenburg/ \|access-date=2022-06-18 \|website=International Water Association \|language=en}}</ref> It has low environmental impact, and contains passive houses, recycling system for waste, etc. * [[Hammarby Sjöstad]]<ref>{{Cite web \|title=Hammarby Sjöstad, Stockholm, Sweden {{!}} Urban green-blue grids \|url=https://www.urbangreenbluegrids.com/projects/hammarby-sjostad-stockholm-sweden/ \|access-date=2022-06-18}}</ref> * Västra Hamnen or [[Bo01]], Malmö<ref>{{Cite web \|title=Startsida Malmö stad \|url=https://malmo.se/Uppleva-och-gora/Arkitektur-och-kulturarv/Malmos-historia/Handelser-och-fenomen/Bo01.html \|access-date=2022-06-18 \|website=malmo.se \|language=sv}}</ref> * Stockholm Royal Seaport === United Arab Emirates === * [[Masdar City]], [[Abu Dhabi]] is a planned city that relies entirely on solar energy and other renewable energy sources, with a sustainable, zero-carbon, zero-waste ecology. * [[Dubai The Sustainable City]], [[Dubai]] === United Kingdom === * London has committed to reaching net-zero carbon emissions by 2050. To do so, it aims to drastically reduce the proportion of trips made by cars and also ban all new petrol and diesel cars by 2035. Similarly, according to the [[UK Green Building Council]], 40 per cent of UK's total carbon footprint comes from the built environment. Steel, which is used to make skyscrapers, is responsible for 7 per cent of the global {{CO2}} emissions. Timber, especially CLT is a being considered as a great alternative to reduce construction-based emissions.<ref>{{Cite web\|last=Perry\|first=Francesca\|title=What 'net-zero carbon' really means for cities\|url=https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20200922-how-london-could-achieve-net-zero-carbon-by-2050\|access-date=2020-09-23\|website=www.bbc.com\|language=en\|archive-date=2020-09-22\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200922232430/https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20200922-how-london-could-achieve-net-zero-carbon-by-2050\|url-status=live}}</ref> * The built environment is responsible for around 40% of the UK's total carbon footprint, according to the UK Green Building Council * [[London Borough of Sutton]] is the first One Planet Region in the United Kingdom, with significant targets for reducing the ecological footprint of residents and creating the UK's greenest borough. * [[Middlesbrough]] is another One Planet Region in the United Kingdom. [[Milton Keynes]]' original design concept aimed for a "forest city" and the foresters of the designers planted millions of trees from its own nursery in Newlands in the following years.<ref name="walker2">Walker ''The Architecture and Planning of Milton Keynes'', Architectural Press, London 1981. Retrieved 13 February 2007</ref> Parks, lakes and green spaces cover about 25% of Milton Keynes;<ref name="parkstrust1">{{cite web \|url=https://www.theparkstrust.com/our-work/about-us/the-parks-trust-model/ \|title=The Parks Trust model \|publisher=The [[Milton Keynes Parks Trust]] \|access-date=7 March 2012 \|archive-date=6 March 2019 \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190306042834/https://www.theparkstrust.com/our-work/about-us/the-parks-trust-model/ \|url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="dmk-p&l">{{cite web \|url=http://www.destinationmiltonkeynes.co.uk/What-to-do/Parks-and-Lakes \|title=Parks & Lakes \|publisher=Destination MK \|access-date=3 March 2019 \|archive-date=6 March 2019 \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190306042912/http://www.destinationmiltonkeynes.co.uk/What-to-do/Parks-and-Lakes \|url-status=live }}</ref> {{As of\|2018\|lc=y}}, there are 22 million trees and shrubs in public open spaces.<ref>{{cite news \| url=https://www.miltonkeynes.co.uk/our-region/milton-keynes/millions-of-trees-in-milton-keynes-to-be-spruced-up-in-2019-1-8726346 \| title=Millions of trees in Milton Keynes to be spruced up in 2019 \| first=Paige \| last=Browne \| work=[[Milton Keynes Citizen]] \| date=23 December 2018 \| access-date=6 February 2019 \| archive-date=7 February 2019 \| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190207072233/https://www.miltonkeynes.co.uk/our-region/milton-keynes/millions-of-trees-in-milton-keynes-to-be-spruced-up-in-2019-1-8726346 \| url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="dmk-p&l" /> [[St Davids]], the smallest city in the United Kingdom, aims to be the first carbon-neutral city in the world. * [[Leicester]] is the United Kingdom's first environment city. ===United States=== * [[Arcosanti]], Arizona [[Coyote Springs, Nevada\|Coyote Springs]] Nevada largest planned city in the [[United States]]. [[Babcock Ranch Florida]] a proposed solar-powered city. [[Douglass Ranch in Buckeye]] Arizona [[Mesa del Sol]] in [[Albuquerque]], New Mexico San Francisco, California is ranked the most sustainable city in the United States according to the 2019 US Cities Sustainable Development Report.<ref>{{Cite web\|title=2019 US Cities Sustainable Development Report\|url=https://www.sustainabledevelopment.report/\|access-date=2020-09-23\|website=www.sustainabledevelopment.report\|language=en\|archive-date=2019-09-22\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190922112837/https://www.sustainabledevelopment.report/\|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Treasure Island development\|Treasure Island]], San Francisco: is a project that aims to create a small eco city. Sonoma Mountain Village in Rohnert Park, California* ==See also== [[Sustainable design\|See also the Sustainability navigational box at the bottom of the page.]] {{Div col\|colwidth=35em}} * [[2000-watt society]] * [[BedZED]] * [[Carfree city]] * [[Circles of Sustainability]] * [[Covenant of Mayors]] * [[Cyclability]] * [[Eco hotel]] * [[Eco-cities]] * [[Ecodistrict]] * [[Ecological engineering]] * [[Environmental economics]] * [[Freeway removal]] * [[Floating ecopolis]] * [[Global Ecovillage Network]] * [[Green infrastructure]] * [[Green retrofit]] * [[Green urbanism]] * [[Land recycling]] * {{Annotated link\|List of most-polluted cities by particulate matter concentration}} * {{Annotated link\|Most livable cities}} * [[Pedestrian village]] * [[Street reclamation]] * [[Sustainable design]] * {{Annotated link\|Sustainable Development Goal 11}} * [[Sustainable urbanism]] * [[Transition town]] * [[Urban design]] * [[Urban forestry]] * [[Urban green space]] * [[Urban reforestation]] * [[Urban vitality]] * [[Walking audit]] * [[Zero-carbon city]] {{div col end}} ==Notes== {{reflist}} ==Further reading== Helmut Bott, Gregor Grassl, Stephan Anders (2019) [https://shop.detail.de/eu_e/sustainable-urban-planning.html Sustainable Urban Planning: Vibrant Neighbourhoods – Smart Cities – Resilience], DETAIL Publishers, Volume 1, {{ISBN\|978-3-95553-462-2}} Stanislav E. Shmelev and Irina A. Shmeleva (2009) "[https://www.researchgate.net/publication/46514162_Sustainable_cities_Problems_of_integrated_interdisciplinary_research Sustainable cities: problems of integrated interdisciplinary research]", International Journal of Sustainable Development, Volume 12, Number 1, 2009, pp. 4 – 23 Richard Register (2006) ''[http://worldcat.org/oclc/48558979&referer=brief_results Ecocities: building cities in balance with nature]'', New Society Publishers. {{ISBN\|0-86571-552-1}}. Shannon May (2008) "[https://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13604810802168117 Ecological citizenship and a plan for sustainable development]", City,12:2,237 — 244 Timothy Beatley (1997) ''[http://www.landstewardship.org/resources/resource/190/ Eco-city dimensions : healthy communities, healthy planet]'', New Society Publishers. {{ISBN\|0-86571-353-7}}, {{OCLC\|36695680}}. Richard Register (1987) ''[http://worldcat.org/oclc/15055352&referer=brief_results Ecocity Berkeley: building cities for a healthy future]'', North Atlantic Books. {{ISBN\|1-55643-009-4}}. Sim Van der Ryn and Peter Calthorpe (1986) ''[http://worldcat.org/oclc/9394364&referer=brief_results Sustainable communities: a new design synthesis for cities, suburbs, and towns]'', Sierra Club Books. {{ISBN\|0-87156-629-X}}. Paolo Soleri (1973) ''[http://worldcat.org/oclc/34901911&referer=brief_results Arcology : the city in the image of man]'', MIT Press. {{ISBN\|0-262-19060-5}}. Ian L. McHarg (1969) ''[http://worldcat.org/oclc/8518?tab=holdings Design with nature]'', Published for the American Museum of Natural History [by] the Natural History Press. Federico Caprotti (2014) ''[https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/anti.12087 Eco-urbanism and the Eco-city, or, Denying the Right to the City?]'', [[Antipode (journal)\|Antipode]], Volume 46, Issue 1, pp. 1285-1303 Simon Joss (2015) ''[https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780080970868740104 Eco-cities and Sustainable Urbanism]'', [[International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences]] (Second Edition). {{ISBN\|978-0-08097-086-8}} ==External links== {{Commons category\|Sustainable urban planning}} [http://www.shannonmay.com/Publications.html Eco Cities in China] Publications by Anthropologist Shannon May on the transformation of Huangbaiyu, China into an Eco Village [http://www.habitat.org.tr/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=378:ecocity2009&catid=75:ekokenr&Itemid=89 Ecocity Summit 2009 ISTANBUL – TURKIYE] [http://www.habitat.org.tr/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=401:ecopolisecology&catid=75:ekokenr&Itemid=89 ECOPOLIS] [https://greenscore.eco/greenscore_city_index.html Green Score City Index], GreenScore.eco [http://www.ecotopia2121.com Ecotopia 2121]. An Atlas of 100 "Visionary Super-Green" cities of the future from around the world. [https://web.archive.org/web/20070625135937/http://www.ithacahours.com/losangeles.html Los Angeles: A History of the Future] [http://www.lib.berkeley.edu/ENVI/sprawl.html Resource Guide on Sprawl and the New Urbanism] edited by Deborah Sommer, Environmental Design Library, University of California, Berkeley. [https://sustainablecities.vattenfall.com Vattenfall Sustainable Cities] [https://manifiesto.perspectivasanomalas.org/en/ Manifesto for the Reorganisation of the City after COVID19] \| author: Massimo Paolini [20 April 2020] [http://www.terrain.org/articles/13/strategy.htm Sustainable Cities], Terrain.org [http://www.chinadialogue.net/article/show/single/en/297-Which-way-China- Which way China?] Herbert Girardet, 2006 October 42, chinadialogue. Discusses the emergence of ecocities in China. *[http://environment.harvard.edu/related-programs/sustainable-cities Working Group for Sustainable Cities at Harvard University] {{Sustainability}}{{Cities}} [[Category:Landscape]] [[Category:Urban planning]] [[Category:Sustainability]] [[Category:Types of cities]] [[Category:Sustainable urban planning\| ]] [[Category:Environment by city]]
Outline of sustainability	{{See also\|Index of sustainability articles}} {{Short description\|1=Overview of and topical guide to sustainability}} <!--... Attention: THIS IS AN OUTLINE part of the set of 830+ outlines listed at [[Wikipedia:Contents/Outlines]]. Wikipedia outlines are a special type of list article. They make up one of Wikipedia's content navigation systems See [[Wikipedia:Outlines]] and [[Wikipedia:WikiProject Outlines]] for more details. Further improvements to this outline are on the way ...--> {{Pillars of sustainability\|[[Venn diagram]] of [[sustainable development]]:<br /> at the confluence of three constituent parts}} The following [[Outline (list)\|outline]] is provided as an overview of and topical guide to sustainability: '''[[Sustainability]]''' – capacity to endure. For humans, sustainability is the long-term maintenance of well being, which has environmental, economic, and social dimensions, and encompasses the concept of [[stewardship]] and responsible [[resource management]]. {{TOC limit\|limit=2}} == Essence of sustainability == {{See also\|Sustainability}} * [[Environmentalism]] * [[Environmental ethics]] * [[Planetary boundaries]] * [[Sustainable development]] * [[Sustainability science]] * [[Sustainability accounting]] * [[Sustainability governance]] * [[Sustainability education]] == Taxonomy == Sustainability is divided into two main branches: [[sustainability science]] and [[sustainability governance]]. Each of these branches is divided into a number of subfields: === Sub-fields of sustainability science === {{See also\|Sustainability science}} * [[Environmental impact assessment]] * [[Environmental psychology]] * [[Environmental philosophy]] * [[Environmental law]] * [[Sustainability measurement]] === Sub-fields of sustainability governance === {{See also\|Sustainability governance}}[[File:Molding packaging from straw, k9837-1.jpg\|right\|thumb\|[[Sustainable packaging]] – [[molded pulp]] uses recycled [[newsprint]] to form package components. Here, researchers are molding packaging from [[straw]].]] * '''Economic sector:''' [[Circular economy]] [[Steady-state economy]] [[Sustainable art]] [[Sustainable advertising]] [[Sustainable architecture]] * [[New Classical Architecture]] [[Sustainable business]] [[Sustainable fashion]] [[Sustainable industries]] * [[Hannover Principles]] [[Sustainable landscape architecture]] [[Sustainable packaging]] [[Sustainable procurement]] [[Sustainable tourism]] ** [[Sustainable transport]] * [[Political]] * '''Organizational''' [[Fisheries management]] [[Sustainable forest management]] [[Sustainable city]] * [[New Urbanism]] * [[Eco-cities]] * [[Sustainable urban infrastructure]] * [[Sustainable urban drainage systems]] * [[Sustainable urban planning]] [[Sustainable community]] * [[Sustainable Communities Plan]] ** [[Sustainability reporting]] * '''Activity''' [[Sustainable design]] [[Sustainable living]] ** [[Sustainable yield]] === Related disciplines === * [[Conservation biology]] * [[Ecological humanities]] * [[Environmental biotechnology]] * [[Environmental chemistry]] * [[Environmental design]] * [[Environmental economics]] * [[Environmental engineering]] * [[Environmental ethics]] * [[Environmental history]] * [[Environmental law]] * [[Environmental psychology]] * [[Environmental science]] * [[Environmental sociology]] * [[Green politics]] == Biodiversity == [[Image:Blue Linckia Starfish.JPG\|thumb\|[[Coral reef]]s are amongst the most diverse [[ecosystem]]s on earth.]] see also: [[Biodiversity]] * [[Biosecurity]] * [[Ecosystem services]] * [[Ecosystem-based management]] * [[Ecosystem management]] * [[Endangered species]] * [[Holocene extinction event]] * [[Invasive species]] * [[Nature conservation]] === Levels of biological organisation === * [[Biosphere]] * [[Biome]] == Politics of sustainability == * [[Rio Declaration on Environment and Development]] * International reports and agreements [[United Nations Conference on the Human Environment\|United Nations Conference on the Human Environment (Stockholm 1972)]] [[Brundtland Commission\|Brundtlandt Commission Report, 1983]] * [[Our Common Future\|''Our Common Future'', 1987]] [[Earth Summit (1992)]] [[Agenda 21\|Agenda 21 (1992)]] [[Convention on Biological Diversity\|Convention on Biological Diversity (1992)]] [[International Conference on Population and Development\|ICPD Programme of Action (1994)]] [[Earth Charter]] [[Millennium Declaration\|Millennium Declaration (2000)]] [[Millennium Ecosystem Assessment\|Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (2005)]] * [[Politics of global warming]] [[Climate change policy of the United States]] [[Climate change in China]] == Population control == [[Population control]] * [[Birth control]] * [[Carrying capacity]] * [[Family planning]] * [[Human overpopulation]] * [[Sustainable population]] * [[Unintended pregnancy]] * [[Zero population growth]] == Environmental technology == [[File:Ombrière SUDI - Sustainable Urban Design & Innovation.jpg\|thumb\|[[Sustainable design\|Sustainable urban design]] and [[innovation]]: Photovoltaic ombrière SUDI is an autonomous and mobile station that replenishes energy for electric vehicles using [[solar energy]].]]{{See also\|Environmental technology}} * [[Sustainable energy]] * [[Sustainable sanitation]] * [[Renewable energy]] [[Biofuel]] [[Biomass]] <!--* [[Blue energy or Osmotic energy]] br / (add later when commercial projects are a reality)--> [[Geothermal power]] [[Hydroelectricity]] [[Solar energy]] [[Tidal power]] [[Wave power]] ** [[Wind power]] === Energy conservation === {{See also\|Energy conservation}} * [[Carbon footprint]] * [[Emissions trading]] * [[Energy descent]] * [[Peak oil]] * [[Renewable energy]] (see above) === Over consumption === {{See also\|Over-consumption}} * [[Anti-consumerism]] * [[Ecological footprint]] * [[Ethical consumerism]] * [[Tragedy of the commons]] * [[Micro-sustainability]] === Food === [[File:Urban salad growing-London.jpg\|thumb\|[[Urban horticulture]] – Salad lettuce cultivation at the Growing Communities‘ urban plot, in Springfield Park, Clapton, North London.]] {{See also\|Food sustainability}} * [[Food security]] * [[Local food]] * [[Permaculture]] * [[Sustainable agriculture]] * [[Sustainable gardening]] * [[Sustainable fisheries]] * [[Urban horticulture]] === Water === {{See also\|Water sustainability}} * [[Water footprint]] * [[Water crisis (disambiguation)\|Water crisis]] * [[Water efficiency]] * [[Water conservation]] === Materials === [[File:DeutscheBahnRecycling20050814 CopyrightKaihsuTai Rotated.jpg\|thumb\|upright\|[[Recycling]] and [[rubbish bin]] in a [[Germany\|German]] [[railway station]]]]{{See also\|Material Sustainability}} * [[Industrial ecology]] * [[Recycling]] * [[Waste]] * [[Zero waste]] == Sustainability organizations == * [[Association of Environmental Professionals]] == Sustainability publications == [[Sustainability (journal)]] == Sustainability advocates== * [[:Category:Sustainability advocates]] == See also == {{Portal\|Renewable energy}} ; Sustainability lists * [[List of climate change topics]] * [[List of conservation issues]] * [[List of conservation topics]] * [[List of environmental agreements]] * [[List of environmental health hazards]] * [[List of environmental issues]] * [[List of environmental organizations]] * [[Lists of environmental topics]] * [[List of environmental studies topics]] * [[List of global sustainability statistics]] ; Sustainability glossaries * [[Glossary of climate change]] * [[Glossary of environmental science]] ==References== <references /> {{Sister project links\|sustainability}} {{Sustainability}} {{Outline footer}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Sustainability}} [[Category:Outlines of applied sciences\|Sustainability]] [[Category:Outlines\|Sustainability]] [[Category:Sustainability\|*]]
Category:Degrowth	{{See also\|Category:Criticism of economic growth}} {{Commons category\|Degrowth}} {{Cat main\|Degrowth}} [[Category:Green politics]] [[Category:Schools of economic thought]] [[Category:Anti-consumerism]] [[Category:Environmental movements]] [[Category:Environmental ethics]] [[Category:Sustainability]] [[Category:Ecological economics]]
Together for Sustainability	{{COI\|date=August 2018}} '''Together for Sustainability''' AISBL (TfS)<ref>{{cite web \|url=https://tfs-initiative.com/ \|title=TOGETHER FOR SUSTAINABILITY – The chemical initiative for sustainable supply chains \|accessdate=10 October 2019}}</ref> is a joint initiative of chemical companies, founded in 2011. It focuses on the promotion of [[sustainability]] practices in the chemical industry's [[supply chain]], currently gathering chemical companies around a single standard of auditing and assessment. {{Infobox company \| name = Together for Sustainability \| logo = [[File:TfS-Logo.jpg\|200px]] \| type = [[Membership organization]] \| key_people = {{Unbulleted list\|[[Rüdiger Eberhard]] (President (2015-2019)\|[[Bertrand Conquéret]] (President (2019-2023)\|[[Jennifer Jewson]] (President (2023-20..)\|[[Gabriele Unger]] (General Manager)}} \| location = [[Brussels]], [[Belgium]] \| industry = [[Chemical Industry]] \| homepage = https://tfs-initiative.com/ \| foundation = {{start date and age\|2011}} }} == Sustainability in chemical supply chains == Over the past few years sustainability aspects in the chemical industry have become more important and holistic. Nowadays, chemical companies' measures focusing sustainability include apart from ecological aspects also social concerns and collaborative issues. Today, it has been well accepted that the creation of sustainable chemical supply chains requires a joint effort beyond individual businesses. These efforts should integrate chemical companies, suppliers, customers as well as consumers.<ref>{{cite report\|date = 2015 \| title = Guide to Corporate Sustainability \| url = https://www.unglobalcompact.org/docs/publications/UN_Global_Compact_Guide_to_Corporate_Sustainability.pdf \| publisher = United Nations Global Compact \| access-date = 18 November 2018}}</ref> Prof. Dr Wolfgang Stolze and Marc Müller of the [[University of St. Gallen]] summarize the development in the chemical industry in recent years as follows: "The scope of sustainability in the chemical industry has evolved from a firm-level construct with a strong focus on green aspects to a chain-level approach attempting to address the triple bottom line of economic, social and environmental elements."<ref>{{cite report \|author= Prof. Dr. Martin Müller\|date= 23 September 2016\|title= Nachhaltige Lieferketten – Herausforderungen und Lösungsansätze ''(Sustainable supply chains - challenges and solutions)''\|url= https://www.ranking-nachhaltigkeitsberichte.de/data/ranking/user_upload/2015/Präsentationen/Müller_Universitaet_Ulm_Nachhaltige_Lieferketten-Herausforderungen_und_Loesungsansätze.pdf\|language= German\|publisher= Ulm University\|access-date= 14 November 2018 }}</ref> == History == The Together for Sustainability initiative was founded in 2011 by [[BASF]], [[Bayer]], [[Evonik Industries\|Evonik]], [[Henkel]], [[Lanxess]], and [[Solvay S.A.\|Solvay]]. The objective was to develop a global supplier engagement program and improve their own sustainability sourcing practices in line with the [[United Nations Global Compact]]. Since January 2015, the TfS initiative is incorporated as an international non-profit association according to the Belgian law. Since June 2012, TfS conducts assessments and audits by independent experts, as well as the early partnership with the French company EcoVadis, which provided with sustainability scorecards and benchmarks.<ref>{{cite web\|title=BASF, Bayer Among Chemical Firms Pushing Supply Chain Sustainability\|date=15 October 2013 \|url=https://www.environmentalleader.com/2013/10/basf-bayer-among-chemical-firms-pushing-supply-chain-sustainability/\|publisher=Environmental Leader\|accessdate=13 August 2018}}</ref> In June 2023, Jennifer Jewson, CPO of [[LyondellBasell]], was elected as president of the TfS.<ref>{{cite web\|title=TfS General Assembly elects new President and Steering Committee\|date=14 June 2023 \|url=https://www.tfs-initiative.com/news/tfs-general-assembly-elects-new-president-and-steering-committee}}</ref> == Structure == The TfS is governed by two main organs, the General Assembly and the Steering Committee. The General Assembly is formed by all the [[Chief procurement officer\|Chief Procurement Officers]] of the member companies, and holds power over the direction and structure of the organization, as well as approving the decisions of the Steering Committee. The Steering Committee, formed by six elected members of the General Assembly as well as the TfS president, is the executive council of the organization and decides upon its activities and projects. Additionally, TfS has several Regional Operating Committees (Asia, North America and South America) as well as, currently, five mission-specific work streams led and staffed by participants from the TfS member companies: * Work Stream 1: Governance and Partnerships * Work Stream 2: TfS Assessments * Work Stream 3: TfS Audits * Work Stream 4: TfS Communications and Capability Building * Work Stream 5: Scope 3 GHG Emissions TfS' headquarter is in [[Brussels]]. It manages the day-to-day affairs of the organization and stays in close contact with the representatives and coordinators of the member companies. TfS has a partnership with several other chemical industry associations: [[American Chemistry Council\|American Chemistry Council (ACC)]], [[European Chemical Industry Council\|European Chemical Industry Council (CEFIC)]], [[German Chemistry Council (VCI)]], [[China petroleum and chemical\|China Petroleum and Chemical Industry Federation (CPCIF)]], [[Indian Chemical Council (ICC)]],<ref>{{cite web\|url=https://www.sustainablebrands.com/press/together_sustainability_initiative_launched_india_chemical_industry\|title=Together for Sustainability Initiative launched in India for Chemical Industry\|date=28 September 2016 \|publisher=Sustainable Brands\|accessdate=13 August 2018}}</ref> and the [[Associação Brasileira da Indústria Química (ABIQUIM)]]. == Members == TfS Membership is open to all companies in the chemical industry who subscribe to the [[United Nations Global Compact]], [[Responsible Care]], and show a commitment to sustainability. TfS membership has been growing steadily since its founding, and in April 2022 its members have a joint global turnover of over €500 billion.<ref>{{cite web\|title=Together for Sustainability: The Chemical Industry Initiative for Sustainable Supply Chains\|url=http://www.essensciaforsustainability.be/planet/together-for-sustainability-the-chemical-industry-initiative-for-sustainable-supply-chains/\|publisher=Essenscia for Sustainability\|accessdate=13 August 2018\|archive-date=28 April 2018\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180428034337/http://www.essensciaforsustainability.be/planet/together-for-sustainability-the-chemical-industry-initiative-for-sustainable-supply-chains/\|url-status=dead}}</ref> As of January 2024, TfS has 51 member companies. {\| class="wikitable sortable mw-collapsible" !Company !Headquarters !Year of membership \|- \|[[AdvanSix\|Advansix]] \|[[Parsippany, New Jersey]] \|2021 \|- \|[[AkzoNobel]] \|[[Amsterdam]], [[Netherlands]] \|2013 \|- \|[[Allnex]] \|[[Frankfurt]], [[Germany]] \|2022 \|- \|[[Archroma]] \|[[Reinach, Basel-Landschaft\|Reinach]], [[Switzerland]] \|2021 \|- \|[[Arkema]] \|[[Colombes]], [[France]] \|2014 \|- \|[[Azelis]] \|[[Antwerp\|Antwerp, Belgium]] \|2020 \|- \|[[BASF]] \|[[Ludwigshafen]], [[Germany]] \|2011 \|- \|[[Bayer]] \|[[Leverkusen]], [[Germany]] \|2011 \|- \|[[Brenntag]] \|[[Essen]], [[Germany]] \|2017 \|- \|[[CABB]] \|[[Sulzbach am Taunus]], [[Germany]] \|2022 \|- \|[[Chemours]] \|[[Wilmington, Delaware\|Wilmington]], [[Delaware]] \|2021 \|- \|[[Clariant]] \|[[Muttenz]], [[Switzerland]] \|2014 \|- \|[[Corteva]] \|[[Wilmington, Delaware\|Wilmington, United States]] \|2020 \|- \|[[Covestro]] \|[[Leverkusen]], [[Germany]] \|2015 \|- \|[[Croda International\|Croda]] \|[[Snaith]], [[United Kingdom]] \|2021 \|- \|[[Dow Inc.\|Dow]] \|[[Midland, Michigan\|Midland]], [[United States]] \|2021 \|- \|[[DSM (company)\|DSM-Firmenich]] \|[[Heerlen]], [[Netherlands]] \|2015 \|- \|[[Eastman Chemical Company\|Eastman]] \|[[Kingsport, Tennessee]], [[United States]] \|2015 \|- \|[[Evonik]] \|[[Essen]], [[Germany]] \|2011 \|- \|[[Givaudan]] \|[[Vernier, Switzerland\|Vernier]], [[Switzerland]] \|2021 \|- \|[[HA Group]] \|[[Düsseldorf]], [[Germany]] \|2023 \|- \|[[Henkel]] \|[[Düsseldorf]], [[Germany]] \|2011 \|- \|[[Israel Chemicals\|ICL]] \|[[Tel-Aviv]], [[Israel]] \|2018 \|- \|[[International Flavors & Fragrances\|IFF]] \|[[New York City]], [[United States]] \|2015 \|- \|IMCD \|[[Rotterdam, Netherlands]] \|2022 \|- \|[[Indorama Ventures\|Indorama]] \|[[Bangkok]], [[Thailand]] \|2023 \|- \|[[Johnson Matthey]] \|[[London]], [[United Kingdom]] \|2023 \|- \|[[Kraton (polymer)\|Kraton]] \|[[Houston\|Houston, United States]] \|2020 \|- \|[[Lanxess]] \|[[Cologne]], [[Germany]] \|2011 \|- \|[[Lenzing AG]] \|[[Lenzing]], [[Austria]] \|2022 \|- \|[[Lonza Group\|Lonza]] \|[[Basel, Switzerland]] \|2022 \|- \|[[LyondellBasell]] \|[[Houston]], [[Texas]] \|2021 \|- \|[[Merck Group\|Merck]] \|[[Darmstadt]], [[Germany]] \|2014 \|- \|[[Mitsui & Co.]] \|[[Japan]], [[Tokyo]] \|2022 \|- \|[[Momentive Performance Materials]] \|[[Niskayuna]], [[United States]] \|2023 \|- \|[[Nouryon]] \|[[Houston]], [[United States]] \|2023 \|- \|[[Oleon NV]] \|[[Ertvelde]], [[Belgium]] \|2023 \|- \|[[OMV]] \|[[Vienna]], [[Austria]] \|2021 \|- \|[[SABIC\|Sabic]] \|[[Riyadh]], [[Saudi Arabia]] \|2023 \|- \|[[Semperit]] \|[[Vienna\|Vienna, Austria]] \|2021 \|- \|[[Sennics]] \|[[Shanghai]], [[China]] \|2022 \|- \|[[Sika AG\|Sika]] \|[[Baar, Switzerland]] \|2020 \|- \|[[Solvay S.A.\|Solvay]] \|[[Brussels]], [[Belgium]] \|2011 \|- \|[[Syensqo\|Syensqo]] \|[[Brussels]], [[Belgium]] \|2024 \|- \|[[Syngenta]] \|[[Basel]], [[Switzerland]] \|2015 \|- \|[[Synthomer]] \|[[London]], [[United Kingdom]] \|2023 \|- \|[[Tricon Energy\|Tricon]] \|[[Houston]], [[United States]] \|2023 \|- \|[[UPM (company)\|UPM]] \|[[Helsinki]], [[Finland]] \|2018 \|- \|[[Wacker Chemie\|Wacker]] \|[[Munich]], [[Germany]] \|2015 \|- \|[[Wanhua Chemical Group\|Wanhua]] \|[[Yantai]], [[China]] \|2019 \|- \|[[Yara International\|Yara]] \|[[Oslo]], [[Norway]] \|2023 \|} == Recognition == * 2015 - Highly Commended at the Ethical Corporation Responsible Business Award 2015<ref>{{cite web\|title=Ethical Corporation Responsible Business Award 2015\|url=http://ethicalcorp.com/people-careers/ethical-corporation-responsible-business-awards-2015-review\|publisher=Ethical Corporation\|accessdate=13 August 2018}}</ref> * 2016 - Sustainable Purchasing Leadership Council Market Transformation Award<ref>{{cite web \|title=PRESS RELEASE: 2016 Sustainable Purchasing Leadership Award Winners Announced \|url=http://www.mitsuipr.com/en/member/index.html \|publisher=Sustainable Purchasing Leadership Council Market Transformation Award \|accessdate=13 August 2018 \|archive-date=20 December 2016 \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161220035801/http://www.mitsuipr.com/en/member/index.html \|url-status=dead }}</ref> 2018 - Best Third Sector/Not-for-profit Procurement Project at CIPS Supply Management Awards<ref>{{cite web\|title=CIPS SM Awards Results 2018\|url=http://www.cipssmawards.com/results-2018/\|publisher=CIPS Awards\|accessdate=13 September 2018}}</ref> 2018 - Finalist for international Responsible Business Awards<ref>{{cite web\|title=Finalists for the international Responsible Business Awards have been revealed\|url=http://www.ethicalcorp.com/finalists-international-responsible-business-awards-have-been-revealed\|publisher=Ethical Corporation\|accessdate=13 August 2018}}</ref> == See also == * [[ISO 26000]] * [[Corporate social responsibility]] * [[United Nations Global Compact]] * [[Sustainable Stock Exchanges Initiative]] ==Notes== {{reflist\|group=https://tfs-initiative.com/}} == References == {{reflist}} == External links == * [https://tfs-initiative.com/ TfS Initiative website] [[Category:Chemical industry]] [[Category:Sustainability]] [[Category:Corporate social responsibility]] [[Category:Supply chain management]] [[Category:Organisations based in Brussels]]
Cosmopolitan localism	{{short description\|Social innovation}} '''Cosmopolitan localism''' or '''Cosmolocalism'''<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors=((Schismenos, A.)), ((Niaros, V.)), ((Lemos, L.)) \| journal=TripleC: Communication, Capitalism & Critique \| title=Cosmolocalism: Understanding the Transitional Dynamics Towards Post-Capitalism \| pages=670–684 \| date=21 September 2020 \| url=https://zenodo.org/record/4415304/files/Schismenos_et_al_2020.pdf \| issn=1726-670X \| doi=10.31269/triplec.v18i2.1188 \| s2cid=226359162 \| access-date=4 November 2022\| doi-access=free }}</ref> is a [[social innovation]] approach to [[community development]] that seeks to link [[Local community\|local]] and [[Global community\|global]] communities through resilient infrastructures that bring [[Production (economics)\|production]] and [[Consumption (economics)\|consumption]] closer together, building on [[Distributed computing\|distributed systems]].<ref>{{Cite book\|title=Designs for the pluriverse : radical interdependence, autonomy, and the making of worlds\|first=Arturo\|last=Escobar\|isbn=9780822370901\|location=Durham\|oclc=983824383\|date=2018-03-22\|url-access=registration\|url=https://archive.org/details/designsforpluriv00esco}}</ref> The concept of cosmopolitan localism was pioneered by [[Wolfgang Sachs]], a scholar in the field of environment, development, and globalization.<ref>Sachs, Wolfgang (2015) ''Planet Dialectics: Explorations in Environment and Development''. 2nd Edition. London: Zed Books</ref> Sachs is known as one of the many followers of [[Ivan Illich]] and his work has influenced the green and ecological movements. Contrary to glocalisation, cosmolocalism moves from locality to universality, acknowledging the local as the locus of social co-existence and emphasizing the potential of global networking beyond capitalist market rules.<ref>{{cite book \|last1=Schismenos \|first1=Alexandros \|last2=Niaros \|first2=Vasilis \|last3=Lemos \|first3=Lucas \|date=2021 \|editor-last1=Ramos \|editor-first1=José \|editor-last2=Bauwens \|editor-first2=Michel \|editor-last3=Ede \|editor-first3=Sharon \|editor-last4=Wong \|editor-first4=James \|title=Cosmolocal Reader\|publisher=Futures Lab \|pages=37–51 \|chapter=A Genealogy of Cosmolocalism \|isbn=978-0-9953546-3-0 }}</ref> Cosmopolitan localism fosters a global network of mutually supportive communities (neighbourhoods, villages, towns, cities and regions) who share and exchange knowledge, ideas, skills, technology, culture and (where socially and ecologically sustainable) resources.<ref>Kossoff, G. (2019). ''Cosmopolitan Localism: The Planetary Networking of Everyday Life in Place''. Cuarderno Journal 73: Transition Design Monograph: 61-65. doi: https://doi.org/10.18682/cdc.vi73.1037</ref> The approach seeks to foster a creative, reciprocal relationship between the local and the global. Cosmopolitan localism aims to address problems that emerge from [[globalization]]—namely, the subsuming of local cultures and economies into a homogenised and unsustainable global system<ref>{{Cite book\|title=The McDonaldization of society\|first=George\|last=Ritzer\|date=2004\|publisher=Pine Forge Press\|isbn=978-0761988113\|edition=Rev. new century\|location=Thousand Oaks, Calif.\|oclc=53315154\|url-access=registration\|url=https://archive.org/details/mcdonaldizationo0000ritz}}</ref><ref>{{Citation\|title=When Corporations Rule the World.\|year=2016\|others=Korten, David C., Burns, Traber\|publisher=Audible Studios on Brilliance audio\|isbn=9781511397162\|oclc=933522026}}</ref>—while simultaneously avoiding the pitfalls of [[Localism (politics)\|localization]], such as [[parochialism]] and [[isolationism]].<ref>{{Cite book\|title=The Murray Bookchin reader\|first=Murray\|last=Bookchin\|date=1999\|publisher=Black Rose Books\|others=Biehl, Janet, 1953-\|isbn=978-1551641195\|location=Montréal\|oclc=41976257}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book\|title=The condition of postmodernity : an enquiry into the origins of cultural change\|first=David\|last=Harvey\|date=1990\|publisher=Blackwell\|isbn=978-0631162926\|location=Oxford [England]\|oclc=18747380}}</ref> The self-organization of people with access to the fostered global network, collaborate and produce shared resources and their own governance systems. This system is built around a [[commons]] and entails the social practices of creating and governing a resource through the institutions that a community of producers or users creates and manages. They manifest in various formats, from the co-management of natural resources (e.g., fisheries, pastures) to the co-creation and co-management of digitally shared content. Initiatives such as the free encyclopedia [[Wikipedia]], which has displaced the corporate-organized ''[[Encyclopedia Britannica]]'' and [[Microsoft Encarta]], and the [[Apache HTTP Server]], the leading software in the web-server market, have exemplified digital commons. The beginning of commons almost exclusively contained digital forms of virtual projects and communities. The later movements of commons have now also included local manufacturing and the entanglement between analog and digital technologies across natural and digital commons, physical and digital spaces, activities, and time.<ref>{{cite journal \|last1=Kostakis \|first1=Vasilis \|last2=Pantazis \|first2=Alekos \|title=Is 'Deschooling Society' Possible? Notes from the Field \|journal=Postdigital Science and Education \|date=2021-04-13 \|volume=3 \|issue=3 \|pages=686–692 \|doi=10.1007/s42438-021-00228-6 \|s2cid=234874364 \|url=https://zenodo.org/record/5180774 }}</ref> Italian design and social innovation educator and academic [[Ezio Manzini]] describes cosmopolitan localism as having the potential to generate a new [[sense of place]]. With cosmopolitan localism, places are not considered isolated entities, but nodes in short-distance and long-distance networks which globally link local communities in distributed networks of shared exchange, bringing production and consumption closer together. The short-distance networks generate and regenerate the local socio-economic fabric and the long-distance networks connect a particular community to the rest of the world.<ref>{{Cite book\|title=Design, when everybody designs : an introduction to design for social innovation\|last=Ezio\|first=Manzini\|isbn=9780262328630\|location=Cambridge, Massachusetts\|oclc=904398409}}</ref> This form of cosmolocalism is rooted in an emerging productive model that is based on the concept of the digital commons and the motto "design global, manufacture local" (DGML).<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1=Kostakis \|first1=V. \|last2=Niaros \|first2=V. \|last3=Dafermos \|first3=G. \|last4=Bauwens \|first4=M. \|date=2015 \|title= Design global, manufacture local: Exploring the contours of an emerging productive model \|journal=Futures \|language=en \|volume=73 \|pages=126–135 \|doi= 10.1016/j.futures.2015.09.001 \|s2cid=43960216\|url=https://zenodo.org/record/996189 }}</ref> Cosmopolitan localism is a topic of focus for transition designers who explore design-led societal transition toward more sustainable futures.<ref>{{Cite journal\|last=Irwin\|first=Terry\|date=2015-04-03\|title=Transition Design: A Proposal for a New Area of Design Practice, Study, and Research\|journal=Design and Culture\|language=en\|volume=7\|issue=2\|pages=229–246\|doi=10.1080/17547075.2015.1051829\|s2cid=117643577\|issn=1754-7075}}</ref> It captures the dynamic of dispersed technology initiatives, which exhibit conceptualisations of living, working and making around the commons. Cosmopolitan localism or cosmolocalism has been viewed as a structural framework for organising production by prioritising socio-ecological well-being over corporate profits, over-production and excess consumption.<ref>{{Cite journal\|last1=Kostakis\|first1=Vasilis\|last2=Niaros\|first2=Vasilis\|last3=Giotitsas\|first3=Chris\|date=2023-06-30\|title=Beyond global versus local: illuminating a cosmolocal framework for convivial technology development\|journal=Sustainability Science\|volume=18 \|issue=5 \|pages=2309–2322 \|language=en\|doi=10.1007/s11625-023-01378-1\|issn=1937-0709\|doi-access=free}}</ref> Others have argued that cosmolocalism advances alternatives that could potentially undermine dominant [[capitalism\|capitalist]] imaginary significations, attitudes and modalities. It can lead the way for a transition towards a post-capitalist, commons-centric economy and society where value is collectively created and accessible to all. In order for cosmolocalism to become more than a blueprint for a mode of production, the autonomy of local communities and individuals is essential.<ref>{{Cite journal\|last1=Schismenos\|first1=Alexandros\|last2=Niaros\|first2=Vasilis\|last3=Lemos\|first3=Lucas\|date=2020-09-21\|title=Cosmolocalism: Understanding the Transitional Dynamics Towards Post-Capitalism\|url=https://zenodo.org/records/4415304/files/Schismenos_et_al_2020.pdf\|journal=TripleC: Communication, Capitalism & Critique \|language=en\|pages=670–684\|doi=10.31269/triplec.v18i2.1188\|issn=1726-670X\|doi-access=free}}</ref> ==See also== * [[Commons-based peer production]] * [[Distributed manufacturing]] * [[Open manufacturing]] * [[Open-design movement]] * [[Open-source architecture]] * [[Hackerspace]] * [[Fab Lab]] == References == {{reflist}} ==External links== * [https://www.cosmolocalism.eu/ COSMOLOCALISM \| A European Research Council project] * Manzini, E. (2013) [https://designobserver.com/feature/small-local-open-and-connected-resilient-systems-and-sustainable-qualities/37670 Small, Local, Open and Connected: Resilient Systems and Sustainable Qualities] in [[Design Observer]] Kostakis, V., Niaros, V. & Giotitsas, C. (2023) [https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11625-023-01378-1 Beyond global versus local: illuminating a cosmolocal framework for convivial technology development] in ''Sustainability Science''. Schismenos, A., Niaros, V. & Lemos, L. (2020) [[doi:10.31269/triplec.v18i2.1188\|Cosmolocalism: Understanding the Transitional Dynamics Towards Post-Capitalism]]<nowiki/>in ''Triple-C.'' '''18''' (2): 670–684. [[Category:Sustainability]] [[Category:Innovation]] [[Category:Sustainable development]] [[Category:Community development]] [[Category:Community building]] {{Sustainability-stub}}
Category:Anti-consumerism	{{Cat main}} {{Commons cat}} [[Category:Anti-corporate activism]] [[Category:Consumerism]] [[Category:Ethical consumerism]] [[Category:Counterculture]] [[Category:Sustainability]] [[Category:Utopian movements]]
Anti-consumerism	{{Short description\|Opposition to excessive systemic buying and use of material possessions}} [[File:City in Motion (Unsplash).jpg\|thumb\|upright=1.5\|Picture of the [[Times Square]], emphasizing on its prevalence of advertisements]] {{Anti-consumerism}}{{For\|anti-consumer business practices\|Unfair business practices\|Anti-competitive practices}} '''Anti-consumerism''' is a [[sociopolitical]] [[ideology]] that is opposed to [[consumerism]], the continual buying and consuming of material possessions. Anti-consumerism is concerned with the private actions of business corporations in pursuit of financial and economic goals at the expense of the [[public welfare]], especially in matters of [[environmental protection]], [[social stratification]], and [[ethics]] in the governing of a society. In politics, anti-consumerism overlaps with [[environmental activism]], [[anti-globalization]], and [[animal-rights]] activism; moreover, a conceptual variation of anti-consumerism is ''[[post-consumerism]]'', living in a material way that transcends consumerism.<ref>{{cite web\|url=http://www.postconsumers.com \|title=Postconsumers \|publisher=Postconsumers \|date=2018-06-13 \|access-date=2018-10-18}}</ref> Anti-consumerism arose in response to the problems caused by the long-term mistreatment of human consumers and of the animals consumed, and from the incorporation of [[consumer education]] to school [[curriculum\|curricula]]; examples of anti-consumerism are the book ''[[No Logo]]'' (2000) by [[Naomi Klein]], and documentary films such as ''[[The Corporation (2003 film)\|The Corporation]]'' (2003), by [[Mark Achbar]] and [[Jennifer Abbott]], and ''[[Surplus (film)\|Surplus: Terrorized into Being Consumers]]'' (2003), by [[Erik Gandini]]; each made [[anti-corporate activism]] popular as an ideologically accessible form of civil and political action. Predictors of anti-consumption attitudes and behaviours include individual and collective motivations resulting from negative experiences with a particular product or brand or may relate to a symbolic incongruence between one's sense of identity and a company's image (Iyer and Muncy, 2009, Kozinets et al., 2010, Lee and Ahn, 2016) The criticism of [[economic materialism]] as a dehumanizing behaviour that is destructive to Earth, as [[biosphere\|human habitat]], comes from [[religion]] and [[social activism]]. The religious criticism asserts that materialist consumerism interferes with the connection between the individual and God, and so is an inherently [[immoral]] style of life; thus the German historian [[Oswald Spengler]] (1880–1936) said that, "Life in America is exclusively economic in structure, and lacks depth."<ref name= "ReferenceA">{{cite book\|last=Stearns\|first= Peter\|title=Consumerism in World History\|publisher= Routledge\|date = 2001\|isbn = 9780415244091}}</ref> From the Roman Catholic perspective, [[Thomas Aquinas]] said that, "Greed is a sin against God, just as all mortal sins, in as much as man condemns things eternal for the sake of temporal things";<ref>{{Cite book\|last=Aquinas\|first=Saint Thomas\|title=Summa Theologica: Complete English in Five Volumes\|publisher=Ave Maria Press\|year=1981\|isbn=9780870610639\|volume=3\|pages=1680}}</ref> in that vein, [[Francis of Assisi]], [[Ammon Hennacy]], and [[Mohandas Gandhi]] said that spiritual inspiration guided them towards [[simple living]]. From the secular perspective, social activism indicates that from consumerist [[materialism]] derive [[crime]] (which originates from the [[poverty]] of [[economic inequality]]), industrial [[pollution]] and the consequent [[environmental degradation]], and [[war]] as a business. About the societal discontent born of [[malaise]] and [[hedonism]], [[Pope Benedict XVI]] said in 2008 that the philosophy of materialism offers no purpose for human existence,<ref>{{cite news \|title=Our world has grown weary of greed: Pope \|url=https://www.iol.co.za/mercury/news/world/our-world-has-grown-weary-of-greed-pope-408709 \|access-date=2 January 2022 \|work=[[Independent Online (South Africa)\|Independent Online]] \|date=17 July 2008\|language=en}}</ref> and in 2011 specifically attacked the [[commercialization of Christmas]];<ref>{{cite web \|title=Pope Benedict XVI attacks Christmas consumerism at Mass \|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-16328318 \|website=BBC News \|date=25 December 2011}}</ref> likewise, the writer [[Georges Duhamel]] said that "American materialism [is] a beacon of mediocrity that threatened to eclipse French civilization".<ref name="ReferenceA"/> ==Background== Anti-consumerism originated from criticism of consumption, starting with [[Thorstein Veblen]], who, in the book ''[[Theory of the Leisure Class\|The Theory of the Leisure Class: An Economic Study of Institutions]]'' (1899), indicated that [[consumerism]] dates from the [[cradle of civilization]];<ref>{{cite web \|url= https://www.esdaw.eu/anti-consumerism.html \|title= Anti-Consumerism\|author=<!--Not stated--> \|date= \|website= ESDAW \|publisher= \|access-date= 2024-02-29\|quote=}}</ref> the term ''consumerism'' also denotes economic policies associated with [[Keynesian economics]], and the belief that the free choice of consumers should dictate the economic structure of a society (cf. [[producerism]]). Modern anti-consumerism came to the fore in the 1990s, although attempts were made in the 1980s to define the concept.<ref>{{cite web \|url= https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/mar.21319 \|title= ''What we know about anticonsumption: An attempt to nail jelly to the wall'' (Section 2.1: The concept of anticonsumption)\|last= Makri \|first= Katerina \|date= February 28, 2020 \|website= Wiley Online Library \|publisher= \|access-date= 2024-02-29\|quote=}}</ref> ==Politics and society== {{more citations needed section\|date=May 2019}} [[File:Anticonsumismo.JPG\|thumb\|250px\|An anti-consumerist [[stencil graffiti]] saying "Consuming consumes you"]] Many [[anti-corporate activist]]s believe the rise of large-business corporations poses a threat to the legitimate authority of [[nation states]] and the public sphere.<ref>{{Cite journal\|last=Conversi\|first=Daniele\|date=2012\|title=Majoritarian democracy and globalization versus ethnic diversity?\|journal=Democratization\|volume=19\|issue=4\|pages=789–811\|doi=10.1080/13510347.2011.626947\|s2cid=146288346}}</ref> They feel corporations are invading people's [[privacy]], manipulating politics and governments, and creating false needs in consumers. They state evidence such as invasive advertising [[adware]], [[spam (electronic)\|spam]], [[telemarketing]], child-targeted advertising, aggressive [[guerrilla marketing]], massive corporate campaign contributions in political elections, interference in the policies of sovereign nation states ([[Ken Saro-Wiwa]]), and news stories about [[corporate corruption]] ([[Enron]], for example).<ref>Clinard, M. B. (1990) Corporate corruption: The abuse of power. Greenwood Publishing</ref> Anti-consumerism protesters point out that the main responsibility of a corporation is to answer only to [[shareholders]], giving [[human rights]] and other issues almost no consideration.<ref>{{Cite web\|url=https://www.business-humanrights.org/en/corporate-human-rights-obligations-controversial-but-necessary\|title=Corporate Human Rights Obligations: Controversial but necessary {{!}} Business & Human Rights Resource Centre\|last=Carrillo-Santarelli\|first=Nicolás\|website=www.business-humanrights.org\|language=en\|access-date=2019-07-01}}</ref> The management does have a primary responsibility to their shareholders, since any [[philanthropic]] activities that do not directly serve the business could be deemed to be a [[Position of trust\|breach of trust]]. This sort of financial responsibility means that multi-national corporations will pursue strategies to intensify labor and reduce costs. For example, they will attempt to find low wage economies with laws which are conveniently lenient on human rights, the [[natural environment]], [[trade union]] organization and so on (see, for example, [[Nike, Inc.#Human rights concerns\|Nike]]). An important contribution to the critique of consumerism has been made by French philosopher [[Bernard Stiegler]], arguing modern capitalism is governed by consumption rather than production, and the advertising techniques used to create [[consumer behaviour]] amount to the destruction of psychic and collective [[individuation]]. The diversion of libidinal energy toward the consumption of consumer products, he argues, results in an addictive cycle of consumption, leading to hyper-consumption, the exhaustion of desire, and the reign of symbolic misery. In art, [[Banksy]], an influential British graffiti master, painter, activist, filmmaker and all-purpose provocateur,<ref name="Kakutani">{{Cite news\|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2013/02/18/books/banksy-the-man-behind-the-wall-by-will-ellsworth-jones.html\|title='Banksy: The Man Behind the Wall,' by Will Ellsworth-Jones\|last=Kakutani\|first=Michiko\|date=2013-02-17\|work=The New York Times\|access-date=2018-03-16\|language=en-US\|issn=0362-4331}}</ref> has created satirical and provocative works about the consumerist society (notable examples include "Napalm", also known as "Can't Beat That Feelin'", an attack on [[Walt Disney Pictures]] and [[McDonald's]],<ref>{{Citation\|title=Banksy Napalm/Can't Beat That Feeling (Hexagon Gallery)\|url=https://hexagongallery.com/catalog/artist/banksy/napalm-cant-beat-that-feeling/\|language=en\|access-date=2021-09-01}}</ref> and "Death By [[Swoosh]]", directed at [[Nike, Inc.\|Nike]]<ref>{{Citation\|title=Banksy Nike Canvas Print Or Poster (Canvas Art Rocks)\|url=https://us.canvasartrocks.com/products/banksy-nike-canvas-print-or-poster\|language=en\|access-date=2021-09-01}}</ref>). Working undercover, the secretive street artist challenges social ideas and goads viewers into rethinking their surroundings, to acknowledge the absurdities of closely held preconceptions.<ref name="Kakutani"/> In an essay contained in his 2004 book ''Cut It Out'', he writes, "You owe the companies nothing. Less than nothing, you especially don't owe them any courtesy. They owe you. They have re-arranged the world to put themselves in front of you. They never asked for your permission, don't even start asking for theirs.".<ref>{{cite web \|url= https://www.goodreads.com/author/quotes/28811.Banksy \|title= Banksy: Quotes \|author=<!--Not stated--> \|date= \|website= GoodReads \|publisher= \|access-date= 2024-02-29\|quote=}}</ref> After 2003, Banksy wrote the ''New Yorker'' by e-mail: "I give away thousands of paintings for free. I don't think it's possible to make art about world poverty and trouser all the cash." Banksy believes that there is a consumerist shift in art, and for the first time, the bourgeois world of art belongs to the people. On his [http://www.banksy.co.uk/menu.asp website] {{Webarchive\|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210619145403/https://www.banksy.co.uk/menu.asp \|date=2021-06-19 }}, he provides high-resolution images of his work for free downloading. Anti-Consumerism from a sustainability perspective also ties into the social and political understanding of the term, as ideas surrounding this perspective are rooted in sustainability efforts. Practicing anti-consumerism can mean voluntarily simplifying and minimizing one's lifestyle; this can be in efforts to exist more sustainably in a consumer culture.<ref>{{cite journal \|last1=SEEGEBARTH \|first1=BARBARA \|title=The Sustainability Roots of Anti-Consumption Lifestyles and Initial Insights Regarding Their Effects on Consumers' Well-Being\|journal=[[The Journal of Consumer Affairs]]\|date=Spring 2016 \|volume=50 \|page=68 \|doi=10.1111/joca.12077 \|url=https://cdn.auckland.ac.nz/assets/business/about/our-research/research-groups/icar/2016-icar/4%20Seegabarth%20et%20al%20JOCA%202016%20Sustainability%20roots.pdf}}</ref> These lifestyle changes, which include choosing paper bags over plastic bags when shopping, are also in line with anti-corporate activism and green consumerism—both large contributors to the ethical market.<ref>{{Cite book \|last=Gunkel \|first=Christian \|url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/919201704 \|title=Politicizing consumer choice : ethical dimensions of consumerism in the United States \|date=December 23, 2014 \|publisher=Peter Lang \|isbn=978-3-631-65475-0 \|language=English \|oclc=919201704}}</ref> Degrowth, Commoning and other movements aim to collectively address sustainability issues through practices and approaches that radically reduce consumption and replace consumer culture with new ethics and values.<ref>{{Cite web \|last=Nelson \|first=Anitra \|date=2024-01-31 \|title=Degrowth as a Concept and Practice: Introduction \|url=https://commonslibrary.org/degrowth-as-a-concept-and-practice-introduction/ \|access-date=2024-02-20 \|website=The Commons Social Change Library \|language=en-AU}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web \|last=Smith \|first=E. T. \|date=2024-01-23 \|title=Practising Commoning \|url=https://commonslibrary.org/practising-commoning/ \|access-date=2024-02-20 \|website=The Commons Social Change Library \|language=en-AU}}</ref> ===Conspicuous consumption=== {{Main\|Conspicuous consumption}}{{See also\|Individual action on climate change}}{{See also\|individual action on climate change#less consumption of goods and services}}{{blockquote\|It is preoccupation with possessions, more than anything else, that prevents us from living freely and nobly.\|sign=[[Bertrand Russell]]<ref>''The Routledge Dictionary of Quotations'', by Robert Andrews, [[Routledge]], 1987, {{ISBN\|0-7102-0729-8}}, pg 212</ref>\|title=\|source=}} {{blockquote\|Trying to reduce environmental pollution without reducing consumerism is like combating drug trafficking without reducing the drug addiction.\| sign=[[Jorge Majfud]]<ref>{{cite journal \|last1=Majfud \|first1=Jorge \|title=The Pandemic of Consumerism \|journal=[[UN Chronicle]] \|volume=46 \|issue=3–4 \|date=August 2009 \|page=85 \|url=https://www.un.org/wcm/content/site/chronicle/home/archive/issues2009/toprotectsucceedinggenerations/pid/21570 \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130719034751/http://www.un.org/wcm/content/site/chronicle/home/archive/issues2009/toprotectsucceedinggenerations/pid/21570 \|archive-date=19 July 2013 }}<!-- Note: this "sidebar" article is missing from this issue on the new UN Chronicle website. --></ref>}} In many critical contexts,{{Citation needed\|date=February 2009}} the term describes the tendency of people to identify strongly with products or services they consume, especially with commercial [[brand]] names and obvious [[status symbol\|status-enhancing]] appeal, such as a brand of expensive automobiles or [[jewelry]]. It is a pejorative term which most people deny, having some more specific excuse or [[rationalization (psychology)\|rationalization]] for consumption other than the idea that they are "compelled to consume". A culture that has a high amount of consumerism is referred to as a [[consumer culture]]. To those who embrace the idea of consumerism, these products are not seen as valuable in themselves, but rather as social signals that allow them to identify like-minded people through consumption and display of similar products. Few would yet go so far, though, as to admit that their relationships with a product or brand name could be substitutes for healthy human relationships that sometimes lack in a dysfunctional modern [[society]]. The older term ''conspicuous consumption'' described the [[United States]] in the 1960s, but was soon linked to larger debates about [[media influence]], [[culture jamming]], and its corollary [[productivism]]. [[File:BarsStencil.jpg\|thumb\|Anti-consumerist [[stencil]] art]] The term and concept of ''conspicuous consumption'' originated at the turn of the 20th century in the writing of economist [[Thorstein Veblen]]. The term describes an apparently irrational and confounding form of economic behaviour. Veblen's scathing proposal that this unnecessary consumption is a form of status display is made in darkly humorous observations like the following, from his 1899 book, ''The Theory of the Leisure Class'': {{blockquote \|It is true of dress in even a higher degree than of most other items of consumption, that people will undergo a very considerable degree of privation in the comforts or the necessaries of life in order to afford what is considered a decent amount of wasteful consumption; so that it is by no means an uncommon occurrence, in an inclement climate, for people to go ill clad in order to appear well dressed.<ref>[[The Theory of the Leisure Class]], 1899</ref>}} In 1955, economist [[Victor Lebow]] stated (as quoted by [[William E. Rees (academic)\|William Rees]], 2009): {{blockquote \|Our enormously productive economy demands that we make consumption our way of life, that we convert the buying and use of goods into rituals, that we seek our spiritual satisfaction and our ego satisfaction in consumption. We need things consumed, burned up, worn out, replaced, and discarded at an ever-increasing rate.<ref>{{cite web \|url=https://www.fondationtrudeau.ca/sites/default/files/u5/pages_de_trudeaupapers2009_-_text_from_william_e._rees.pdf \|title=William E. Rees \|publisher=Pierre Elliott Trudeau Foundation \|access-date=8 October 2021}}</ref>}} According to archaeologists, evidence of conspicuous consumption up to several millennia ago has been found, suggesting that such behavior is inherent to humans.<ref>{{cite book \|last1= Renfrew \|first1= Colin \|author-link1= Colin Renfrew \|last2= Bahn \|first2= Peter \|title= Archaeology: Theories, methods and practice \|edition= 5th \|year= 2008 \|publisher= [[Thames & Hudson]] \|location= London \|isbn= 978-0-500-28719-4 \|oclc= 181139910 \|chapter= <!-- Please give the page or chapter numbers. --> }}</ref> === Collaborative consumption === [[Collaborative consumption]] describes the way that consumers of a good engage in shared consumption either through temporary rentals or second-hand purchases. Anti-consumerism opposes the continuous consumption of material possessions in part because of the unsustainability that individuals who seek the experience of consumer culture without the desire of long-term possession.<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1=Guzzetti \|first1=Alice \|last2=Crespi \|first2=Roberta \|last3=Belvedere \|first3=Valeria \|date=January 2021 \|title="Please don't buy!": Consumers attitude to alternative luxury consumption \|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/jsc.2390 \|journal=Strategic Change \|language=en \|volume=30 \|issue=1 \|pages=67–78 \|doi=10.1002/jsc.2390 \|s2cid=234233497 \|issn=1086-1718}}</ref> Collaborative consumption is understood as anti-consumption<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1=Ozanne \|first1=Lucie K. \|last2=Ballantine \|first2=Paul W. \|date=November 2010 \|title=Sharing as a form of anti-consumption? An examination of toy library users \|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/cb.334 \|journal=Journal of Consumer Behaviour \|volume=9 \|issue=6 \|pages=485–498 \|doi=10.1002/cb.334 \|s2cid=144805081 \|issn=1472-0817\|doi-access=free }}</ref> by focusing on the temporary usage of the products, consumers are able to express sustainable attitudes with the intent of reducing natural resources by reducing direct consumption of a product or brand.<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1=Chatzidakis \|first1=Andreas \|last2=Lee \|first2=Michael S. W. \|date=September 2013 \|title=Anti-Consumption as the Study of Reasons against \|url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0276146712462892 \|journal=Journal of Macromarketing \|language=en \|volume=33 \|issue=3 \|pages=190–203 \|doi=10.1177/0276146712462892 \|s2cid=3850581 \|issn=0276-1467}}</ref> Modern day [[creative destruction]] culture causes sustainability issues, and in order to mitigate them, a more collaborative mindset is necessary when it comes to consumption.<ref>George Loewenstein, The Creative Destruction of Decision Research, Journal of Consumer Research, Volume 28, Issue 3, December 2001, Pages 499–505, https://doi.org/10.1086/323738</ref> ===Consumerism and advertising=== Anti-consumerists believe [[advertising]] plays a huge role in human life by informing values and assumptions of the cultural system, deeming what is acceptable, and determining social standards.<ref name="World. Dir 1997">[ Advertising and the End of the World. Dir. Sut Jhally. Perf. [[Sut Jhally]]. DVD. Media Education Foundation, 1997.]</ref> They declare that ads create a hyper-real world where commodities appear as the key to securing happiness. Anti-consumerists cite studies that find that individuals believe their [[quality of life]] improves in relation to social values that lie outside the capability of the marketplace. Therefore, advertising attempts to equate the social with the material by utilizing images and slogans to link commodities with the real sources of human happiness, such as meaningful relationships. Ads are then a detriment to society because they tell consumers that accumulating more and more possessions will bring them closer to self-actualization, or the concept of a complete and secure being. "The underlying message is that owning these products will enhance our image and ensure our popularity with others."<ref>[Tim Kasser, "The High Price of Materialism", 2002, p.9, Achorn Graphic Services]</ref> And while advertising promises that a product will make the consumer happy, advertising simultaneously depends upon the consumer never being truly happy, as then the consumer would no longer feel the need to consume needless products. Anti-consumerists claim that in a consumerist society, advertisement images disempower and objectify the consumer.<ref name="Rumbo">{{cite journal\|first=Joseph D.\|last= Rumbo\|title=Consumer Resistance in a World of Advertising Clutter: The Case of Adbusters\|journal= Psychology and Marketing\|volume=19\|issue=2\|date= February 2002\|doi= 10.1002/mar.10006}}</ref> By stressing individual power, choice and desire, advertising falsely implies the control lies with the consumer. Because anti-consumerists believe commodities supply only short-term gratification, they detract from a sustainably happy society. Further, advertisers have resorted to new techniques of capturing attention, such as the increased speed of ads and [[product placement]]s.<ref name="World. Dir 1997"/> In this way, commercials infiltrate the consumerist society and become an inextricable part of the culture. In a review of research on materialistic values and goals, [[Tim Kasser]] (2016) argues that the pursuit of material possessions can lead to short-term gratification at the expense of long-term well-being.<ref>{{Cite journal \|last=Kasser \|first=Tim \|date=2016-01-04 \|title=Materialistic Values and Goals \|url=https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/10.1146/annurev-psych-122414-033344 \|journal=Annual Review of Psychology \|language=en \|volume=67 \|issue=1 \|pages=489–514 \|doi=10.1146/annurev-psych-122414-033344 \|pmid=26273896 \|issn=0066-4308\|doi-access=free }}</ref> Anti-consumerists condemn advertising because it constructs a simulated world that offers fantastical [[escapism]] to consumers, rather than reflecting actual reality. They further argue that ads depict the interests and lifestyles of the elite as natural; cultivating a deep sense of inadequacy among viewers.<ref name="Rumbo" /> They denounce the use of beautiful models because they glamorize the commodity beyond the reach of the average individual. In an opinion segment of ''[[New Scientist]]'' magazine published in August 2009, reporter Andy Coghlan cited [[William E. Rees (academic)\|William Rees]] of the [[University of British Columbia]] and [[Epidemiology\|epidemiologist]] [[Warren Hern]] of the [[University of Colorado at Boulder]], saying that human beings, despite considering themselves civilized thinkers, are "subconsciously still driven by an impulse for survival, domination and expansion... an impulse which now finds expression in the idea that inexorable economic growth is the answer to everything, and, given time, will redress all the world's existing inequalities." He argues that consumerism is making these tendencies worse by encouraging consumption without limit.<ref>{{cite news \|title=Consumerism is 'eating the future' \|url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn17569-consumerism-is-eating-the-future/ \|access-date=3 January 2022 \|work=New Scientist \|date=7 August 2009}}</ref> Supporters of anti-consumerism often accuse advertising of [[attention theft]], i.e. they believe it unjustifiably invades public areas, thereby imposing itself on people who consider its presence unwanted. American graphic designer [[Sean Tejaratchi]] expresses his resentment of this "[[ad creep]]" in a 1999 issue of his [[clip art]] [[zine]] ''Crap Hound'': "Advertising increasingly invades my environment instead of letting me come to it on my own terms when I need it... The most powerful and well-funded methods of mass communication in history have been used to create a one-way, unending flow of shit into my life... In the twenty-eight years since I was born, I've been subjected to a stunning amount of advertising, and I don't recall anyone ever asking me if I minded."<ref>{{Citation\|title=Banksy and Tejaratchi on Advertising & Going Viral\|date=11 October 2018\|url=https://www.yatesweb.com/banksy-and-tejaratchi-on-advertising/\|language=en\|access-date=September 29, 2021}}</ref> Anti-consumerism has paved the way for a "[[subvertising]]" (also known as culture jamming) movement, which uses artistic and political strategies to protest modern forms of publicity; acts of "subvertising" include "removing advertising from public spaces, tweeting to inform the city's mayor of illicit advertising practices, recuperating posters from bus stop advertising panels, producing critical advertising guides, documentaries or organising public workshops."<ref>{{Cite journal \|last=Lekakis \|first=Eleftheria J. \|date=2021-11-02 \|title=Adversaries of advertising: anti-consumerism and subvertisers' critique and practice \|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/14742837.2020.1837102 \|journal=Social Movement Studies \|volume=20 \|issue=6 \|pages=740–757 \|doi=10.1080/14742837.2020.1837102 \|s2cid=226375476 \|issn=1474-2837}}</ref> ==Austrian economics== [[Austrian Economic\|Austrian economic]] advocates focus on the entrepreneur, promoting a productive lifestyle rather than a materialistic one wherein the individual is defined by things and not their self.<ref>{{cite web\|url=https://mises.org/library/consumerism-defense\|title=Consumerism: A Defense - Tibor R. Machan\|last=kanopiadmin\|date=27 October 2000}}</ref> ==Criticism== Critics of anti-consumerism have accused anti-consumerists of opposing [[modernity]] or [[utilitarianism]], arguing that it can lead to [[elitism]], primarily among libertarian viewpoints, who argue that every person should decide their level of consumption independent of outside influence.<ref>{{Cite web\|url=https://www.setthings.com/en/criticism-anti-consumerism/\|title=Anti-consumerism}} {{dead link\|date=June 2023}}</ref> Right-wing critics see anti-consumerism as rooted in socialism. In 1999, the [[Right-libertarianism\|right-libertarian]] magazine [[Reason (magazine)\|''Reason'']] attacked anti-consumerism, claiming [[marxism\|Marxist]] academics were repackaging themselves as anti-consumerists. [[James B. Twitchell]], a professor at the [[University of Florida]] and popular writer, referred to anti-consumerist arguments as "Marxism Lite".<ref>{{Cite web\|url=https://reason.com/news/show/27795.html\|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080207201008/https://reason.com/news/show/27795.html\|archive-date = 2008-02-07\|title = In Praise of Consumerism\|date = August 2000}}</ref> There have also been socialist critics of anti-consumerism who see it as a form of anti-modern "reactionary socialism", and state that anti-consumerism has also been adopted by ultra-conservatives and [[fascism\|fascists]].<ref>{{cite journal \|last1=Varul \|first1=Matthias Zick \|title=Towards a consumerist critique of capitalism: A socialist defence of consumer culture \|journal=Ephemera: Theory & Politics in Organization \|volume=13 \|issue=2 \|pages=293–315 \|date=May 2013 \|url=http://www.ephemerajournal.org/contribution/towards-consumerist-critique-capitalism-socialist-defence-consumer-culture \|issn=1473-2866 \|isbn=9781906948177 }} {{open access}}</ref> ==In popular media== In ''[[Fight Club]]'', the protagonist finds himself participating in terroristic acts against corporate society and consumer culture. The film is widely regarded as the most widely recognizeable piece of anti-consumerist media.<ref>{{cite web \|url= https://faroutmagazine.co.uk/edward-norton-discusses-political-impact-fight-club/ \|title= Edward Norton Discusses the Political Impact of ‘Fight Club’\|last= Russell \|first= Calum \|date= August 18, 2022 \|website= Far Out Magazine \|publisher= \|access-date= 2024-02-29\|quote=}}</ref> The success of the book and the film comes despite the author [[Chuck Palahniuk]] publically stating that the story is both anticonsumerist and anticommericialist.<ref>{{cite web \|url= http://edition.cnn.com/books/news/9910/29/fight.club.author/ \|title= Palahniuk: Marketing 'Fight Club' is 'the ultimate absurd joke’ \|author=<!--Not stated--> \|date= \|website= CNN \|publisher= \|access-date= 2024-02-29\|quote=}}</ref> In ''[[Mr. Robot]]'', Elliot Alderson, a young cybersecurity engineer, joins a hacker group known as "fsociety", which aims to crash [[U.S. Economy\|the U.S. economy]], eliminating all debt. In the novel ''[[American Psycho]]'' by [[Bret Easton Ellis]], the protagonist [[Patrick Bateman]] criticizes the consumerist society of America in the 1980s of which he is a personification. Later on he goes on a killing spree without any consequences, suggesting that the people around him are so self-absorbed and focused on consuming that they either do not see or do not care about his acts. In the ''[[Pixar]]'' movie, ''[[WALL-E]]'', earth is depicted in an apocalyptic state caused by the negative effects of human consumerism.<ref>{{cite journal \|last1=Van Oosterwjik \|first1=Iris \|last2=McCartney \|first2=William \|title=Once upon a Dystopian Time… the Portrayal and Perception of Environmentalism in Pixar's Finding Nemo and WALL-E \|journal=Quarterly Review of Film and Video \|date=17 March 2022 \|pages=1–26 \|doi=10.1080/10509208.2022.2049181 \|s2cid=247545305 \|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/10509208.2022.2049181 \|access-date=22 October 2022}}</ref> ==See also== {{cols\|colwidth=21em}} * [[:Category:Anti-consumerists\|Anti-consumerists]] (category) * [[Affluenza]] * [[Anti-capitalism]] * [[Brandalism]] * [[Buy Nothing Day]] * [[Shopping cart#Conceptual detours of the shopping cart in art, design and consumerism\|Conceptual detours of the shopping cart in art, design and consumerism]] * [[Degrowth]] * [[Détournement]] * [[Downshifting (lifestyle)]] * [[Ethical consumerism]] * [[Freeganism]] * ''[[Growth Fetish]]'' * [[Mottainai]] * [[Neoism]] * [[Over-consumption]] * [[Philosophy of futility]] * [[Planned obsolescence]] * [[Post-growth]] * [[Slow movement (culture)]] * [[Steady-state economy]] * [[Waste picker]] * [[The Zeitgeist Movement]] {{colend}} ==References== <references/> ===Sources=== * Bakan, Joel (2004) ''[[The Corporation (2003 film)\|The Corporation]]''. * Elizabeth Chin (2001) ''Purchasing Power: Black Kids and American Consumer Culture'' University of Minnesota Press {{ISBN\|978-0-8166-3511-5}} * Hertz, N (2002) ''Silent Takeover: Global Capitalism and the Death of Democracy''. Arrow. * {{cite book \| author=Klein, Naomi \| title=No Logo \| publisher=Vintage Canada \| year=2000 \| isbn=0-676-97282-9\| title-link=No Logo }} * Luedicke, Marius K, Craig J. Thompson and Markus Giesler. 2010. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1086/644761?seq=1 "Consumer Identity Work as Moral Protagonism: How Myth and Ideology Animate a Brand-Mediated Moral Conflict".] ''Journal of Consumer Research.'' 36 (April). * Monbiot, G (2001) ''Captive State: The Corporate Takeover of Britain''. Pan. * Schor, J. (2010) [https://web.archive.org/web/20121225225126/http://www.julietschor.org/the-book/ ''Plenitude''], Penguin Press HC. * Zehner, O (2012) [http://greenillusions.org ''Green Illusions''], University of Nebraska Press. ==External links== {{Commons category\|Anti-consumerism}} [http://www.earthhealing.info/fifty.htm Fifty Possible Ways to Challenge Over-Commercialism] by Albert J. Fritsch, SJ, PhD [https://web.archive.org/web/20060626020927/http://www.thismagazine.ca/issues/2002/11/rebelsell.php The Rebel Sell], ''[[This Magazine]]'', By [[Joseph Heath]] and [[Andrew Potter]] [http://www.multinationalmonitor.org/mm2005/012005/ruskin.html 25 Years of Monitoring the Multinationals] [http://www.storyofstuff.com The Story of Stuff] by [[Annie Leonard]] *[https://www.bbvaopenmind.com/en/article/the-good-life-an-international-perspective/?fullscreen=true The Good Life: An International Perspective] {{Simple living}} {{Sustainability}} {{Consumerism}} {{Anarchism}} [[Category:Anti-consumerism\| ]] [[Category:Consumerism]] [[Category:Anti-corporate activism]] [[Category:Counterculture]] [[Category:Ethical consumerism]] [[Category:Social theories]] [[Category:Sustainability]]
Sustainability in construction	{{see also\|Construction\|Sustainable development}} {{essay-like\|date=December 2018}} Precise definitions of sustainable construction vary from place to place, and are constantly evolving to encompass varying approaches and priorities. In the United States, the [[Environmental Protection Agency]] (EPA) defines sustainable construction as "the practice of creating structures and using processes that are environmentally responsible and resource-efficient throughout a building's life-cycle from siting to design, construction, operation, maintenance, renovation and deconstruction."<ref name=":0">{{Cite web\|url=https://archive.epa.gov/greenbuilding/web/html/about.html\|title=Basic Information {{!}} Green Building {{!}}US EPA\|website=archive.epa.gov\|language=en\|access-date=2018-12-11}}</ref> The Netherlands defines sustainable construction as "a way of building which aims at reducing (negative) health and environmental impacts caused by the construction process or by buildings or by the built-up environment."<ref name=":3">{{Cite book\|title=Sustainable Development and the Future of Construction: A comparison of visions from various countries\|isbn=978-90-6363-011-9\|page=29\|publisher=International Council for Building Research Studies and Documentation }}</ref> More comprehensively, sustainability can be considered from three dimension of planet, people and profit across the entire construction supply chain.<ref>Solaimani, S., & Sedighi, M. (2019). Toward a holistic view on Lean sustainable construction: a literature review. Journal of Cleaner Production, DOI: 10.1016/j.jclepro.2019.119213</ref> Key concepts include the protection of the natural environment, choice of non-toxic materials, reduction and reuse of resources, waste minimization, and the use of [[life-cycle cost analysis]]. == Definition of sustainable construction == The definition of "Sustainable Construction" is the introduction of healthy living and workplace environments, the use of materials that are sustainable, durable and by extension environmentally friendly. == Evolution path == In the 1970s, awareness of sustainability emerged,<ref name=":5">{{Cite web\|url=https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/31737/10-1316-estimating-co2-emissions-supporting-low-carbon-igt-report.pdf\|title=Estimating the Amount of {{CO2}} Emissions that the Construction Industry Can Influence\|website=GOV.UK, Department for Business, Energy & Industrial Strategy\|access-date=2018-12-11}}</ref> amidst oil crises. At that time, people began to realize the necessity and urgency of energy conservation, which is to utilize energy in an efficient way and find alternatives to contemporary sources of energy. Additionally, shortages of other natural resources at that time, such as water, also raised public attention to the importance of sustainability and conservation.<ref name=":5" /> In the late 1960s, the construction industry began to explore ecological approaches to construction, aiming to seek harmony with nature.<ref>{{Cite journal\|title=Architecture and the Four Encounters with Complexities\|journal = Architectural Engineering and Design Management\|volume = 4\|pages = 15–30\|last=Leonard R.\|first=Bachman\|doi=10.3763/aedm.2008.s407\|year = 2008\|s2cid = 56667681}}</ref> The concept of sustainable construction was born out of [[sustainable development]] discourse.<ref name=":73">{{Cite journal\|last1=Hill\|first1=Richard C.\|last2=Bowen\|first2=Paul A.\|date=1997-05-01\|title=Sustainable construction: principles and a framework for attainment\|journal=Construction Management and Economics\|volume=15\|issue=3\|pages=223–239\|doi=10.1080/014461997372971\|issn=0144-6193}}</ref> The term sustainable development was first coined in the [[Our Common Future\|Brundtland report]] of 1987, defined as the ability to meet the needs of all people in the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own.<ref name=":73"/> This report defined a turning point in sustainability discourse since it deviated from the earlier [[The Limits to Growth\|limits-to-growth]] perspective to focus more on achieving social and economic milestones, and their connection to environmental goals, particularly in developing countries.<ref name=":73"/><ref>{{Citation\|last1=Meadows\|first1=Donella H.\|title=The Limits to Growth\|date=2019-09-06\|work=Green Planet Blues\|pages=27–31\|publisher=Routledge\|isbn=978-0-429-32220-4 \|last2=Meadows\|first2=Dennis L.\|last3=Randers\|first3=Jørgen\|last4=Behrens\|first4=William W.\|doi=10.4324/9780429322204-3}}</ref> Sustainable development interconnects three socially concerned systems—environment, society and economy—a system seeking to achieve a range of goals as defined by the United Nations Development Program.<ref>{{Cite web\|url=http://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/sustainable-development-goals.html\|title=Sustainable Development Goals\|website=UNDP\|language=en\|access-date=2018-12-11}}</ref> The introduction of sustainable development into the environmental/economical discourse served as a middle ground for the limits-to-growth theory, and earlier pro-growth theories that argued maintaining economic growth would not hinder long-term sustainability.<ref name=":73"/> As a result, scholars have faulted sustainable development for being too value-laden since applications of its definition vary heavily depending on relevant stakeholders, allowing it to be used in support of both pro-growth and pro-limitation perspectives of development arguments despite their vastly different implications.<ref name=":73" /> In order for the concept to be effective in real-life applications, several specified frameworks for its use in various fields and industries, including sustainable construction, were developed. The construction industry's response to sustainable development is sustainable construction.<ref name=":3" /> In 1994, the definition of sustainable construction was given by Professor Charles J. Kibert during the Final Session of the First International Conference of CIB TG 16 on Sustainable Construction as "the creation and responsible management of a healthy built environment based on resource efficient and ecological principles".<ref>{{Cite book\|title=Sustainable construction: proceedings of the First International Conference of CIB TG 16, November 6-9, 1994, Tampa, Florida, U.S.A\|date=1994\|publisher=Center for Construction and Environment, M.E. Rinker Sr. School of Building Construction, College of Architecture, University of Florida\|isbn=978-0-9643886-1-1 \|location=Gainesville, Fla.\|language=en\|editor-last=Kibert\|editor-first=Charles J \|oclc = 33013532}}</ref> Notably, the traditional concerns in construction (performance, quality, cost) are replaced in sustainable construction by [[resource depletion]], [[environmental degradation]] and healthy environment.<ref name=":9">{{Cite web\|url=https://www.irbnet.de/daten/iconda/CIB_DC24773.pdf\|title=Establishing Principles and a Model for Sustainable Construction\|last=Kibert\|first=Charles J.\|website=www.irbnet.de\|access-date=2018-12-11}}</ref> Sustainable construction addresses these criteria through the following principles set by the conference:<ref name=":9" /> * Minimize [[resource consumption]] (Conserve)by effective procurment systems and strategies * * Maximize resource reuse (Reuse) * Use renewable or [[recyclable]] resources (Renew/Recycle/Repurpose * Protect and incorporate the natural environment (Protect Nature) * Create a healthy, non-toxic environment (Non-Toxics) * Pursue quality in creating the built environment (Quality) Additional definitions and frameworks for sustainable construction practices were more rigorously defined in the 1999 Agenda 21 on Sustainable Construction, published by the International Council for Research and Innovation in Building and Construction (CIB).<ref name=":02">{{Cite journal\|last=Du Plessis\|first=Chrisna\|date=2002\|title=Agenda 21 for sustainable construction in developing countries\|journal=CSIR Report BOU E\|volume=204}}</ref> The same council also published an additional version of the agenda for sustainable construction in [[Developing country\|developing countries]] in 2001 to counteract biases present in the original report as a result of most contributors being from the developed world.<ref name=":02"/> Since 1994, much progress to sustainable construction has been made all over the world. According to 2015 Green Building Economic Impact Study released by [[U.S. Green Building Council]] (USGBC) [https://new.usgbc.org/], green building industry contributes more than $134.3 billion in labor income to working Americans. The study also found that green construction's growth rate is rapidly outpacing that of conventional construction and will continue to rise.<ref>{{Cite web\|url=https://www.usgbc.org/articles/new-study-finds-green-construction-major-us-economic-driver\|title=New Study Finds Green Construction is Major U.S. Economic Driver {{!}} U.S. Green Building Council\|website=www.usgbc.org\|access-date=2018-12-11}}</ref> == Goals of sustainable construction == === Current state === According to United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), "''the increased construction activities and urbanization will increase waste which will eventually destroy natural resources and wild life habitats over 70% of land surface from now up to 2032.'' " <ref>{{Cite book\|title=Global Environmental Outlook 3\|year=2002\|url=https://archive.org/details/globalenvironmen0000unse_z8s0\|url-access=registration\|publisher=Unite Nation Environment Programmes(UNEP) /Earth scan\|location=London}}</ref> Moreover, construction uses around half of natural resources that humans consume. Production and transport of building materials consumes 25 - 50 percent of all energy used (depending on the country considered).<ref>{{Cite web\|url=http://anzasca.net/wp-content/uploads/2014/08/ANZAScA2004_Sattary.pdf\|title=Assessment of sustainable construction practices\|last=Sattary\|first=Sattar\|website=anzasca.net\|access-date=2018-12-11}}</ref> Taking UK as a sample, the construction industry counts for 47% of {{CO2}} emission, of which manufacturing of construction products and materials accounts for the largest amount within the process of construction.<ref name=":5" /> === Benefits === By implementing sustainable construction, benefits such as lower cost, environmental protection, sustainability promotion, and expansion of the market may be achieved during the construction phase. As mentioned in ConstructionExecutive,<ref>{{Cite web\|title=Ten Benefits of Sustainable Construction\|url=https://www.constructionexec.com/article/ten-benefits-of-sustainable-construction\|access-date=2021-10-08\|website=www.constructionexec.com}}</ref> construction waste accounts for 34.7% of all waste in Europe. Implementing sustainability in construction would cut down on wasted materials substantially. ==== Potential lower cost ==== Sustainable construction might result in higher investment at the construction stage of projects, the competition between contractors, due to the promotion of sustainability in the industry, would encourage the application of sustainable construction technologies, ultimately decreasing the construction cost. Meanwhile, the encouraged cooperation of designer and engineer would bring better design into the construction phase.<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal\|title=The Business Case For Green Building\|journal=World Green Building Council\|volume=6\|issue=3\|pages=299–309\|doi=10.1007/BF02941258\|year=2006\|last1=Pantouvakis\|first1=John-Paris\|last2=Manoliadis\|first2=Odysseus G.\|s2cid=29736660}}</ref> Using more sustainable resources reduces cost of construction as there will be less water and energy being used for construction and with less resources being used in the projects, it would lead to lower disposal costs as there is less waste being made.<ref>{{Cite web \|last=exak@dmin \|date=2020-08-11 \|title=Sustainable Construction Benefits, Technologies and Best Practices \|url=https://www.exaktime.com/blog/sustainable-construction-benefits/ \|access-date=2023-04-28 \|website=ExakTime \|language=en-US}}</ref> ==== Environment protection<ref>{{Cite journal\|last1=Manoliadis\|first1=Odysseus G.\|last2=Pantouvakis\|first2=John-Paris\|date=2006-09-01\|title=A practical approach to resource - constrained project scheduling\|journal=Operational Research\|language=en\|volume=6\|issue=3\|pages=299–309\|doi=10.1007/BF02941258\|s2cid=29736660\|issn=1866-1505}}</ref> ==== By adopting sustainable construction, contractors would make the construction plan or sustainable site plan to minimize the environmental impact of the project. According to a study took place in Sri Lanka,<ref name=":7">{{Cite web\|url=http://www.civil.mrt.ac.lk/conference/ICSBE2012/SBE-12-174.pdf\|title=Benefits of Adopting Green Concept for Construction of Building in Sri lanka\|website=www.civil.mrt.ac.lk\|access-date=2018-12-11}}</ref> considerations of sustainability may influence the contractor to choose more sustainable, locally sourced products and materials, and to minimize the amount of waste and water pollution. Another example is from a case study in Singapore,<ref name=":8">{{Cite web\|url=https://www.irbnet.de/daten/iconda/CIB21705.pdf\|title=Sustainable Building and Construction in Singapore\|website=www.irbnet.de\|access-date=2018-12-11}}</ref> the construction team implemented rainwater recycling and waste water treatment systems that help achieve a lower environmental impact. ==== Promoting sustainability<ref>{{Cite web\|url=https://www.branz.co.nz/cms_show_download.php?id=292a5866bacbf3aad00794c5f014c024f8f36a6d\|title=Sustainable Construction: Reducing the Impact of Creating Building\|website=www.branz.co.nz\|access-date=2018-12-11}}</ref> ==== According to "Sustainable Construction: Reducing the Impact of Creating a Building", the contractor in collaboration with the owner would deliver the project in a sustainable way. More importantly, the contractor would have known this was a key performance indicator for the client from day one, allowing them the opportunity to not tender for the work, should this not appeal to them. Moreover, "It also sends a clear message to the industry, 'sustainability is important to us' and this, especially within the government and public sectors can significantly drive change in the way projects are undertaken, as well as up-skilling the industry to meet this growing demand. ==== Expand market<ref name=":7" /> ==== By promoting sustainable methods and products in daily work, the good result directly shows the public the positive effect of sustainable construction. Consequently, there would be potential to expand the market of sustainable concepts or products. According to a report published by USGBC, "The global green building market grew in 2013 to $260 billion, including an estimated 20 percent of all new U.S. commercial real estate construction."{{citation needed\|date=March 2023}} == Sustainable construction strategies == Globally, construction industries are attempting to implement sustainable construction principles. Below are some examples of successful implementations of sustainable construction promotion on a national level. Also included are new technologies that could improve the application of sustainable construction. === Strategic Policy and Guide === * Creation of a national strategy to improve the development : The Government in Singapore has announced their Sustainable Singapore Blueprint in April 2009 to make a long-term strategy of sustainable construction development.<ref name=":8" /> Another example is Strategy for sustainable construction in the UK.<ref>{{Cite web\|url=http://www.bis.gov.uk/files/file46535.pdf\|title=Strategy For Sustainable Construction\|website=bis.gov.uk\|archive-url=https://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20130220131336/http://www.bis.gov.uk/files/file46535.pdf\|archive-date=2013-02-20\|access-date=2018-12-11}}</ref> * Investing money on research and education : S$50 million "Research Fund for the Built Environment" was launched in 2007 by Singapore Government to kick-start R&D efforts in sustainable development.<ref name=":8" /> * Guidance for sustainable application: Government department cooperating with academic institutes to make an industrial guide for workers, for example, the Field Guide for Sustainable Construction published in 2004.<ref>{{Cite web\|url=https://www.wbdg.org/FFC/DOD/DODHDBK/fieldg.pdf\|title=Field Guide for Sustainable Construction\|website=www.wbdg.org\|access-date=2018-12-11}}</ref> === Changing Mindset in the Way of Development === The Government in Singapore has developed a Sustainable Construction Master Plan with the hope to transform the industrial development path from only focusing on the traditional concerns of "cost, time, and quality" to construction products and materials, to reduce natural resource consumption and minimize waste on site. With the expediting concern of the climate crisis, it is essential to keep in mind the importance of reducing energy consumption and toxic waste whilst moving forward with sustainable architectural plans.<ref>{{cite web \|last1=Jackson \|first1=Chris \|title=The Methods and Benefits of Sustainable Construction \|url=https://www.construction21.org/articles/h/the-methods-and-benefits-of-sustainable-construction.html \|website=Construction21 International \|access-date=24 October 2022}}</ref><ref name=":8" /> === New Technologies === The development of efficiency codes has prompted the development of new construction technologies and methods, many pioneered by academic departments of construction management that seek to improve efficiency and performance while reducing [[construction waste]]. New techniques of building construction are being researched, made possible by advances in [[3D printing]] technology. In a form of ''additive building construction'', similar to the additive manufacturing techniques for manufactured parts, [[Construction 3D printing\|building printing]] is making it possible to flexibly construct small commercial buildings and private habitations in around 20 hours, with built-in plumbing and electrical facilities, in one continuous build, using large 3D printers. Working versions of 3D-printing building technology are already printing {{convert\|2\|m}} of building material per hour {{asof\|2013\|01\|lc=y}}, with the next-generation printers capable of {{convert\|3.5\|m}} per hour, sufficient to complete a building in a week.<ref name="gizmodo20130131"> {{cite news\|url=https://gizmodo.com/moon-base/\|title=This Is What the First Lunar Base Could Really Look Like\|last=Diaz\|first=Jesus\|date=2013-01-31\|newspaper=Gizmodo\|access-date=2013-02-01}}</ref> Dutch architect Janjaap Ruijssenaars's [[performative architecture]] 3D-printed building was scheduled to be built in 2014.<ref name="tc20120120">{{cite news\|url=https://techcrunch.com/2013/01/20/the-worlds-first-3d-printed-building-will-arrive-in-2014-and-it-looks-awesome/\|title=The World's First 3D-Printed Building Will Arrive In 2014\|date=2012-01-20\|newspaper=TechCrunch\|access-date=2013-02-08}}</ref> Over the years, the construction industry has seen a trend in IT adoption, something it always found hard to compete with when paired against other fields such as, the manufacturing or healthcare industries. Nowadays, construction is starting to see the full potential of technological advancements, moving on to paperless construction, using the power of automation and adopting BIM, the internet of things, cloud storage and co-working, and mobile apps, implementation of surveying drones, and more.<ref>{{cite web\|url=http://jbknowledge.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/03/2017-JBKnowledge-ConTech-Report.pdf\|title=2017 6th Annual Construction Technology Report\|website=JB Knowledge\|access-date=13 September 2018}}</ref><ref name="8 Technology Trends for the US Commercial Construction Industry in 2018 (And the Statistics to Support Them)">{{cite web\|url=https://render3dquick.com/blog/2018/8/28/8-technology-trends-construction-industry-2018\|title=8 Technology Trends for the US Commercial Construction Industry in 2018 (And the Statistics to Support Them)\|date=2018-08-28\|publisher=Render3dquick.com\|access-date=2018-09-13}}</ref> In the current trend of [[Sustainable architecture\|sustainable construction]], the recent movements of [[New Urbanism]] and [[New Classical architecture]] promote a sustainable approach towards construction, that appreciates and develops [[smart growth]], [[Vernacular architecture\|architectural tradition]] and [[Classical architecture\|classical design]].<ref>{{cite web\|url=http://www.cnu.org/charter\|title=The Charter of the New Urbanism\|last=taotiadmin\|date=20 April 2015}}</ref> This is in contrast to [[Modern architecture\|modernist]] and short-lived [[International Style (architecture)\|globally uniform]] architecture, as well as opposing solitary [[housing estate]]s and [[Urban sprawl\|suburban sprawl]].<ref>[http://www.aia.org/SiteObjects/files/smartgrowth05.pdf Issue Brief: Smart-Growth: Building Livable Communities]. American Institute of Architects. Retrieved on 2014-03-23.</ref> Both trends started in the 1980s. [[Timber]] is being introduced as a feasible material for skyscrapers (nicknamed "plyscrapers") thanks to new developments incorporating engineered timber, whose collective name is "mass timber" and includes [[Cross laminated timber\|cross-laminated timber]].<ref>{{Cite news\|url=http://www.smh.com.au/good-weekend/new-wood-how-it-will-change-our-skyline-20160815-gqsmrn.html\|title=New wood: how it will change our skyline\|last=Callaghan\|first=Greg\|date=27 August 2016\|work=The Sydney Morning Herald\|access-date=6 September 2017}}</ref> [[Hemp\|Industrial hemp]] is becoming increasingly recognised as an eco-friendly building material. It can be used in a range of ways, including as an alternative to concrete (known as '[[hempcrete]]'), flooring, and insulation. King Charles [https://princes-foundation.org/practice/the-natural-house is reported] to have used hemp to insulate an eco-home. In December 2022, the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) emphasised hemp's versatility and sustainability, and advocated its use as a building material, in a report entitled '[https://unctad.org/system/files/official-document/ditccom2022d1_en.pdf Commodities at a glance: Special issue on industrial hemp]'.{{citation needed\|date=April 2023}} == Sustainable construction in developing countries == Specific parameters are needed for sustainable construction projects in developing countries. Scholar Chrisna Du Plessis of the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) defines the following key issues as specific to work in developing countries:<ref name=":02"/> * New, non-western frameworks for development * Understanding the connection between [[urbanization]] and [[rural development]] * Sustainable housing solutions * Education * Innovative materials * Innovative methods of construction * Merging modern and traditional practices * Promoting equity in gender roles * Development of new financing systems * Improving the capacity of the government and the construction industry In a later work, Du Plessis furthers the definition for sustainable construction to touch on the importance of sustainability in social and economic contexts as well.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal\|last=Plessis\|first=Chrisna Du\|date=2007-01-01\|title=A strategic framework for sustainable construction in developing countries\|journal=Construction Management and Economics\|volume=25\|issue=1\|pages=67–76\|doi=10.1080/01446190600601313\|s2cid=218555430 \|issn=0144-6193}}</ref> This is especially relevant in construction projects in the Global South, where local value systems and social interactions may differ from the western context in which sustainable construction frameworks were developed.<ref name=":1" /> === Debates surrounding sustainable construction in developing countries === First, the need for sustainable development measures in developing countries is considered. Most scholars have reached a consensus on the concept of the 'double burden' placed on developing countries as a result of the interactions between development and the environment. Developing countries are uniquely vulnerable to problems of both development (resource strain, pollution, waste management, etc.) and under-development (lack of housing, inadequate water and sanitation systems, hazardous work environments) that directly influence their relationship with the surrounding environment.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal\|last=Véron\|first=René\|date=2010\|title=Small Cities, Neoliberal Governance and Sustainable Development in the Global South: A Conceptual Framework and Research Agenda\|journal=Sustainability\|language=en\|volume=2\|issue=9\|pages=2833–2848\|doi=10.3390/su2092833\|doi-access=free}}</ref> Additionally, scholars have defined two classes of environmental problems faced by developing countries; 'brown agendas' consider issues that cause more immediate environmental health consequences on localized populations, whereas '[[Green Agenda\|green agendas]]' consider issues that address long-term, wide-scope threats to the environment.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":32">{{Citation\|last1=McGranahan\|first1=Gordon\|title=Environmental health or ecological sustainability? Reconciling the brown and green agendas in urban development\|date=2000\|work=Planning in Cities\|pages=43–57\|publisher=Practical Action Publishing\|isbn=978-1-85339-543-7 \|last2=Satterthwaite\|first2=David\|doi=10.3362/9781780441283.004\|doi-broken-date=2024-03-14 }}</ref> Typically, green agenda solutions are promoted by environmentalists from developed, western countries, leading them to be commonly criticized as being elitist and ignorant to the needs of the poor, especially since positive results are often delayed due to their long-term scope.<ref name=":32" /> Scholars have argued that sometimes these efforts can even end up hurting impoverished communities; for example, [[Conservation movement\|conservation]] initiatives often lead to restrictions on resource-use despite the fact that many rural communities rely on these resources as a source of income, forcing households to either find new livelihoods or find different areas for harvesting.<ref>{{Cite journal\|last=Sarkar\|first=Siddhartha\|date=2010\|title=Gender, Environment and Poverty Linkages\|journal=Journal of Development and Agricultural Economics\|volume=2\|issue=4\|pages=145–156}}</ref> General consensus is that the best approaches to sustainable construction in developing countries is through a merging of brown and green agenda ideals.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":32" /> === Stakeholders === ==== Foreign investors and organizations ==== Since all of the definitions and frameworks for the major concepts outlined previously are developed by large international organizations and commissions, their research and writings directly influence the organization, procedures, and scale of rural development projects in the [[Global South]]. Attempts at community development by foreign organizations like the ones discussed have questionable records of success. For instance, billions of dollars of aid have flowed into Africa over the past 60 years in order to address infrastructure shortcomings, yet this aid has created numerous social and economic problems without making any progress toward infrastructure development.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal\|last=du Plessis\|first=Chrisna\|date=2005\|title=Action for sustainability: preparing an African plan for sustainable building and construction\|journal=Building Research & Information\|volume=33\|issue=5\|pages=405–415\|doi=10.1080/09613210500218974\|bibcode=2005BuRI...33..405D \|s2cid=218591642 \|issn=0961-3218}}</ref> One compelling explanation for why infrastructure projects as a result of foreign aid have failed in the past is that they are often eurocentric in modelling and applied off successful strategies used in western countries without adapting to local needs, environmental circumstances and cultural value systems.<ref>{{Cite journal\|last=Adebayo\|first=Ambrose A.\|date=2002\|title=Sustainable construction in Africa\|journal=Agenda 21\|pages=1–11}}</ref> ==== NGOs/Non-profits ==== Often [[Non-governmental organization\|NGOs]] and development [[Nonprofit organization\|nonprofits]] are criticized for taking over responsibilities that are traditionally carried out by the state, causing governments to become ineffective in handling these responsibilities over time. Within Africa, NGOs carry out the majority of sustainable building and construction through donor-funded, low-income housing projects.<ref name=":4" /> == Future development == Currently, sustainable construction has become mainstream in the construction industry. The increasing drive to adopt a better way of construction, stricter industrial standards and the improvement of technologies have lowered the cost of applying the concept, according to Business Case For Green Building Report.<ref name=":6" /> The current cost of sustainable construction may be 0.4% lower than the normal cost of construction. == History of East Asian sustainable construction == == See also == *[[Development Fund of the Swedish Construction Industry]] == References == {{Reflist}} {{Construction overview}} [[Category:Construction]] [[Category:Sustainability]]
Sustainable dentistry	'''Sustainable dentistry''' is when a dental organization voluntarily embeds corporate social responsibility into its organizational culture through the creation of a sustainability policy that outlines its commitment to and strategy for internally and externally focusing all its activities on realizing a [[triple bottom line]], i.e. economic prosperity, social responsibility, and environmental stewardship. Managing sustainability in dentistry, therefore, is the implementation, monitoring, and adjusting of what this sustainability policy entails within a dental organization.<ref>Oviedo, B. (2018). [https://www.acd.org/wp-content/uploads/JACD-85-3-Summer-2018.pdf A New Dental Ethic]. Journal of the American College of Dentists, 85(3), 5-7.</ref><ref>Willard, B. (2018). [https://www.acd.org/wp-content/uploads/JACD-85-3-Summer-2018.pdf The Business Case for Sustainable Dentistry]. Journal of the American College of Dentists, 85(3), 8-14.</ref><ref>United Nations. Transforming our World: The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. Resolution adopted by the 80th General Assembly, September 25, 2015.</ref> Dental practices can uphold sustainable dentistry by reducing their carbon footprint through various methods such as monitoring product procurement.<ref>Lee, J. (2022). [https://www.ada.org/publications/ada-news/viewpoint/my-view/2022/april/my-view-sustainable-dentistry My View: Sustainable dentistry].</ref> ==References== {{reflist}} [[Category:Dentistry]] [[Category:Sustainability]] {{Sustainability-stub}} {{dentistry-stub}}
Category:Sustainability advocates	This category contains people who actively promote '''[[sustainability]]'''. {{Commons category\|Sustainability advocates}} {{catseealso\|Sustainability books}} [[Category:Sustainability\|*]] [[Category:Environmentalists]] [[Category:People in environmental occupations]] [[Category:Activists by issue]] {{CatAutoTOC}}
Carbon capture and utilization	[[File:CCU_vs_CCS.png\|alt=\|thumb\|429x429px\|Comparison between sequestration and utilization of captured carbon dioxide]] '''Carbon capture and utilization''' ('''CCU''') is the process of capturing [[carbon dioxide]] ([[Carbon\|C]][[Oxygen\|O]]<sub>2</sub>) from industrial processes and transporting it via pipelines to where one intends to use it in industrial processes.<ref name=":0">{{cite journal \|last1=Cuéllar-Franca \|first1=Rosa M. \|last2=Azapagic \|first2=Adisa \|title=Carbon capture, storage and utilisation technologies: A critical analysis and comparison of their life cycle environmental impacts \|journal=Journal of CO<sub>2</sub> Utilization \|date=March 2015 \|volume=9 \|pages=82–102 \|doi=10.1016/j.jcou.2014.12.001 \|doi-access=free }}</ref> Captured CO<sub>2</sub> can be converted to several products: one group being [[alcohol (chemistry)\|alcohol]]s, such as methanol, to use as efuels and other [[Carbon-neutral fuel\|alternative and renewable sources of energy]]. Other commercial products include plastics, concrete and reactants for various chemical synthesis.<ref>{{cite journal \|last1=Dibenedetto \|first1=Angela \|last2=Angelini \|first2=Antonella \|last3=Stufano \|first3=Paolo \|title=Use of carbon dioxide as feedstock for chemicals and fuels: homogeneous and heterogeneous catalysis: Use of carbon dioxide as feedstock for chemicals and fuels \|journal=Journal of Chemical Technology & Biotechnology \|date=March 2014 \|volume=89 \|issue=3 \|pages=334–353 \|doi=10.1002/jctb.4229 }}</ref> Regarding a single product, CCU does not result in a net carbon positive to the atmosphere. If, in addition, this product substitutes one of fossil origin an overall CO<sub>2</sub> emission reduction occurs. There are several additional considerations to be taken into account. As CO<sub>2</sub> is a thermodynamically stable form of [[carbon]], manufacturing products from it is energy intensive.<ref name=":4">{{Cite book\|title=Introduction to Carbon Capture and Sequestration\|last1=Smit\|first1=Berend\|last2=Reimer\|first2=Jeffrey A\|last3=Oldenburg\|first3=Curtis M\|last4=Bourg\|first4=Ian C\|date=2013-06-18\|publisher=Imperial College Press\|isbn=9781783263271\|series=The Berkeley Lectures on Energy\|doi=10.1142/p911}}</ref> The availability of other raw materials to create a product should also be considered before investing in CCU. Considering the different potential options for capture and utilization, research suggests that those involving chemicals, fuels and microalgae have limited potential for {{CO2}} removal, while those that involve construction materials and agricultural use can be more effective.<ref>{{cite journal \|last1=Hepburn \|first1=Cameron \|last2=Adlen \|first2=Ella \|last3=Beddington \|first3=John \|last4=Carter \|first4=Emily A. \|last5=Fuss \|first5=Sabine \|last6=Mac Dowell \|first6=Niall \|last7=Minx \|first7=Jan C. \|last8=Smith \|first8=Pete \|last9=Williams \|first9=Charlotte K. \|title=The technological and economic prospects for CO<sub>2</sub> utilization and removal \|journal=[[Nature (journal)\|Nature]] \|date=6 November 2019 \|volume=575 \|issue=7781 \|pages=87–97 \|doi=10.1038/s41586-019-1681-6 \|pmid=31695213 \|bibcode=2019Natur.575...87H \|doi-access=free \|hdl=10044/1/75208 \|hdl-access=free }}</ref> The profitability of CCU depends partly on the [[carbon price]] of CO<sub>2</sub> being released into the atmosphere. Carbon capture and utilization may offer a response to the global challenge of significantly reducing [[greenhouse gas emissions]] from major stationary (industrial) emitters.<ref>{{Cite web\|url=https://www.c2es.org/content/carbon-capture/\|title=Carbon Capture\|website=Center for Climate and Energy Solutions\|access-date=2020-04-22}}</ref> ==Definition and distinction== {{expand section \|date=September 2023}} Carbon capture and utilization (CCU) is defined as capturing {{CO2}} from industrial processes and transporting it via pipelines to where one intends to use it in industrial processes. The pipelines are pressurized as the only option for transporting the {{CO2}} over long distances.<ref name="ichem">{{Cite journal \|last=Mike Bilio, Solomon Brown, Michael Fairweather and Haroun Mahgerefteh \|date=2009 \|title={{CO2}} PIPELINES MATERIAL AND SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS \|url=https://www.icheme.org/media/9558/xxi-paper-061.pdf \|journal=IChemE}}</ref><ref name="crs">{{Cite journal \|last=Paul W. Parfomak, Peter Folger \|date=2008-01-17 \|title=Carbon Dioxide ({{CO2}}) Pipelines for Carbon Sequestration: Emerging Policy Issues \|url=https://www.everycrsreport.com/files/20080117_RL33971_e9b75f9639ed7835dcbc3c565c1b1e03b632b204.pdf \|journal=CRS Report for Congress}}</ref> CCU differs from ''[[carbon capture and storage]]'' (CCS) in that CCU does not aim nor result in permanent [[Carbon sequestration\|geological storage]] of carbon dioxide. Instead, CCU aims to convert the captured carbon dioxide into more valuable substances or products; such as plastics, concrete or [[Electrofuel\|efuel]]; while retaining the [[carbon neutrality]] of the production processes. CCU and CCS are sometimes discussed collectively as ''[[carbon capture, utilization, and sequestration]]'' (CCUS). == Sources of carbon == CO<sub>2</sub> is typically captured from fixed point sources in [[heavy industry]] such as [[Petrochemical industry\|petrochemical plants]].<ref>{{Cite web \|title=Carbon capture, utilisation and storage - Fuels & Technologies \|url=https://www.iea.org/fuels-and-technologies/carbon-capture-utilisation-and-storage \|access-date=2022-06-08 \|website=IEA \|language=en-GB}}</ref> CO<sub>2</sub> captured from these exhaust stream itself varies in concentration. A typical coal power plant will have 10-12% CO<sub>2</sub> concentration in its [[flue gas]] exhaust stream.<ref name=":1">{{cite journal \|last1=Xu \|first1=Yixiang \|last2=Isom \|first2=Loren \|last3=Hanna \|first3=Milford A. \|title=Adding value to carbon dioxide from ethanol fermentations \|journal=Bioresource Technology \|date=May 2010 \|volume=101 \|issue=10 \|pages=3311–3319 \|doi=10.1016/j.biortech.2010.01.006 \|pmid=20110166 \|bibcode=2010BiTec.101.3311X }}</ref> A biofuel refinery produces a high purity (99%) of CO<sub>2</sub> with small amount of impurities such as water and ethanol.<ref name=":1" /> The captured {{CO2}} contains impurities and the {{CO2}} transported through pipelines will contain impurities, such as ammonia, {{chem2\|N2}} , {{H2S}} , C<sub>2</sub>+. CO +, {{chem2\|O2}} +, [[NOx\|{{NOx}}]], {{chem\|SO\|x}}+ and Arsenic. Hydrogen can cause [[hydrogen embrittlement]], and water can cause corrosion in steel pipes.<ref name="ichem"/>{{rp\|424 }} The separation process itself can be performed through separation processes such as [[Absorption (chemistry)\|absorption]], [[adsorption]], or [[membrane]]s.<ref>{{cite journal \|last1=De Ras \|first1=Kevin \|last2=Van de Vijver \|first2=Ruben \|last3=Galvita \|first3=Vladimir V \|last4=Marin \|first4=Guy B \|last5=Van Geem \|first5=Kevin M \|title=Carbon capture and utilization in the steel industry: challenges and opportunities for chemical engineering \|journal=Current Opinion in Chemical Engineering \|date=December 2019 \|volume=26 \|pages=81–87 \|doi=10.1016/j.coche.2019.09.001 \|bibcode=2019COCE...26...81D \|s2cid=210619173 \|url=https://biblio.ugent.be/publication/8635595 \|hdl=1854/LU-8635595 \|hdl-access=free }}</ref> Another possible source of capture in CCU process involves the use of plantation. The idea originates from the observation in the [[Keeling Curve\|Keeling curve]] that the CO<sub>2</sub> level in the atmosphere undergoes annual variation of approximately 5 ppm ([[parts per million]]), which is attributed to the seasonal change of vegetation and difference in land mass between the northern and southern hemisphere.<ref>{{cite journal \|last1=Keeling \|first1=Charles D. \|title=The Concentration and Isotopic Abundances of Carbon Dioxide in the Atmosphere \|journal=Tellus \|date=January 1960 \|volume=12 \|issue=2 \|pages=200–203 \|doi=10.3402/tellusa.v12i2.9366 \|bibcode=1960Tell...12..200K \|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal \|last1=Keeling \|first1=Charles D. \|last2=Bacastow \|first2=Robert B. \|last3=Bainbridge \|first3=Arnold E. \|last4=Ekdahl Jr. \|first4=Carl A. \|last5=Guenther \|first5=Peter R. \|last6=Waterman \|first6=Lee S. \|last7=Chin \|first7=John F. S. \|title=Atmospheric carbon dioxide variations at Mauna Loa Observatory, Hawaii \|journal=Tellus \|date=January 1976 \|volume=28 \|issue=6 \|pages=538–551 \|doi=10.3402/tellusa.v28i6.11322 \|bibcode=1976Tell...28..538K \|doi-access=free }}</ref> However, the CO<sub>2</sub> sequestered by the plants will be returned to the atmosphere when the plants die. Thus, it is proposed to plant crops with [[C4 carbon fixation\|{{C4}} photosynthesis]], given its rapid growth and high carbon capture rate, and then to process the biomass for applications such as [[biochar]] that will be stored in the soil permanently.<ref>{{Citation\|last=X, the moonshot factory\|title=We Solve for X: Mike Cheiky on negative carbon liquid fuels\|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zkYVlZ9v_0o\|access-date=2018-12-08}}</ref> == Examples of technology and application == {{Sustainable energy}} === CO<sub>2</sub> electrolysis === {{main\|Electrochemical reduction of carbon dioxide}} {{See also\|Heterogeneous catalysis}} CO<sub>2</sub> electroreduction to a variety of value-added products has been under development for many years. Some major targets are [[formate]], [[oxalate]], and [[methanol]], as electrochemical formation of these products from CO<sub>2</sub> would constitute a very environmentally sustainable practice.<ref>{{cite journal \|author1=Robert Francke \|author2=Benjamin Schille \|author3=Michael Roemelt \|title=Homogeneously Catalyzed Electroreduction of Carbon Dioxide—Methods, Mechanisms, and Catalysts \|year=2018 \|journal=Chem. Rev. \|volume=118 \|issue=9 \|pages=4631–4701 \|doi=10.1021/acs.chemrev.7b00459\|pmid=29319300 }}</ref> For example, CO<sub>2</sub> can be captured and converted to [[carbon-neutral fuel]]s in an aqueous [[catalysis]] process.<ref>{{cite journal\|last1=Song\|first1=Yang\|last2=Peng\|first2=Rui\|last3=Hensley\|first3=Dale K.\|last4=Bonnesen\|first4=Peter V.\|last5=Liang\|first5=Liangbo\|last6=Wu\|first6=Zili\|last7=Meyer\|first7=Harry M.\|last8=Chi\|first8=Miaofang\|author-link8=Miaofang Chi\|last9=Ma\|first9=Cheng\|last10=Sumpter\|first10=Bobby G.\|last11=Rondinone\|first11=Adam J.\|date=2016-11-16\|title=High-Selectivity Electrochemical Conversion of CO 2 to Ethanol using a Copper Nanoparticle/N-Doped Graphene Electrode\|journal=ChemistrySelect\|volume=1\|issue=19\|pages=6055–6061\|doi=10.1002/slct.201601169\|s2cid=99987768 \|doi-access=free}} {{cite web \|date=October 12, 2016 \|title=Nano-spike catalysts convert carbon dioxide directly into ethanol \|website=Oak Ridge National Laboratory \|url=https://www.ornl.gov/news/nano-spike-catalysts-convert-carbon-dioxide-directly-ethanol}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal \|last1=Kim \|first1=Dohyung \|last2=Kley \|first2=Christopher S. \|last3=Li \|first3=Yifan \|last4=Yang \|first4=Peidong \|title=Copper nanoparticle ensembles for selective electroreduction of {{CO2}} to C<sub>2</sub>–{{C3}} products \|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences \|date=2017-10-03 \|volume=114 \|issue=40 \|pages=10560–10565 \|doi=10.1073/pnas.1711493114 \|pmid=28923930 \|pmc=5635920 \|bibcode=2017PNAS..11410560K \|doi-access=free }} {{cite web \|author=Sarah Yang \|date=September 18, 2017 \|title=Copper Catalyst Yields High Efficiency {{CO2}}-to-Fuels Conversion \|website=University of California Berkeley \|url=https://vcresearch.berkeley.edu/news/copper-catalyst-yields-high-efficiency-co2-fuels-conversion}}</ref> It is possible to convert CO<sub>2</sub> in this way directly to [[ethanol]], which can then be upgraded to [[gasoline]] and [[jet fuel]].<ref>{{cite news \|author1=Pacific Northwest National Laboratory \|title=PNNL, Lanzatech team to make new jet fuel \|url=http://www.ethanolproducer.com/articles/15663/pnnl-lanzatech-team-to-make-new-jet-fuel \|work=Ethanol Producer Magazine \|date=4 October 2018 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal \|last1=Prajapati \|first1=Aditya \|last2=Sartape \|first2=Rohan \|last3=Galante \|first3=Miguel T. \|last4=Xie \|first4=Jiahan \|last5=Leung \|first5=Samuel L. \|last6=Bessa \|first6=Ivan \|last7=Andrade \|first7=Marcio H. S. \|last8=Somich \|first8=Robert T. \|last9=Rebouças \|first9=Márcio V. \|last10=Hutras \|first10=Gus T. \|last11=Diniz \|first11=Nathália \|last12=Singh \|first12=Meenesh R. \|date=2022-12-07 \|title=Fully-integrated electrochemical system that captures CO<sub>2</sub> from flue gas to produce value-added chemicals at ambient conditions \|url=https://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/articlelanding/2022/ee/d2ee03396h \|journal=Energy & Environmental Science \|language=en \|volume=15 \|issue=12 \|pages=5105–5117 \|doi=10.1039/D2EE03396H \|s2cid=253862974 \|issn=1754-5706}}</ref> === Carbon-neutral fuel === {{Main\|Carbon-neutral fuel}}A carbon-neutral fuel can be synthesized by using the captured CO<sub>2</sub> from the atmosphere as the main hydrocarbon source. The fuel is then combusted and CO<sub>2</sub>, as the byproduct of the combustion process, is released back into the air. In this process, there is no net carbon dioxide released or removed from the atmosphere, hence the name carbon-neutral fuel. ==== Methanol fuel ==== A proven process to produce a hydrocarbon is to make [[methanol]]. Traditionally, methanol is produced from natural gas.<ref>{{cite journal \|last1=Garcia-Garcia \|first1=Guillermo \|last2=Fernandez \|first2=Marta Cruz \|last3=Armstrong \|first3=Katy \|last4=Woolass \|first4=Steven \|last5=Styring \|first5=Peter \|title=Analytical Review of Life-Cycle Environmental Impacts of Carbon Capture and Utilization Technologies \|journal=ChemSusChem \|date=18 February 2021 \|volume=14 \|issue=4 \|pages=995–1015 \|doi=10.1002/cssc.202002126\|issn=1864-5631 \|pmid=33314601 \|pmc=7986834 \|bibcode=2021ChSCh..14..995G }}</ref> Methanol is easily synthesized from {{CO2}} and H<sub>2</sub>. Based on this fact the idea of a [[methanol economy]] was born. [[Methanol]], or methyl alcohol, is the simplest member of the family of alcohol organic compound with a chemical formula of [[Carbon\|C]][[Hydrogen\|H]]<sub>3</sub>[[Oxygen\|O]][[Hydrogen\|H]]. [[Methanol fuel]] can be manufactured using the captured carbon dioxide while performing the production with renewable energy. Consequently, methanol fuel has been considered as an alternative to [[fossil fuels]] in power generation for achieving a carbon-neutral sustainability.<ref>{{cite journal \|last1=Olah \|first1=George A. \|title=Beyond Oil and Gas: The Methanol Economy \|journal=Angewandte Chemie International Edition \|date=29 April 2005 \|volume=44 \|issue=18 \|pages=2636–2639 \|doi=10.1002/anie.200462121 \|pmid=15800867 \|url=http://d-nb.info/1149717262/04 }}</ref><ref>{{cite thesis \|last1=Hagen \|first1=David LeRoy \|title=Methanol: its synthesis, use as fuel, economics, and hazards \|date=1976 \|publisher=University of Minnesota \|id={{OSTI\|7113633}} \|oclc=43007998 }}</ref> Synthesis of methanol from carbon dioxide is done through a hydrogenation reaction in the presence of a [[Catalysis\|catalyst]]. Commonly used catalysts are copper, zinc, and palladium. These reactions are typically performed under high pressure conditions to shift the reaction [[Equilibrium chemistry\|equilibrium]] towards the methanol product via [[Le Chatelier's principle\|Le Chatelier's Principle]].<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1=Zhang \|first1=Xinbao \|last2=Zhang \|first2=Guanghui \|last3=Song \|first3=Chunshan \|last4=Guo \|first4=Xinwen \|date=2021 \|title=Catalytic Conversion of Carbon Dioxide to Methanol: Current Status and Future Perspective \|journal=Frontiers in Energy Research \|volume=8 \|doi=10.3389/fenrg.2020.621119 \|issn=2296-598X \|doi-access=free }}</ref> [[Carbon Recycling International]], a company with production facility in [[Grindavík\|Grindavik, Iceland]], markets such Emission-to-Liquid renewable high octane methanol fuel with current 4,000 [[tonne]]/year production capacity.<ref>{{Cite web\|url=http://www.carbonrecycling.is/vulcanol/\|title=Vulcanol\|website=CRI - Carbon Recycling International\|language=en-US\|access-date=2018-12-08\|archive-date=2019-10-31\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191031103631/https://www.carbonrecycling.is/vulcanol\|url-status=dead}}</ref> '''Dimethyl Ether''' [[Dimethyl ether\|Dimethyl Ether]] has shown promise as a carbon neutral fuel as a potential alternative to [[diesel fuel]]. Dimethyl Ether has typically been synthesized from a dehydration reaction of methanol in the presence of an acid catalyst, but researchers have recently developed a one step method to convert carbon dioxide into dimethyl ether using a bifunctional catalyst and similar conditions to the synthesis of methanol from syngas.<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1=Mota \|first1=Noelia \|last2=Millán Ordoñez \|first2=Elena \|last3=Pawelec \|first3=Bárbara \|last4=Fierro \|first4=José Luis G. \|last5=Navarro \|first5=Rufino M. \|date=2021 \|title=Direct Synthesis of Dimethyl Ether from CO<sub>2</sub>: Recent Advances in Bifunctional/Hybrid Catalytic Systems \|journal=Catalysts \|language=en \|volume=11 \|issue=4 \|pages=411 \|doi=10.3390/catal11040411 \|issn=2073-4344 \|doi-access=free \|hdl=10261/236211 \|hdl-access=free }}</ref> === Chemical synthesis === As a highly desirable C<sub>1</sub> (one-carbon) chemical feedstock, CO<sub>2</sub> captured previously can be converted to a diverse range of products. Some of these products include: [[polycarbonate]]s (via Zinc based [[Catalysis\|catalyst]]) or other organic products such as [[acetic acid]],<ref name=":2">{{Cite book\|url=https://www.nap.edu/catalog/10153/carbon-management-implications-for-r-d-in-the-chemical-sciences\|title=Carbon Management: Implications for R & D in the Chemical Sciences and Technology (A Workshop Report to the Chemical Sciences Roundtable)\|last=Council\|first=National Research\|date=2001-06-27\|isbn=9780309075732\|language=en\|doi=10.17226/10153\|pmid=20669488}}</ref> [[urea]],<ref name=":2" /> and [[Polyvinyl chloride\|PVC]].<ref name=":3">{{Cite web\|date=March 2011\|title=Accelerating the uptake of CCS: industrial use of captured carbon dioxide\|url=https://www.globalccsinstitute.com/archive/hub/publications/14026/accelerating-uptake-ccs-industrial-use-captured-carbon-dioxide.pdf\|access-date=3 October 2020\|website=globalccsinstitute.com\|publisher=Global CCS Institute}}</ref> Currently 75% (112 million tons) of urea production, 2% (2 million tons) of methanol production, 43% (30 thousand tons) of salicylic acid production, and 50% (40 thousand tons) of cyclic carbonates production utilize CO<sub>2</sub> as a feedstock.<ref>{{cite journal \|author1=Erdogan Alper \|author2=Ozge Yuksel Orhan \|title=CO<sub>2</sub> utilization: Developments in conversion processes \|year=2017 \|journal=Petroleum \|volume=3 \|issue=1 \|pages=109–126 \|doi=10.1016/j.petlm.2016.11.003\|doi-access=free \|bibcode=2017Pet.....3..109A }}</ref> Chemical synthesis is not a permanent storage/utilization of CO<sub>2</sub>, as [[Aliphatic compound\|aliphatic]] (straight chain) compounds may degrade and release CO<sub>2</sub> back to the atmosphere as early as 6 months.<ref name=":3" /> As the use of fossil fuels decreases, removing carbon dioxide from the air is increasingly seen as a way to stop the long-term accumulation of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. Carbon emissions and storage coupled with reductions in fossil fuel use are known as "negative emissions". Carbon dioxide also could be used in chemoenzymatic processes to synthesize starch without cells. In nature starch is usually synthesized within cells from carbon dioxide via photosynthesis. In cell-free synthesis, carbon dioxide is reduced to methanol with an inorganic catalyst; then methanol is converted to three carbon sugar units. The three carbon sugar units will be converted to six carbon sugar units and finally polymerize into starch. Compared to photosynthesis, which involves sixty biochemical reactions, cell-free synthesis needs eleven steps. This means cell-free synthesis can be faster than photosynthesis. The synthesis rate is 8.5 times that of corn starch, and the absorbance rate of carbon dioxide is more efficient than that of plants.<ref>{{cite journal \|last1=Cai \|first1=Tao \|last2=Sun \|first2=Hongbing \|last3=Qiao \|first3=Jing \|last4=Zhu \|first4=Leilei \|last5=Zhang \|first5=Fan \|last6=Zhang \|first6=Jie \|last7=Tang \|first7=Zijing \|last8=Wei \|first8=Xinlei \|last9=Yang \|first9=Jiangang \|last10=Yuan \|first10=Qianqian \|last11=Wang \|first11=Wangyin \|last12=Yang \|first12=Xue \|last13=Chu \|first13=Huanyu \|last14=Wang \|first14=Qian \|last15=You \|first15=Chun \|last16=Ma \|first16=Hongwu \|last17=Sun \|first17=Yuanxia \|last18=Li \|first18=Yin \|last19=Li \|first19=Can \|last20=Jiang \|first20=Huifeng \|last21=Wang \|first21=Qinhong \|last22=Ma \|first22=Yanhe \|title=Cell-free chemoenzymatic starch synthesis from carbon dioxide \|journal=Science \|pages=1523–1527 \|language=en \|doi=10.1126/science.abh4049 \|date=24 September 2021\|volume=373 \|issue=6562 \|pmid=34554807 \|bibcode=2021Sci...373.1523C \|s2cid=237615280 \|doi-access=free }}</ref> This method is still developing, and the first publication on the topic was only in 2021, so there are still some problems. First, this method needs significant energy inputs, just as plants need sunlight. If the electricity used is not produced cleanly, large carbon dioxide emissions will still result. Moreover, high costs present a barrier to commercialization. In 2023, an international team of researchers at the University of Sydney and the University of Toronto developed a new [[acid]]-based electrochemical process for the conversion of {{CO2}} captured from emission sources or directly from air.<ref>{{cite web \|url=https://www.sydney.edu.au/news-opinion/news/2023/03/15/more-efficient-transformation-of-captured-co2-developed-by-resea.html\| title=New process gives {{CO2}} conversion more "bang for buck" \|website=University of Sydney \|access-date=12 April 2023}}</ref> === Enhanced oil or gas recovery === In [[enhanced oil recovery]], the captured CO<sub>2</sub> is injected into depleted oil fields with the goal to increase the amount of oil to be extracted by the wells. This method is proven to increase oil output by 5-40%.<ref name=":3" /> Carbon Sequestration with Enhanced Gas Recovery (CSEGR) is a process in which CO<sub>2</sub> is injected deep in the gas reservoir and as a result, at the gas wells which are some distance away, methane (CH<sub>4</sub>) is produced. This process by active injection of CO<sub>2</sub> causes repressurization and methane displacement, so that the gas recovery becomes enhanced compared to water-drive or depletion-drive operations.<ref>{{cite journal \|last1=Oldenburg \|first1=Curtis M. \|title=Carbon sequestration in natural gas reservoirs: Enhanced gas recovery and natural gas storage \|date=8 April 2003 \|url=https://www.osti.gov/servlets/purl/813580 \|website=Office of Scientific and Technical Information \|publisher=U.S. Department of Energy \|language=en \|osti=813580}}</ref> === Carbon mineralization === {{main\|Mineralization (soil science)}} Carbon dioxide from sources such as [[flue gas]] are reacted with minerals such as [[magnesium oxide]] and [[calcium oxide]] to form stable solid [[carbonates]]. These minerals can be mined, or existing [[brine]] and waste industrial minerals (including [[slag]]) can be reused.<ref name=":5">{{Cite book\|title=Report: Greenhouse Gas Removal\|year=2018\|isbn=978-1-78252-349-9\|url=https://royalsociety.org/-/media/policy/projects/greenhouse-gas-removal/royal-society-greenhouse-gas-removal-report-2018.pdf\|pages=54\|publisher=Royal Society }}</ref> The carbonates produced can be used for construction, consumer products, and as an alternative for [[carbon capture and sequestration]] (CCS). Approximately 1 tonne of CO<sub>2</sub> is removed from the air for every 3.7 tonnes of mineral carbonate produced.<ref name=":5"/> === Biofuel from microalgae === {{Main\|Algae fuel}} [[File:Algae fuel in a beaker.jpg\|thumb\|Fuels can be produced from algae]] A study has suggested that microalgae can be used as an alternative source of energy.<ref>{{cite journal \|last1=Oncel \|first1=Suphi S. \|title=Microalgae for a macroenergy world \|journal=Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews \|date=October 2013 \|volume=26 \|pages=241–264 \|doi=10.1016/j.rser.2013.05.059 }}</ref> A pond of microalgae is fed with a source of carbon dioxide such as flue gas, and the microalgae is then allowed to proliferate. The algae is then harvested and the biomass obtained is then converted to biofuel. About 1.8 tonnes of CO<sub>2</sub> can be removed from the air per 1 tonne of dry algal biomass produced, though this number actually varies depending on the species.<ref>{{cite web\|url=http://www.globalccsinstitute.com/publications/accelerating-uptake-ccs-industrial-use-captured-carbon-dioxide/online/28426#c25\|title=Accelerating the uptake of CCS: Industrial use of captured carbon dioxide\|publisher=Global CCS Institute\|access-date=7 October 2021\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120916011508/http://www.globalccsinstitute.com/publications/accelerating-uptake-ccs-industrial-use-captured-carbon-dioxide/online/28426#c25\|archive-date=16 September 2012\|url-status=dead}}</ref> The CO<sub>2</sub> captured will be stored non-permanently as the biofuel produced will then be combusted and the CO<sub>2</sub> will be released back into the air. However, the CO<sub>2</sub> released was first captured from the atmosphere and releasing it back into the air makes the fuel a [[carbon-neutral fuel]]. Microalgae biofuels are considered to be a part of the third generation of biofuels, being an alternative energy source for fossil fuels without the disadvantages accompanying first and second generation biofuels.<ref>{{cite journal \|last1=Medipally \|first1=Srikanth \|last2=Yussof \|first2=Fatimah \|last3=Banerjee \|first3=Sanjoy \|last4=Shariff \|first4=M. \|title=Microalgae as Sustainable Renewable Energy Feedstock for Biofuel Production \|journal=BioMed Res. Int. \|date=March 22, 2015 \|volume=2015 \|page=519513 \|doi=10.1155/2015/519513 \|pmid=25874216 \|pmc=4385614 \|doi-access=free }}</ref> This technology is not mature yet.<ref>{{Cite web\|url=https://www.chemengonline.com/mechanical-co2-sequestration-improves-algae-production/\|title = Mechanical {{CO2}} sequestration improves algae production\|date = March 2019}}</ref> Current microalgal culture systems have not been designed for high throughput biomass growth and carbon capture. Raceways, high-rate algal ponds, and photobioreactors are the most widely used for microalgal cultivation at a large-scale. The limitations of these systems are related to microalgal growth requirements. Ponds are operated at narrow depth to ensure sufficient light distribution and thus need a large land surface.<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1=Nguyen \|first1=Luong N. \|last2=Vu \|first2=Minh T. \|last3=Vu \|first3=Hang P. \|last4=Johir \|first4=Md. Abu Hasan \|last5=Labeeuw \|first5=Leen \|last6=Ralph \|first6=Peter J. \|last7=Mahlia \|first7=T. M. I. \|last8=Pandey \|first8=Ashok \|last9=Sirohi \|first9=Ranjna \|last10=Nghiem \|first10=Long D. \|date=2023-01-17 \|title=Microalgae-based carbon capture and utilization: A critical review on current system developments and biomass utilization \|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/10643389.2022.2047141 \|journal=Critical Reviews in Environmental Science and Technology \|volume=53 \|issue=2 \|pages=216–238 \|doi=10.1080/10643389.2022.2047141 \|bibcode=2023CREST..53..216N \|s2cid=247350232 \|issn=1064-3389}}</ref> === Agriculture === {{Main\|Biochar}} An approach that is also proposed as a climate change mitigation effort is to perform plant-based carbon capture.<ref>{{cite journal \|last1=Matovic \|first1=Darko \|title=Biochar as a viable carbon sequestration option: Global and Canadian perspective \|journal=Energy \|date=April 2011 \|volume=36 \|issue=4 \|pages=2011–2016 \|doi=10.1016/j.energy.2010.09.031 }}</ref> The resulting biomass can then be used for [[Biofuel\|fuel]], while the biochar byproduct is then utilized for applications in agriculture as soil-enhancer. [https://www.coolplanet.com Cool Planet] is a private company with an R&D plant in [[Camarillo, California]], performed development of biochar for agricultural applications and claimed that their product can increase crops yield by 12.3% and three-fold return of investment via improvement of [[soil health]] and nutrient retention.<ref>{{Cite web\|url=https://www.coolplanet.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/03/Cool-Planet-Completes-100th-Independent-Trial-of-Cool-Terra%C2%AE-1.pdf\|title=Cool Planet Completes 100th Independent Trial of Cool Terra®\|date=19 March 2018\|website=Cool Planet}}</ref>{{unreliable source?\|date=June 2021}} However, the claims on the efficacy of plant-based carbon capture for climate change mitigation has received a fair amount of skepticism.<ref>{{Cite web\|url=https://www.theverge.com/2014/4/14/5561250/cool-planet\|title=The inventor of everything\|last=Popper\|first=Ben\|date=2014-04-14\|website=The Verge\|language=en-US\|access-date=2018-12-08}}</ref> == Environmental impacts == [[File:CCU projects - 2011.png\|thumb\|273x273px\|Sites of Carbon Capture and Utilization projects and development, per 2011 report from [[Global CCS Institute]].<ref>{{Cite web\|url=http://hub.globalccsinstitute.com/publications/accelerating-uptake-ccs-industrial-use-captured-carbon-dioxide/demonstration-projects\|title=Demonstration projects {{!}} Global CCS Institute\|website=hub.globalccsinstitute.com\|access-date=2018-12-07\|archive-date=2019-04-12\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190412141429/http://hub.globalccsinstitute.com/publications/accelerating-uptake-ccs-industrial-use-captured-carbon-dioxide/demonstration-projects\|url-status=dead}}</ref>\|alt=]] Pipelines can fail through either ductile fracture and/or a [[brittle fracture]].<ref name="ichem"/>{{rp\|425 }} As of 2015, 16 life cycle environmental impact analyses had been done to assess the impacts of four main CCU technologies against conventional CCS: Chemical synthesis, carbon mineralization, biodiesel production, as well as [[Enhanced Oil Recovery]] (EOR). These technologies were assessed based on 10 [[Life-cycle assessment]] (LCA) impacts such as: acidification potential, eutrophication potential, global warming potential, and ozone depletion potential. The conclusion from the 16 different models was that chemical synthesis has the highest global warming potential (216 times that of CCS) while enhanced oil recovery has the least global warming potential (1.8 times that of CCS).<ref name=":0"/>{{Clarify\|reason=gwp explained wrong?\|date=October 2021}} Life-cycle assessments (LCA) are not standardized as studies that perform them use different assessment methodologies and parameter that change the results of the LCA. Enhanced methodology guidelines and standardization of practice are necessary to better gauge and compare the impact of the various CCU technologies.<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1=Thonemann \|first1=Nils \|last2=Zacharopoulos \|first2=Leon \|last3=Fromme \|first3=Felix \|last4=Nühlen \|first4=Jochen \|date=2022-01-15 \|title=Environmental impacts of carbon capture and utilization by mineral carbonation: A systematic literature review and meta life cycle assessment \|journal=Journal of Cleaner Production \|language=en \|volume=332 \|pages=130067 \|doi=10.1016/j.jclepro.2021.130067 \|s2cid=245201124 \|issn=0959-6526\|doi-access=free }}</ref> ==Regulation== In the US, Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC) and the Surface Transportation Board (STB) exercise jurisdiction.<ref name=crs/> The Corps of Engineeers may issue nationwide permits.<ref name="sehn">{{Cite journal \|date=2023-08-28 \|title=Who must protect the rivers, streams and wetlands from {{CO2}} Pipelines? \|url=https://www.sehn.org/sehn/2023/8/24/who-must-protect-the-rivers-streams-and-wetlands-from-co2-pipelines \|language=en-US}}</ref> == See also == {{Portal\|Energy\|Renewable energy}}{{Div col\|colwidth=30em}} [[Carbon capture and storage]] [[Carbon neutral fuel]] [[Carbon sequestration]] [[Climate change mitigation]] [[Greenhouse gas removal]] [[List of energy topics]] [[Low-carbon economy]] [[Solar Foods Ltd.]] {{div col end}} == References == <references /> == Further reading == * {{cite book \|doi=10.1142/p911 \|title=Introduction to Carbon Capture and Sequestration \|series=The Berkeley Lectures on Energy \|year=2014 \|volume=1 \|isbn=978-1-78326-327-1 }} * {{cite report \|doi=10.26356/CARBONCAPTURE \|date=2018 \|title=Novel carbon capture and utilisation technologies: Research and climate aspects Berlin: SAPEA \|website=Science Advice for Policy by European Academies}} *[https://www.dtu.dk/english/news/2019/09/new-route-to-carbon-neutral-fuels-from-carbon-dioxide-discovered-by-stanford-dtu-team?id=4feafcd3-bf1d-4e02-80ea-ea018bfc6caf New route to carbon-neutral fuels from carbon dioxide discovered by Stanford-DTU team] {{global warming}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Carbon capture and utilization}} [[Category:Carbon dioxide]] [[Category:Carbon capture and storage\| ]] [[Category:Climate engineering]] [[Category:Environmental technology]] [[Category:Sustainability]] [[Category:Applications of carbon dioxide\| ]]
Direct air capture	{{short description\|Method of carbon capture from carbon dioxide in air}} {{Use dmy dates\|date=July 2022}}[[File:Direct Air Capture Process Flow Diagram using Caustic Soda.png\|alt=Flow diagram of direct air capture process using sodium hydroxide as the absorbent and including solvent regeneration.\|thumb\|380x380px\|Flow diagram of direct air capture process using sodium hydroxide as the absorbent and including solvent regeneration]] '''Direct air capture''' ('''DAC''') is the use of chemical or physical processes to extract [[carbon dioxide]] directly from the ambient air.<ref name=":4"/> If the extracted {{co2}} is then [[Carbon sequestration\|sequestered]] in safe long-term storage (called '''direct air carbon capture and sequestration''' ('''DACCS''')), the overall process will achieve [[carbon dioxide removal]] and be a "negative emissions technology" (NET). The carbon dioxide ({{co2}}) is captured directly from the ambient air; this is contrast to [[Carbon capture and storage\|carbon capture and storage (CCS)]] which captures {{co2}} from [[Point source pollution\|point sources]], such as a [[cement]] factory or a [[bioenergy]] plant.<ref name= "Erans Sanz-Pérez Hanak et al 2022">{{cite journal \|last1=Erans \|first1=María \|last2=Sanz-Pérez \|first2=Eloy S. \|last3=Hanak \|first3=Dawid P. \|last4=Clulow \|first4=Zeynep \|last5=Reiner \|first5=David M. \|last6=Mutch \|first6=Greg A. \|title=Direct air capture: process technology, techno-economic and socio-political challenges \|journal=Energy & Environmental Science \|date=2022 \|volume=15 \|issue=4 \|pages=1360–1405 \|doi=10.1039/D1EE03523A \|s2cid=247178548 \|doi-access=free \|hdl=10115/19074 \|hdl-access=free }}</ref> After the capture, DAC generates a concentrated stream of {{CO2}} for [[Carbon sequestration\|sequestration]] or [[Carbon capture and utilization\|utilization]] or production of [[carbon-neutral fuel]]. Carbon dioxide removal is achieved when ambient air makes contact with chemical media, typically an aqueous [[alkaline]] [[solvent]]<ref name=":10">{{Cite journal \|last1=Keith \|first1=David W. \|last2=Holmes \|first2=Geoffrey \|last3=St. Angelo \|first3=David \|last4=Heide \|first4=Kenton \|date=June 7, 2018 \|title=A Process for Capturing {{CO2}} from the Atmosphere \|journal=Joule \|volume=2 \|issue=8 \|pages=1573–1594 \|doi=10.1016/j.joule.2018.05.006 \|doi-access=free}}</ref> or [[sorbent]]s.<ref>{{cite journal \|last1=Beuttler \|first1=Christoph \|last2=Charles \|first2=Louise \|last3=Wurzbacher \|first3=Jan \|title=The Role of Direct Air Capture in Mitigation of Anthropogenic Greenhouse Gas Emissions \|journal=Frontiers in Climate \|date=21 November 2019 \|volume=1 \|pages=10 \|doi=10.3389/fclim.2019.00010 \|doi-access=free }}</ref> These chemical media are subsequently stripped of CO<sub>2</sub> through the application of energy (namely heat), resulting in a CO<sub>2</sub> stream that can undergo dehydration and compression, while simultaneously regenerating the chemical media for reuse. When combined with long-term storage of {{CO2}}, DAC is known as direct air carbon capture and storage ('''DACCS''' or '''DACS'''<ref>{{cite journal \|last1=Quarton \|first1=Christopher J. \|last2=Samsatli \|first2=Sheila \|date=1 January 2020 \|title=The value of hydrogen and carbon capture, storage and utilisation in decarbonising energy: Insights from integrated value chain optimisation \|journal=Applied Energy \|volume=257 \|pages=113936 \|doi=10.1016/j.apenergy.2019.113936 \|bibcode=2020ApEn..25713936Q \|s2cid=208829001 \|url=https://purehost.bath.ac.uk/ws/files/198830637/Quarton_and_Samsatli_2019_Applied_Energy_Accepted_version.pdf }}</ref>). It would require [[sustainable energy]] to power since approximately 400kJ of energy is needed per mole of CO<sub>2</sub> capture. DACCS can act as a [[carbon dioxide removal]] mechanism (or a carbon negative technology), although {{As of\|2023\|lc=y}} it has yet to be integrated into [[Carbon emission trading\|emissions trading]] because, at over 1000 USD,<ref name=":3">{{cite news \|title=Carbon-dioxide-removal options are multiplying \|url=https://www.economist.com/special-report/2023/11/20/carbon-dioxide-removal-options-are-multiplying \|newspaper=The Economist \|date=20 November 2023 }}</ref> the cost per tonne of carbon dioxide is many times the [[carbon price]] on those markets.<ref>{{cite news \|title=The many prices of carbon dioxide \|url=https://www.economist.com/special-report/2023/11/20/the-many-prices-of-carbon-dioxide \|newspaper=The Economist \|date=20 November 2023 }}</ref> DAC was suggested in 1999 and is still in development.<ref name="ReviewDAC2016">{{cite journal\|last1=Sanz-Pérez\|first1=Eloy S.\|last2=Murdock\|first2=Christopher R.\|last3=Didas\|first3=Stephanie A.\|last4=Jones\|first4=Christopher W.\|date=12 October 2016\|title=Direct Capture of carbon dioxide from Ambient Air\|journal=Chemical Reviews\|volume=116\|issue=19\|pages=11840–11876\|doi=10.1021/acs.chemrev.6b00173\|pmid=27560307\|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name=":02">{{Cite web\|url=https://www.geoengineeringmonitor.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/Geoengineering-factsheet-DirectAirCapture.pdf\|title=Direct Air Capture (Technology Factsheet)\|date=2018-05-24\|work=Geoengineering Monitor\|access-date=2019-08-27\|language=en-US\|archive-date=2019-08-26\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190826112646/http://www.geoengineeringmonitor.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/Geoengineering-factsheet-DirectAirCapture.pdf\|url-status=live}}</ref> Several commercial plants are planned or in operation in Europe and the US. Large-scale DAC deployment may be accelerated when connected with economical applications or policy incentives. In contrast to carbon capture and storage (CCS) which captures emissions from a point source such as a factory, DAC reduces the carbon dioxide concentration in the atmosphere as a whole. Thus, CCS is recommended for large and stationary sources of CO<sub>2</sub> rather than distributed and movable ones. On the contrary, DAC has no limitation on sources.<ref name= "Erans Sanz-Pérez Hanak et al 2022"/> == Methods of capture == [[File:2010- Direct Air Capture - global - International Energy Agency (IEA) - bar chart.svg\|thumb\|upright=1.5 \| The [[International Energy Agency]] reported growth in direct air capture global operating capacity.<ref name=IEA_202204>{{cite web \|title=Direct Air Capture / A key technology for net zero \|url=https://iea.blob.core.windows.net/assets/78633715-15c0-44e1-81df-41123c556d57/DirectAirCapture_Akeytechnologyfornetzero.pdf \|website=International Energy Agency (IEA) \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220410210408/https://iea.blob.core.windows.net/assets/78633715-15c0-44e1-81df-41123c556d57/DirectAirCapture_Akeytechnologyfornetzero.pdf \|archive-date=10 April 2022 \|page=18 \|date=April 2022 \|url-status=live }}</ref>]] Most commercial techniques require large fans to push ambient air through a filter. More recently, Ireland-based company Carbon Collect Limited<ref>{{Cite web\|date=2021-07-02\|title=Carbon Collect's MechanicalTree selected for US Department of Energy award\|url=https://news.asu.edu/20210702-carbon-collect-mechanicaltree-selected-us-department-energy-award\|access-date=2021-12-09\|website=ASU News\|language=en}}</ref> has developed the MechanicalTree™ which simply stands in the wind to capture {{CO2}}. The company claims this 'passive capture' of {{CO2}} significantly reduces the energy cost of Direct Air Capture, and that its geometry lends itself to scaling for gigaton {{CO2}} capture. Most commercial techniques use a liquid [[solvent]]—usually [[amine]]-based or [[Corrosive substance#Chemical terms\|caustic]]—to [[Absorption (chemistry)\|absorb]] {{co2}} from a gas.<ref name=":12">{{Cite book\|title=Introduction to carbon capture and sequestration\|last1=Smit\|first1=Berend\|last2=Reimer\|first2=Jeffrey A.\|last3=Oldenburg\|first3=Curtis M.\|last4=Bourg\|first4=Ian C\|publisher=Imperial College Press\|year=2014\|isbn=9781783263295\|location=London\|oclc=872565493\|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=StS3CgAAQBAJ}}</ref> For example, a common caustic solvent: [[sodium hydroxide]] reacts with {{CO2}} and precipitates a stable [[sodium carbonate]]. This carbonate is heated to produce a highly pure gaseous {{CO2}} stream.<ref name=":22">{{Cite web\|url=https://www.aps.org/policy/reports/assessments/upload/dac2011.pdf\|title=Direct Air Capture of {{CO2}} with Chemicals: A Technology Assessment for the APS Panel on Public Affairs\|date=1 June 2011\|website=APS physics\|access-date=2019-08-26\|archive-date=2019-09-03\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190903151926/https://www.aps.org/policy/reports/assessments/upload/dac2011.pdf\|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=":9">{{Cite web\|url=http://www.geoengineeringmonitor.org/2019/07/direct-air-capture-recent-developments-and-future-plans/\|title=Direct Air Capture: Recent developments and future plans\|last=Chalmin\|first=Anja\|date=2019-07-16\|website=Geoengineering Monitor\|language=en-US\|access-date=2019-08-27\|archive-date=2019-08-26\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190826115711/http://www.geoengineeringmonitor.org/2019/07/direct-air-capture-recent-developments-and-future-plans/\|url-status=live}}</ref> Sodium hydroxide can be recycled from sodium carbonate in a process of [[Sodium hydroxide#Production\|causticizing]].<ref>{{Cite journal \| doi=10.1021/acs.chemrev.6b00173 \| title=Direct Capture of {{CO2}} from Ambient Air \| year=2016 \| last1=Sanz-Pérez \| first1=Eloy S. \| last2=Murdock \| first2=Christopher R. \| last3=Didas \| first3=Stephanie A. \| last4=Jones \| first4=Christopher W. \| journal=Chemical Reviews \| volume=116 \| issue=19 \| pages=11840–11876 \| pmid=27560307 \| s2cid=19566110 \| doi-access=free }}</ref> Alternatively, the {{CO2}} binds to solid sorbent in the process of [[chemisorption]].<ref name=":12" /> Through heat and vacuum, the {{CO2}} is then desorbed from the solid.<ref name=":9" /><ref name=":8">{{cite journal \|last1=Service \|first1=Robert \|title=Cost plunges for capturing carbon dioxide from the air \|journal=Science \|date=7 June 2018 \|doi=10.1126/science.aau4107 \|s2cid=242097184 }}</ref> Among the specific chemical processes that are being explored, three stand out: causticization with alkali and alkali-earth hydroxides, [[carbonation]],<ref>{{cite journal \|last1=Nikulshina \|first1=V. \|last2=Ayesa \|first2=N. \|last3=Gálvez \|first3=M.E. \|last4=Steinfeld \|first4=A. \|title=Feasibility of Na-based thermochemical cycles for the capture of {{CO2}} from air—Thermodynamic and thermogravimetric analyses \|journal=Chemical Engineering Journal \|date=July 2008 \|volume=140 \|issue=1–3 \|pages=62–70 \|doi=10.1016/j.cej.2007.09.007 \|url=https://www.dora.lib4ri.ch/psi/islandora/object/psi%3A55397 }}</ref> and organic−inorganic hybrid sorbents consisting of amines supported in porous [[adsorbents]].<ref name="ReviewDAC2016" /> === Other explored methods === The idea of using many small dispersed DAC [[carbon dioxide scrubber\|scrubbers]]—analogous to live plants—to create environmentally significant reduction in {{CO2}} levels, has earned the technology a name of ''artificial trees'' in popular media.<ref>{{Cite web\|last=Biello\|first=David\|date=2013-05-16\|title=400 PPM: Can Artificial Trees Help Pull {{CO2}} from the Air?\|url=https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/prospects-for-direct-air-capture-of-carbon-dioxide/\|access-date=2019-09-04\|website=Scientific American\|language=en\|archive-date=2019-09-04\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190904170823/https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/prospects-for-direct-air-capture-of-carbon-dioxide/\|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news\|last=Burns\|first=Judith\|date=2009-08-27\|title='Artificial trees' to cut carbon\|language=en-GB\|work=BBC News {{!}} Science & Environment\|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/8223528.stm\|access-date=2019-09-06\|archive-date=2017-08-14\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170814024457/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/8223528.stm\|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>Freitas RA Jr. Diamond Trees (Tropostats): A Molecular Manufacturing Based System for Compositional Atmospheric Homeostasis. IMM Report No. 43, 10 Feb 2010; http://www.imm.org/Reports/rep043.pdf.</ref>{{Expand section\|date=September 2019}} ==== Moisture swing sorbent ==== In a cyclical process designed in 2012 by professor [[Klaus Lackner]], the director of the [[Center for Negative Carbon Emissions]] (CNCE), dilute {{CO2}} can be efficiently separated using an [[Ion-exchange resin\|anionic exchange polymer resin]] called Marathon MSA, which absorbs air {{CO2}} when dry, and releases it when exposed to moisture. A large part of the energy for the process is supplied by the latent heat of phase change of water.<ref name=Lackner2013>{{cite journal \|last1=Lackner \|first1=Klaus S. \|title=The thermodynamics of direct air capture of carbon dioxide \|journal=Energy \|date=1 February 2013 \|volume=50 \|pages=38–46 \|doi=10.1016/j.energy.2012.09.012 }}</ref> The technology requires further research to determine its cost-effectiveness.<ref>{{cite web\|url=http://energy.columbia.edu/?id=research_carbon_capture\|title=Carbon Capture\|website=Lenfest Center for Sustainable Energy\|url-status=dead\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121220210058/http://energy.columbia.edu/?id=research_carbon_capture\|archive-date=2012-12-20\|access-date=2019-09-06}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web\|url=https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/prospects-for-direct-air-capture-of-carbon-dioxide/\|title=400 PPM: Can Artificial Trees Help Pull {{CO2}} from the Air?\|last=Biello\|first=David\|date=2013-05-16\|website=Scientific American\|language=en\|access-date=2019-09-04\|archive-date=2019-09-04\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190904170823/https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/prospects-for-direct-air-capture-of-carbon-dioxide/\|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=":1" /> ==== Metal-organic frameworks ==== {{Main\|Carbon dioxide scrubber#Metal-organic frameworks (MOFs)}} Other substances which can be used are [[Metal–organic framework\|Metal-organic frameworks]] (or MOF's).<ref>{{Cite web\|url=https://newscenter.lbl.gov/2015/03/17/a-better-way-of-scrubbing-co2/\|title=A Better Way of Scrubbing {{CO2}}\|last=Yarris\|first=Lynn\|date=2015-03-17\|website=News Center\|language=en-US\|access-date=2019-09-07\|archive-date=2017-12-25\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171225211331/http://newscenter.lbl.gov/2015/03/17/a-better-way-of-scrubbing-co2/\|url-status=live}}</ref> ==== Membranes ==== [[Membrane]] separation of {{CO2}} rely on semi-permeable membranes. This method requires little water and has a smaller footprint.<ref name=":12" /> Typically polymeric membranes, either glassy or rubbery, are used for direct air capture. Glassy membranes typically exhibit high selectivity with respect to Carbon Dioxide; however, they also have low permeabilities. Membrane capture of carbon dioxide is still in development and needs further research before it can be implemented on a larger scale.<ref>{{cite journal \|last1=Castro-Muñoz \|first1=Roberto \|last2=Zamidi Ahmad \|first2=Mohd \|last3=Malankowska \|first3=Magdalena \|last4=Coronas \|first4=Joaquín \|title=A new relevant membrane application: {{CO2}} direct air capture (DAC) \|journal=Chemical Engineering Journal \|date=October 2022 \|volume=446 \|pages=137047 \|doi=10.1016/j.cej.2022.137047 \|s2cid=248930982 \|hdl=10261/280157 \|hdl-access=free }}</ref><!-- Not a method of DAC, rather of CCS and not in scope of this article --> == Environmental impact == Proponents of DAC argue that it is an essential component of [[climate change mitigation]].<ref name=":4">{{cite book \|author1=European Commission. Directorate General for Research and Innovation \|author2=European Commission's Group of Chief Scientific Advisors \|date=2018 \|title=Novel carbon capture and utilisation technologies \|publisher=Publications Office \|doi=10.2777/01532 }}{{pn\|date=March 2024}}</ref><ref name=":8" /><ref name=":1">{{Cite web\|url=https://e360.yale.edu/features/pulling_co2_from_atmosphere_climate_change_lackner\|title=Why {{CO2}} 'Air Capture' Could Be Key to Slowing Global Warming\|last=Schiffman\|first=Richard\|date=2016-05-23\|website=Yale E360\|language=en-US\|access-date=2019-09-06\|archive-date=2019-09-03\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190903153142/https://e360.yale.edu/features/pulling_co2_from_atmosphere_climate_change_lackner\|url-status=live}}</ref> Researchers posit that DAC could help contribute to the goals of the [[Paris Agreement]] (namely limiting the increase in global average temperature to well below 2 °C above pre-industrial levels). However, others claim that relying on this technology is risky and might postpone emission reduction under the notion that it will be possible to fix the problem later,<ref name=":02" /><ref name=":6">{{cite journal \|last1=Ranjan \|first1=Manya \|last2=Herzog \|first2=Howard J. \|title=Feasibility of air capture \|journal=Energy Procedia \|date=2011 \|volume=4 \|pages=2869–2876 \|doi=10.1016/j.egypro.2011.02.193 \|doi-access=free }}</ref> and suggest that reducing emissions may be a better solution.<ref name=":22" /><ref name=":5">{{cite news \|last1=Vidal \|first1=John \|title=How Bill Gates aims to clean up the planet \|url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2018/feb/04/carbon-emissions-negative-emissions-technologies-capture-storage-bill-gates \|work=The Observer \|date=4 February 2018 }}</ref> DAC relying on amine-based absorption demands significant water input. It was estimated, that to capture 3.3 gigatonnes of {{CO2}} a year would require 300 km<sup>3</sup> of water, or 4% of the water used for [[irrigation]]. On the other hand, using sodium hydroxide needs far less water, but the substance itself is highly caustic and dangerous.<ref name=":02" /> DAC also requires much greater energy input in comparison to traditional capture from point sources, like [[flue gas]], due to the low concentration of {{CO2}}.<ref name=":22" /><ref name=":6" /> The theoretical minimum energy required to extract {{CO2}} from ambient air is about 250 kWh per tonne of {{CO2}}, while capture from natural gas and coal power plants requires, respectively, about 100 and 65 kWh per tonne of {{CO2}}.<ref name=":4" /> Because of this implied demand for energy, some have proposed using "[[Small modular reactor\|small nuclear power plants]]" connected to DAC installations.<ref name=":02" /> When DAC is combined with a [[Carbon capture and storage\|carbon capture and storage (CCS)]] system, it can produce a negative emissions plant, but it would require a [[Renewable energy\|carbon-free electricity source]]. The use of any [[Fossil fuel\|fossil-fuel-generated]] electricity would end up releasing more {{CO2}} to the atmosphere than it would capture.<ref name=":6" /> Moreover, using DAC for enhanced oil recovery would cancel any supposed climate mitigation benefits.<ref name=":02" /><ref name=":9" /> == Applications == Practical applications of DAC include: [[enhanced oil recovery]],<ref name=":02" /> production of [[carbon-neutral fuel\|carbon-neutral synthetic fuel]] and plastics,<ref name=":5" /><ref name=":8" /><ref name=":02" /> * [[Carbonated water\|beverage carbonation]],<ref name=":11">{{Cite web\|url=https://singularityhub.com/2019/08/23/the-promise-of-direct-air-capture-making-stuff-out-of-thin-air/\|title=The Promise of Direct Air Capture: Making Stuff Out of Thin Air\|last=Diamandis\|first=Peter H.\|date=2019-08-23\|website=Singularity Hub\|language=en-US\|access-date=2019-08-29\|archive-date=2019-08-29\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190829100722/https://singularityhub.com/2019/08/23/the-promise-of-direct-air-capture-making-stuff-out-of-thin-air/\|url-status=live}}</ref> [[carbon sequestration]],<ref name=":4" /> improving concrete strength,<ref name=":11" /> * creating carbon-neutral concrete alternative,<ref name=":11" /> * enhancing productivity of algae farms,<ref name=":2" /> enrichment of air in [[greenhouse]]s<ref name=":2" /> These applications require different concentrations of {{CO2}} product formed from the captured gas. Forms of carbon sequestration such as geological storage require pure {{CO2}} products (concentration > 99%), while other applications such as agriculture can function with more dilute products (~ 5%). Since the air that is processed through DAC originally contains 0.04% {{CO2}} (or 400 ppm), creating a pure product requires more energy than a dilute product and is thus typically more expensive.<ref name=Lackner2013/><ref name=":2" /> DAC is not an alternative to traditional, point-source carbon capture and storage (CCS), rather it is a complementary technology that could be utilized to manage carbon emissions from distributed sources, [[fugitive emission]]s from the CCS network, and leakage from geological formations.<ref name=":4" /><ref name=":5" /><ref name=":22" /> Because DAC can be deployed far from the source of pollution, synthetic fuel produced with this method can use already existing fuel transport infrastructure.<ref name=":11" /> ==Cost== One of the largest hurdles to implementing DAC is the cost of separating {{CO2}} and air.<ref name=":2">{{cite book \|doi=10.17226/25259 \|title=Negative Emissions Technologies and Reliable Sequestration \|date=2019 \|pmid=31120708 \|isbn=978-0-309-48452-7 \|s2cid=134196575 }}{{pn\|date=March 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal \|last1=Fasihi \|first1=Mahdi \|last2=Efimova \|first2=Olga \|last3=Breyer \|first3=Christian \|title=Techno-economic assessment of CO2 direct air capture plants \|journal=Journal of Cleaner Production \|date=July 2019 \|volume=224 \|pages=957–980 \|doi=10.1016/j.jclepro.2019.03.086 \|s2cid=159399402 \|doi-access=free }}</ref> {{As of\|2023}} it is estimated that the total system cost is over $1,000 per tonne of CO<sub>2.</sub><ref name=":3" /> Large-scale DAC deployment can be accelerated by policy incentives.<ref>{{Cite web\|last=Simon\|first=Frédéric\|date=2021-11-23\|title=LEAK: EU strategy seeks to remove carbon from atmosphere\|url=https://www.euractiv.com/section/climate-environment/news/leak-eu-strategy-seeks-to-remove-carbon-from-atmosphere/\|access-date=2021-12-01\|website=www.euractiv.com\|language=en-GB}}</ref> == Development == === Carbon Engineering === {{Main\|Carbon Engineering}} Carbon Engineering is a commercial DAC company founded in 2009 and backed, among others, by [[Bill Gates]] and [[N. Murray Edwards\|Murray Edwards]].<ref name=":11" /><ref name=":5" /> {{As of\|2018\|\|df=}}, it runs a pilot plant in British Columbia, Canada, that has been in use since 2015<ref name=":8" /> and is able to extract about a tonne of {{co2}} a day.<ref name=":02" /><ref name=":5" /> An economic study of its pilot plant conducted from 2015 to 2018 estimated the cost at $94–232 per tonne of atmospheric {{co2}} removed.<ref name=":8" /><ref name=":10" /> Partnering with California energy company Greyrock, Carbon Engineering converts a portion of its concentrated {{CO2}} into [[synthetic fuel]], including gasoline, diesel, and jet fuel.<ref name=":8" /><ref name=":5" /> The company uses a [[potassium hydroxide]] solution. It reacts with {{CO2}} to form [[potassium carbonate]], which removes a certain amount of {{CO2}} from the air.<ref name=":11" /> ===Climeworks=== {{Main\|Climeworks}} Climeworks's first industrial-scale DAC plant, which started operation in May 2017 in [[Hinwil]], in the canton of Zurich, Switzerland, can capture 900 tonnes of {{CO2}} per year. To lower its energy requirements, the plant uses heat from a local [[Incineration\|waste incineration plant]]. The {{CO2}} is used to increase vegetable yields in a nearby greenhouse.<ref>{{Cite news\|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-climatechange-carbon-idUSKBN1CG2D4\|title=From thin air to stone: greenhouse gas test starts in Iceland\|last=Doyle\|first=Alister\|date=2017-10-11\|work=Reuters\|access-date=2019-09-04\|language=en\|archive-date=2019-09-01\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190901215905/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-climatechange-carbon-idUSKBN1CG2D4\|url-status=live}}</ref> The company stated that it costs around $600 to capture one tonne of {{CO2}} from the air.<ref name=":7">{{cite journal\|title=Sucking carbon dioxide from air is cheaper than scientists thought\|last1=Tollefson\|first1=Jeff\|date=7 June 2018\|journal=Nature\|volume=558\|issue=7709\|page=173\|doi=10.1038/d41586-018-05357-w\|pmid=29895915\|bibcode=2018Natur.558..173T\|s2cid=48355402\|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name=":12" />{{Request quote\|date=November 2023\|reason=source behind paywall}} [[Climeworks]] partnered with [[Reykjavik Energy]] in [[Carbfix]], a project launched in 2007. In 2017, the CarbFix2 project was started<ref>{{Cite web\|url=https://www.climeworks.com/public-update-on-carbfix/\|title=Public Update on CarbFix\|date=2017-11-03\|website=Climeworks\|language=en-GB\|access-date=2019-09-02\|archive-date=2019-08-26\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190826112716/https://www.climeworks.com/public-update-on-carbfix/\|url-status=live}}</ref> and received funding from [[Framework Programmes for Research and Technological Development#Horizon 2020\|European{{Nbsp}}Union's Horizon{{Nbsp}}2020]] research program. The CarbFix2 pilot plant project runs alongside a [[Geothermal power\|geothermal power plant]] in [[Hellisheiði Power Station\|Hellisheidi, Iceland]]. In this approach, {{CO2}} is injected 700 meters under the ground and mineralizes into [[basalt]]ic [[bedrock]] forming carbonate minerals. The DAC plant uses low-grade waste heat from the plant, effectively eliminating more {{CO2}} than they both produce.<ref name=":02" /><ref name=":0">{{Cite news\|url=http://www.powermag.com/test-of-carbon-capture-technology-underway-at-iceland-geothermal-plant/\|title=Test of Carbon Capture Technology Underway at Iceland Geothermal Plant\|last=Proctor\|first=Darrell\|date=2017-12-01\|work=POWER Magazine\|access-date=2019-09-04\|language=en-US\|archive-date=2019-08-26\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190826225130/https://www.powermag.com/test-of-carbon-capture-technology-underway-at-iceland-geothermal-plant/\|url-status=live}}</ref> ===Global Thermostat=== Global Thermostat is private company founded in 2010, located in [[Manhattan]], New York, with a plant in [[Huntsville, Alabama]].<ref name=":11" /> Global Thermostat uses amine-based sorbents bound to carbon sponges to remove {{CO2}} from the atmosphere. The company has projects ranging from 40 to 50,000 tonnes per year.<ref name=":32">{{Cite web\|url=https://globalthermostat.com/\|title=Global Thermostat\|website=Global Thermostat\|language=en-US\|access-date=2018-12-07\|archive-date=2018-11-09\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181109150348/https://globalthermostat.com/\|url-status=live}}</ref>{{Verify source\|date=August 2019}}{{Third-party inline\|date=August 2019}} The company claims to remove {{CO2}} for $120 per tonne at its facility in Huntsville.<ref name=":11" />{{Dubious\|date=November 2023\|reason=cannot find anywhere on its website to buy at that price}} Global Thermostat has closed deals with [[The Coca-Cola Company\|Coca-Cola]] (which aims to use DAC to source {{CO2}} for its carbonated beverages) and [[ExxonMobil]] which intends to start a DAC{{Non breaking hyphen}}to{{Non breaking hyphen}}fuel business using Global Thermostat's technology.<ref name=":11" /> ===Soletair Power=== [[Soletair Power]] is a startup founded in 2016, located in [[Lappeenranta]], Finland, operating in the fields of DAC and [[Power-to-X]]. The startup is primarily backed by the Finnish technology group [[Wärtsilä]]. According to [[Soletair Power]], its technology is the first to combine DAC with building integration. It absorbs {{CO2}} from ventilation units inside buildings and captures it to improve air quality. Soletair focuses on the fact that DAC can improve employees' cognitive function by 20% per 400 ppm indoor {{CO2}} removed, according to one study.<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1=Allen \|first1=Joseph G. \|last2=MacNaughton \|first2=Piers \|last3=Satish \|first3=Usha \|last4=Santanam \|first4=Suresh \|last5=Vallarino \|first5=Jose \|last6=Spengler \|first6=John D. \|date=2016-06-01 \|title=Associations of Cognitive Function Scores with Carbon Dioxide, Ventilation, and Volatile Organic Compound Exposures in Office Workers: A Controlled Exposure Study of Green and Conventional Office Environments \|url= \|journal=[[Environmental Health Perspectives]] \|volume=124 \|issue=6 \|pages=805–812 \|doi=10.1289/ehp.1510037 \|pmc=4892924 \|pmid=26502459}}</ref> The company uses the captured {{CO2}} in creating synthetic [[Renewable fuels\|renewable fuel]] and as raw material for industrial applications. In 2020, [[Wärtsilä]], together with Soletair Power and Q Power, created their first demonstration unit of [[Power-to-X]]<ref>{{Cite web\|title=Expo 2020 Dubai: The key to clean air inside Finland Pavilion? Carbon dioxide\|url=https://gulfnews.com/expo-2020/pavilions/expo-2020-dubai-the-key-to-clean-air-inside-finland-pavilion-carbon-dioxide-1.1624371469375\|access-date=2021-07-28\|website=gulfnews.com\|date=28 June 2021 \|language=en\|archive-date=2021-07-28\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210728044157/https://gulfnews.com/expo-2020/pavilions/expo-2020-dubai-the-key-to-clean-air-inside-finland-pavilion-carbon-dioxide-1.1624371469375\|url-status=live}}</ref> for Dubai [[Expo 2020]], that can produce synthetic [[methane]] from captured {{CO2}} from buildings. === Prometheus Fuels === {{Main\|Prometheus Fuels}} Is a start-up company based in [[Santa Cruz, California\|Santa Cruz]] which launched out of [[Y Combinator]] in 2019 to remove CO<sub>2</sub> from the air and turn it into zero-net-carbon gasoline and jet fuel.<ref>{{Cite web\|url=https://www.science.org/content/article/former-playwright-aims-turn-solar-and-wind-power-gasoline\|title=This former playwright aims to turn solar and wind power into gasoline\|last=Service\|first=Robert F.\|date=2019-07-03\|website=Science {{!}} AAAS\|language=en\|access-date=2020-01-23\|archive-date=2019-10-06\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191006130909/https://www.sciencemag.org/news/2019/07/former-playwright-aims-turn-solar-and-wind-power-gasoline\|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news\|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2019-04-30/in-silicon-valley-the-quest-to-make-gasoline-out-of-thin-air\|title=In Silicon Valley, the Quest to Make Gasoline Out of Thin Air\|last=Brustein\|first=Joshua\|date=2019-04-30\|newspaper=Bloomberg.com\|access-date=2020-01-23\|archive-date=2020-01-29\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200129010245/https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2019-04-30/in-silicon-valley-the-quest-to-make-gasoline-out-of-thin-air\|url-status=live}}</ref> The company uses a DAC technology, [[Adsorption\|adsorbing]] CO<sub>2</sub> from the air directly into process electrolytes, where it is converted into alcohols by [[Catalysis\|electrocatalysis]]. The alcohols are then separated from the electrolytes using [[Nanotube membrane\|carbon nanotube membranes]], and upgraded to gasoline and jet fuels. Since the process uses only electricity from [[Renewable energy\|renewable]] sources, the fuels are [[Carbon neutrality\|carbon neutral]] when used, emitting no net CO<sub>2</sub> to the atmosphere. === Heirloom Carbon Technologies === Heirloom's first direct air capture facility opened in [[Tracy, California\|Tracy]], California in November 2023. The facility can remove up to 1,000 [[Short ton\|U.S. tons]] of {{CO2}} annually, which is then mixed into concrete using technologies from CarbonCure. Heirloom also has a contract with [[Microsoft]] in which the latter will purchase 315,000 metric tons of {{CO2}} removal.<ref>{{cite news \|last1=Plumer \|first1=Brad \|title=In a U.S. First, a Commercial Plant Starts Pulling Carbon From the Air \|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2023/11/09/climate/direct-air-capture-carbon.html \|work=The New York Times \|date=9 November 2023 }}</ref> === Other companies === Infinitree – earlier known as Kilimanjaro Energy and Global Research Technology. Part of US-based Carbon Sink. Demonstrated a pre-prototype of economically viable DAC technology in 2007<ref name=":9" /><ref>{{cite web\|url=http://www.earth.columbia.edu/news/2007/story04-24-07.php\|title=First Successful Demonstration of Carbon Dioxide Air Capture Technology Achieved by Columbia University Scientist and Private Company\|date=2007-04-24\|website=Columbia University\|url-status=dead\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100622200945/http://www.earth.columbia.edu/news/2007/story04-24-07.php\|archive-date=2010-06-22\|access-date=2019-08-30}}</ref> * Skytree – a company from Netherlands<ref name=":0" /> * UK Carbon Capture and Storage Research Centre<ref name=":5" /> [[Center for Negative Carbon Emissions]] of [[Arizona State University]]<ref>{{cite news\| last=Clifford\| first=Catherine\| title=Carbon capture technology has been around for decades — here's why it hasn't taken off\| publisher=CNBC\| date=February 1, 2021\| url=https://www.cnbc.com/2021/01/31/carbon-capture-technology.html\| access-date=November 21, 2021\| archive-date=November 21, 2021\| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211121025920/https://www.cnbc.com/2021/01/31/carbon-capture-technology.html\| url-status=live}}</ref> Carbyon – a startup company in Eindhoven, the Netherlands<ref>{{cite news\| last=Carrington\| first=Damian\| title=Climate crisis: do we need millions of machines sucking {{CO2}} from the air?\| newspaper=The Guardian\| date=September 24, 2021\| url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2021/sep/24/climate-crisis-machines-sucking-co2-from-the-air\| access-date=November 21, 2021\| archive-date=November 21, 2021\| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211121025916/https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2021/sep/24/climate-crisis-machines-sucking-co2-from-the-air\| url-status=live}}</ref> * TerraFixing – a startup in Ottawa, Canada<ref>{{cite news\| last=Lunan\| first=Dale\| title=Five Projects Earn Canadian Cleantech Funding\| work=Natural Gas World\| date=September 22, 2021\| url=https://www.naturalgasworld.com/five-projects-earn-canadian-cleantech-funding-92319\| access-date=November 21, 2021\| archive-date=November 21, 2021\| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211121025924/https://www.naturalgasworld.com/five-projects-earn-canadian-cleantech-funding-92319\| url-status=live}}</ref> [[Carbfix]] – a subsidiary of [[Reykjavik Energy]], Iceland<ref>{{cite news\| last1=Sigurdardottir\| first1=Ragnhildur\| last2=Rathi\| first2=Akshat\| title=This startup has unlocked a novel way to capture carbon—by turning the fouling gas into rocks\| work=Fortune\| date=March 6, 2021\| url=https://fortune.com/2021/03/06/carbon-capture-storage-rocks-net-zero-carbfix-startup-iceland/\| access-date=November 21, 2021\| archive-date=November 21, 2021\| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211121025918/https://fortune.com/2021/03/06/carbon-capture-storage-rocks-net-zero-carbfix-startup-iceland/\| url-status=live}}</ref> [[Energy Impact Center]] – a research institute that advocates for the use nuclear energy to power direct air capture technologies.<ref>{{cite news\| last=Takahashi\| first=Dean\| title=Last Energy raises $3 million to fight climate change with nuclear energy\| work=VentureBeat\| date=February 25, 2020\| url=https://venturebeat.com/2020/02/25/last-energy-raises-3-million-to-fight-climate-change-with-nuclear-energy/\| access-date=November 21, 2021\| archive-date=January 12, 2021\| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210112122823/https://venturebeat.com/2020/02/25/last-energy-raises-3-million-to-fight-climate-change-with-nuclear-energy/\| url-status=live}}</ref> [https://www.missionzero.tech/ Mission Zero Technologies] — a startup in London, UK.<ref>{{cite news\| last=Patel\| first=Prachi\| title=Carbon-Removal Tech Grabs Elon Musk's Check Millions poured into XPrize effort to pull CO2 out of the sky\| work=IEEE Spectrum\| date=May 28, 2022\| url=https://spectrum.ieee.org/carbon-removal-x-prize-finalists\| access-date=June 16, 2023\| archive-date=May 28, 2022\| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220528160248/https://spectrum.ieee.org/carbon-removal-x-prize-finalists\| url-status=live}}</ref> == See also == [[Artificial photosynthesis]] * [[Carbon dioxide removal]] * [[Water capture of CO₂]] * [[CityTrees]] * [[Smog tower\|Smog Towers]] == References == {{reflist}} [[Category:Carbon dioxide removal]] [[Category:Carbon dioxide]] [[Category:Climate engineering]] [[Category:Sustainability]] [[Category:Direct air capture]]
Ecosystem-based adaptation	'''Ecosystem-based adaptation''' ('''EBA''') encompasses a broad set of approaches to [[Climate change adaptation\|adapt to climate change]]. They all involve the [[Ecosystem management\|management of ecosystems]] and their services to reduce the vulnerability of human communities to the [[Effects of global warming\|impacts of climate change]]. The [[Convention on Biological Diversity]] defines EBA as "the use of [[biodiversity]] and [[ecosystem services]] as part of an overall adaptation strategy to help people to adapt to the adverse [[Effects of climate change on humans\|effects of climate change]]".<ref name=":0">CBD (2009). Connecting Biodiversity and Climate Change Mitigation and Adaptation: Report of the Second Ad Hoc Technical Expert Group on Biodiversity and Climate Change. Montreal, Technical Series No. 41, 126 pages.</ref> EbA involves the [[Habitat conservation\|conservation]], [[Ecosystem management\|sustainable management]] and [[Restoration ecology\|restoration of ecosystems]], such as [[forest]]s, [[grassland]]s, [[wetland]]s, [[mangrove]]s or [[coral reef]]s to reduce the harmful impacts of climate hazards including shifting patterns or levels of rainfall, changes in maximum and minimum temperatures, stronger storms, and increasingly variable climatic conditions. EbA measures can be implemented on their own or in combination with engineered approaches (such as the construction of [[Reservoir\|water reservoirs]] or dykes), hybrid measures (such as [[artificial reef]]s) and approaches that [[Adaptive capacity\|strengthen the capacities]] of individuals and institutions to address [[climate risk]]s (such as the introduction of [[early warning system]]s). EbA is nested within the broader concept of [[nature-based solutions]] and complements and shares common elements with a wide variety of other approaches to building the resilience of [[Socio-ecological system\|social-ecological systems]].<ref>Cohen-Shacham, E., Walters, G., Janzen, C. and Maginnis, S. (eds.) (2016). Nature-based Solutions to address global societal challenges. Gland, Switzerland: IUCN. xiii + 97pp.</ref> These approaches include community-based adaptation, [[ecosystem-based disaster risk reduction]], [[climate-smart agriculture]], and [[green infrastructure]], and often place emphasis on using participatory and inclusive processes and [[Stakeholder engagement\|community/stakeholder engagement]]. The concept of EbA has been promoted through international fora, including the processes of the [[United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change\|United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)]] and the [[Convention on Biological Diversity\|Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)]]. A number of countries make explicit references to EbA in their strategies for adaptation to climate change and their [[Intended nationally determined contributions\|Nationally Determined Contributions]] (NDCs) under the [[Paris Agreement]].<ref>Seddon, N., Hou-Jones, X., Pye, T., Reid, H., Roe, D., Mountain, D. and Rizvi, A.R. (2016). Ecosystem based adaptation: a win–win formula for sustainability in a warming world? IIED Briefing. London: International Institute for Environment and Development.</ref> While the barriers to widespread uptake of EbA by public and private sector stakeholders and decision makers are substantial, cooperation toward generating a greater understanding of the potential of EbA is well established among researchers, advocates, and practitioners from nature conservation and sustainable development groups. EbA is increasingly viewed as an effective means of addressing the linked challenges of climate change and poverty in developing countries, where many people are dependent on natural resources for their lives and livelihoods.<ref name=":1">Reid, H. et al. (2019). Is ecosystem-based adaptation effective? Results and lessons learned from 13 project sites. ''In press.''</ref> == <!-- Deleted image removed: [[File:Three conceptual pillars of Ecosystem-based Adaptation.jpg\|thumb\|right\|Figure 1. The interlinkages between EbA and other related approaches - climate change adaptation, people-centered development strategies and the conservation of biodiversity and ecosystem services. UNEP 2019<ref>UNEP (2019) Making EbA an effective part of balanced adaptation strategies: introducing the UN Environment EbA briefing notes. UN Environment Guide to Ecosystem-based Adaptation in Projects and Programmes. Nairobi: UN Environment Programme.</ref> adapted from Midgley et al. 2012<ref>Midgley, G.F., Marais, S., Barnett, M. and Wågsæther, K., 2012. Biodiversity, climate change and sustainable development–harnessing synergies and celebrating successes. South African National Biodiversity Institute (SANBI), Conservation South Africa (CSA), and Indigo Development and Change.</ref>.\|471x471px]] --> Overview == Ecosystem-based Adaptation (EbA) describes a variety of approaches for [[Climate change adaptation\|adapting to climate change]], all of which involve [[Ecosystem management\|the management of ecosystems]] to reduce the vulnerability of human communities to the [[Effects of global warming\|impacts of climate change]] such as storm and flood damage to physical assets, coastal erosion, salinisation of freshwater resources, and loss of agricultural productivity. EbA lies at the intersection of [[climate change adaptation]], [[Economic development\|socio-economic development]], and [[Conservation biology\|biodiversity conservation]] (see Figure 1). While ecosystem services have always been used by societies, the term Ecosystem-based Adaptation was coined in 2008 by the [[International Union for Conservation of Nature\|International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN)]] and its member institutions at the UN Climate Change Convention Conference in 2008.<ref>UNFCCC. 2008. Ideas and proposals on the elements contained in paragraph 1 of the Bali Action Plan. Submissions from intergovernmental organizations. Addendum. FCCC/AWGLCA/2008/MISC.6/Add.2 </ref> EbA was officially defined in 2009 at the UN Convention on Biological Diversity Conference.<ref name=":0" /> === Adaptation to climate change hazards === Healthy ecosystems provide important [[ecosystem services]] that can contribute to climate change adaptation. For example, healthy mangrove ecosystems provide protection from the impacts of climate change, often for some of the world's most vulnerable people, by absorbing wave energy and storm surges, adapting to rising sea levels, and stabilizing shorelines from [[erosion]]. EbA focuses on benefits that humans derive from [[Ecosystem services\|biodiversity and ecosystem services]] and how these benefits can be used for managing risk to climate change impacts. Adaptation to climate change is particularly urgent in [[Developing country\|developing countries]] and many [[Small Island Developing States]] that are already experiencing some of the most severe impacts of climate change, have economies that are highly sensitive to disruptions, and that have lower adaptive capacity. === Making active use of biodiversity and ecosystem services === EbA can involve a wide range of ecosystem management activities that aim to reduce [[Climate resilience#Vulnerability\|the vulnerability of people to climate change hazards]] (such as rising sea levels, changing rainfall patterns, and stronger storms) through using nature. For example, EbA measures include coastal habitat restoration in ecosystems such as; coral reefs, mangrove forests, and marshes to protect communities and infrastructure from [[storm surge]]s; [[agroforestry]] to increase resilience of crops to droughts or excessive rainfall; [[Integrated water resources management\|integrated water resource management]] to cope with consecutive dry days and change in rainfall patterns; and sustainable forest management interventions to stabilise slopes, prevent landslides, and regulate water flow to prevent flash flooding (see Table 1 and Figure 2). === Co-benefits of EbA === By deploying EbA, proponents cite that many other benefits to people and nature are delivered simultaneously. These correlated benefits include improved human health, [[Economic development\|socioeconomic development]], [[food security]] and [[water security]], [[disaster risk reduction]], [[carbon sequestration]], and [[Habitat conservation\|biodiversity conservation]]. For example, [[Restoration ecology\|restoration of ecosystems]] such as forests and coastal wetlands can contribute to food security and enhance livelihoods through the collection of non-timber forest products, maintain watershed functionality, and sequester carbon to mitigate global warming. Restoration of [[Mangrove\|mangrove ecosystems]] can help increase food and livelihood security by supporting fisheries, and reduce disaster risk by decreasing wave height and strength during hurricanes and storms. == Implementation and examples == === Examples of EBA measures and outcomes === Particular ecosystems can provide a variety of specific climate change adaptation benefits (or services). The most suitable EbA measures will depend on '''''local context''''', '''''the health of the ecosystem''''' and '''''the primary climate change hazard that needs to be addressed'''.'' The below table provides an overview of these factors, common EbA measures and intended outcomes. {\| class="wikitable" \|+Table 1. '''Examples of EBA measures and outcomes''' '''The table shows climate hazards and their potential impacts on people, as well as examples of corresponding EbA measures. Many of the same climate hazards affect different ecosystems and have similar impacts on people, as such, the table illustrates the overlap between impacts, EbA measures and adaptation outcomes. Adapted from the [http://panorama.solutions/en PANORAMA database]''' !Climate change hazards !Potential impacts on people !EBA measures by ecosystem type !Expected outcomes \|- \|Erratic rainfall Floods Shift of seasons Temperature increases Drought Extreme heat \|Higher flood risks for people and infrastructure; Decrease in agricultural (and livestock) production; Food insecurities; Economic losses and/or insecurities; Threats to human health and well-being; Higher risk of heat strokes Lack of water \|'''Mountains and forests:''' * Sustainable mountain wetland management * Forest and pasture restoration '''Inland waters:''' * Conservation of wetlands and peat lands * River basin restoration * Trans-boundary water governance and ecosystem restoration '''Agriculture and drylands:''' * Ecosystem restoration and agroforestry * Using trees to adapt to changing seasons * Intercropping of adapted species * Sustainable livestock management and pasture restoration * Sustainable dryland management '''Urban areas:''' * Green aeration corridors for cities * Storm water management using green spaces * River restoration in urban areas * Green facades for buildings \|Improved water regulation; Erosion prevention; Improved water storage capacity; Flood risk reduction; Improved water provisioning; Improved water storage capacity; Adaptation to higher temperatures; Heat wave buffering \|- \|Storm surges Cyclones [[Sea level rise]] Salinisation Coastal erosion \|Higher flood risks for people and infrastructure; Higher storm and cyclone risk for people and infrastructure; Decrease in agricultural (and livestock) production; Food insecurities; Economic losses and/or insecurities; Threats to human health and well-being; Lack of potable water \|'''Marine and coastal:''' * [[Mangrove restoration]] and coastal protection * Coastal realignment * Sustainable fishing and mangrove rehabilitation * Coastal reef restoration \|Storm and cyclone reduction; Flood risk reduction; Improved water quality; Adaptation to higher temperatures \|} === Principles and standards for implementing EBA === Since the evolution of the concept and practice of EBA, various principles and standards have been developed to guide best practices for implementation.<ref>Andrade, A., Córdoba, R., Dave, R., Girot, P., Herrera-F, B., Munroe, R., Vergar, W. (2011). Draft Principles and Guidelines for Integrating Ecosystem-Based Approaches to Adaptation in Project and Policy Design: A Discussion Document. Retrieved from IUCN- CEM, CATIE, Turrialba, Costa Rica.</ref><ref name=":2">FEBA (Friends of Ecosystem-based Adaptation) (2017). Making Ecosystem-based Adaptation Effective: A Framework for Defining Qualification Criteria and Quality Standards (FEBA technical paper developed for UNFCCC-SBSTA 46). Bertram, M., Barrow, E., Blackwood, K., Rizvi, A.R., Reid, H., and von Scheliha-Dawid, S. (authors). GIZ, Bonn, Germany, IIED, London, UK, and IUCN, Gland, Switzerland.</ref> The guidelines adopted by the CBD build on these efforts and include a set of principles to guide planning and implementation.<ref name=":3">CBD (2018). Decision Adopted by the Conference of the Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity: 14/5 Biodiversity and climate change. CBD/COP/DEC/14/5.</ref> The principles are broadly clustered into four themes: # ''Building resilience and enhancing adaptive capacity through EBA interventions;'' # ''Ensuring inclusivity and equity in planning and implementation;'' # ''Consideration of multiple spatial and temporal scales in the design of EBA interventions;'' # ''Improving the effectiveness and efficiency of EBA, for example, by incorporating adaptive management, identifying limitations and trade-offs, integrating the knowledge of indigenous peoples and local communities.'' These principles are complemented by safeguards, which are social and environmental measures to avoid unintended consequences of EBA to people, ecosystems and biodiversity. Standards have also been developed to help practitioners understand what interventions qualify as EBA, including the elements of helping people adapt to climate change, making active use of biodiversity and ecosystem services, and being part of an overall adaptation strategy.<ref name=":2" />Challenges Although interest in Ecosystem-based Adaptation has grown, and meta-analyses of case studies are demonstrating the efficacy and cost-effectiveness of EbA interventions,<ref name=":1" /> there are recognized challenges that should be addressed or considered to increase adoption of the approach. These include: '''Potential limitations of ecosystem services under a changing climate.''' One challenge facing EbA is the identification of limits and thresholds beyond which EbA might not deliver adaptation benefits and the extent ecosystems can provide ecosystem services under a changing climate.<ref>Roberts, D., Boon, R., Diederichs, N., Douwes, E., Govender, N., Mcinnes, A., et al. (2012). Exploring ecosystem-based adaptation in Durban, South Africa: "learning-by-doing" at the local government coal face. ''Environ. Urban.'' 24 (1), 167–195.</ref><ref name=":4">Nalau, J., Becken, S., and B. Mackey (2018). "Ecosystem-based Adaptation: A review of the constraints." ''Environmental Science & Policy'' 89: 357-364.</ref> '''Difficulty in monitoring, evaluation, and establishing the evidence base for effective EbA.''' Confusion around what Ecosystem-based Adaptation means has led to an array of different methodologies used for assessments, and the lack of consistent and comparable quantitative measures of EbA success and failure makes it difficult to argue the case for EbA in socio-economic terms.<ref name=":4" /><ref name=":5">Doswald, N., Munroe, R., Roe, D., Giuliani, A., Castelli, I., Stephens, J., et al. (2014). Effectiveness of ecosystem-based approaches for adaptation: a review of the evidence base. ''Clim. Dev.'' 6 (2), 185–201</ref> EbA research has also relied heavily on Western scientific knowledge without due consideration of local and traditional knowledge.<ref name=":5" /> In addition, it can be difficult to implement a plan for monitoring and evaluation due to potentially long timescales required to observe the impacts of EbA. '''Governance and institutional constraints.''' Because EbA is a multi-sectoral policy issue, the challenges of governing and planning are immense.<ref name=":4" /> This is due in part to the fact that EbA involves both the sectors that manage ecosystems and those that benefit from ecosystem services.<ref name=":4" /> '''Economic and financial constraints.''' Broad macroeconomic considerations such as economic development, poverty, and access to financial capital to implement climate adaptation options are contributing factors to constraints impeding greater uptake of EbA.<ref name=":4" /> Public and multilateral funding for EbA projects thus far has been available through the International Climate Initiative of the German Federal Ministry for the Environment, Nature Conservation and Nuclear Safety, the Global Environment Facility, the Green Climate Fund, the European Union, the Department for International Development of the Government of the United Kingdom, the Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency and the Danish International Development Agency, among other sources. '''Social and cultural barriers.''' A clear factor constraining EbA is varying perceptions of risks and cultural preferences for particular types of management approaches such as cultural preferences for what a particular landscape should look like.<ref name=":4" /> Potential stakeholders can hold negative perceptions about particular types of EbA strategies.<ref>Doswald, N. and Osti, M. (2011). Ecosystem-based Approaches to Adaptation and Mitigation: Good Practice Examples and Lessons Learned in Europe. BfN, Federal Agency for Nature Conservation</ref> == Policy frameworks == Several international policy fora have acknowledged the multiple roles that ecosystems play in delivering services and addressing global challenges, including those related to climate change, natural disasters, sustainable development, and biodiversity conservation. === Climate change policy === The [[Paris Agreement]] explicitly recognises nature's role in helping people and societies address climate change, calling on all Parties to acknowledge "the importance of ensuring the integrity of all ecosystems, including oceans, and the protection of biodiversity, recognised by some cultures as Mother Earth"; its Articles include several references to ecosystems, natural resources and forests. This notion has translated into high-level national intent, as revealed by comparative analyses of the [[Paris Agreement#Nationally determined contributions\|Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs)]] submitted to the [[United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change\|UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)]] by signatories of the Paris Agreement.<ref>Seddon, N, Daniels, E, Davis, R, Harris, R, Hou-Jones, X, et al. (in review). Global recognition that ecosystems are key to human resilience in a warming world. ''Nat. Clim. Chang.'' </ref><ref>Seddon N., Espinosa, M.G., Hauler, I., Herr, D., Sengupta, S. and Rizvi, A.R. (in press). ''Nature-based Solutions and the Nationally Determined Contributions: a synthesis and recommendations for enhancing ambition and action by 2020.'' A report prepared by IUCN and Oxford University.</ref><ref>{{Cite web\|url=http://www.nbspolicyplatform.org\|title=Nature-based Solutions Policy Platform\|website=University of Oxford}}</ref> The UNFCCC also established the national adaptation plan (NAP) process as a way to facilitate adaptation planning in [[Least Developed Countries\|least developed countries (LDCs)]] and other [[Developing country\|developing countries]]. Because of their lower level of development, climate change risks magnify development challenges for LDCs. === Disaster risk reduction policy === Measures and interventions applied as part of EbA are often closely linked or similar to those employed under ecosystem-based [[disaster risk reduction]] (Eco-DRR). [[Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction\|The Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction]] acknowledges that in order to strengthen disaster risk governance and manage disaster risk and risk reduction at global and regional levels, it is important "to promote transboundary cooperation to enable policy and planning for the implementation of ecosystem-based approaches with regard to shared resources, such as within river basins and along coastlines, to build resilience and reduce disaster risk, including epidemic and displacement risk". === Sustainable development policy === The [[Sustainable Development Goals]] (SDGs) are a collection of 17 global goals set by the United Nations General Assembly in 2015. Biodiversity and ecosystems feature prominently across many of the SDGs and associated targets. They contribute directly to human well-being and development priorities. Biodiversity is at the centre of many economic activities, particularly those related to crop and livestock agriculture, forestry, and fisheries. Globally, nearly half of the human population is directly dependent on natural resources for its livelihood, and many of the most vulnerable people depend directly on biodiversity to fulfil their daily subsistence needs.<ref>CBD (2016). Biodiversity and the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development: Technical note. Montreal, 25 pages.</ref> Ecosystem-based Adaptation offers potential to contribute towards the implementation of numerous SDGs, including the goals related to climate adaptation ([[Sustainable Development Goal 13\|SDG 13]]), eliminating poverty and hunger (SDGs 1 and 2), ensuring livelihoods and economic growth ([[Sustainable Development Goal 8\|SDG 8]]) and life on land and life under water (SDGs 14 and 15), among others. === Biodiversity conservation policy === The Strategic Plan for Biodiversity 2011-2020 and the [[Aichi Biodiversity Targets]], under [[Convention on Biological Diversity\|the Convention on Biological Diversity]] (CBD), aim to halt the [[loss of biodiversity]] to ensure ecosystems are resilient and continue to provide essential services. Most recently, the Conference of the Parties has adopted voluntary guidelines for the design and effective implementation of ecosystem-based approaches to adaptation and disaster risk reduction.<ref name=":3" /> EbA and similar approaches have been called for in other policy frameworks, including [[United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification\|the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD)]] and the [[Ramsar Convention]]. == References == <!-- Inline citations added to your article will automatically display here. See en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WP:REFB for instructions on how to add citations. --> {{reflist}} == External links == * [https://www.adaptationcommunity.net/ AdaptationCommunity] * [http://web.unep.org/coastal-eba/what-is-eba Coastal EbA] * [http://ebacommunity.com/en/ EbA Community] * [https://www.iucn.org/feba Friends of EbA] * [https://www.adaptationcommunity.net/ecosystem-based-adaptation/international-eba-community-of-practice/ International EbA Community of Practice] * [https://panorama.solutions/en/portal/ecosystem-based-adaptation PANORAMA Solutions – EbA Portal] * [https://www.weadapt.org/knowledge-base/ecosystem-based-adaptation We Adapt] [[Category:Applied sciences]] [[Category:Sustainability]] [[Category:Climate change adaptation]]
Sustainable film production	{{Orphan\|date=October 2019}} {{Cleanup-PR\|date=October 2019}} [[File:Vancouver Film School production site 2011-02-24.jpg\|thumb\|Behind the scenes at VFS Film Production.]] '''Sustainable film production''' is the concept of [[Filmmaking#Production\|film production]] with particular concern for environmental, economic, and social issues. [[Sustainability]] in film production incorporates socially and environmentally responsible decision making into the pre-production and production of the film. It involves sustainable development principles at all levels of filmmaking and is best accomplished in a unified manner with collaboration and cooperation from all departments and/or participants in making the film. The sustainability of the film production should start at the launch of the project, and involve all of the key stakeholders including the [[Film director\|director]], [[film producer]], [[Production designer\|production]] or [[costume designer]], [[Casting (performing arts)\|cast]], and [[Film crew\|crew]]. Film production can be sustainable by working with the triple bottom line of environmental, social, and economic factors. Environmentally, for example, by reducing carbon emissions produced by travel arrangements; selecting vehicles with less [[Greenhouse gas emissions\|CO<sup>2</sup> emissions]], improved route planning, carpooling or adopting a more sustainable means of transport can help reduce the environmental footprint. Socially, by establishing clear guidelines for minimizing the impact of the filming schedule on local communities (one way this can be achieved by limiting hours of work and engaging early with communities about the logistical effects on the area) and by integrating [[Social enterprise\|social enterprising]] suppliers in the production's [[Supply-chain sustainability\|supply chain.]] Economically, the film production can be intentional about helping communities’ benefit from film activities: for example, by employing local residents and paying them appropriately or utilizing local props, extras and catering. [[Green marketing\|Green]] shooting encompasses pre-production, production, and post-production phases, advocating for the integration of eco-consultants to ensure compliance with sustainable practices across departments. Digitization efforts, in pre-production especially, aim to reduce paper use and increase energy efficiency and post-production continues these efforts with digital technologies that further reduce the footprint<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1=Lopera-Mármol \|first1=Marta \|last2=Jiménez-Morales \|first2=Manel \|date=January 2021 \|title=Green Shooting: Media Sustainability, A New Trend \|journal=Sustainability \|language=en \|volume=13 \|issue=6 \|pages=3001 \|doi=10.3390/su13063001 \|doi-access=free \|issn=2071-1050}}</ref>. ==History== The discussion of sustainability in film began in the early 1990s, as reported in ''The Hollywood Reporter'' and ''Variety''<ref>Corbett, Charles J, and Richard P Turco. ''Sustainability in the Motion Picture Industry''. UCLA Institute of the Environment, 2006, ''Sustainability in the Motion Picture Industry'', www.ioes.ucla.edu/wp-content/uploads/mpisreport.pdf.</ref>''.'' However, the attention was demonstrated in environmental content, environmental activism, and the philanthropy of celebrities rather than the production operations. In Canada, British Columbia formalized their sustainable production efforts in 2006 through the [https://www.creativebc.com/industry-sectors/motion-picture/reel-green/index#about-reel-green Reel Green initiative], a "resource centre with a collection of best practices to help productions reduce their environmental impacts and improve their overall environmental footprint".<ref>{{Cite web\|url=https://www.greenproductionguide.com/sustainability-could-play-leading-role-in-the-film-industry/\|title=Sustainability could play leading role in the film industry – Green Production Guide\|website=www.greenproductionguide.com\|access-date=2019-10-20}}</ref> Following those initiatives in Canada, vendors such as [http://www.greensparkgroup.com/ Green Spark Group] (2014) and [http://www.keepitgreenrecycling.ca/ Keep it Green Recycling] (2017) have emerged to help productions with recycling and greenhouse gas accounting. In the UK, the [https://shop.bsigroup.com/en/ProductDetail/?pid=000000000030218744&_ga=2.212735452.913551837.1571047779-1302751657.1571047779 British Standard 8909] was announced at the [[Cannes Film Festival]] in 2011 to improve the British film industry's environmental, social, and economic impact<ref>{{Cite web\|url=https://www.bsigroup.com/en-GB/about-bsi/media-centre/press-releases/2011/5/uk-film-industry-pioneers-sustainability-standard-developed-by-bsi/\|title=UK film industry pioneers sustainability standard developed by BSI {{!}} BSI Group\|website=www.bsigroup.com\|access-date=2019-10-20}}</ref> after seeing how [https://shop.bsigroup.com/en/ProductDetail/?pid=000000000030196056 BS8901] helped the British events sector. Globally, many film studios have adopted sustainability initiatives, including the "[[Major film studio\|Big Five]]": [[Universal Pictures]],<ref>{{Cite web\|url=http://www.greenisuniversal.com/learn/about-us/film-production/\|title=Green is Universal {{!}} Film Production\|website=www.greenisuniversal.com\|access-date=2019-10-20}}</ref> [[Walt Disney Pictures]],<ref>{{Cite web\|url=https://thewaltdisneycompany.com/environmental-sustainability/\|title=Environmental Sustainability\|website=The Walt Disney Company\|language=en-US\|access-date=2020-04-26}}</ref> [[Warner Bros.]],<ref>{{Cite web\|url=https://www.wbgood.com/about/\|title=About\|website=WB Good\|language=en-US\|access-date=2019-10-20}}</ref> [[Columbia Pictures]],<ref>{{Cite web\|url=http://www.sonypicturesgreenerworld.com/\|title=Greener World - Sony Pictures Television\|website=www.sonypicturesgreenerworld.com\|access-date=2019-10-20}}</ref> and [[Paramount Pictures]].<ref>{{Cite web\|url=https://www.paramount.com/giving-back/tags/119/environment\|title=Giving Back {{!}} Paramount Pictures\|website=www.paramount.com\|access-date=2019-10-20}}</ref> As well as large television production studios like [[CBS]].<ref>{{Cite web\|url=https://www.cbseyeontheenvironment.com/\|title=CBS Eye on the Environment\|website=cbseye\|language=en\|access-date=2019-10-20}}</ref> The global dedication to sustainable production by the industry has cultivated in the [https://www.sustainableproductionforum.com/ Sustainable Production Forum]<ref>{{Cite web\|url=https://www.sustainableproductionforum.com/about\|title=Sustainable Film Production Vancouver\|website=Sustainable Production Forum {{!}} Vancouver 2019\|language=en-US\|access-date=2019-10-20}}</ref> annually in Vancouver to gather for collaboration and dedication on sustainable film production. Topics discussed at the forum have included [[Fleet management\|fleet transport]] in the film industry, [[Biodegradable plastic\|compostable plastics and packaging]], [[Cultural diversity\|diversity in film]], and the [[Sustainable energy\|future of energy.]] == Awards for Sustainable Production[edit] == === Environmental Media Association === The [[Environmental Media Association]] (EMA) has a "Green Seal" for various categories, one of which being production. The EMA Green Seal recognizes programs honoring progress in sustainable production. The score for production practices is evaluated on a scale of 200 points, with 75 points being the lowest threshold to receive the Green Seal and 125 needed to receive the Gold Seal label. Evaluations are made on best practices in categories such as: production, accounting, art, assistant directors, camera, catering, construction, costume & wardrobe, craft service, electric, greens, grip, hair, locations, make-up, props, set decoration, special effects, sound, and transportation. === Sustainable Production Forum === The [https://www.sustainableproductionforum.com/ Sustainable Production Forum] is the first and only forum to bring together leaders of the film industry to discuss sustainable practices in production, rather than simply environmental friendly content. This forum gives away two awards annually: Sustainable Production Impact and Sustainable Production Champion. The Sustainable Production Impact Award recognizes productions that "have had measurable reduction in greenhouse gas emissions and/or waste diversion and contributed positively to the local community". The Sustainable Production Champion award recognizes individuals that "go above and beyond to advance sustainable production in the motion picture industry". == Impacts of Film Productions == === Resource Consumption === The production process generates a variety of emissions and pollutants, including greenhouse gasses, air pollutants, and chemical waste<ref>{{Cite journal \|last=Batmunkh \|first=Altanshagai \|date=January 2022 \|title=Carbon Footprint of The Most Popular Social Media Platforms \|journal=Sustainability \|language=en \|volume=14 \|issue=4 \|pages=2195 \|doi=10.3390/su14042195 \|doi-access=free \|issn=2071-1050}}</ref>. Aspects like transportation, energy use, and on-set activities contribute to these emissions, which lead to climate change and air quality deterioration<ref name=":0">{{Cite web \|last=Calawerts \|first=Georgia \|date=March 1, 2022 \|title=The Impact Of Emerging Sustainable Practices In The Film Industry \|url=https://amt-lab.org/blog/2021/12/what-does-sustainability-look-like-in-the-film-industry}}</ref>. The usage of electricity during filming and post-production contributes substantially to the environmental footprint of film production, a typical [[Tent-pole (entertainment)\|tentpole film]] production consumes enough energy to power New York Times Square for five days<ref name=":1">{{Cite web \|last=Catterall \|first=Elise \|date=October 26, 2023 \|title=EVERYDAY ENVIRO WITH ELISE: THE ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF FILM PRODUCTION \|url=https://planetark.org/newsroom/news/everyday-enviro-with-elise-the-environmental-impact-of-film-production \|access-date=March 13, 2024}}</ref>. Film production sites are also heavily reliant on energy, water, and raw material consumption. The average production with a budget of $70 million will produce a substantial carbon footprint of 3,370 metric tons<ref name=":0" />. Other factors that can attribute to this emission is the process of set construction, equipment operation, and transportation<ref name=":0" />. Transporting crew, equipment, and cast to remote filming locations significantly increases fuel consumption by 11,478 times of an average car tank, while the air miles equate to 11 one-way trips from Earth to the moon<ref name=":1" />. Another example that contributes to this emission is the number of cameras being utilized, with a larger production scale usually resulting in higher carbon emissions. ==Examples of Sustainable Film Production== Several film productions have been able to successfully implement sustainable practices in order to reduce their environmental footprint. Initiatives such as alternative fuels, waste diversion programs, and material reuse have demonstrated significant reductions in carbon emissions and waste generation. ===''The X-Files''=== During the [[The X-Files (season 10)\|X-Files]] Season 10 reboot, 21st Century Fox utilized alternative fuels and practiced proper recycling which diverted more than 81% of its total waste from landfills.<ref>{{Cite web \|last=21st Century Fox Social Impact \|date=February 16, 2016 \|title='The X-Files' went green \|url=https://www.connect4climate.org/article/x-files-went-green }}</ref> In addition, 100% of the aluminum and steel used in set construction was recycled. A total of 33 tons of {{CO2}} emissions were avoided, as well as 45,740 plastic bottles. The switch from bottles to jugs alone saved production by $35,000.<ref>{{Cite web\|url=https://www.bcbusiness.ca/Its-a-Good-Thing-Green-Spark-Group-puts-the-spotlight-on-the-environment\|title=BCBusiness\|last=Mckenzie\|first=Kevin Hinton & Ryan\|website=BCBusiness\|date=3 October 2019 \|language=en\|access-date=2019-10-20}}</ref> ===''Fifty Shades Freed''=== ''[[Fifty Shades Freed (film)\|Fifty Shades Freed]]'' is the third movie in the "[[Fifty Shades (film series)\|Fifty Shades]]" phenomenon. The film was filmed mainly in Vancouver, BC and the production worked hard to reduce their footprint.<ref>{{Cite web\|url=http://www.greenisuniversal.com/learn/about-us/film-production/\|title=Green is Universal {{!}} Film Production\|website=www.greenisuniversal.com\|access-date=2019-10-20}}</ref> To begin, [[Fifty Shades Freed (film)\|Fifty Shades Freed]] was shot consecutively with its predecessor [[Fifty Shades Darker (film)\|Fifty Shades Darker]] which helped the production combine and reuse materials. Also, the crew eliminated plastic bottles and saved about 80,000 single use bottles. The set contained a comprehensive recycling and composing program, and had a dedicated Sustainability Production Assistant to take the point on that initiative which resulted in 75% of waste diverted from landfills. Set dressing and materials were donated to [[Habitat for Humanity\|Habitat for Humanity ReStore]], Great Northern Way Scene Shop, MakerLabs, and Squamish Arts Council at wrap. The [[Universal Pictures]]’ Assets Department worked with the Sustainable Lock Up in Vancouver and Recycled Movie Sets in Los Angeles to recirculate the stored sets from the trilogy for reuse and donation to local film schools, non-profits, and other productions. In total, 288 tons of set materials were donated to be reused and 99% of the trilogy's sets were kept out of landfills. [[Fifty Shades Freed (film)\|Fifty Shades Freed]] was a recipient of a 2016 EMA Green Seal Award''.'' ===''Downton Abbey''=== When filming in the United Kingdom, the ''[[Downton Abbey]]'' film's production team did a number of things to reduce their footprint including sending call sheets, scripts, and production documents electronically, no disposable food service products on site, and recycling/composting. In addition, [[Carnival Films]] stored sets from the six seasons of the television series ''[[Downton Abbey]]'' that production was able to re-use or re-purpose to save the consumption of new materials. Disposables were also saved by issuing the crew reusable water bottles and the sound department used reusable batteries. At the conclusion of production, the costume department donated $800 worth of fabric and materials to the [[Wimbledon College of Arts]]. Storage boxes and hangers were donated to local sewing and flower shops and set decoration donated produce to The Hounslow Urban Farm to be used to feed animals. Downton Abbey received a 2019 EMA Green Seal.<ref>{{Cite web\|url=http://www.greenisuniversal.com/learn/about-us/film-production/\|title=Green is Universal {{!}} Film Production\|website=www.greenisuniversal.com\|access-date=2019-10-20}}</ref> ===''Yesterday''=== ''[[Yesterday (2019 film)\|Yesterday]]'' implemented a strict-no idling policy to reduce CO<sup>2</sup> emissions and many of the crew utilized public transportation. In addition to the sustainable practices, the set decoration team incorporated green messaging on the posters on the school set. The [[Yesterday (2019 film)\|Yesterday]] team donated 2,860lbs of excess catering and set decoration to [[City Harvest (United Kingdom)\|City Harvest London]], feeding 2,383 in need. The construction department donated $6,000 worth of leather tapestries to a firefighting charity. Costumes and props were donated to [[Dress For Success (organization)\|Dress for Success]] and [[British Heart Foundation]]. ''Yesterday'' received a 2019 EMA Gold Seal.<ref>{{Cite web\|url=http://www.greenisuniversal.com/learn/about-us/film-production/\|title=Green is Universal {{!}} Film Production\|website=www.greenisuniversal.com\|access-date=2019-10-20}}</ref> === '''''Call of the Wild''''' === In Disney's 2020 adaption of [[The Call of the Wild (2020 film)\|''Call of the Wild'']], with the guidance of sustainability manager Adrienne Pfieffer, the production implemented various initiatives to manage materials and waste effectively<ref name=":02">{{Cite web \|last=Calawerts \|first=Georgia \|date=March 1, 2022 \|title=The Impact Of Emerging Sustainable Practices In The Film Industry \|url=https://amt-lab.org/blog/2021/12/what-does-sustainability-look-like-in-the-film-industry}}</ref>. These initiatives resulted in approximately 82% of materials being diverted from landfills, which significantly reduced the film's overall carbon footprint<ref name=":2">{{Cite web \|last=Bruce \|date=2020-06-05 \|title=Go Behind the Scenes to See How "The Call of the Wild" Went Green on Set \|url=https://thewaltdisneycompany.com/go-behind-the-scenes-to-see-how-the-call-of-the-wild-went-green-on-set/ \|access-date=2024-03-14 \|website=The Walt Disney Company \|language=en-US}}</ref>. Small changes around the set made a significant difference in sustainability outcomes. Proper food waste management practices prevented 1,515 pounds of food from ending up in landfills. Disney also opted to make the sets of "Call of the Wild" permanent in order to reuse them in future projects<ref name=":2" />. ==Environmental Production Guides== ===Green Production Guide=== The [https://www.greenproductionguide.com/ Green Production Guide] was developed by the [[Producers Guild of America]] Foundation and PGAGreen.org with primary support from [[NBCUniversal]], [[Paramount Global]], [[Amblin Partners]], [[Sony Pictures\|Sony Pictures Entertainment]], [[HBO]], [[Netflix]], [[Amazon Studios]], [[The Walt Disney Company\|Disney]], [[Warner Bros. Discovery]], [[20th Century Studios]], [[CBS]] & Participant Media.<ref>{{Cite web\|url=https://www.greenproductionguide.com/about/\|title=About – Green Production Guide\|website=www.greenproductionguide.com\|access-date=2019-10-20}}</ref> The Green Production Guide includes a [https://www.greenproductionguide.com/green-vendors/ comprehensive database] of vendors including info about their services, experience, and locations. The website additionally offers a [https://www.greenproductionguide.com/tools/carbon-calculator/ Production Environmental Accounting Report (PEAR)] that can be downloaded to aid production in analyzing their [[carbon footprint]] and the [https://www.greenproductionguide.com/tools/best-practices/ Production Environmental Actions Checklist (PEACH)], which clarifies best practices in the industry. ===Reel Green=== [https://www.creativebc.com/industry-sectors/motion-picture/reel-green/index Reel Green] offers free [https://www.creativebc.com/industry-sectors/motion-picture/reel-green/carbon-literacy-courses#overview carbon footprint literacy courses] to members of the motion picture industry. The 6-hour workshops leave participants with knowledge on how to "have a sound understanding of the science of climate change, understand how to act to reduce their impact, recognize the impact that production has on the environment, and have knowledge of the tools and techniques to lessen this impact".<ref>{{Cite web\|url=https://www.creativebc.com/industry-sectors/motion-picture/reel-green/carbon-literacy-courses#what-is-carbon-literacy\|title=Carbon Literacy Courses {{!}} Creative BC\|website=www.creativebc.com\|access-date=2019-10-20}}</ref> [[Universal Pictures\|Universal]] Filmed Entertainment Group recently launched their new initiative titled the "GreenerLight Program," which is designed to embed sustainable practices throughout the entire filmmaking process. It will also examine the content and behaviors onscreen through an environmentally friendly lens. All films will include a sustainability plan, and will continue focus on areas such as energy efficiency, fuel-use reduction and donations of food and set material.<ref>{{Cite web \|last=Pener \|first=Degen \|date=2023-03-09 \|title=Universal Filmed Entertainment Group Launches GreenerLight Sustainability Program (Exclusive) \|url=https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/business/business-news/universal-filmed-entertainment-greenerlight-sustainability-program-1235346745/ \|access-date=2023-03-09 \|website=The Hollywood Reporter \|language=en-US}}</ref> ==See also== {{empty section\|date=February 2024}} ==References== {{Reflist}} * Corbett, Charles J, and Richard P Turco. ''Sustainability in the Motion Picture Industry''. UCLA Institute of the Environment, 2006, ''Sustainability in the Motion Picture Industry'', www.ioes.ucla.edu/wp-content/uploads/mpisreport.pdf. [[Category:Film production]] [[Category:Sustainability]]
Sustainable food system	{{Short description\|Balanced growth of nutritional substances and their distribution}} <noinclude>[[File:Greenhouse Gas Emissions by Economic Sector.svg\|thumb\|320px\|The large [[environmental impact of agriculture]] – such as [[greenhouse gas emissions from agriculture\|its greenhouse gas emissions]], [[soil degradation]], [[deforestation]] and [[pollinator decline]] effects – make the food system a critical set of processes that need to be addressed for [[climate change mitigation]] and a stable healthy environment.]]</noinclude> A '''sustainable food system''' is a type of [[food system]] that provides [[healthy diet\|healthy food]] to people and creates [[sustainable]] environmental, economic, and social systems that surround food. Sustainable food systems start with the development of [[Sustainable agriculture\|sustainable agricultural]] practices, development of more [[Food distribution\|sustainable food distribution]] systems, creation of [[sustainable diet]]s, and reduction of [[food waste]] throughout the system. Sustainable food systems have been argued to be central to many<ref>{{Cite book \|url=https://www.sapea.info/wp-content/uploads/sustainable-food-system-report.pdf \|title=A sustainable food system for the European Union \|publisher=SAPEA, Science Advice for Policy by European Academies \|year=2020 \|isbn=978-3-9820301-7-3 \|location=Berlin \|pages=22 \|doi=10.26356/sustainablefood\|author1=SAPEA }}</ref> or all<ref>{{Cite web\|url=http://foodsustainability.eiu.com/food-sustainability-key-reach-sustainable-development-goals/\|title=FOOD SUSTAINABILITY: KEY TO REACH SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT GOALS\|date=2018-10-01\|website=BCFN Foundation: Food and Nutrition Sustainability Index\|access-date=2019-11-26}}</ref> [[Sustainable Development Goals\|17 Sustainable Development Goals]].<ref>{{Cite web\|url=http://www.fao.org/3/ca2079en/CA2079EN.pdf\|title=Sustainable food systems\|website=Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations}}</ref> Moving to sustainable food systems, including via [[Sustainable consumption#Sustainable food consumption\|shifting consumption to sustainable diets]], is an important component of [[climate change mitigation\|addressing]] the [[causes of climate change]] and [[Climate change adaptation#Agriculture\|adapting to it]]. A 2020 review conducted for the European Union found that up to 37% of global greenhouse gas emissions could be attributed to the food system, including crop and livestock production, transportation, changing land use (including deforestation), and food loss and waste.<ref>{{Cite book \|url=https://www.sapea.info/wp-content/uploads/sustainable-food-system-report.pdf \|title=A sustainable food system for the European Union \|publisher=SAPEA, Science Advice for Policy by European Academies \|year=2020 \|isbn=978-3-9820301-7-3 \|location=Berlin \|pages=39 \|doi=10.26356/sustainablefood\|author1=SAPEA }}</ref> Reduction of meat production, which [[Environmental impact of meat production\|accounts for ~60% of greenhouse gas emissions and ~75% of agriculturally used land]],<ref>{{cite journal \|last1=Xu \|first1=Xiaoming \|last2=Sharma \|first2=Prateek \|last3=Shu \|first3=Shijie \|last4=Lin \|first4=Tzu-Shun \|last5=Ciais \|first5=Philippe \|last6=Tubiello \|first6=Francesco N. \|last7=Smith \|first7=Pete \|last8=Campbell \|first8=Nelson \|last9=Jain \|first9=Atul K. \|title=Global greenhouse gas emissions from animal-based foods are twice those of plant-based foods \|journal=Nature Food \|date=September 2021 \|volume=2 \|issue=9 \|pages=724–732 \|doi=10.1038/s43016-021-00358-x \|pmid=37117472 \|hdl=2164/18207 \|s2cid=240562878 \|language=en \|issn=2662-1355\|hdl-access=free }}<br/>News article: {{cite news \|title=Meat accounts for nearly 60% of all greenhouse gases from food production, study finds \|url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2021/sep/13/meat-greenhouses-gases-food-production-study \|access-date=27 May 2022 \|work=The Guardian \|date=13 September 2021 \|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite web \|title=If the world adopted a plant-based diet we would reduce global agricultural land use from 4 to 1 billion hectares \|url=https://ourworldindata.org/land-use-diets \|website=Our World in Data \|access-date=27 May 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite news \|title=20 meat and dairy firms emit more greenhouse gas than Germany, Britain or France \|url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2021/sep/07/20-meat-and-dairy-firms-emit-more-greenhouse-gas-than-germany-britain-or-france \|access-date=27 May 2022 \|work=The Guardian \|date=7 September 2021 \|language=en}}</ref> is one major component of this change.<ref name="10.1146/annurev-resource-111820-032340a">{{cite journal \|last1=Parlasca \|first1=Martin C. \|last2=Qaim \|first2=Matin \|title=Meat Consumption and Sustainability \|journal=Annual Review of Resource Economics \|date=5 October 2022 \|volume=14 \|pages=17–41 \|doi=10.1146/annurev-resource-111820-032340 \|issn=1941-1340\|doi-access=free }}</ref> The [[Economic globalization\|global]] food [[complex system\|system]] is facing major [[Sociocybernetics#Socioeconomic sustainability establishment and health\|interconnected]] challenges, including mitigating [[food insecurity]], [[Effects of climate change on agriculture\|effects from climate change]], [[biodiversity loss]], [[malnutrition]], inequity, [[soil degradation]], [[Pest (organism)\|pest outbreaks]], [[Water scarcity\|water]] and energy scarcity, economic and political crises, [[natural resource depletion]], and preventable ill-health.<ref>{{cite journal \|last1=Scarborough \|first1=Peter \|last2=Clark \|first2=Michael \|last3=Cobiac \|first3=Linda \|last4=Papier \|first4=Keren \|last5=Knuppel \|first5=Anika \|last6=Lynch \|first6=John \|last7=Harrington \|first7=Richard \|last8=Key \|first8=Tim \|last9=Springmann \|first9=Marco \|title=Vegans, vegetarians, fish-eaters and meat-eaters in the UK show discrepant environmental impacts \|journal=[[Nature Food]] \|date=2023 \|volume=4 \|issue=7 \|pages=565–574 \|doi=10.1038/s43016-023-00795-w \|pmid=37474804 \|pmc=10365988 \|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal \|last1=Singh \|first1=Brajesh K. \|last2=Arnold \|first2=Tom \|last3=Biermayr-Jenzano \|first3=Patricia \|last4=Broerse \|first4=Jacqueline \|last5=Brunori \|first5=Gianluca \|last6=Caron \|first6=Patrick \|last7=De Schutter \|first7=Olivier \|last8=Fan \|first8=Shenggen \|last9=Fanzo \|first9=Jessica \|last10=Fraser \|first10=Evan \|last11=Gurinovic \|first11=Mirjana \|last12=Hugas \|first12=Marta \|last13=McGlade \|first13=Jacqueline \|last14=Nellemann \|first14=Christine \|last15=Njuki \|first15=Jemimah \|last16=Sonnino \|first16=Roberta \|last17=Tuomisto \|first17=Hanna L. \|last18=Tutundjian \|first18=Seta \|last19=Webb \|first19=Patrick \|last20=Wesseler \|first20=Justus \|title=Enhancing science–policy interfaces for food systems transformation \|journal=Nature Food \|date=November 2021 \|volume=2 \|issue=11 \|pages=838–842 \|doi=10.1038/s43016-021-00406-6 \|pmid=37117505 \|s2cid=243475557 \|language=en \|issn=2662-1355\|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal \|last1=Schipanski \|first1=Meagan E. \|last2=MacDonald \|first2=Graham K. \|last3=Rosenzweig \|first3=Steven \|last4=Chappell \|first4=M. Jahi \|last5=Bennett \|first5=Elena M. \|last6=Kerr \|first6=Rachel Bezner \|last7=Blesh \|first7=Jennifer \|last8=Crews \|first8=Timothy \|last9=Drinkwater \|first9=Laurie \|last10=Lundgren \|first10=Jonathan G. \|last11=Schnarr \|first11=Cassandra \|date=2016-05-04 \|title=Realizing Resilient Food Systems \|journal=BioScience \|volume=66 \|issue=7 \|pages=600–610 \|doi=10.1093/biosci/biw052 \|issn=1525-3244\|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal \|last1=Tendall \|first1=D. M. \|last2=Joerin \|first2=J. \|last3=Kopainsky \|first3=B. \|last4=Edwards \|first4=P. \|last5=Shreck \|first5=A. \|last6=Le \|first6=Q. B. \|last7=Kruetli \|first7=P. \|last8=Grant \|first8=M. \|last9=Six \|first9=J. \|date=2015-10-01 \|title=Food system resilience: Defining the concept \|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2211912415300031 \|journal=Global Food Security \|language=en \|volume=6 \|pages=17–23 \|doi=10.1016/j.gfs.2015.08.001 \|issn=2211-9124}}</ref><ref>{{cite web \|title=2022 Global Food Policy Report: Climate Change and Food Systems - World {{!}} ReliefWeb \|url=https://reliefweb.int/report/world/2022-global-food-policy-report-climate-change-and-food-systems \|access-date=2023-02-21 \|website=reliefweb.int \|date=15 May 2022 \|language=en}}</ref> The concept of sustainable food systems is frequently at the center of sustainability-focused policy programs, such as proposed [[Green New Deal]] programs. == Definition == There are many different definitions of a sustainable food system. From a global perspective, the [[Food and Agriculture Organization]] of the United Nations describes a sustainable food system as follows:<ref name=":0">{{cite report\|url=http://www.fao.org/3/ca2079en/CA2079EN.pdf\|title=Sustainable food systems Concept and framework\|publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations}}</ref>[[File:Environmental-impact-of-food-by-life-cycle-stage.png\|thumb\|upright=1.5\|[[Life-cycle assessment]] of GHG emissions for foods]] {{Blockquote\|text=A sustainable food system (SFS) is a food system that delivers food security and nutrition for all in such a way that the economic, social and environmental bases to generate food security and nutrition for future generations are not compromised. This means that: * It is profitable throughout (economic sustainability); * It has broad-based benefits for society ([[social sustainability]]); and * It has a positive or neutral impact on the natural environment ([[environmental sustainability]])\|sign=\|source=}} The [[American Public Health Association]] (APHA) defines a sustainable food system as:<ref>{{cite web \|title=Toward a Healthy, Sustainable Food System (Policy Number: 200712) \|publisher=American Public Health Association \|date=2007-06-11 \|url=http://www.apha.org/advocacy/policy/policysearch/default.htm?id=1361 \|access-date=2008-08-18}}</ref> {{Blockquote\|text=one that provides healthy food to meet current food needs while maintaining healthy ecosystems that can also provide food for generations to come with minimal negative impact to the environment. A sustainable food system also encourages local production and distribution infrastructures and makes nutritious food available, accessible, and affordable to all. Further, it is humane and just, protecting farmers and other workers, consumers, and communities\|sign=\|source=}} The [[European Union]]'s [[Scientific Advice Mechanism]] defines a sustainable food system as a system that:<ref>{{cite book \|url=https://www.sapea.info/wp-content/uploads/sustainable-food-system-report.pdf \|title=A sustainable food system for the European Union \|publisher=SAPEA, Science Advice for Policy by European Academies \|year=2020 \|isbn=978-3-9820301-7-3 \|location=Berlin \|pages=68 \|doi=10.26356/sustainablefood\|author1=SAPEA }}</ref> {{Blockquote\|text=provides and promotes safe, nutritious and healthy food of low environmental impact for all current and future EU citizens in a manner that itself also protects and restores the natural environment and its ecosystem services, is robust and resilient, economically dynamic, just and fair, and socially acceptable and inclusive. It does so without compromising the availability of nutritious and healthy food for people living outside the EU, nor impairing their natural environment\|sign=\|source=}} == Problems with conventional food systems == {{See also\|Environmental effects of meat production\|Food systems}} [[File:Food-, land-, and climate change mitigation-gaps for 2050.jpg\|thumb\|center\|700px\|Food-, land-, and [[climate change mitigation]]-gaps for 2050,<ref name="10.5670/oceanog.2022.213"/> indicating current trajectories are not sustainable longer-term (without collapse, pervasive conflict or similar problems)]] [[File:Deforestation central Europe - Rodungen Mitteleuropa.jpg\|thumb\|right\|350px\|Deforestation in [[Europe]], 2018. Almost all of Europe's original forests have been removed.]] Industrial agriculture causes environmental impacts, as well as health problems associated with both [[obesity]] and [[hunger]].<ref name=":1">{{cite journal\|last=Garnett\|first=Tara\|date=February 2013\|title=Food sustainability: problems, perspectives and solutions\|journal=Proceedings of the Nutrition Society\|volume=72\|issue=1\|pages=29–39\|doi=10.1017/S0029665112002947\|pmid=23336559\|issn=0029-6651\|doi-access=free}}</ref> This has generated a strong interest in healthy, sustainable eating as a major component of the overall movement toward [[sustainability]] and [[climate change mitigation]].<ref>Mason, J. & Singer, P. (2006). ''The Way We Eat: Why Our Food Choices Matter''. London: Random House. {{ISBN\|1-57954-889-X}}</ref><ref>{{cite news\|url=https://www.ecowatch.com/worlds-food-system-failing-new-report-2621850618.html\|title=Our Food Systems Are Failing Us': 100+ Academies Call for Overhaul of Food Production\|last1=Rosane\|first1=Olivia\|date=29 November 2018\|access-date=27 May 2019\|agency=Ecowatch}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal \|last1=Rajão \|first1=Raoni \|last2=Soares-Filho \|first2=Britaldo \|last3=Nunes \|first3=Felipe \|last4=Börner \|first4=Jan \|last5=Machado \|first5=Lilian \|last6=Assis \|first6=Débora \|last7=Oliveira \|first7=Amanda \|last8=Pinto \|first8=Luis \|last9=Ribeiro \|first9=Vivian \|last10=Rausch \|first10=Lisa \|last11=Gibbs \|first11=Holly \|last12=Figueira \|first12=Danilo \|title=The rotten apples of Brazil's agribusiness \|journal=Science \|date=17 July 2020 \|volume=369 \|issue=6501 \|pages=246–248 \|doi=10.1126/science.aba6646 \|pmid=32675358 \|bibcode=2020Sci...369..246R \|s2cid=220548355 \|language=en \|issn=0036-8075}}</ref><ref>{{cite news \|title=Amazon soya and beef exports 'linked to deforestation' \|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-53438680 \|work=BBC News \|date=17 July 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal \|last1=zu Ermgassen \|first1=Erasmus K. H. J. \|last2=Godar \|first2=Javier \|last3=Lathuillière \|first3=Michael J. \|last4=Löfgren \|first4=Pernilla \|last5=Gardner \|first5=Toby \|last6=Vasconcelos \|first6=André \|last7=Meyfroidt \|first7=Patrick \|title=The origin, supply chain, and deforestation risk of Brazil's beef exports \|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences \|date=15 December 2020 \|volume=117 \|issue=50 \|pages=31770–31779 \|doi=10.1073/pnas.2003270117\|pmid=33262283 \|pmc=7749302 \|bibcode=2020PNAS..11731770Z \|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite news \|last1=McCoy \|first1=Terrence \|last2=Ledur \|first2=Júlia \|title=How Americans' love of beef is helping destroy the Amazon rainforest \|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/interactive/2022/amazon-beef-deforestation-brazil/ \|access-date=27 May 2022 \|newspaper=Washington Post \|language=en}}</ref>{{Excessive citations inline\|date=January 2024}} Conventional food systems are largely based on the availability of inexpensive [[fossil fuels]], which is necessary for [[mechanized agriculture]], the manufacturing or collection of chemical [[fertilizers]], the processing of food products, and the packaging of foods. Food processing began when the number of consumers started growing rapidly. The demand for cheap and efficient calories climbed, which resulted in nutrition decline.<ref>Nestle, Marion. (2013). ''Food Politics: How the Food Industry Influences Nutrition and Health." Los Angeles, California: University of California Press. {{ISBN\|978-0-520-27596-6}}''</ref> Industrialized agriculture, due to its reliance on economies of scale to reduce production costs, often leads to the compromising of local, regional, or even global [[ecosystems]] through fertilizer runoff, [[Nonpoint source pollution\|nonpoint source]] pollution,<ref>(1993); Schnitkey, G.D., Miranda, M.; "The Impact of Pollution Controls on Livestock Crop producers", Journal of Agricultural and Resource Economics</ref> [[deforestation]], suboptimal mechanisms affecting [[Consumer choice\|consumer product choice]], and [[greenhouse gas emission]]s.<ref>{{cite news \|title=Reducing global food system emissions key to meeting climate goals \|url=https://phys.org/news/2020-11-global-food-emissions-key-climate.html \|access-date=8 December 2020 \|work=phys.org \|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal \|last1=Clark \|first1=Michael A. \|last2=Domingo \|first2=Nina G. G. \|last3=Colgan \|first3=Kimberly \|last4=Thakrar \|first4=Sumil K. \|last5=Tilman \|first5=David \|last6=Lynch \|first6=John \|last7=Azevedo \|first7=Inês L. \|last8=Hill \|first8=Jason D. \|title=Global food system emissions could preclude achieving the 1.5° and 2°C climate change targets \|journal=Science \|date=6 November 2020 \|volume=370 \|issue=6517 \|pages=705–708 \|doi=10.1126/science.aba7357 \|pmid=33154139 \|bibcode=2020Sci...370..705C \|s2cid=226254942 \|url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.aba7357 \|access-date=8 December 2020 \|language=en \|issn=0036-8075}}</ref> ===Food and power=== In the contemporary world, transnational corporations execute high levels of control over the food system. In this system, both farmers and consumers are disadvantaged and have little control; power is concentrated in the center of the supply chain, where corporations control how food moves from producers to consumers.<ref>{{cite web \|last1=Hossain \|first1=Naomi \|title=Inequality, Hunger, and Malnutrition: Power Matters \|url=https://www.globalhungerindex.org/issues-in-focus/2017.html}}</ref> ====Disempowerment of consumers==== People living in different areas face substantial inequality in their access to healthy food. Areas where affordable, healthy food, particularly fresh fruits and vegetables, is difficult to access are sometimes called [[food deserts]]. This term has been particularly applied in the USA.<ref>{{cite web \|title=Exploring America's Food Deserts \|url=https://www.aecf.org/blog/exploring-americas-food-deserts \|website=The Annie E. Tracey Foundations\|date=14 February 2021 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web \|last1=Dutko \|first1=Paula \|last2=Ver Ploeg \|first2=Michele \|last3=Farrigan \|first3=Tracey \|title=Characteristics and Influential Factors of Food Deserts \|url=https://www.ers.usda.gov/webdocs/publications/45014/30940_err140.pdf \|website=usda.gov}}</ref> In addition, conventional channels do not distribute food by emergency assistance or charity. Urban residents receive more sustainable food production from healthier and safer sources than low-income communities. Nonetheless, conventional channels are more sustainable than charitable or welfare food resources. Even though the [[conventional food system]] provides easier access and lower prices, their food may not be the best for the environment nor consumer health.<ref>{{Cite journal\|last1=Pothukuchi\|first1=Kameshwari\|last2=Kaufman\|first2=Jerome L.\|date=1999-06-01\|title=Placing the food system on the urban agenda: The role of municipal institutions in food systems planning\|journal=Agriculture and Human Values\|language=en\|volume=16\|issue=2\|pages=213–224\|doi=10.1023/A:1007558805953\|s2cid=91181337\|issn=1572-8366}}</ref> Both obesity and undernutrition are associated with poverty and marginalization. This has been referred to as the "double burden of malnutrition."<ref>{{cite web \|last1=Hossain \|first1=Naomi \|title=Inequality, Hunger, and Malnutrition: Power Matters \|url=https://www.globalhungerindex.org/issues-in-focus/2017.html}}</ref> In low-income areas, there may be abundant access to fast-food or small convenience stores and "corner" stores, but no supermarkets that sell a variety of healthy foods.<ref>{{cite journal \|last1=Hager \|first1=Erin R \|last2=Cockerham \|first2=Alexandra \|last3=O'Reilly \|first3=Nicole \|last4=Harrington \|first4=Donna \|last5=Harding \|first5=James \|last6=Hurley \|first6=Kristen M \|last7=Black \|first7=Maureen M \|title=Food swamps and food deserts in Baltimore City, MD, USA: associations with dietary behaviours among urban adolescent girls \|journal=Public Health Nutr \|date=2017 \|volume=20 \|issue=14 \|pages=2598–2607 \|doi=10.1017/S1368980016002123 \|pmid=27652511 \|pmc=5572508 }}</ref> ====Disempowerment of producers==== Small farms tend to be more sustainable than large farming operations, because of differences in their management and methods.<ref>{{cite journal \|last1=Ebel \|first1=Roland \|title=Are Small Farms Sustainable by Nature? \|journal=Challenges in Sustainability \|date=2020 \|volume=8 \|issue=1 \|doi=10.12924/cis2020.08010017 \|s2cid=216488481 \|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/340564736\|doi-access=free }}</ref> Industrial agriculture replaces human labor using increased usage of fossil fuels, fertilizers, pesticides, and machinery and is heavily reliant on [[monoculture]].<ref>{{cite web \|title=Industrial Agriculture and Small-scale Farming \|url=https://www.globalagriculture.org/report-topics/industrial-agriculture-and-small-scale-farming/industrial-agriculture-and-small-scale-farming.html \|website=globalagriculture.org}}</ref> However, if current trends continue, the number of operating farms in existence is expected to halve by 2100, as smallholders' farms are consolidated into larger operations.<ref>{{cite web \|title=The Number of Farms in the World Is Declining, Here's Why It Matters to You \|url=https://www.enn.com/articles/72572-the-number-of-farms-in-the-world-is-declining-here-s-why-it-matters-to-you \|website=Environmental News Network}}</ref> The percentage of people who work as farmers worldwide dropped from 44% to 26% between 1991 and 2020.<ref>{{cite web \|last1=Booth \|first1=Amy \|title=The reason we're running out of farmers \|url=https://www.bbc.com/future/bespoke/follow-the-food/the-reason-we-are-running-out-of-farmers/}}</ref> Small farmers worldwide are often trapped in poverty and have little agency in the global food system.<ref>{{cite web \|title=A Year in the Lives of Smallholder Farmers \|url=https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/feature/2016/02/25/a-year-in-the-lives-of-smallholder-farming-families \|website=worldbank.org}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal \|last1=Dias \|first1=Lino Miguel \|last2=Kaplan \|first2=Robert S. \|last3=Singh \|first3=Harmanpreet \|title=Making Small Farms More Sustainable — and Profitable \|url=https://hbr.org/2021/08/making-small-farms-more-sustainable-and-profitable \|journal=Harvard Business Review\|date=24 August 2021 }}</ref> Smallholder farms produce a greater diversity of crops as well as harboring more non-crop biodiversity,<ref>{{cite journal \|last1=Ricciardi \|first1=Vincent \|last2=Mehrabi \|first2=Zia \|last3=Wittman \|first3=Hannah \|last4=James \|first4=Dana \|last5=Ramankutty \|first5=Navin \|title=Higher yields and more biodiversity on smaller farms \|journal=Nature Sustainability \|date=2021 \|volume=4 \|issue=7 \|pages=651–657 \|doi=10.1038/s41893-021-00699-2 \|bibcode=2021NatSu...4..651R \|s2cid=232360314 \|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41893-021-00699-2}}</ref><ref>{{cite web \|last1=Fanzo \|first1=Jessica \|title=From big to small: the significance of smallholder farms in the global food system \|url=https://www.thelancet.com/journals/lanplh/article/PIIS2542-5196%2817%2930011-6/fulltext \|publisher=The Lancet}}</ref> but in wealthy, industrialized countries, small farms have declined severely. For example, in the USA, 4% of the total number of farms operate 26% of all agricultural land.<ref>{{cite web \|last1=Abbot \|first1=Chuck \|title=U.S. AND EU, AGRICULTURAL GIANTS WITH FEWER AND FEWER FARMERS \|date=27 February 2023 \|url=https://www.agriculture.com/news/us-and-eu-agricultural-giants-with-fewer-and-fewer-farmers \|publisher=Successful Farming}}</ref> ===Complications from globalization=== The need to reduce production costs in an increasingly global market can cause production of foods to be moved to areas where economic costs (labor, taxes, etc.) are lower or environmental regulations are more lax, which are usually further from consumer markets. For example, the majority of salmon sold in the United States is raised off the coast of Chile, due in large part to less stringent Chilean standards regarding fish feed and regardless of the fact that salmon are not indigenous in Chilean coastal waters.<ref>(2001); Bjorndal, T., "The Competitiveness of the Chilean Salmon Aquaculture Industry", Foundation for Research in Economics and Business Administration, Bergen, Norway</ref> The globalization of food production can result in the loss of traditional food systems in [[Developing country\|less developed countries]] and have negative impacts on the [[population health]], ecosystems, and [[cultures]] in those countries.<ref>(1996); Kuhnlein, H.V., Receveur, O.; Dietary Change and Traditional Food Systems of Indigenous Peoples; Centre for Nutrition and the Environment of Indigenous Peoples, and School of Dietetics and Human Nutrition, McGill University, Quebec, Canada</ref> Globalization of sustainable food systems has coincided the proliferation of [[technical standard\|private standards]] in the agri-food sector where big food retailers have formed [[multistakeholder governance\|multi-stakeholder initiatives]] (MSIs) with governance over [[standards organization\|standard setting organizations (SSOs)]] who maintain the standards. One such MSI is the [[Consumer Goods Forum]](CGF). With CGF members openly using [[lobbying]] dollars<ref>{{cite web \|last1=Doering \|first1=Christopher \|title=Where the dollars go: Lobbying a big business for large food and beverage CPGs \|url=https://www.fooddive.com/news/where-the-dollars-go-lobbying-a-big-business-for-large-food-and-beverage-c/607982/ \|website=fooddive.com \|publisher=Food Dive}}</ref> to influence trade agreements for food systems which leads to creating barriers to competition.<ref>{{cite web \|title=Who's Tipping the Scales? \|url=http://www.ipes-food.org/pages/tippingthescales \|website=ipes-food.org \|publisher=IPES-Food}}</ref> Concerns around corporate governance within food systems as a substitute for regulation were raised by the Institute for Multi-Stakeholder Initiative Integrity.<ref>{{cite book \|title=Not Fit-for-Purpose The Grand Experiment of Multi-Stakeholder Initiatives in Corporate Accountability, Human Rights and Global Governance \|date=July 2020 \|publisher=MSI Integrity \|location=San Francisco: Institute for Multi-Stakeholder Initiative Integrity \|url=https://www.msi-integrity.org/not-fit-for-purpose/ }}</ref> The proliferation of [[technical standard\|private standards]] resulted in [[Harmonization (standards)\|standard harmonization]] from organizations that include the [[Global Food Safety Initiative]] and [[Sustainability standards and certification\|ISEAL Alliance]]. The unintended consequence of [[Harmonization (standards)\|standard harmonization]] was a [[perverse incentive]] because companies owning [[technical standard\|private standards]] generate revenue from fees that other companies have to pay to implement the standards. This has led to more and more private standards entering the marketplace who are enticed to make money. ===Systemic structures=== Moreover, the existing conventional food system lacks the inherent framework necessary to foster sustainable models of food production and consumption. Within the decision-making processes associated with this system, the burden of responsibility primarily falls on consumers and private enterprises. This expectation places the onus on individuals to voluntarily and often without external incentives, expend effort to educate themselves about sustainable behaviours and specific product choices. This educational endeavour is reliant on the availability of public information. Subsequently, consumers are urged to alter their decision-making patterns concerning production and consumption, driven by prioritised ethical values and sometimes health benefits, even when significant drawbacks are prevalent. These drawbacks faced by consumers include elevated costs of [[Organic food\|organic foods]], imbalanced monetary price differentials between animal-intensive diets and plant-based alternatives, and an absence of comprehensive consumer guidance aligned with contemporary valuations. In 2020, an analysis of [[Externality#Negative\|external climate costs]] of foods indicated that external greenhouse gas costs are typically [[environmental impact of meat\|highest for animal-based products]] – conventional and organic to about the same extent within that [[ecosystem]] subdomain – followed by conventional dairy products and lowest for [[organic food\|organic]] [[Plant-based diet#Sustainability\|plant-based foods]]. It finds contemporary monetary evaluations to be "inadequate" and [[policy]]-making that lead to reductions of these costs to be possible, appropriate and urgent.<ref>{{cite news \|last1=Carrington \|first1=Damian \|title=Organic meat production just as bad for climate, study finds \|url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2020/dec/23/organic-meat-production-just-as-bad-for-climate-study-finds \|access-date=16 January 2021 \|work=The Guardian \|date=23 December 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite news \|title=Organic meats found to have approximately the same greenhouse impact as regular meats \|url=https://phys.org/news/2020-12-meats-approximately-greenhouse-impact-regular.html \|access-date=16 January 2021 \|work=phys.org \|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal \|last1=Pieper \|first1=Maximilian \|last2=Michalke \|first2=Amelie \|last3=Gaugler \|first3=Tobias \|title=Calculation of external climate costs for food highlights inadequate pricing of animal products \|journal=Nature Communications \|date=15 December 2020 \|volume=11 \|issue=1 \|pages=6117 \|doi=10.1038/s41467-020-19474-6 \|pmid=33323933 \|pmc=7738510 \|bibcode=2020NatCo..11.6117P \|url=\|language=en \|issn=2041-1723}} [[File:CC-BY icon.svg\|50px]] Available under [https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ CC BY 4.0].</ref> ===Agricultural pollution=== {{Excerpt\|Agricultural pollution}} == Sourcing sustainable food == [[File:Countries’ evaluation of trends in the use of selected management practices and approaches.svg\|thumb\|A matrix of the progress in the adoption of management practices and approaches{{Update inline\|date=November 2022\|reason=}}]] {{Further\|Sustainable agriculture}} [[File:Microalgae cultivation facility along the Kona Coast of the Big Island of Hawai’i.jpg\|thumb\|A Microalgae cultivation facility<ref name="10.5670/oceanog.2022.213"/>]] [[File:Land and freshwater footprints for protein production from various sources.jpg\|thumb\|Comparison of footprints for protein production{{Update inline\|date=November 2022\|reason=GHGs, deforestation, and other foods should also be included among other things}}<ref name="10.5670/oceanog.2022.213"/>]] [[File:Lab Grown Meat explained by New Harvest.webm\|thumb\|thumbtime=0:39\|A video explaining the development of [[cultured meat]] and a "post-animal bio-economy" driven by lab grown protein (meat, eggs, milk)]] [[File:Global average human diet and protein composition and usage of crop-based products.webp\|thumb\|Global average human diet and protein composition and usage of crop-based products<ref>{{cite journal \|last1=Xia \|first1=Lili \|last2=Robock \|first2=Alan \|last3=Scherrer \|first3=Kim \|last4=Harrison \|first4=Cheryl S. \|last5=Bodirsky \|first5=Benjamin Leon \|last6=Weindl \|first6=Isabelle \|last7=Jägermeyr \|first7=Jonas \|last8=Bardeen \|first8=Charles G. \|last9=Toon \|first9=Owen B. \|last10=Heneghan \|first10=Ryan \|title=Global food insecurity and famine from reduced crop, marine fishery and livestock production due to climate disruption from nuclear war soot injection \|journal=Nature Food \|date=August 2022 \|volume=3 \|issue=8 \|pages=586–596 \|doi=10.1038/s43016-022-00573-0 \|pmid=37118594 \|s2cid=251601831 \|language=en \|issn=2662-1355\|doi-access=free \|hdl=11250/3039288 \|hdl-access=free }}</ref>]] At the global level the environmental impact of [[agribusiness]] is being addressed through [[sustainable agriculture]], [[cellular agriculture]] and [[organic farming]]. Various alternatives to meat and novel classes of foods can substantially increase sustainability. There are large potential benefits of [[Algaculture\|marine algae-based aquaculture]] for the development of a future [[healthy diet\|healthy]] and sustainable food system.<ref name="10.5670/oceanog.2022.213">{{cite journal \|last1=Greene \|first1=Charles \|last2=Scott-Buechler \|first2=Celina \|last3=Hausner \|first3=Arjun \|last4=Johnson \|first4=Zackary \|last5=Lei \|first5=Xin Gen \|last6=Huntley \|first6=Mark \|title=Transforming the Future of Marine Aquaculture: A Circular Economy Approach \|journal=Oceanography \|date=2022 \|pages=26–34 \|doi=10.5670/oceanog.2022.213 \|issn=1042-8275\|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal \|last1=Diaz \|first1=Crisandra J. \|last2=Douglas \|first2=Kai J. \|last3=Kang \|first3=Kalisa \|last4=Kolarik \|first4=Ashlynn L. \|last5=Malinovski \|first5=Rodeon \|last6=Torres-Tiji \|first6=Yasin \|last7=Molino \|first7=João V. \|last8=Badary \|first8=Amr \|last9=Mayfield \|first9=Stephen P. \|title=Developing algae as a sustainable food source \|journal=Frontiers in Nutrition \|date=2023 \|volume=9 \|doi=10.3389/fnut.2022.1029841 \|pmid=36742010 \|pmc=9892066 \|issn=2296-861X\|doi-access=free}} * News article about the study: {{cite news \|title=Nutrient-rich algae could help meet global food demand: Cornell researchers \|url=https://www.ctvnews.ca/sci-tech/nutrient-rich-algae-could-help-meet-global-food-demand-cornell-researchers-1.6117300 \|access-date=17 November 2022 \|work=CTVNews \|date=20 October 2022 \|language=en}}</ref> [[Fungiculture]], another sector of a growing [[bioeconomy]] besides algaculture, may also become a larger component of a sustainable food system.<ref>{{cite journal \|last1=Lange \|first1=Lene \|title=The importance of fungi and mycology for addressing major global challenges* \|journal=IMA Fungus \|date=December 2014 \|volume=5 \|issue=2 \|pages=463–471 \|doi=10.5598/imafungus.2014.05.02.10 \|pmid=25734035 \|pmc=4329327 \|issn=2210-6340}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal \|last1=Awasthi \|first1=Mukesh Kumar \|last2=Kumar \|first2=Vinay \|last3=Hellwig \|first3=Coralie \|last4=Wikandari \|first4=Rachma \|last5=Harirchi \|first5=Sharareh \|last6=Sar \|first6=Taner \|last7=Wainaina \|first7=Steven \|last8=Sindhu \|first8=Raveendran \|last9=Binod \|first9=Parameswaran \|last10=Zhang \|first10=Zengqiang \|last11=Taherzadeh \|first11=Mohammad J. \|title=Filamentous fungi for sustainable vegan food production systems within a circular economy: Present status and future prospects \|journal=Food Research International \|date=1 February 2023 \|volume=164 \|pages=112318 \|doi=10.1016/j.foodres.2022.112318 \|pmid=36737911 \|s2cid=254518455 \|language=en \|issn=0963-9969}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal \|last1=Schweiggert-Weisz \|first1=Ute \|last2=Eisner \|first2=Peter \|last3=Bader-Mittermaier \|first3=Stephanie \|last4=Osen \|first4=Raffael \|title=Food proteins from plants and fungi \|journal=Current Opinion in Food Science \|date=1 April 2020 \|volume=32 \|pages=156–162 \|doi=10.1016/j.cofs.2020.08.003 \|s2cid=225203498 \|language=en \|issn=2214-7993\|doi-access=free }}</ref> Consumption shares of various other ingredients for meat analogues such as protein from pulses may also rise substantially in a sustainable food system.<ref>{{cite journal \|last1=Weinrich \|first1=Ramona \|title=Opportunities for the Adoption of Health-Based Sustainable Dietary Patterns: A Review on Consumer Research of Meat Substitutes \|journal=Sustainability \|date=January 2019 \|volume=11 \|issue=15 \|pages=4028 \|doi=10.3390/su11154028 \|language=en \|issn=2071-1050\|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal \|last1=Kumar \|first1=Pavan \|last2=Chatli \|first2=M. K. \|last3=Mehta \|first3=Nitin \|last4=Singh \|first4=Parminder \|last5=Malav \|first5=O. P. \|last6=Verma \|first6=Akhilesh K. \|title=Meat analogues: Health promising sustainable meat substitutes \|journal=Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition \|date=24 March 2017 \|volume=57 \|issue=5 \|pages=923–932 \|doi=10.1080/10408398.2014.939739 \|pmid=25898027 \|s2cid=5445686 \|issn=1040-8398}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal \|last1=Tziva \|first1=M. \|last2=Negro \|first2=S. O. \|last3=Kalfagianni \|first3=A. \|last4=Hekkert \|first4=M. P. \|title=Understanding the protein transition: The rise of plant-based meat substitutes \|journal=Environmental Innovation and Societal Transitions \|date=1 June 2020 \|volume=35 \|pages=217–231 \|doi=10.1016/j.eist.2019.09.004 \|s2cid=211769379 \|language=en \|issn=2210-4224\|doi-access=free }}</ref> The integration of [[single-cell protein]], which can be produced from captured CO<sub>2</sub>.<ref name="allfed">{{Cite web \|title=High-tech resilient food solutions \|url=https://allfed.info/resilient-foods/resilient-food-solutions/high-tech-solutions \|url-status=live \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230923001759/https://allfed.info/resilient-foods/resilient-food-solutions/high-tech-solutions \|archive-date=2023-09-23 \|access-date=2023-12-15 \|website=ALLFED - Alliance to Feed the Earth in Disasters \|language=en-gb}}</ref> Optimized dietary scenarios would also see changes in various other types of foods such as nuts, as well as pulses such as beans, which have favorable environmental and [[healthy diet\|health]] profiles.<ref>{{cite journal \|last1=Steenson \|first1=Simon \|last2=Buttriss \|first2=Judith L. \|title=Healthier and more sustainable diets: What changes are needed in high-income countries? \|journal=Nutrition Bulletin \|date=September 2021 \|volume=46 \|issue=3 \|pages=279–309 \|doi=10.1111/nbu.12518 \|s2cid=238695900 \|language=en \|issn=1471-9827\|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal \|last1=Semba \|first1=Richard D. \|last2=Ramsing \|first2=Rebecca \|last3=Rahman \|first3=Nihaal \|last4=Kraemer \|first4=Klaus \|last5=Bloem \|first5=Martin W. \|title=Legumes as a sustainable source of protein in human diets \|journal=Global Food Security \|date=1 March 2021 \|volume=28 \|pages=100520 \|doi=10.1016/j.gfs.2021.100520 \|s2cid=233821367 \|language=en \|issn=2211-9124}}</ref> {{Further\|#Substitution of meat and sustainable meat and dairy}} Complementary approaches under development include [[vertical farming]] of various types of foods and various agricultural technologies, often using [[digital agriculture]]. === Sustainable seafood === {{Main\|Sustainable seafood}} [[Sustainable seafood]] is seafood from either fished or farmed sources that can maintain or increase production in the future without jeopardizing the ecosystems from which it was acquired. The sustainable seafood movement has gained momentum as more people become aware about both [[overfishing]] and environmentally destructive fishing methods. The goal of sustainable seafood practices is to ensure that [[Population\|fish populations]] are able to continue to thrive, that marine habitats are protected, and that [[fishing]] and aquaculture practices do not have negative impacts on local communities or economies. There are several factors that go into determining whether a seafood product is sustainable or not. These include the method of [[fishing]] or [[farming]], the health of the fish population, the impact on the surrounding environment, and the social and economic implications of the seafood production. Some sustainable seafood practices include using methods that minimize [[bycatch]], implementing [[Season\|seasonal]] or area closures to allow fish populations to recover, and using aquaculture methods that minimize the use of antibiotics or other chemicals.<ref>{{Cite web \|title=Sustainable Fishing \|url=https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/sustainable-fishing \|access-date=2023-05-11 \|website=education.nationalgeographic.org \|language=en}}</ref> Organizations such as the [[Marine Stewardship Council]] (MSC) and the [[Aquaculture Stewardship Council]] (ASC) work to promote sustainable seafood practices and provide certification for products that meet their sustainability standards.<ref>{{Cite web \|title=Farmed Fish {{!}} The ASC Certification Label {{!}} Buying Sustainable Aquaculture \|url=https://www.foodunfolded.com/article/farmed-fish-the-asc-certification-label-buying-sustainable-aquaculture#:~:text=The%20Difference%20Between%20MSC%20Label%20&%20ASC%20Label&text=MSC,%20or%20Marine%20Stewardship%20Council,aquaculture%20and%20all%20farmed%20seafood. \|access-date=2023-05-11 \|website=www.foodunfolded.com \|language=en}}</ref> In addition, many retailers and restaurants are now offering sustainable seafood options to their customers, often labeled with a sustainability certification logo to make it easier for consumers to make informed choices. Consumers can also play a role in promoting sustainable seafood by making conscious choices about the seafood they purchase and consume. This can include choosing seafood that is labeled as sustainably harvested or farmed, asking questions about the source and production methods of the seafood they purchase, and supporting restaurants and retailers that prioritize sustainability in their seafood offerings.<ref>{{Cite web \|last=Creative \|first=Grist \|date=2021-06-29 \|title=Consumers are demanding more sustainable seafood — and it's working \|url=https://grist.org/article/consumers-are-demanding-more-sustainable-seafood-and-its-working/ \|access-date=2023-05-11 \|website=Grist \|language=en-us}}</ref> By working together to promote sustainable seafood practices, we can help to ensure the health and sustainability of our oceans and the communities that depend on them. === Sustainable animal feed === {{Expand section\|date=March 2023}} A study suggests there would be large environmental benefits of using [[insects as food\|insects]] for [[animal feed]].When substituting mixed grain, which is currently the main animal feed, insect feed lowers water and land requirement and emits fewer greenhouse gas and ammonia. <ref>{{cite journal \|last1=van Huis \|first1=Arnold \|last2=Gasco \|first2=Laura \|title=Insects as feed for livestock production \|journal=Science \|date=13 January 2023 \|volume=379 \|issue=6628 \|pages=138–139 \|doi=10.1126/science.adc9165 \|pmid=36634163 \|bibcode=2023Sci...379..138V \|s2cid=255749691 \|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/367089543 \|language=en \|issn=0036-8075}} * News article about the study: {{cite news \|last1=Yirka \|first1=Bob \|title=Making the case for using insects as food for both humans and livestock \|url=https://phys.org/news/2023-01-case-insects-food-humans-livestock.html \|access-date=17 February 2023 \|work=[[phys.org]] \|language=en \|archive-date=28 January 2023 \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230128211900/https://phys.org/news/2023-01-case-insects-food-humans-livestock.html \|url-status=live }}</ref> ==== Sustainable pet food ==== Recent studies show that vegan diets, which are more sustainable, would not have negative impact on the health of [[pet food\|pet dogs and cats]] if implemented appropriately. <ref>{{cite journal \|last1=Domínguez-Oliva \|first1=Adriana \|last2=Mota-Rojas \|first2=Daniel \|last3=Semendric \|first3=Ines \|last4=Whittaker \|first4=Alexandra L. \|title=The Impact of Vegan Diets on Indicators of Health in Dogs and Cats: A Systematic Review \|journal=Veterinary Sciences \|date=January 2023 \|volume=10 \|issue=1 \|pages=52 \|doi=10.3390/vetsci10010052 \|pmid=36669053 \|pmc=9860667 \|language=en \|issn=2306-7381\|doi-access=free}}</ref> It aims to minimize the [[ecological footprint]] of pet food production while still providing the necessary nutrition for pets. Recent studies have explored the potential benefits of vegan diets for pets in terms of sustainability. One example is the growing body of research indicating that properly formulated and balanced vegan diets can meet the nutritional needs of dogs and cats without compromising their health.<ref>{{Cite web \|title=The 6 Best Sustainable Pet Food Brands of 2023 \|url=https://www.thesprucepets.com/best-sustainable-pet-food-brands-6560551 \|access-date=2023-05-11 \|website=The Spruce Pets \|language=en}}</ref> These studies suggest that with appropriate planning and supplementation, pets can thrive on [[Plant-based diet\|plant-based diets]]. This is significant from a sustainability perspective as traditional pet food production heavily relies on animal-based ingredients, which contribute to [[deforestation]], [[greenhouse gas emissions]], and [[overfishing]]. By opting for sustainable pet food options, such as plant-based or [[Eco-friendly products\|eco-friendly alternatives]], pet owners can reduce their pets' [[carbon footprint]] and support more ethical and sustainable practices in the pet food industry. Additionally, sustainable pet food may also prioritize the use of responsibly sourced ingredients, organic farming practices, and minimal [[packaging waste]]. It is important to note that when considering a vegan or alternative diet for pets, consultation with a veterinarian is crucial.<ref>{{Cite web \|first=Graham \|last=Lawton \|date=19 September 2022 \|title=Vegan pet food: Can cats and dogs be happy and healthy without meat? \|url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/0-vegan-pet-food-can-cats-and-dogs-be-happy-and-healthy-without-meat/ \|access-date=2023-05-11 \|website=New Scientist \|language=en-US}}</ref> Each pet has unique nutritional requirements, and a professional can help determine the most suitable diet plan to ensure all necessary nutrients are provided. === Substitution of meat and sustainable meat and dairy === {{Excerpt\|Environmental impact of meat production\|Alternatives to meat production and consumption}} ==== Meat reduction strategies ==== {{Excerpt\|Environmental impact of animal agriculture\|Meat-reduction strategies}} ==== Effects and combination of measures ==== {{Excerpt\|Environmental impact of animal agriculture\|Mitigation options\|paragraphs=-1-2}} "[[Policy#Induction of policies\|Policy sequencing]]" to gradually extend regulations once established to other forest risk commodities (e.g. other than beef) and regions while coordinating with other importing countries could prevent ineffectiveness.<ref>{{cite journal \|last1=Bager \|first1=Simon L. \|last2=Persson \|first2=U. Martin \|last3=dos Reis \|first3=Tiago N. P. \|title=Eighty-six EU policy options for reducing imported deforestation \|journal=One Earth \|date=19 February 2021 \|volume=4 \|issue=2 \|pages=289–306 \|doi=10.1016/j.oneear.2021.01.011 \|bibcode=2021OEart...4..289B \|s2cid=233930831 \|language=en \|issn=2590-3322\|doi-access=free }}</ref> ==== Meat and dairy ==== Despite meat from livestock such as beef and lamb being considered unsustainable, some [[regenerative agriculture]] proponents suggest rearing livestock with a mixed farming system to restore organic matter in grasslands.<ref>{{Cite web\|last=Finney\|first=Clare\|date=2021-06-29\|title=Eat this to save the world! The most sustainable foods – from seaweed to venison\|url=http://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2021/jun/29/eat-this-to-save-the-world-the-most-sustainable-foods-from-seaweed-to-venison\|access-date=2021-11-05\|website=The Guardian\|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web\|date=2021-01-01\|title=What Is the Most Environmentally Friendly Meat?\|url=https://www.ecoandbeyond.co/articles/most-environmentally-friendly-meat/\|access-date=2021-11-05\|website=Eco & Beyond\|language=en-GB}}</ref> Organizations such as the Canadian Roundtable for Sustainable Beef (CRSB) are looking for solutions to reduce the impact of meat production on the environment.<ref>{{Cite web\|last=Roberrts\|first=Wayne\|date=2019-12-02\|title=Is 'sustainable beef' a load of bull?\|url=https://www.corporateknights.com/perspectives/guest-comment/is-sustainable-beef-a-load-of-bull/\|access-date=2021-11-05\|website=Corporate Knights\|language=en-US}}</ref> In October 2021, 17% of beef sold in Canada was certified as sustainable beef by the CRSB.<ref>{{Cite news\|last=Stockford\|first=Alexis\|date=2021-10-18\|title=Sustainable beef interest hits new peak\|url=https://www.manitobacooperator.ca/news-opinion/news/sustainable-beef-interest-hits-new-peak/\|access-date=2021-11-05\|website=Manitoba Co-operator\|language=en}}</ref> However, sustainable meat has led to criticism, as environmentalists point out that the meat industry excludes most of its emissions.<ref>{{Cite journal\|last1=Lazarus\|first1=Oliver\|last2=McDermid\|first2=Sonali\|last3=Jacquet\|first3=Jennifer\|date=2021-03-25\|title=The climate responsibilities of industrial meat and dairy producers\|journal=Climatic Change\|language=en\|volume=165\|issue=1\|pages=30\|doi=10.1007/s10584-021-03047-7\|bibcode=2021ClCh..165...30L \|s2cid=232359749\|issn=1573-1480}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web\|last=Christen\|first=Caroline\|date=2021-07-18\|title=Meat Industry Climate Claims – Criticisms and Concerns\|url=https://www.desmog.com/2021/07/18/meat-industry-climate-claims-criticisms-and-concerns/\|access-date=2021-11-05\|website=DeSmog\|language=en-US}}</ref> Important mitigation options for reducing the greenhouse gas emissions from livestock include genetic selection,<ref>{{Cite web\|url=https://www.genomecanada.ca/en/programs/large-scale-science/past-competitions/strategic-initiatives/bovine-genomics\|title=Bovine Genomics \| Genome Canada\|website=www.genomecanada.ca}}</ref><ref>{{Cite magazine\|url=https://www.wired.com/story/canada-is-using-genetics-to-make-cows-less-gassy/\|title=Canada Is Using Genetics to Make Cows Less Gassy\|magazine=Wired\|via=www.wired.com\|last1=Airhart\|first1=Ellen}}</ref> introduction of [[Methanotroph\|methanotrophic bacteria]] into the rumen,<ref>{{Cite web\|url=https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01137190/document\|title=The use of direct-fed microbials for mitigation of ruminant methane emissions: a review}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal \|doi=10.1080/21553769.2015.1063550 \|title=Exploring diet-dependent shifts in methanogen and methanotroph diversity in the rumen of Mehsani buffalo by a metagenomics approach \|journal=Frontiers in Life Science \|volume=8 \|issue=4 \|pages=371–378 \|year=2015 \|last1=Parmar \|first1=N.R. \|last2=Nirmal Kumar \|first2=J.I. \|last3=Joshi \|first3=C.G. \|s2cid=89217740 }}</ref> vaccines, feeds,<ref>{{cite news \|title=Kowbucha, seaweed, vaccines: the race to reduce cows' methane emissions \|url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2021/sep/30/cow-methane-emissions-reduce-seaweed-kowbucha \|access-date=1 December 2021 \|work=The Guardian \|date=30 September 2021 \|language=en}}</ref> toilet-training,<ref>{{cite journal \|last1=Dirksen \|first1=Neele \|last2=Langbein \|first2=Jan \|last3=Schrader \|first3=Lars \|last4=Puppe \|first4=Birger \|last5=Elliffe \|first5=Douglas \|last6=Siebert \|first6=Katrin \|last7=Röttgen \|first7=Volker \|last8=Matthews \|first8=Lindsay \|title=Learned control of urinary reflexes in cattle to help reduce greenhouse gas emissions \|journal=Current Biology \|date=13 September 2021 \|volume=31 \|issue=17 \|pages=R1033–R1034 \|doi=10.1016/j.cub.2021.07.011 \|pmid=34520709 \|s2cid=237497867 \|language=English \|issn=0960-9822\|doi-access=free }}</ref> diet modification and grazing management.<ref>{{cite journal \| last1 = Boadi \| first1 = D \| year = 2004 \| title = Mitigation strategies to reduce enteric methane emissions from dairy cows: Update review \| journal = Can. J. Anim. Sci. \| volume = 84 \| issue = 3\| pages = 319–335 \| doi = 10.4141/a03-109 \| doi-access = free }}</ref><ref>Martin, C. et al. 2010. Methane mitigation in ruminants: from microbe to the farm scale. ''Animal'' 4 : pp 351-365.</ref><ref>{{cite journal \| last1 = Eckard \| first1 = R. J. \| display-authors = etal \| year = 2010 \| title = Options for the abatement of methane and nitrous oxide from ruminant production: A review \| journal = Livestock Science \| volume = 130 \| issue = 1–3\| pages = 47–56 \| doi=10.1016/j.livsci.2010.02.010}}</ref> Other options include shifting to [[ruminant]]-free alternatives, such as [[milk substitute]]s and [[meat analogue]]s or poultry, which generates far fewer emissions.<ref>{{Cite web\|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/03016226/96/1\|title=Livestock Production Science \| Livestock Farming Systems and their Environmental Impacts \| ScienceDirect.com by Elsevier\|website=www.sciencedirect.com}}</ref> Plant-based meat is proposed for sustainable alternatives to meat consumption. [[Meat analogue\|Plant-based meat]] emits 30%–90% less greenhouse gas than conventional meat (kg-{{CO2}}-eq/kg-meat) <ref>{{Cite journal\|last1=Poore\|first1=J.\|last2=Nemecek\|first2=T.\|date=June 2018\|title=Reducing food's environmental impacts through producers and consumers\|journal=Science\|volume=360\|issue=6392\|pages=987–992\|doi=10.1126/science.aaq0216\|pmid=29853680\|bibcode=2018Sci...360..987P \|s2cid=206664954\|issn=0036-8075\|url=https://ora.ox.ac.uk/objects/uuid:b0b53649-5e93-4415-bf07-6b0b1227172f \|doi-access=free}}</ref> and 72%–99% less water than conventional meat.<ref>{{Cite journal\|last1=Lamb\|first1=Anthony\|last2=Green\|first2=Rhys\|last3=Bateman\|first3=Ian\|last4=Broadmeadow\|first4=Mark\|last5=Bruce\|first5=Toby\|last6=Burney\|first6=Jennifer\|last7=Carey\|first7=Pete\|last8=Chadwick\|first8=David\|last9=Crane\|first9=Ellie\|last10=Field\|first10=Rob\|last11=Goulding\|first11=Keith\|date=May 2016\|title=The potential for land sparing to offset greenhouse gas emissions from agriculture\|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/nclimate2910\|journal=Nature Climate Change\|language=en\|volume=6\|issue=5\|pages=488–492\|doi=10.1038/nclimate2910\|bibcode=2016NatCC...6..488L \|s2cid=86091754 \|issn=1758-6798\|hdl=2164/7643\|hdl-access=free}}</ref> Public company [[Beyond Meat]] and privately held company [[Impossible Foods]] are examples of plant-based food production.<ref>{{Cite web\|last=Greenberg\|first=Sarah\|title=10 Leading Companies in Plant-Based Meat\|url=https://blog.bccresearch.com/10-leading-companies-in-plant-based-meat\|access-date=2021-11-08\|website=blog.bccresearch.com\|language=en-us}}</ref> However, consulting firm [[Sustainalytics]] assured that these companies are not more sustainable than meat-processors competitors such as food processor [[JBS USA\|JBS]], and they don't disclose all the {{CO2}} emissions of their supply chain.<ref>{{Cite news\|last=Creswell\|first=Julie\|date=2021-10-15\|title=Plant-Based Food Companies Face Critics: Environmental Advocates\|language=en-US\|work=The New York Times\|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2021/10/15/business/beyond-meat-impossible-emissions.html\|access-date=2021-11-08\|issn=0362-4331}}</ref> Beyond reducing negative impacts of meat production, facilitating shifts towards more sustainable meat, and facilitating reduced meat consumption (including via plant-based meat substitutes), [[cultured meat]] may offer a potentially sustainable way to produce real meat without the associated negative environmental impacts.<ref>{{cite journal \|last1=Bryant \|first1=Christopher J \|title=Culture, meat, and cultured meat \|journal=Journal of Animal Science \|date=3 August 2020 \|volume=98 \|issue=8 \|pages=skaa172 \|doi=10.1093/jas/skaa172 \|pmid=32745186 \|issn=0021-8812\|pmc=7398566 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal \|last1=Hong \|first1=Tae Kyung \|last2=Shin \|first2=Dong-Min \|last3=Choi \|first3=Joonhyuk \|last4=Do \|first4=Jeong Tae \|last5=Han \|first5=Sung Gu \|title=Current Issues and Technical Advances in Cultured Meat Production: AReview \|journal=Food Science of Animal Resources \|date=May 2021 \|volume=41 \|issue=3 \|pages=355–372 \|doi=10.5851/kosfa.2021.e14 \|pmid=34017947 \|issn=2636-0772\|pmc=8112310 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal \|last1=Treich \|first1=Nicolas \|title=Cultured Meat: Promises and Challenges \|journal=Environmental and Resource Economics \|date=1 May 2021 \|volume=79 \|issue=1 \|pages=33–61 \|doi=10.1007/s10640-021-00551-3 \|pmid=33758465 \|language=en \|issn=1573-1502\|pmc=7977488 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal \|last1=Bryant \|first1=Christopher J \|title=Culture, meat, and cultured meat \|journal=Journal of Animal Science \|date=1 August 2020 \|volume=98 \|issue=8 \|pages=skaa172 \|doi=10.1093/jas/skaa172\|pmid=32745186 \|pmc=7398566 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal \|last1=Treich \|first1=Nicolas \|title=Cultured Meat: Promises and Challenges \|journal=Environmental and Resource Economics \|date=May 2021 \|volume=79 \|issue=1 \|pages=33–61 \|doi=10.1007/s10640-021-00551-3\|pmid=33758465 \|pmc=7977488 }}</ref> === Phase-outs, co-optimization and environmental standards === [[File:Five broad food policy categories.webp\|thumb\|380px\|Five broad food policy categories<ref name="10.3390/su12177161"/>]] In regards to [[deforestation]], a study proposed kinds of "climate clubs" of "as many other states as possible taking similar measures and establishing uniform environmental standards". It suggested that "otherwise, global problems remain unsolvable, and shifting effects will occur" and that "border adjustments [...] have to be introduced to target those states that do not participate—again, to avoid shifting effects with ecologically and economically detrimental consequences", with such "border adjustments or [[eco-tariff]]s" incentivizing other countries to adjust their standards and domestic production to join the climate club.<ref>{{cite journal \|last1=Stubenrauch \|first1=Jessica \|last2=Garske \|first2=Beatrice \|last3=Ekardt \|first3=Felix \|last4=Hagemann \|first4=Katharina \|title=European Forest Governance: Status Quo and Optimising Options with Regard to the Paris Climate Target \|journal=Sustainability \|date=January 2022 \|volume=14 \|issue=7 \|pages=4365 \|doi=10.3390/su14074365 \|language=en \|issn=2071-1050\|doi-access=free }}</ref> Identified potential barriers to sustainability initiatives may include contemporary trade-policy goals and [[competition law]].<ref name="10.3390/su12177161">{{cite journal \|last1=Saviolidis \|first1=Nína M. \|last2=Olafsdottir \|first2=Gudrun \|last3=Nicolau \|first3=Mariana \|last4=Samoggia \|first4=Antonella \|last5=Huber \|first5=Elise \|last6=Brimont \|first6=Laura \|last7=Gorton \|first7=Matthew \|last8=von Berlepsch \|first8=David \|last9=Sigurdardottir \|first9=Hildigunnur \|last10=Del Prete \|first10=Margherita \|last11=Fedato \|first11=Cristina \|last12=Aubert \|first12=Pierre-Marie \|last13=Bogason \|first13=Sigurdur G. \|title=Stakeholder Perceptions of Policy Tools in Support of Sustainable Food Consumption in Europe: Policy Implications \|journal=Sustainability \|date=January 2020 \|volume=12 \|issue=17 \|pages=7161 \|doi=10.3390/su12177161 \|language=en \|issn=2071-1050\|doi-access=free \|hdl=11585/776038 \|hdl-access=free }}</ref> Greenhouse gas emissions for countries are often measured according to production, for imported goods that are produced in other countries than where they are consumed "[[embedded emissions]]" refers to the emissions of the product. In cases where such products are and remain imported, eco-tariffs could over time adjust prices for specific categories of products – or for specific non-collaborative polluting origin countries – such as deforestation-associated meat, foods with intransparent supply-chain origin or foods with high embedded emissions. === Agricultural productivity and environmental efficiency === [[Agricultural productivity]] (including e.g. reliability of yields) is an important component of [[food security]]{{sfn\|Mbow\|Rosenzweig\|Barioni\|Benton\|2019\|p=454}} and increasing it sustainably (e.g. with high efficiency in terms of environmental impacts) could be a major way to decrease negative environmental impacts, such as by decreasing the amount of land needed for farming or reducing [[environmental degradation]] like [[deforestation]].<ref>{{Cite web\|date=2020-02-06\|title=Sustainable Intensification for Smallholders\|url=https://www.drawdown.org/solutions/sustainable-intensification-for-smallholders\|access-date=2020-10-16\|website=Project Drawdown\|language=en}}</ref> ==== Genetically engineered crops ==== There is research and development to engineer [[genetically modified crops]] with increased heat/drought/stress resistance, increased yields, lower water requirements, and overall lower environmental impacts, among other things.<ref>{{cite journal \|last1=Kovak \|first1=Emma \|last2=Blaustein-Rejto \|first2=Dan \|last3=Qaim \|first3=Matin \|title=Genetically modified crops support climate change mitigation \|journal=Trends in Plant Science \|date=8 February 2022 \|volume=27 \|issue=7 \|pages=627–629 \|doi=10.1016/j.tplants.2022.01.004 \|pmid=35148945 \|language=en \|issn=1360-1385\|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite book \|last1=Liang \|first1=Chanjuan \|title=Drought Stress Tolerance in Plants, Vol 2 \|chapter=Genetically Modified Crops with Drought Tolerance: Achievements, Challenges, and Perspectives \|journal=Drought Stress Tolerance in Plants, Vol 2: Molecular and Genetic Perspectives \|date=2016 \|pages=531–547 \|doi=10.1007/978-3-319-32423-4_19 \|publisher=Springer International Publishing \|isbn=978-3-319-32421-0 \|language=en}}</ref> ==== Novel agricultural technologies ==== {{See also\|Agricultural technology}} {{Excerpt\|Food system\|Novel agricultural technologies}} === Organic food === {{See also\|Organic farming\|Pesticide#Alternatives}} [[File:Soil_profile.jpg\|thumb\|Farming, especially non-organic farming degrades soil often intended to be used to provide food in the future.]] {{Excerpt\|Organic food\|Environmental sustainability}} === Local food systems === {{Main\|Local food}} {{See also\|#Food security, nutrition and diet\|International trade#International trade versus local production\|}} {{Hard to navigate\|date=May 2022}} [[File:WheatYield.png\|thumb\|right\|350px\|A map of wheat production (average percentage of land used for its production times average yield in each grid cell) across the world.]] In [[Local food systems\|local and regional food systems]], food is produced, distributed, and consumed locally. This type of system can be beneficial both to the consumer (by providing fresher and more sustainably grown product) and to the farmer (by fetching higher prices and giving more direct access to consumer feedback).<ref name=":22">O'Hara, Jeffrey K. "Description of Local Food Systems." Union of Concerned Scientists, 2011, pp. 6–13</ref> Local and regional food systems can face challenges arising from inadequate institutions or programs, geographic limitations of producing certain crops, and seasonal fluctuations which can affect product demand within regions. In addition, [[direct marketing]] also faces challenges of accessibility, coordination, and awareness.<ref name=":22" /> [[Farmers' market\|Farmers' markets]], which have increased in number over the past two decades, are designed for supporting local farmers in selling their fresh products to consumers who are willing to buy. [[Food hubs]] are also similar locations where farmers deliver products and consumers come to pick them up. Consumers who wish to have weekly produce delivered can buy shares through a system called [[Community-supported agriculture\|Community-Supported Agriculture]] (CSA).<ref name=":22" /> However, these farmers' markets also face challenges with marketing needs such as starting up, advertisement, payments, processing, and regulations.<ref name=":22" /> There are various movements working towards local food production, more productive use of urban wastelands and domestic gardens including [[permaculture]], [[guerilla gardening]], [[urban horticulture]], [[local food]], [[slow food]], [[sustainable gardening]], and [[organic gardening]].<ref>[http://www.gardensofbabylon.com/earthStats.php "Earth Stats."] {{webarchive\|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110711072419/http://www.gardensofbabylon.com/earthStats.php\|date=11 July 2011}} Gardensofbabylon.com. Retrieved on: 7 July 2009.</ref><ref>Holmgren, D. (March 2005). [http://www.sbpermaculture.org/Suburbs_Holmgren.html "Retrofitting the suburbs for sustainability."] {{webarchive\|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090415103213/http://www.sbpermaculture.org/Suburbs_Holmgren.html\|date=15 April 2009}} CSIRO Sustainability Network. Retrieved on: 7 July 2009.</ref> Debates over local food system efficiency and sustainability have risen as these systems decrease transportation, which is a strategy for combating [[environmental footprint]]s and [[climate change]]. A popular argument is that the less impactful footprint of food products from local markets on communities and environment.<ref name=":02">Shindelar, Rachel. "The Ecological Sustainability of Local Food Systems." RCC Perspectives, no. 1, 2015, pp. 19–24.</ref> Main factors behind climate change include land use practices and greenhouse emissions, as global food systems produce approximately 33% of theses emissions.<ref name=":02" /> Compared to transportation in a local food system, a conventional system takes more fuel for energy and emits more pollution, such as carbon dioxide. This transportation also includes miles for agricultural products to help with agriculture and depends on factors such as transportation sizes, modes, and fuel types. Some airplane importations have shown to be more efficient than local food systems in some cases.<ref name=":02" /> Overall, local food systems can often support better environmental practices. ==== Environmental impact of food miles ==== Studies found that [[food mile]]s are a relatively minor factor of carbon emissions; albeit increased food localization may also enable additional, more significant environmental benefits such as recycling of energy, water, and nutrients.<ref>{{cite journal \|last1=Yang \|first1=Yi \|last2=Campbell \|first2=J. Elliott \|title=Improving attributional life cycle assessment for decision support: The case of local food in sustainable design \|journal=Journal of Cleaner Production \|date=1 March 2017 \|volume=145 \|pages=361–366 \|doi=10.1016/j.jclepro.2017.01.020 \|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0959652617300276 \|access-date=4 December 2020 \|language=en \|issn=0959-6526}}</ref> For specific foods, regional differences in harvest seasons may make it more environmentally friendly to import from distant regions than more local production and storage or local production in greenhouses.<ref>{{cite journal \|last1=Edwards-Jones \|first1=Gareth \|title=Does eating local food reduce the environmental impact of food production and enhance consumer health? \|journal=Proceedings of the Nutrition Society \|year=2010 \|volume=69 \|issue=4 \|pages=582–591 \|doi=10.1017/S0029665110002004 \|pmid=20696093 \|language=en \|issn=1475-2719\|doi-access=free }}</ref> This may vary depending on the environmental standards in the respective country, the distance of the respective countries and on a case-by-case basis for different foods. However, a 2022 study suggests global food miles' {{CO2}} emissions are 3.5–7.5 times higher than previously estimated, with transport accounting for about 19% of total food-system emissions,<ref>{{cite news \|title=Climate impact of food miles three times greater than previously believed, study finds \|url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2022/jun/21/climate-impact-of-food-miles-three-times-greater-than-previously-believed-study-finds \|access-date=13 July 2022 \|work=The Guardian \|date=20 June 2022 \|language=en}}</ref><ref name="10.1038/s43016-022-00531-w">{{cite journal \|last1=Li \|first1=Mengyu \|last2=Jia \|first2=Nanfei \|last3=Lenzen \|first3=Manfred \|last4=Malik \|first4=Arunima \|last5=Wei \|first5=Liyuan \|last6=Jin \|first6=Yutong \|last7=Raubenheimer \|first7=David \|title=Global food-miles account for nearly 20% of total food-systems emissions \|journal=Nature Food \|date=June 2022 \|volume=3 \|issue=6 \|pages=445–453 \|doi=10.1038/s43016-022-00531-w \|pmid=37118044 \|s2cid=249916086 \|language=en \|issn=2662-1355}}</ref> though shifting towards plant-based diets remains substantially more important.<ref>{{cite news \|title=How much do food miles matter and should you buy local produce? \|url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/2325164-how-much-do-food-miles-matter-and-should-you-buy-local-produce/ \|access-date=13 July 2022 \|work=New Scientist}}</ref> The study concludes that "a shift towards plant-based foods must be coupled with more locally produced items, mainly in affluent countries".<ref name="10.1038/s43016-022-00531-w"/> == Food distribution == {{Main\|Sustainable distribution}} {{Hard to navigate\|date=May 2022}} In [[food distribution]], increasing food supply is a production problem, as it takes time for products to get marketed, and as they wait to get distributed the food goes to waste. Despite the fact that throughout all [[food production]] an estimated 20-30% of food is wasted, there have been efforts to combat this issue, such as campaigns conducted to promote limiting food waste.<ref name=":12">Kling, William. "Food Waste in Distribution and Use." Journal of Farm Economics, vol. 25, no. 4, 1943, pp. 848–859.</ref> However, due to insufficient facilities and practices as well as huge amounts of food going unmarketed or harvested due to prices or quality, food is wasted through each phase of its distribution.<ref name=":12" /> Another factor for lack of sustainability within food distribution includes transportation in combination with inadequate methods for [[Food handling safety\|food handling]] throughout the packing process. Additionally, poor or long conditions for food in storage and consumer waste add to this list of factors for inefficiency found in food distribution.<ref name=":12" /> In 2019, though global production of calories kept pace with population growth, there are still more than 820 million people who have insufficient food and many more consume low-quality diets leading to micronutrient deficiencies. <ref>{{cite journal \|last1=Walter \|first1=Willett \|title=Food in the Anthropocene: the EAT–Lancet Commission on healthy diets from sustainable food systems \|journal=The Lancet Commissions \|date=February 2, 2019 \|volume=393 \|issue=10170 \|pages=447–492 \|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(18)31788-4\|pmid=30660336 \|s2cid=58657351 \|url=https://openaccess.city.ac.uk/id/eprint/21633/8/Food%20Planet%20Health.pdf }}</ref> Some modern tendencies in food distribution also create bounds in which problems are created and solutions must be formed. One factor includes growth of large-scale producing and selling units in bulk to [[chain store]]s which displays merchandising power from large scale market organizations as well as their mergence with [[manufactures]].<ref name=":3">Pelz, V. H. "Modern Tendencies in Food Distribution." Journal of Farm Economics, vol. 12, no. 2, 1930, pp. 301–310.</ref> In response to production, another factor includes large scale distribution and buying units among manufacturers in development of food distribution, which also affects producers, distributors, and consumers.<ref name=":3" /> Another main factor involves protecting [[public interest]], which means better adaptation for product and service, resulting in rapid development of food distribution.<ref name=":3" /> A further factor revolves around [[Price Maintenance\|price maintenance]], which creates pressure for lower prices, resulting in higher drive for lower cost throughout the whole food distribution process.<ref name=":3" /> An additional factor comprises new changes and forms of newly invented technical processes such as developments of freezing food, discovered through experiments, to help with distribution efficiency. Another factor is new technical developments in distributing machinery to meet the influence of [[consumer demand]]s and economic factors.<ref name=":3" /> Lastly, one more factor includes government relation to businesses and those who petition against it in correlation with anti-trust laws due to large scale business organizations and the fear of monopoly contributing to changing public attitude.<ref name=":3" /> == Food security, nutrition and diet == {{Main\|Sustainable diet}} [[File:Cereals allocated to food, animal feed and fuel, World.png\|thumb\|upright=1.5\|Cereal-use statistic showing an estimated large fraction of crops used as fodder]] The environmental effects of different dietary patterns depend on many factors, including the proportion of animal and plant foods consumed and the method of food production.<ref>{{cite journal\|author1=McMichael A.J.\|author2=Powles J.W.\|author3=Butler C.D.\|author4=Uauy R.\|date=September 2007\|title=Food, Livestock Production, Energy, Climate change, and Health\|url=http://www.eurekalert.org/images/release_graphics/pdf/EH5.pdf\|journal=Lancet\|volume=370\|issue=9594\|pages=1253–63\|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(07)61256-2\|pmid=17868818\|hdl=1885/38056\|s2cid=9316230\|archive-url=http://webarchive.loc.gov/all/20100203152611/http://www.eurekalert.org/images/release_graphics/pdf/EH5.pdf\|archive-date=3 February 2010}} Retrieved on: 18 March 2009.</ref><ref>{{cite journal\|author1=Baroni L.\|author2=Cenci L.\|author3=Tettamanti M.\|author4=Berati M.\|date=February 2007\|title=Evaluating the Environmental Impact of Various Dietary Patterns Combined with Different Food Production Systems\|url=http://www-personal.umich.edu/~choucc/environmental_impact_of_various_dietary_patterns.pdf\|journal=Eur. J. Clin. Nutr.\|volume=61\|issue=2\|pages=279–86\|doi=10.1038/sj.ejcn.1602522\|pmid=17035955\|s2cid=16387344}} Retrieved on: 18 March 2009.</ref><ref>Steinfeld H., Gerber P., Wassenaar T., Castel V., Rosales M., de Haan, C. (2006). [http://www.fao.org/docrep/010/a0701e/a0701e00.htm "Livestock's Long Shadow – Environmental Issues and Options"]. Retrieved on: 18 March 2009.</ref><ref>{{cite journal\|author1=Heitschmidt R.K.\|author2=Vermeire L.T.\|author3=Grings E.E.\|year=2004\|title=Is Rangeland Agriculture Sustainable?\|journal=[[Journal of Animal Science]]\|volume=82\|issue=E–Suppl\|pages=E138–146\|doi=10.2527/2004.8213_supplE138x\|doi-broken-date=31 January 2024\|pmid=15471792}} Retrieved on: 18 March 2009.</ref><ref>{{Cite journal \|last1=Alexander \|first1=Peter \|last2=Brown \|first2=Calum \|last3=Arneth \|first3=Almut \|last4=Finnigan \|first4=John \|last5=Rounsevell \|first5=Mark D.A. \|date=November 2016 \|title=Human appropriation of land for food: The role of diet \|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0959378016302370 \|journal=Global Environmental Change \|language=en \|volume=41 \|pages=88–98 \|doi=10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2016.09.005\|hdl=20.500.11820/dd522f6a-8cc9-444e-83f8-b73e065bd269 \|hdl-access=free }}</ref> At the same time, current and future food systems need to be provided with sufficient nutrition for not only the current population, but future population growth in light of a world affected by changing climate in the face of [[global warming]].<ref>{{Cite web\|url=https://www.unscn.org/en/topics/sustainable-food-systems\|title=Sustainable food systems – UNSCN\|website=www.unscn.org\|access-date=2019-11-27}}</ref> Nearly one in four households in the United States have experienced food insecurity in 2020–21. Even before the pandemic hit, some 13.7 million households, or 10.5% of all U.S. households, experienced food insecurity at some point during 2019, according to data from the U.S. Department of Agriculture. That works out to more than 35 million Americans who were either unable to acquire enough food to meet their needs, or uncertain of where their next meal might come from, last year.<ref>{{Cite news\|last=Silva\|first=Christianna\|date=2020-09-27\|title=Food Insecurity In The U.S. By The Numbers\|language=en\|work=NPR\|url=https://www.npr.org/2020/09/27/912486921/food-insecurity-in-the-u-s-by-the-numbers\|access-date=2021-10-19}}</ref> The "global land squeeze" for agricultural land<ref>{{cite web \|title=What is the Global Land Squeeze? \|url=https://www.landcarbonlab.org/what-global-land-squeeze \|website=Land & Carbon Lab \|access-date=27 May 2022}}</ref> also has impacts on food security.<ref>{{cite web \|last1=Hanson \|first1=Craig \|last2=Ranganathan \|first2=Janet \|title=How to Manage the Global Land Squeeze? Produce, Protect, Reduce, Restore \|url=https://www.wri.org/insights/manage-global-land-squeeze-produce-protect-reduce-restore \|access-date=27 May 2022 \|language=en \|date=14 February 2022}}</ref> Likewise, [[effects of climate change on agriculture]] can result in lower crop yields and nutritional quality due to for example [[drought]], [[heat wave]]s and [[flood]]ing as well as increases in [[water scarcity]],<ref>{{cite news \|title=Water scarcity predicted to worsen in more than 80% of croplands globally this century \|url=https://phys.org/news/2022-05-scarcity-worsen-croplands-globally-century.html \|access-date=16 May 2022 \|work=[[American Geophysical Union]] \|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal \|last1=Liu \|first1=Xingcai \|last2=Liu \|first2=Wenfeng \|last3=Tang \|first3=Qiuhong \|last4=Liu \|first4=Bo \|last5=Wada \|first5=Yoshihide \|last6=Yang \|first6=Hong \|title=Global Agricultural Water Scarcity Assessment Incorporating Blue and Green Water Availability Under Future Climate Change \|journal=Earth's Future \|date=April 2022 \|volume=10 \|issue=4 \|doi=10.1029/2021EF002567\|bibcode=2022EaFut..1002567L \|s2cid=248398232 \|url=https://www.dora.lib4ri.ch/eawag/islandora/object/eawag%3A24825 }}</ref> [[pest (organism)\|pests]] and [[Plant pathology\|plant diseases]]. [[Soil conservation]] may be important for food security as well. For sustainability and food security, the food system would need to adapt to such current and future problems. According to one estimate, "just four corporations control 90% of the global [[grain trade]]" and researchers have argued that the food system is too fragile due to various issues, such as "massive food producers" (i.e. market-mechanisms) having too much power and [[nation]]s "polarising into super-importers and super-exporters".<ref>{{cite news \|title=The banks collapsed in 2008 – and our food system is about to do the same {{!}} George Monbiot \|url=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2022/may/19/banks-collapsed-in-2008-food-system-same-producers-regulators \|access-date=27 May 2022 \|work=The Guardian \|date=19 May 2022 \|language=en}}</ref> However the impact of market power on the food system is contested with other claiming more complex context dependent outcomes.<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1=Merkle \|first1=Magnus \|last2=Moran \|first2=Dominic \|last3=Warren \|first3=Frances \|last4=Alexander \|first4=Peter \|date=September 2021 \|title=How does market power affect the resilience of food supply? \|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S2211912421000651 \|journal=Global Food Security \|language=en \|volume=30 \|pages=100556 \|doi=10.1016/j.gfs.2021.100556\|hdl=20.500.11820/0fd7b207-fb9d-4547-8580-ba1f016a4b44 \|hdl-access=free }}</ref> == Production decision-making == {{Expand section\|date=March 2023}} {{See also\|Produce traceability\|Agricultural subsidy\|Environmental law}} In the food industry, especially in agriculture, there has been a rise in problems toward the production of some food products. For instance, growing vegetables and fruits has become more expensive. It is difficult to grow some agricultural crops because some have a preferable climate condition for developing. There has also been an incline on food shortages as production has decreased.<ref>{{Cite journal\|last=Rushcheva\|first=D.\|title=Food Production and National Food Security: Situation, Problems and Prospects\|date=November 2, 2020\|journal=Trakia Journal of Sciences\|volume=18\|pages=346–349\| issue=Suppl.1\| doi=10.15547/tjs.2020.s.01.058\|s2cid=244351877\|doi-access=free}}</ref> Though the world still produces enough food for the population, not everyone receives good quality food because it is not accessible to them, since it depends on their location and/or income. In addition, the amount of overweight people has increased, and there are about 2 billion people that are underfed worldwide. This shows how the global food system lacks quantity and quality according to the [[Food consumption by class\|food consumption patterns]].<ref>{{Cite journal\|last=Capone\|first=Roberto\|title=Relations Between Food and Nutrition Security, Diets and Food Systems\|date=2016\|journal=Agriculture and Forestry\|volume=62\|pages=49–58\|doi=10.17707/AgricultForest.62.1.05\|doi-access=free}}</ref> A study estimated that "relocating current croplands to [environmentally] [[Optimization problem\|optimal]] locations, whilst allowing ecosystems in then-abandoned areas to regenerate, could simultaneously decrease the current carbon, biodiversity, and irrigation water footprint of global crop production by 71%, 87%, and 100%", with relocation only within national borders also having substantial potential.<ref>{{cite news \|title=Relocating farmland could turn back clock twenty years on carbon emissions, say scientists \|url=https://phys.org/news/2022-03-relocating-farmland-clock-twenty-years.html \|access-date=18 April 2022 \|work=University of Cambridge \|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal \|last1=Beyer \|first1=Robert M. \|last2=Hua \|first2=Fangyuan \|last3=Martin \|first3=Philip A. \|last4=Manica \|first4=Andrea \|last5=Rademacher \|first5=Tim \|title=Relocating croplands could drastically reduce the environmental impacts of global food production \|journal=Communications Earth & Environment \|date=10 March 2022 \|volume=3 \|issue=1 \|page=49 \|doi=10.1038/s43247-022-00360-6 \|bibcode=2022ComEE...3...49B \|s2cid=247322845 \|language=en \|issn=2662-4435\|doi-access=free \|hdl=10810/61603 \|hdl-access=free }}</ref> Policies, including ones that affect consumption, may affect production-decisions such as which foods are produced to various degrees and in various indirect and direct ways. Individual studies have named several proposed options of such<ref>{{cite journal \|last1=Lindgren \|first1=Elisabet \|last2=Harris \|first2=Francesca \|last3=Dangour \|first3=Alan D. \|last4=Gasparatos \|first4=Alexandros \|last5=Hiramatsu \|first5=Michikazu \|last6=Javadi \|first6=Firouzeh \|last7=Loken \|first7=Brent \|last8=Murakami \|first8=Takahiro \|last9=Scheelbeek \|first9=Pauline \|last10=Haines \|first10=Andy \|title=Sustainable food systems—a health perspective \|journal=Sustainability Science \|date=1 November 2018 \|volume=13 \|issue=6 \|pages=1505–1517 \|doi=10.1007/s11625-018-0586-x \|pmid=30546484 \|pmc=6267166 \|bibcode=2018SuSc...13.1505L \|language=en \|issn=1862-4057}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal \|last1=Wynes \|first1=Seth \|last2=Nicholas \|first2=Kimberly A \|last3=Zhao \|first3=Jiaying \|last4=Donner \|first4=Simon D \|title=Measuring what works: quantifying greenhouse gas emission reductions of behavioural interventions to reduce driving, meat consumption, and household energy use \|journal=Environmental Research Letters \|date=1 November 2018 \|volume=13 \|issue=11 \|page=113002 \|doi=10.1088/1748-9326/aae5d7 \|bibcode=2018ERL....13k3002W \|s2cid=115133659 \|language=en \|issn=1748-9326\|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name="10.3390/su12177161"/> and the restricted website [[Drawdown (climate)#Project Drawdown\|Project Drawdown]] has aggregated and preliminarily evaluated some of these measures.<ref>{{cite web \|title=Food, Agriculture, and Land Use @ProjectDrawdown \|url=https://www.drawdown.org/sectors/food-agriculture-land-use \|website=Project Drawdown \|access-date=27 May 2022 \|language=en \|date=5 February 2020}}</ref> === Nitrogen pollution mitigation === {{Excerpt\|Agricultural pollution#Mitigation\|paragraphs=1}} ===Climate change adaptation=== [[File:Water stress 2019 WRI.png\|thumb\|upright=2\|300px\|Water stress per country in 2019. Water stress is the ratio of water use relative to water availability ("demand-driven scarcity").<ref name=":15">{{Cite journal\|last1=Kummu\|first1=M.\|last2=Guillaume\|first2=J. H. A.\|last3=de Moel\|first3=H.\|last4=Eisner\|first4=S.\|last5=Flörke\|first5=M.\|last6=Porkka\|first6=M.\|last7=Siebert\|first7=S.\|last8=Veldkamp\|first8=T. I. E.\|last9=Ward\|first9=P. J.\|date=2016\|title=The world's road to water scarcity: shortage and stress in the 20th century and pathways towards sustainability\|journal=Scientific Reports\|language=en\|volume=6\|issue=1\|pages=38495\|doi=10.1038/srep38495\|issn=2045-2322\|pmc=5146931\|pmid=27934888\|bibcode=2016NatSR...638495K}}</ref>]] {{See also\|Effects of climate change on agriculture#Adaptation}} {{Excerpt\|Climate change adaptation\|Changed rainfall patterns in agriculture}} == Food waste == {{Main\|Food waste}} According to the [[Food and Agriculture Organization]] (FAO), food waste is responsible for 8 percent of global human-made [[greenhouse gas emissions]].<ref>{{Cite web\|url=http://www.fao.org/fileadmin/templates/nr/sustainability_pathways/docs/FWF_and_climate_change.pdf\|title=Food wastage footprint & Climate Change\|work=[[Food and Agriculture Organization]]}}</ref> The FAO concludes that nearly 30 percent of all available agricultural land in the world – 1.4 billion hectares – is used for produced but uneaten food. The global blue [[water footprint]] of food waste is 250 km<sup>3</sup>, the amount of water that flows annually through the [[Volga]] or three times [[Lake Geneva]].<ref>{{Cite web\|url=http://www.fao.org/3/i3347e/i3347e.pdf\|title=Food wastage footprint, impacts on natural resources\|work=[[Food and Agriculture Organization]]}}</ref> There are several factors that explain how [[food waste]] has increased globally in food systems. The main factor is population, because as population increases more food is being made, but most food produced goes to waste. Especially, during COVID-19, food waste grew sharply due to the booming of food delivery services according to a [https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/21681015.2021.1951858 2022 study]. In addition, not all countries have the same resources to provide the best quality of food. According to a study done in 2010, private households produce the largest amounts of food waste across the globe.<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1=Schanes \|first1=Karin \|last2=Dobernig \|first2=Karin \|last3=Gözet \|first3=Burcu \|date=2018-05-01 \|title=Food waste matters - A systematic review of household food waste practices and their policy implications \|journal=Journal of Cleaner Production \|language=en \|volume=182 \|pages=978–991 \|doi=10.1016/j.jclepro.2018.02.030 \|s2cid=158803430 \|issn=0959-6526\|doi-access=free }}</ref> Another major factor is overproduction; the rate of food production is significantly higher than the rate of consumption, leading to a surplus of food waste.<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1=Messner \|first1=Rudolf \|last2=Johnson \|first2=Hope \|last3=Richards \|first3=Carol \|date=2021-01-01 \|title=From surplus-to-waste: A study of systemic overproduction, surplus and food waste in horticultural supply chains \|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0959652620339974 \|journal=Journal of Cleaner Production \|language=en \|volume=278 \|pages=123952 \|doi=10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.123952 \|s2cid=224961868 \|issn=0959-6526}}</ref> Throughout the world there are different ways that food is being processed. With different priorities, different choices are being made to meet their most important needs. Money is another big factor that determines how long the process will take and who is working, and it is treated differently in low income countries' food systems. However, high income countries food systems still may deal with other issues such as [[food security]]. This demonstrates how all food systems have their weaknesses and strengths. [[Climate change]] causes food waste to increase because the warm temperature causes crops to dry faster and creates a higher risk for fires. Food waste can occur any time throughout production.<ref>{{Cite book\|last1=Bond\|first1=M.\|title=Food Waste Within Global Food Systems\|last2=Meacham\|first2=T.\|last3=Bhunnoo\|first3=R.\|last4=Benton\|first4=TG.\|year=2013}}</ref> According to the ''World Wildlife Organization'',<ref>{{Cite web\|title=Fight climate change by preventing food waste\|url=https://www.worldwildlife.org/stories/fight-climate-change-by-preventing-food-waste\|access-date=2021-03-30\|website=World Wildlife Fund\|language=en}}</ref> since most food produced goes to landfills, when it rots it causes methane to be produced. The [[Food disposal\|disposal]] of food has a big impact on our environment and health.<ref>{{Cite journal\|date=2018-06-01\|title=Environmental impacts of food waste: Learnings and challenges from a case study on UK\|journal=Waste Management\|language=en\|volume=76\|pages=744–766\|doi=10.1016/j.wasman.2018.03.032\|issn=0956-053X\|last1=Tonini\|first1=Davide\|last2=Albizzati\|first2=Paola Federica\|last3=Astrup\|first3=Thomas Fruergaard\|pmid=29606533\|bibcode=2018WaMan..76..744T \|s2cid=4555820\|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal\|last1=von Massow\|first1=Michael\|last2=Parizeau\|first2=Kate\|last3=Gallant\|first3=Monica\|last4=Wickson\|first4=Mark\|last5=Haines\|first5=Jess\|last6=Ma\|first6=David W. L.\|last7=Wallace\|first7=Angela\|last8=Carroll\|first8=Nicholas\|last9=Duncan\|first9=Alison M.\|date=2019\|title=Valuing the Multiple Impacts of Household Food Waste\|journal=Frontiers in Nutrition\|language=English\|volume=6\|page=143\|doi=10.3389/fnut.2019.00143\|pmid=31552260\|pmc=6738328\|issn=2296-861X\|doi-access=free}}</ref> == Academic Opportunities == The study of sustainable food applies [[systems theory]] and methods of [[sustainable design]] towards [[food systems]]. As an interdisciplinary field, the study of sustainable food systems has been growing in the last several decades. University programs focused on sustainable food systems include: * [[University of Colorado Boulder]]<ref>{{Cite web\|url=https://www.colorado.edu/menv/academics/specializations/sustainable-food-systems\|title=Sustainable Food Systems\|date=2018-08-10\|website=Masters of the Environment\|access-date=2019-11-26}}</ref> * [[Harvard]] Extension<ref>{{Cite web\|url=https://www.extension.harvard.edu/academics/professional-graduate-certificates/sustainable-food-systems-certificate\|title=Sustainable Food Systems Certificate\|last=rebecca\|date=2019-05-23\|website=Harvard Extension School\|access-date=2019-11-26}}</ref> * [[University of Delaware]]<ref>{{Cite web\|url=https://www.udel.edu/apply/undergraduate-admissions/major-finder/sustainable-food-systems/\|title=Sustainable Food Systems {{!}} University of Delaware\|website=www.udel.edu\|access-date=2019-11-26}}</ref> * Mesa Community College<ref>{{Cite web\|url=https://www.mesacc.edu/departments/exercise-science/nutrition-dietetics/sustainable-food-systems\|title=Sustainable Food Systems {{!}} Nutrition & Dietetics {{!}} Mesa Community College\|website=www.mesacc.edu\|access-date=2019-11-26}}</ref> * [[University of California, Davis]] * [[University of Vermont]]<ref>{{Cite web\|url=https://learn.uvm.edu/program/sustainable-food-systems/\|title=Breakthrough Leaders for Sustainable Food Systems – University Of Vermont Continuing & Distance Education\|website=learn.uvm.edu\|access-date=2019-11-26}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web\|url=https://www.uvm.edu/foodsystems\|title=Food Systems\|website=www.uvm.edu\|access-date=2019-11-26}}</ref> * [[Sterling College (Vermont)]]<ref>{{Cite web\|url=https://sterlingcollege.edu/academics/sustainable-food-systems/\|title=Sustainable Food Systems Degree Vermont {{!}} Sustainable Food Systems\|website=Sterling College\|access-date=2019-11-26}}</ref> * [[University of Michigan]]<ref>{{Cite web\|url=https://sites.lsa.umich.edu/sustainablefoodsystems/academic-programs/graduatelevelfoodsystemscourses/\|title=Graduate Certificate in Sustainable Food Systems – Sustainable Food Systems Initiative\|date=6 August 2014\|access-date=2019-11-26}}</ref> * [[Portland State University]]<ref>{{Cite web\|url=https://www.pdx.edu/food-certificate/\|title=Portland State Graduate Certificate in Sustainable Food Systems {{!}} Welcome\|website=www.pdx.edu\|access-date=2020-02-07}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web\|url=https://www.pdx.edu/usp/food-systems-advising-pathway\|title=Portland State College of Urban & Public Affairs: Nohad A. Toulan School of Urban Studies & Planning {{!}} Food Systems Advising Pathway\|website=www.pdx.edu\|access-date=2020-02-07}}</ref> * [[University of Sheffield]]'s Institute for Sustainable Food<ref>{{Cite web\|url=https://www.sheffield.ac.uk/sustainable-food/study/postgraduate-courses\|title=Postgraduate courses {{!}} Institute for Sustainable Food {{!}} The University of Sheffield\|website=www.sheffield.ac.uk\|access-date=2020-04-14}}</ref> * [[University of Georgia]]'s Sustainable Food Systems Initiative<ref>{{Cite web\|title=Grad Certificate {{!}} UGA Sustainable Food Systems Initiative\|url=https://site.extension.uga.edu/sfsi/grad-certificate/\|access-date=2021-01-11\|website=site.extension.uga.edu}}</ref> * [[The Culinary Institute of America]]'s Master's in Sustainable Food Systems<ref>{{Cite web\|title=CIA Online Master's in Sustainable Food Systems\|url=https://masters.culinary.edu/sustainable-food-systems-masters-degree/\|access-date=2022-02-10\|website=masters.culinary.edu}}</ref> * [[University of Edinburgh]]'s Global Academy of Agriculture and Food Systems<ref>{{Cite web \|title=Global Academy of Agriculture and Food Systems \|url=https://www.ed.ac.uk/global-agriculture-food-systems \|access-date=2022-07-29 \|website=The University of Edinburgh \|language=en}}</ref> There is a debate about "establishing a body akin to the [[Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change]] (IPCC) for food systems" which "would respond to questions from policymakers and produce advice based on a synthesis of the available evidence" while identifying "[[research question\|gaps]] in the science that need addressing".<ref>{{cite journal \|title=The war in Ukraine is exposing gaps in the world's food-systems research \|journal=Nature \|date=12 April 2022 \|volume=604 \|issue=7905 \|pages=217–218 \|language=en \|doi=10.1038/d41586-022-00994-8\|pmid=35414667 \|bibcode=2022Natur.604..217. \|s2cid=248129049 \|doi-access=free }}</ref> == Public policy == {{Expand section\|date=May 2022}} === European Union === {{See also\|Digital Product Passport}} {{Excerpt\|Food system\|European Union}} === Global === {{Excerpt\|Sustainable agriculture\|Policy}} {{Excerpt\|Sustainable agriculture\|At the global level\|hat=no\|only=paragraphs}} === Asia === {{Excerpt\|Sustainable agriculture\|Asia\|subsections=yes}} <!--=== {{readercountry}} ===--> == See also == * [[Standardization#Environmental protection]] == References == {{reflist}} ===Cited sources=== * {{Cite book \|title=Climate Change and Land: an IPCC special report on climate change, desertification, land degradation, sustainable land management, food security, and greenhouse gas fluxes in terrestrial ecosystems \|last1=Mbow \|first1=C. \|last2=Rosenzweig \|first2=C. \|last3=Barioni \|first3=L. G. \|last4=Benton \|first4=T. \|last5=Herrero \|first5=M. \|last6=Krishnapillai \|first6=M. V. \|year=2019 \|pages=454 \|chapter=Chapter 5: Food Security \|display-authors=4\|chapter-url=https://www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/sites/4/2019/11/08_Chapter-5.pdf}} == Further reading == <div class="references-small"> * {{cite journal \|last=Feenstra \|first=Gail \|year=2002 \|title=Creating Space for Sustainable Food Systems: Lessons from the Field \|journal=Agriculture and Human Values \|volume=19 \|issue=2 \|pages=99–106 \|doi=10.1023/a:1016095421310\|s2cid=59436592 }} * {{cite journal \|last1=Kloppenburg\|first1=Jack Jr.\|last2=Lezberg\|first2=Sharon\|last3=De Master\|first3=Kathryn\|last4=Stevenson\|first4=George W.\|last5=Hendrickson\|first5=John\|date=Summer 2000 \|title=Tasting Food, Tasting Sustainability: Defining the Attributes of an Alternative Food System with Competent, Ordinary People \|journal=Human Organization \|volume=59 \|issue=2 \|pages=177–186 \|doi=10.17730/humo.59.2.8681677127123543}} * [[George Monbiot\|Monbiot, George]] (2022). "Regenesis: Feeding the World without Devouring the Planet". London: Penguin Books. {{ISBN\|978-0-14-313596-8}} * Pimbert, Michel, Rachel Shindelar, and Hanna Schösler (eds.), "[http://www.environmentandsociety.org/perspectives/2015/1/think-global-eat-local-exploring-foodways Think Global, Eat Local: Exploring Foodways]," ''[http://www.environmentandsociety.org/perspectives RCC Perspectives]'' 2015, no. 1. doi.org/10.5282/rcc/6920. * {{cite journal \|last=Wahlqvist \|first=Mark L. \|year=2008 \|title=New nutrition science in practice \|journal=Asia Pac J Clin Nutr \|volume=17 \|issue=Suppl 1 \|pages=5–11 \|pmid=18296290 \|url=http://apjcn.nhri.org.tw/server/APJCN/Volume17/vol17suppl.1/5-11P-2.pdf}} * {{cite journal \|last=Wahlqvist \|first=Mark L. & Lee, Meei-Shyuan \|year=2007 \|title=Regional food culture and development \|journal=Asia Pac J Clin Nutr \|volume=16 \|issue=Suppl 1 \|pages=2–7 \|pmid=17392068 \|url=http://apjcn.nhri.org.tw/server/APJCN/volume12/vol12.3/fullArticles/Mark_2_7.pdf}} * {{cite journal \|last=Wilkins \|first=Jennifer \|year=1995 \|title=Seasonal and local diets: consumers' role in achieving a sustainable food system \|journal=Research in Rural Sociology and Development \|volume=6 \|pages=149–166 \|url=http://www.sarep.ucdavis.edu/NEWSLTR/v8n3/sa-12.htm}} [http://www.fao.org/agris/search/display.do?f=./1996/v2211/US9601310.xml;US9601310 AGRIS record]. </div> {{Sustainability \|state=collapsed}} [[Category:Sustainable food system\| ]] [[Category:Food politics]] [[Category:Sustainability]]
Global Green USA	{{Multiple issues\|{{Only primary sources\|date=December 2023}}{{more references\|date=April 2016}}}} {{Infobox company \| logo = GlobalGreenLOGO.png \| founded = 1993 \| founder = [[Diane Meyer Simon]], and [[Mikhail S. Gorbachev]] }} '''Global Green''' is the English-American affiliate of [[Green Cross International]], an international non-governmental organization founded by former [[List of leaders of the Soviet Union\|Soviet leader]] [[Mikhail Gorbachev]] in 1993 to "foster a global value shift toward a sustainable and secure future."<ref name=":0">{{Cite web\|url=https://www.globalgreen.org/\|title=Global Green - Helping the people, the places, the planet in need.\|website=Global Green\|language=en-US\|access-date=2019-12-06}}</ref> Green Cross International operates in over 30 countries and enjoys consultative status with the [[United Nations Economic and Social Council]], and [[UNESCO\|United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization]]. Global Green USA is on a 10 year mission to "lead a global response to keep us within planetary boundaries" and to "bring forth a sustainable global society founded on respect for nature, universal human rights, economic justice, and a culture of peace".<ref>{{Cite web\|url=https://www.globalgreen.org/\|title=Global Green\|website=Global Green International\|language=en-US\|access-date=2021-04-14}}</ref> GCI is an admitted observer organization with the [[United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change]] and the Conference of the Parties to the [[United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification\|UN Convention to Combat Desertification]]. It also cooperates directly with the UNEP/OCHA Environmental Emergencies Section, [[UN-HABITAT]] and other international organizations.<ref>{{Cite web\|url=https://www.gcint.org/\|title=Green Cross International\|website=Green Cross International\|language=en-US\|access-date=2019-12-06}}</ref> Celebrity advocates include [[Leonardo DiCaprio]], [[Yoko Ono]] and [[Pat Mitchell]], who serves as an Honorary Board Member. <ref>{{Cite web\|url=https://www.globalgreen.org/advocates/\|title= Global Green Advocates \|website=Global Green International\|language=en-US\|access-date=2021-04-14}}</ref> William Bridge serves both as Chairman of [[Green Cross International]] and CEO of Global Green USA.<ref name="GlobeGreen">{{cite web \|title=Global Green Team \|url=https://globalgreen.org/global-green-team/ \|website=Global Green \|access-date=21 January 2024}}</ref> == History == In October 1987, five years before the first [[Earth Summit]] in [[Rio de Janeiro]], [[Mikhail Gorbachev]] addressed a gathering in the Arctic city of [[Murmansk]], and for the first time linked the concepts of environmental protection, nuclear disarmament, broader security concerns and development.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web\|url=https://www.gcint.org/who-we-are/our-history/\|title=Our History\|website=Green Cross International\|language=en-US\|access-date=2019-12-06}}</ref> On 19 January 1990, in [[Moscow]] during an address to the Global Forum on Environment and Development for Survival, Mikhail Gorbachev suggested creating an “international Green Cross that offers its assistance to States in ecological trouble.” In other words, the world needed a body that would apply the medical emergency response model of the [[International Committee of the Red Cross]] to ecological issues, and expedite solutions to environmental problems that transcend national borders.<ref name=":1" /> On 6 June 1992, six months after leaving office, the Rio Earth Summit civil society delegates appealed to Mikhail Gorbachev to create and launch Green Cross International. At the same time, Swiss National Council parliamentarian Roland Wiederkehr, founded a “World Green Cross” with the same objective. The organizations merged in 1993 to form [[Green Cross International]].<ref name=":1" /> Green Cross International (GCI) was formally launched in [[Kyoto]], Japan, on April 18, 1993. On the invitation of Mikhail Gorbachev, many renowned figures joined and continue to serve on its board of directors and Honorary Board.<ref name=":1" /> The first Green Cross National Organizations (GCNOs) formally joined GCI in [[The Hague]], The Netherlands, in the Spring of 1994. These included Japan, The Netherlands, the Russian Federation, Switzerland, and the United States.<ref name=":1" /> In 2007, Starbucks and Global Green have teamed up to launch Planet Green Game, an online game where "players can explore a virtual world and learn how everyday decisions by individuals, cities, schools and businesses can impact the climate and environment."<ref>{{Cite web\|title=Starbucks\|url=https://stories.starbucks.com/stories/2007/starbucks-and-global-green-usa-spotlight-climate-change-solutions-with-laun/\|access-date=2020-07-23\|website=stories.starbucks.com}}</ref> In 2022 Global Green USA agreed to advance US$20.5 million to the [[Make It Right Foundation]] and to oversee the distribution of the funds following the settlement of a [[class-action lawsuit]] against the latter foundation.<ref name=nola>{{Cite web \|last=writer \|first=DOUG MACCASH {{!}} Staff \|title=Brad Pitt's Make It Right Foundation to pay $20.5M to owners of faulty post-Katrina homes \|url=https://www.nola.com/news/business/article_eed75178-c737-11ec-8011-fbcf5b31b6d7.html \|access-date=2022-08-25 \|website=NOLA.com \|date=17 August 2022 \|language=en}}</ref> The Make It Right Foundation was founded by Hollywood actor [[Brad Pitt]] and others following [[Hurricane Katrina]] to rebuild homes in the [[Lower Ninth Ward]] of [[New Orleans]], [[Louisiana]]. Those houses had problems with construction and the residents sued the Make It Right Foundation and Brad Pitt.<ref name="nola" /> Global Green's CEO William Bridge was quoted by [[The Times-Picayune]] newspaper as saying that Global Green “had a great relationship with Make It Right and Brad Pitt” and that his organization's board of directors' goal was “to plug it (the money) back into the community.”<ref name="nola" /> Today, Green Cross International is headquartered in [[Geneva]], Switzerland with member countries in Argentina, Australia, Belarus, Bolivia, Brazil, Burkina Faso, Canada ([[Preparatory Commission for the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty Organization\|PrepCom]]), Czech Republic, Denmark, Eswatini, France et Territoires, Ghana, Hungary, Taiwan (Information Office), Italy, Ivory Coast, Japan, Korea, The Netherlands, Panama, Russia, Spain, Sri Lanka, Sweden, Switzerland, Ukraine, and the United States.<ref name=":1" /> == Board of directors == * [[Diane Meyer Simon]], Founder of Global Green * Trammel S. Crow, Co-Chair of Global Green & Founder of EarthX * Michael Cain, Vice Chair of Global Green & CEO of EarthX Film * Rajiv Shukla, Vice Chair of Global Green & Independent Director of Ocunexus Therapeutics Inc. * Vered Nisim, Secretary of Global Green & Founder of Curagenics & President of Brellascope * Les McCabe, Treasurer of Board & CEO of Junior Achievement * Christiana Musk, Founder of Flourishink & Curator for Near Future Summit Robbianne Mackin, Senior Vice President of Principal Gifts for The New York Academy of Sciences * [[Ovie Mughelli]], Former Atlanta Falcons football player & Founder of The Ovie Mughelli Foundation * Sarah Meyer Simon, Co-Owner of Base Coat & Partner of The Butcher’s Daughter & Founder of The Simon Collective * [[Rick Fedrizzi]], Founding Chair of USGBC & CEO of the International WELL Building Institute * Carlton A. Brown, Founding partner & COO of Full Spectrum NY * Asher Simon, Artist & Musician * Don Burris, Founder & Senior Partner of Burris & Schoenberg, LLP * Tony Keane, CEO of EarthX * Kai Milla-Morris, Fashion Designer & Former wife of Stevie Wonder === Emeritus Board Members === * [[Ted Turner]] * Robert S. Bucklin * [[Jerry Moss]] * [[Lee H. Hamilton]] * [[Edward Norton]] * [[John Paul DeJoria]] * [[Leonardo DiCaprio]] * [[Jane Goodall\|Dr. Jane Goodall]] * Jayni Chase * [[Norman Lear]] * [[Pat Mitchell]] * Scott Seydel * [[Yoko Ono]] * Chief Oren Lyons * [[Robert Redford]] ==References== {{reflist}} [[Category:Environmental organizations based in California]] [[Category:Environmental organizations established in 1993]] [[Category:Sustainability]]
Artificial leather	{{Short description\|Material that imitates leather}} {{Redirect\|Pleather\|the Toadies album\|Pleather (album){{!}}''Pleather'' (album)}} {{Use dmy dates\|date=December 2020}} [[File:Reproduction Mk VII Gas Mask Bag -11.jpg\|thumb\|upright=1.35\|An artificial leather bag strap, made from plastic]] '''Artificial leather''', also called '''synthetic leather''', is a material intended to substitute for [[leather]] in upholstery, clothing, footwear, and other uses where a leather-like finish is desired but the actual material is cost prohibitive or unsuitable, or for ethical concerns. Artificial leather is known under many names, including ''leatherette'', ''imitation leather'', ''faux leather'', ''[[Veganism\|vegan]] leather'', ''PU leather'' ([[polyurethane]]), and ''pleather''.<ref>{{cite book \|last=Shaeffer \|first=Claire \|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BBNjDwAAQBAJ \|title=Sew Any Fabric: A Quick Reference to Fabrics from A to Z \|date=November 10, 2003 \|publisher=[[Penguin Books\|Penguin]] \|isbn=978-1-4402-2033-3 \|location=New York City \|page=37 \|language=en}}</ref> ==Uses== Artificial leathers are often used in clothing fabrics, furniture upholstery, water craft upholstery, and automotive interiors.<ref name="faux">{{cite web \|last=Blesius \|first=Jim \|date=7 April 2014 \|title=What is Faux Leather? \|url=https://mitchellfauxleathers.com/Default/ViewPoint/Read/faux-leather-viewpoint/2014/04/07/what-is-faux-leather \|access-date=22 August 2018}}</ref> One of its primary advantages, especially in cars, is that it requires little maintenance in comparison to leather, and does not crack or fade easily, though the surface of some artificial leathers may rub and wear off with time.<ref name="faux" /> Artificial leather made from polyurethane is washable, but varieties made from [[polyvinyl chloride]] (PVC) are not easily cleaned.<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1=Ujević \|first1=Darko \|last2=Kovacevic \|first2=Stana \|last3=Wadsworth \|first3=Larry C. \|last4=Schwarz \|first4=Ivana \|last5=Šajatović \|first5=Blaženka Brlobašić \|date=October 2009 \|title=Analysis of Artificial Leather With Textile Fabric on the Backside \|url=https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Stana-Kovacevic/publication/277112454_Analysis_of_artificial_leather_with_textile_fabric_on_the_backside/links/55a53c3a08ae5e82ab1f8e01/Analysis-of-artificial-leather-with-textile-fabric-on-the-backside.pdf \|journal=Journal of Textile and Apparel, Technology and Management \|volume=6 \|issue=2 \|pages=1, 2 \|via=Research Gate}}</ref> === Fashion === Depending on the construction, the artificial leather may be porous and breathable, or may be impermeable and waterproof. Porous artificial leather with a non-woven microfibre backing is a popular choice for clothing, and is comfortable to wear.<ref>{{cite journal \|last1=Zhao \|first1=Baobao \|last2=Qian \|first2=Yao \|last3=Qian \|first3=Xiaoming \|last4=Fan \|first4=Jintu \|last5=Liu \|first5=Fan \|last6=Duo \|first6=Yongchao \|date=June 2018 \|title=Preparation and Properties of Split Microfiber Synthetic Leather \|url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/155892501801300203 \|journal=Journal of Engineered Fibers and Fabrics \|volume=13 \|issue=2 \|pages=155892501801300 \|doi=10.1177/155892501801300203 \|issn=1558-9250 \|s2cid=106400171 \|access-date=2022-03-27 \|doi-access=free}}</ref> ==Manufacture== [[File:Synthetic PU leather HC1.jpg\|thumb\|Steps to make synthetic [[polyurethane]] leather:{{numbered list\|The base fabric\|A polyurethane coating is applied\|A color coat is added\|A textured finish is added<ref>{{cite web\|url=http://www.gofar.co.kr/eng/info/info_12_2.php\|title=PU Synthetic Leather\|website=Gofar Synthetic Co., Ltd \|access-date=11 May 2005 \|url-status=dead\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050511001137/http://www.gofar.co.kr/eng/info/info_12_2.php\|archive-date=11 May 2005}}</ref>}}]] Many different methods for the manufacture of imitation leathers have been developed. A current method is to use an embossed [[release paper]] known as ''casting paper'' as a form for the surface finish, often mimicking the texture of top-grain leather. This embossed release paper holds the final texture in negative. For the manufacture, the release paper is coated with several layers of [[plastic]] e.g. PVC or polyurethane, possibly including a surface finish, a colour layer, a foam layer, an adhesive, a fabric layer, a reverse finish. Depending on the specific process, these layers may be wet or partially cured at the time of integration. The artificial leather is cured, then the release paper is removed and possibly reused.<ref>{{cite web \|title=About Castingpapers {{!}} CASTING PAPERS R-series \|url=https://www.castingpapers.com/about/ \|website=www.castingpapers.com \|access-date=2022-03-26}}</ref> A fermentation method of making [[collagen]], the main chemical in real leather, is under development.<ref>{{Cite news\|url=https://www.cnbc.com/2018/03/09/modern-meadow-and-evonik-are-brewing-leather-in-a-lab.html\|title=This leather is made in a lab, not from livestock\|last=Kolodny\|first=Lora\|date=2018-03-09\|work=CNBC\|access-date=2018-10-13}}</ref> Materials to make vegan leather can be derived from fungi, yeasts and bacterial strains using biotechnological processes.<ref>{{cite journal \|last1=Liu \|first1=Jize \|title=Recent advances concerning polyurethane in leather applications: an overview of conventional and greener solutions \|journal=Collagen and Leather \|date=9 March 2023 \|volume=5 \|issue=1 \|page=5 \|doi=10.1186/s42825-023-00116-8 \|url=https://jlse.springeropen.com/articles/10.1186/s42825-023-00116-8#citeas \|access-date=18 September 2023\|doi-access=free }}</ref> === Historical methods === One of the earliest artificial leathers was [[Presstoff]]. Invented in 19th century Germany, it was made of specially layered and treated paper pulp. It gained its widest use in Germany during the [[World War II\|Second World War]] in place of leather, which under wartime conditions was rationed. Presstoff could be used in almost every application normally filled by leather, excepting items like footwear that were repeatedly subjected to flex wear or moisture. Under these conditions, Presstoff tends to delaminate and lose cohesion. Another early example was [[Rexine]], a leathercloth fabric produced in the United Kingdom by Rexine Ltd of Hyde, near Manchester. It was made of cloth surfaced with a mixture of [[nitrocellulose]], [[camphor]] oil, alcohol, and pigment, embossed to look like leather. It was used as a [[bookbinding]] material and upholstery covering, especially for the interiors of motor vehicles and the interiors of railway carriages produced by British manufacturers beginning in the 1920s, its cost being around a quarter that of leather.<ref>{{cite web\|url=http://www.redeye.co.nz/glp-s.htm\|title=Glossary of Bookbinding Terms P-S\|website=Redeye.co.nz\|access-date=18 April 2019}}</ref> Poromerics are made from a plastic coating (usually a polyurethane) on a fibrous base layer (typically a [[polyester]]). The term poromeric was coined by [[DuPont]] as a derivative of the terms ''porous'' and ''polymeric''. The first poromeric material was DuPont's Corfam, introduced in 1963 at the Chicago Shoe Show. Corfam was the centerpiece of the DuPont pavilion at the [[1964 New York World's Fair]] in New York City. After spending millions of dollars marketing the product to shoe manufacturers, DuPont withdrew Corfam from the market in 1971 and sold the rights to a company in [[Poland]]. Leatherette is also made by covering a fabric base with a plastic. The fabric can be made of natural or synthetic fiber which is then covered with a soft polyvinyl chloride (PVC) layer. Leatherette is used in [[bookbinding]] and was common on the casings of 20th century cameras. Cork leather is a natural-fiber alternative made from the bark of [[cork oak]] trees that has been compressed, similar to Presstoff. == Environmental effect == The production of the PVC used in the production of many artificial leathers requires a [[plasticizer]] called a [[phthalate]] to make it flexible and soft. PVC requires petroleum and large amounts of energy thus making it reliant on [[fossil fuels]]. During the production process carcinogenic byproducts, [[dioxin]]s, are produced which are toxic to humans and animals.<ref>{{Cite web\|url=https://www.epa.gov/dioxin/learn-about-dioxin\|title=Learn about Dioxin\|last=US EPA\|first=ORD\|date=2014-01-28\|website=US EPA\|language=en\|access-date=2018-12-17}}</ref> Dioxins remain in the environment long after PVC is manufactured.<ref>{{Cite journal \|last=Saibu \|first=Salametu \|last2=Adebusoye \|first2=Sunday A. \|last3=Oyetibo \|first3=Ganiyu O. \|date=2020-02-01 \|title=Aerobic bacterial transformation and biodegradation of dioxins: a review \|url=https://doi.org/10.1186/s40643-020-0294-0 \|journal=Bioresources and Bioprocessing \|language=en \|volume=7 \|issue=1 \|pages=1–21 \|doi=10.1186/s40643-020-0294-0 \|issn=2197-4365\|doi-access=free }}</ref> When PVC ends up in a landfill it does not decompose like genuine leather and can release dangerous chemicals into the water and soil.<ref>{{Cite journal \|last=Chamas \|first=Ali \|last2=Moon \|first2=Hyunjin \|last3=Zheng \|first3=Jiajia \|last4=Qiu \|first4=Yang \|last5=Tabassum \|first5=Tarnuma \|last6=Jang \|first6=Jun Hee \|last7=Abu-Omar \|last8=Scott \|first8=Susannah L. \|last9=Suh \|first9=Sangwon \|date=2020-03-09 \|title=Degradation Rates of Plastics in the Environment \|url=https://escholarship.org/uc/item/1sh070qz \|journal=ACS Sustainable Chemistry & Engineering \|language=en \|volume=8 \|issue=9 \|pages=3494–3511 \|doi=10.1021/acssuschemeng.9b06635 \|issn=2168-0485\|doi-access=free }}</ref> Polyurethane is currently more popular for use than PVC.<ref>{{Cite web\|url=https://www.vocativ.com/281599/vegan-leather-isnt-as-ethical-as-you-think/\|title=Vegan Leather Isn't As Ethical As You Think\|date=2016-02-10\|website=Vocativ\|language=en-US\|access-date=2018-12-17}}</ref> The production of some artificial leathers requires plastic, with others, called [[plant-based leather]]s, only requiring plant-based materials; the inclusion of artificial materials in the production of artificial leathers notably raises sustainability issues.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web\|last=Davis\|first=Jessica\|date=2020-04-17\|title=Is vegan leather worse for the environment than real leather?\|url=https://www.harpersbazaar.com/uk/fashion/fashion-news/a30640996/vegan-leather-sustainability/\|access-date=2021-10-22\|website=Harper's BAZAAR\|language=en-GB}}</ref> However, some reports state that the manufacture of artificial leather is still more sustainable than that of real leather, with the Environmental Profit & Loss, a sustainability report developed in 2018 by Kering, stating that the impact of vegan-leather production can be up to a third lower than real leather.<ref name=":0" /> Some artificial leathers may have traces of restricted substances, like paint ingredient [[Methylethyl ketone oxime\|butanone oxime]], according to a study by the FILK Freiberg Institiute.<ref>{{Cite web \|last=Roshitsh \|first=Kaley \|date=2021-12-08 \|title=Is ‘Vegan’ Leather Worse for the Environment Than Real Leather? \|url=https://wwd.com/sustainability/materials/what-is-vegan-leather-which-is-worse-environment-leather-market-fashion-1235008758/ \|access-date=2023-10-12 \|website=WWD \|language=en-US}}</ref> == Brand names == [[File:1968 Mercedes Benz W108 Interior Front Seats.jpg\|thumb\|1968 [[Mercedes-Benz\|Mercedes Benz]] [[Mercedes-Benz W108/W109\|280SE (W108)]] seats and door trim in blue MB-Tex.]] * [[Alcantara (material)\|Alcantara]] * [[Clarino]]: manufactured by Kuraray Co., Ltd. of Japan. * [[Fabrikoid]]: A [[DuPont]] brand, cotton cloth coated with [[nitrocellulose]] * [[Kirza]]: A Russian form developed in the 1930s consisting of cotton fabric, latex, and rosin * MB-Tex: Used in many [[Mercedes-Benz]] base trims<ref>{{cite web\|url=http://www.loebermotors.com/blog/what-is-mb-tex-seat-upholstery/\|title=What is MB-Tex Seat Upholstery? - MB-Tex vs. Leather\|website=www.loebermotors.com\|access-date=7 April 2018\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200227050512/http://www.loebermotors.com/blog/what-is-mb-tex-seat-upholstery/\|archive-date=27 February 2020\|url-status=dead}}</ref> * [[Naugahyde]]: An American brand introduced by [[Uniroyal]] * [[Piñatex]]: Made from [[pineapple]] leaves * [[Rexine]]: A British brand * Skai: Made by the German company Konrad Hornschuch AG, its name has become a genericized trademark in Germany and surrounding countries ==See also== * [[Bicast leather]] – a form of genuine leather coated with a plastic finish * [[Bonded leather]] – a material made by blending scrap leather fibers with a plastic binder * [[Microfiber]] – a material made with synthetic fibers thinner than natural silk; can be used for making synthetic suedes, like [[Ultrasuede]] [[Mycelium-based materials]] - [[Mycelium]], the fungal equivalent of roots in plants, has been identified as an ecologically friendly substitute to a litany of materials throughout different industries. ==References== {{reflist}} ==Further reading== ''Faux Real: Genuine Leather and 200 Years of Inspired Fakes'', by Robert Kanigel. Joseph Henry Press, 2007. ==External links== * {{Commons category-inline}} {{Leather}} {{Clothing materials and parts}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Artificial leather\| ]] [[Category:Sustainability]] [[Category:Nonwoven fabrics]] [[Category:Synthetic materials]] [[Category:Leather]] [[Category:Textiles]] [[Category:Fashion design]]
Category:Sustainability scientists	{{Portal\|Science}} [[Category:Sustainability]] [[Category:Environmental scientists]]
Foodscaping	{{Short description\|Ornamental landscaping with edible plants}} {{Use dmy dates\|date=November 2023}} [[File:Edible garden at Pixie Hollow.jpg\|thumb\|298x298px\|Edible landscape at Pixie Hollow Garden, Epcot, [[Walt Disney World]] in Florida featuring decorative green and purple kale and chard varieties\|alt=]] '''Foodscaping''' is a modern term for the practice of integrating edible plants into ornamental landscapes. It is also referred to as '''edible landscaping''' and has been described as a crossbreed between [[landscaping]] and [[Agriculture\|farming]].<ref name=":6">Waterford, Douglas. ''21st Century Homestead: Urban Agriculture''. Lulu, 2015.</ref> As an ideology, foodscaping aims to show that edible plants are not only consumable but can also be appreciated for their [[Aesthetics\|aesthetic]] qualities. Foodscaping spaces are seen as multi-functional landscapes which are visually attractive and also provide edible returns.<ref name=":4">Brown, Sydney P. "Edible Landscaping". ''The'' ''Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences'', 2016, edis.ifas.ufl.edu/pdffiles/EP/EP14600.pdf. Accessed 12 April 2020.</ref> Foodscaping is a great way to provide fresh food in an affordable way. <ref>{{cite journal \|last1=Silvasy \|first1=Tiare \|title=Edible Landscaping Using the Nine Florida-Friendly Landscaping Principles}}</ref> Differing from conventional [[Kitchen garden\|vegetable gardening]], where fruits and vegetables are typically grown in separate, enclosed areas, foodscaping incorporates edible plants as a major element of a pre-existing landscaping space.<ref name=":6" /> This may involve adding edible plantations to an existing ornamental garden or entirely replacing the traditional, non-edible plants with food-yielding species.<ref name=":5" /> The designs can incorporate various kinds of vegetables, fruit trees, berry bushes, edible flowers, and herbs, along with purely ornamental species.<ref name=":0" /> The design strategy of foodscaping has many benefits, including increasing [[food security]], improving the growth of nutritious food and promoting [[Sustainability\|sustainable living]].<ref name=":5" /> Edible landscaping practices may be implemented on both public and private premises.<ref name=":0" /> Foodscaping can be practiced by individuals, community groups, businesses, or educational institutions.<ref name=":1" />[[File:Villandry - château, potager (03).jpg\|thumb\|295x295px\|The Renaissance-style vegetable garden at Château de Villandry, France, displays rows of cabbage, carrots, and leeks among colorful flowers to create a productive and ornamental landscape.\|alt=]] The practice of foodscaping is believed to have gained popularity in the 21st century for several reasons. Some accounts claim that the rise of foodscaping is due to the volatility of global [[food prices]] and the [[Financial crisis of 2007–08\|financial crisis of 2007–2008]].<ref name=":0" /> However, other accounts suggest that the spike in foodscaping popularity is linked to urbanization and increasing concerns for [[environmental sustainability]].<ref name=":6" /> ==Origins== === Overview === [[File:White cabbage garden.jpg\|thumb\|White cabbage garden intermixed with yellow and orange florals\|278x278px]]It is unknown who first coined the expression '''foodscaping'''. The term and ideology of foodscaping have been around since the late 20th century, yet have only come into popular use during the 21st century. Despite the modernity of the term foodscaping, the strategy of integrating edible plants into [[landscaping]] spaces is not a new concept. Similar practices date back to ancient and medieval gardening and agricultural techniques.<ref name=":0">Çelik, Filiz D. "The Importance of Edible Landscape in the Cities". ''Turkish Journal of Agriculture – Food Science and Technology,'' vol. 5, no. 2, 2017, pp.118–24, {{doi\|10.24925/turjaf.v5i2.118-124.957}} Accessed 19 March 2020.</ref> Foodscaping as a contemporary theory presents "a modern take on the way that past generations utilized land".<ref>Arthur, Brie. "Foodscaping: revolution or evolution?". ''Acta Horticulturae'', 1212, 2018, pp. 279–84, admin.ipps.org/uploads/3B-Arthur-Brie-Foodscape.pdf. Accessed 28 March 2020.</ref> Unlike most historical [[Horticulture\|horticultural practices]], foodscaping explicitly supports the idea that edible landscapes can be just as aesthetically pleasing as purely decorative landscapes.<ref name=":4" /> Foodscaping advocates attempt to subvert the conventional perception of [[Kitchen garden\|vegetable gardens]] as unattractive and instead view [[Crop\|edible crops]] as design features in and of themselves. It is sometimes believed that this ideology emerged from increasingly experimental approaches to gardening and [[landscaping]] in the [[modern era]].<ref name=":0" /> === Historical precedents of foodscaping === {{See also\|History of gardening}}Edible landscaping techniques that were practiced in different historical cultures and periods can be seen as ancestors of foodscaping. In [[Ancient Rome]], [[Roman gardens\|Roman villa gardens]] were often both productive and ornamental, though [[Agriculture\|agricultural production]] was the primary purpose of earlier villa gardens. [[Archaeology\|Archaeological]] research suggests that these [[Roman gardens]] took on various forms such as large [[vineyard]] landscapes or small [[Kitchen garden\|herb gardens]]. Kitchen gardens, vineyards, and [[orchard]]s played an important role in the lives of ancient Romans, whose diets were largely based on [[fruit]]s and vegetables.<ref name=":15">Jashemski, Wilhelmina F., et al., editors. ''Gardens of the Roman Empire''. Cambridge University Press, 2017, doi: doi.org/10.1017/9781139033022. Accessed 18 March 2020.</ref> In [[Mesoamerica]]n culture, elaborate gardens and horticultural gardens were a pleasure of [[Aztecs\|Aztec]] elites. Flowering, fragrant and medicinal plants were believed to be "perquisites of the lords". According to historical letters written by Aztec nobles, impressive gardens often included bright flower beds, [[fruit tree]]s, herbs, and sweet-smelling [[flower]]s. Groves, orchards, and [[water garden]]s were sometimes incorporated into the designs of the more elaborate gardens.<ref name=":17">Evans, Susan Toby. "Aztec Royal Pleasure Parks: Conspicuous Consumption and Elite Status Rivalry.” ''Studies in the History of Gardens & Designed Landscapes'', vol. 20, no. 3, Taylor & Francis Group, Sept. 2000, pp. 206–28, {{doi\|10.1080/14601176.2000.10435621}} Accessed 1 June 2020.</ref> Another ancient precedent to foodscaping can be found in [[Mesopotamia]]. [[Babylonia]]ns and [[Assyrian people\|Assyrians]] created gardens throughout cities and in palace courtyards that were a representation of Paradise. These featured fragrant trees and edible fruits. Archaeological evidence suggests that, in roughly 1000 BCE, Assyrian Kings developed a naturalistic landscape style in which streams of water ran through gardens that grew plants such as junipers, almonds, dates, rosewood, quince, fir pomegranate, and oak.<ref name=":18">Dalley, Stephanie. "Ancient Mesopotamian Gardens and the Identification of the Hanging Gardens of Babylon Resolved." ''Garden History'', vol. 21, no. 1, Garden History Society, July 1993, pp. 1–13, {{doi\|10.2307/1587050}} Accessed 1 June 2020.</ref> During the [[Renaissance]] era, villa and chateau gardens in Europe often yielded fruit and vegetables to sell locally. The profits were used to support the maintenance costs of the villa or chateau. Some of the common kinds of plants integrated into the elaborate [[Italian Renaissance garden\|Renaissance garden]] designs included [[Ficus\|figs]], [[Pear\|pears]], [[Apple\|apples]], [[Strawberry\|strawberries]], [[cabbage]], [[leek]]s, [[onion]]s, and [[pea]]s.<ref name=":0" /> It is believed that English [[cottage garden]]s were originally created by village workers during Elizabethan times as a personal source of vegetables. [[Flower]]s were also planted within these gardens for ornamental purposes.<ref name=":16">Scott-James, Anne. ''The Cottage Garden''. Allen Lane, 1981.</ref> === Recent trends === ==== Urban growth ==== [[File:Urbanization over the past 500 years (Historical sources and UN (1500 to 2016)), OWID.svg\|thumb\|300x300px\|Urban population growth over the past 500 years]] As a result of rapid urbanization seen in recent decades, methods of [[Food industry\|food production]] have undergone significant change.<ref name=":1">Karaca, Elif. "Edible Landscapes as a Solution to Food Security Problem". ''Theory and Practice in Social Sciences'', edited by Viliyan Krystev, et al., St. Kliment Ohridski University Press, 2019, pp. 227–36.</ref> According to [[United Nations\|the United Nations]], the Earth's [[Urban area\|urban population]] has "grown rapidly from 746 million in 1950 to 3.9 billion in 2014".<ref>"World's population increasingly urban with more than half living in urban areas". ''United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs'', 10 July 2014, www.un.org/en/development/desa/news/population/world-urbanization-prospects-2014.html. Accessed 13 April 2020.</ref> These accelerated trends in urbanization and population density during the late 20th and 21st century have placed stress on the availability of agricultural land and contributed to growing [[Food security\|food insecurity]].<ref name=":1" /> As a result, there has been an increased desire to re-introduce food growth into [[Urban area\|urban environments]].<ref name=":0" /> The ongoing rise in the [[World population\|human population]], as well as international goals to reduce hunger and [[malnutrition]], have further escalated the demand for food nutrients.<ref>Myers, Melvin L. "Agriculture and Natural Resources Based Industries". ''Encyclopaedia of Occupational Health and Safety,'' edited by Jeanne M. Stellman, vol. 3, International Labour Office, 1988.</ref> It is believed that these factors have increased the number of people adopting foodscaping strategies.<ref name=":0" /> == Sustainability == === Food security === Foodscaping is widely accepted as a way of increasing [[food security]], availability, and accessibility.<ref>Stefani, Monique C., et al. (2018). "Toward the Creation of Urban Foodscapes: Case Studies of Successful Urban Agriculture Projects for Income Generation, Food Security, and Social Cohesion". ''Urban Horticulture:'' ''Sustainability for the Future'', edited by Dilip Nandwani, Springer, 2018, p. 91.</ref> The instability of supermarket food prices can largely affect the availability of food. As "self-sufficient food systems", edible landscapes are able to help decrease a household's dependence on imported food. Foodscaping provides these households with access to a sustainable food source, even when faced with unpredictable circumstances such as the inability to procure food from commercial stores or periods of low financial income.<ref name=":1" /> Depending on the size and scale of the premise, there can be significant financial costs involved in the initial design and creation of edible landscaping.<ref name=":7">Conway, Tenley M. "Home-based Edible Gardening: Urban Residents' Motivations and Barriers". ''Cities and the Environment'', vol. 9, no. 1, 2016, article 3, pp. 1–21. ''Digital Commons'', digitalcommons.lmu.edu/cate/vol9/iss1/3/. Accessed 4 April 2020.</ref> However, it is still generally accepted that foodscaping can help to lower food costs once the products of the edible plants have been [[harvest]]ed.<ref name=":4" /> In increasing the quantity of locally grown and consumed produce, foodscaping also promotes local [[Sustainable food system\|food sustainability]].<ref name=":5">Arthur, Brie. ''The Foodscape Revolution: Finding a Better Way to Make Space for Food and Beauty in Your Garden.'' Pennsylvania, St. Lynn’s Press, 2017.</ref> It is also believed that foodscaping can help to address the demand for food within the context of [[list of global issues\|global issues]] such as [[overpopulation]], an [[Global warming\|unpredictable climate]] and [[Resource depletion\|waning energy resources]].<ref name=":8">Tovey, Nina. "Grow food not lawns with the fertile world of foodscaping". ''Endeavour College of Natural Health'', 10 November 2014, www.endeavour.edu.au/about-us/blog/grow-food-not-lawns-with-the-fertile-world-of-foodscaping/. Accessed 16 April 2020.</ref> === Energy and waste management === Large-scale agricultural premises typically require large amounts of energy, such as the use of [[Diesel fuel\|diesel]], [[propane]], and electricity to carry out farming operations.<ref>Hicks, Susan. "Energy for growing and harvesting crops is a large component of farm operating costs". ''U.S. Energy Information Administration'', 17 October 2014, www.eia.gov/todayinenergy/detail.php?id=18431. Accessed 20 April 2020.</ref> The practice of edible landscaping often uses less energy and produces less [[waste]] than traditional methods of food production. This is because the food products cultivated from edible landscaping usually involve little [[Food processing\|processing]], [[Food packaging\|packaging]] or [[refrigeration]].<ref name=":1" /> Foodscaping can also help reduce [[food miles]] by decreasing the need for long-distance transportation of food.<ref name=":5" /> "A grocery store has on average 1,500 miles per product", says horticulturalists and foodscaping advocate Brie Arthur. These ship and truck [[Greenhouse gas\|emissions]] leave a harmful [[carbon footprint]] which could be reduced through the practice of growing edible plants at home instead of buying fresh produce.<ref name=":11" /> Foodscaping can further allow participants to help reduce the use of fossil fuel-based [[pesticide]]s and [[fertilizer]]s which negatively impact the environment.<ref name=":1" /> === Health and nutrition === A common motivation behind foodscaping is the desire to grow, cook and consume foods of high [[Nutrition\|nutritious]] content.<ref name=":13">Eastman, Janet. "Change out plants for ones you can eat: 'Foodscaping' edible landscape". ''The Oregonian/Oregon Live'', 31 July 2015, www.oregonlive.com/hg/2015/07/edible_landscape_charlie_nardo.html. Accessed 16 Apr.</ref> In a 2014 research survey conducted by the Australian Institute, 71% of surveyed foodscaping households in Australia were incorporating edibles into their gardens for the primary purpose of having access to fresh, healthier produce.<ref>Wise, Poppy. "Grow Your Own: The potential value and impacts of residential and community food gardening". ''The Australian Institute'', 31 March 2014, www.tai.org.au/content/grow-your-own. Accessed 13 April 2020.</ref> It is generally accepted that homegrown fruits and vegetables are fresher and more nutritious than supermarket produce, which is sometimes sold multiple days or even weeks after harvesting.<ref name=":2">Spellman, Frank R., & Joan Price-Bayer. ''Regulating Food Additives: The Good, the Bad, and the Ugly''. Rowman & Littlefield, 2019.</ref> In recent years, there has been increasing concern expressed towards the health effects of the [[Food additive\|chemical additives]] and preservatives in commercially grown fruit and vegetables.<ref name=":2" /> Foodscaping has been considered a way to reduce exposure to chemically modified produce.<ref>Dolce, Anne. "What is Foodscaping?" ''The Daily Meal'', 5 June 2013, www.thedailymeal.com/foodscaping-fancy-word-gardening-or-important-initiative. Accessed 13 April 2020.</ref> Edible landscaping allows participants to increase fresh food production in urban areas. In these areas, the most accessible kinds of food are typically processed kinds, which can lead to greater dietary intakes of sugar, [[sodium]] and fat.<ref name=":1" /> Many academic studies have inferred strong links between [[Urban agriculture\|urban gardening]] and healthy lifestyle choices. The gardening practices involved in foodscaping are believed to increase participants' fruit and vegetable consumption and the value of preparing nutritious meals.<ref name=":3">Garcia, Mariana T., et al. "The impact of urban gardens on adequate and healthy food: a systematic review". ''Public Health Nutrition'', vol. 21, no. 2, Feb. 2018, pp. 416–25, {{doi\|10.1017/S1368980017002944}} Accessed 16 April 2020.</ref> Research has also demonstrated that the creation of green spaces (created via methods such as foodscaping) can lead to an increase in individual's overall mental health in addition to physiological health benefits. This is achieved through its positive impact on socioeconomic factors such as community attachment, reduced crime, and socialization.<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1=Hall \|first1=Charles R. \|last2=Knuth \|first2=Melinda J. \|date=2019-12-01 \|title=An Update of the Literature Supporting the Well-Being Benefits of Plants: Part 3 - Social Benefits \|journal=Journal of Environmental Horticulture \|volume=37 \|issue=4 \|pages=136–142 \|doi=10.24266/0738-2898-37.4.136 \|issn=0738-2898\|doi-access=free }}</ref> == Maintenance == === Input === Depending on the scale of the edible landscape, foodscaping may require extra time and manual labour to maintain than a regular garden or [[landscape]].<ref name=":0" /> This is as the aim of foodscaping is to yield edible returns whilst also remaining aesthetically pleasing,<ref name=":4" /> which may involve added watering, [[Fertilizer\|fertilization]], [[pest control]] and [[pruning]].<ref name=":0" /> A lack of time and unsuitable conditions such as [[climate]] and insufficient shade can be significant deterrents for people wishing to create edible landscapes.<ref name=":7" /> However, maintenance requirements can be reduced by choosing [[Flora\|plant species]] that are suited to the geographic location, climate and conditions of the area to be foodscaped.<ref name=":4" /> === Harvesting === During certain times of the year, regularly monitoring the [[Ripening\|ripeness]] of food production is a requirement of successful foodscaping.<ref name=":0" /> If fruits are not harvested at the correct time, they may rot and become visually unappealing within an edible landscape. This may also attract undesired pests or [[vermin]].<ref name=":4" /> == Plants == [[File:Allium schoenoprasum in NH 01.jpg\|thumb\|Flowering chives make a colourful addition to an edible landscape.]] [[File:Row of Swiss Chard at Phipps Conservatory.jpeg\|thumb\|A row of Swiss chard at [[Phipps Conservatory and Botanical Gardens\|Phipps Conservatory]], Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. Swiss chard is often used in foodscaping for its vibrant colours.]] Plants in foodscaping designs are typically chosen for their aesthetic and edible appeal.<ref name=":13" /> There are many vegetables which can add colour to foodscaping spaces. [[Chard\|Swiss chard]], [[cabbage]] and lettuce species come in many colourful varieties, making them a popular choice for foodscaping.<ref name=":5" /> Edible flowers, such as [[Dianthus caryophyllus\|carnations]], [[Tagetes erecta\|marigolds]], [[Centaurea cyanus\|cornflowers]] and [[Pansy\|pansies]] can also be used to add decoration and brightness to an edible landscape.<ref>{{Cite web \|date=2019-01-12 \|title=Foodscaping: A "New" Way To Create A Garden \|url=http://gardenculturemagazine.com/foodscaping-a-new-way-to-create-a-garden/ \|access-date=2024-03-14 \|website=Garden Culture Magazine \|language=en-CA}}</ref> Garden writer Charlie Nardozzi suggests that lemon, apple, [[plum]] and [[cherry]] trees can serve as edible alternatives for ornamental trees. He also proposes that [[blueberry]], [[Sambucus\|elderberry]] and [[gooseberry]] plants can substitute popular decorative shrubs such as [[rose]]s, [[hydrangea]]s and [[Hedge\|privet hedges]]. [[Fragaria vesca\|Alpine strawberries]] and [[chives]] have also been suggested as suitable replacements for non-edible flowering plants.<ref name=":02">Nardozzi, Charlie. ''Foodscaping: Practical and Innovative Ways to Create an Edible Landscape.'' Massachusetts, Cool Springs Press, 2015.</ref> Edible landscapes generally consist of a combination of [[Annual plant\|annual]] and [[Perennial plant\|perennial]] plants.<ref name=":5" /> When planning an edible landscape, it is important to be aware that certain plants require particular environmental conditions.<ref name=":4" /> One should also consider the seasonality of the edible plants being used, meaning the time of the year during which a certain species will grow best. [[Crop\|Cool season crops]] require lower temperatures for growth and [[Germination\|seed germination]], whilst [[Crop\|warm season crops]] are plants that thrive in higher [[soil]] and [[Temperature\|air temperatures]].<ref>{{Cite web \|date=2015-03-20 \|title=“Cool” vegetables for you to grow this spring \|url=https://www.canr.msu.edu/news/cool_vegetables_for_you_to_grow_this_spring \|access-date=2024-03-14 \|website=MSU Extension \|language=en-us}}</ref> In hot climates, the ideal plants for foodscaping are those that require little water, such as [[bean]]s, [[spinach]] and [[broccoli]]. Whilst certain fruit trees, [[Berry\|berries]] and [[rhubarb]] are suitable for cooler climates, [[List of root vegetables\|root vegetables]], [[cabbage]]s and [[pea]]s are examples of plants that cope well in extremely cold conditions.<ref name=":19">{{Cite web \|title=5 reasons to try foodscaping your lawn \|url=https://www.saveonenergy.com/resources/try-foodscaping-your-lawn/ \|access-date=2024-03-14 \|website=SaveOnEnergy.com \|language=en}}</ref> {\| class="wikitable" \|+Examples of plants used in foodscaping<ref>{{Cite web \|last=Rousseau \|first=Nicolas \|date=2016-10-17 \|title=Grouping Vegetables According to Plant Families {{!}} Louis Bonduelle... \|url=https://www.fondation-louisbonduelle.org/en/my-vegetable-garden/grouping-vegetables-according-to-plant-families/ \|access-date=2024-03-14 \|website=Fondation Louis Bonduelle \|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web \|title=Plants Portal {{!}} Britannica \|url=https://www.britannica.com/browse/Plants \|access-date=2024-03-14 \|website=www.britannica.com \|language=en}} </ref> !Plant Family !Examples \|- \|[[Amaranthaceae]] \|[[Chard]] • [[spinach]] • [[quinoa]] • [[beetroot]] • [[glasswort]] \|- \|[[Apiaceae]] \|[[Carrots]] • [[celery]] • [[Coriander\|cilantro/coriander]] • [[cumin]] • [[fennel]] • [[parsley]] • [[parsnip]]s • [[anise]] • [[chervil]] • [[dill]] • [[anise]] • [[parsnip]] • [[caraway]] \|- \|[[Asteraceae]] \|[[Artichoke]]s • [[chamomile]] • [[cardoon]]s • [[tarragon]] • [[lettuce]] • [[endive]] • [[Taraxacum\|dandelions]] • [[chicory]] • [[calendula]] • [[Solidago\|golden rod]] • [[chrysanthemum]] • [[Centaurea cyanus\|cornflower]] • [[echinacea]] • [[elecampane]] • [[Tanacetum parthenium\|feverfew]] • [[Calothamnus rupestris\|mouse ears •]] [[mugwort]] • [[Stevia (genus)\|stevia]] • [[pansy]] • [[bellis perennis]] • [[Cnicus\|blessed thistle]] • [[Baccharis halimifolia\|groundsel]] \|- \|[[Brassicaceae]] \|[[Broccoli]] • [[kale]] • [[cabbage]] • [[cauliflower]] • [[Brussels sprout]]s • [[Mustard plant\|mustard]] • [[Collard (plant)\|collard]] \|- \|[[Ericaceae]] \|[[Blueberry\|Blueberries]] • [[Huckleberry\|huckleberries]] • [[rhododendron]] • [[Azalea]]s \|- \|[[Lamiaceae]] \|[[Salvia officinalis\|Sage]] • [[rosemary]] • [[thyme]] • [[oregano]] • [[basil]] • [[catnip]] • [[Lavandula\|lavender]] • [[marjoram]] • [[Marrubium vulgare\|white horehound]] • [[peppermint]] • [[spearmint]] \|- \|[[Liliaceae]] \|[[Garlic]] • [[asparagus]] • [[chives]] • [[shallot]]s • [[onion]]s • [[leek]]s • [[Tulip]]s • [[fritillaria]] • [[Lilium\|lilies]] \|- \|[[Rosaceae]] \|[[Strawberry\|Strawberries]] • [[Cherry\|cherries]] • [[Raspberry\|raspberries]] • [[Blackberry\|blackberries]] • [[pears]] • [[Apples\|apple]] • [[plum]]s • [[peach]]es • [[apricot]]s • [[quince]]s • [[almond]] \|- \|[[Solanaceae]] \|[[Tomato]]es • [[tomatillo]]s • [[Bell pepper\|capsicum/bell peppers]] • [[Potato\|potatoes]] • [[eggplant]] • [[chili pepper]]s \|} <gallery> File:Beetroot Bettolo Capel Manor Enfield London England.jpg\|alt=Beetroot (beta vulgaris)\|Beetroot (''[[Beta vulgaris]]'') File:Cabbage plant.jpg\|alt=Cabbage (brassica oleracea var. capitata)\|Cabbage ([[Cabbage\|''Brassica oleracea var. capitata'']]) File:Tomatoes on the Vine (Unsplash).jpg\|alt=Tomato vine (solanum lycopersicum)\|Tomato vine ([[Tomato\|''Solanum lycopersicum'']]) File:Capsicum annuum var. Fiesta - MHNT.jpg\|alt=Chili peppers (capsicum annuum)\|Chili peppers (''[[Capsicum annuum]]'') File:Salvia rosmarinus (10-04-2020), vue en gros plan.jpg\|alt=Flowering rosemary (salvia rosmarinus)\|Flowering rosemary ([[Rosemary\|''Salvia rosmarinus'']]) File:Plums.jpg\|alt=Plum (prunus domestica)\|Plum (''[[Prunus domestica]]'') File:Single raspberry on bush.jpg\|alt=Raspberry (rubus idaeus)\|Raspberry (''[[Rubus idaeus]]'') File:Calendula flower orange-yellow.jpg\|alt=Calendula flower (calendula officinalis)\|Calendula flower (''[[Calendula officinalis]]'') File:Tagetes-Marigold-Flower 04.jpg\|alt=Marigold flower (tagetes erecta)\|Marigold flower (''[[Tagetes erecta]]'') File:Chamomile@original size.jpg\|alt=Camomile flower (matricaria chamomilla)\|Camomile flower (''[[Matricaria chamomilla]]'') File:Cornflower.jpg\|Cornflower (''[[Centaurea cyanus]]'') File:Viola tricolor pansy flower close up.jpg\|alt=Pansy flower (viola tricolor var. hortensis)\|Pansy flower ([[Pansy\|''Viola tricolor var. hortensis'']]) </gallery><br /> == Examples of foodscaping == === People === Landscape designer and author [[Rosalind Creasy]] has frequently been named the "pioneer of edible landscapes" in gardening-related media and publications.<ref>Long, Jim. "The Pioneer of Edible Landscapes". ''Mother Earth Gardener'', 2012, www.motherearthgardener.com/profiles/people/edible-landscapes-zmaz12uzfol. Accessed 13 April 2020.</ref> Since the 1970s, she has written over twenty books on the topic of edible landscaping.<ref name=":11" /> One of her most influential works in the field of foodscaping is her book ''The Complete Book of Edible Landscaping'', published in 1982. Brie Arthur is an American professional [[Horticulture\|horticulturalist]] who has been noted as a public advocate for the practice of suburban foodscaping.<ref name=":11">{{Cite web \|last= \|first= \|date=2018-03-10 \|title=Gardening: Foodscapes -- where beauty co-exists with bounty \|url=https://richmond.com/gardening-foodscapes----where-beauty-co-exists-with-bounty/article_d0354510-7fc1-5812-8fb0-60f9285f9b26.html \|access-date=2024-03-14 \|website=Richmond Times-Dispatch \|language=en}}</ref> In order to challenge the idea that ornamental landscapes can't involve edible plants, she has spoken publicly at schools, worked with television programs, and been involved in various horticulture-related associations.<ref>Drotleff, Laura. "Foodscaping Challenges Conventional Ideas About Landscaping". ''Greenhouse Grower'', 9 December 2015, www.greenhousegrower.com/management/foodscaping-challenges-conventional-ideas-about-landscaping/. Accessed 16 April 2020.</ref> Her debut book titled ''The Foodscape Revolution, Finding a Better Way to Make Space for Food and Beauty in Your Garden'' was published in 2017. === Public projects === [[File:SchlossVillandryGarten03.jpg\|thumb\|298x298px\|High angle view of six of the nine square vegetable patches in the chateau of Villandry's Ornamental Kitchen Garden]]The Ornamental Kitchen Garden is an edible landscape on the grounds of the [[Château de Villandry\|château of Villandry]], located in the [[Loire Valley]] region of France. The [[Italian Renaissance garden\|Italian Renaissance-style]] garden is composed of nine square patches, which each feature a geometric design of [[flower]]s and vegetables whose design layouts changes with each bi-annual planting. These patches are lined with neat [[Hedge\|box hedges]] and each display vegetables of different colours such [[red cabbage]], [[beetroot]] and blue [[leek]]. Each year, forty species of vegetables within eight plant families are planted.<ref name=":12">{{Cite web \|date=2022-02-01 \|title=Explore the château and gardens of Villandry \|url=https://www.chateauvillandry.fr/chateau-gardens/?lang=en \|access-date=2024-03-14 \|language=en-US}}</ref> Based in [[Iowa]], Backyard Abundance is a non-profit organization founded in 2006 that aims to educate more people about edible landscaping. They encourage community residents to take part in creating transformative [[landscape]]s that can help to reduce [[human impact on the environment]]. Founded in [[Kansas]], 2006, Edible Estates is a foodscaping initiative that works with local art institutions and community garden groups in different cities around the world to create productive edible landscape designs.<ref name=":14">{{Cite web \|last=Oberst \|first=Lindsay \|date=2018-09-12 \|title=Edible Landscapes: 15 Organizations Around the World That Are Helping Turn Green Spaces and Yards into Places for Healthy, Fresh Food \|url=https://foodrevolution.org/blog/edible-landscaping/ \|access-date=2024-03-14 \|website=Food Revolution Network \|language=en-US}}</ref> Edible Landscapes London is a non-profit organization that creates productive [[forest gardening]] spaces that integrate fruiting trees and herbs. They created the first-ever accredited course which trains people in forest gardening practices. According to Lindsay Oberst in an article on Food Revolution Network, Edible Estates "strives to inspire others to look at underused or misappropriated green spaces in a new light, highlighting new contexts for [[Food industry\|food production]] and connections to the [[natural environment]]".<ref name=":14" /> [[New York University\|NYU's]] Urban Farm Lab is a collaborative [[urban agriculture]] project promoting the integration of edible crops into [[Urban area\|urban environments]]. They have implemented foodscaping techniques in many spots around the university's campus.<ref name=":9">Kirschner, Kylie. "Edible Landscapes in a Concrete Jungle". ''Washington Square News'', 24 Mar 2019, nyunews.com/culture/dining/2019/03/25/nyu-urban-landscaping-efforts/. Accessed 16 March 2020.</ref> [[Eden Project\|The Eden Project]] is a sustainability project in [[Cornwall]], England, which attracts over a million yearly visitors.<ref name=":8" /> The 15-hectare site features large domes and a food garden, where edible produce has been incorporated into the landscaping design.<ref name=":8" /> The Food Forest is a property in [[Adelaide]], Australia, which grows 160 varieties of [[Organic food\|organic]] fruit, nuts, wheat, and vegetables on 15 hectares of land. The owners educate visitors on how ordinary families can grow their own food at home by creating productive foodscapes.<ref name=":8" /> The [[Netherlands]]’ first "roof field" was created on top of a large office building near [[Rotterdam Centraal station\|Rotterdam's central station]] in 2012 by Binder Groenprojecten. The 1000m<sup>2</sup> "roof field" is used to grow vegetables, fruits, and Herbs, and also houses [[Honeybees (food)\|honeybees]].<ref name=":10">Sjauw En Wa, Amar. "Roof fields, Schieblok Rotterdam". ''Urban Green-Blue Grids'', www.urbangreenbluegrids.com/projects/roof-fields-schieblok-rotterdam/. Accessed 5 May 2020.</ref> Wayward is a [[landscaping]], art and architecture firm based in London who combine creative food growing with [[contemporary art]] and architecture installations.<ref name=":14" /> ==See also== {{Portal\|Agriculture\|Food\|Gardening}} {{div col\|colwidth=22em\|content=[[Allotment garden]] [[Aquascaping]] [[Back garden]] [[Climate-friendly gardening]] [[Community garden]] [[Computer-aided garden design]] [[Flower garden]] [[Forest gardening]] [[Garden designer]] [[Garden buildings]] [[Index of gardening articles]] [[Landscape architecture]] [[List of gardening topics]] [[Open Garden]]s [[Naturescaping]] [[Pizza farm]] [[Roof garden]] [[Royal Horticultural Society]] [[Sustainable landscaping]] [[Urban horticulture]] [[Vertical farming]] [[Victory garden]] *[[Xeriscaping]]}} ==References== {{Reflist}}{{Horticulture and gardening}} {{Sustainability}} [[Category:Urban agriculture]] [[Category:Horticulture]] [[Category:Sustainability]] [[Category:Permaculture]] [[Category:Sustainable agriculture]]
Growth imperative	{{Short description\|Economic concept}} [[File:World_GDP_per_capita_1500_to_2003.svg\|thumb\|The role of growth imperatives for the increase in the global [[gross domestic product]] per capita is disputed.]] '''Growth imperative''' is a term in economic theory regarding a possible necessity of [[economic growth]]. On the micro level, it describes mechanisms that force [[firm]]s or consumers (households) to increase [[revenue]]s or consumption to not endanger their income. On the macro level, a political growth imperative exists if economic growth is necessary to avoid economic and social instability or to retain democratic legitimacy, so that other political goals such as [[climate change mitigation]] or a reduction of inequality are subordinated to growth policies.<ref name="richters_contested"/><ref name="ferguson2019"/> Current [[Neoclassical economics\|neoclassical]], [[Keynesian economics\|Keynesian]] and [[endogenous growth theory\|endogenous growth theories]] do not consider a growth imperative<ref name="lange"/> or explicitly deny it, such as [[Robert Solow]].<ref name="solowstoll"/> In neoclassical economics, adherence to economic growth would be a question of maximizing utility, an intertemporal decision between current and future consumption (see [[Keynes–Ramsey rule]]).<ref name="gordon"/> Other sociological and political theories consider several possible causes for pursuing economic growth, for example maximizing [[profit (accounting)\|profit]], social comparison, [[culture]] ([[conformity]]), or political [[Ideology\|ideologies]], but they do not regard them to be compulsive. Possible growth imperatives are discussed in [[Marxian economics\|Marxist theory]], [[Schumpeterian]] theory of [[creative destruction]] and [[ecological economics]], as well as in political debates on [[post-growth]] and [[degrowth]].<ref>{{Cite web \|last=Nelson \|first=Anitra \|date=2024-01-31 \|title=Degrowth as a Concept and Practice : Introduction \|url=https://commonslibrary.org/degrowth-as-a-concept-and-practice-introduction/ \|access-date=2024-02-23 \|website=The Commons Social Change Library \|language=en-AU}}</ref> It is disputed whether growth imperative is a meaningful concept altogether, who would be affected by it, and which mechanism would be responsible.<ref name="richters_contested"/> == Meaning and definitions == At the [[macroeconomic]] or political level, the concept of growth imperatives is used by some authors when there seems to be no acceptable political alternative to [[economic growth]],<ref name="scherhorn"/> because insufficient growth would lead to economic and social instability<ref name="paech"/> up to "severe economic crises".<ref name="flotow"/> The alternative to growth would not be a stable [[Steady-state economy\|stationary economy]], but uncontrolled shrinkage.<ref name="binswanger_wachstumsspirale"/><ref name="binswoyn"/> The consequences of a renunciation of growth would be inacceptable so that growth appears politically without alternative.<ref name="richters_contested"/> While some search for purely "structural theoretical explanations for the commitment to growth",<ref name="ferguson119"/> others argue that this macroeconomic phenomenon must be examined at the micro level in line with [[methodological individualism]] to explain how and why individual actors (firms, consumers) act and how this interacts with collective structures, and correspondingly study the growth of enterprises with [[microeconomics]] and [[business administration]] and the increase of [[consumption (economics)\|consumption]] using [[Consumption (sociology)\|consumption sociology]] or [[consumer choice]] theory.<ref name="richters_contested"/><ref name="deutschmann_wsi"/> The discussion on growth imperatives is part of a standing debate over the primacy of [[structure or agency]] in shaping human behavior. In the social sciences the term social coercion is used when situation-related circumstances<ref name="lane"/> or strong social pressure<ref name="sullivan"/> determine the behaviour.<ref name="richters_contested"/> According to Marxist theory, a coercion for firms to "grow or die" is due to economic competition.<ref name="smith"/><ref name="foster"/> According to these Marxists, capitalism "cannot stand still, but must always be either expanding or contracting".<ref name="ferguson76"/> Similarly, the [[Environmental economics\|environmental economist]] {{ill\|Hans Christoph Binswanger\|de}} speaks of a growth imperative for firms only when they are existentially threatened by steadily declining profits and ultimately bankruptcy; in other cases he uses the weaker term growth driver.<ref name="binswanger_wachstumsspirale"/><ref name="spiral"/><ref name="seidl24"/><ref name="mugier"/><ref name="wenzlaff"/> These definitions can be summarized that a growth imperative exists if exterior conditions make it necessary for agents to increase their economic efforts as to avoid existential consequences.<ref name="richters_contested"/> == Microeconomic theories == === Firms === [[File:Marx_-_Das_Kapital_-_1867_-_DHM_retusche.jpg\|thumb\|''[[Das Kapital]]'' by [[Karl Marx]] contains the first theory of a growth imperative, which is still disputed today.]] The first theory of a growth imperative is attributed<ref name="gordon"/> to [[Karl Marx]]. In [[capitalism]], zero growth is not possible, because of the mechanisms of competition and [[Capital accumulation\|accumulation]].<ref name="radkau"/><ref name="marxde"/><ref name="marxen"/> {{Quote\|[T]he development of capitalist production makes it constantly necessary to keep increasing the amount of the capital laid out in a given industrial undertaking, and competition makes the immanent laws of capitalist production to be felt by each individual capitalist, as external coercive laws. It compels him to keep constantly extending his capital, in order to preserve it, but extend it he cannot, except by means of progressive accumulation.\|author=[[Karl Marx]] \|title=\|source=}} Therefore, a company's growth is considered necessary to ensure the survival of the company ("grow or die"<ref name="smith" /><ref name="foster"/>): "investment is not an option, or a discretionary decision, it is an imperative that constrains every capitalists' actions and governs the overall economy"<ref name="pineault"/> Correspondingly, some authors argue that the compulsion to grow can only be defused by overcoming structures of [[market economy\|market economies]], or by pushing back profit-oriented companies that impropriate the [[surplus value]].<ref name="smith"/><ref name="foster"/><ref name="blauwhof"/><ref name="karathan"/><ref name="annrev"/><ref name="kallissoc"/> Other authors {{Who\|date=January 2021}} criticize this Marxist perspective: a company could be profitable without growth if a positive [[accounting profit]] is distributed as [[dividend]] to the owners. Only if [[net income]] had to be retained, companies would be compelled to grow.<ref name="richters_contested"/><ref name="ferguson2019"/><ref name="lawn"/> If a company shows an [[accounting profit]], it has not yet achieved an [[economic profit]] in the economic sense, because a return on equity and an entrepreneurial salary would have to be paid from it - the profit would not necessarily be available for growth. Therefore, a market economy with profit-oriented companies is compatible with zero growth, as it is in the models of [[Neoclassical economics\|neoclassical theory]] (→ [[zero-profit condition]]).<ref name="richters_contested"/><ref name="lange"/><ref name="richters_marktwirtschaft_49-59"/> [[File:Factory_Automation_Robotics_Palettizing_Bread.jpg\|thumb\|The link between technical progress and resource use is disputed]] On the basis of concepts of [[evolutionary economics]], other authors point out that firms can become dependent on growth as a result of certain economic conditions. [[Joseph Schumpeter]]<ref name="schump"/> had described the [[creative destruction]] in which the existence of firms is endangered if they cannot keep up with the [[innovation]] [[competition (economics)\|competition]]. This is interpreted as a need to invest in new technologies and to expand production<ref name="paech"/><ref name="lawn"/><ref name="richters_marktwirtschaft_S96-116"/> - but which investments would be necessary can only be understood in the light of [[growth theory]]. Within [[Neoclassical economics\|neoclassical]] [[growth accounting]] it is largely undisputed that only [[technological change]] and new combinations of [[factors of production]] make [[sustainable growth]] of firms and per capita income possible.<ref name="lange"/><ref name="hulten"/><ref name="blanchard"/> However, the contribution of single production factors to economic growth has been disputed for decades:<ref name="richters_contested"/><ref name="stern1"/> While [[endogenous growth theory]] concentrates on the role of [[human capital]] (ideas, education, innovations),<ref name="jones"/><ref name="rosen"/> proponents of [[ecological economics\|ecological]] or [[environmental economics]] emphasize the importance of energy consumption as well as [[raw material]]s, which are often [[non-renewable resource]]s (e.g. [[fossil fuel]]s).<ref name="kümmel"/><ref name="kümlind"/><ref name="ayreswarr"/><ref name="ozturk"/> While from the human capital perspective no ecologically damaging growth imperative arises, the resource perspective emphasizes that raw material consumption is lucrative for firms because it allows them to substitute expensive labour with cheaper machines. Accordingly, they would constantly invest in new resource-intensive technologies plus the human capital needed for development, which increases resource consumption and compensates advances in [[efficient energy use\|energy efficiency]] ([[Rebound effect (conservation)\|rebound effects]]).<ref name="richters_contested"/><ref name="grahl"/> There is also disagreement as to whether these dependencies can be overcome at the company level - provided that this is desired by the owners or the management. Proposals include new management practices, changes in product range, supply chains and distribution channels,<ref name="paech"/><ref name="reichel"/> as well as the creation of solidarity enterprises, collective enterprises<ref name="lange"/><ref name="annrev"/> and [[cooperative]]s.<ref name="posse"/><ref name="gebauer"/> Other authors call for [[institution]]al solutions: reforms of [[corporate law]] to overcome the legal constraint of public limited companies to maximise profits,<ref name="binswanger_vorwaerts"/> reforms of [[competition law]] to prevent [[externality\|externalisation]] at the expense of [[Common good (economics)\|common goods]],<ref name="scherhorn129"/> or an institutional limitation of resource consumption and/or increasing their costs through [[ecotax]]es or [[emissions trading]] ([[Cap and Trade]]), so that technical innovations would put a stronger focus on resource productivity instead of labour productivity.<ref name="richters_contested"/><ref name="richters_marktwirtschaft_S96-116"/> === Private households === [[File:Hand_held_phones.JPG\|thumb\|Smart phone and car: voluntary consumption or necessary increases of individual productivity?]] An imperative for private households to increase their [[income]] and [[consumption (economics)\|consumption expenditure]] is rarely discussed.<ref name="siemoneit-offer"/> In [[Neoclassical economics\|neoclassical]] [[consumer choice\|household theory]], households try to [[homo economicus\|maximize their utility]], whereby, in contrast to the [[profit (accounting)\|profit]] maximization of firms, they are not subject to market imperatives.<ref name="richters_contested"/> Therefore, a growth imperative is usually not assumed here, but rather a free decision between current and future consumption.<ref name="gordon"/> This "intertemporal optimization" is represented, for example, by the [[Keynes-Ramsey rule]].<ref name="blanchard89"/> In consumption sociology various theories of [[consumer society]] examine the influence of [[social norm]]s on consumption decisions. Examples are [[conspicuous consumption]], which was addressed as early as 1899 by [[Thorstein Veblen]] in his book ''[[The Theory of the Leisure Class]]'',<ref name="veblen"/> or competition with [[positional good]]s, which was described by [[Fred Hirsch (professor)\|Fred Hirsch]] in 1976 in the book ''Social Limits to Growth''.<ref name="hirsch"/> Some authors claim that comparison with others and the unfair distribution of income and power would lead to a growth imperative for consumers: Consumers would have to work and consume more and more in order to achieve a minimum level of social participation,<ref name="sturn"/> because the economically weak are stigmatised.<ref name="rogall-S131"/> The reasons given for this behaviour are fear and powerlessness, guilt and shame. However, whether these theories can actually justify a compulsion to increase consumption is disputed, as long as it is not a matter of securing one's livelihood (for example because of unemployment).<ref name="richters_contested"/><ref name="paech_öwi"/> Another line of argument views certain consumption decisions rather as [[investment]]s for future growth,<ref name="perrotta" /> but sometimes to increase one's own productivity.<ref name="siemoneit-offer"/> Technical products such as vehicles, kitchen appliances or smartphones were used to save time and retain opportunities to earn an income. Over time, these goods would become a necessity, therefore a compulsion to increase one's consumption expenditure could be derived in order to not be left behind technically and economically.<ref name="richters_contested"/> == Macroeconomic theories == === Political resp. macroeconomic growth imperative === [[File:Sustainable Development Goal 08DecentWork.svg\|thumb\|Economic growth is part of goal 8 of the [[Sustainable Development Goals]]]] Economic growth has been formulated as an important economic policy goal for decades.<ref name="schmelzerecol"/><ref name="schmelzer_hegemony"/> Examples include the "growth duty" in British legislation,<ref name="growthduty"/> but also the Canadian [[Jobs and Growth Act]], the [[African Growth and Opportunity Act]] or the [[European Union\|European]] [[Stability and Growth Pact]] of 1997. This has been criticised as politically adhering to a dogma or ideology by some critics of growth.<ref name="stratmann"/><ref name="rivera"/><ref name="barry"/> The theory of a political growth imperative, on the other hand, argues that economic growth would be necessary to avoid economic or social instability and to retain democratic legitimacy, or to guarantee [[national security]] and international competition.<ref name="richters_contested"/><ref name="ferguson2019"/> Some authors stress that public finances<ref name="seidlstaat"/> or [[social insurance]] systems such as [[unemployment insurance]] or [[pension]]s are dependent on growth.<ref name="paech_öwi"/><ref name="höpflinger"/> [[Raghuram Rajan]] sees the cause primarily in political promises that are inherent to social systems.<ref name="rajan"/> Unemployment, which would occur in the event of [[technical progress]] and simultaneous lack of [[economic growth]], is identified as a central problem ([[Okun's law]]).<ref name="richters_contested"/><ref name="antal"/><ref name="antal2"/><ref name="jacksongreen"/> Thus, growth above the employment threshold is repeatedly called for in political debates, in order to reduce unemployment.<ref name="rivera"/> Growth enhancing state investment, but also numerous incentives for private investment would not be simply politician's free will but indispensable to prevent social instability through mass unemployment.<ref name="richters_contested"/> This situation would be aggravated by international [[competition (economics)\|competition]] and [[free trade]].<ref name="schmelzer_hegemony"/> As a way out, a redirection of technological development with the help of resource taxes is discussed ([[ecotax]], [[emissions trading]]),<ref name="binswanger_vorwaerts"/><ref name="richters_wege"/> but also a general reduction of [[working time]] to reduce unemployment.<ref name="D'Alisa" /><ref name="videira" /><ref name="ferguson" /> At the same time, a more equal distribution of income is demanded, either by fighting the privatisation of [[economic rent]]s such as [[land rent]] or [[resource rent]] (→ [[rentier state]]),<ref name="richters_contested" /><ref name="richters_marktwirtschaft_S96-153" /><ref name="stratford" /> or by calling for an unconditional [[basic income]].<ref name="ferguson" /> === Monetary system and the role of positive interest rates === For a long time,<ref name="onken"/> several authors especially from German-speaking countries<ref name="strunz1"/> have been locating a macroeconomic growth imperative in the monetary system, especially due to the combination of [[credit money]] and [[compound interest]]. This is considered to lead inevitably and system-immanently to an [[exponential growth]] of [[debt]] and interest-bearing deposits.<ref name="douthwaite"/><ref name="lietaer"/><ref name="walter"/> Some proponents of post-growth would derive a general criticism of positive interest rates from that and support ideas such as [[Demurrage (currency)\|demurrage]] on currency, a concept from [[Freiwirtschaft]],<ref name="onken"/><ref name="suhr"/><ref name="bender"/><ref name="creutz"/><ref name="kennedy"/> or [[full-reserve banking]].<ref name="farley"/> A second line of argument goes back to {{ill\|Hans Christoph Binswanger\|de}}, his doctoral student Guido Beltrani,<ref name="beltrani"/> and his son {{ill\|Mathias Binswanger\|de}}.<ref name="JPKE2009"/><ref name="binschapter"/> They argue<ref name="consistencyanalysis"/> that "a portion of money is constantly removed from circulation" by banks<ref name="spiral131"/> which is mainly responsible for the growth imperative.<ref name="wachstumsspirale131"/><ref name="binsJPKE"/> In his book ''The Growth Spiral'' (2013), Hans Christoph Binswanger estimated a necessary minimum growth rate to be 1.8 %, while Mathias Binswanger (2009)<ref name="binsJPKE" /> derived a minimum growth rate of 0.45 %, such that enterprises can still generate profits in the aggregate. In his book ''Der Wachstumszwang'' (2019), this minimum rate is lowered to zero as to enable firms to accumulate profits.<ref name="binswazwa275"/><ref name="rezbins"/> [[File:Njp506747f2 hr SFC model stability analysis.png\|thumb\|Numerical stability analysis of [[Stock-Flow consistent model]]s. For certain [[parameter]] values (here: interest rate and consumption out of wealth), zero growth is unstable, but stable for others.<ref name="berg"/>]] Other authors criticise the results of Beltrani as well as H. C. and M. Binswanger on the basis that they are based on inconsistent economic models and therefore not valid (→ [[Stock-Flow consistent model]]).<ref name="gilanyi"/><ref name="johnson"/> Those models show how repaid interest is not simply 'removed' from circulation, but flows back into the economy where it can be earned and repeated used to service debts. Models such as those created by Jackson & Victor show that, if no money is accumulated, then all debt can be serviced, and hence that no growth imperative arises from the creation of money as debt, 'per se'. <ref name="jacksondoes"/> This leads some theorists to conclude that the monetary growth imperative only applies for certain [[parameter]]s in the [[consumption function]].<ref name="annrev"/><ref name="consistencyanalysis"/><ref name="lavoie"/> They argue that ultimately it is not the interest rate but the savings rate that is decisive for the stability of a [[steady-state economy\|stationary economy]]. If any interest income is consumed in full by the lender, i.e., bank or creditor of the bank, it is available again for repayment. Whether a stationary state can be reached, therefore, depends on the saving decisions of those who earn income or own assets. For zero growth it would only be necessary that savings of some are balanced by consumption out of wealth by others<ref name="wenzlaff"/><ref name="consistencyanalysis"/><ref name="berg"/> (→ [[life-cycle hypothesis]]). The assumption that banks must retain profits even in a non-growing economy would be unfounded.<ref name="consistencyanalysis"/> Accordingly, there would be no grow imperative "inherent" to the monetary system, but zero growth would be impossible as long as actors decide to continuously accumulate financial assets.<ref name="strunz"/> In [[neoclassical economics\|neoclassical theory]] and all varieties that presuppose the [[neutrality of money]] ([[classical dichotomy]]), the [[money market]] has no long-term effects on [[Real versus nominal value (economics)\|real]] economic variables such as [[economic growth]]. A monetary growth imperative is already excluded here by assumption.<ref name="strunz1"/><ref name="binswazwa"/><ref name="strunz"/> However, [[Post-Keynesian economics\|post-Keynesian]] authors who doubt the neutrality of money reject a monetary growth imperative as well.<ref name="berg"/><ref name="lavoie"/><ref name="fontana"/><ref name="carnevali"/> == Political demands to overcome growth imperatives == In September 2018, more than 200 [[scientist]]s asked the [[European Union]] to turn away from any growth imperative<ref name="wandelat"/> – a similar demand was raised by the participants of the {{ill\|International Conference on Degrowth\|de\|Internationale Degrowth-Konferenz}}<ref name="dgrosalux"/><ref name="dgprog"/> and the post-growth working group of [[Association for the Taxation of Financial Transactions and for Citizens' Action\|attac Germany]].<ref name="attac"/> But even within the [[post-growth]] or [[degrowth]] [[social movement\|movement]], the existence of growth imperatives is disputed.<ref name="richters_contested"/><ref name="annrev"/> Among German parties, the demand was included in the political programmes of the [[Ecological Democratic Party]]<ref name="oedp"/> and [[Alliance 90/The Greens]].<ref name="gruene" /> Green politicians such as [[Reinhard Loske]]<ref name="loske" /> or [[Jürgen Trittin]]<ref name="schulte" /> call for overcoming growth imperatives. In a [[dissenting opinion]] on the final report of the {{ill\|Enquete Commission on Growth, Prosperity and Quality of Life\|de\|Enquete-Kommission Wachstum, Wohlstand, Lebensqualität}} of the German parliament ([[Bundestag]]), the experts Michael Müller, {{ill\|Uwe Schneidewind\|de}}, [[Ulrich Brand]], {{ill\|Norbert Reuter\|de}} and {{ill\|Martin Jänicke\|de}}, as well as the members of the [[Bundestag]] {{ill\|Hermann E. Ott\|de}} and the parliamentary group [[The Left (Germany)\|Die Linke]], argued that "the question must be answered as to whether progress that is innovative and integrative, socially just and ecologically sustainable is possible without any growth imperative".<ref name="enquete"/> == Literature == * {{Cite book\|first1=Hans Christoph\|last1=Binswanger\|title=The Growth Spiral: Money, Energy, and Imagination in the Dynamics of the Market Process\|date=2013\|publisher=Springer \|isbn=978-3-642-31881-8\|doi=10.1007/978-3-642-31881-8}} * {{Cite book\|first1=Mathias\|last1=Binswanger\|title=Der Wachstumszwang: Warum die Volkswirtschaft immer weiterwachsen muss, selbst wenn wir genug haben\|date=2019\|publisher=Wiley-CVH\|isbn=978-3-527-50975-1}} * {{Cite book\|first1=Peter \|last1=Ferguson\|title=Post-growth Politics\|isbn=978-3-319-78797-8\|publisher=Springer\|date=2019\|doi=10.1007/978-3-319-78799-2\|chapter=The Growth Imperative\|pages=75–100\|location=Cham}} * {{Cite book\|first1=Oliver\|last1=Richters\|first2=Andreas\|last2=Siemoneit\|url=https://www.marktwirtschaft-reparieren.de\|title=Marktwirtschaft reparieren: Entwurf einer freiheitlichen, gerechten und nachhaltigen Utopie\|date=2019\|chapter=Technologie, Ressourcenverbrauch und Wachstumszwang\|publisher=oekom\|location=München\|isbn=978-3-96238-099-1\|hdl=10419/213814}} * {{Cite journal\|first1=Oliver\|last1=Richters\|first2=Andreas\|last2=Siemoneit\|title=Growth imperatives: Substantiating a contested concept\|date=2019\|volume=51\|pages=126–137\|doi=10.1016/j.strueco.2019.07.012\|journal=[[Structural Change and Economic Dynamics]]\|s2cid=203243535 }} Preprint: Oldenburg Discussion Papers in Economics V-414-18, November 2018, {{Hdl\|10419/184870}}. This article was translated from [[:de:Wachstumszwang\|Wachstumszwang]] in the [[German Wikipedia]] which is based on: * {{Cite book\|first1=Oliver\|last1=Richters\|first2=Andreas\|last2=Siemoneit\|url=https://zoe-institut.de/wp-content/uploads/2019/02/zoe-dp-richters-siemoneit-wachstumszwang.pdf\|title=Wachstumszwang – eine Übersicht\|date=February 2019\|publisher=ZOE. Institut für zukunftsfähige Ökonomien\|issue=3}} {{Hdl\|10419/201503}}. [[Creative Commons\|CC-BY-SA]] 3.0. == References == {{Reflist\|refs= <ref name="annrev">{{cite journal\|first1=Giorgos \|last1= Kallis \|author-link1=Giorgos Kallis\|first2=Vasilis \|last2= Kostakis \|first3=Steffen \|last3= Lange \|first4= Barbara \|last4= Muraca \|first5= Susan \|last5= Paulson \|first6= Matthias \|last6= Schmelzer \|journal= [[Annual Review of Environment and Resources]] \|title=Research On Degrowth\|date=2018\|volume=43\|pages=291–316\|doi=10.1146/annurev-environ-102017-025941\|issue=1\|doi-access=free }}</ref> <ref name="D'Alisa">{{Cite book\|first1=Giacomo\|last1=D'Alisa\|first2=Federico\|last2=Demaria\|first3=Giorgios\|last3=Kallis\|author-link3=Giorgos Kallis\|title=Degrowth: A Vocabulary for a New Era\|date=2015\|publisher=Routledge\|isbn=978-1-1380-0077-3}}</ref> <ref name="antal">{{Cite journal\|first1=Miklós\|last1=Antal\|journal=[[Ecological Economics (journal)\|Ecological Economics]]\|title=Green goals and full employment: Are they compatible?\|date=2014\|volume=107\|pages=276–286\|doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2014.08.014}}</ref> <ref name="antal2">{{Cite journal\|first1=Miklós\|last1=Antal\|first2=Jeroen C.J.M.\|last2=van den Bergh\|journal=[[Environmental Innovation and Societal Transitions]]\|title=Macroeconomics, financial crisis and the environment: Strategies for a sustainability transition\|date=2013\|volume=6\|pages=47–66\|doi=10.1016/j.eist.2013.01.002\|hdl=10419/129023\|hdl-access=free}}</ref> <ref name="attac">[https://www.attac.de/wk/wachstumskritik/ ''Jenseits des Wachstumszwangs – Globale Armut und Naturzerstörung solidarisch überwinden''], attac Germany. Accessed February 6, 2019.</ref> <ref name="ayreswarr">{{Cite book\|first1=Robert U.\|last1=Ayres\|author-link1=Robert Ayres (scientist)\|first2=Benjamin\|last2=Warr\|title=The economic growth engine: how energy and work drive material prosperity\|date=2009\|publisher=Edward Elgar\|isbn=978-1-84844-595-6}}</ref> <ref name="barry">{{cite journal\|first1=John\|last1=Barry\|title=A Genealogy of Economic Growth as Ideology and Cold War Core State Imperative\|date=2018\|journal=New Political Economy\|doi=10.1080/13563467.2018.1526268\|volume=25\|issue=1\|pages=18–29\|s2cid=159024755\|url=https://pure.qub.ac.uk/en/publications/a-genealogy-of-economic-growth-as-ideology-and-cold-war-core-state-imperative(5e92b969-d9d2-4f83-80ca-9279fed59c68).html}}</ref> <ref name="beltrani">{{Cite book\|first1=Guido\|last1=Beltrani\|title=Monetäre Aspekte des Wirtschaftswachstums\|date=1999\|publisher=Universität St. Gallen\|oclc=722449216}}</ref> <ref name="bender">{{Cite book\|first1=Harald\|last1=Bender\|first2=Norbert\|last2=Bernholt\|first3=Klaus\|last3=Simon\|title=Das dienende Geld: die Befreiung der Wirtschaft vom Wachstumszwang\|date=2014\|publisher=oekom\|isbn=978-3-86581-471-5}}</ref> <ref name="berg">{{cite journal\|first1=Matthew\|last1=Berg\|first2=Brian\|last2=Hartley\|first3=Oliver\|last3=Richters\|title=A Stock-Flow Consistent Input-Output Model with Applications to Energy Price Shocks, Interest Rates, and Heat Emissions\|journal=[[New Journal of Physics]]\|volume=17\|issue=1\|date=2015\|page=015011\|doi=10.1088/1367-2630/17/1/015011\|bibcode=2015NJPh...17a5011B \|doi-access=free\|hdl=10419/224923\|hdl-access=free}}</ref> <ref name="binschapter">{{Cite book\|chapter=Warum müssen moderne Geldwirtschaften wachsen?\|date=2010\|editor-first1=Hans Peter\|editor-last1=Aubauer\|editor-first2=Hermann\|editor-last2=Knoflacher\|editor-first3=Klaus\|editor-last3=Woltron\|title=Kapitalismus gezähmt? Sozialer Wohlstand innerhalb der Naturgrenzen\|publisher=Peter Lang\|isbn=978-3-631-58919-9\|pages=203–231\|first1=Mathias\|last1=Binswanger\|first2=Guido \|last2=Beltrani\|first3=Robert\|last3=Kölbl}}</ref> <ref name="binsJPKE">{{Cite journal\|first1=Mathias\|last1=Binswanger\|title=Is there a growth imperative in capitalist economies? a circular flow perspective\|date=2009\|volume=31\|pages=707–727\|journal=[[Journal of Post Keynesian Economics]]\|doi=10.2753/PKE0160-3477310410\|issue=4\|s2cid=54702411}}</ref> <ref name="binswanger_vorwaerts">{{Cite book\|first1=Hans Christoph\|last1=Binswanger\|title=Vorwärts zur Mäßigung. Perspektiven einer nachhaltigen Wirtschaft\|date=2009\|publisher=Murmann\|isbn=978-3-86774-072-2}}</ref> <ref name="binswanger_wachstumsspirale">{{Cite book\|first1=Hans Christoph\|last1=Binswanger\|author-link1=Hans Christoph Binswanger\|title=Die Wachstumsspirale: Geld, Energie und Imagination in der Dynamik des Marktprozesses\|date=2006\|publisher=Metropolis\|location=Marburg\|isbn=978-3-89518-554-0}}</ref> <ref name="binswazwa">{{Cite book\|first1=Mathias \|last1=Binswanger \|author-link1=Mathias Binswanger\|title=Der Wachstumszwang: Warum die Volkswirtschaft immer weiterwachsen muss, selbst wenn wir genug haben\|date=2019\|publisher=Wiley-CVH\|isbn=978-3-527-50975-1}}</ref> <ref name="binswazwa275">{{Cite book\|first1=Mathias\|last1=Binswanger\|title=Der Wachstumszwang: Warum die Volkswirtschaft immer weiterwachsen muss, selbst wenn wir genug haben\|date=2019\|publisher=Wiley-CVH\|isbn=978-3-527-50975-1\|pages=275}}</ref> <ref name="binswoyn">{{Cite book\|first1=Hans Christoph\|last1=Binswanger\|author-link1=Hans Christoph Binswanger\|editor-last=Woynowski\|editor-first=Boris\|hdl=10419/69631\|chapter=Wachstumszwang und Wachstumsdrang in der modernen Wirtschaft\|title=Wirtschaft ohne Wachstum?! Notwendigkeit und Ansätze einer Wachstumswende\|journal=Working Paper\|date=2012\|pages=46–53\|issn=1431-8261\|display-editors=etal}}</ref> <ref name="blanchard">{{Cite book\|first1=Olivier J.\|last1=Blanchard\|author-link1=Olivier Blanchard\|title=Macroeconomics\|publisher=Pearson\|at=chapter 12}}</ref> <ref name="blanchard89">{{Cite book\|first1=Olivier J.\|last1=Blanchard \|first2=Stanley \|last2=Fischer\| title=Lectures on Macroeconomics\|date=1989\|publisher=MIT Press\|isbn=0-262-02283-4\|pages=41–43\|location=Cambridge}}</ref> <ref name="blauwhof">{{Cite journal\|first1=Frederik Berend \|last1=Blauwhof\|title=Overcoming accumulation: Is a capitalist steady-state economy possible?\|date=December 2012\|pages=254–261\|doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2012.03.012\|issue=84\|journal=[[Ecological Economics (journal)\|Ecological Economics]]\|volume=84}}</ref> <ref name="carnevali">{{cite book\|first1=Emilio\|last1=Carnevali\|first2=Matteo\|last2= Deleidi\|first3=Riccardo\|last3=Pariboni\|first4=Marco\|last4=Veronese Passarella\|chapter=Stock-Flow Consistent Dynamic Models: Features, Limitations and Developments\|editor-first1=Philip\|editor-last1=Arestis\|editor-first2=Malcolm\|editor-last2=Sawyer\|title=Frontiers of Heterodox Macroeconomics\|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan\|location=Cham\|date=2019\|pages=223–276\|doi=10.1007/978-3-030-23929-9_6\|isbn=978-3-030-23928-2\|s2cid=202959298 }}.</ref> <ref name="consistencyanalysis">{{Cite journal\|first1=Oliver\|last1=Richters\|first2=Andreas\|last2=Siemoneit\|title=Consistency and Stability Analysis of Models of a Monetary Growth Imperative\|journal=[[Ecological Economics (journal)\|Ecological Economics]]\|date=June 2017\|volume=136\|pages=114–125\|doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2017.01.017\|hdl=10419/144750\|hdl-access=free}} Preprint: [[Vereinigung für Ökologische Ökonomie\|VÖÖ]] Discussion Paper 1, February 2016, {{Hdl\|10419/144750}}.</ref> <ref name="creutz">{{Cite book\|first1=Helmut\|last1=Creutz\|title=Das Geldsyndrom. Wege zu einer krisenfreien Marktwirtschaft\|date=1994\|publisher=Ullstein\|isbn=978-3-548-35456-9}}</ref> <ref name="deutschmann_wsi">{{Cite journal \|first1 = Christoph\|last1=Deutschmann\|author-link1=Christoph Deutschmann \|title= Moderne Ökonomie ohne Wachstumszwang: ein Wunschtraum? \|journal= WSI-Mitteilungen \|volume= 67 \|pages= 513–521 \|date= 2014 \|issue=7\|doi=10.5771/0342-300X-2014-7-513\|s2cid=188792556 \|url= http://www.boeckler.de/wsimit_2014_07_deutschmann.pdf}}</ref> <ref name="dgrosalux">"Konkrete Schritte für eine Gesellschaft und Impulse für eine gemeinsame gesellschaftliche Vision jenseits von Wachstumszwängen standen im Mittelpunkt der Degrowth-Konferenz 2014." [https://www.rosalux.de/dokumentation/id/14152/ Dokumentation: Degrowth 2014], [[Rosa-Luxemburg-Stiftung]].</ref> <ref name="dgprog">Daniel Constein, Nina Treu: "The focus of this Fourth International Conference on Degrowth for Ecological Sustainability and Social Equity will be on concrete steps towards a society beyond the imperative of growth." [https://www.degrowth.info/wp-content/uploads/2014/06/Programme-booklet-Degrowth-Conference-2014.pdf Programme] of the {{ill\|International Conference on Degrowth\|de\|Internationale Degrowth-Konferenz}} 2014, p. 3. www.degrowth.info. Accessed February 6, 2019.</ref> <ref name="douthwaite">{{Cite book\|first1=Richard \|last1=Douthwaite\|author-link1=Richard Douthwaite\|title=The ecology of money\|date=2000\|publisher=Green Books\|isbn=978-1-8700-9881-6}}</ref> <ref name="enquete">[http://dip21.bundestag.de/dip21/btd/17/133/1713300.pdf Abschlussbericht der Enquete-Kommission Wachstum, Wohlstand, Lebensqualität], Deutscher [[Bundestag]], Drucksache 17/13300. p. 749: es müsse "die Frage beantwortet werden, ob ein Fortschritt, der innovativ und integrativ, sozial gerecht und ökologisch verträglich ist, ohne Wachstumszwang möglich ist."</ref> <ref name="farley">{{Cite journal\|first1=Joshua \|last1=Farley\|first2=Matthew \|last2=Burke \|first3=Gary\|last3=Flomenhoft\|first4=Brian\|last4=Kelly\|first5=D. Forrest\|last5=Murray\|first6=Stephen\|last6=Posner\|first7=Matthew\|last7=Putnam\|first8=Adam\|last8=Scanlan\|first9=Aaron\|last9=Witham\|title=Monetary and Fiscal Policies for a Finite Planet\|date=June 2013\|volume=5\|pages=2802–2826\|doi=10.3390/su5062802\|issue=6\|journal=[[Sustainability (journal)\|Sustainability]]\|doi-access=free}}</ref> <ref name="ferguson">{{Cite journal\|first1=Peter \|last1=Ferguson\|title=Post-growth policy instruments\|volume=7\|pages=405–421\|doi=10.1504/IJGE.2013.058560\|issue=4\|journal=[[International Journal of Green Economics]]\|year=2013}}</ref> <ref name="ferguson76">{{Cite book\|first1=Peter \|last1=Ferguson\|title=Post-growth Politics\|isbn=978-3-319-78797-8\|publisher=Springer\|date=2019\|doi=10.1007/978-3-319-78799-2\|chapter=The Growth Imperative\|pages=76\|location=Cham}}</ref> <ref name="ferguson119">{{Cite book\|first1=Peter \|last1=Ferguson\|title=Post-growth Politics\|isbn=978-3-319-78797-8\|publisher=Springer\|date=2019\|doi=10.1007/978-3-319-78799-2\|chapter=The Growth Imperative\|pages=119\|location=Cham}}</ref> <ref name="ferguson2019">{{Cite book\|first1=Peter \|last1=Ferguson\|title=Post-growth Politics\|isbn=978-3-319-78797-8\|publisher=Springer\|date=2019\|doi=10.1007/978-3-319-78799-2\|chapter=The Growth Imperative\|pages=75–100\|location=Cham}}</ref> <ref name="flotow">{{Cite book\|first1=Hans Christoph\|last1=Binswanger\|author-link1=Hans Christoph Binswanger\|first2=Paschen\|last2=von Flotow\|title=Geld & Wachstum. Zur Philosophie und Praxis des Geldes\|date=1994\|publisher=Weitbrecht\|isbn=978-3-5227-1670-3\|pages=8}}</ref> <ref name="fontana">{{Cite journal\|first1=Giuseppe\|last1=Fontana\|first2=Malcolm\|last2=Sawyer\|title=Full Reserve Banking: More 'Cranks' Than 'Brave Heretics'\|date=September 2016\|volume=40\|pages=1333–1350\|journal=[[Cambridge Journal of Economics]]\|doi=10.1093/cje/bew016\|issue=5\|url=http://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/103348/3/FontanaFull%20Reserve%20Banking.pdf}}</ref> <ref name="foster">{{Cite journal\|first1=John Bellamy\|last1=Foster\|author-link1=John Bellamy Foster\|first2=Fred\|last2=Magdoff\|url=https://monthlyreview.org/2010/03/01/what-every-environmentalist-needs-to-know-about-capitalism/\|title=What every environmentalist needs to know about capitalism\|date=2010\|volume=61\|pages=1–30\|issue=10\|journal=[[Monthly Review]]}}</ref> <ref name="gebauer">{{Cite book\|first1=Jana \|last1=Gebauer\|first2=Steffen\|last2=Lange\|first3=Dirk\|last3= Posse\|chapter= Wirtschaftspolitik für Postwachstum auf Unternehmensebene. Drei Ansätze zur Gestaltung\|date=2017\|publisher=oekom\|isbn=978-3-86581-823-2\|pages=239–253\|editor-first1=Frank\|editor-last1=Adler\|editor-first2=Ulrich \|editor-last2 =Schachtschneider \|title= Postwachstumspolitiken: Wege zur wachstumsunabhängigen Gesellschaft }}</ref> <ref name="gilanyi">{{Cite journal\|first1=Zsolt\|last1=Gilányi\|title=Comment on Johnson's creating dimensional stock-flow inconsistency in Binswanger's model\|date=2018\|doi=10.1080/01603477.2018.1431791\|journal=[[Journal of Post Keynesian Economics]]\|volume=42\|issue=2\|pages=319–327\|s2cid=158184441}}</ref> <ref name="gordon">{{Cite journal\|title=Capitalism's growth imperative\|date=2003\|volume=27\|pages=25–48\|doi=10.1093/cje/27.1.25\|issue=1\|first1=Myron J. \|last1=Gordon \|author-link1=Myron J. Gordon \|first2=Jeffrey S. \|last2=Rosenthal\|author-link2=Jeff Rosenthal\|journal=[[Cambridge Journal of Economics]]}}</ref> <ref name="grahl">{{Cite journal\|first1=Jürgen\|last1=Grahl\|first2=Reiner\|last2=Kümmel\|url=http://www.fwu.at/assets/userFiles/Wissenschaft_Umwelt/13_2009/2009_13_wachstum_5.pdf\|title=Das Loch im Fass – Energiesklaven, Arbeitsplätze und die Milderung des Wachstumszwangs\|date=2009\|journal=Wissenschaft und Umwelt Interdisziplinär\|pages=195–212}}</ref> <ref name="growthduty">[https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/growth-duty ''Growth duty: statutory guidance''], 30 March 2017.</ref> <ref name="gruene">Federal board of [[Alliance 90/The Greens]]: [https://web.archive.org/web/20190301125912/https://www.gruene.de/fileadmin/user_upload/Dokumente/Beschluesse/Beschluesse_BuVo/20180406_Beschluss_Neue_Zeiten._Neue_Antworten..pdf ''Neue Zeiten. Neue Antworten.''] April 6, 2018. Accessed February 6, 2019.</ref> <ref name="hirsch">{{Cite book\|first1=Fred\|last1=Hirsch\|author-link1=Fred Hirsch (professor)\|title=Social Limits to Growth\|date=1976\|publisher=Harvard University Press}}</ref> <ref name="höpflinger">{{Cite book\|first1=François\|last1=Höpflinger\|chapter=Alterssicherungssysteme: Doppelte Herausforderung von demografischer Alterung und Postwachstum\|date=2010\|publisher=Metropolis\|location=Marburg\|isbn=978-3-89518-811-4\|pages=53–64\|editor-first1=Irmi\|editor-last1=Seidl\|editor-first2=Angelika\|editor-last2=Zahrnt\|title=Postwachstumsgesellschaft: Konzepte für die Zukunft}}</ref> <ref name="hulten">{{Cite journal\|first1=Charles \|last1=Hulten\|title=Growth Accounting\|date=2009\|doi=10.3386/w15341\|journal=NBER Working Paper\|issue=w15341\|doi-access=free}}</ref> <ref name="jacksondoes">{{Cite journal\|first1=Tim\|last1=Jackson\|author-link1=Tim Jackson (economist)\|first2=Peter\|last2=Victor\|title=Does credit create a 'growth imperative'? A quasi-stationary economy with interest-bearing debt\|journal=[[Ecological Economics (journal)\|Ecological Economics]]\|date=December 2015\|volume=120\|pages=32–48\|doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2015.09.009}} Preprint: [http://epubs.surrey.ac.uk/id/eprint/812236 PASSAGE Working Paper 15/01]. Guildford: University of Surrey.</ref> <ref name="jacksongreen">{{Cite journal\|first1=Tim\|last1=Jackson\|author-link1=Tim Jackson (economist)\|first2=Peter\|last2=Victor\|title=Productivity and work in the 'green economy' – some theoretical reflections and empirical tests\|journal=[[Environmental Innovation and Societal Transitions]]\|date=2011\|volume=1\|pages=101–108\|doi=10.1016/j.eist.2011.04.005\|issue=1\|s2cid=150636345 }}</ref> <ref name="johnson">{{Cite journal\|first1=A. Reeves\|last1=Johnson\|title=Response to "Comment on Johnson's creating dimensional stock-flow inconsistency in Binswanger's model"\|date=2018\|doi=10.1080/01603477.2018.1458631\|journal=[[Journal of Post Keynesian Economics]]\|volume=42\|issue=2\|pages=328–334\|s2cid=158990885}}</ref> <ref name="jones">{{Cite book\|first1=Charles I. \|last1=Jones\| title=Handbook of Economic Growth\|chapter=Growth and Ideas\|date=2005\|publisher=Elsevier\|isbn=978-0-444-52043-2\|volume=2\|pages=1063–1111\|doi=10.1016/S1574-0684(05)01016-6\|editor-first1=Philippe\|editor-last1=Aghion\|editor-first2=Steven N. \|editor-last2=Durlauf}}</ref> <ref name="JPKE2009">{{Cite journal\|first1=Mathias\|last1=Binswanger\|title=The growth imperative revisited: a rejoinder to Gilányi and Johnson\|date=May 2015\|volume=37\|pages=648–660\|doi=10.1080/01603477.2015.1050333\|issue=4\|journal=[[Journal of Post Keynesian Economics]]\|s2cid=54606846}}</ref> <ref name="kallissoc">{{cite journal\|first1=Giorgos \|last1=Kallis\|author-link1= Giorgos Kallis\|title=Socialism without growth\|journal=[[Capitalism Nature Socialism]]\|volume=30 \|issue=2\|date=2019\|pages=189–206\|doi=10.1080/10455752.2017.1386695 \|s2cid=158796873}}</ref> <ref name="karathan">{{Cite book\|first1=Athanasios \|last1=Karathanassis\|title=Kapitalistische Naturverhältnisse. Ursachen von Naturzerstörungen – Begründungen einer Postwachstumsökonomie\|date=2015\|publisher=VSA-Verlag\|isbn=978-3-89965-623-7}}</ref> <ref name="kennedy">{{Cite book\|first1=Margrit\|last1=Kennedy\|author-link1=Margrit Kennedy\|title=Geld ohne Zinsen und Inflation. Ein Tauschmittel, das jedem dient\|year=1991\|publisher=Goldmann\|isbn=978-3-442-12341-4\|pages=26–7}}</ref> <ref name="kümlind">{{Cite journal\|first1=Reiner \|last1=Kümmel\|first2=Dietmar\|last2=Lindenberger\|title=How energy conversion drives economic growth far from the equilibrium of neoclassical economics\|date=December 2014\|journal=[[New Journal of Physics]]\|volume=16\|doi=10.1088/1367-2630/16/12/125008\|issue=12\|page=125008\|bibcode=2014NJPh...16l5008K \|doi-access=free}}</ref> <ref name="kümmel">{{Cite book\|first1=Reiner\|last1=Kümmel\|title=The Second Law of Economics: Energy, Entropy, and the Origins of Wealth\|date=2011\|publisher=Springer\|isbn=978-1-4419-9365-6}}</ref> <ref name="lane">{{Cite book\|title=The Penguin dictionary of sociology\|date=1984\|publisher=A. Lane\|isbn=978-0-7139-1380-4\|pages=45\|first1=Nicholas\|last1=Abercrombie\|first2=Stephen\|last2=Hill\|first3=Bryan S.\|last3=Turner\|quote=compelled [...] by situational circumstances, that is by the structure of society and not by individuals}}</ref> <ref name="lange">{{Cite book\|first1=Steffen\|last1=Lange\|title=Macroeconomics Without Growth: Sustainable Economies in Neoclassical, Keynesian and Marxian Theories\|date=2018\|publisher=Metropolis\|location=Marburg\|isbn=978-3-7316-1298-8\|pages=109–216}}</ref> <ref name="lavoie">{{Cite journal\|first1=Louison\|last1=Cahen-Fourot\|first2=Marc\|last2=Lavoie\|author-link2=Marc Lavoie\|title=Ecological monetary economics: A post-Keynesian critique\|journal=[[Ecological Economics (journal)\|Ecological Economics]]\|date=June 2016\|volume=126\|pages=163–168\|doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2016.03.007}}</ref> <ref name="lawn">{{cite journal \|first1= Philip \|last1= Lawn \|author-link1=Philip Lawn\|title= Is steady-state capitalism viable?: A review of the issues and an answer in the affirmative \|journal= [[Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences]] \|volume= 1219 \|issue=1 \|date= February 2011 \|pages= 1–25 \|doi= 10.1111/j.1749-6632.2011.05966.x\|pmid= 21332490 \|s2cid= 40089385 }}</ref> <ref name="lietaer">{{Cite book\|first1=Bernard \|last1=Lietaer\|author-link1=Bernard Lietaer\|first2=Christian\|last2=Arnsperger\|first3=Sally\|last3=Goerner\|first4=Stefan\|last4=Brunnhuber\|title=Money and Sustainability: The Missing Link\|date=2012\|publisher=Triarchy Press\|isbn=978-1-908009-75-3}}</ref> <ref name="loske">{{Cite book\|first1=Reinhard\|last1=Loske\|title=Abschied vom Wachstumszwang. Konturen einer Politik der Mäßigung\|year=2011\|publisher=Basilisken Presse\|isbn=978-3941365117\|edition=2}}</ref> <ref name="marxde">{{cite book\|first1= Karl \|last1=Marx\|author-link1 =Karl Marx \|title= Das Kapital, Band 1 \|publisher= Dietz \|date= 1965 \|pages= 618 \| url= http://www.mlwerke.de/me/me23/me23_605.htm#S618}}</ref> <ref name="marxen">{{Cite book\|first1= Karl \|last1=Marx\|author-link1 =Karl Marx \|date=1906 \|title= Capital: A Critique of Political Economy \|publisher= Modern Library\|pages=649}}</ref> <ref name="mugier">{{cite book\|first1=Simon\|last1=Mugier\|date=2019\|title=Wirtschaftswachstum und soziale Frage. Zur soziologischen Bedeutung der ökonomischen Theorie von Hans Christoph Binswanger\|publisher=Metropolis\|location=Marburg\|isbn=978-3-7316-1383-1}}</ref> <ref name="oedp">[https://www.oedp.de/programm/grundsatzprogramm/wohlstand-ohne-wachstumszwang/ ''Wohlstand ohne Wachstumszwang''], basic programme of [[Ecological Democratic Party]] Germany 2016. Accessed February 6, 2019.</ref> <ref name="onken">{{Cite book\|first1=Werner\|last1=Onken\|title=Gerechtes Geld – gerechte Welt: Auswege aus Wachstumszwang und Schuldenkatastrophe: 1891–1991. 100 Jahre Gedanken zu einer natürlichen Wirtschaftsordnung\|date=1992\|publisher=Verlag für Sozialökonomie\|isbn=978-3-87998-433-6}}</ref> <ref name="ozturk">{{Cite journal\|first1=Ilhan \|last1=Ozturk\|title=A literature survey on energy–growth nexus\|date=January 2010\|volume=38\|pages=340–349\|doi=10.1016/j.enpol.2009.09.024\|issue=1\|journal=[[Energy Policy]]}}</ref> <ref name="paech">{{Cite book\|first1=Niko\|last1=Paech\|author-link1=Niko Paech\|title=Befreiung vom Überfluss. Auf dem Weg in die Postwachstumsökonomie\|date=2012\|publisher=oekom\|isbn=978-3-86581-181-3}}</ref> <ref name="paech_öwi">{{Cite journal\|first1=Niko\|last1=Paech\|author-link1=Niko Paech\|title=Wirtschaften ohne Wachstumszwang\|date=2006\|pages=30–33\|doi=10.14512/oew.v21i3.460\|volume=21\|issue=3\|journal=[[Ökologisches Wirtschaften]]\|doi-access=free}}</ref> <ref name="perrotta">{{Cite book\|first1=Cosimo\|last1=Perrotta\|title=Consumption as an Investment\|date=2004\|publisher=Routledge\|isbn=978-0-4153-0619-5}}</ref> <ref name="pineault">{{cite journal\|first1=Eric\|last1=Pineault\|title=From Provocation to Challenge: Degrowth, Capitalism and the Prospect of "Socialism without Growth": A Commentary on Giorgios Kallis\|journal= [[Capitalism Nature Socialism]]\|volume=30\|issue=2\|date=2019\|pages=251–266\|doi=10.1080/10455752.2018.1457064\|s2cid=150255333}}</ref> <ref name="posse">{{Cite book\|first1=Dirk\|last1=Posse\|hdl=10419/110257\|title=Zukunftsfähige Unternehmen in einer Postwachstumsgesellschaft\|date=2015\|publisher=[[Vereinigung für Ökologische Ökonomie]]\|isbn=978-3-9811006-2-4}}</ref> <ref name="radkau">{{Cite book\|first1=Joachim\|last1=Radkau\|author-link1=Joachim Radkau\|chapter=Wachstum oder Niedergang: ein Grundgesetz der Geschichte?\|editor-first1=Irmi\|editor-last1=Seidl\|editor-first2=Angelika\|editor-last2=Zahrnt\|title=Postwachstumsgesellschaft: Konzepte für die Zukunft\|date=2010\|publisher=Metropolis\|location=Marburg\|isbn=978-3-89518-811-4\|pages=37–52}}</ref> <ref name="rajan">{{Cite book\|first1=Raghuram\|last1=Rajan\|author-link1=Raghuram Rajan\|chapter=Going Bust for Growth\|title=Progress and Confusion: The State of Macroeconomic Policy\|editor-first1=Olivier\|editor-last1=Blanchard\|editor-first2=Raghuram\|editor-last2=Rajan\|editor-first3=Kenneth S.\|editor-last3=Rogoff\|editor-first4=Lawrence\|editor-last4=Summers\|publisher=MIT Press\|pages=267–284}}</ref> <ref name="reichel">{{Cite journal\|first1=André\|last1=Reichel\|title=Betriebswirtschaftliche Perspektiven. Das Ende des Wirtschaftswachstums, wie wir es kennen\|date=2013\|pages=15–18\|doi=10.14512/oew.v28i1.1262\|issue=1\|journal=[[Ökologisches Wirtschaften]]\|doi-access=free}}</ref> <ref name="rezbins">{{Cite journal\|first1=Oliver \|last1=Richters\|title=Review of Mathias Binswanger's ''Der Wachstumszwang''\|journal=[[Ökologisches Wirtschaften]]\|date=2019\|pages=53–55\|issue=3}}</ref> <ref name="richters_contested">{{cite journal \|first1=Oliver \|last1= Richters \|first2= Andreas \|last2= Siemoneit \|title= Growth imperatives: Substantiating a contested concept \|journal= [[Structural Change and Economic Dynamics]] \| volume = 51 \|date=2019 \|pages=126–137 \|doi= 10.1016/j.strueco.2019.07.012\|s2cid= 203243535 }} Preprint: Oldenburg Discussion Papers in Economics V-414-18, November 2018, {{HDL\|10419/184870}}.</ref> <ref name="richters_marktwirtschaft_49-59">{{cite book \|first1= Oliver \|last1= Richters \|first2= Andreas \|last2= Siemoneit \|title= Marktwirtschaft reparieren: Entwurf einer freiheitlichen, gerechten und nachhaltigen Utopie \|publisher= oekom \|location= München \|isbn= 978-3-96238-099-1 \|date= 2019 \|pages= 49–59\|hdl=10419/213814}}</ref> <ref name="richters_marktwirtschaft_S96-116">{{Cite book\|first1=Oliver\|last1=Richters\|first2=Andreas\|last2=Siemoneit\|title=Marktwirtschaft reparieren: Entwurf einer freiheitlichen, gerechten und nachhaltigen Utopie\|date=2019\|publisher=oekom\|isbn=978-3-96238-099-1\|pages=96–116\|hdl=10419/213814}}</ref> <ref name="richters_marktwirtschaft_S96-153">{{Cite book\|first1=Oliver\|last1=Richters\|first2=Andreas\|last2=Siemoneit\|title=Marktwirtschaft reparieren: Entwurf einer freiheitlichen, gerechten und nachhaltigen Utopie\|date=2019\|publisher=oekom\|isbn=978-3-96238-099-1\|pages=96–153\|hdl=10419/213814}}</ref> <ref name="richters_wege">{{cite book \|first1= Oliver\|last1=Richters\|first2= Andreas\|last2=Siemoneit \|chapter= Wachstumszwänge: Ressourcenverbrauch und Akkumulation als Wettbewerbsverzerrungen \|editor-first1=Frank\|editor-last1=Adler\|editor-first2=Ulrich \|editor-last2 =Schachtschneider \|title= Postwachstumspolitiken: Wege zur wachstumsunabhängigen Gesellschaft \|publisher= oekom\|date= 2017 \|isbn= 978-3-86581-823-2 \|pages= 169–182 \|hdl=10419/152267 }}</ref> <ref name="rivera">{{Cite journal\|first1=Manuel\|last1=Rivera\|title=Growth in parliament: Some notes on the persistence of a dogma\|date=January 2018\|volume=95\|pages=1–10\|doi=10.1016/j.futures.2017.09.002\|journal=Futures\|doi-access=free}}</ref> <ref name="rogall-S131">{{Cite book\|first1=Holger\|last1=Rogall\|title=Ökologische Ökonomie. Eine Einführung\|date=2008\|publisher=Springer VS\|isbn=978-3-5311-6058-0\|pages=131\|doi=10.1007/978-3-531-91001-7\|location=Wiesbaden}}</ref> <ref name="rosen">{{Cite book\|first1=Shervin\|last1=Rosen\|chapter=Human Capital\|title=The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics\|editor-first1=Matias\|editor-last1=Vernengo\|editor-first2=Esteban Perez\|editor-last2=Caldentey\|editor-first3=Barkley J. \|editor-last3=Rosser Jr\|date=2008\|pages=1–15\|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan UK\|isbn=978-1-349-95121-5\|doi=10.1057/978-1-349-95121-5_743-2}}</ref> <ref name="scherhorn">{{Cite book\|first1=Gerhard\|last1=Scherhorn\|author-link1=Gerhard Scherhorn\|chapter=Der innere Zwang zum Wirtschaftswachstum\|publisher=Campus\|isbn=978-3-593-35461-3\|pages=162ff\|editor-first1=Bernd\|editor-last1=Biervert\|editor-first2=Martin\|editor-last2=Held\|title=Die Dynamik des Geldes: über den Zusammenhang von Geld, Wachstum und Natur\|location=Frankfurt/Main\|date=1996}}</ref> <ref name="scherhorn129">{{Cite book\|first1=Gerhard\|last1=Scherhorn\|author-link1=Gerhard Scherhorn\|chapter=Unternehmen ohne Wachstumszwang: Zur Ökonomie der Gemeingüter\|date=2010\|publisher=Metropolis\|location=Marburg\|isbn=978-3-89518-811-4\|pages=129–144\|editor-first1=Irmi\|editor-last1=Seidl\|editor-first2=Angelika\|editor-last2=Zahrnt\|title=Postwachstumsgesellschaft: Konzepte für die Zukunft}}</ref> <ref name="schmelzerecol">{{Cite journal\|first1=Matthias\|last1=Schmelzer\|title=The growth paradigm: History, hegemony, and the contested making of economic growthmanship\|date=2015\|volume=118\|pages=262–271\|doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2015.07.029\|journal=[[Ecological Economics (journal)\|Ecological Economics]]}}</ref> <ref name="schmelzer_hegemony">{{Cite book\|first1=Matthias\|last1=Schmelzer\|title=The Hegemony of Growth\|date=2016\|publisher=Cambridge University Press\|isbn=978-1-3164-5203-5}}</ref> <ref name="schulte">Ulrich Schulte: [https://taz.de/Ausrichtung-der-Gruenen/!5538618/ ''Ausrichtung der Grünen: Die Möchtegern-Liberalen'']. ''[[die tageszeitung]]'', September 26, 2018.</ref> <ref name="schump">{{Cite book\|first1=Joseph\|last1=Schumpeter\|author-link1=Joseph Schumpeter\|title=[[Capitalism, Socialism and Democracy]]\|date=1942\|publisher=Harper & Brothers}}</ref> <ref name="seidl24">{{Cite book\|first1=Irmi\|last1=Seidl\|first2=Angelika\|last2=Zahrnt\|chapter=Argumente für einen Abschied vom Paradigma des Wirtschaftswachstums\|date=2010\|publisher=Metropolis\|location=Marburg\|title=Postwachstumsgesellschaft: Konzepte für die Zukunft\|isbn=978-3-89518-811-4\|pages=24}}</ref> <ref name="seidlstaat">{{Cite book\|first1=Irmi\|last1=Seidl\|first2=Angelika\|last2=Zahrnt\|chapter=Staatsfinanzen und Wirtschaftswachstum\|title=Postwachstumsgesellschaft: Konzepte für die Zukunft\|date=2010\|publisher=Metropolis\|location=Marburg\|isbn=978-3-89518-811-4\|pages=179–188}}</ref> <ref name="siemoneit-offer">{{Cite journal\|first1=Andreas\|last1=Siemoneit\|title=An offer you can't refuse – Enhancing personal productivity through 'efficiency consumption'\|date=2019\|volume=59\|doi=10.1016/j.techsoc.2019.101181\|journal=Technology in Society\|page=101181\|hdl=10419/201502\|s2cid=202269762 \|hdl-access=free}} Preprint: [https://zoe-institut.de/wp-content/uploads/2019/02/zoe-dp-siemoneit-efficiency-consumption.pdf ZOE Discussion Paper 3], January 2019, {{Hdl\|10419/201502}}.</ref> <ref name="solowstoll">[[Robert Solow]] said in an interview: "There is nothing intrinsic in the system that says it cannot exist happily in a stationary state". Cited after: Steven Stoll: ''Fear of Fallowing: The specter of a no-growth world''. In: [[Harper’s Magazine]], March 2008, pp. 88–94, [http://steadystate.org/wp-content/uploads/Stoll_Harpers_Fear_Fallowing.pdf steadystate.org], accessed February 27, 2019. See also [[Mathias Binswanger]], ''Der Wachstumszwang'', 2019, p. 39.</ref> <ref name="spiral">{{Cite book\|first1=Hans Christoph\|last1=Binswanger\|title=The Growth Spiral: Money, Energy, and Imagination in the Dynamics of the Market Process\|date=2013\|publisher=Springer\|isbn=978-3-642-31881-8\|pages=119\|doi=10.1007/978-3-642-31881-8}}</ref> <ref name="spiral131">{{Cite book\|first1=Hans Christoph\|last1=Binswanger\|title=The Growth Spiral: Money, Energy, and Imagination in the Dynamics of the Market Process\|date=2013\|publisher=Springer\|isbn=978-3-642-31881-8\|pages=131\|doi=10.1007/978-3-642-31881-8}}</ref> <ref name="smith">{{Cite journal\|first1=Richard \|last1=Smith\|url=http://www.paecon.net/PAEReview/issue53/Smith53.pdf\|title=Beyond Growth or Beyond Capitalism\|volume=53\|pages=28–42\|journal=[[Real-world economics review]]}}</ref> <ref name="stern1">{{Cite journal\|first1=David I. \|last1=Stern\|title=Energy-GDP Relationship\|date=2015\|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan UK\|isbn=978-1-349-95121-5\|journal=The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics\|pages=1–19\|doi=10.1057/978-1-349-95121-5_3015-1}}</ref> <ref name="stratford">{{cite journal\|first1=Beth\|last1=Stratford\|title=The Threat of Rent Extraction in a Resource-constrained Future\|journal=[[Ecological Economics (journal)\|Ecological Economics]]\|volume=169\|date=March 2020\|page=106524\|doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2019.106524\|doi-access=free}}</ref> <ref name="stratmann">{{Cite book\|first1=Eckhard\|last1=Stratmann-Mertens\|author-link1=Eckhard Stratmann-Mertens\|first2=Rudolf\|last2=Hickel\|first3=Jan\|last3=Priewe\|title=Wachstum: Abschied von einem Dogma: Kontroverse über eine ökologisch-soziale Wirtschaftspolitik\|date=1991\|publisher=S. Fischer\|isbn=978-3-1003-1408-6}}</ref> <ref name="strunz">{{Cite book\|first1=Sebastian\|last1= Strunz\|first2=Bartosz\|last2=Bartkowski\|first3=Harry\|last3=Schindler\|chapter=Is there a monetary growth imperative?\|date=2017\|publisher=Edward Elgar\|isbn=978-1-7834-7356-4\|pages=326–355\|doi=10.4337/9781783473564.00024\|title=Handbook on growth and sustainability\|location=Cheltenham\|hdl= 10419/108971\|url= https://www.econstor.eu/bitstream/10419/108971/1/821132911.pdf\|editor-first1=Peter A.\|editor-last1=Victor\|editor-first2=Brett\|editor-last2=Dolter}} Preprint: [[Helmholtz Centre for Environmental Research\|UFZ]] Discussion Papers 5/2015, {{Hdl\|10419/108971}}.</ref> <ref name="strunz1">{{Cite journal\|first1=Sebastian\|last1= Strunz\|first2=Bartosz\|last2=Bartkowski\|first3=Harry\|last3=Schindler\|title=Mythos monetärer Wachstumszwang. Am Gelde hängt doch alles?\|journal=[[Ökologisches Wirtschaften]]\|year= 2017\|volume=32\|pages=23–25\|doi=10.14512/OEW320123\|issue=1\|doi-access=free}}</ref> <ref name="sturn">{{Cite journal\|first1=Simon\|last1=Sturn\|first2=Till van\|last2=Treeck\|url=https://www.spw.de/data/sturn_treeck.pdf\|title=Wachstumszwang durch Ungleichheit und Ungleichheit als Wachstumsbremse?\|date=2010\|volume=177\|pages=15–21\|journal=SPW – Zeitschrift für sozialistische Politik und Wirtschaft}}</ref> <ref name="suhr">{{Cite book\|first1=Dieter\|last1=Suhr\|url=http://www.dieter-suhr.info/files/luxe/Downloads/Suhr_Befreiung.pdf\|title=Befreiung der Marktwirtschaft vom Kapitalismus. Monetäre Studien zur sozialen, ökonomischen und ökologischen Vernunft\|date=1986\|publisher=Basis Verlag\|isbn=3-88025-415-X\|pages=47ff}}</ref> <ref name="sullivan">{{Cite book\|editor-first1=Larry E.\|editor-last1=Sullivan\|title=The SAGE glossary of the social and behavioral sciences\|date=2009\|publisher=SAGE Publications\|isbn=978-1-4129-5143-2\|pages=81}}</ref> <ref name="veblen">{{Cite book\|first1=Thorstein\|last1=Veblen\|author-link1=Thorstein Veblen\|title=The theory of the leisure class. An economic study in the evolution of institutions\|date=1899\|publisher=The Macmillan Company}}</ref> <ref name="videira">{{Cite journal\|first1=Nuno\|last1=Videira\|first2=François\|last2=Schneider\|first3=Filka\|last3=Sekulova\|first4=Giorgos\|last4=Kallis\|author-link4=Giorgos Kallis\|title=Improving understanding on degrowth pathways: an exploratory study using collaborative causal models\|journal=Futures\|date=2014\|volume=55\|pages=58–77\|doi=10.1016/j.futures.2013.11.001\|url=http://polired.upm.es/index.php/territoriosenformacion/article/view/3810}}</ref> <ref name="wachstumsspirale131">{{Cite book\|first1=Hans Christoph\|last1=Binswanger\|title=Die Wachstumsspirale. Geld, Energie und Imagination in der Dynamik des Marktprozesses\|date=2006\| publisher=Metropolis\|location=Marburg\|isbn=3-89518-554-X\|pages=331}}</ref> <ref name="walter">{{Cite journal\|url=https://archiv.wirtschaftsdienst.eu/jahr/2011/8/geldordnung-eine-ordnungspolitische-analyse\|first1=Johann\|last1=Walter\|title=Geldordnung – eine ordnungspolitische Analyse\|date=2011\|pages=543–549\|doi=10.1007/s10273-011-1260-4\|issue=8\|journal=[[Wirtschaftsdienst]]\|volume=91\|hdl=10419/88820\|s2cid=154298933\|hdl-access=free}}</ref> <ref name="wandelat">[https://wachstumimwandel.at/wissenschaftlerinnen-fordern-abkehr-vom-wachstumszwang/ WissenschaftlerInnen fordern Abkehr vom Wachstumszwang], wachstumsimwandel.at, [[Bundesministerium für Nachhaltigkeit und Tourismus]], September 20, 2018.</ref> <ref name="wenzlaff">{{Cite book\|first1=Ferdinand\|last1=Wenzlaff\|first2=Christian\|last2=Kimmich\|first3=Oliver\|last3=Richters\|hdl=10419/103454\|title=Theoretische Zugänge eines Wachstumszwangs in der Geldwirtschaft\|date=2014\|publisher=Zentrum für Ökonomische und Soziologische Studien\|issue=45}}</ref> }} [[Category:Capitalism]] [[Category:Sustainability]] [[Category:Economic growth]]
Food Justice Movement	{{Short description\|Social movement addressing food insecurity}} {{essay-like\|date=October 2018}} The '''Food Justice Movement''' is a [[grassroots]] initiative which emerged in response to [[Food security\|food insecurity]] and economic pressures that prevent access to healthy, nutritious, and culturally appropriate foods (food should fit the cultural background of the people consuming it).<ref name="Alkon_2011">{{cite book\|title=Cultivating Food Justice: Race, Class, and Sustainability\|date=2011\|publisher=MIT Press\|isbn=9780262516327\|location=Cambridge, Massachusetts\|vauthors=Alkon AH, Agyeman J\|url-access=registration\|url=https://archive.org/details/cultivatingfoodj0000unse}}</ref> It includes more broad policy movements, such as the [[Food and Agriculture Organization\|Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations]].<ref name=":1" /> Food justice recognizes the [[food system]] as "a racial project and problematizes the influence of race and class on the production, distribution and consumption of food".<ref name="Alkon_2011" /> This encompasses farm labor work, land disputes, issues of status and class, [[environmental justice]], public politics, and advocacy.<ref name="Alkon_2011"/><ref name="Sbicca_2018">{{cite book\|title=Food Justice Now!: Deepening the Roots of Social Struggle\|date=2018\|publisher=University of Minnesota Press\|isbn=9781517904012\|location=Minneapolis, MN \| vauthors = Sbicca, J}}</ref> Food justice is closely connected to [[food sovereignty]], which critiques "structural barriers [[People of Color\|communities of color]] face to accessing local and organic foods" that are largely due to institutional racism and the effect it has on economic equality.<ref>{{Cite book \| vauthors = Alkon AH, Agyeman J \| year = 2011 \| title = Cultivating Food Justice: Race, Class, and Sustainability. \| location = Cambridge, Mass. \| publisher = MIT Press \| isbn = 9780262516327 \| url-access = registration \| url = https://archive.org/details/cultivatingfoodj0000unse }}</ref> It is argued that lack of access to good food is both a cause and a symptom of the structural inequalities that divide society. A possible solution presented for poor areas includes [[Community gardening\|community gardens]], fairness for food workers, and a national food policy.<ref>{{Cite web\|url=https://www.ucsusa.org/resources/fixing-food\|title = Fixing Food \| Union of Concerned Scientists}}</ref> == History == Food justice has been a part of the activist sphere since the founding of the United States. Yet, the history of our modern Food Justice Movement formulated in the early 1960s during the height of the Civil Rights Movement. Access to food for Black people was stripped, mounting pushback. For example, in November 1962, the completely white board of supervisors in Leflore County voted to discontinue the Federal Surplus Food Commodity Program.<ref>{{Cite web \|date=20 March 2018 \|title=The Greenwood Food Blockade {{!}} Southern Foodways Alliance - Southern Foodways Alliance \|url=https://www.southernfoodways.org/the-greenwood-food-blockade/ \|access-date=9 May 2022 \|website=www.southernfoodways.org}}</ref> Only white members of the community could attend, though those who used the program were less than 1 percent white. Officials like Mississippi's public welfare commissioner, Fred A. Ross, condemned the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee's free food distribution program. This welfare cut is now known as the Greenwood Food Blockade. The Federal Surplus Food Commodity Program provided items such as meal, flour, and powdered milk to 90 percent of Black people in the winters. In response to harsh conditions, the SNCC petitioned president John F. Kennedy to intervene. The federal government mandated that the program be continued, despite the continued pushback from white government officials. This marked the end of the Greenwood Food Blockade, but only was the beginning of white people in power weaponizing access to food. Years later, the Black Panther Party played a big role in the burgeoning Food Justice movement in the coming years. In 1969, they launched the Free Breakfast for Children program at a church in Oakland, California.<ref>{{Cite journal \|last=Potorti \|first=Mary \|date=2017 \|title="Feeding the Revolution": the Black Panther Party, Hunger, and Community Survival \|journal=Journal of African American Studies \|volume=21 \|issue=1 \|pages=85–110\|doi=10.1007/s12111-017-9345-9 \|s2cid=255519471 }}</ref> This model was adopted by countless cities across the country, and ultimately led Congress to increase funding for the National School Lunch Program and expand the breakfast program to all public schools. A separate sphere of the Food Justice movement is that of the white community, whose trajectory in the movement differed from that of the Black activists. In 1996, the Community Food Security Coalition (CFSC) was an important player in advocating for access to fresh fruits and vegetables. However, this group was composed of all white Americans and neglected to seek input from residents of the food insecure areas they attempted to help. According to Daniel Ross, Director of Nuestras Raíces, food security cannot exist independently of the specific community in discussion because of how central food and agriculture are to a community. == Background == The modern Food Justice movement grew out of the [[Community Food Security Coalition]] (CFSC) in 1996, which sought to provide affordable, culturally appropriate, healthy food to Americans. A shortcoming of this group was that it was composed entirely of white Americans, and accepted little input from residents of food insecure areas which the CFSC was trying to help. It emphasized the consumption of local and fresh fruits and vegetables, and removed race from the conversation. Director of Nuestras Raices Daniel Ross points out that:<blockquote>...food security cannot be divorced from the issues of concern to communities ... food and agriculture lends itself to addressing [racism and power imbalances] because food is so central to communities and, if you had working communities, you'd have justice and equality. ... At the heart is the element of justice.<ref>{{Cite journal \| vauthors = Slocum R \| date = 2015 \| title = Notes on the practice of food justice in the U.S.: understanding and confronting trauma and inequity \| url = http://jpe.library.arizona.edu/volume_22/Slocumcadieux.pdf \| journal = Journal of Political Ecology \| volume = 22 \| page = 27 \| doi = 10.2458/v22i1.21077 \| doi-access = free }}</ref></blockquote>Other scholars who have done research in food justice and related topics include Monica M. White whose research is focused on the primarily black community in Detroit. In her article Sisters of the Soil: Urban Gardening as Resistance in Detroit, she discusses the work of the [[Detroit Black Community Food Security Network]] (DBCFSN) that uses farming as a way to alleviate food insecurity and make political statements. White cites the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey of 2005–2006 to point out that 52.9% of black women are obese, compared to 37.2% of black men and 32.9% of white women due to phenomena like [[food desert]]s and food insecurity. Because the socioeconomic status of black communities in Detroit are a huge part of the food insecurity issues black communities face, this serves as an example for the inseparability of food justice movements and social reform.<ref>{{cite magazine \|last=White \|first=Monica M. \|title=Sisters of the Soil: Urban Gardening as Resistance in Detroit \|magazine=Race/Ethnicity: Multidisciplinary Global Contexts \|volume=5 \|issue=1 \|date=2011 \|pages=13–28 \|jstor=10.2979/racethmulglocon.5.1.13}}</ref> Article 25 of the [[Universal Declaration of Human Rights]] states: "Everyone has the right to a standard of living adequate for the health and well being of himself and of his family, including food, clothing, housing and medical care and necessary social services, and the right to security in the event of unemployment, sickness, disability, widowhood, old age or other lack of livelihood in circumstances beyond his control." [[Food and Agriculture Organization\|The Food and Agricultural Organization]] of the United Nations states that the right to food is "The right to feed oneself in dignity. It is the right to have continuous access to the resources that will enable you to produce, earn or purchase enough food to not only prevent hunger, but also to ensure health and well-being. The right to food only rarely means that a person has the right to free handouts."<ref name=":1">Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations. Right to Food Unit. Right to Food Questions and Answers. 2007</ref> The United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) has the National Institute of Food and Agriculture (NIFA) which is a part of USDA's Research, Education, and Economics mission area (REE), NIFA is an agency that uses federal funding in order to address agricultural and food justice related issues that impact people's daily lives. This is a collaborative effort that uses scientists and research in order to locate and find solutions to issues in the agricultural chain. They use science-policy decision making, something to keep in mind when asking what problems are being fixed and for what purpose.<ref>NIFA.org "About NIFA" (https://nifa.usda.gov/about-nifa)</ref> == Modern political response == Food access and justice is a contentious topic in current day legislation. The movement was highly popularized during President [[Barack Obama\|Obama's]] two terms, largely in part due to his wife, [[Michelle Obama]]. President Obama passed the [[Healthy, Hunger-Free Kids Act of 2010\|Healthy, Hunger-Free Kids Act]] in 2010, calling for a raised nutrition standard in the [[National School Lunch Act\|National School Lunch Program]].<ref>{{Cite web \|date=2 June 2015 \|title=How Michelle Obama Has Shaped Nutrition Politics - Washingtonian \|url=https://www.washingtonian.com/2015/06/02/how-michelle-obama-has-shaped-nutrition-politics/ \|access-date=9 May 2022}}</ref> Despite some Republican lawmaker pushback, the law went into effect. In 2020, the University of Washington School of Public Health found that since the passing of this legislation, children from low-income households had been eating healthier school lunches with better nutritional quality.<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1=Kinderknecht \|first1=Kelsey \|last2=Harris \|first2=Cristen \|last3=Jones-Smith \|first3=Jessica \|date=28 July 2020 \|title=Association of the Healthy, Hunger-Free Kids Act With Dietary Quality Among Children in the US National School Lunch Program \|journal=JAMA \|volume=324 \|issue=4 \|pages=359–368 \|doi=10.1001/jama.2020.9517 \|pmid=32721008 \|pmc=7388023 \|issn=0098-7484}}</ref> Supplementing the legal action taken by the President, Michelle Obama's activism in the political sphere led to the onset of programs like [[Let's Move!]], that targeted decreasing adolescent obesity across the United States. Nevertheless, a decade later, certain scholars justified a decrease in funding towards these programs that are anchored on obesity reduction instead of food justice and equity.<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1=Cadieux \|first1=Kirsten \|last2=Slocum \|first2=Rachel \|date=1 December 2015 \|title=What does it mean to do food justice? \|journal=Journal of Political Ecology \|volume=22 \|issue=1 \|doi=10.2458/v22i1.21076 \|issn=1073-0451\|doi-access=free }}</ref> In 2017, the Food Deserts Act was introduced to the House.<ref>{{Cite web \|last=Carson \|first=Andre \|date=24 July 2017 \|title=H.R.3104 - 115th Congress (2017-2018): Food Deserts Act of 2017 \|url=https://www.congress.gov/bill/115th-congress/house-bill/3104 \|access-date=9 May 2022 \|website=www.congress.gov}}</ref> The Act called for consistent grants for grocery stores in areas defined as formal food deserts. Grant money would be allocated to selling healthy foods that are locally sourced. This bill did not make it past an introduction in the House. Scholars{{who\|date=October 2022}} suggest that this highlights limited support for food justice from Congress, despite food insecurity being a relatively bipartisan issue. In 2022, the Healthy Food Access for All Americans Act was introduced to the Senate.<ref>{{Cite web \|last=Warner \|first=Mark R. \|date=3 February 2021 \|title=S.203 - 117th Congress (2021-2022): Healthy Food Access for All Americans Act \|url=https://www.congress.gov/bill/117th-congress/senate-bill/203 \|access-date=9 May 2022 \|website=www.congress.gov}}</ref> The legislation called for tax credits and grant funding for opening grocery stores and food banks in food deserts. The bill had yet to be passed {{as of\|April 2022\|lc=y}}. == Research and theory == There is a plethora of research pertaining to [[Community gardening\|community gardens]], [[Urban agriculture\|urban farming]], and their impact on local communities.<ref>{{Cite journal\| vauthors = Golden S \|date=13 November 2013\|title=Urban Agriculture Impacts: Social, Health, and Economic - A Literature Review\|journal=UC Sustainable Agriculture Research and Education Program}}</ref> The literature tries to connect the activities of community gardens and urban agricultural projects to social, health, and economic outcomes. However, due to the overwhelming lack of diversity in the perspectives that inform the food justice movement, a new concept of ''just sustainability''<ref name="Alkon_2011" /> has been proposed. To address white and middle class culture dominating the discussion and priorities of organic food and sustainability practices, a more multi-cultural and intersectional approach is suggested that includes the narratives of historically marginalized communities.<ref name="Alkon_2011" /> === Food movements and race === The food justice movement points out that many food activists and scholars, such as journalist [[Michael Pollan]], fail to account for the social and economic constraints that shape the food habits and choices of certain groups, and overly emphasize individual choices. Food justice activists point out that communities of color have lost food sovereignty, and they note that racism and economic inequality prevent Black communities in particular from having access to sufficient amounts of nutritious foods. This movement aims to reform the food system by addressing such structural inequalities and also by celebrating foods that are of cultural significance to different groups.<ref>{{Cite book \|title=Cultivating Food Justice: Race, Class, and Sustainability\|date=2011\|publisher=MIT Press \|author1=Alison Hope Alkon \|author2=Julian Agyeman\|isbn=978-0-262-30021-6\|location=Cambridge, Mass.\|oclc=767579490}}</ref> The intersection of race and food justice appears in the food justice movement, for example, in the San Francisco Bay Area and most notably in the city of Oakland. West Oakland, historically a neighborhood with a higher Black population, has also long been known as a food desert, meaning residents must travel over a mile for fresh food. Thirty five percent of residents in this area also lack access to a car to drive to a store, a quarter of residents live below the poverty line, and diabetes is three times more prevalent in this neighborhood than in the rest of Alameda County.<ref name=":02">{{Cite journal\|last1=Curran\|first1=Christopher J.\|last2=González \|first2=Marc-Tizoc\|date=2011\|title=Food Justice as Interracial Justice: Urban Farmers, Community Organizations and the Role of Government in Oakland, California\|journal=The University of Miami Inter-American Law Review \|volume=43\|issue=1\|pages=207–232\|jstor=23339452\|issn=0884-1756}}</ref> On a national level, Black households are twice as likely and Latinx households 1.5 more likely than white households to be food insecure.<ref>{{Cite web\|title=The Federal Government Is Failing Communities Suffering From Food Insecurity\|url=https://theappeal.org/the-federal-government-is-failing-communities-suffering-from-food-insecurity/\|access-date=14 April 2021\|website=The Appeal}}</ref> These disproportionate levels of food insecurity expose the systemic issues at the root of the problem. People are food insecure because they do not have room in their budget to buy sufficient food for themselves and their families, and the fact that people of color are more likely to be food insecure is because they are more likely to live in poverty.<ref>{{Cite web\|title=Hunger is a Racial Equity Issue {{!}} Move For Hunger \|website=moveforhunger.org\|url=https://moveforhunger.org/hunger-racial-equity-issue\|access-date=14 April 2021}}</ref> This goes back to societal issues of disinvestment in communities of color, with Black communities in particular being less likely to have access to quality education, job opportunities, and knowledge of government assistance programs.<ref name=":12">{{Cite web\|last=Frueh\|first=Sara\|date=9 July 2020\|title=Covid-19 and Black Communities\|url=https://www.nationalacademies.org/news/2020/07/covid-19-and-black-communities\|access-date=14 April 2021\|website=www.nationalacademies.org}}</ref> This issue was brought to public attention during COVID-19, when food insecurity levels dramatically increased, particularly for Black communities. One study in particular revealed that soon after the onset of COVID-19, food insecurity levels increased at a much quicker pace for a sample of low-income, primarily African American communities in comparison to the broader American population.<ref>{{cite journal \|last1=Dubowitz \|first1=Tamara \|last2=Dastidar \|first2=Madhumita Ghosh \|last3=Troxel \|first3=Wendy M. \|last4=Beckman \|first4=Robin \|last5=Nugroho \|first5=Alvin \|last6=Siddiqi \|first6=Sameer \|last7=Cantor \|first7=Jonathan \|last8=Baird \|first8=Matthew \|last9=Richardson \|first9=Andrea S. \|last10=Hunter \|first10=Gerald P. \|last11=Mendoza-Graf \|first11=Alexandra \|last12=Collins \|first12=Rebecca L. \|title=Food Insecurity in a Low-Income, Predominantly African American Cohort Following the COVID-19 Pandemic \|journal=American Journal of Public Health \|date=1 March 2021 \|volume=111 \|issue=3 \|pages=494–497 \|doi=10.2105/AJPH.2020.306041\|pmid=33476228 \|pmc=7893363 }}</ref> The pandemic exposed which populations were most vulnerable; Black people are more likely to work in high exposure jobs, less likely to have access to quality health care, and more likely to face bias by health care workers.<ref name=":12" /> It is these inequalities that led to the food justice movement in the first place: a movement that specifically addresses racial disparities in the food system. 78% of Native Americans live outside of tribal-designated lands, despite literature on food security and Native peoples almost exclusively being in the context of reservation residency, and there is often a difference in food security seen in urban and rural settings among these individuals (Tomayko et al., 2017). A study done with 240 rural Native American households, and 210 urban Native American households found that the average rate of food insecurity was about 61%, with 80% of urban homes being food insecure and 45% of rural homes being food insecure within the study (Tomayko et al., 2017). Native Americans are often excluded from studies on food insecurity, and research on Native American food insecurity and injustices are rare. The USDA Annual Household Food Security Report in 2019 neglected to include Native American individuals in their findings (Meredith, 2020). One of the first and only longitudinal studies of Native food insecurity at the national level was written by Craig Gunderson in 2008, although the US government officially defined a measurement of food insecurity in 1995 (Gunderson, 2008). == Food justice and policy == Food justice emerged as a way of applying food security and anti-hunger movements to policy by drawing from established social and environmental theoretical frameworks. The food justice movement is related to food sovereignty in that it critiques "structural barriers communities of color face to accessing local and organic foods" that are largely due to institutional racism and the effect it has on economic equality.<ref>{{Cite book\|date=21 October 2011\|title=Cultivating Food Justice: Race, Class, and Sustainability \|url=https://direct.mit.edu/books/book/4423/Cultivating-Food-JusticeRace-Class-and \|doi=10.7551/mitpress/8922.001.0001\|isbn=9780262300216\| veditors=Agyeman J, Alkon AH }}</ref> This movement seeks to create equal access to nutritious food for all people, regardless of race, and policy is one mode that this mission is accomplished through. One way that this policy in integrated is through food policy councils, which have existed in North America since 1982.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal \|last=Purifoy\|first=Danielle\|date=2014\|title=Food policy Councils: Integrating Food Justice and Environmental Justice \|url=https://scholarship.law.duke.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1302&context=delpf \|journal=Duke Environmental Law and Policy Forum\|volume=XXIV\|pages=375–398}}</ref> The implementation of food policy councils at the city level has allowed for changes to respond directly to community needs, with communities being involved with the creation of policy.<ref name=":4" /> Organizations and festivals such as the [[Coalition of Immokalee Workers]], Familias Unidas por la Justicia,<ref>{{Cite book\|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tVMzDwAAQBAJ&q=%22Familias+Unidas+por+la+Justicia%22&pg=PA276 \|title=Mexican-Origin Foods, Foodways, and Social Movements: Decolonial Perspectives\| veditors = Peña D, Calvo L, McFarland P, Valle GR \|date=1 September 2017\|publisher=University of Arkansas Press\|isbn=9781610756181\|pages=274–276}}</ref> and [[Farm Aid]] are credited as working to raise awareness of or assist with food justice by fighting for family farmers to keep and sustain their land, fair pay and treatment of workers, and ensuring access to healthy foods to those previously denied affordable nourishment. == Consequences == === Food deserts === [[Food desert]]s are defined by the [[United States Department of Agriculture\|USDA]] as census tracts that contain a notable population of low income people that lack access to healthy and affordable food, such as a typical chain grocery store within reachable distance.<ref>{{Cite book \|last=Service. \|first=United States. Department of Agriculture. Economic Research \|title=Food access research atlas. \|publisher=U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, Economic Research Service \|oclc=730943048}}</ref> In food deserts, it is typical to see an abundance of fast food restaurants alongside gas stations and liquor stores with no fresh food, only offering bagged chips, sodas, and other quick eat items that lack nutritional substance, are available, alongside fast food restaurants that do not offer healthy options. In a Report to [[United States Congress\|Congress]] done by the United States Department of Agriculture, it was found that 23.5 million Americans live more than one mile away from a grocery store and do not have access to a car.<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1=Sturm \|first1=Roland \|last2=Hattori \|first2=Aiko \|date=May 2015 \|title=Diet and obesity in Los Angeles County 2007–2012: Is there a measurable effect of the 2008 "Fast-Food Ban"? \|journal=Social Science & Medicine \|volume=133 \|pages=205–211 \|doi=10.1016/j.socscimed.2015.03.004 \|pmid=25779774 \|pmc=4410074}}</ref> There are concerns regarding individuals in food insecure areas that have to rely on public transportation to access local food markets to grocery stores. Some activists criticize the term "food desert" as a bad descriptor of these neighborhoods, for two main reasons. First, the word "desert" implies something that is naturally existing. Deserts are labeled as so because they receive a certain amount of precipitation, a factor beyond human control. Rather, urban planner Karen Washington of Johns Hopkins explains that residents in "food deserts" often may have food, but it is the quality of such food that suffers.<ref>{{Cite web \|last=Spring 2014 \|first=Kelly Brooks / Published \|date=10 March 2014 \|title=Research shows food deserts more abundant in minority neighborhoods \|website=The Hub \|url=https://hub.jhu.edu/magazine/2014/spring/racial-food-deserts/ \|access-date=9 May 2022}}</ref> Grocery stores may have produce that is financially inaccessible for residents, and as such proximity is not always the main issue. Research from the University of Washington has shown that proximity to supermarkets had no correlation to ability to shop at a supermarket, and perhaps social deprivation is a better explanation. Scholars have used the term food mirage to explain this concept. === Food apartheid === In recent years, racial justice organizers began to label the lack of access to fresh, healthy, and affordable food a form of Food Apartheid. These organizers argue that this disparity is predominantly because of structural inequalities that deprive poor communities of color from access to the same selections of food as richer white communities.<ref>{{Citation \|title=Glossary \|date=2013 \|work=Ethical Justice \|pages=455–461 \|publisher=Elsevier \|doi=10.1016/b978-0-12-404597-2.17001-9 \|isbn=9780124045972}}</ref> Ashante Reese, author of Black Food Geographies: Race, Self-Reliance, and Food Access explains that the anti-Black racism and uneven capitalist urban development create conditions that can only be called food apartheid. Critics of this term explain that using the word apartheid to describe this unequal food access devalues the suffering inflicted on millions of South Africans upon its introduction in 1948. Apartheid was a traumatic experience for the millions of South Africans that lived under apartheid rule, and for that reason some call it an insensitive label for the food segregation phenomenon.<ref>{{Cite journal \|last=Dickinson \|first=Maggie \|date=3 September 2019 \|title=Black agency and food access: leaving the food desert narrative behind \|journal=City \|volume=23 \|issue=4–5 \|pages=690–693 \|doi=10.1080/13604813.2019.1682873 \|s2cid=210456018 \|issn=1360-4813}}</ref> == Structural inequities == Access to food is a highly racialized topic. === Indigenous Americans === Most of the farms in the United States exist on stolen land from legislation such as the Indian Removal Act of 1830.<ref>{{Citation \|last=Cafiero \|first=Carlo \|title=Measuring food insecurity \|date=6 December 2019 \|work=Food Security Policy, Evaluation and Impact Assessment \|pages=169–205 \|publisher=Routledge \|doi=10.4324/9781351019828-17 \|isbn=978-1-351-01982-8 \|s2cid=213728686}}</ref> This land was then portioned among white settlers for extremely low costs, through legislation such as the Homestead Act. Prior to European colonization of the Americas, the indigenous people that inhabited America had various regionally unique food resources. In 2020, it was reported that one in four Native Americans lacked reliable access to healthy food and had a much higher risk for diet-related diseases. American Indian and Alaska Native adults were 50% more likely to be obese and 30% more likely to suffer from hypertension compared to White Americans.<ref>{{Cite web \|title=Obesity and American Indians/Alaska Natives - The Office of Minority Health \|website=minorityhealth.hhs.gov \|url=https://minorityhealth.hhs.gov/omh/browse.aspx?lvl=4&lvlid=40 \|access-date=9 May 2022}}</ref> They are also 50% more likely to be diagnosed with coronary heart disease, and three times more likely to have diabetes. Valarie Blue Bird Jernigan, the executive director of the Center for Indigenous Health Research and Policy, posited that these levels of food insecurity were a direct result of colonization.<ref>{{Cite web \|last=Jernigan \|first=Valarie Blue Bird \|title=Ending food insecurity in Native communities means restoring land rights, handing back control \|url=http://theconversation.com/ending-food-insecurity-in-native-communities-means-restoring-land-rights-handing-back-control-158858 \|access-date=9 May 2022 \|website=The Conversation}}</ref> Her Community-based Participatory Research (CBPR) study on the Round Valley Reservation in Mendocino County, California, found that the 4,000 residents studied had nutritionally poor diets because of lack of access to fresh foods. The Round Valley Reservation's only sources of food during the study was a single grocery store located in the town over, with a fried chicken fast food restaurant inside, where 85% of its shelf space was dedicated to prepackaged foods. The only other source was reported to be a gas station which sold prepackaged snacks and hot dogs. Currently, up to 85% of Native American peoples on Reservations take part in food assistance programs, one of them being the US Department of Agriculture's (USDA's) Food Distribution Program on Indian Reservations (FDPIR).<ref>{{Cite web \|last=Sovereignty \|first=Working Group on Indigenous Food \|title=Indigenous Food Sovereignty {{!}} Indigenous Food Systems Network \|url=https://www.indigenousfoodsystems.org/food-sovereignty \|access-date=9 May 2022 \|website=www.indigenousfoodsystems.org}}</ref> The foods that these programs distribute are often canned and prepackaged, inevitably being high in salt, sugar, and fats as well as low in vital micronutrients. Jernigan commented that reform would be necessary to target unequal health outcomes for Native Americans, explaining that her ideal solution was increased efforts to focus on providing Indigenous food sovereignty, a specific policy approach that would work to mobilize communities using multi-millennial cultural harvesting strategies. === Black Americans === Black Americans also experience unequal access to healthy food. In the aftermath of slavery, many Black men became landowners, but between 1865 and 1910, some of this land was stolen from them through underhanded legal practices and violent acts. Many were also left unable to own any land, resulting in Black people being forced to [[sharecrop]] on other people's land.<ref name=":03">{{Cite journal \|last1=Billings \|first1=David \|last2=Cabbil \|first2=Lila \|date=2011 \|title=Food Justice: What's Race Got to Do with It? \|journal=Race/Ethnicity: Multidisciplinary Global Contexts \|volume=5 \|issue=1 \|pages=103–112 \|doi=10.2979/racethmulglocon.5.1.103 \|jstor=10.2979/racethmulglocon.5.1.103 \|s2cid=56420036 \|issn=1935-8644}}</ref> White supremacist violence and discriminatory money lending policies, many of which were instituted by the US Department of Agriculture, allowed for White developers to easily acquire properties. In 1920, Black Americans owned 14% of American farms. In 2017, that proportion had gone down to 2%.<ref>{{Cite web \|date=1 February 2021 \|title=Advocates Call for Shift in US Agriculture Policy to Benefit Black Farmers \|url=https://nonprofitquarterly.org/advocates-call-for-shift-in-us-agriculture-policy-to-benefit-black-farmers/ \|access-date=9 May 2022 \|website=Non Profit News {{!}} Nonprofit Quarterly}}</ref> The inability to farm and grow one's own food on one's own land prevented many communities from achieving a sustainable food system with equal access to good nutrition. The executive director of the National Black Food and Justice Alliance, Dara Cooper, stated that for food justice to be achieved within many Black communities, these communities would require the ownership and control of the businesses and institutions that deliver said food.<ref>{{Cite web \|date=24 February 2021 \|title=A Burgeoning Food Justice Movement Rises in Black America \|url=https://nonprofitquarterly.org/a-burgeoning-food-justice-movement-rises-in-black-america/ \|access-date=9 May 2022 \|website=Non Profit News {{!}} Nonprofit Quarterly}}</ref> Beyond farming discrimination, since the end of the [[Great Recession]], the income disparity between Black and White households widened. The intersection of socioeconomic inequality and the racial history of how Black Americans have been allowed to control the production of food creates a higher risk for Black Americans to face food insecurity.<ref>{{Cite web \|last1=Kochhar \|first1=Rakesh \|last2=Fry \|first2=Richard \|title=Wealth inequality has widened along racial, ethnic lines since end of Great Recession \|url=https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2014/12/12/racial-wealth-gaps-great-recession/ \|access-date=9 May 2022 \|website=Pew Research Center}}</ref> Food mirages explain the concept of grocery stores being present, but healthy items within them being financially out of reach for their customers. Harlem, New York is a neighborhood that highlights much of the radicalized nature of food injustice. Harlem was 87.6% Black in 1990. Past and current resident Angela Helm explains that at the time, the neighborhood would have been described as a food desert.<ref>{{Cite web \|title=On Whole Foods, Gentrification and the Erasure of Black Harlem \|url=https://www.theroot.com/on-whole-foods-gentrification-and-the-erasure-of-black-1797444513 \|access-date=9 May 2022 \|website=The Root \|date=3 August 2017}}</ref> Spurred by a real estate transformation, Starbucks locations began to open and President Bill Clinton moved his office into the neighborhood. As such, rents began to skyrocket and the landscape shifted. Residents protested the opening of Whole Foods, which drew in White neighbors and produce that remained unaffordable for residents and their families. Gentrification is a phenomenon that disproportionately impacts Black residents in urban areas, and also their access to food. A similar phenomenon can be seen in New Orleans, Louisiana. Following the destruction wreaked by Hurricane Katrina, New Orleans East was still home to 73,000 predominantly African American residents. This neighborhood in itself would constitute the fourth-largest city in Louisiana, yet the entire neighborhood has not a single grocery store.<ref name=":03"/> To target these disparities in economic capital, Soul Fire Farm, an Afro-Indigenous centered community farm, created a reparations map make these efforts more effective. Additionally, other scholars have proposed nutrition incentive programs that would provide cash matches for food stamps spent on fruits and vegetables in markets and grocery stores. Such benefits would apply to both the Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP) and Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children (WIC).<ref>{{Cite web \|title=Food Justice & Racism in the Food System \|url=https://www.rootsofchange.org/our-positions/food-justice-racism-in-the-food-system/ \|access-date=9 May 2022 \|website=Roots of Change}}</ref> === Residential segregation === Food apartheid and the lack of access to food are the results of racist politicking and they stem from socioeconomic injustices that disproportionately affect low income Black communities.{{Citation needed\|date=June 2018}} According to the [[American Civil Liberties Union\|ACLU]], food deserts are the direct manifestation of structural inequities that have been solidified over time. These institutional racisms that have resulted in a lack of access to healthy food for minorities are innumerable—but among them include housing policies leading to segregated communities and financial policies leading to commercial flight. These policies have all interacted over time to contribute to health disparities among the Black community.<ref>{{Cite web\|last=New York Law School\|first=ACLU\|date=13 May 2018\|title=Unshared Bounty: How Structural Racism Contributes to the Creation and Persistence of Food Deserts\|url=https://digitalcommons.nyls.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1002&context=racial_justice_project}}</ref> In 1962, 61% of White Americans shared the sentiment that "white people [possessed] a right to keep blacks out of their neighborhoods if they [wanted] to, and blacks should respect that right."<ref>James H. Carr and Nandinee K. Kutty, The New Imperative for Equality, in Segregation: The Rising Cost for Americans 40, 68 (James H. Carr & Nandinee K. Kutty, eds., 2008).</ref> Despite years of policy changes a result of the [[Civil rights movement\|Civil Rights Movement]], 30 years later in 1990, a Detroit survey of whites found that a quarter of white respondents would not move into a neighborhood that was more than 50% Black.<ref name="huduser">{{Cite web \|title=Expanding Opportunity Through Fair Housing Choice\|url=https://www.huduser.gov/portal/periodicals/em/spring14/highlight1.html\|website=www.huduser.gov \|access-date=7 June 2018}}</ref> Discrimination towards Blacks continues to influence real estate practices, while public policies and institutional discrimination continue to reinforce race segregated living patterns. Although segregation by race is illegal, it has not ceased to be the standard in America. Living patterns are not only correlated with access to educational opportunities, and employment opportunities—they are also correlated to access to food.<ref name="huduser" /> Studies published by the [[American Journal of Preventive Medicine]] have found that low-income neighborhoods and minority neighborhoods are less likely to have access to large supermarkets.<ref>{{cite journal \|vauthors= Larson NI, Story MT, Nelson MC \|title=Neighborhood environments: disparities in access to healthy foods in the U.S \|journal=American Journal of Preventive Medicine \|volume=36 \|issue=1 \|pages=74–81 \|date=January 2009 \|pmid=18977112 \|doi=10.1016/j.amepre.2008.09.025}}</ref> Federal government policies have directly hindered the development of supermarkets in Black populated communities. As middle-income whites got subsidized government loans to move from cities to suburbia, businesses, including supermarkets, relocated with them.<ref>{{Cite book\|title=Segregation : the rising costs for America in SearchWorks catalog \|url=https://searchworks.stanford.edu/view/7521750 \|website=searchworks.stanford.edu\|access-date=7 June 2018\|isbn=9780415965347\| vauthors=Carr JH, Kutty NK, Smith SL \|year=2008\|publisher=Taylor & Francis }}</ref> Grocery stores and retailers alike, were supported by the United States government to relocate to the suburbs—catering to the White middle class and leaving the cities desolate. Another housing issue related to food justice is the phenomena of green gentrification. Green gentrification is the idea that as initiatives to promote nutritious food in communities such as community gardens and farmers markets grow, neighborhoods become more appealing, and attract wealthier residents. These resources which were originally implemented to benefit low-income and marginalized communities then end up being used by more privileged populations. This was seen in Oakland, California, when a community garden started by the food justice organization [[Phat Beets Produce\|Phat Beets]] was shown in a real estate ad.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal \|last1=Alkon\|first1=Alison Hope\|last2=Cadji \|first2=Josh\|date=25 September 2018\|title=Sowing Seeds of Displacement: Gentrification and Food Justice in Oakland, CA\|journal=International Journal of Urban and Regional Research \|volume=44\|issue=1\|pages=108–123\|doi=10.1111/1468-2427.12684\|s2cid=149475935 \|issn=0309-1317}}</ref> Issues such as this one have led to many food justice organizations incorporating other social justice issues such as gentrification and affordable housing into their missions.<ref name=":3" /> == Health outcomes related to nutrition in communities of color == Research links many health issues to the lack of nutritious food, and since food insecurity disproportionately impacts people of color, so do these health conditions. For example, cancer, diabetes, and other nutrition-related health conditions are disproportionately seen in communities of color.<ref name=":02"/> According to the [[Centers for Disease Control and Prevention\|Centers For Disease Control]], obesity has been linked to a wide range of health problems including [[Diabetes mellitus type 2\|Type 2 Diabetes]], [[cardiovascular disease]]s, various types of cancer, [[hypertension]], and high cholesterol among both adults and children.<ref>{{Cite web \|url=https://www.cdc.gov/chronicdisease/resources/publications/aag/NCCDPHP.htm\|title=National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion {{!}} At A Glance Reports {{!}} Publications {{!}} Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion {{!}} CDC\|date=2 October 2017\|access-date=23 May 2018}}</ref> In a 2004 study done by medical doctors and public health professionals of New York's [[Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai]], a community coalition study was done to compare the availability and cost of diabetes-healthy foods in a Black populated neighborhood in East Harlem with that of the adjacent White, wealthy Upper East Side in New York City. Researchers surveyed 173 East Harlem and 152 Upper East Side grocery stores to find whether or not they stocked five basic diabetes-diet recommended foods. Results showed that only 18% of East Harlem stores stocked the recommended foods, compared with 58% of stores in the Upper East Side. Further, they found that only 9% of East Harlem bodegas (convenience stores) carried all five recommended items while 48% of Upper East Side bodegas carried the items.<ref>{{cite journal \|vauthors=Horowitz CR, Colson KA, Hebert PL, Lancaster K \|title=Barriers to buying healthy foods for people with diabetes: evidence of environmental disparities \|journal=American Journal of Public Health \|volume=94 \|issue=9 \|pages=1549–1554 \|date=September 2004 \|pmid=15333313 \|pmc=1448492 \|doi=10.2105/AJPH.94.9.1549}}</ref> This discrepancy is an example of how structural inequalities such as lack of access to healthy foods perpetuate high levels of type 2 diabetes in the black community. === Victim blaming === Access to food disproportionately affects minority communities, but victim-blaming narratives about them exist. For example, an article published by the [[United States Department of Agriculture\|U.S. Department of Agriculture]], Economic Research Service entitled "Access to Affordable, Nutritious Food is Limited in Food Deserts", states that consumers' demographic and economic characteristics, buying habits, and tastes can explain why stores do not locate in some areas or carry particularly healthy foods.<ref>{{Cite web\|url=https://www.ers.usda.gov/amber-waves/2010/march/access-to-affordable-nutritious-food-is-limited-in-food-deserts/\|title=USDA ERS - Access to Affordable, Nutritious Food Is Limited in "Food Deserts"\|website=www.ers.usda.gov\|access-date=23 May 2018}}</ref> Some criticized that such argument blames the communities themselves for the lack of access to healthy food and fails to acknowledge the historical influences and governmental policies that have marginalized these minority communities.<ref>{{Cite journal\|last1=Alkon\|first1=Alison Hope\|last2=Block\|first2=Daniel\|last3=Moore \|first3=Kelly\|last4=Gillis\|first4=Catherine\|last5=DiNuccio\|first5=Nicole\|last6=Chavez\|first6=Noel \|date=August 2013\|title=Foodways of the urban poor\|journal=Geoforum\|volume=48\|pages=126–135\|doi=10.1016/j.geoforum.2013.04.021 }}</ref> Additionally, one study found that the difference in nutritional quality of food between food secure and food insecure populations was likely to be a result of financial or time constraints.<ref name="Butcher 2021 267–282">{{Cite journal\|last1=Butcher\|first1=Lucy M.\|last2=O’Sullivan\|first2=Therese A.\|last3=Ryan\|first3=Maria M.\|last4=Lo\|first4=Johnny \|last5=Nyanjom\|first5=Julie\|last6=Wilkins\|first6=Hugh C.\|last7=Devine\|first7=Amanda \|date=2021\|editor-last=Judd\|editor-first=Jenni\|title=To dine in or not to dine in: A comparison of food selection and preparation behaviours in those with and without food security\|journal=Health Promotion Journal of Australia\|volume=32\|issue=S2\|pages=267–282\|doi=10.1002/hpja.427\|issn=1036-1073\|pmc=8597035\|pmid=32991748}}</ref> Finally, food insecure minority communities were found to be less likely to have the cooking facilities or skills needed to cook home cooked meals.<ref name="Butcher 2021 267–282"/> == Food sovereignty == [[Food sovereignty]] is defined in the Declaration of Nyéléni as "the right of peoples to healthy and culturally appropriate food produced through ecologically sound and sustainable methods, and their right to define their own food and agriculture systems."<ref>Declaration of Nyéléni (2007) Retrieved from https://viacampesina.org/en/declaration-of-nyi</ref> It revolves around the issues of "self determination, global uneven development, and ecological degradation," issues commonly associated with the Global South and rural Global North.<ref name = "Cadieux_2015">{{cite journal\| vauthors = Cadieux K, Slocum R \|title=What does it mean to do food justice?\|journal=Journal of Political Ecology\|date=2015\|volume=22\|pages=3\|doi=10.2458/v22i1.21076\|url=http://jpe.library.arizona.edu/volume_22/Cadieuxslocum.pdf\|access-date=13 May 2018\|doi-access=free}}</ref> This differs from food justice, which mostly describes inaccessibility and consumption of healthy food.<ref name = "Cadieux_2015" /> Other common areas of food sovereignty discourse include issues of scarcity, environmental factors, population growth, and allocation of resources. Food sovereignty often places emphasis on property rights of indigenous communities and small-scale farmers.<ref name = "Cadieux_2015" /> The food sovereignty movement in the United States was inspired by the Belgium-based international [[La Via Campesina]] movement, and focuses on the right to produce food. This movement challenges current neoliberal approaches to solving food insecurity, and introduces a radical restructuring of the food system. Food sovereignty takes a more rights-based approach than other forms of food movements, where every individual has the right to culturally appropriate, sustainably produced food.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal\|last1=Clendenning\|first1=Jessica\|last2=Dressler\|first2=Wolfram H.\|last3=Richards\|first3=Carol\|date=March 2016\|title=Food justice or food sovereignty? Understanding the rise of urban food movements in the USA\|url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s10460-015-9625-8\|journal=Agriculture and Human Values\|volume=33\|issue=1\|pages=165–177\|doi=10.1007/s10460-015-9625-8 \|s2cid=145661471\|issn=0889-048X\|hdl=11343/283038\|hdl-access=free}}</ref> === Food sovereignty and the Global South === Colonialism is also a major source of food insecurity in the Global South. Colonialism had a direct impact on those who depended on seasonal farming due to prolonged droughts in certain regions, however, colonial policy often made important pasture and water resources legally inaccessible.<ref name = "Oba_1992">{{cite journal \| vauthors = Oba G \|title=Ecological Factors in Land Use Conflicts, Land Administration and Food Insecurity in Turkana, Kenya \|journal=ODI Pastoral Development Network Paper \|date=December 1992 \|pages=10 \|citeseerx = 10.1.1.536.1825 \|url=https://www.odi.org/sites/odi.org.uk/files/odi-assets/publications-opinion-files/5389.pdf \|access-date=5 June 2018}}</ref> Food insecurity has been perpetuated by post-colonial policies more recently through the inflation of food prices, aggregation of cropland, and displacement of groups from land available for food crops.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors = McMichael P \|title=A food regime analysis of the 'world food crisis' \|journal=Agriculture and Human Values \|date=31 July 2009 \|volume=26 \|issue=4 \|pages=281–295 \|doi=10.1007/s10460-009-9218-5 \|s2cid=14407925 }}</ref> Similarly, colonial policies that encouraged the planting of cash crops for export over subsistence crops has continued to affect food security in the Global South.<ref name = "Alfreds_2011">{{cite news \|vauthors = Alfreds D \|title=Colonialism legacy 'haunts' food production \|url=http://www.worldwatch.org/system/files/Colonialism-legacy-haunts-food-production-News-24.pdf \|access-date=4 June 2018 \|work=News24 \|agency=24Media \|date=6 December 2011 \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180613015027/http://www.worldwatch.org/system/files/Colonialism-legacy-haunts-food-production-News-24.pdf \|archive-date=13 June 2018 \|url-status=dead }}</ref> Many Global South countries have subsequently become dependent on food aid from Global North nations.<ref name = "Oba_1992" /> === Food sovereignty and the United States === Food sovereignty is also an important part of the food justice movement in Global North countries, such as the United States. In the United States, food sovereignty is a critical part of indigenous food activism. Indigenous food sovereignty activists argue that indigenous communities have been systematically displaced from their traditional foodways, which has led to mass food insecurity.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors = Coté C \| year = 2016 \| title = "Indigenizing" Food Sovereignty. Revitalizing Indigenous Food Practices and Ecological Knowledges in Canada and the United States \| journal = Humanities \| volume = 5 \| issue = 3\| page = 57 \| doi = 10.3390/h5030057 \| doi-access = free }}</ref> They assert that the most effective way to achieve food security for indigenous groups is for those groups to be more involved in the production of their own food.<ref>Murphy, Andi. (2019). Indigenous Food Security is Dependent on Food Sovereignty. Retrieved from https://civileats.com/2019/07/24/indigenous-food-security-is-dependent-on-food-sovereignty/</ref> Some activists also argue for food sovereignty as a means of healing historical trauma. Food sovereignty of indigenous groups is also closely linked to seed sovereignty and [[plant breeders' rights]].<ref>LaDuke, Winona. (2012). Seeds of Our Ancestors, Seeds of Life, TEDxTC. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pHNlel72eQc</ref> This is because seed saving is an important practice both culturally and for the preservation of a large enough seed stock to feed communities.<ref>White, Rowen. (2018). The Native Seed Pod, Episode 1. https://www.nativeseedpod.org/podcast/2018/episode-1-the-natural-law-of-seeds</ref> High rates of food insecurity among Native peoples is juxtaposed by the reality that current American cuisine is largely dependent on Native American food culture, with the influences of potatoes, beans, corn, peanuts, pumpkins, tomatoes, squash, peppers, melons, and sunflower seeds.<ref name="Meredith, 2020">Meredith, 2020</ref> The indigenous food sovereignty movement has climbed to the forefront in combating food insecurity among Native peoples to incorporate back these traditional foods in their communities. With this is the increasing support for Tribal governance on Native lands to hopefully increase accessibility to these traditional foods, increase the support of home food production, and educate on the traditions of gathering, preparation, and preservation of food.<ref name="Meredith, 2020"/> == Food Justice Interventions == {{overly detailed\|section\|date=October 2022}} === Urban or community farms === One of the first tactics to battle the food injustice and scarcity found in both rural and urban areas is by the use of community or urban gardens. Community gardens, according to the American Community Gardening Association's (ACGA) mission statement, are essential catalysts for the neighborhood and surrounding community by not only helping combat food insecurity in providing healthy food options but it is also economically and environmentally sound, these gardens also provide a source for recreation, therapy, beauty and education.<ref>{{cite web\|last1=American Community Gardening Association \|title=Growign Community Across the U.S. and Canada \|url=https://communitygarden.org/mission/ \|website=Community Garden\|publisher=American Community Gardening Association\|access-date=13 May 2018 \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180416164153/https://communitygarden.org/mission/\|archive-date=16 April 2018\|url-status=dead}}</ref> In addition, having communal gardens may also benefit immigrants and refugees who use gardening as a tactic to immerse themselves in new surroundings while also getting a chance to reconnect with their culture and receive food for their family and community.<ref>{{cite journal\|last1=American Community Gardening Association\|title=2015 Annual Report\|date=2016 \|pages=10\|url=https://communitygarden.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/11/Annual-Report-2015.pdf\|access-date=13 May 2018}}{{Dead link\|date=December 2019 \|bot=InternetArchiveBot \|fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> This epitomizes how the Center for Rural Affairs sees the working of the community food system of which may take many forms but at its core aims to, form a connection between the producers locals who grow or make the food and the consumers, the community.<ref>{{cite web\|last1=Center For Rural Affairs \|title=Community Food\|url=http://www.cfra.org/community-food\|website=CFRA\|publisher=Center For Rural Affairs\|access-date=13 May 2018}}</ref> Despite the great change and development community gardens bring, many in these communities had to fight for the right to use the land for gardening which was evident in the 1960s with "[[guerrilla gardening]]" tactics to combat land scarcity and resist the, "inequalities between the powerful and powerless."<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors = Baudry S \|title=Reclaiming Urban Space as Resistance: The Infrapolitics of Gardening \|journal=Revue Française d'Études Américaines \|volume=131 \|date=2012 \|issue=1 \|pages=35–36 \|doi=10.3917/rfea.131.0032 \|doi-access=free }}</ref> Today, according to the ACGA annual report, 61% of community or urban gardens are found on government lands, indicating the important role local governments play in the allowing or blocking the use of community gardens through the implementation of opposing legislation or strict land use policies.<ref>{{cite journal\|last1=American Community Gardening Association \|title=2015 Annual Report\|date=2016 \|pages=9\|url=https://communitygarden.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/11/Annual-Report-2015.pdf\|access-date=13 May 2018}}{{Dead link\|date=December 2019 \|bot=InternetArchiveBot \|fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> === Produce availability === Equity in both the decision-making process and the distribution of resources is the core of the food justice movement and can be achieved through government policies. One possible course of action to combat food deserts may be in mandating that corner stores and such in food deserts provide some variation of fruits and vegetables. For instance, in Minneapolis, the Department of Health and Family Support understood, that residents in food deserts, who were unable to travel to grocery stores or farmers markets, purchased their staple foods from convenience stores, which also carried more unhealthy quick foods rather than fresh produce.<ref name = "MDHFS">{{cite web \| title = Minneapolis Healthy Corner Store Program Making produce more visible, affordable and attractive \|date=2012 \|publisher=Minneapolis Department of Health and Family Support \|location=Minneapolis, Minnesota \|pages=3 \|url=http://www.minneapolismn.gov/www/groups/public/@health/documents/webcontent/wcms1p-095276.pdf}}</ref> To combat this issue the Minneapolis City Council passed an ordinance requiring Minneapolis corner stores to carry "five varieties of perishable produce" and the Minnesota Department of Health requires, "WIC-certified stores to carry a minimum of seven varieties (and thirty pounds) of fresh produce."<ref name = "MDHFS"/>{{rp\|3}} However even with the ordinances North Minneapolis residents who, "shopped most often at corner stores... did not purchase produce from them," due to factors such as produce being out of site or not fresh.<ref name = "MDHFS"/>{{rp\|3}} This indicates however that ordinances as such may not always be enough. In the case of Minneapolis, the MDHFS created the Healthy Corner Store Program to ensure the success of the ordinance by providing assistance from a grocery store consultant to store owners to, "making healthy foods and fresh produce more visible, affordable, and attractive to neighborhood residents."<ref name = "MDHFS"/>{{rp\|4}} Another possible solution to food injustices and specifically food injustice may be in making new regulations providing that there be more grocery stores in urban and rural areas. The USDA also sees this as an issue in stating that 2.2 million Americans have difficulty in accessing large grocery stores due to have to travel over a mile in urban areas or more than 10 in urban areas may increase reliance on convenience stores and restaurants(fast food), resulting in a poor diet and diet-related health problems.<ref name="Breneman_2009">{{cite journal \| vauthors = Ver Ploeg M, Breneman V, Farrigan T, Hamrick K, Hopkins D, Kaufman P, Lin BH, Nord M, Smith TA, Williams R, Kinnison K \| display-authors = 6 \|title=Access to Affordable and Nutritious Food Measuring and Understanding Food Deserts and Their Consequences \|journal=Report to Congress \|date=2009 \|issue=June \|pages=iii \|url=https://www.ers.usda.gov/webdocs/publications/42711/12716_ap036_1_.pdf?v=41055 \|access-date=14 May 2018}}</ref> The USDA recognizes that the limited food access in Urban core areas, "are characterized by higher levels of racial segregation and greater income inequality." In small-town and rural areas with limited the lack of transportation infrastructure."<ref name="Breneman_2009" /> However not all chain groceries will go into small neighborhoods due to the risk and upkeep, For places like West Oakland in California, where about half the residents do not have a car, access to grocery stores is even more so a struggle, so Brahm Ahmadi, decided to open his own full service grocery store and health center by selling bonds directly to the public.<ref>{{cite news \| vauthors = Finz S \|title=West Oakland supermarket shops for funds Food Stock for planned grocery store, much needed in West Oakland, being sold in direct public offering \|url=https://www.sfgate.com/business/article/West-Oakland-supermarket-shops-for-funds-4292021.php#ixzz2LSi1Y6bg \|access-date=14 May 2018 \|work=SFGate \|agency=Hearst Communications \|date=20 February 2013}}</ref> === Food vending === Food trucks and other local services provide another option to help provide food to food deserts and other rural areas. In some places these food trucks like the Second Harvest Food Bank's Produce Mobile Program help communities and neighborhoods in need by providing them with high-quality and fresh produce.<ref>{{cite web \|last1=Second Harvest Food Bank \|title=Produce Mobile Program \|url=https://www.shfb.org/producemobile \|website=Second Harvest Food Bank \|access-date=13 May 2018}}</ref> Food trucks are another important source of food, and are unique in their mobility but also in their locations. Food trucks are found in cities, towns, and universities all over the United States and Canada although they have a longer history in places like Portland where there was little laws preventing them or Los Angeles where immigrants carried on traditions.<ref name = "Ferguson_2018">{{cite web \| vauthors = Ferguson L \| date = June 2018 \|title=Food Trucks as a Force for Social Justice \|url=https://now.tufts.edu/articles/food-trucks-force-social-justice \|website=Tufts Now \|publisher=Tufts University \|access-date=6 June 2018}}</ref> Other spaces for these vendors became fairly recent in places like Montreal where trucks and cultural spaces were previously regulated.<ref>{{cite web \| vauthors = Ferguson L \|title=Food Trucks as a Force for Social Justice \|url=https://now.tufts.edu/articles/food-trucks-force-social-justice \|website=Tufts Now \|publisher=Tufts University \|access-date=6 June 2018\|date=19 April 2018 }}</ref> Although often overlooked because they may not always supply the most 'healthy' food, they help combat food insecurity by supplying food to communities that either have no other means of getting food or simply bringing more food options into the community.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors = Reese A \|title=Between a Corner Store and a Safeway: Navigating the Unequal Foodscape in Washington, D.C \|date=20 November 2015 \|url=https://aaa.confex.com/aaa/2015/webprogram/Paper49609.html \|access-date=22 May 2018}}</ref> Food trucks have also been labeled, "powerful affirmation of pop-up urbanism," that are controlled by ordinary people creating culturally different and creative spaces.<ref name = "Ferguson_2018" /> However, food trucks and other street vendors have often been banned by cities if they did not have permits or if they were considered a competitive threat to establishments nearby.<ref name = "Powers_2018">{{cite web \| vauthors = Powers M \| date = February 2018 \|title=California and Arizona File Bills to Legalize Vending Trades \|url=http://ij.org/california-arizona-file-bills-legalize-vending-trades/ \|website=Institute for Justice \|access-date=22 May 2018}}</ref> Yet recently,{{when\|date=October 2022}} legislation in California (SB946) and Arizona (HB 2371) are aimed to not only legalize food trucks statewide but also decriminalize the sidewalk vending.<ref name = "Powers_2018" /> Legislation like these will not only help to boost the local economy but it will also allow vendors to safely and securely provide food to the community. However food trucks are not just an American or Western phenomenon, they are part of a phenomenon that has been quite common in much of the Global South.<ref name = "Ferguson_2018" /> Food vending in the Global South slightly differs as food vending enables many to simply survive, hang on, and cope with urban towns.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors = Muzvidziwa V \|title=Food Vending: Adaptation Under Difficult Circumstances \|journal=Journal of Social Development in Africa \|date=July 2000 \|volume=15 \|issue=2 \|pages=69–70 \|url=http://pdfproc.lib.msu.edu/?file=/DMC/African%20Journals/pdfs/social%20development/vol15no2/jsda015002005.pdf \|access-date=5 June 2018 \|doi=10.4314/jsda.v15i2.23860\|s2cid=153336315 }}</ref> It also allows them to develop networks and strategies to get by in these towns by forming relationships with commercial and small-holder irrigation farmers.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors = Muzvidziwa V \|title=Food Vending: Adaptation Under Difficult Circumstances \|journal=Journal of Social Development in Africa \|date=July 2000 \|volume=15 \|issue=2 \|pages=70 \|url=http://pdfproc.lib.msu.edu/?file=/DMC/African%20Journals/pdfs/social%20development/vol15no2/jsda015002005.pdf \|access-date=5 June 2018 \|doi=10.4314/jsda.v15i2.23860\|s2cid=153336315 }}</ref> Food delivery services are another way from either local grocery stores or market boxes sent to your door. However, some of these tend to be expensive or require internet accessibility to control your account, depending on the community especially those in rural areas this option may not be possible. There are other innovations from the nonprofit, social enterprise sector that show promise for connecting residents with limited access to fresh food to sources of fresh produce. New Roots Fresh Stop Markets were created in 2009 with the express purpose of "igniting community power for fresh food access." Fresh Stop Markets are fresh food markets that pop up biweekly in urban fresh food insecure communities in Louisville, Kentucky, southern Indiana, and in two rural Kentucky towns—Hazard and Brandenburg. Families agree to cooperate with each other and pool their resources—SNAP Benefits and Debit/Credit—on an income-based sliding scale, a week ahead, purchasing in bulk from local, organic farmers. This big buying power creates an opportunity for farmers to sell to a committed group with no risk, while families benefit from wholesale prices. Each family receives the same share (bag) of fresh, seasonal produce regardless of what they pay. Fresh Stop Markets always feature a chef or culinary enthusiast who demos fresh, plant-based dishes, distributes recipes and shares information and support. Veggie cheerleaders advocate for the vegetables so that everyone feels comfortable with the varieties offered. Fresh Stop Markets are volunteer driven by shareholders so that everyone from children to older adults can offer to share their knowledge with others.<ref>{{Cite web\|url=https://drive.google.com/file/d/0By3Vd1BeEW9fSm9CS2tpbGJGVlNSSnBTdUVpOERkQXFPWC1v/view?usp=embed_facebook\|title=NR Sustain Article 2013.pdf\|website=Google Docs\|access-date=30 September 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web\|url=https://www.facebook.com/NewRoots/\|title=New Roots, Inc\|website=www.facebook.com\|access-date=30 September 2019}}</ref> ==== SNAP and other food assistance programs ==== Another solution to potentially combat the food injustice, both in terms of quality and quantity of food, is in government provided subsidies and vouchers to help alleviate financial burden in affording food, as well as making healthier options available. The U.S. Federal government, as many other governments has put in much of its resources, approximately 50 billion dollars per year towards nutrition assistance programs.<ref name="Chilton M 2007">{{cite journal \| vauthors = Chilton M, Rose D \| title = A rights-based approach to food insecurity in the United States \| journal = American Journal of Public Health \| volume = 99 \| issue = 7 \| pages = 1203–11 \| date = July 2009 \| pmid = 19443834 \| pmc = 2696644 \| doi = 10.2105/AJPH.2007.130229 }}</ref> SNAP is one of these programs, mitigated by the federal government under the Food and Nutrition Service (FNS) in the 1960s that according to one of their publications, "improves health, enhances self-sufficiency, and alleviates food insecurity."<ref name = "Danielson_2018">{{cite web \| vauthors = Danielson C \| date = February 2018 \|title=The CalFresh Food Assistance Program \|url=http://www.ppic.org/publication/the-calfresh-food-assistance-program/ \|website=Public Policy Institute of California \|access-date=13 May 2018}}</ref> The Public Policy Institute has conducted research showing that the introduction of food stamps has reduced illnesses attributed to poor diet such as diabetes and increased average birth weights among adults who had access to the program since their youth.<ref name = "Danielson_2018" /> Food vouchers such as CalFresh had success in reducing "food insecurity among low-income households" during the recent{{when\|date=October 2022}} recession.<ref name = "Danielson_2018" /> However, despite the efforts made by these comprehensive assistance networks the United States has failed to make little to no advancement towards reducing food insecurity to 6% , relative to 1995 when measurements of food inequity within households began.<ref name="Chilton M 2007"/> With prevalent ideas/facts like these as well as the fear of fraudulent cases the federal government has proposed a new way to alleviate food insecurity and provide what it deems as healthier choices in the Food Harvest Program.<ref name = "Rosenbaum_2018">{{cite web \| vauthors = Rosenbaum D, Dean S, Bolen EW, Keith-Jennings B, Cai L, Nchako C \|title=President's Budget Would Cut Food Assistance for Millions and Radically Restructure SNAP \|url=https://www.cbpp.org/research/food-assistance/presidents-budget-would-cut-food-assistance-for-millions-and-radically \|website=Center on Budget and Policy Priorities \| date = February 2018 \|access-date=6 June 2018}}</ref> The harvest program cut the budget for SNAP by 30% over the next ten years{{when\|date=October 2022}} by using a food delivery service to provide a box of non-perishable "surplus" goods to the recipients including a set box with canned fruits, vegetables, meats, peanut butter, and canned or frozen meat, and shelf stable milk, each box will be sized to the family size and granted benefits.<ref name = "Rosenbaum_2018" /> However other sources note that those with more than $90 a month in benefits, additional to the box will have any remaining balance put on to their EBT cards.<ref name = "Kirby_2018">{{cite news \| vauthors = Kirby J \|title=Trump wants to replace food stamps with food boxes, for some reason \|url=https://www.vox.com/2018/2/13/17004636/snap-trump-budget-food-stamps-food-boxes \|access-date=6 June 2018 \|work=Vox \|agency=Vox Media, Inc. \|date=13 February 2018}}</ref> There is a lack of choice in terms of what food the participants can have. Even though many still purchase foods that are deemed unhealthy much of this is due to the fact that some may live in substandard housing or not have a functional kitchen so these foods, although some may be healthy will not always be suitable for all recipients.<ref name = "Kirby_2018" /> In comparison to SNAP, the administration's new program would only cover 90,000 people, while the former helped millions to come out of poverty.<ref name = "Kirby_2018" /> There are still many questions left to answer, such as delivery and how recipients will receive their boxes, as the use of delivery may pose a risk for delays.<ref name = "Rosenbaum_2018" /> Besides money, there are children's and summer food programs enacted in various states including California that allow either free or reduced lunches for those living in food deserts and underprivileged neighborhoods. These initiatives allow these individuals to have food security by providing them with access to foods that would otherwise be unattainable for them. Because schools are pivotal institutions in securing food availability, the USDA has done its part in having more healthy and wholesome food options available. New items have been added to school lunches, such as frozen rather than canned mixed berries and vegetables, grilled chicken breast fillets, egg patty rounds, and white whole wheat flour.<ref>{{cite web \|last1=USDA \|title=USDA Foods from Farm to Plate: Spotlight on Schools \|website=USDA \|publisher=United States Department of Agriculture \| url = https://content.govdelivery.com/accounts/USFNS/bulletins/2a8384f }}</ref> ==== Education ==== Many argue that simply increasing availability and providing vouchers will not solve the food justice issue in regards to food deserts, which is where the argument for nutrition education comes in. Studies have been shown that eating habits do not change when put grocery stores in poor neighborhoods, as reiterated by Barry Popkin, a professor of nutrition at the University of North Carolina stated that simply adding a grocery store in poor neighborhoods, will not make a huge impact as food prices and people's shopping and eating habits undermine convenience.<ref name = "Sanger-Katz_2018">{{cite news \| vauthors = Sanger-Katz M \|title=Giving the Poor Easy Access to Healthy Food Doesn't Mean They'll Buy It \|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2015/05/09/upshot/giving-the-poor-easy-access-to-healthy-food-doesnt-mean-theyll-buy-it.html \|access-date=13 May 2018 \|work=The New York Times \|agency=The New York Times Company \|date=8 May 2018}}</ref> According to a study,{{when\|date=October 2022}} within the first year government-subsidized supermarkets in high need neighborhoods households were reported to have a significance effect on food availability and consumption habits.<ref name="Morgan_2015">{{cite journal\|name-list-style=vanc\|vauthors=Elbel B, Moran A, Dixon LB, Kiszko K, Cantor J, Abrams C, Mijanovich T\|date=October 2015\|title=Assessment of a government-subsidized supermarket in a high-need area on household food availability and children's dietary intakes\|journal=Public Health Nutrition\|volume=18\|issue=15\|pages=2881–90\|pmid=25714993 \|doi=10.1017/S1368980015000282 \|pmc=10271373 \|doi-access=free}}</ref> Reasoning behind this includes that individuals formed reliance on their usual supermarkets and the abundance and affordability of processed foods.<ref name="Morgan_2015" /> Due to these reasons, overall lower income families bought less healthy food than wealthier families, however there were even greater disparities found, "between families with and without a college education."<ref name="Sanger-Katz_2018" /> These results suggest that in order to improve a person's diet and change perceptions it is essential that there be education on diet and health on top of increasing food accessibility and affordability.<ref name="Sanger-Katz_2018" /> However the affordability of food may in fact influence food choice if the government chose to not only subsidize fruits and vegetables but also tax fast food, "to improve weight outcomes among children and adolescents."<ref>{{Cite book\|author1=National Research Council (US)\|title=The Public Health Effects of Food Deserts\|date=2009\|isbn=978-0-309-13728-7\|pages=14\|chapter=Determining the Extent of Food Deserts \|doi=10.17226/12623\|pmid=25032337 \|url=https://www.nap.edu/read/12623/chapter/4#14}}</ref> ==== Genetically Engineered Crops ==== While many food justice interventions function at more localized scales, food injustice is both systemic and complex, and touches on the uneven global allocation of finite resources. The global food scarcity ideology is at the heart of many corporate food justice campaigns, and entities including Bayer campaign on feeding the world - and therefore cultivating more just societies - by using genetic engineering crops. Reports have questioned both the efficacy and ethics of GE crops as food justice strategies.<ref name = "Gurian-Sherman_2009">{{cite web \| vauthors = Gurian-Sherman D \|title=Failure to Yield: Evaluating the Performance of Genetically Engineered Crops \|url= https://www.ucsusa.org/sites/default/files/legacy/assets/documents/food_and_agriculture/failure-to-yield.pdf \|website=Union of Concerned Scientists \| date = April 2009 \|access-date=13 May 2018}}</ref> These interventions also pose risks that threaten other pillars of just and ecologically viable societies; critics of GMOs cite the harms of overproduction, as well as decreasing [[Biodiversity loss\|genetic diversity of crops]] which can lead to wipe out due to [[invasive species]].<ref>{{Cite journal\|last1=Abushal\|first1=Logayn T.\|last2=Salama\|first2=Mohamed \|last3=Essa\|first3=Musthafa Mohamed\|last4=Qoronfleh\|first4=M. Walid\|date=2021\|title=Agricultural biotechnology: Revealing insights about ethical concerns\|journal=Journal of Biosciences \|volume=46\|issue=3\|pages=81\|doi=10.1007/s12038-021-00203-0\|s2cid=236993748\|issn=0250-5991}}</ref> == Criticisms == Working locally allows organizations to directly solve issues of hunger in their immediate communities, and this work is often successful in providing more nutritious food to disadvantaged communities. However, critics of the food justice movement argue that working locally also prevents larger structural changes from occurring. Most organizations work around the neoliberal food system in place, and mitigate damage done by this system instead of taking down the system itself.<ref name=":2"/> NGOs are an important part of the food movement, yet these NGOs require outside funding which some argue depoliticizes the movement.<ref>{{Cite journal\|last1=Brent\|first1=Zoe W. \|last2=Schiavoni \|first2=Christina M.\|last3=Alonso-Fradejas\|first3=Alberto\|date=4 March 2015\|title=Contextualising food sovereignty: the politics of convergence among movements in the USA \|journal=Third World Quarterly \|volume=36\|issue=3\|pages=618–635\|doi=10.1080/01436597.2015.1023570\|s2cid=155057582\|issn=0143-6597\|url=https://pure.eur.nl/en/publications/ae961058-48dc-4fed-8290-9ea22608212f }}</ref> To remain strong in their values and their mission, some in the movement argue that no connections can exist between their organizations and outside companies that do not align with their goals. However, these organizations need money to have a strong impact, and face the challenge of finding a balance between radicalism and realistic change. Similarly, there is concern that the food justice movement will end up becoming an "empty signifier" on food labels as a means of [[greenwashing]] and false advertising- a concern that becomes more real when organizations are forced to turn to outside companies.<ref name="90.">{{cite journal \|last1=Cadieux \|first1=K. Valentine \|last2=Slocum \|first2=Rachel \|title=What does it mean to do food justice? \|journal=Journal of Political Ecology \|date=2015 \|volume=22 \|doi=10.2458/v22i1.21076 \|url=https://digitalcommons.hamline.edu/cla_faculty/3 \|access-date=20 October 2022\|doi-access=free }}</ref> Food justice has a longer history in the US than other movements such as food sovereignty, and was initially seen as politically strong with its roots in groups including the Black Panthers. However, more recently,{{when\|date=October 2022}} critics argue that food sovereignty is leading to more effective restructuring of the unequal food system.<ref name=":2" /> == See also == {{Portal\|Food\|Society}} * [[Food Security]] * [[Sustainable agriculture]] * [[Slow Food]] * [[Fair Trade]] * [[Fair Food Program]] * [[Agroecology]] * [[Right to food]] == References == {{Reflist\|refs=Blue Bird Jernigan, V., Salvatore, A. L., Styne, D. M., & Winkleby, M. (2011). Addressing food insecurity in a native american reservation using community-based participatory research. Health Education Research, 27(4), 645-655. doi:10.1093/her/cyr089 Gundersen, C. (2008). Measuring the extent, depth, and severity of food insecurity: An application to american indians in the USA.Journal of Population Economics, 21(1), 191-215. doi:10.1007/s00148-007-0152-9 Meredith, E. (2020, 10 November,). November is native american heritage month. Retrieved from https://hungerandhealth.feedingamerica.org/2020/11/november-native-american-heritage-month/ Tomayko, E. J., Mosso, K. L., Cronin, K. A., Carmichael, L., Kim, K., Parker, T., . . . Adams, A. K. (2017). Household food insecurity and dietary patterns in rural and urban american indian families with young children. BMC Public Health, 17(1), 611. doi:10.1186/s12889-017-4498-y}} [[Category:Sustainable agriculture]] [[Category:Sustainability]] [[Category:Sustainable food system]] [[Category:Justice]]
Green Office	{{Short description\|Sustainability department or office}} A '''Green Office''' (in some cases also called ''Student Green Office, (Student) Green Unit, Sustainability Hub, or Nachhaltigkeitsbüro'' (German)) is a sustainability department or office that enables students and other actors such as academics and staff to act on sustainability at their university.<ref name=":0">{{Cite news\|url=http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0024/002457/245763E.pdf\|title=The Green Office Model: Making universities more sustainable\|last1=Lehnhof\|first1=Roman\|work=UNESCO\|last2=Nolan\|first2=Cathy}}</ref> The model differs from other approaches of sustainability governance, as it allows students to actively contribute to their university’s sustainability efforts.<ref>{{cite web\|url=http://www.eauc.org.uk/next_generation_sustainability_strategy_and_str\|title=Next Generation Sustainability Strategy and Structure Launch\|website=www.eauc.org.uk\|access-date=2018-01-16}}</ref> Through its institutional mandate, funding and support, a Green Office addresses common barriers which prevent sustainability student groups from having more of an impact on their university.<ref>{{cite web\|url=http://rootability.com/wp-content/uploads/2011_Spira_Sustainability-student-groups.pdf\|title=Sowing sprouts to engender greener universities\|last=Spira\|first=Felix}}</ref> The first Green Office was established at [[Maastricht University]] in 2010 as the institution’s student-run sustainability department.<ref>{{Cite news\|url=http://netzwerk-n.org/portfolios/green-office-maastricht/\|title=Green Office Maastricht\|work=netzwerk n\|access-date=2018-01-16\|language=de-DE}}</ref> The model has since spread to over 50 higher education institutions in various countries, mainly in Europe.<ref>{{Cite news\|url=https://www.greenofficemovement.org/\|title=Start your Sustainability Office and join the Green Office Movement\|work=Green Office Movement\|access-date=2020-11-22\|language=en-GB}}</ref> It is particularly popular in the Netherlands, where most of the universities have established a Green Office. The model is actively being spread by the social business ''Green Office Movement'' (previously known as ''rootAbility'') and is freely available under a [[Creative Commons License]].<ref name=":0" /> == Activities and achievements == Green Offices focus on embedding sustainability into the education, research and operations of their university or on supporting sustainability student engagement. For example, Maastricht, Magdeburg and Konstanz are engaged in writing sustainability reports, strategies and policies for their university. Others, such as Groningen, Utrecht and Rotterdam are more focused on student engagement through lectures, movie screenings or workshops.<ref>{{Cite news\|url=http://www.greenofficemovement.org/green-office-case-studies\|title=23 Green Office case studies from European universities\|work=Green Office Model\|access-date=2020-11-22\|language=en-US}}</ref><br> Some notable achievements of Green Offices include: * Contributing to achieving the [[Fairtrade certification\|Fair-Trade]] University Status (Eindhoven).<ref>{{Cite news\|url=http://www.greenofficemovement.org/eindhoven/\|title=Eindhoven - Green Office Model\|date=2017-07-22\|work=Green Office Model\|access-date=2018-01-16\|language=en-US}}</ref> * Creating a sustainability minor and honours programme (VU Amsterdam).<ref>{{Cite news\|url=http://www.greenofficemovement.org/vu/\|title=Amsterdam (VU) - Green Office Model\|date=2017-05-03\|work=Green Office Model\|access-date=2018-01-16\|language=en-US}}</ref> * Increasing the recycling rate of [[Electronic waste\|E-waste]] by 185% (Maastricht).<ref>{{Cite news\|url=http://www.greenofficemovement.org/maastricht\|title=Maastricht - Green Office Model\|date=2017-07-19\|work=Green Office Model\|access-date=2018-01-16\|language=en-US}}</ref> * Getting an online course accredited (Konstanz).<ref>{{Cite news\|url=http://www.greenofficemovement.org/konstanz/\|title=Konstanz - Green Office Model\|date=2017-07-22\|work=Green Office Model\|access-date=2018-01-16\|language=en-US}}</ref> * Initiating the development of a university-wide sustainability vision (Leiden).<ref>{{Cite web\|title=Past Projects\|url=https://www.universiteitleiden.nl/en/green-office/projects/past-projects#climate-call\|website=Leiden University}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web\|title=How sustainable does the University want to be by 2030?\|url=https://www.universiteitleiden.nl/en/news/2020/09/how-sustainable-does-the-university-want-to-be-by-2030\|website=Leiden University}}</ref> == Characteristics == An analysis of 23 Green Offices concluded that the average Green Office has 5 student employees who are paid for 9 hours a week and typically work another 5 hours voluntarily. The Green Office either consists of only students who actively work with staff at the institution or of students and staff in one core team. Every second Green Offices works with volunteers. Typically, a Green Office working with volunteers will manage 20 volunteers at a time.<ref name="auto">{{Cite news\|url=http://www.greenofficemovement.org/model\|title=What is a GO? - Green Office Model\|work=Green Office Model\|access-date=2018-01-16\|language=en-US}}</ref><br> 70% of Green Offices possess their own office space, whereas 30% share office space. Green Offices are officially recognized and resourced by their Executive Board, a (sustainability) committee or Facility Services. The average overall annual budget is 60,000 EUR. Some Green Offices also have supervisory boards to which they report.<ref name="auto"/> == Green Office Movement == Existing Green Offices are part of the “Green Office Movement”.<ref>{{Cite news\|url=http://www.greenofficemovement.org/model\|title=Green Office Model - Green Office Model\|work=Green Office Model\|access-date=2018-01-16\|language=en-US}}</ref> The movement organizes a yearly European Green Office Summit,<ref>{{Cite news\|url=http://www.deutschlandfunk.de/nachhaltigkeit-an-universitaeten-kleine-schritte-gegen.697.de.html?dram:article_id=300602\|title=Nachhaltigkeit an Universitäten - Kleine Schritte gegen große Verschwendung\|work=Deutschlandfunk\|access-date=2018-01-16\|language=de-DE}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news\|url=http://www.duurzamestudent.nl/2016/12/22/green-office-summit-a-rollercoaster-of-activities/\|title=Green Office Summit: a rollercoaster of activities - DuurzameStudent\|date=2016-12-22\|work=DuurzameStudent\|access-date=2018-01-16\|language=nl-NL}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news\|url=http://www.greenofficemovement.org/summit/\|title=European GO Summit - Green Office Model\|work=Green Office Model\|access-date=2018-01-16\|language=en-US}}</ref> as well as a Learning, Exchange and Action Programme hosting knowledge exchange throughout the year.<ref>{{Cite news\|url=https://www.greenofficemovement.org/join/\|title=Join the GO Movement\|date=2020-11-22\|work=rootAbility\|access-date=2018-05-10\|language=en-GB}}</ref> On a national level, the movement is supported by ''Studenten voor Morgen'' in the Netherlands,<ref>{{cite web\|url=http://www.studentenvoormorgen.nl/green-offices/\|title=Green Offices – Studenten voor Morgen\|website=www.studentenvoormorgen.nl\|language=nl-NL\|access-date=2018-01-16}}</ref> ''[[:de:Netzwerk n\|Netzwerk N]]'' in Germany and the [[National Union of Students (United Kingdom)\|National Union of Students]] in the United Kingdom.<ref>{{Cite web \|url=https://www.rootability.com/model/movement# \|title=- rootAbility \|access-date=2017-10-10 \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171017144647/http://rootability.com/model/movement/# \|archive-date=2017-10-17 \|url-status=dead }}</ref> == Risks and recognition == A recurring issue Green Offices have faced is a lack of continuity given the high turnover of student employees. Green Offices also have limited authority within the university and rely on academics, staff and higher management to work with them. In addition, a Green Office may reduce the responsibility that other actors at the university feel to act on sustainability.<ref name="auto"/> The Green Office Model has received numerous recognitions including the International Student Campus Network Award for excellence in student projects<ref>{{cite web\|url=https://www.international-sustainable-campus-network.org/awards/previous-sce-award-winners\|title=Previous Award Winners - International Sustainable Campus Network\|last=Connolly\|first=Clare\|website=www.international-sustainable-campus-network.org\|language=en-gb\|access-date=2018-01-16}}</ref> and the [[The UNESCO-Japan Prize on Education for Sustainable Development\|UNESCO-Japan Prize on Education for Sustainable Development]].<ref name="auto1">{{cite web\|url=https://en.unesco.org/prize-esd/2015laureats/rootAbility\|title=rootAbility\|website=UNESCO\|date=18 November 2015 \|language=en\|access-date=2018-01-16}}</ref> The committee for the UNESCO-Japan prize claims that “this intense collaboration and inclusive participation have ensured the best conditions for the necessary changes towards sustainability.”<ref name="auto1"/> ==References== {{reflist}} [[Category:Sustainability at academic institutions]] [[Category:Sustainability]]
Microfinance	{{Short description\|Provision of microloans to poor entrepreneurs and small businesses}} {{Use dmy dates\|date=July 2020}} {{Use Oxford spelling\|date=July 2020}} {{Being merged\|target=Financial inclusion\|discuss=Talk:Financial inclusion#Merge of microfinance\|dir=to \|date=February 2020\|spacetype=article}} {{Multiple issues\| {{Technical \|date=January 2011}} {{More footnotes needed \|date=February 2013}} {{lead rewrite \|date=September 2018}} }} [[File:Afghanistan microfinance women Sewing (10665104743).jpg\|thumb\|An Afghan woman doing microfinanced sewing work]] '''Microfinance''' is a category of financial services targeting individuals and small businesses who lack access to conventional [[banking]] and related services. Microfinance includes [[microcredit]], the provision of small loans to poor clients; [[savings account\|savings]] and [[checking account]]s; [[microinsurance]]; and [[payment system]]s, among other services.<ref name="biznewsdaily">{{cite web \|url= https://www.businessnewsdaily.com/4286-microfinance.html \|title=Microfinance: What It Is and Why It Matters \|last=Caramela \|first=Sammi \|date=23 April 2018 \|work=Business News Daily \|access-date=16 February 2019}}</ref><ref name="investopedia">{{cite web \|url= https://www.investopedia.com/terms/m/microfinance.asp \|last=Kagan \|first=Julia \|date=7 June 2018 \|work=Investopedia \|access-date=16 February 2019 \|title=Microfinance}}</ref> Microfinance services are designed to reach excluded customers, usually poorer population segments, possibly socially marginalized, or geographically more isolated, and to help them become self-sufficient.<ref name="investopedia" /><ref name="christen-rosenberg-jayadeva">Christen, Robert Peck Christen; Rosenberg, Richard; Jayadeva, Veena. ''Financial institutions with a double-bottom line: Implications for the future of microfinance''. CGAP, Occasional Papers series, July 2004, pp. 2–3.</ref> ID Ghana is an example of a microfinance institution. Microfinance initially had a limited definition: the provision of [[microloans]] to poor entrepreneurs and small businesses lacking access to [[credit]].<ref>{{Cite web\|title=What is microfinance?\|url=https://finca.org/our-work/microfinance/\|access-date=2021-04-09\|website=FINCA International\|language=en-US}}</ref> The two main mechanisms for the delivery of financial services to such clients were: (1) relationship-based banking for individual entrepreneurs and small businesses; and (2) group-based models, where several entrepreneurs come together to apply for loans and other services as a group. Over time, microfinance has emerged as a larger [[social movement\|movement]] whose object is: "a world in which as everyone, especially the poor and socially marginalized people and households have access to a wide range of affordable, high quality financial products and services, including not just credit but also savings, insurance, payment services, and [[Electronic funds transfer\|fund transfers]]."<ref name="christen-rosenberg-jayadeva" /> Proponents of microfinance often claim that such access will help poor people out of [[poverty]], including participants in the [[Microcredit Summit Campaign]]. For many, microfinance is a way to promote [[economic development]], employment and growth through the support of micro-entrepreneurs and small businesses; for others it is a way for the poor to manage their finances more effectively and take advantage of economic opportunities while managing the risks. Critics often point to some of the ills of micro-credit that can create indebtedness. Many studies have tried to assess its impacts.<ref>{{cite journal \|first1=Benjamin \|last1=Feigenberg \|first2=Erica M. \|last2=Field \|first3=Rohan \|last3=Pande \|title=Building Social Capital Through MicroFinance \|series=NBER Working Paper No. 16018 \|date=2010 \|url= http://www.nber.org/papers/w16018 \|access-date=10 March 2011 \|doi=10.3386/w16018 \|doi-access=free}}</ref> New research in the area of microfinance call for better understanding of the microfinance ecosystem so that the microfinance institutions and other facilitators can formulate sustainable strategies that will help create social benefits through better service delivery to the low-income population.<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1=Purkayastha \|first1=Debapratim \|last2=Tripathy \|first2=Trilochan \|last3=Das \|first3=Biswajit \|date=1 January 2020 \|title=Understanding the ecosystem of microfinance institutions in India \|journal=Social Enterprise Journal \|volume=[preprint] \|issue=3 \|pages=243–261 \|doi=10.1108/SEJ-08-2019-0063 \|s2cid=213274658 \|issn=1750-8614}}</ref><ref name=":0" /> == History of microfinance == Over the past centuries, practical visionaries, from the [[Franciscan]] friars who founded the community-oriented [[pawnbroker\|pawnshops]] of the 15th century to the founders of the [[Europe]]an [[credit union]] movement in the 19th century (such as [[Friedrich Wilhelm Raiffeisen]]) and the founders of the [[microcredit]] movement in the 1970s (such as [[Muhammad Yunus]] and [[Al Whittaker]]), have tested practices and built institutions designed to bring the kinds of opportunities and risk-management tools that financial services can provide to the doorsteps of poor people.<ref name="autogenerated2">{{cite book\|last=Helms\|first=Brigit\|title=Access for All: Building Inclusive Financial Systems\|publisher=[[The World Bank]]\|year=2006\|isbn=978-0-8213-6360-7\|location=[[Washington, D.C.]]}}</ref> The history of microfinancing can be traced back as far as the middle of the 1800s, when the theorist [[Lysander Spooner]] was writing about the benefits of small credits to entrepreneurs and farmers as a way of getting the people out of poverty.{{Citation needed \|date=September 2019}} Independently of Spooner, Friedrich Wilhelm Raiffeisen founded the first cooperative lending banks to support farmers in rural [[Germany]].<ref>[http://www.raiffeisen.de/genossenschaften/genossenschaften/pdf/Raiffeisen-Organisation-englisch.pdf] {{webarchive\|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070810074631/http://www.raiffeisen.de/genossenschaften/genossenschaften/pdf/Raiffeisen-Organisation-englisch.pdf\|date=August 10, 2007}}</ref> The modern use of the expression "microfinancing" has roots in the 1970s when [[Grameen Bank]] of [[Bangladesh]], founded by microfinance pioneer [[Muhammad Yunus]], was starting and shaping the modern industry of microfinancing. The approach of microfinance was institutionalized by Yunus in 1976, with the foundation of [[Grameen Bank]] in Bangladesh.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia\|title=Microcredit\|encyclopedia=[[Encyclopedia Britannica]]\|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/microcredit\|access-date=1 October 2019}}</ref> Another pioneer in this sector is Pakistani social scientist [[Akhtar Hameed Khan]]. Since people in the developing world still largely depend on subsistence farming or basic food trade for their livelihood, significant resources have gone into supporting [[smallholding\|smallholder]] agriculture in developing countries.<ref>{{Cite web\|date=27 August 2018\|title=Farming + Finance for a Path out of Poverty\|url=https://www.wholeplanetfoundation.org/farming-finance-for-a-path-out-of-poverty/\|access-date=31 March 2019\|work=Whole Planet Foundation}}</ref> == Microfinance and poverty == [[File:Needs and Services.jpg\|thumb\|Financial needs and financial services.]] In [[developing economies]], and particularly in rural areas, many activities that would be classified in the [[Developed World\|developed world]] as financial are not [[monetization\|monetized]]: that is, [[money]] is not used to carry them out. This is often the case when people need the services money can provide but do not have dispensable funds required for those services. This forces them to revert to other means of acquiring the funds. In their book, ''The Poor and Their Money'', Stuart Rutherford and Sukhwinder Arora cite several types of needs:<ref>{{cite book \|last1=Rutherford \|first1=Stuart \|last2=Arora \|first2=Sukhwinder \|title=The Poor and Their Money: Micro Finance from a Twenty-first Century Consumer's Perspective \|page=4 \|publisher=Practical Action \|location=Warwickshire, UK \|date=2009 \|isbn=9781853396885}}</ref> * ''Lifecycle Needs'': such as weddings, funerals, childbirth, education, home building, holidays, festivals, widowhood and old age * ''Personal Emergencies'': such as sickness, injury, unemployment, theft, harassment or death * ''Disasters'': such as wildfires, floods, cyclones and man-made events like war or bulldozing of dwellings * ''Investment Opportunities'': expanding a business, buying land or equipment, improving housing, securing a job, etc. People find creative and often collaborative ways to meet these needs, primarily through creating and exchanging different forms of non-cash value. Common substitutes for cash vary from country to country, but typically include livestock, grains, jewelry and precious metals. As Marguerite S. Robinson describes in his book, ''The Micro Finance Revolution: Sustainable Finance for the Poor'', the 1980s demonstrated that "micro finance could provide large-scale outreach profitably", and in the 1990s, "micro finance began to develop as an industry".<ref>{{cite book \|first=Marguerite S. \|last=Robinson \|title=The Micro Finance Revolution: Sustainable Finance for the Poor \|date=2001 \|page=54}}</ref> In the 2000s, the microfinance industry's objective was to satisfy the unmet [[demand]] on a much larger scale, and to play a role in reducing poverty. While much progress has been made in developing a viable, commercial microfinance sector in the last few decades, several issues remain that need to be addressed before the industry will be able to satisfy massive worldwide demand. The obstacles or challenges in building a sound commercial microfinance industry include: * Inappropriate donor [[subsidies]] * Poor regulation and supervision of deposit-taking microfinance institutions (MFIs) * Few MFIs that meet the needs for savings, remittances or insurance * Limited management capacity in MFIs * Institutional inefficiencies * Need for more dissemination and adoption of rural, agricultural microfinance methodologies * Members' lack of collateral to secure a loan Microfinance is the proper tool to reduce income inequality, allowing citizens from lower socio-economical classes to participate in the economy. Moreover, its involvement has shown to lead to a downward trend in income inequality.<ref>{{cite journal \|last=Hermes \|first=N. \|date=2014 \|title=Does microfinance affect income inequality? \|journal=Applied Economics \|volume=46 \|issue=9 \|pages=1021–1034 \|doi=10.1080/00036846.2013.864039\|s2cid=154583577 }}</ref> == Ways in which poor people manage their money == [[File:Saving up.jpg\|thumb\|Saving up]] Rutherford argues that the basic problem that poor people face as money managers is to gather a "usefully large" amount of money. Building a new home may involve saving and protecting diverse building materials for years until enough are available to proceed with construction. Children's schooling may be funded by buying chickens and raising them for sale as needed for expenses, uniforms, bribes, etc. Because all the value is accumulated before it is needed, this money management strategy is referred to as "saving up".<ref>Rutherford, Stuart. ''The Poor and Their Money''. New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2000.</ref> Often, people don't have enough money when they face a need, so they borrow. A poor family might borrow from relatives to buy land, from a moneylender to buy rice, or from a microfinance institution to buy a sewing machine. Since these loans must be repaid by saving after the cost is incurred, Rutherford calls this 'saving down'. Rutherford's point is that microcredit is addressing only half the problem, and arguably the less important half: poor people borrow to help them save and accumulate assets. However, microfinance is not the magical solution to take people out of poverty; it is merely a tool that the poor can use to raise their prospects for an escape from poverty.<ref>Matin, Imran & Hulme, David & Rutherford, Stuart. (2002). Finance for the Poor: From Microcredit to Microfinancial Services. Journal of International Development. 14. 273-294. 10.1002/jid.874.</ref> [[File:Saving down.jpg\|left\|thumb\|Saving down]] Most needs are met through a mix of saving and credit. A benchmark impact assessment of [[Grameen Bank]] and two other large microfinance institutions in [[Bangladesh]] found that for every $1 they were lending to clients to finance rural non-farm [[micro-enterprise]], about $2.50 came from other sources, mostly their clients' savings.<ref>{{cite book \|last=Khandker \|first=Shahidur R. \|title=Fighting Poverty with Microcredit: Experience in Bangladesh \|page=78 \|publisher=The University Press Ltd. \|location=Dhaka, Bangladesh \|date=999 \|isbn=9789840514687}}</ref> This parallels the experience in the West, in which family businesses are funded mostly from savings, especially during start-up. Recent studies have also shown that informal methods of saving are unsafe. For example, a study by Wright and Mutesasira in [[Uganda]] concluded that "those with no option but to save in the informal sector are almost bound to lose some money—probably around one quarter of what they save there".<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1=Wright \|first1=Graham A. N. \|last2=Mutesasira \|first2=Leonard K. \|title=The relative risks to the savings of poor people \|journal=Small Enterprise Development \|volume=12 \|issue=3 \|pages=33–45 \|doi=10.3362/0957-1329.2001.031 \|date=September 2001 }}</ref> The work of Rutherford, Wright and others has caused practitioners to reconsider a key aspect of the microcredit paradigm: that poor people get out of poverty by borrowing, building microenterprises and increasing their income. The new paradigm places more attention on the efforts of poor people to reduce their many vulnerabilities by keeping more of what they earn and building up their assets. == Examples == The microfinance project of "saving up" is exemplified in the slums of the south-eastern city of Vijayawada, India. This microfinance project functions as an unofficial banking system where Jyothi, a "deposit collector", collects money from slum dwellers, mostly women, in order for them to accumulate savings. Jyothi does her rounds throughout the city, collecting Rs5 a day from people in the slums for 220 days, however not always 220 days in a row since these women do not always have the funds available to put them into savings. They ultimately end up with Rs1000 at the end of the process. However, there are some issues with this microfinance saving program. One of the issues is that while saving, clients are actually losing part of their savings. Jyothi takes interest from each client—about 20 out of every 220 payments, or Rs100 out of 1,100 or 9%. When these slum dwellers find someone they trust, they are willing to pay up to 30% to someone to safely collect and keep their savings. There is also the risk of entrusting their savings to unlicensed, informal, peripatetic collectors. However, the slum dwellers are willing to accept this risk because they are unable to save at home, and unable to use the remote and unfriendly banks in their country. This microfinance project also has many benefits, such as empowering women and giving parents the ability to save money for their children's education. This specific microfinance project is an example of the benefits and limitations of the "saving up" project.<ref name="rutherford 2009">Rutherford, 2009.</ref> The microfinance project of "saving through" is shown in Nairobi, Kenya which includes a Rotating Savings and Credit Associations or ROSCAs initiative. This is a small scale example, however Rutherford (2009) describes a woman he met in Nairobi and studied her ROSCA. Every day 15 women would save 100 shillings so there would be a lump sum of 1,500 shillings and every day 1 of the 15 women would receive that lump sum. This would continue for 15 days and another woman within this group would receive the lump sum. At the end of the 15 days a new cycle would start. This ROSCA initiative is different from the "saving up" example above because there are no interest rates affiliated with the ROSCA, additionally everyone receives back what they put forth. This initiative requires trust and social capital networks in order to work, so often these ROSCAs include people who know each other and have reciprocity. The ROSCA allows for marginalized groups to receive a lump sum at one time in order to pay or save for specific needs they have. ==Microfinance debates and challenges== There are several key debates at the boundaries of microfinance. ===Loan Pricing=== [[File:A business in South Sudan benefiting from microfinance (6189731244).jpg\|thumb\|This shop in [[South Sudan]] was opened using money borrowed from the Finance Sudan Limited (FSL) Program. This program was established in 2006 as one of the only microfinance lenders in the country.]] Before determining loan prices, one should take into account the following costs: 1) administrative costs by the bank (MFI) and 2) transaction cost by the client/customer. Customers, on the other hand, may have expenses for travelling to the bank branch, acquiring official documents for the loan application, and loss of time when dealing with the MFI ("[[opportunity cost]]s"). Hence, from a customer's point of view the cost of a loan is not only the interest and fees she/he has to pay, but also all other transaction costs that she/he has to cover. One of the principal challenges of microfinance is providing small loans at an affordable cost. The global average interest and fee rate is estimated at 37%, with rates reaching as high as 70% in some markets.<ref>{{cite news \|url= https://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/14/world/14microfinance.html?pagewanted=all \|work=The New York Times \|first=Neil \|last=MacFarquhar \|title=Banks Making Big Profits From Tiny Loans \|date=13 April 2010}}</ref> The reason for the high interest rates is not primarily cost of capital. Indeed, the local microfinance organizations that receive zero-interest loan capital from the online microlending platform [[Kiva (organization)\|Kiva]] charge average interest and fee rates of 35.21%.<ref name="HighRates">{{cite web \|url= http://www.kiva.org/help/interestRateComparison \|title=Kiva Help - Interest Rate Comparison \|publisher=Kiva.org \|access-date=October 10, 2009}}</ref> Rather, the main reason for the high cost of microfinance loans is the high [[transaction cost]] of traditional microfinance operations relative to loan size.<ref>{{cite web \|url= http://www.kiva.org/about/microfinance#interestRatesAreHigh \|title=About Microfinance \|publisher=Kiva \|access-date=11 June 2014}}</ref> Microfinance practitioners have long argued that such high interest rates are simply unavoidable, because the cost of making each loan cannot be reduced below a certain level while still allowing the lender to cover costs such as offices and staff salaries. For example, in Sub-Saharan Africa credit risk for microfinance institutes is very high, because customers need years to improve their livelihood and face many challenges during this time. Financial institutes often do not even have a system to check the person's identity. Additionally, they are unable to design new products and enlarge their business to reduce the risk.<ref>{{cite web \|title=Moving forward \|author1=Geoffrey Muzigiti \|author2=Oliver Schmidt \|publisher=D+C Development and Cooperation/ dandc.eu \|date=January 2013 \|url= http://www.dandc.eu/en/article/financial-inclusion-poor-sub-saharan-africa-improving-thanks-formal-sector-banks-and}}</ref> The result is that the traditional approach to microfinance has made only limited progress in resolving the problem it purports to address: that the world's poorest people pay the world's highest cost for small business growth capital. The high costs of traditional microfinance loans limit their effectiveness as a poverty-fighting tool. Offering loans at interest and fee rates of 37% mean that borrowers who do not manage to earn at least a 37% rate of return may actually end up poorer as a result of accepting the loans. [[File:Example of Flat Rate Loan Contract Chambak, Cambodia.JPG\|thumb\|Example of a loan contract, using flat rate calculation, from rural Cambodia. Loan is for 400,000 riels at 4% flat (16,000 riels) interest per month.]] According to a recent survey of microfinance borrowers in Ghana published by the Center for Financial Inclusion, more than one-third of borrowers surveyed reported struggling to repay their loans. Some resorted to measures such as reducing their food intake or taking children out of school in order to repay microfinance debts that had not proven sufficiently profitable. {{Citation needed \|date=February 2015}} In recent years, the microfinance industry has shifted its focus from the objective of increasing the volume of lending capital available, to address the challenge of providing microfinance loans more affordably. Microfinance analyst David Roodman contends that, in mature markets, the average interest and fee rates charged by microfinance institutions tend to fall over time.<ref>Roodman, David. ''Due Diligence: An Impertinent Inquiry into Microfinance''. Center for Global Development, 2011.</ref><ref>{{cite news \|last1=Istazk \|first1=Lennon \|title=Alles over een Klein Bedrag Lenen. \|url= https://kleinbedraglenen.nl/ \|access-date=11 January 2017\|work=Klein bedrag lenen \|date=4 July 2014}}</ref> However, global average interest rates for microfinance loans are still well above 30%. The answer to providing microfinance services at an affordable cost may lie in rethinking one of the fundamental assumptions underlying microfinance: that microfinance borrowers need extensive monitoring and interaction with loan officers in order to benefit from and repay their loans. The P2P microlending service [[Zidisha]] is based on this premise, facilitating direct interaction between individual lenders and borrowers via an internet community rather than physical offices. Zidisha has managed to bring the cost of microloans to below 10% for borrowers, including interest which is paid out to lenders. However, it remains to be seen whether such radical alternative models can reach the scale necessary to compete with traditional microfinance programs.<ref>{{cite web \|last=Katic \|first=Gordon \|url= http://www.terry.ubc.ca/2013/02/20/terry-project-podcast-21-micro-finance-lending-a-hand-to-the-poor/ \|title=Micro-finance, Lending a Hand to the Poor? \|publisher=Terry.ubc.ca \|date=20 February 2013 \|access-date=11 June 2014}}</ref> ===Use of loans=== Practitioners and donors from the charitable side of microfinance frequently argue for restricting microcredit to loans for productive purposes—such as to start or expand a [[microenterprise]]. Those from the private-sector side respond that, because money is [[Fungibility\|fungible]], such a restriction is impossible to enforce, and that in any case it should not be up to rich people to determine how poor people use their money.{{Citation needed \|date=April 2013}} ===Reach versus depth of impact=== [[File:Rwandan farm cooperative goats.jpg\|thumb\|These goats are being raised by Rwandan women as part of a farm cooperative funded by microfinance.]] There has been a long-standing debate over the sharpness of the trade-off between 'outreach' (the ability of a microfinance institution to reach poorer and more remote people) and its '[[sustainability]]' (its ability to cover its operating costs—and possibly also its costs of serving new clients—from its operating revenues). Although it is generally agreed that microfinance practitioners should seek to balance these goals to some extent, there are a wide variety of strategies, ranging from the minimalist profit-orientation of [[BancoSol]] in [[Bolivia]] to the highly integrated not-for-profit orientation of [[BRAC (NGO)\|BRAC]] in [[Bangladesh]]. This is true not only for individual institutions, but also for governments engaged in developing national microfinance systems. BRAC was ranked the number one NGO in the world in 2015 and 2016 by the Geneva-based NGO Advisor.<ref>{{Cite web \|url= http://news.sl/drwebsite/publish/article_200528958.shtml \|title=BRAC ranked number one NGO in the world: Sierra Leone News \|last=Blyden \|first=Sylvia \|work=news.sl \|access-date=11 January 2017 \|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20170113091400/http://news.sl/drwebsite/publish/article_200528958.shtml \|archive-date=13 January 2017\|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web \|url= http://archive.dhakatribune.com/bangladesh/2016/jun/19/brac-ranks-number-one \|title=Brac ranks world's number one NGO {{!}} Dhaka Tribune \|work=archive.dhakatribune.com \|date=19 June 2016 \|access-date=11 January 2017}}</ref> ===Women=== Microfinance provides women around the world with financial and non-financial services, especially in the most rural areas that do not have access to traditional banking and other basic financial infrastructure. It creates opportunities for women to start-up and build their businesses using their own skills and talents.<ref name="4Ways">{{Cite web \|url= https://finca.org/blogs/4-ways-microfinance-empowers-women/ \|title=4 Ways Microfinance Empowers Women \|date=20 August 2017 \|work=FINCA International \|access-date=22 November 2019}}</ref> Utilizing savings, credit, and microinsurance, Microfinance helps families create income-generating activities and better cope with risk. Women particularly benefit from microfinance as many microfinance institutions (MFIs) target female clients.<ref>{{Cite news \|url= https://hbr.org/2011/03/women-as-microfinance-leaders \|title=Women as Microfinance Leaders, Not Just Clients \|last=Iskenderian \|first=Mary Ellen \|date=16 March 2011 \|work=Harvard Business Review \|access-date=22 November 2019 \|issn=0017-8012}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web \|url= https://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---dgreports/---gender/documents/meetingdocument/wcms_091581.pdf \|title=Small change, Big changes: Women and Microfinance \|work=International Labour Office, Geneva\|access-date=22 November 2019}}</ref> Most microfinance institutions (MFIs) partner with other organizations like [[Water.org]] and [[Habitat for Humanity]]<ref>{{Cite web \|url= http://www.habitat.org/impact/our-work/terwilliger-center-innovation-in-shelter/microfinance \|title=What is microfinance? \|work=Habitat.org \|publisher=[[Habitat for Humanity]] \|access-date=22 November 2019}}</ref> to provide additional services for their clients.<ref>{{Cite web \|url= https://water.org/solutions/global-engagement/ \|title=Global Engagement \|work=Water.org \|access-date=22 November 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web \|url= https://www.ircwash.org/projects/one-wash-national-programme-me-support-ethiopia \|title=One WaSH National Programme M&E support (Ethiopia) :: IRC \|work=www.ircwash.org \|access-date=22 November 2019}}</ref> Microfinance generally agree that women should be the primary focus of service delivery. Evidence shows that they are less likely to default on their loans than men. Industry data from 2006 for 704 MFIs reaching 52 million borrowers includes MFIs using the [[solidarity lending]] methodology (99.3% female clients) and MFIs using individual lending (51% female clients). The delinquency rate for solidarity lending was 0.9% after 30 days (individual lending—3.1%), while 0.3% of loans were written off (individual lending—0.9%).<ref>{{cite web \|title=MicroBanking Bulletin \|issue=15 (Autumn 2007) \|pages=46, 49 \|publisher=Microfinance Information Exchange \|date=1 August 2007 \|url= http://www.themix.org/microbanking-bulletin/mbb-issue-no-15-autumn-2007 \|access-date=15 January 2010 \|url-status=dead \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100105152122/http://www.themix.org/microbanking-bulletin/mbb-issue-no-15-autumn-2007 \|archive-date=5 January 2010}}</ref> Because operating margins become tighter the smaller the loans delivered, many MFIs consider the risk of lending to men to be too high. This focus on women is questioned sometimes, however a recent study of microentrepreneurs from Sri Lanka published by the [[World Bank]] found that the return on capital for male-owned businesses (half of the sample) averaged 11%, whereas the return for women-owned businesses was 0% or slightly negative.<ref>{{cite web \|last=McKenzie \|first=David \|title=Comments Made at IPA/FAI Microfinance Conference Oct. 17 2008 \|publisher=Philanthropy Action \|date=17 October 2008 \|url= http://www.philanthropyaction.com/nc/what_is_it_about_women/ \|access-date=17 October 2008}}</ref> Microfinance's emphasis on female-oriented lending is the subject of controversy, as it is claimed that microfinance improves the status of women through an alleviation of poverty. It is argued that by providing women with initial capital, they will be able to support themselves independent of men, in a manner which would encourage [[sustainable growth]] of enterprise and eventual self-sufficiency. This claim has yet to be proven in any substantial form. Moreover, the attraction of women as a potential investment base is precisely because they are constrained by socio-cultural norms regarding such concepts of obedience, familial duty, household maintenance and passivity.<ref>{{cite journal \|last1=Bruton \|first1=G. D. \|last2=Chavez \|first2=H. \|last3=Khavul \|first3=S. \|title=Microlending in emerging economies:building a new line of inquiry from the ground up \|journal=Journal of International Business Studies \|date=2011 \|volume=42 \|issue=5 \|pages=718–739 \|doi=10.1057/jibs.2010.58\|s2cid=167672472 }}</ref> The result of these norms is that while micro-lending may enable women to improve their daily subsistence to a more steady pace, they will not be able to engage in market-oriented business practice beyond a limited scope of low-skilled, low-earning, informal work.<ref>{{cite journal \|last1=Bee \|first1=Beth \|title=Gender, solidarity and the paradox of microfinance: Reflections from Bolivia \|journal=Gender, Place & Culture \|date=2011 \|volume=18 \|issue=1 \|pages=23–43 \|doi=10.1080/0966369X.2011.535298\|s2cid=53696094 }}</ref> Part of this is a lack of permissivity in the society; part a reflection of the added burdens of household maintenance that women shoulder alone as a result of microfinancial empowerment; and part a lack of training and education surrounding gendered conceptions of economics. In particular, the shift in norms such that women continue to be responsible for all the domestic private sphere labour as well as undertaking public economic support for their families, independent of male aid increases rather than decreases burdens on already limited persons. [[Image:Microfinance in Malawi.jpg\|thumb\|Women of Malawi posing with their savings box]] If there were to be an exchange of labour, or if women's income were supplemental rather than essential to household maintenance, there might be some truth to claims of establishing long-term businesses; however when so constrained it is impossible for women to do more than pay off a current loan only to take on another in a cyclic pattern which is beneficial to the financier but hardly to the borrower. This gender essentializing crosses over from institutionalized lenders such as the Grameen Bank into interpersonal direct lending through charitable crowd-funding operations, such as Kiva. More recently, the popularity of non-profit global online lending has grown, suggesting that a redress of gender norms might be instituted through individual selection fomented by the processes of such programs, but the reality is as yet uncertain. Studies have noted that the likelihood of lending to women, individually or in groups, is 38% higher than rates of lending to men.<ref>{{cite journal \|last1=Ly \|first1=P. \|last2=Mason \|first2=G. \|title=Individual preference over development projects:evidence from microlending on Kiva \|journal=Voluntas: International Journal of Voluntary and Nonprofit Organizations \|date=2012 \|volume=23 \|issue=4 \|pages=1036–1055 \|doi=10.1007/s11266-011-9255-8\|s2cid=154774435 }}</ref> This is also due to a general trend for interpersonal microfinance relations to be conducted on grounds of similarity and internal/external recognition: lenders want to see something familiar, something supportable in potential borrowers, so an emphasis on family, goals of education and health, and a commitment to community all achieve positive results from prospective financiers.<ref>{{cite journal \|last1=Allison \|first1=T. H. \|last2=Davis \|first2=B. C. \|last3=Short \|first3=J. C. \|last4=Webb \|first4=J. W. \|title=Crowdfunding in a prosocial microlending environment: Examining the role of intrinsic versus extrinsic cues \|journal=Entrepreneurship \|date=2015 \|volume=39 \|issue=1 \|pages=53–73}}</ref> Unfortunately, these labels disproportionately align with women rather than men, particularly in the developing world. The result is that microfinance continues to rely on restrictive gender norms rather than seek to subvert them through economic redress in terms of foundation change: training, business management and financial education are all elements which might be included in parameters of female-aimed loans and until they are the fundamental reality of women as a disadvantaged section of societies in developing states will go untested. ====Organizations supporting this work==== [http://ada-microfinance.org ADA] [http://www.khushhalibank.com.pk Khushhali Microfinance Bank Limited Pakistan] [[FINCA International\|FINCA]]<ref name="4Ways" /> [https://nwtf.org.ph/ NWTF] [https://akhuwat.org.pk/ akhuwat Foundation Pakistan] [[Alkhidmat Foundation Pakistan]] [https://www.wholeplanetfoundation.org/ Whole Planet Foundation] [[Kiva (organization)\|Kiva]]<ref>{{Cite web \|url= https://www.kiva.org/ \|title=Kiva – Loans That Change Lives \|work=Kiva \|access-date=22 November 2019}}</ref> [https://microfinancecouncil.org/ MCPI]<ref>{{Cite web \|url= https://microfinancecouncil.org/ \|title=Link Against Poverty \|work=Microfinance Council of the Philippines \|access-date=22 November 2019}}</ref> [[Women's World Banking]]<ref>{{Cite web \|url= https://www.womensworldbanking.org/ \|title=Women's World Banking {{!}} Women's Financial Inclusion \|work=Women's World Banking \|access-date=22 November 2019}}</ref> [https://sachpak.org Social aid for Common Humanitarian - SACH] ===Benefits and limitations=== Microfinancing produces many benefits for poverty stricken and low-income households. One of the benefits is that it is very accessible. Banks today simply won't extend loans to those with little to no assets, and generally don't engage in small size loans typically associated with microfinancing. Through microfinancing small loans are produced and accessible. Microfinancing is based on the philosophy that even small amounts of credit can help end the cycle of poverty. Another benefit produced from the microfinancing initiative is that it presents opportunities, such as extending education and jobs. Families receiving microfinancing are less likely to pull their children out of school for economic reasons. As well, in relation to employment, people are more likely to open small businesses that will aid the creation of new jobs. Overall, the benefits outline that the microfinancing initiative is set out to improve the standard of living amongst impoverished communities.<ref name="rutherford 2009" /> There are also many social and financial challenges for microfinance initiatives. For example, more articulate and better-off community members may cheat poorer or less-educated neighbours. This may occur intentionally or inadvertently through loosely run organizations. As a result, many microfinance initiatives require a large amount of social capital or trust in order to work effectively. The ability of poorer people to save may also fluctuate over time as unexpected costs may take priority which could result in them being able to save little or nothing some weeks. Rates of inflation may cause funds to lose their value, thus financially harming the saver and not benefiting the collector.<ref name="rutherford 2009" /> While the success of the [[Grameen Bank]] (which now serves over 7 million poor Bangladeshi women) has inspired the world,{{Citation needed \|date=December 2012}} it has proved difficult to replicate this success. In nations with lower population densities, meeting the operating costs of a retail branch by serving nearby customers has proven considerably more challenging. Hans Dieter Seibel, board member of the European Microfinance Platform, is in favour of the group model. This particular model (used by many Microfinance institutions) makes financial sense, he says, because it reduces transaction costs. Microfinance programmes also need to be based on local funds.<ref>[http://www.inwent.org/ez/articles/166482/index.en.shtml] {{webarchive\|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111214075542/http://www.inwent.org/ez/articles/166482/index.en.shtml\|date=December 14, 2011}}</ref> ==Microfinance standards and principles== [[File:ESAF Bamboo product making unit in Dumka, Jharkhand.jpg\|thumb\|A group of Indian women have assembled to make [[bamboo]] products that they intend to resell.]] Poor people borrow from [[informal economy\|informal]] moneylenders and save with informal collectors. They receive loans and [[Grant (money)\|grants]] from [[charities]]. They buy insurance from state-owned companies. They receive funds transfers through formal or informal [[remittance]] networks. It is not easy to distinguish microfinance from similar activities. It could be claimed that a government that orders state banks to open deposit accounts for poor consumers, or a moneylender that engages in [[usury]], or a charity that runs a [[Heifer International\|heifer pool]] are engaged in microfinance. Ensuring financial services to poor people is best done by expanding the number of financial institutions available to them, as well as by strengthening the capacity of those institutions. In recent years there has also been increasing emphasis on expanding the diversity of institutions, since different institutions serve different needs. Some principles that summarize a century and a half of development practice were encapsulated in 2004 by CGAP and endorsed by the [[Group of Eight]] leaders at the G8 Summit on 10 June 2004:<ref name="autogenerated2" /> #Poor people need not just loans but also savings, [[insurance]] and [[Electronic funds transfer\|money transfer]] services. #Microfinance must be useful to poor households: helping them raise income, build up assets and/or cushion themselves against external shocks. #"Microfinance can pay for itself."<ref>Helms (2006), p. xi</ref> Subsidies from donors and government are scarce and uncertain and so, to reach large numbers of poor people, microfinance must pay for itself. #Microfinance means building permanent local institutions. #Microfinance also means integrating the financial needs of poor people into a country's mainstream financial system. #"The job of government is to enable financial services, not to provide them."<ref name="autogenerated3">Helms (2006), p. xii</ref> #"Donor funds should complement private [[Financial capital\|capital]], not compete with it."<ref name="autogenerated3" /> #"The key [[wikt:bottleneck\|bottleneck]] is the shortage of strong institutions and managers."<ref name="autogenerated3" /> Donors should focus on capacity building. #[[Interest rate ceiling]]s hurt poor people by preventing microfinance institutions from covering their costs, which chokes off the supply of credit. #Microfinance institutions should measure and disclose their performance – both financially and socially. Microfinance is considered a tool for socio-economic development, and can be clearly distinguished from charity. Families who are destitute, or so poor they are unlikely to be able to generate the cash flow required to repay a loan, should be recipients of charity. Others are best served by financial institutions. ==Scale of microfinance operations== [[File:Small Enterprise Foundation - loan officer.jpg\|thumb\|Two women talk about financial matters. The woman on the right is a loan officer for the [[Small Enterprise Foundation]] (SEF). The conversation shown is taking place in [[Tzaneen]], [[South Africa]] in February 2010.]] Yakub Opeyemi have impact on Microfinance Bank. No systematic effort to map the distribution of microfinance has yet been undertaken. A benchmark was established by an analysis of 'alternative financial institutions' in the developing world in 2004.<ref>Christen, Robert Peck Christen; Rosenberg, Richard; Jayadeva, Veena. ''Financial institutions with a double-bottom line: Implications for the future of microfinance''. CGAP Occasional Paper, July 2004.</ref> The authors counted approximately 665 million client accounts at over 3,000 institutions that are serving people who are poorer than those served by the commercial banks. Of these accounts, 120 million were with institutions normally understood to practice microfinance. Reflecting the diverse historical roots of the movement, however, they also included postal [[savings bank]]s (318 million accounts), state agricultural and [[Community development bank\|development bank]]s (172 million accounts), financial [[cooperatives]] and [[credit unions]] (35 million accounts) and specialized rural banks (19 million accounts). Regionally, the highest concentration of these accounts was in [[India]] (188 million accounts representing 18% of the total national population). The lowest concentrations were in [[Latin America]] and the [[Caribbean]] (14 million accounts representing 3% of the total population) and [[Africa]] (27 million accounts representing 4% of the total population, with the highest rate of penetration in West Africa, and the highest growth rate in Eastern and Southern Africa <ref>{{cite web \|title=Microfinance \|work=MFW4A.org \|publisher=Making Finance Work for Africa \|date=5 November 2010 \|url= http://www.mfw4a.org/access-to-finance/microfinance.html}}</ref> ). Considering that most bank clients in the developed world need several active accounts to keep their affairs in order, these figures indicate that the task the microfinance movement has set for itself is still very far from finished. By type of service, "savings accounts in alternative finance institutions outnumber loans by about four to one. This is a worldwide pattern that does not vary much by region."<ref>Christen, Rosenberg, and Jayadeva. ''Financial institutions with a double-bottom line'', pp. 5–6</ref> An important source of detailed data on selected microfinance institutions is the ''MicroBanking Bulletin'', which is published by [[Microfinance Information Exchange]]. At the end of 2009, it was tracking 1,084 MFIs that were serving 74 million borrowers ($38 billion in outstanding loans) and 67 million savers ($23 billion in deposits).<ref>{{cite web \|last=Microfinance Information Exchange, Inc. \|title=MicroBanking Bulletin Issue #19, December 2009, pp. 49 \|publisher=Microfinance Information Exchange, Inc. \|date=1 December 2009 \|url= http://www.themix.org/microbanking-bulletin/mbb-issue-no-19-december-2009 \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100124072606/http://www.themix.org/microbanking-bulletin/mbb-issue-no-19-december-2009 \|url-status=dead \|archive-date=24 January 2010}}</ref> Another source of information regarding the environment of microfinance is the Global Microscope on the Microfinance Business Environment,<ref>{{cite report \|title=Global microscope on the microfinance business environment 2011: An index and study \|date=2011 \|publisher=[[Economist Intelligence Unit]] \|url= http://idbdocs.iadb.org/wsdocs/getdocument.aspx?docnum=36453519 \|format=pdf}}</ref> prepared by the [[Economist Intelligence Unit]] (EIU), the [[Inter-American Development Bank]], and others. The 2011 report contains information on the environment of microfinance in 55 countries among two categories, the regulatory framework and the supporting institutional framework.<ref>{{cite web \|title=Latin America tops Global Microscope Index on the microfinance business environment 2011 \|url= http://www.iadb.org/en/news/news-releases/2011-10-11/2011-global-microscope-latin-america,9588.html \|publisher=IDB \|access-date=June 19, 2012}}</ref> This publication, also known as the Microscope, was first developed in 2007, focusing only on Latin America and the Caribbean, but by 2009, this report had become a global study.<ref>{{cite web \|title=Global Microscope on the Microfinance Business Environment 2011 \|url= http://issuu.com/idb_publications/docs/global_microscope_2011?mode=window&viewMode=singlePage \|publisher=IDB \|access-date=June 19, 2012}}</ref> As yet there are no studies that indicate the scale or distribution of 'informal' microfinance organizations like [[ROSCA]]'s and informal associations that help people manage costs like weddings, funerals and sickness. Numerous case studies have been published, however, indicating that these organizations, which are generally designed and managed by poor people themselves with little outside help, operate in most countries in the developing world.<ref>See for example Joachim de Weerdt, Stefan Dercon, Tessa Bold and Alula Pankhurst, [http://wiego.org/ahmedabad/con_papers.php#dercona. ''Membership-based indigenous insurance associations in Ethiopia and Tanzania''] For other cases see [[ROSCA]]. {{webarchive \|url= https://web.archive.org/web/20100710162720/http://wiego.org/ahmedabad/con_papers.php#dercona \|date=July 10, 2010}}</ref> Help can come in the form of more and better-qualified staff, thus higher education is needed for microfinance institutions. This has begun in some universities, as Oliver Schmidt describes. [https://web.archive.org/web/20111129075026/http://www.inwent.org/ez/articles/166627/index.en.shtml Mind the management gap] ==Ecosystem of Microfinance== In recent years, there have been calls for better understanding of the ecosystem of Microfinance. The practitioners and researchers felt that it was important to understand the ecosystem in which microfinance institutions operated in order for the market system actors and facilitators to understand what they have to do to achieve their objectives of participating in the ecosystem.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book \|last=Ledgerwood, Joanna, Earne, Julie and Nelson, Candace (Eds) \|title=The New Microfinance Handbook: A Financial Market System Perspective \|publisher=The World Bank \|date=2013 \|pages=5}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal \|last1=Armstrong \|first1=Kelly \|last2=Ahsan \|first2=Mujtaba \|last3=Sundaramurthy \|first3=Chamu \|date=1 January 2018 \|title=Microfinance ecosystem: How connectors, interactors, and institutionalizers co-create value \|url= http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0007681317301350 \|journal=Business Horizons \|volume=61 \|issue=1 \|pages=147–155 \|doi=10.1016/j.bushor.2017.09.014 \|issn=0007-6813}}</ref> Professors [[Debapratim Purkayastha]], Trilochan Tripathy and Biswajit Das have designed a model for the ecosystem of microfinance institutions (MFIs) in India. The researchers mapped the ecosystem and found the ecosystem to be very complicated, with complex interactions among numerous actors themselves, and their environment. This ecosystem framework can be used by MFIs to understand the ecosystem of microfinance and formulate strategy. It can also help other stakeholders such as donors, investors, banks, government, etc. to formulate their own strategies relating to this sector.<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1=Purkayastha \|first1=Debapratim \|last2=Tripathy \|first2=Trilochan \|last3=Das \|first3=Biswajit \|date=1 January 2020 \|title=Understanding the ecosystem of microfinance institutions in India \|journal=Social Enterprise Journal \|volume=16 \|issue=3 \|pages=243–261 \|doi=10.1108/SEJ-08-2019-0063 \|s2cid=213274658 \|issn=1750-8614}}</ref> ==Microfinance in the United States and Canada== In [[Canada]] and the [[United States of America\|US]], microfinance organizations target marginalized populations unable to access mainstream bank financing. Close to 8% of Americans are unbanked, meaning around 9 million are without any kind of bank account or formal financial services.<ref>{{cite web \|url= http://www.fdic.gov/householdsurvey/ \|title=2011 FDIC National Survey of Unbanked and Underbanked Households \|work=FDIC.gov \|publisher=[[Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation]] \|date=26 December 2012 \|access-date=11 June 2014}}</ref> Most of these institutions are structured as [[nonprofit organizations]].<ref name="micro">{{cite journal \|last1=Pollinger \|first1=J. Jordan \|last2=Outhwaite \|first2=John \|last3=Cordero-Guzmán \|first3=Hector \|title=The Question of Sustainability for Microfinance Institutions \|journal=Journal of Small Business Management \|date=1 January 2007 \|volume=45 \|issue=1 \|pages=23–41 \|doi=10.1111/j.1540-627X.2007.00196.x\|s2cid=153541395 }}</ref> Microloans in the U.S. context is defined as the extension of credit up to $50,000.<ref name="sba">{{cite web \|last=Hedgespeth \|first=Grady \|title=SBA Information Notice \|url= http://www.sba.gov/sites/default/files/bank_5000-1184.pdf \|publisher=SBA}}</ref> In Canada, CRA guidelines restrict microfinance loans to a maximum of $25,000.<ref>{{cite web \|title=Registered Charities: Community Economic Development Programs \|url= http://www.cra-arc.gc.ca/E/pub/tg/rc4143/ \|url-status=dead \|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20051206111310/http://www.cra-arc.gc.ca/E/pub/tg/rc4143/ \|archive-date=December 6, 2005}}</ref> The average microfinance loan size in the US is US$9,732, ten times the size of an average microfinance loan in developing countries (US$973).<ref name="micro" /> ===Impact=== While all microfinance institutions aim at increasing incomes and employment, in developing countries the empowerment of women, improved nutrition and improved education of the borrower's children are frequently aims of microfinance institutions. In the US and Canada, aims of microfinance include the graduation of recipients from welfare programs and an improvement in their credit rating. In the US, microfinance has created jobs directly and indirectly, as 60% of borrowers were able to hire others.<ref name="alterna">{{cite journal \|last=Alterna \|title=Strengthening our community by empowering individuals. \|date=2010}}</ref> According to reports, every domestic microfinance loan creates 2.4 jobs.<ref name="Harman">{{cite news \|last=Harman \|first=Gina \|title=PM BIO Become a Fan Get Email Alerts Bloggers' Index How Microfinance Is Fueling A New Small Business Wave \|url= http://www.huffingtonpost.com/gina-harman/were-lending-to-small-bus_b_777909.html\|work=Huffington Post \|date=8 November 2010}}</ref> These entrepreneurs provide wages that are, on average, 25% higher than minimum wage.<ref name="Harman" /> Small business loans eventually allow small business owners to make their businesses their primary source of income, with 67% of the borrowers showing a significant increase in their income as a result of their participation in certain micro-loan programs.<ref name="alterna" /> In addition, these business owners are able to improve their housing situation, 70% indicating their housing has improved.<ref name="alterna" /> Ultimately, many of the small business owners that use social funding are able to graduate from government funding.<ref name="alterna" /> ===United States=== In the late 1980s, microfinance institutions developed in the United States. They served low-income and marginalized [[minority group\|minority communities]]. By 2007, there were 500 microfinance organizations operating in the US with 200 lending capital.<ref name="micro" /> There were three key factors that triggered the growth in domestic microfinance: # Change in social welfare policies and focus on economic development and job creation at the macro level. # Encouragement of employment, including [[self-employment]], as a strategy for improving the lives of the poor. # The increase in the proportion of [[Latin American]] and [[Asian people\|Asian]] immigrants who came from societies where microenterprises are prevalent. These factors incentivized the public and private supports to have microlending activity in the United States.<ref name="micro" /> ===Canada=== Microfinance in Canada took shape through the development of credit unions. These credit unions provided financial services to the Canadians who could not get access to traditional financial means. Two separate branches of credit unions developed in Canada to serve the financially marginalized segment of the population. [[Alphonse Desjardins (co-operator)\|Alphonse Desjardins]] introduced the establishment of savings and credit services in late 1900 to the [[Quebec]]ois who did not have financial access. Approximately 30 years later [[Moses Coady\|Father Moses Coady]] introduced credit unions to [[Nova Scotia]]. These were the models of the modern institutions still present in Canada today.<ref>{{cite journal \|last=Reynolds \|first=Chantelle \|author2=Christian Novak \|title=Low Income Entrepreneurs and their Access to Financing in Canada, Especially in the Province of Quebec/City of Montreal \|date=May 19, 2011}}</ref> Efforts to transfer specific microfinance innovations such as [[solidarity lending]] from developing countries to Canada have met with little success.<ref>See for example Cheryl Frankiewicz ''Calmeadow Metrofund: A Canadian experiment in sustainable microfinance'', Calmeadow Foundation, 2001.</ref> Selected microfinance institutions in Canada are: '''[[Rise Asset Development]]''' Founded by Sandra Rotman in 2009, Rise is a Rotman and CAMH initiative that provides small business loans, leases, and lines of credit to entrepreneurs with mental health and/or addiction challenges. '''[[Alterna Savings]]''' Formed in 2005 through the merging of the Civil Service Savings and Loan Society and the Metro Credit Union, Alterna is a financial alternative to Canadians. Their banking policy is based on cooperative values and expert financial advising. '''Access Community Capital Fund''' Based in Toronto, Ontario, ACCESS is a Canadian charity that helps entrepreneurs without collateral or credit history find affordable small loans. '''Montreal Community Loan Fund''' Created to help eradicate poverty, Montreal Community Loan Fund provides accessible credit and technical support to entrepreneurs with low income or credit for start-ups or expansion of organizations that cannot access traditional forms of credit. '''Momentum''' Using the [[community economic development]] approach, Momentum offers opportunities to people living in poverty in Calgary. Momentum provides individuals and families who want to better their financial situation take control of finances, become computer literate, secure employment, borrow and repay loans for business, and purchase homes. '''[[Vancity]]''' Founded in 1946, Vancity is now the largest English speaking credit union in Canada. '''Limitations''' Complications specific to Canada include the need for loans of a substantial size in comparison to the ones typically seen in many international microfinance initiatives. Microfinance is also limited by the rules and limitations surrounding money-lending. For example, Canada Revenue Agency limits the loans made in these sort of transactions to a maximum of $25,000. As a result, many people look to banks to provide these loans. Also, microfinance in Canada is driven by profit which, as a result, fails to advance the social development of community members. Within marginalized or impoverished Canadian communities, banks may not be readily accessible to deposit or take out funds. These banks which would have charged little or no interest on small amounts of cash are replaced by lending companies. Here, these companies may charge extremely large interest rates to marginalized community members thus increasing the cycle of poverty and profiting off of another's loss.<ref>Rutherford, 2009</ref> In Canada, microfinancing competes with pay-day loans institutions which take advantage of marginalized and low-income individuals by charging extremely high, predatory interest rates. Communities with low social capital often don't have the networks to implement and support microfinance initiatives, leading to the proliferation of pay day loan institutions. Pay day loan companies are unlike traditional microfinance in that they don't encourage collectivism and social capital building in low income communities, however exist solely for profit. <!-- THE BELOW HAS TO BE DE-SPAMMED AND CITED TO INDEPENDENT SOURCES BEFORE APPEARING IN THE ARTICLE: ==Microfinance on the Indian subcontinent== Loans to poor people by banks have many limitations including lack of security and high operating costs. As a result, microfinance was developed as an alternative to provide loans to poor people with the goal of creating financial inclusion and equality. '''[[Ela Bhatt]]''' had initiated women's own [[Self Employed Women's Association#Economic tools\|SEWA Cooperative Bank]] in 1974 in Ahmedabad, Gujarat, perhaps one of the first modern day microfinance institution of its kind. '''[[Muhammad Yunus]]''', a Nobel Prize winner, had introduced the concept of Micro-credit in Bangladesh in the form of the "Grameen Bank". The [[National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development]] (NABARD) looked at several models for offering financial services to the unbanked, especially women, and decided to experiment with a very different model, now popularly known as Self-help Groups (SHGs). In this approach, a small group of women (and men) are able to form their own little mini bank, self-governed and managed, and create links with banks [[Self-help group (finance)\|SHGs]] (Self-help groups), [[Non-governmental organization\|NGO]]s and banks. SHGs are often formed and nurtured by NGOs and only after accomplishing a certain level of maturity in terms of their internal thrift and credit operations, they are able to save, and also seek credit from the banks. There is often an involvement of an NGO, or a government agency during initial training and even after the SHG-Bank linkage. The SHG-Bank linkage programme, which has been in place since 1992 in India, has savings accounts with 7.9 million SHGs, with 4.6 million SHGs having outstanding loans, with approximately $2 billion in saving with banks, and $8.9 Billion is outstanding loans, making it one of the largest microfinance program of its kind in the world (March 2016). It involves commercial banks, regional rural banks (RRBs) and cooperative banks in its operations. In 2013, Grameen Capital India was able to loan $144 million to microfinance groups. In addition to Grameen Bank, [[Equitas Small Finance Bank\|Equitas]] has been another microfinance organization in Tamil Nadu. The South and Western states are the ones attracting the greatest number of microfinance loans.<ref>{{Cite news \|url= https://www.economist.com/news/finance-and-economics/21569447-industry-starting-revive-road-redemption \|title=Road to redemption\|newspaper=The Economist \|issn=0013-0613 \|access-date=13 September 2016}}</ref> Microfinance is defined as, financial services such as savings accounts, insurance funds and credit provided to poor and low income clients so as to help them increase their income, thereby improving their standard of living. In this context the main features of microfinance are: * Loan given without security * Loans to those people who live below the poverty line * Members of SHGs may benefit from micro finance * Maximum limit of loan under micro finance Rs.25,000/- * Terms and conditions offered to poor people are decided by NGOs * Microfinance is different from Microcredit- under the latter, small loans are given to the borrower but under microfinance alongside many other financial services including savings accounts and insurance. Therefore, microfinance has a wider concept than microcredit. In June 2014, CRISIL released its latest report on the Indian Microfinance Sector titled "India's 25 Leading MFI's".<ref>[http://indiamicrofinance.com/microfinance-companies-in-india-2014-2015-2.html Top Microfinance Institutions in India for 2014] CRISIL Report, June 2014.</ref> This list is the most comprehensive and up to date overview of the microfinance sector in India and the different microfinance institutions operating in the sub-continent. Many loan officers in India create an emotional connection with the borrowers before the loan reaches maturity by mentioning details about borrowers' personal life and family and also demonstrating affection in different ways as a strategy to generate pressure during recovery.<ref>Kar, S. (2013). "Recovering debts: Microfinance loan officers and the work of 'proxy-creditors' in India". ''Journal of the American Ethnological Society'', 40 (3), pp. 480–493. doi:10.1111/amet.12034</ref> ===Microfinance in Pakistan=== Akhuwat is the world's largest Islamic micro-finance organization. Since 2001, Akhuwat has been working for poverty alleviation by empowering socially and economically marginalized segments of the society through its various poverty alleviation projects. Akhuwat aims to alleviate poverty by creating a bond of solidarity between the affluent and the marginalized. Our goal is to develop and sustain a social system based on mutual support. Akhuwat not only helps and support the poor to become self-reliant but combined with their own hard work enable them to escape the clutches of poverty. Akhuwat derives its name from ''mawakhaat''<@!--In what language? Mark it up with [[Template:Lang]], e.g. {{lang\|ar-Latn\|mawakhaat}}.--@> or 'brotherhood', the earliest example of which was seen in the community formed by the Ansars, citizens of Medina and the Muhajireen, who had migrated to Medina to escape religious persecution. Inspired by the spirit which induced the Medinites to share half of their wealth with the migrants, Akhuwat seeks to invoke this very concept of brotherhood through its operations. For Akhuwat, the metaphor of brotherhood entails the creation of a system based on mutual support in the society. Akhuwat is running on the following principles: ; Interest-free loans : The loan provided will be interest free since providing loans with interest is business and poverty cannot be alleviated and eradicated by doing business with the deprived. Akhuwat provides interest free loans to the economically poor so that they may acquire a sustainable livelihood. The organization sees interest as a barrier to widespread proliferation of capital, and a violation of all moral and ethical codes. In keeping with the principles of equity and social justice, burdening the poor with exorbitant interest rates is also viewed as undermining the overarching goal of poverty alleviation. ; Use of religious places : Akhuwat wants to climb up the ladder of social and economic development through making Mosques, churches and religious places, the foundation. This is because in Islamic history Mosques used to be the seat of governance. In the time of Muhammad, mosques were used for worship, training and providing services. With this, comes the Transparency, Good Governance, participation and accountability. ; Volunteerism : To think beyond the confines of oneself and to think about others. Akhuwat's operations and activities rely upon the passion, energy, zeal and enthusiasm of its volunteers. ; Transforming borrowers into donors : Akhuwat strives to empower its borrowers, so they are in a position to be givers one day. ; Non-discrimination on caste, colour, creed, political affiliation, or faith : Since Akhuwat strongly believes in solidarity and brotherhood. Therefore, it gives a message to cut down all the discriminatory and differential barriers in the society such as caste, colour creed, political affiliation and religion. THE ABOVE HAS TO BE DE-SPAMMED AND CITED TO INDEPENDENT SOURCES BEFORE APPEARING IN THE ARTICLE. --> ==Microfinance Networks and Associations== There are several professional networks of microfinance institutions, and organisations that support microfinance and financial inclusion. ===MicroFinance Network=== The [http://microfinancenetwork.org/ Microfinance Network] is a network of 20 to 25 of the world's largest microfinance institutions, spread across Asia, Africa, the Middle East, Europe and Latin America. Established in 1993, the Microfinance Network provided support to members that helped steer many industry leaders to sustainability, and profitability in many of their largest markets. Today as the sector enters a new period of transition, with the rise of digital [[financial technology]] that increasingly competes with traditional microfinance institutions, the Microfinance Network provides a space to discuss opportunities and challenges that arise from emerging technological innovations in inclusive finance.<ref>{{Cite web \|url= http://microfinancenetwork.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/11/The-Future-of-Financial-Inclusion_MFN_London2017_Summary5825.pdf \|title=The Future of Financial Inclusion: A Leadership Challenge \|last=Velarde \|display-authors=etal \|first=Raul \|date=April 2017 \|work=microfinancenetwork.org \|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20180320044143/http://microfinancenetwork.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/11/The-Future-of-Financial-Inclusion_MFN_London2017_Summary5825.pdf \|archive-date=20 March 2018\|access-date=19 March 2018}}</ref> The Microfinance Network convenes once a year. Members include Al Majmoua, BRAC, BancoSol, Gentera, Kamurj, LAPO, and SOGESOL. Microfinance services including Easy Paisa by Telenor and Temeer Microfinance Bank, Jazz Cash by Jazz Telecom, and Zindigi have all been introduced by various telecom companies in Pakistan. These services provide lending services, retailer services, and online money transfer capabilities.<ref>{{cite web \| url=https://www.gsma.com/mobilefordevelopment/country/pakistan/telenor-launches-easypaisa-in-pakistan/ \| title=Telenor Launches 'easypaisa' in Pakistan \| date=17 October 2009 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web \| url=https://www.jazzcash.com.pk/mobile-account/overview/ \| title=Overview }}</ref> ===Partnership for Responsible Financial Inclusion=== The [https://responsiblefinancialinclusion.org/ Partnership for Responsible Financial], previously known as the Microfinance CEO Working Group, is a collaborative effort of leading international organizations and their CEOs active in the microfinance and inclusive finance space, including direct microfinance practitioners, and microfinance funders. It consists of 10 members, including Accion, Aga Khan Agency for Microfinance, BRAC, CARE USA, FINCA Impact Finance, Grameen Foundation, Opportunity International, Pro Mujer, Vision Fund International and Women's World Banking. Harnessing the power of the CEOs and their senior managers, the PRFI advocates for responsible financial services and seeks catalytic opportunities to accelerate financial access to the unserved. As part of this focus, PRFI is responsible for setting up the Smart Campaign, in response to negative microfinance practices that indicated the mistreatment of clients in certain markets. The network is made up of the CEO working group, that meet quarterly and several subcommittee working groups dedicated to communications, social performance, digital financial services, and legal and human resources issues..... ===European Microfinance Network=== The [https://www.european-microfinance.org/ European Microfinance Network] (EMN) was established in response to many legal and political obstacles affecting the microfinance sector in Europe. The Network is involved in advocacy on a wide range of issues related to microfinance, micro-enterprises, social and financial exclusion, self-employment and employment creation. Its main activity is the organisation of its annual conference, which has taken place each year since 2004. The EMN has a wide network of over 100 members. ===Microfinance Centre=== The [https://mfc.org.pl/ Microfinance Centre] (MFC) has a membership of over 100 organisations, and is particularly strong in Eastern Europe, the Balkans and Central Asia. ===Africa Microfinance Network (AFMIN)=== The [http://www.afminetwork.org/ Africa Microfinance Network (AFMIN)] is an association of microfinance networks in Africa resulting from an initiative led by African microfinance practitioners to create and/or strengthen country-level microfinance networks for the purpose of establishing shared performance standards, institutional capacity and policy change. AFMIN was formally launched in November 2000 and has established its secretariat in Abidjan (Republic of Côte d'Ivoire), where AFMIN is legally recognized as an international Non-Governmental Organisation pursuant to Ivorian laws. Because of the political unrest in Côte d'Ivoire, AFMIN temporarily relocated its office to Cotonou in Benin.<ref>{{Cite web \|url= http://www.afminetwork.org/about.html \|title=AFMIN Website - About}}</ref> ==Inclusive financial systems== The [[microcredit]] movement that began in the 1970s has emerged and morphed into a 'financial systems' approach for creating universal financial inclusion. While Grameen model of delivering small credit achieved a great deal, especially in urban and near-urban areas and with [[entrepreneurial]] families, its progress in delivering financial services in less densely populated rural areas was slow; creating the need for many and multiple models to emerge across the globe. The terms have evolved from Microcredit, to Microfinance, and now Financial Inclusion. Specialized microfinance institutions (MFIs) continue to expand their services, collaborating and competing with banks, credit unions, mobile money, and other informal and formal member owned institutions. The new financial systems approach pragmatically acknowledges the richness of centuries of microfinance history and the immense diversity of institutions serving poor people in developing and developed economies today. It is also rooted in an increasing awareness of diversity of the financial service needs of the world's poorest people, and the diverse settings in which they live and work. It also acknowledges that quality and range of financial services are also important for the banking system to achieve fuller and deeper financial inclusion, for all. Central banks and mainstream banks are now more intimately engaging in the financial inclusion agenda than ever before, though it is a long road, with 35–40% of world's adults remaining outside formal banking system, and many more remaining "under-banked". Advent of mobile-phone-based money management and digital finance is changing the scenario fast; though "social distance" between the economically poor or social marginalized and the banking system remains large. ; Informal financial service providers : These include moneylenders, [[pawnbrokers]], savings collectors, [[money-guards]], ROSCAs, [[ASCAs]] and input supply shops. These continue their services because they know each other well and live in the same community, they understand each other's financial circumstances and can offer very flexible, convenient and fast services. These services can also be costly and the choice of financial products limited and very short-term. Informal services that involve savings are also risky; many people lose their money. ; Member-owned organizations : These include [[Self-help group (finance)\|self-help group]]s, [[Village Savings and Loan Associations (VSLAs)]], [[Credit union]]s, [[CVECA]]s and a variety of other members owned and governed informal or formal financial institutions. Informal groups, like their more traditional cousins, are generally small and local, which means they have access to good knowledge about each other's financial circumstances and can offer convenience and flexibility. Since they are managed by poor people, their costs of operation are low. Often, they do not need regulation and supervision, unless they grow in scale and formalize themselves by coming together to form II or III tier federations. If not prepared well, they can be 'captured' by a few influential leaders, and run the risk of members losing their savings. Experience suggests though that these informal but highly disciplined groups are very sustainable, and continue to exist even after 20–25 years. Formalization, as a Cooperative of Credit Union, can help create links with the banking system for more sophisticated financial products and additional capital for loans; but requires strong leadership and systems. These models are highly popular in many rural regions of countries across Asia, Africa, and Latin America; and a platform for creating deeper financial inclusion. ; NGOs : The [[Microcredit Summit Campaign]] counted 3,316 of these MFIs and [[NGO]]s lending to about 133 million clients by the end of 2006.<ref>{{cite web \|url= http://www.microcreditsummit.org/pubs/reports/socr/2007.html \|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20071222154645/http://www.microcreditsummit.org/pubs/reports/socr/2007.html \|url-status=dead \|archive-date=22 December 2007 \|title=State of the Microcredit Summit Campaign Repor \|publisher=Microcredit Summit Campaign \|location=Washington DC \|work=MicroCreditSummit.org \|date=31 December 2006 \|access-date=25 March 2011}}</ref> Led by [[Grameen Bank]] and [[BRAC (NGO)\|BRAC]] in [[Bangladesh]], [[Prodem]] in [[Bolivia]], [[Opportunity International]], and [[FINCA International]], headquartered in Washington, DC, these NGOs have spread around the developing world in the past three decades; others, like the [[Gamelan Council]], address larger regions. They have proven very innovative, pioneering banking techniques like [[solidarity lending]], [[village banking]] and [[mobile banking]] that have overcome barriers to serving poor populations. However, with boards that don't necessarily represent either their capital or their customers, their governance structures can be fragile, and they can become overly dependent on external donors. ; Formal financial institutions : In addition to commercial banks, these include state banks, agricultural development banks, savings banks, rural banks and non-bank financial institutions. They are regulated and supervised, offer a wider range of financial services, and control a branch network that can extend across the country and internationally. However, they have proved reluctant to adopt social missions, and due to their high costs of operation, often can't deliver services to poor or remote populations. The increasing use of [[alternative data]] in credit scoring, such as [[trade credit]] is increasing commercial banks' interest in microfinance.<ref>[http://www.infopolicy.org/_working/files/downloads/South-Africa-compressed-web.pdf Turner, Michael; Varghese, Robin; et al. ''Information Sharing and SMME Financing in South Africa''], [[Political and Economic Research Council]] (PERC), p58. {{webarchive\|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081001222753/http://www.infopolicy.org/_working/files/downloads/South-Africa-compressed-web.pdf\|date=1 October 2008}}</ref> ;'''Automated Loans''' :Automated Loans include point-of-sale loans offered by financial technology companies like [https://www.affirm.com/ Affirm], [https://www.klarna.com/us/ Klarna], [https://www.afterpay.com/index Afterpay], and [https://www.quadpay.com/ Quadpay]. These "buy now, pay later" services are accelerating the automatization of the finance industry. Point-of-sale loans are embedded within retail websites to offer consumers the chance to take out a loan for the price of the product, and pay them back in installments. These "buy now, pay later" lenders either make money by having [https://www.quadpay.com/quadpay-terms-of-service/#:~:text=Late%20Fee.,late%20fees%20per%20Quadpay%20Purchase). high late fees] or a [https://productmint.com/the-affirm-business-model-how-does-affirm-make-money/ high interest rate, often higher than the average APR of a credit card]. When applying for a loan, these companies data profile by [https://productmint.com/the-affirm-business-model-how-does-affirm-make-money/ recording the customer's history] in making payments on time, social media history, income level, education, and previous purchases. Regardless of whether or not the consumer accepts the terms of the loan, these fintech companies have access to this information. Many of them have stated that they [https://digiday.com/retail/affirm-point-sale-financing-digital-retail/ sell the information] back to the merchant. :These services are often targeting marginalized groups such as [https://download.asic.gov.au/media/4947847/buy-now-pay-later-infographic-nov-2018.pdf low-income people] as 60% of users are 18-34 years old and 40% earn under $40,000. As a result, they are trapping young consumers into a cycle of debt by ease of taking out a loan. This reinforces risky consumer habits and results in [https://download.asic.gov.au/media/4947847/buy-now-pay-later-infographic-nov-2018.pdf 1 out of 6 borrowers] defaulting on their payments to these point of sale lenders. Moreover, the companies benefit at the expense of the consumer, so they make it seem harmless while advertising. Yet, it may hurt the consumers' credit by reporting to a credit bureau, trap them with debt, and give the merchant access to the consumer data profile. This creates a "[https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1461444815614053 feedback loop of injustice]." :Unfortunately, many vulnerable consumers come from low-income backgrounds and do not understand misleading practices, given their [https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1461444815614053 lack of digital literacy skills]. When investigating these inequalities through activities related to these issues, Gangadharan (2015) discusses, "marginal users are exposed and vulnerable to various forms of profiling (e.g. committed by corporate, government, or bad actors) that target unwitting users for both intentionally and unintentionally harmful purposes." Additionally, filling out the fields on their application without submitting the form can still send the information to the server, thus giving the company access to the information typed. However, many marginalized users come to expect a lack of data privacy given that companies engage in data profiling tactics, calling it "[https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1461444815614053 the price of using the internet]." Many feel that these marketplace and society see and target them as "[https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1461444815614053 second class citizens]". In addition, a 2015 [https://datasociety.net/pubs/prv/DataAndSociety_PrivacySecurityandDigitalInequality.pdf survey] conducted by the Data & Society Research Institute studying technological experiences of 3,000 adults found that, "52% of surveyed consumers from the lowest income group said they did not know what information is being collected about them or how it is being used." With appropriate regulation and supervision, each of these institutional types can bring leverage to solving the microfinance problem. For example, efforts are being made to link self-help groups to commercial banks, to network member-owned organizations together to achieve [[economies of scale]] and scope, and to support efforts by commercial banks to 'down-scale' by integrating mobile banking and e-payment technologies into their extensive branch networks. Brigit Helms in her book ''Access for All: Building Inclusive Financial Systems'', distinguishes between four general categories of microfinance providers, and argues for a pro-active strategy of engagement with all of them to help them achieve the goals of the microfinance movement.<ref>Brigit Helms. ''Access for All: Building Inclusive Financial Systems''. CGAP/World Bank, Washington DC, 2006, pp. 35–57.</ref> ==Microcredit and the Web== Due to the unbalanced emphasis on credit at the expense of microsavings, as well as a desire to link Western investors to the sector, [[peer-to-peer lending\|peer-to-peer]] platforms have developed to expand the availability of microcredit through individual lenders in the developed world. New platforms that connect lenders to micro-entrepreneurs are emerging on the Web (''[[list of microfinance sponsors\|peer-to-peer sponsors]]''), for example [[MYC4]], [[Kiva (organization)\|Kiva]], [[Zidisha]], myELEN, [[Opportunity International]] and the [[Microloan Foundation]]. Another Web-based microlender [[United Prosperity (organisation)\|United Prosperity]] uses a variation on the usual microlending model; with United Prosperity the micro-lender provides a guarantee to a local bank which then lends back double that amount to the micro-entrepreneur. In 2009, the US-based nonprofit [[Zidisha]] became the first peer-to-peer microlending platform to link lenders and borrowers directly across international borders without local intermediaries.<ref>[http://www.microfinancefocus.com/news/2010/02/07/zidisha-set-to-expand-in-peer-to-peer-microfinance-julia-kurnia/ "Zidisha Set to "Expand" in Peer-to-Peer Microfinance", Microfinance Focus, Feb 2010] {{webarchive \|url= https://web.archive.org/web/20111008230104/http://www.microfinancefocus.com/news/2010/02/07/zidisha-set-to-expand-in-peer-to-peer-microfinance-julia-kurnia/ \|date=October 8, 2011}}</ref> The volume channeled through [[Kiva (organization)\|Kiva]]'s peer-to-peer platform is about $100 million as of November 2009 (Kiva facilitates approximately $5M in loans each month). In comparison, the needs for microcredit are estimated about 250 bn USD as of end 2006.<ref>[http://www.dbresearch.com/PROD/DBR_INTERNET_EN-PROD/PROD0000000000219174.pdf Microfinance: An emerging investment opportunity] {{Webarchive\|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091229014611/http://www.dbresearch.com/PROD/DBR_INTERNET_EN-PROD/PROD0000000000219174.pdf \|date=29 December 2009 }}. Deutsche Bank Research. December 19, 2007.</ref> Most experts agree that these funds must be sourced locally in countries that are originating microcredit, to reduce transaction costs and exchange rate risks. There have been problems with disclosure on peer-to-peer sites, with some reporting interest rates of borrowers using the [[flat rate (finance)\|flat rate methodology]] instead of the familiar banking [[Annual Percentage Rate]].<ref>Waterfield, Chuck. [http://www.mftransparency.org/media/pdf/Why-We-Need-Transparent-Pricing-in-Microfinance--November-2008.pdf Why We Need Transparent Pricing in Microfinance]. MicroFinance Transparency. 11 November 2008. {{webarchive \|url= https://web.archive.org/web/20090325163806/http://www.mftransparency.org/media/pdf/Why-We-Need-Transparent-Pricing-in-Microfinance--November-2008.pdf \|date=March 25, 2009}}</ref> The use of flat rates, which has been outlawed among regulated financial institutions in developed countries, can confuse individual lenders into believing their borrower is paying a lower interest rate than, in fact, they are.{{Citation needed \|date=October 2009}} In the summer of 2017, within the framework of the joint project of the [[Central Bank of Russia]] and [[Yandex]], a special [[check mark]] (a green circle with a tick and {{lang\|ru\|Реестр ЦБ РФ}} 'State MFO Register' text box) appeared search results on the Yandex search engine, informing the consumer that the company's financial services are offered on the marked website, which has the status of a microfinance organization.<ref>{{Cite web \|url= http://www.cbr.ru/eng/Press/event/?id=1188 \|title=Bank of Russia to mark microfinance organisations on the Internet \|work=www.cbr.ru \|publisher=[[Central Bank of Russia]] \|access-date=18 August 2017}}</ref> ==Microfinance and social interventions== There are currently a few social interventions that have been combined with micro financing to increase awareness of HIV/AIDS. Such interventions like the "Intervention with Microfinance for AIDS and Gender Equity" (IMAGE) which incorporates microfinancing with "The Sisters-for-Life" program a participatory program that educates on different gender roles, gender-based violence, and HIV/AIDS infections to strengthen the communication skills and leadership of women <ref>Kim, J. C.; Watts, C. H.; Hargreaves, J. R.; Ndhlovu, L. X.; Phetla, G.; Morison, L. A.; et al. (2007). "Understanding the impact of a microfinance-based intervention of women's empowerment and the reduction of intimate partner violence in South Africa". ''American Journal of Public Health''.</ref> "The Sisters-for-Life" program has two phases; phase one consists of ten one-hour training programs with a facilitator, and phase two consists of identifying a leader amongst the group, training them further, and allowing them to implement an action plan to their respective centres. Microfinance has also been combined with business education and with other packages of health interventions.<ref>{{Cite journal \|last=Smith \|first=Stephen C. \|author-link=Stephen C. Smith (economist) \|title=Village banking and maternal and child health: Evidence from Ecuador and Honduras \|journal=[[World Development (journal)\|World Development]] \|volume=30 \|issue=4 \|pages=707–723 \|doi=10.1016/S0305-750X(01)00128-0 \|date=April 2002 }}</ref> A project undertaken in Peru by [[Innovations for Poverty Action]] found that those borrowers randomly selected to receive financial training as part of their borrowing group meetings had higher profits, although there was not a reduction in "the proportion who reported having problems in their business".<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1=Karlan \|first1=Dean S. \|last2=Valdivia \|first2=Martin \|title=Teaching entrepreneurship: Impact of business training on microfinance clients and institutions \|journal=[[The Review of Economics and Statistics]] \|volume=93 \|issue=2 \|pages=510–527 \|doi=10.1162/REST_a_00074 \|date=May 2011 \|hdl=10419/39347 \|s2cid=34545504 \|url= http://www.econ.yale.edu/growth_pdf/cdp941.pdf}} [http://www.econstor.eu/bitstream/10419/39347/1/52491091X.pdf PDF].</ref> Pro Mujer, a non-governmental organisation (NGO) with operations in five Latin American countries, combines microfinance and healthcare. This approach shows that microfinance can not only help businesses to prosper; it can also foster human development and social security. Pro Mujer uses a "one-stop shop" approach, which means in one building, the clients find financial services, business training, empowerment advice and healthcare services combined.<ref>{{cite news \|last1=Sölle de Hilari \|first1=Caroline \|title=Microinsurance: Healthy clients \|url= http://www.dandc.eu/en/article/pro-mujer-why-microfinance-institutions-should-offer-healthcare-services-too \|access-date=12 February 2015\|work=D+C Development and Cooperation \|publisher=Engagement Global – Service for Development Initiatives \|date=11 October 2013\|location=Germany\|format=Digital magazine}}</ref> According to technology analyst [[David Garrity]], Microfinance and Mobile Financial Services (MFS) have provided marginal populations with access to basic financial services, including savings programs and insurance policies.<ref>{{Cite book \|title=Technologies for Development \|last=Garrity \|first=David M. \|date=1 January 2015 \|publisher=Springer, Cham \|pages=45–54 \|doi=10.1007/978-3-319-16247-8_5 \|chapter=Mobile Financial Services in Disaster Relief: Modeling Sustainability \|isbn=978-3-319-16246-1}}</ref> ==Impact and criticism== Most criticisms of microfinance have actually been criticisms of [[microcredit]]. Criticism focuses on the impact on poverty, the level of interest rates, high profits, overindebtedness and suicides. Other criticism include the role of foreign donors and working conditions in companies affiliated to microfinance institutions, particularly in Bangladesh. ===Impact=== {{Further\|Impact of microcredit}} The impact of microcredit is a subject of much controversy. Proponents state that it reduces poverty through higher employment and higher incomes. This is expected to lead to improved nutrition and improved education of the borrowers' children. Some argue that microcredit empowers women. In the US and Canada, it is argued that microcredit helps recipients to graduate from welfare programs. Critics say that microcredit has not increased incomes, but has driven poor households into a debt trap, in some cases even leading to suicide. They add that the money from loans is often used for durable consumer goods or consumption instead of being used for productive investments, that it fails to empower women, and that it has not improved health or education. Moreover, as the access to micro-loans is widespread, borrowers tend to acquire several loans from different companies, making it nearly impossible to pay the debt back.<ref>Biswas, Soutik (December 16, 2010). "India's micro-finance suicide epidemic". [https://www.bbc.com/news/world-south-asia-11997571], BBC News. Retrieved July 15, 2015.</ref> As a result of such tragic events, microfinance institutions in India have agreed on setting an interest rate ceiling of 15 percent.<ref>Sundaresan, S. (2008). ''Microfinance: Emerging Trends and Challenges'', pp. 15–16. Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar. {{ISBN\|978-1847209207}}</ref> This is important because microfinance loan recipients have a higher level of security in repaying the loans and a lower level of risk in failing to repay them. Unintended consequences of microfinance include informal intermediaton: That is, some entrepreneurial borrowers become informal intermediaries between microfinance initiatives and poorer micro-entrepreneurs. Those who more easily qualify for microfinance split loans into smaller credit to even poorer borrowers. Informal intermediation ranges from casual intermediaries at the good or benign end of the spectrum to 'loan sharks' at the professional and sometimes criminal end of the spectrum.<ref>{{cite journal \|last1=Arp \|first1=Frithjof \|last2=Ardisa \|first2=Alvin \|last3=Ardisa \|first3=Alviani \|date=2017 \|title=Microfinance for poverty alleviation: Do transnational initiatives overlook fundamental questions of competition and intermediation? \|publisher=United Nations Conference on Trade and Development \|doi=10.18356/10695889-en \|url= https://www.researchgate.net/publication/320100413 \|journal=Transnational Corporations \|volume=24 \|issue=3 \|pages=103–117\|s2cid=73558727 \|id=UNCTAD/DIAE/IA/2017D4A8}}</ref> ===Competition and market saturation=== Microcredit has also received criticism for inducing market saturation and fueling problematically competitive, rather than collaborative business communities.<ref name="Crises">{{Cite journal \|last1=Guérin \|first1=Isabelle \|last2=Labie \|first2=Marc \|last3=Servet \|first3=Jean-Michel \|date=2015 \|title=The Crises of Microcredit \|url= https://econpapers.repec.org/bookchap/ucpbkecon/9781783603756.htm}}</ref><ref name="Challenges">{{Cite web \|url= https://www.findevgateway.org/library/microfinance-challenges-empowerment-or-disempowerment-poor \|title=Microfinance Challenges: Empowerment or Disempowerment of the Poor? \|date=11 April 2014 \|work=FinDev Gateway - CGAP \|access-date=31 December 2019}}</ref> The influx of supply generated by the creation of new microcredit-fueled-businesses can be difficult for small economies to absorb. The owners of micro-enterprises within such communities often have limited skill sets and resources available. This can cause a "copycat" phenomenon among small business due to the limited variation in products and services offerings.<ref name="Crises" /> The high number of individuals selling similar products and services can cause new entrepreneurs to be subject to cutthroat competition over a demand that has not expanded proportionally with the supply.<ref name="Challenges" /> ===Mission drift in microfinance=== Mission drift refers to the phenomena through which the MFIs or the micro finance institutions increasingly try to cater to customers who are better off than their original customers, primarily the poor families. Roy Mersland and R. Øystein Strøm in their research on mission drift suggest that this selection bias can come not only through an increase in the average loan size, which allows for financially stronger individuals to get the loans, but also through the MFI's particular lending methodology, main market of operation, or even the gender bias as further mission drift measures.<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1=Mersland \|first1=Roy \|last2=Strøm \|first2=R. Øystein \|title=Microfinance mission drift? \|journal=[[World Development (journal)\|World Development]] \|volume=38 \|issue=1 \|pages=28–36 \|doi=10.1016/j.worlddev.2009.05.006 \|date=January 2010 \|hdl=11250/2428249 \|url= https://oda.hioa.no/en/item/asset/dspace:1298/523226post.pdf\|hdl-access=free }}</ref> And as it may follow, this selective funding would lead to lower risks and lower costs for the firm. However, economists Beatriz Armendáriz and Ariane Szafarz suggests that this phenomenon is not driven by cost minimization alone. She suggests that it happens because of the interplay between the company's mission, the cost differential between poor and unbanked wealthier clients and region specific characteristics pertaining the heterogeneity of their clientele.<ref>{{citation \|last1=Armendáriz \|first1=Beatriz \|last2=Szafarz \|first2=Ariane \|contribution=On mission drift in microfinance institutions \|editor-last1=Armendáriz \|editor-first1=Beatriz \|editor-last2=Labie \|editor-first2=Marc \|title=The handbook of microfinance \|pages=341–366 \|publisher=[[World Scientific]] \|location=Singapore Hackensack, New Jersey \|date=2011 \|isbn=9789814295659 \|postscript=.}}</ref> But in either way, this problem of selective funding leads to an ethical tradeoff where on one hand there is an economic reason for the company to restrict its loans to only the individuals who qualify the standards, and on the other hand there is an ethical responsibility to help the poor people get out of poverty through the provision of capital. ===Role of foreign donors=== The role of donors has also been questioned. CGAP recently commented that: "a large proportion of the money they spend is not effective, either because it gets hung up in unsuccessful and often complicated funding mechanisms (for example, a government apex facility), or it goes to partners that are not held accountable for performance. In some cases, poorly conceived programs have slowed the development of inclusive financial systems by distorting markets and displacing domestic commercial initiatives with cheap or free money."<ref>Helms, Brigit. ''Access for All: Building Inclusive Financial Systems''. CGAP/World Bank, Washington DC, 2006, p. 97.</ref> ===Working conditions in enterprises affiliated to MFIs=== There has also been criticism of microlenders for not taking more responsibility for the working conditions of poor households, particularly when borrowers become quasi-wage labourers, selling crafts or agricultural produce through an organization controlled by the MFI. The desire of MFIs to help their borrower diversify and increase their incomes has sparked this type of relationship in several countries, most notably [[Bangladesh]], where hundreds of thousands of borrowers effectively work as wage labourers for the marketing subsidiaries of [[Grameen Bank]] or [[BRAC (NGO)\|BRAC]]. Critics maintain that there are few if any rules or standards in these cases governing working hours, holidays, working conditions, safety or child labour, and few inspection regimes to correct abuses.<ref>{{cite news \|last=Chowdhury \|first=Farooque \|date=June 24, 2007 \|title=The metamorphosis of the micro-credit debtor \|url= http://www.newagebd.com/2007/jun/24/oped.html \|location=Dhaka \|newspaper=New Age \|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20080410121959/http://www.newagebd.com/2007/jun/24/oped.html \|archive-date=April 10, 2008}}</ref> Some of these concerns have been taken up by [[trade union\|union]]s and [[socially responsible investing\|socially responsible investment]] advocates. ===Abuse=== In Nigeria cases of fraud have been reported. Dubious banks promised their clients outrageous interest rates. These banks were closed shortly after clients had deposited money and their deposits were lost. The officials of Nigeria Deposit Insurance Corporation (NDIC) have warned customers about so-called "wonder banks".<ref>{{cite web \|url= http://guardian.ng/news/avoid-wonder-banks-use-licensed-dmbs-ndic-boss-warns-depositors/ \|title=Avoid Wonder Banks, Use Licensed DMBs, NDIC Boss Warns Depositors \|date=3 May 2015}}</ref> One initiative to prevent people from depositing money to wonder banks is the mini-series "e go better" that warns about the practices of these wonder banks.<ref>{{cite web \|url= http://www.digital-development-debates.org/issue-13-post-2015--implementation--nigeria-wonder-banks-debunked.html \|title=Issue 13 Post 2015 - Implementation - Nigeria: Wonder Banks Debunked - Digital Development Debates}}</ref> ==See also== {{Portal\|Banks}} {{div col\|colwidth=22em}} [[Alternative data]] [[Chit fund]] [[Credit union]] [[Crowdfunding]] [[Market governance mechanism\|Market Governance Mechanisms]] [[Microcredit]] [[Microcredit for water supply and sanitation]] [[Microfinance in Tanzania]] [[:Category:Microfinance organizations\|Microfinance organizations]] [[Microgrant]] [[Microinsurance]] [[Opportunity finance]] [[Pawnbroker]] [[Peer-to-peer lending]] [[Rotating savings and credit association]] (ROSCA) [[Savings bank]] [[Social finance]] [[WWB Colombia]] {{div col end}} ==References== {{Reflist\|colwidth=30em}} ==Further reading== * {{cite book \|last1=Adams \|first1=Dale W. \|last2=Graham \|first2=Douglas H. \|last3=Von Pischke \|first3=J. D. \|title=Undermining rural development with cheap credit \|publisher=Westview Press \|location=Boulder, Colorado and London \|date=1984 \|isbn=9780865317680}} * {{cite book \|last1=Armendáriz \|first1=Beatriz \|last2=Morduch \|first2=Jonathan \|title=The economics of microfinance \|publisher=MIT Press \|location=Cambridge, Massachusetts \|date=2010 \|orig-year=2005 \|edition=2nd \|isbn=9780262513982}} * {{cite book \|last=Bateman \|first=Milford \|title=Why doesn't microfinance work? The destructive rise of local neoliberalism \|publisher=Zed Books \|location=London \|date=2010 \|isbn=9781848133327}} * {{cite book \|last1=Branch \|first1=Brian \|last2=Klaehn \|first2=Janette \|title=Striking the Balance in Microfinance: A Practical Guide to Mobilizing Savings \|publisher=Published by Pact Publications for World Council of Credit Unions \|location=Washington, DC \|date=2002 \|isbn=9781888753264}} * De Mariz, Frederic; Reille, Xavier; Rozas, Daniel (July 2011). [https://ssrn.com/abstract=2654041 Discovering Limits. Global Microfinance Valuation Survey 2011], Washington DC: Consultative Group to Assist the Poor (CGAP) World Bank. * {{cite book \|last1=Dichter \|first1=Thomas \|last2=Harper \|first2=Malcolm \|title=What's wrong with microfinance \|publisher=Practical Action Publishing \|location=Rugby, Warwickshire, UK \|date=2007 \|isbn=9781853396670}} * {{cite book \|last1=Dowla \|first1=Asif \|last2=Barua \|first2=Dipal \|title=The Poor Always Pay Back: The Grameen II Story \|publisher=Kumarian Press Inc. \|location=Bloomfield, Connecticut \|date=2006 \|isbn=9781565492318 \|url= https://archive.org/details/isbn_9781565492318}} * {{cite book \|last1=Floro \|first1=Sagrario \|last2=Yotopoulos \|first2=Pan A. \|title=Informal Credit Markets and the New Institutional Economics: The Case of Philippine Agriculture \|publisher=Westview Press \|location=Boulder, Colorado \|date=1991 \|isbn=9780813381367}} * {{cite book \|last=Gibbons \|first=David S. \|title=The Grameen reader \|publisher=Grameen Bank \|location=Dhaka, Bangladesh \|date=1994 \|orig-year=1992 \|oclc=223123405}} * {{cite book \|last=Hirschland \|first=Madeline \|title=Savings Services for the Poor: An Operational Guide \|publisher=Kumarian Press \|location=Bloomfield, Connecticut \|date=2005 \|isbn=9781565492097}} * {{Cite journal \|last1=Jafree \|first1=Sara Rizvi \|last2=Ahmad \|first2=Khalil \|title=Women microfinance users and their association with improvement in quality of life: Evidence from Pakistan \|journal=[[Asian Women (journal)\|Asian Women]] \|volume=29 \|issue=4 \|pages=73–105 \|doi=10.14431/aw.2013.12.29.4.73 \|date=December 2013 }} * {{cite book \|last=Khandker \|first=Shahidur R. \|title=Fighting Poverty with Microcredit: Experience in Bangladesh \|publisher=The University Press Ltd. \|location=Dhaka, Bangladesh \|date=1999 \|isbn=9789840514687}} * {{cite book \|last=Krishna \|first=Sridhar \|title=Micro-enterprises: Perspectives and Experiences \|publisher=ICFAI University Press \|location=Hyderabad, India \|date=2008 \|oclc=294882711 }} * {{cite book \|last1=Ledgerwood \|first1=Joanna \|last2=White \|first2=Victoria \|title=Transforming microfinance institutions providing full financial services to the poor \|publisher=World Bank MicroFinance Network Sida \|location=Washington, DC Stockholm \|date=2006 \|isbn=9780821366158}} * {{cite report \|last1=Mas \|first1=Ignacio \|last2=Kumar \|first2=Kabir \|title=Banking on mobiles: Why, how, for whom? \|publisher=Consultative Group to Assist the Poor (CGAP), World Bank \|location=Washington, DC \|date=July 2008 \|ssrn=1655282 \|quote=CGAP Focus Note, No. 48}} [http://www-wds.worldbank.org/external/default/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2008/08/25/000333038_20080825011146/Rendered/PDF/451010WP0CGAP010Box0334044B1PUBLIC1.pdf PDF]. * O'Donohoe, Nick; De Mariz, Frederic; Littlefield, Elizabeth; Reille, Xavier; Kneiding, Christoph (February 2009). [https://ssrn.com/abstract=2619149 Shedding Light on Microfinance Equity Valuation: Past and Present], Washington DC: Consultative Group to Assist the Poor (CGAP), World Bank. * {{cite book \|last1=Rai \|first1=Achintya \|title=Venture: A Collection of True Microfinance Stories \|publisher=Zidisha Microfinance \|date=2012 \|url= https://www.amazon.com/Venture-Collection-Microfinance-Stories-ebook/dp/B009JC6V12 \|quote=(Kindle E-Book) \|display-authors=etal}} * {{cite book \|last=Raiffeisen \|first=Friedrich Wilhelm \|author-link=Friedrich Wilhelm Raiffeisen \|translator-last=Engelmann \|translator-first=Konrad \|title=The credit unions (Die Darlehnskassen-Vereine) \|publisher=The Raiffeisen Printing & Publishing Company \|location=Neuwied on the Rhine, Germany \|date=1970 \|orig-year=1866 \|oclc=223123405}} * {{cite book \|last=Robinson \|first=Marguerite S. \|title=The microfinance revolution \|publisher=World Bank Open Society Institute \|location=Washington, D.C. New York \|date=2001 \|isbn=9780821345245}} * {{cite book \|last=Roodman \|first=David \|title=Due diligence an impertinent inquiry into microfinance \|publisher=Center for Global Development \|location=Washington DC \|date=2012 \|isbn=9781933286488}} * {{Cite journal \|last1=Seibel \|first1=Hans Dieter \|last2=Khadka \|first2=Shyam \|title=SHG banking: A financial technology for very poor microentrepreneurs \|journal=Savings and Development \|volume=26 \|issue=2 \|pages=133–150 \|date=2002 \|jstor=25830790 }} * {{cite book \|last=Sinclair \|first=Hugh \|title=Confessions of a Microfinance Heretic: How Microlending Lost its Way and Betrayed the Poor \|url= https://archive.org/details/Confessions_of_A_Microfinance_Heretic_9781609945190 \|url-access=registration \|publisher=Berrett-Koehler Publishers \|location=San Francisco, California \|date=2012 \|isbn=9781609945183}} * {{cite book \|last1=Rutherford \|first1=Stuart \|last2=Arora \|first2=Sukhwinder \|title=The Poor and Their Money: Microfinance from a Twenty-first Century Consumer's Perspective \|publisher=Practical Action \|location=Warwickshire, UK \|date=2009 \|isbn=9781853396885}} * {{cite book \|last=Wolff \|first=Henry W. \|title=People's Banks: A Record of Social and Economic Success \|url= https://archive.org/details/peoplesbanksare00wolfgoog \|publisher=P. S. King & Son \|location=London \|date=1910 \|orig-year=1893 \|edition=4th \|oclc=504828329}} * {{Cite journal \|last=Sapovadia \|first=Vrajlal K. \|title=Micro finance: The pillars of a tool to socio-economic development \|journal=Development Gateway \|date=2006 \|ssrn=955062 }} * {{Cite journal \|last=Sapovadia \|first=Vrajlal K. \|title=Capacity building, pillar of micro finance \|journal=[[Social Science Research Network]] \|doi=10.2139/ssrn.975088 \|date=19 March 2007 \|s2cid=167722868 }} * {{Cite journal \|last=Sapovadia \|first=M. \|title=Microfinance and women's empowerment: Contemporary issues and challenges \|journal=International Journal of Innovative Research & Studies (IJIRS) \|volume=2 \|issue=5 \|pages=590–606 \|date=May 2013 }} PDF. * {{cite book \|last1=Maimbo \|first1=Samuel Munzele \|last2=Ratha \|first2=Dilip \|title=Remittances development impact and future prospects \|publisher=World Bank \|location=Washington, DC \|date=2005 \|isbn=9780821357941}} * {{cite book \|last=Wright \|first=Graham A. N. \|title=Microfinance Systems: Designing Quality Financial Services for the Poor \|publisher=Zed Books \|location=London New York Dhaka \|date=2000 \|isbn=9781856497879}} * {{cite book \|last1=United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs \|last2=United Nations Capital Development Fund \|author-link1=United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs \|author-link2=United Nations Capital Development Fund \|title=Building inclusive financial sectors for development \|publisher=United Nations \|location=New York, New York \|date=2006 \|isbn=9789211045611}} * {{cite book \|last=Yunus \|first=Muhammad \|title=Creating a World Without Poverty: Social Business and the Future of Capitalism \|publisher=PublicAffairs \|location=New York \|date=2007 \|isbn=9781586484934 \|url= https://archive.org/details/creatingworldwit00yunu}} * {{Cite journal \|last1=Yunus \|first1=Muhammad \|last2=Moingeon \|first2=Bertrand \|last3=Lehmann-Ortega \|first3=Laurence \|author-link1=Muhammad Yunus \|author-link2=Bertrand Moingeon \|title=Building social business models: Lessons from the Grameen experience \|journal=Long Range Planning \|volume=43 \|issue=2–3 \|pages=308–325 \|doi=10.1016/j.lrp.2009.12.005 \|date=April 2010 \|s2cid=154512507 }} [https://web.archive.org/web/20160203162342/http://www.hec.edu/content/download/52956/470943/file/Article%20LRP%20Yunus%20Moingeon%20Lehmann-Ortega%20d%C3%A9finitif.pdf PDF]. * {{cite journal \|last=Cooper \|first=Logan \|title=Small Loans, Big Promises, Unknown Impact: An Examination of Microfinance \|journal=The Apollonian Revolt \|date=2015 \|url= http://theapollonianrevolt.com/small-loans-big-promises-unknown-impact-an-examination-of-microfinance/ \|access-date=31 July 2015 \|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20150728072306/http://theapollonianrevolt.com/small-loans-big-promises-unknown-impact-an-examination-of-microfinance/ \|archive-date=28 July 2015\|url-status=dead}} ==External links== <!--========================{{No more links}}============================ \|PLEASE BE CAUTIOUS IN ADDING MORE LINKS TO THIS ARTICLE. Wikipedia \| \|is not a collection of links nor should it be used for advertising. \| \| \| \| Excessive or inappropriate links WILL BE DELETED. \| \|See [[Wikipedia:External links]] & [[Wikipedia:Spam]] for details. \| \| \| \|If there are already plentiful links, please propose additions or \| \|replacements on this article's discussion page, or submit your link \| \|to the relevant category at the Open Directory Project (dmoz.org) \| \|and link back to that category using the {{dmoz}} template. \| ==={{No more links}}=========--> {{commons category\|Microfinance}} * {{Curlie\|Science/Social_Sciences/Economics/Development_Economics/Microfinance/\|Microfinance}} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20141003235625/http://www.adb.org/features/12-things-know-microfinance Microfinance in Asia and the Pacific: 12 Things to Know] Asian Development Bank * [https://web.archive.org/web/20161001234104/http://accionusa.org/ Accion USA's Website, a microlender for businesses in the United States] * [https://eads.usaid.gov/mrr/ USAID Microenterprise Results Reporting (MRR) Portal] {{Webarchive\|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304043612/https://eads.usaid.gov/mrr/ \|date=4 March 2016 }} {{Consumer debt}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Microfinance\|Microfinance]] [[Category:Economic development]] [[Category:Poverty]] [[Category:Social economy]] [[Category:Bangladeshi inventions]] [[Category:Pakistani inventions]] [[Category:Sustainability]] [[Category:Sustainable development]]
Social entrepreneurship	{{short description\|Approach to develop, fund and implement solutions to social or environmental issues}} {{Essay-like\|date=June 2023}} {{use mdy dates\|date=March 2021}} [[File:Tulane University Environmental Action League, New Orleans, February 2011.jpg\|thumb\|right\|upright=1.15\|Student organizers from the Green Club at Newcomb College Institute formed a social entrepreneurship organization in 2010 that aimed to encourage people to reduce waste and live in a more environmentally conscious way.]] '''Social entrepreneurship''' is an approach by individuals, groups, [[Startup company\|start-up companies]] or [[entrepreneur]]s, in which they develop, fund and implement solutions to social, cultural, or environmental issues.<ref>{{cite news \| url = http://www.pbs.org/now/enterprisingideas/what-is.html \| work = Enterprising Ideas \| title = What is a Social Entrepreneur \| publisher = PBS Foundation \| quote = A social entrepreneur, in our view, is a person or entity that takes a business approach to effectively solving a social problem.}}</ref> This concept may be applied to a wide range of organizations, which vary in size, aims, and beliefs.<ref>{{cite web \| title = The Meaning of Social Entrepreneurship \| first = J. Gregory \| last = Dees \| orig-year = 1998 \| year = 2001 \| publisher= caseatduke.org \| url= http://caseatduke.org/ \| access-date= 2013-05-03}}</ref> For-profit entrepreneurs typically measure performance using business metrics like [[Profit (economics)\|profit]], [[revenues]] and increases in [[stock price]]s. Social entrepreneurs, however, are either [[non-profit organization\|non-profits]], or they blend for-profit goals with generating a positive "return to society". Therefore, they use different metrics. Social entrepreneurship typically attempts to further broad social, cultural and environmental goals often associated with the [[voluntary sector]]<ref>{{cite journal \| last1 = Thompson \| first1 = J.L. \| year = 2002 \| title = The World of the Social Entrepreneur \| journal = The International Journal of Public Sector Management \| volume = 15 \| issue = 4/5\| page = 413 \| doi = 10.1108/09513550210435746 }}</ref> in areas such as poverty alleviation, [[health care]] and [[community development]]. At times, profit-making [[social enterprise]]s may be established to support the social or cultural goals of the organization but not as an end in themselves. For example, an organization that aims to provide housing and employment to the [[homelessness\|homeless]] may operate a [[restaurant]], both to raise money and to provide employment for the homeless. In 2010, social entrepreneurship was facilitated by the use of the [[Internet]], particularly [[social networking]] and [[social media]] websites. These [[website]]s enable social entrepreneurs to reach numerous people who are not geographically close yet who share the same goals and encourage them to [[collaboration\|collaborate]] online, learn about the issues, disseminate information about the group's events and activities, and raise funds through [[crowdfunding]].<ref>{{Cite web \|title=IDOSR-JAS-52-49-55-2020.pdf \|url=https://www.idosr.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/09/IDOSR-JAS-52-49-55-2020..pdf \|website=idosr.org}}</ref> In recent years, researchers have been calling for a better understanding of the ecosystem in which social entrepreneurship exists and [[social venture]]s operate.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book\|editor-last1=de Bruin \|editor-first1=A. \|editor-last2=Teasdale \|editor-first2=S. \|title=A Research Agenda for Social Entrepreneurship\|publisher=Edward Elgar Publishing\|year=2019\|isbn=978-1-78897-231-4}}</ref> This will help them formulate better strategy and help achieve their [[double bottom line]] objective.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal\|last1=Purkayastha\|first1=Debapratim\|last2=Tripathy\|first2=Trilochan\|last3=Das \|first3=Biswajit\|date=2020-01-01\|title=Understanding the ecosystem of microfinance institutions in India \|journal=Social Enterprise Journal\|volume=16 \|issue=3 \|pages=243–261\|doi=10.1108/SEJ-08-2019-0063 \|s2cid=213274658 \|issn=1750-8614}}</ref><ref name=":4">{{Cite journal \|last1=Bloom \|first1=P. N. \|last2=Dees \|first2=J. G. \|date=2008\|title=Cultivate Your Ecosystem\|journal=Stanford Social Innovation Review\|volume=6\|issue=1\|pages=47–53}}</ref> == Modern definition == [[File:Yunus Social entrepreneurs Sanwar Uddin.jpg\|thumb\|upright=1.15\|right\|[[Grameen Bank]] founder and [[Nobel Peace Prize]] winner [[Muhammad Yunus]] (left) with two young social entrepreneurs (right)]] The concept of social entrepreneurship emerged in the 1980s and since then has been gaining more momentum. Despite this, after decades of efforts to find a common ground to define the concept, no consensus has been reached.<ref>{{cite book \| doi=10.4324/9780429291197-1 \| chapter=Social Enterprise: Is It Possible to Decolonise This Concept? \| title=Theory of Social Enterprise and Pluralism \| year=2019 \| last1=Dos Santos \| first1=Luciane Lucas \| last2=Banerjee \| first2=Swati \| pages=3–17 \| isbn=9780429291197 \| s2cid=187416644 }}</ref> The dynamic nature of the object and the multiplicity of the conceptual lens used by researchers has made it impossible to capture it, to such an extent that scholars have compared it with a mythological beast.<ref>{{cite journal \| doi=10.1177/0952076711401466 \| title=What's in a Name? Making Sense of Social Enterprise Discourses \| year=2012 \| last1=Teasdale \| first1=Simon \| journal=Public Policy and Administration \| volume=27 \| issue=2 \| pages=99–119 \| s2cid=54655735 }}</ref> Scholars have different backgrounds, generating a great disparity of conceptualizations. These should be arranged in 5 clusters of meaning, according to the focus given and the conceptual framework assumed by the researcher. The first group of authors focuses on the person of the entrepreneur, being the mainstream definition. J. G. Dees argues that social entrepreneurship is the result and the creation of an especially creative and innovative leader.<ref>Dees, J. G. (1998), "The meaning of social entrepreneurship", available in: https://entrepreneurship.duke.edu/news-item/the-meaning-of-social-entrepreneurship/ {{Webarchive\|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200219180139/https://entrepreneurship.duke.edu/news-item/the-meaning-of-social-entrepreneurship/ \|date=February 19, 2020 }}</ref> Social entrepreneurs can include a range of career types and professional backgrounds, ranging from [[social work]] and [[community development]] to [[entrepreneurship]] and [[environmental science]]. For this reason, it is difficult to determine who is a social entrepreneur. [[David Bornstein (author)\|David Bornstein]] has even used the term "social innovator" interchangeably with social entrepreneur, due to the creative, non-traditional strategies that many social entrepreneurs use.<ref>David Bornstein, ''How to Change the World'' (New York: Oxford University Press, 2007), 1, 92</ref> For a clearer definition of what social entrepreneurship entails, it is necessary to set the function of social entrepreneurship apart from other voluntary sector and charity-oriented activities and identify the boundaries within which social entrepreneurs operate.<ref>Abu-Saifan, S. 2012. [http://www.timreview.ca/article/523 Social Entrepreneurship: Definition and Boundaries]. [http://www.timreview.ca/ Technology Innovation Management Review]. [http://www.timreview.ca/issue/2012/february February 2012]: 22-27.</ref> Some scholars have advocated restricting the term to founders of organizations that primarily rely on earned income (meaning income earned directly from paying consumers), rather than income from donations or grants. Others have extended this to include contracted work for public authorities, while still others include grants and donations. Social entrepreneurship in modern society offers an altruistic form of entrepreneurship that focuses on the benefits that society may reap.<ref name="Wee" /> If a person's behaviour or motives are altruistic, they show concern for the happiness and welfare of other people rather than for themselves.<ref>{{cite web \|title=Altruistic \|url=https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/altruistic}}</ref> Simply put, entrepreneurship becomes a social endeavor when it transforms [[social capital]] in a way that affects society positively.<ref name="Alvord">Alvord, Sarah H., Brown, David L., and Letts, Christine W. "Social Entrepreneurship and Societal Transformation: An Exploratory Study." The Journal of Applied Behavioral Science. no. 3 (2004): 260-282.</ref> It is viewed as advantageous because the success of social entrepreneurship depends on many factors related to social impact that traditional corporate businesses do not prioritize. Social entrepreneurs recognize immediate social problems, but also seek to understand the broader context of an issue that crosses disciplines, fields, and theories.<ref name="Alvord" /> Gaining a larger understanding of how an issue relates to society allows social entrepreneurs to develop innovative solutions and mobilize available resources to affect the greater global society. Unlike traditional corporate businesses, social entrepreneurship ventures focus on maximizing gains in social satisfaction, rather than maximizing profit gains.<ref name="Baron">Baron, David P. "Corporate Social Responsibility and Social Entrepreneurship." Journal of Economics & Management Strategy. no. 3 (2007): 683-717.</ref> Both private and public agencies worldwide have had billion-dollar initiatives to empower deprived communities and individuals.<ref name="Alvord" /> Such support from organizations in society, such as government-aid agencies or private firms, may catalyze innovative ideas to reach a larger audience. Prominent individuals associated with social entrepreneurship include Pakistani [[Akhter Hameed Khan]] and Bangladeshi [[Muhammad Yunus (economist)\|Muhammad Yunus]], a leader of [[social entrepreneurship in South Asia]]. Yunus was the founder of [[Grameen Bank]], which pioneered the concept of [[microcredit]] for supporting innovators in multiple developing countries in [[Asia]], [[Africa]], and [[Latin America]].<ref name=":0" /> He received a [[Nobel Peace Prize]] for his efforts. Others, such as former [[Indianapolis]] mayor [[Stephen Goldsmith]], addressed social efforts on a local level by using the private sector to provide city services.<ref name="economist810">{{cite news \|url=http://www.economist.com/node/16789766 \|title=Let's hear those ideas \|date=August 12, 2010 \|newspaper=[[The Economist]] \|access-date=July 28, 2014}}</ref><ref name="goldsmith">{{cite book \|title=The Power of Social Innovation: How Civic Entrepreneurs Ignite Community Networks for Good \|last=Goldsmith \|first=Stephen \|date=March 2010 \|publisher=Jossey-Bass \|isbn= 978-0-470-57684-7}}</ref> ==Characteristics == Bill Drayton founded Ashoka in 1980, an organization which supports local social entrepreneurs. Drayton tells his employees to look for four qualities: creativity, entrepreneurial quality, social impact of the idea, and ethical fiber.<ref>{{cite book\|last1=Bornstein\|first1=David\|title=How to Change the World\|date=2007\|publisher=Oxford University Press\|location=New York\|isbn=978-0-19-533476-0\|pages=[https://archive.org/details/howtochangeworld00born_0/page/121 121–122]\|url=https://archive.org/details/howtochangeworld00born_0}}</ref> Creativity has two parts: [[Goal setting\|goal-setting]] and [[Problem solving\|problem-solving]]. Social entrepreneurs are creative enough to have a vision of what they want to happen and how to make that vision happen.<ref>{{cite book\|last1=Bornstein\|first1=David\|title=How to Change the World\|date=2007\|publisher=Oxford University Press \|location=New York\|isbn=978-0-19-533476-0\|pages=[https://archive.org/details/howtochangeworld00born_0/page/124 124]\|url=https://archive.org/details/howtochangeworld00born_0}}</ref> In their book ''The Power of Unreasonable People,'' John Elkington and Pamela Hartigan identify why social entrepreneurs are, as they put it, unreasonable. They argue that these men and women seek profit in social output where others would not expect profit. They also ignore evidence suggesting that their enterprises will fail and attempt to measure results which no one is equipped to measure.<ref>{{cite book\|last1=Elkington\|first1=John\|title=The Power of Unreasonable People \|date=2008\|publisher=Harvard Business Press\|location=Boston\|isbn=978-1-4221-0406-4\|pages=[https://archive.org/details/powerofunreasona0000elki/page/15 15–19]\|url=https://archive.org/details/powerofunreasona0000elki}}</ref> About this, the [[Schwab Foundation for Social Entrepreneurship\|Schwab Foundation]] says that entrepreneurs have "A zeal to measure and monitor their impact. Entrepreneurs have high standards, particularly in relation to their own organization's efforts and in response to the communities with which they engage. Data, both quantitative and qualitative, are their key tools, guiding continuous feedback and improvement."<ref>{{cite web\|title=What is a Social Entrepreneur?\|url=http://www.schwabfound.org/content/what-social-entrepreneur\|website=Schwab Foundation for Social Entrepreneurs\|access-date=28 October 2016}}</ref> Ashoka operates in multiple countries. Entrepreneurial quality builds from creativity. Not only do entrepreneurs have an idea that they must implement, they know how to implement it and are realistic in the vision of implementing it. Drayton says that, "Entrepreneurs have in their heads the vision of how society will be different when their idea is at work, and they can't stop until that idea is not only at work in one place, but is at work across the whole society."<ref>{{cite book\|last1=Bornstein\|first1=David\|title=How to Change the World\|date=2007\|publisher=Oxford University Press\|location=New York\|isbn=978-0-19-533476-0\|pages=[https://archive.org/details/howtochangeworld00born_0/page/124 124–126] \|url=https://archive.org/details/howtochangeworld00born_0}}</ref> This manifests through a clear idea of what they believe the future will look like and a drive to make this come true. Besides this, entrepreneurs are not happy with the status quo: they want healthy change.<ref>{{cite book \|last1=Elkington\|first1=John\|title=The Power of Unreasonable People\|date=2008\|publisher=Harvard Business Press\|location=Boston \|isbn=978-1-4221-0406-4 \|pages=[https://archive.org/details/powerofunreasona0000elki/page/11 11–13]\|url=https://archive.org/details/powerofunreasona0000elki}}</ref> This changemaking process has been described as the creation of market disequilibria through the conversion of antagonistic assets into complementarities.<ref>{{cite journal \|last1=Hockerts \|first1=K. \|year=2015 \|title=How hybrid organizations turn antagonistic assets into complementarities \|journal=California Management Review \|volume=57 \|issue=3\| pages=83–106 \|doi=10.1525/cmr.2015.57.3.83 \|s2cid=154538481}}</ref><ref>{{cite book\|last1=Komatsu\|first1=T.\|title=Finance and Economy for Society: Integrating Sustainability \|year=2016\|isbn=978-1-78635-510-2\|series=Critical Studies on Corporate Responsibility, Governance and Sustainability\|volume=11 \|pages=315–347 \|chapter=Social Innovation Business Models: Coping with Antagonistic Objectives and Assets\|doi=10.1108/S2043-905920160000011013}}</ref> Social impact measures whether the idea itself will be able to cause change after the original founder is gone. If an idea has intrinsic worth, once implemented it will cause change even without the charismatic leadership of the first entrepreneur.<ref>{{cite book\|last1=Bornstein\|first1=David\|title=How to Change the World\|date=2007\|publisher=Oxford University Press\|location=New York\|isbn=978-0-19-533476-0 \|pages=[https://archive.org/details/howtochangeworld00born_0/page/126 126–127] \|url=https://archive.org/details/howtochangeworld00born_0}}</ref> One reason that these entrepreneurs are unreasonable is that they are unqualified for the task they take on. Most entrepreneurs have not studied the skills needed to implement their ideas. Instead, they bring a team of qualified people around themselves.<ref>{{cite book\|last1=Elkington \|first1=John\|title=The Power of Unreasonable People\|date=2008\|publisher=Harvard Business Press\|location=Boston\|isbn=978-1-4221-0406-4\|page=[https://archive.org/details/powerofunreasona0000elki/page/21 21] \|url=https://archive.org/details/powerofunreasona0000elki}}</ref> It is the idea that draws this team. Ethical fiber is important because leaders who are about to change the world must be trustworthy. Drayton described this to his employees by suggesting that they picture a situation that frightens them and then place the candidate in the situation with them. If they feel comfortable in this scenario, the entrepreneur has ethical fiber.<ref>{{cite book\|last1=Bornstein\|first1=David\|title=How to Change the World\|date=2007\|publisher=Oxford University Press\|location=New York\|isbn=978-0-19-533476-0\|pages=[https://archive.org/details/howtochangeworld00born_0/page/127 127–128]\|url=https://archive.org/details/howtochangeworld00born_0}}</ref> One distinguishing attribute of entrepreneurs is that they rarely take credit for making change. They insist that the change they have brought about is due to everyone around them. They also tend to be driven by emotion; they are not trying primarily to make a profit but to address suffering.<ref>{{cite book\|last1=Elkington\|first1=John\|title=The Power of Unreasonable People\|date=2008\|publisher=Harvard Business Press\|location=Boston\|isbn=978-1-4221-0406-4\|pages=[https://archive.org/details/powerofunreasona0000elki/page/12 12, 23]\|url=https://archive.org/details/powerofunreasona0000elki}}</ref> Muhammad Yunus says about this characteristic, "He (or she) competes in the marketplace with all other competitors but is inspired by a set of social objectives. This is the basic reason for being in the business."<ref>{{cite book \|last1=Yunus\|first1=Muhhamad\|title=Banker to the Poor\|date=2007 \|publisher=PublicAffairs\|location=New York\|isbn=9781586481988\|page=[https://archive.org/details/bankertopoormicr00yunu/page/251 251] \|url=https://archive.org/details/bankertopoormicr00yunu/page/251}}</ref> ==Challenges== Because the world of social entrepreneurship is relatively new, there are many challenges facing those who delve into the field. First, social entrepreneurs are trying to predict, address and creatively respond to future problems<ref>The Power of Unreasonable People; Elkington, John, Hartigan, Pamela; Harvard Business Press, 2008; p. 86</ref> and often face difficulties in identifying the right problems to solve.<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1=Kuckertz \|first1=Andreas\|last2=Bernhard \|first2=Alexander \|last3=Berger \|first3=Elisabeth S.C. \|display-authors=etal \|title=Scaling the right answers – Creating and maintaining hope through social entrepreneurship in light of humanitarian crises \|journal=Journal of Business Venturing Insights \|date=2023 \|volume=19 \|pages=e00356 \|doi=10.1016/j.jbvi.2022.e00356\|doi-access=free }}</ref> Unlike most business entrepreneurs, who address current market deficiencies, social entrepreneurs tackle hypothetical, unseen or often less-researched issues, such as overpopulation, unsustainable energy sources, food shortages.<ref>{{cite journal \|title=The Power of Unreasonable People \|last1=Elkington \|first1=John \|last2=Hartigan \|first2=Pamela \|journal=Harvard Business Press \|date=2008 \|pages=86–115}}</ref> Founding successful social businesses on merely potential solutions can be nearly impossible as investors are much less willing to support risky ventures. If entrepreneurs are able to receive funding from investors, the challenges do not stop with balancing both the social and business aspects of the business. <ref>{{cite journal \|title=Social entrepreneurship and digital platforms: Crowdfunding in the sharing-economy era \|last1=Chandna \|first1= Vallari\|journal= Business Horizons\|date=2022 \|volume=65 \|pages=21–31 \|doi=10.1016/j.bushor.2021.09.005\|s2cid=239170896 }}</ref> The lack of eager investors leads to the second problem in social entrepreneurship: the pay gap. Elkington and Hartigan note that "the salary gap between commercial and social enterprises… remains the elephant in the room, curtailing the capacity of [social enterprises] to achieve long-term success and viability."<ref name="Unreasonable People p. 201">The Power of Unreasonable People; Elkington, John, Hartigan, Pamela; Harvard Business Press, 2008; p. 201</ref> Social entrepreneurs and their employees are often given diminutive or non-existent salaries, especially at the onset of their ventures. Thus, their enterprises struggle to maintain qualified, committed employees. Though social entrepreneurs are tackling the world's most pressing issues, they must also confront skepticism and stinginess from the very society they seek to serve.<ref name="Unreasonable People p. 201"/> Another reason social entrepreneurs are often unsuccessful is because they typically offer help for those least able to pay for it. Capitalism is founded upon the exchange of capital (most obviously, money) for goods and services. However, social entrepreneurs must find new business models that do not rely on standard exchange of capital in order to make their organizations sustainable.<ref>The Power of Unreasonable People; Elkington, John, Hartigan, Pamela; Harvard Business Press, 2008; p. 200</ref> This self-sustainability is what distinguishes social businesses from charities, who rely almost entirely on donations and outside funding.<ref>The Power of Unreasonable People; Elkington, John, Hartigan, Pamela; Harvard Business Press, 2008; pp. 31-</ref> ==History== Social entrepreneurship is distinct from the concept of [[entrepreneurship]], yet still shares several similarities with its business cousin. [[Jean-Baptiste Say]] (1767–1832), a French economist, defined an entrepreneur as a person who "undertakes" an idea and shifts perspectives in a way that it alters the effect that an idea has on society.<ref name=":0">{{cite journal \| last1 = Martin \| first1 = R. L. \| last2 = Osberg \| first2 = S. \| year = 2007 \| title = Social entrepreneurship: The case for definition \| journal = Stanford Social Innovation Review \| volume = 5 \| issue = 2\| pages = 28–39 }}</ref> An entrepreneur is further defined by Say as someone who "shifts economic resources out of an area of lower and into an area of higher productivity and greater yield."<ref>Peter F. Drucker, ''Innovation and Entrepreneurship'' (New York: Harper Business, 1993), 21</ref> The difference between "entrepreneurship" and "social entrepreneurship", however, stems from the purpose of a creation. Social entrepreneurs seek to transform societies at large, rather than transforming their [[profit margin]], as classic entrepreneurs typically seek to do. Social entrepreneurs use a variety of resources to bring societies into a better state of well-being. The concept of "social entrepreneurship" is not a novel idea, but in the 2000s, it has become more popular among society and academic research, notably after the publication of "The Rise of the Social Entrepreneur" by [[Charles Leadbeater]].<ref name="Wee">Wee-Liang, Williams, John, and Tan, Teck-Meng. "Defining the 'Social' in 'Social Entrepreneurship': Altruism and Entrepreneurship." The International Entrepreneurship and Management Journal. no. 3 (2005): 353-365.</ref> Many activities related to community development and higher social purpose fall within the modern definition of social entrepreneurship. Despite the established definition nowadays, social entrepreneurship remains a difficult concept to define, since it may be manifested in multiple forms.<ref name="Mair">Mair, Johanna, and Marti, Ignasi. "Social entrepreneurship research: A source of explanation, prediction, and delight." Journal of World Business.no. 1 (2006): 36-44.</ref> A broad definition of the concept allows interdisciplinary research efforts to understand and challenge the notions behind social entrepreneurship. No matter in which sector of society certain organizations are (i.e. corporations or unincorporated associations, societies, associations or [[cooperative]]s), social entrepreneurship focuses on the social impact that an endeavor aims at.<ref name="Wee" /> Whether social entrepreneurship is [[altruistic]] or not is less important than the effect it has on society. The terms ''social entrepreneur'' and ''social entrepreneurship'' were used first in the literature in 1953 by H. Bowen in his book ''Social Responsibilities of the Businessman''.<ref>For example, the phrase was used as a description of [[Howard Bowen]], ''Social Responsibilities of the Businessman'', America, 1953</ref> The terms came into widespread use in the 1980s and 1990s, promoted by [[Bill Drayton]],<ref name="social entreprenuer">{{cite web \| publisher=[[U.S. News & World Report]] \| title=The Social Entrepreneur Bill Drayton\| date = 2005-10-31 \| url=https://www.usnews.com/usnews/news/articles/051031/31drayton.htm \| access-date=2006-11-03}}</ref> Charles Leadbeater, and others.<ref>'The Rise of the Social Entrepreneur, Demos, London, 1996</ref> From the 1950s to the 1990s, the politician [[Michael Young, Baron Young of Dartington\|Michael Young]] was a leading promoter of social entrepreneurship and in the 1980s, he was described by Professor [[Daniel Bell]] at Harvard University as the "world's most successful entrepreneur of social enterprises". Young created more than sixty new organizations worldwide, including the [[School for Social Entrepreneurs]] (SSE) which exists in the UK, Australia, and Canada and which supports individuals to realize their potential and to establish, scale, and sustain, social enterprises and [[social business]]es. Another notable British social entrepreneur is [[Andrew Mawson, Baron Mawson\|Andrew Mawson]] [[OBE]], who was given a peerage in 2007 because of his [[urban regeneration]] work including the [[Bromley by Bow Centre]] in East London. Although the terms are relatively new, social entrepreneurs and social entrepreneurship may be found throughout history. A list of a few noteworthy people whose work exemplifies the modern definition of "social entrepreneurship" includes [[Florence Nightingale]], founder of the first [[nursing school]] and developer of modern nursing practices; [[Robert Owen]], founder of the [[cooperative]] movement; and [[Vinoba Bhave]], founder of India's [[Bhoodan movement\|Land Gift Movement]]. During the nineteenth and twentieth centuries some of the most successful social entrepreneurs straddled the civic, governmental and business worlds. These pioneers promoted new ideas that were taken up by mainstream public services in welfare, schools and health care. ==Ecosystem of social entrepreneurship == The ecosystem framework can be very useful for social entrepreneurs in formulating their strategy. The need for understanding the ecosystem of social enterprises has been increasingly supported as researchers emphasize on the importance of contextual factors supporting and constraining [[social venture]]s.<ref name=":2" /> Researcher note that there is a need to understand the ecosystems of social enterprises, as they often operate in a context which is highly localized, interacting with small, local actors, but may also be intimately connected to other systems operating at a broader (regional, country level or even global) level which influence their immediate environment.<ref>{{Cite book\|last1=Roy \|first1=M. J. \|last2=Hazenberg \|first2=R. \|title=An evolutionary perspective on social entrepreneurship 'ecosystems'. In A Research Agenda for Social Entrepreneurship\|publisher=Edward Elgar Publishing \|year=2019\|isbn=978-1-78897-231-4\|pages=13–22}}</ref> Many researchers such as P. N. Bloom and J. G. Dees attempted to develop an ecosystem model for social entrepreneurs. The ecosystem model proposed by them comprises all the actors operating in the ecosystem, as well as the larger environment the laws, policies, social norms, demographic trends, and cultural institutions within which the actors play.<ref name=":4" /> Similarly, Dees ''et al.'' (2008) developed a framework to describe the key elements of the social entrepreneurship ecosystem in which they organized the elements into two broad categories – capital infrastructure and context-setting factors.<ref>{{Cite journal\|author=Dees, J. G. \|author2=Nash, M. \|author3=Anderson, B. \|author4=Kalafatas, J. \|author5=Tolman, R. \|author6=Kuran, W. \|author7=Bloom, P.\|date=2008\|title=Developing the field of social entrepreneurship\|journal=Report from the Center for the Advancement of Social Entrepreneurship \|publisher=Duke University}}</ref> More recently in 2020, [[Debapratim Purkayastha]], T. Tripathy and B. Das extended the business ecosystem literature to the social policy and social entrepreneurship arena. They developed a comprehensive ecosystem model in the context of the Indian microfinance sector that can be also used by other social enterprises as a framework to understand their own ecosystem and formulate their strategy. The researchers define the ecosystem as consisting of "the complex and evolving network of the focal organization (social enterprise) and all other individuals and organizations that the focal organization interact with including competitors, suppliers, complementors, customers, beneficiaries, regulators, resource providers, etc. that directly or indirectly influence each other; their interactions, as also the immediate and the broader environment (economic, social, political, etc.) the organization is influenced by and reside in".<ref name=":3" /> The model helps identify all the actors in the complex ecosystem, the capital infrastructure and the context-setting factors. == 2000s == === Major organizations === [[File:Panel on social entrepreneurs at Spotlight Health Aspen Ideas Festival 2015.JPG\|thumb\|right\|A panel discusses social entrepreneurship in the health care sector in 2015.]] Groups focused on social entrepreneurship may be divided into several categories: community-based enterprises, socially responsible enterprises, [[social services]] industry professionals, and socio-economic enterprises.<ref name="Wee" /> Community-based enterprises are based on the social ventures aimed at and involving an entire community. These enterprises build on the community's culture and capital (e.g., volunteer resources, financing, in-kind donations, etc.) to empower the enterprise and the community.<ref name="Peredo">{{cite journal \| last1 = Peredo \| first1 = Ana Maria \| last2 = Chrisman \| first2 = James J. \| year = 2006 \| title = Toward a theory of community-based enterprise \| journal = Academy of Management Review \| volume = 31 \| issue = 2\| pages = 309–328 \| doi=10.5465/amr.2006.20208683\| s2cid = 144555213 }}</ref> Socially responsible enterprises focus on creating [[sustainable development]] through their inside organization acts that focus mostly on creating societal gains for the community.<ref name="Wee" /> Social service industry professionals such as [[social worker]]s and [[public health nurse]]s work in [[social services]], either for a government or a non-profit organization. They aim to expand [[social capital]] for individuals, communities, and organizations. Socio-economic enterprises include corporations that balance earning profits with nonprofit goals, such as seeking social change for communities. Some social entrepreneurship organizations are not enterprises in a business sense; instead, they may be charities, non-profit organizations or voluntary sector organizations. In addition, there are support organizations dedicated to empowering social entrepreneurs, connecting them with [[mentor]]s, strengthening their enterprise models, and preparing them for [[capital investment]]s. These [[Business incubator\|incubators]] and [[Business accelerator\|accelerator]] organizations provide office and meeting space (often free), [[mentoring]] and coaching for social enterprise founders and leaders to help them develop their enterprises by improving the effectiveness of their business model, marketing, and strategy. Some accelerator organizations help social entrepreneur leaders to scale up their organization, either by taking it from a local scale to a national scale or from a national scale to a global scale. Some [[entrepreneurship]] support organizations also provide mentoring and coaching to social entrepreneurs. One well-known [[Social entrepreneurship in South Asia\|social entrepreneur from South Asia]] is [[Muhammad Yunus]], who founded the [[Grameen Bank]] in 1976. He is known as the "father of [[microcredit]]," and established the [[microfinance]] movement, which aims to help millions of people rural communities to access small loans.<ref name=":0" /> For his work, he was awarded a [[Nobel Peace Prize]] in 2006.<ref name="GB Nobel">{{cite web \| publisher=[[Nobel Foundation]] \| title=The Nobel Peace Prize 2006 \| year = 2006 \| url=http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/peace/laureates/2006/ \| access-date=2006-11-02}}</ref> The work that Yunus did through Grameen Bank has been described as a major influence on later social entrepreneurs.<ref name="business-socialventures">{{cite web \| publisher=Changemakers \| title=Business-Social Ventures Reaching for Major Impact\| date = November 2003 \| url=http://www.changemakers.net/journal/03november/index.cfm\| access-date=2006-11-03 \|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20060614210056/http://www.changemakers.net/journal/03november/index.cfm <!-- Bot retrieved archive --> \|archive-date = 2006-06-14}}</ref> Larger countries in Europe and South America have tended to work more closely with public organizations at both the national and local level. ===Types === In ''[[The Power of Unreasonable People]]'', [[John Elkington (business author)\|John Elkington]] and [[Pamela Hartigan]] describe social entrepreneurs' business structures as falling under three different models, applicable in different situations and economic climates: # ''Leveraged non-profit'': This business model leverages financial and other resources in an innovative way to respond to social needs.<ref>The Power of Unreasonable People, 2008. pg. 31</ref> # ''Hybrid non-profit'': This organizational structure can take a variety of forms, but is distinctive because the hybrid non-profit is willing to use profit from some activities to sustain its other operations which have a social or community purpose. Hybrid non-profits are often created to deal with [[government failure]]s or [[market failure]]s, as they generate revenue to sustain the operation without requiring loans, grants, and other forms of traditional funding.<ref>The Power of Unreasonable People, 2008. pg.37</ref> # ''Social business venture'': These models are set up as businesses that are designed to create change through social means. Social business ventures evolved through a lack of funding. Social entrepreneurs in this situation were forced to become for-profit ventures, because loans and [[equity financing]] are hard to get for social businesses.<ref>The Power of Unreasonable People, 2008. pg. 42</ref> There are also a broader range of hybrid profit models, where a conventional business invests some portion of its profits on socially, culturally or environmentally beneficial activities. The term "[[Philanthropreneurship]]" has been applied to this type of activity.{{citation needed\|date=January 2015}} Corporate employees can also engage in social entrepreneurship, which may or may not be officially sanctioned by the company. This has been described as [[corporate social entrepreneurship]].<ref>Hemingway, Christine A. ''Corporate Social Entrepreneurship: Integrity Within''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2013. pg.135 {{ISBN\|978-1-107-44719-6}}.</ref> One private foundation has staked the ground of more precise lexicon following the [[Newman's Own]]<ref>{{cite web\|url=http://newmansownfoundation.org/\|title=Newman's Own Foundation - The Power of Philanthropy to Transform Lives}}</ref> model having coined the phrase "Commercial Philanthropy" where commercial businesses are held and operated with all net proceeds going to serve social service needs.<ref>[http://commercialphilanthropy.com/ Foundation for Commercial Philanthropy, Inc.]</ref> ==International presence== Organizations such as the [[Skoll Foundation]], the [[Omidyar Network]], the [[Schwab Foundation for Social Entrepreneurship]], [[New Profit Inc.]], [[National Social Entrepreneurship Forum]], and [[Center for Science, Technology, and Society\|the Global Social Benefit Institute]] among others, promote and providing resources to advance the initiatives of social entrepreneurs.<ref name="Mair" /> The North American organizations tend to have a strongly individualistic stance focused on a handful of exceptional leaders. For example, The Skoll Foundation, created by [[eBay]]'s first president, [[Jeff Skoll]], makes capacity-building "[[Mezzanine funding\|mezzanine level]]" grants to social entrepreneurial organizations that already have reached a certain level of effectiveness.<ref name=":1">{{cite journal \| last1 = Pearce \| first1 = Joshua M. \| year = 2012 \| title = The Case for Open Source Appropriate Technology \| doi = 10.1007/s10668-012-9337-9 \| journal = Environment, Development and Sustainability \| volume = 14 \| issue = 3\| pages = 425–431 \| s2cid = 153800807 \| url = https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-02120479/file/The_Case_for_Open_Source_Appropriate_Tec.pdf \| doi-access = free }}</ref> ==Role of technology== The Internet, [[social networking websites]] and [[social media]] have been pivotal resources for the success and collaboration of many social entrepreneurs.<ref>Malecki, E. J. (1997). Technology and economic development: the dynamics of local, regional, and national change. ''University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign's Academy in Entrepreneurship''.</ref> In the 2000s, the Internet has become especially useful in disseminating information to a wide range of like-minded supporters in short amounts of time, even if these individuals are geographically dispersed. In addition, the Internet allows for the pooling of design resources using [[open source]] principles. Using [[wiki]] models or [[crowdsourcing]] approaches, for example, a social entrepreneur organization can get hundreds of people from across a country (or from multiple countries) to collaborate on joint online projects (e.g., developing a [[business plan]] or a [[marketing]] strategy for a social entrepreneurship venture). These websites help social entrepreneurs to disseminate their ideas to broader audiences, help with the formation and maintenance of [[business networks\|networks of like-minded people]] and help to link up potential investors, donors or volunteers with the organization. This enables social entrepreneurs to achieve their goals with little or no start-up capital and little or no "[[brick and mortar]]" facilities (e.g., rented office space). For example, the rise of [[open-source appropriate technology]] as a [[sustainable development]] paradigm enables people all over the world to collaborate on solving local problems, just as [[open source software]] development leverages collaboration from software experts from around the world. <ref>{{Cite journal \|last=Meri \|first=Mohamed meri \|title=Social Entrepreneurs Culture in Societies and Business-Paper.docx \|url=https://www.academia.edu/33728525/Social_Entrepreneurs_Culture_in_Societies_and_Business_Paper_docx}}</ref> The [[COVID-19 pandemic]] and the need to physically distance has further increased the significance of technologies for social ventures.<ref>{{Cite journal\|date=2021-06-01\|title=Crises and entrepreneurial opportunities: Digital social innovation in response to physical distancing\|journal=Journal of Business Venturing Insights\|language=en\|volume=15\|pages=e00222\|doi=10.1016/j.jbvi.2020.e00222\|issn=2352-6734\|doi-access=free\|last1=Scheidgen \|first1=Katharina \|last2=Gümüsay \|first2=Ali Aslan \|last3=Günzel-Jensen \|first3=Franziska \|last4=Krlev \|first4=Gorgi \|last5=Wolf \|first5=Miriam }}</ref> ==Public opinion== === Controversy === Many initiatives carried out with social entrepreneurs while innovative, have had problems becoming sustainable and effective initiatives that ultimately were able to branch out and reach the larger society as a whole (versus a small community or a group of people). Compromises in social initiatives were developed, which often did not reach large audiences or help larger communities. Since the concept of social entrepreneurship has been popularized in the 2000s, some advocates suggest that there needs to be some standardization of the process in scaling up social endeavors to increase the impact of these ventures across the globe.<ref name="Alvord" /> Policymakers around the globe may need to learn more about social initiatives, to increase the [[sustainability]], effectiveness, and efficiency of these projects.<ref name=Wee/> Involvement and collaboration between private corporations and government agencies allows for increased support for carrying out social entrepreneurship initiatives, increased accountability on both ends, and increased connections with communities, individuals, or agencies in need. For example, private organizations or nonprofit organizations have tackled [[unemployment]] issues in communities.<ref name=Cook>Cook, Beth, Dodds, Chris, and Mitchell, William. "Social Entrepreneurship: False Premises and Dangerous Forebodings." The Australian Journal of Social Issues. no. 1 (2003): 57-72.</ref> One challenge is that in some cases, social entrepreneurs may only propose short-term solutions, or that they are unable to scale up their virtual, online organization to a larger degree to maximize the number of people who are helped.<ref name=Cook/> Government programs are able to tackle large issues; however, there is often little collaboration between governments and social entrepreneurs, which may have limited the effectiveness of social entrepreneurship. This lack of inter-sectoral collaboration may lead to stagnation, if the motives and goals of social enterprises and of those in policy-making and programs are not aligned.<ref name=Drayton>Drayton, William. "The Citizen Sector: BECOMING AS ENTREPRENEURIAL AND COMPETITIVE AS BUSINESS." ''California management review'' 44, no. 3 (2002).</ref> Those in policy-making and the development of delivery of government programs tend to have different priorities than social entrepreneurs, resulting in slow growth and expansion of social initiatives. Since social entrepreneurship has only started to gain momentum in the 2000s, current social entrepreneurs are encouraging social advocates and activists to develop into innovative social entrepreneurs.<ref name=Drayton/> Increasing the scope and scale of social entrepreneurship may increase the likelihood of an efficient, sustainable, and effective initiative; although it may also render social entrepreneurship more challenging. Increased participation draws more attention to social entrepreneurship ventures from policymakers and privately owned corporations. The increased involvement of corporations and governments may help to strengthen social entrepreneurship, as it may lead to policy changes and to the development of training programs and [[leadership]] development programs for social entrepreneurs. Simultaneously, research shows that as social entrepreneurs attempt to widen their impact and scale their efforts, external institutions will have a key role to play in their success.<ref>{{cite journal \| last1 = Sud \| first1 = M. \| last2 = VanSandt \| first2 = C.V. \| last3 = Baugous \| first3 = A. \| year = 2009 \| title = Social Entrepreneurship: The Role of Institutions \| url =https://digitalcommons.fairfield.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1082&context=business-facultypubs \| journal = Journal of Business Ethics \| volume = 85 \| pages = 201–216 \| doi=10.1007/s10551-008-9939-1\| s2cid = 154593095 }}</ref> ==See also== <!-- New links in alphabetical order please --> {{colbegin\|colwidth=18em}} * [[Appropriate technology]] * [[B Corporation (certification)]] * [[Business ethics]] * [[Collaborative method]] * [[Entrepreneurship]] * [[Geotourism]] * [[List of social entrepreneurs]] * [[Microfranchising]] * [[Outline of management]] * [[Social innovation]] * [[Social venture capital]] * [[Triple bottom line]] – business theory {{colend}} ==References== {{Reflist\|30em}} ==Further reading== {{refbegin\|40em}} * Abu-Saifan, S. 2012. ''Social Entrepreneurship: Definition and Boundaries.'' [http://www.timreview.ca/ Technology Innovation Management Review]. [http://www.timreview.ca/issue/2012/february February 2012]: 22–27. * David Bornstein, ''How to Change the World: Social Entrepreneurs and the Power of New Ideas'', Oxford University Press <small>(and others)</small> {{ISBN\|0-19-513805-8}} * Charles Leadbeater, ''The Rise of the Social Entrepreneur,'' [[Demos (UK think tank)\|Demos]], 1996 * London, T. 2016. The Base of the Pyramid Promise: Building Businesses with Impact and Scale, Stanford, CA: Stanford Business Books. * Joanna Mair, Jeffrey Robinson, and Kai Hockerts, ''Social Entrepreneurship'', [[Palgrave Macmillan]], 2006. {{ISBN\|1-4039-9664-4}} * {{cite journal \| last1 = Peredo \| first1 = A. M. \| last2 = McLean \| first2 = M. \| year = 2006 \| title = Social Entrepreneurship: A Critical Review of the Concept \| journal = Journal of World Business \| volume = 41 \| issue = 1\| pages = 56–65 \| doi=10.1016/j.jwb.2005.10.007\| s2cid = 42660383 }} * Munoz, J. Mark (2010). ''International Social Entrepreneurship : Pathways to Personal and Corporate Impact''. Business Expert Press : NY. {{ISBN\|9781606491065}} * John Elkington and Pamela Hartigan, ''The Power of Unreasonable People: How Entrepreneurs Creates Markets to Change the World'', Harvard Business Press, 2008 * Chris Durkin and Robert Gunn, ''Social Entrepreneurship: A Skills Approach'', Policy Press, 2016. {{ISBN\|1-4473-3171-0}} * Muhammad Yunus, [[Bertrand Moingeon]], Laurence Lehmann-Ortega, "[https://web.archive.org/web/20160203162342/http://www.hec.edu/content/download/52956/470943/file/Article%20LRP%20Yunus%20Moingeon%20Lehmann-Ortega%20d%C3%A9finitif.pdf Building Social Business Models: Lessons from the Grameen Experience", April-June, vol 43, n° 2-3, Long Range Planning, 2010, p. 308-325]" * Jacques Defourny, Marthe Nyssens, ''Conceptions of social enterprise and social entrepreneurship in Europe and the United States: Convergences and divergences'', [http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/19420670903442053 Journal of Social Entrepreneurship], 2010. Vol 1(Issue 1), pages 32–53. * [https://web.archive.org/web/20160304103710/http://skollfoundation.wpengine.netdna-cdn.com/wp-content/uploads/2010/09/2007SP_feature_martinosberg.pdf ''Social Entrepreneurship: The Case for Definition''], [[Sally R. Osberg]] and Roger Martin * [http://www.timreview.ca/article/523 ''Social Entrepreneurship: Definition and Boundaries''], Samer Abu-Saifan {{cite journal \| last1 = Agafonow \| first1 = Alejandro \| year = 2014 \| title = Toward A Positive Theory of Social Entrepreneurship. On Maximizing Versus Satisficing Value Capture \| journal = Journal of Business Ethics \| volume = 125 \| issue = 4\| pages = 709–713 \| doi = 10.1007/s10551-013-1948-z \| s2cid = 154033731 }} {{cite journal \| last1 = Agafonow \| first1 = Alejandro \| year = 2014 \| title = Value Creation, Value Capture, and Value Devolution: Where Do Social Enterprises Stand? \| journal = Administration & Society \| volume = 47\| issue = 8\| pages = 1038–1060\| doi = 10.1177/0095399714555756 \| s2cid = 155079963 }} [https://www.coursera.org/specializations/social-entrepreneurship-cbs ''Class on Social Entrepreneurship''] from Prof. Hockerts, Copenhagen {{cite journal \| last1 = Lombard \| first1 = K-J \| year = 2012 \| title = 'Social entrepreneurship in youth culture: Organics, Russell Simmons and Emile 'XY' Jensen.' \| journal = Journal for Cultural Research \| volume = 16 \| issue = 1\| pages = 1–20 \| doi = 10.1080/14797585.2011.633833 \| s2cid = 144205124 }} {{refend}} ==External links== {{Wikiversity\|Appropriate technology Designs}} {{Wikiversity\|at=Portal:Social entrepreneurship\|social entrepreneurship}} *{{Commons category-inline}} {{Management}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Social entrepreneurship\| ]] [[Category:Entrepreneurship]] [[Category:Activism]] [[Category:Administrative theory]] [[Category:Management]] [[Category:Sustainability]] [[Category:Sustainable development]] [[Category:Social economy]] [[Category:Social enterprises]]
Social venture	A '''social venture''' (also called a [[social enterprise]]) is undertaking by a firm or organization established by a [[social entrepreneur]] that seeks to provide systemic solutions to achieve a sustainable, social objective. == Background == Social ventures may be structured in many forms, including [[sole proprietorships]], [[For-profit corporation]]s, [[nonprofit organizations]], [[non-governmental organizations]], [[youth groups]], [[community organizations]], and more. Typically, government organizations are not considered to be social ventures, yet even government organizations can adopt entrepreneurial practices, possibly partnering with independent organizations, to explore the innovative methods for providing social services. Elkington and Hartigan define three models for social ventures: leveraged nonprofit, hybrid nonprofit, and [[social business]].<ref>Elkington, John and Pamela Hartigan (2007). The Power of Unreasonable People: How Social Entrepreneurs Create Markets that Change the World. Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Press.</ref> In the leveraged nonprofit venture the entrepreneur uses external partners for financial support in providing a [[Public good (economics)\|public good]]. On the other hand, the hybrid nonprofit venture recovers a portion of its costs through sales of its goods or services. The social business venture generates profits, but rather than return those profits to shareholders, like commercial ventures, it reinvests those profits to further the social venture and the resulting social benefits. The distinguishing characteristic of the social venture versus the commercial venture is the primacy of their objective to solve social problems and provide social benefits. The social venture may generate profits, but that is not its focus. Rather profits are a possible means to achieve sustainability in providing a social benefit. The problems addressed by social ventures cover the range of social issues, including poverty, inequality, education, the environment, and economic development. The context in which social ventures operate is very complex as they are trying to bring about solutions where markets or governments may have failed or actually impede solutions. Further, these ventures are trying to provide solutions where money is usually in short supply—often these ventures have little assurance that their services can be paid for by those they seek to serve.<ref>Martin, Roger and Sally Osberg (2007). "Social Entrepreneurship: The Case for Definition." ''Stanford Social Innovation Review'', Spring:28-39.</ref> These conditions necessitate that the social entrepreneur to be creative, adaptable, and determined in finding new solutions to problems. == References == {{Reflist}} <!--======================== {{No more links}} ============================ \| PLEASE BE CAUTIOUS IN ADDING MORE LINKS TO THIS ARTICLE. Wikipedia \| \| Is not a collection of links nor should it be used for advertising. \| \| \| \| Excessive or inappropriate links WILL BE DELETED. \| \| See [[Wikipedia:External links]] & [[Wikipedia:Spam]] for details. \| \| \| \| If there are already plentiful links, please propose additions or \| \| Replacements on this article's discussion page, or submit your link \| \| To the relevant category at the Open Directory Project (dmoz.org) \| \| And link back to that category using the {{demo}} template. \| ======================= {{No more links}} =============================--> {{DEFAULTSORT:Social Venture}} [[Category:Social entrepreneurship]] [[Category:Entrepreneurship]] [[Category:Sustainability]] [[Category: Sustainable development]]